,transcriber's ,notes ,small capitals in the original work have been transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals2 italics have been transcribed between underscores4 ,a caret represents a subscript1 as in #do4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,a ,,brief ,,history ,,of ,,forestry4 ,,in ,,europe1 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,other ,,countries ,,by ,bernhard ,e4 ,fernow1 ,,ll4,d4 ,dean1 ,faculty of ,forestry ,university of ,toronto ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged ,,edition ,,university ,,press ,,toronto ,,and ,,forestry ,,quarterly1 ,,cambridge1 ,,mass4 ,,copyright1 ,,canada1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,b4 ,e4 ,,fernow4 ,to ,my ,friend of ,many ,years ,,rossiter ,w4 ,,raymond whose warm personal interest and enthusiastic patriotism have from their beginnings inspired my labors in forwarding forestry interests in the ,united ,states4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,preface ix ,,introductory #a ,,the ,,forest ,,of ,,the ,,ancients #h #a4 ,forest ,conditions #i #b4 ,development of ,forest ,property #ab #c4 ,forest ,use #ae #d4 ,literature #ai ,,germany #bb ,i4 ,,from ,,earliest ,,times ,,to ,,end ,,of ,,middle ,,ages #bf #a4 ,development of ,property ,conditions #bg #b4 ,forest ,treatment #cf ,,ii4 ,,first ,,development ,,of ,,forestry ,,methods 7#aejj ,,to #ahjj7 #da #a4 ,development of ,property ,conditions #db #b4 ,forest ,conditions #dg #c4 ,methods of ,restriction in ,forest ,use #di #d4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #eb #e4 ,personnel #ef #f4 ,development of ,silviculture #eg #g4 ,improvement of the ,crop #fg #h4 ,methods of ,regulating ,forest ,management #fh #i4 ,improvements in ,methods of ,mensuration #gc #aj4 ,methods of ,lumbering and ,utilization #gg #aa4 ,forest ,administration #hj #ab4 ,forestry ,schools #hc #ac4 ,forestry ,literature #hd ,,iii4 ,,development ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #ia #a4 ,changes in ,property ,conditions #ib #b4 ,forest ,conditions #if #c4 ,personnel #ig #d4 ,progress in ,silviculture #ajb #e4 ,methods of ,forest ,organization #aac #f4 ,forest ,administration #abj #g4 ,forest ,policy #abe #h4 ,forestry ,science and ,literature #aca #i4 ,means of ,advancing ,forestry ,science #ade ,,austria-,,hungary #aeb #a4 ,property ,conditions #aeg #b4 ,first ,attempts at ,forest ,control #aeh #c4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #afb #d4 ,state ,forest ,administration #afg #e4 ,progress of ,forest ,organization #afi #f4 ,development of ,silviculture #agb #g4 ,education and ,literature #age ,,hungary #agh ,,switzerland #ahe #a4 ,forest ,conditions and ,property ,rights #ahh #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #aij #c4 ,forestry ,practice #aih #d4 ,education and ,literature #bjj ,,france #bjc #a4 ,development of ,forest ,property #bjc #b4 ,development of ,forest ,administration #bac #c4 ,development of ,modern ,forest ,policy #bbj #d4 ,work of ,reforestation #bbd #e4 ,forestry ,science and ,practice #bcc #f4 ,education and ,literature #bda #g4 ,colonial ,policies #bdh ,,russia ,,and ,,finland #bec #a4 ,forest ,conditions and ,ownership #bee #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #bfa #c4 ,education and ,literature #bgj #d4 ,forestry ,practice #bgc ,,finland #bgg ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,states #bhe ,,sweden #bhg #a4 ,property ,conditions #bij #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #bid #c4 ,forest ,administration and ,forest ,practice #cja #d4 ,education and ,literature #cjc ,,norway #cje ,,denmark #cad ,,the ,,mediterranean ,,peninsulas #cbj ,,turkish ,,and ,,slavish ,,territories #cba ,,greece #cbg #a4 ,forest ,conditions #cbh #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #ccb ,,italy #cce #a4 ,forest ,conditions #ccf #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #cdj #c4 ,education and ,literature #cdg ,,spain #cdi #a4 ,forest ,conditions #ceb #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #ced ,,portugal #cfj ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,her ,,colonies #cfe #a4 ,forest ,conditions #cfg #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #cgj ,,india #chj #a4 ,forest ,conditions #chc #b4 ,property ,conditions #chh #c4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #cia #d4 ,forest ,organization and ,administration #cif #e4 ,forest ,treatment #djj #f4 ,education and ,literature #dje ,,canada #dji #a4 ,forest ,conditions #dad #b4 ,ownership #dba #c4 ,administration of ,timberlands #dbd #d4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #dbh #e4 ,education #dce ,,newfoundland #dcg ,,other ,,british ,,possessions ,,and ,,colonies #dch ,,japan #ddb #a4 ,forest ,conditions and ,ownership #ddb #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #ddf ,,korea #dee ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america #def #a4 ,forest ,conditions #dfa #b4 ,early ,forest ,history #dff #c4 ,development of ,forest ,policy #dgi #d4 ,education and ,literature #dii ,,insular ,,possessions #ejd ,,index i ,,preface ,,to ,,second ,,edition4 ,it has been a great surprise and also a great gratification to the author to see the first edition of this volume exhausted within less than two years since its appearance in complete form4 ,the gratification has come especially because of the opportunity thus afforded of revision1 improvement in style1 and correction of the many inaccuracies which the first edition contained1 excusable only by the manner in which 7as explained in the preface of the first edition7 the volume had come into existence4 ,only in a few cases has it seemed desirable to expand1 since the object of the book is not to be complete1 but to give as briefly as possible an oversight over a rather large field4 ,the chapter on ,france has1 however1 been entirely re-written and considerably enlarged to meet the just criticisms of reviewers2 the excellent work of ,huffel1 full of historical data1 which was not available when the first edition was printed1 permitting a clearer and fuller statement to be made4 ,as long as history is in the making1 a book of this kind can hardly be brought up to date4 ,this should especially be kept in mind by the reader in regard to the statistics brought in4 ,since these are only to serve in general to show the magnitude of the interests involved1 they may without damage be only approximately accurate1 and even of older date4 ,some of the chapters have been submitted for criticism and corrections to correspondents in the various countries to which they refer4 ,for the kindly assistance of these friends thanks is due from the author4 ,,toronto1 ,,october1 #aiaa4 ,b4 ,e4 ,,fernow4 ,,preface ,,to ,,first ,,edition4 ,this publication is the result of a series of #be lectures which the writer was invited to deliver before the students of forestry in ,yale ,university as a part of their regular course of instruction during the session of #aijd4 ,circumstances made it desirable1 in the absence of any existing textbooks on the subject1 to print at once1 for the sake of ready reference1 the substance of the lectures while they were being delivered4 ,this statement of the manner in which the book came into existence will explain and1 it is hoped1 excuse the crudities of style1 which has been also hampered by the necessity of condensation4 ,the main object was to bring together the information1 now scattered and mostly inaccessible to ,english or ,american readers3 the style has been sacrificed to brevity2 it is a book of expanded lecture notes4 ,in the nature of the case the book does not lay claim to any originality except in the manner of presentation1 being merely a compilation of facts gathered mostly from other compilations1 official documents and journals4 ,for none of the countries discussed does a complete work on the history of forests and forestry exist1 excepting in the case of ,germany1 which can boast of a number of comprehensive works on the subject4 ,it was1 therefore1 possible to treat that country more in extenso4 ,moreover1 it appeared desirable to enlarge upon the history of that country1 since it is pre-eminently in the lead in forestry matters and has passed through all the stages of development of forest policies and forestry practice1 which1 with more or less variations must be repeated in other countries4 ,especially the growth of the technical science and art of forestry1 which has been developed in ,germany for a longer time and to a more refined degree than in other countries1 has been elaborated in the chapter relating to that country4 ,for some of the other countries available sources of information were quite limited4 ,the writer believes1 however1 that for the purpose of this brief statement the data collected will be found sufficient4 ,in order to make conditions existing in the different countries and their causes more readily understood it appeared desirable to give very brief historic references to their political and economic development and also brief statements of their general physical conditions4 ,present conditions of forest policy and forest administration have sometimes been enlarged upon beyond the requirements of historical treatment4 ,,ithaca1 ,n4,y41 ,may1 #aijg4 ,b4 ,e4 ,,fernow4 ,,introductory4 ,the value of studying the historical development of an economic subject or of a technical art which1 like forestry1 relies to a large extent upon empiricism1 lies in the fact that it brings before us1 in proper perspective1 accumulated experience1 and enables us to analyze cause and effect1 whereby we may learn to appreciate the reasons for present conditions and the possibilities for rational advancement4 ,if there be one philosophy more readily derivable than another from the study of the history of forestry it is that history repeats itself4 ,the same policies and the same methods which we hear propounded to-day have at some other time been propounded and tried elsewhere3 we can study the results1 broadening our judgment and thereby avoid the mistakes of others4 ,nowhere is the record of experience and the historic method of study of more value than in an empiric art like forestry1 in which it takes decades1 a lifetime1 nay a century to see the final effects of operations4 ,such study1 if properly pursued1 tends to free the mind from many foolish prejudices and particularly from an unreasonable partiality for our own country and its customs and methods merely because they are our own1 substituting the proper patriotism1 which applies the best knowledge1 wherever found1 to our own necessities4 ,forestry is an art born of necessity1 as opposed to arts of convenience and of pleasure4 ,only when a reduction in the natural supplies of forest products under the demands of civilization1 necessitates a husbanding of supplies or necessitates the application of art or skill or knowledge in securing a reproduction1 or when unfavorable conditions of soil or climate induced by forest destruction make themselves felt does the art of forestry make its appearance4 ,hence its beginnings occur in different places at different times and its development proceeds at different paces4 ,in the one country1 owing to economic development1 the need of an intensive forest management and of strict forest policies may have arrived1 while in another1 rough exploitation and wasteful practices are still natural and practically unavoidable4 ,and such differences1 as we shall see1 may even exist in the different parts of the same country4 ,the origin and growth of the art1 then1 is dependent on economic and cultural conditions1 on various economic development and on elements of environment4 ,the development of the art can only be understood and appreciated through the knowledge of such environment1 of such other developments as of agriculture1 of industries1 of means of transportation1 of civilization generally4 ,hence we find1 for instance1 that ,england1 located so as to be accessible by sea from all points of the compass and with oceanic shipping well developed1 can apparently dispense with serious consideration of the forest supply question4 ,again1 we find that more than a century ago fear of a timber famine agitated not only the dense populations of many ,european countries1 but even the scanty population of the ,united ,states1 in spite of the natural forest wealth which is still supplying us2 and not without good reason1 for at that time wood was the only fuel and rivers the only means of transportation2 hence local scarcity was to be feared and was not unfrequently experienced when accessible forest areas had been exploited4 ,railroad and canal development and the use of coal for fuel changed this condition on both continents4 ,now1 with improved means of transportation by land and by sea1 the questions of wood supply and of forestry development1 which at one time were of very local concern1 have become world questions1 and he who proposes to discuss intelligently forest conditions and forestry movement in one country must understand what is going on in other countries4 ,as will appear from the study of the following pages1 with the exception of some parts of central ,europe or of some sporadic attempts elsewhere to regulate forest use1 the development of the forestry idea belongs essentially to the #aith century1 and more especially to the second half1 when the rapid development of railroads had narrowed the world1 and the remarkable development of industries and material civilization called for increased draft on forest resources4 ,yet we are still largely ignorant as to the extent of available forest area1 not only in this country but elsewhere3 we do not know whether it be sufficient in extent and yield to furnish a continuous supply for the needs of our civilization1 or1 if not1 for how long a time it will suffice4 ,we can only make very broad statements as to questions of wood supply1 and very broad inferences from them as argument for the need of a closer study of forest conditions and of the practice of forestry3 #a4 ,practically1 the northern temperate zone alone produces the kinds of wood which enter most largely into our economy1 namely the soft conifers and the medium hard woods2 most of the woods of the tropics are very hard1 fit primarily for ornamental use and hence less necessary4 ,possibly a change in the methods of the use of wood may also change the relative economic values1 but at present the vast forests of the tropical countries are of relatively little importance in the discussion of wood supply for the world4 #b4 ,the productive forest area1 of the temperate zone1 in which the industrial nations are located1 has continuously decreased4 ,we shall not be far from wrong in stating this area liberally1 to be at present around #b1ejj million acres1#a namely in ,europe1 #hjj million acres2 in ,asia1 #hjj million acres2 in ,north ,america1 #ijj million acres4 ,how much of this acreage contains available virgin timber1 how much is merely potential forest1 how much growing crop1 it is impossible to state4 #a ,the total forest area of the world is supposed to be #c1hjj million acres4 #c4 ,the civilized wood consuming population of this territory is about #ejj million1 hence the per capita acreage is still #e acres4 ,taking the ,european countries which now have to import all or part of their consumption 7excess over exports71 we find that their population is estimated at #ahj million and that they use #cj cubic feet of wood per capita1 of which #ab cubic feet is log timber2 or altogether they use #b1bjj million cubic feet of this latter description1 of which they import in round numbers #a1jjj million at a cost of about #bej million dollars2 their forest acreage of #ajj million acres being insufficient to produce1 even under careful management as in ,germany1 more than two-thirds of their needs4 ,and the wood consumption in all these nations is growing at the rate of #a to #b per cent4 annually4 #d4 ,the deficiency is at present supplied by the export countries1 ,russia1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,austria-,hungary1 ,canada and ,united ,states1 and these countries themselves also increasing their consumption1 are beginning to feel the drain on their forest resources1 which are for the most part merely roughly exploited4 #e4 ,if we assume a log timber requirement by the #ejj million people of #fjjj million cubic feet and could secure what ,france annually produces1 namely a little less than #i cubic feet of such timber per acre1 the area supposed to be under forest would amply suffice4 ,but a large part of it is in fact withdrawn from useful production and of the balance not more than #bej million acres at best are as yet under management for continuous production4 ,hence attention to forestry is an urgent necessity for every industrial nation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the history of the forest in all forest countries shows the same periods of development4 ,first hardly recognized as of value or even as personal property1 the forest appears an undesirable encumbrance of the soil1 and the attitude of the settler is of necessity inimical to the forest3 the need for farm and pasture leads to forest destruction4 ,the next stage is that of restriction in forest use and protection against cattle and fire1 the stage of conservative lumbering4 ,then come positive efforts to secure re-growth by fostering natural regeneration or by artificial planting3 the practice of silviculture begins4 ,finally a management for continuity--organizing existing forest areas for sustained yield--forest economy is introduced4 ,that the time and progress of these stages of development and the methods of their inauguration vary in different parts of the world is readily understood from the intimate relation which1 as has been pointed out1 this economic subject bears to all other economic as well as political developments4 ,at the present time we find all the ,european nations practicing forestry1 although with a very varying degree of intensity4 ,the greatest and most universal development of the art is for good reasons to be found in ,germany and its nearest neighbors4 ,early attention to forest conservancy was here induced by density of population1 which enforces intensity in the use of soil1 and by the comparative difficulty of securing wood supplies cheaply enough from outside4 ,on the other hand1 such countries as the ,mediterranean peninsulas by their advantageous situation with reference to importations1 with their mild climate and less intensive industrial development1 have felt this need less4 ,again1 the still poorly settled and originally heavily timbered countries of the ,scandinavian peninsula and the vast empire of ,russia are still heavy exploiters of forest products and are only just beginning to feel the drain on their forest resources2 while the ,united ,states1 with as much forest wealth as ,russia1 but with a much more intensive industrial development1 has managed to reach the stage of need for a conservative forest policy in a shorter time4 ,from each of the ,european countries we learn something helpful towards inaugurating such policies1 and while1 owing to a different historical background and to different political and social conditions1 none of their administrative methods and measures may appeal to us1 the principles underlying them as well as those underlying their silvicultural methods remain the same2 they are applicable everywhere1 and can best be recognized and studied in the history of their development4 ,,the ,,forest ,,of ,,the ,,ancients4 ,waldgeschichte des ,alterthums1 by ,,august ,,seidensticker1 #ahhf1 #b vols41 pp4 #hfc1 is a most painstaking compilation from original sources of notes regarding the forest conditions and the knowledge of trees1 forests and forestry among the ancients4 ,contains also a full bibliography4 ,die ,waldwirthschaft der ,rmer1 by ,j4 ,,trurig1 collects the knowledge1 especially of arboriculture and silviculture1 possessed by the ,romans4 ,forstwissenschaftliche ,leistungen der ,altgriechen1 by ,dr4 ,,chloros1 in ,forstwissenschaftliches ,centralblatt1 #ahhe1 pp4 #h4 ,archeologia forestale1 ,dell' antica storia e giurisprudenza forestale in ,italia1 by ,a4 ,,di ,,berenger1 #ahei4 ,the forest was undoubtedly the earliest home of mankind1 its edible products forming its principal value4 ,its wild animals developed the hunter1 the chase first furnishing means of subsistence and then exhilaration and pleasure4 ,next1 it was the mast and1 in its openings1 the pasture which gave to the forest its value for the herder1 and only last1 with the development into settled communities and more highly civilized conditions of life1 did the wood product become its main contribution toward that civilization4 ,finally1 in the refinement of cultural conditions in densely settled countries is added its influence on soil1 climate and water conditions4 ,although there is no written history1 there is little doubt that these were the phases in the appreciation of woodlands in the earliest development of mankind1 for we find the same phases repeated in our own times in all newly settled countries4 ,as agriculture develops1 the need for farming ground overshadows the usefulness of the forest in all these directions1 and it is cleared away2 moreover1 as population remains scanty1 a wasteful use of its stores forms the rule1 until necessity arises for greater care in the exploitation1 for more rational distribution of farm and forest area1 and finally for intentional reproduction of wood as a useful crop4 ,correspondingly forest conditions change from the densely forested hills and mountain slopes during the age of the nomad and hunter to the 8enclaves0 or patches of field and pasture enclosed by the forest of the first farmers1 then follows the opening up of the valleys and lowlands1 while the hill and mountain farms may return to forest1 and finally1 with the increase of population and civilization in valleys and plains1 a reduction of the forest area and a decrease of forest wealth results4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,while we have many isolated references to forest conditions and progress of forest exploitation among the ancients in the writings of poets and historians1 these are generally too brief to permit us to gain a very clear picture of the progress of forest history2 except in isolated cases1 they furnish only glimpses1 allowing us to fill in the rest to some extent by guess4 ,that the countries occupied and known to the ancients1 even ,spain and ,palestine1 were originally well-wooded there seems little doubt1 although in the drier regions and on the drier limestone soils1 the forest was perhaps open1 as is usual under such conditions1 and truly arid1 forestless regions were also found where they exist now4 ,although it has been customary to point out some of the ,mediterranean and ,eastern countries as having become deserts and depopulated through deforestation1 and although this is undoubtedly true for some parts1 as ,mount ,lebanon and ,syria1 generalization in this respect is dangerous4 ,we know1 however1 that by the #aath century before ,christ1 in ,palestine1 ,asia ,minor and ,greece1 especially in the neighborhood of thriving cities1 the forest cover had vanished to a large extent and building timber for the temples at ,tyre and ,sidon had to be brought long distances from ,mount ,lebanon1 whose wealth of cedar was also freely drawn upon for ship timber and other structures4 ,although about #dfe ,b4,c4 ,artaxerxes ,i1 having recognized the pending exhaustion of this mountain forest1 had attempted to regulate the cutting of timber1 the exploitation had by #ccc ,b4,c4 progressed to such an extent that ,alexander the ,great found at least the south slope exhausted and almost woodless4 ,the destruction by axe and fire of the celebrated forests of ,sharon1 ,carmel and ,bashan is the theme of the prophet ,isaiah writing about #eij ,b4,c42 and the widespread devastation of large forest areas during the ,jewish wars is depicted by ,josephus4 ,in ,greece1 the ,persian wars are on record as causes of widespread forest destruction4 ,yet in other parts1 as on the island of ,cyprus1 which1 originally densely wooded1 had rapidly lost its forest wealth during ,cleopatra's time through the development of mining and metallurgical works1 ship building and clearing for farms1 the kings seemed to have been able to protect the remnants for a long time1 so that respectable forest cover exists even to date4 ,the ,romans seem to have had still a surplus of ship timber at their command in the third and second centuries before ,christ1 when they did not hesitate to burn the warships of the ,carthaginians 7#bjc ,b4,c47 and of the ,syrians 7#ahi ,b4,c471 although it may be that other considerations forced these actions4 ,denuded hills and scarcity of building timber in certain parts are mentioned at the end of the third century before ,christ1 and that the need for conservative use of timber resources had arrived also appears from the fact that when 7#afg ,b4,c47 the ,romans had brought ,macedonia under their sway1 the cutting of ship timber in the extensive forests of that country was prohibited4 ,although at that time the ,roman ,state forests were still quite extensive1 it is evident that under the system of renting these for the mast and pasture and for the exploitation of their timber to companies of contractors1 their devastation must have progressed rapidly4 ,yet1 on the whole1 with local exceptions1 ,italy remained well wooded until the ,christian era4 ,in ,spain1 according to ,diodorus ,siculus 7about #ajj ,b4,c471 the ,southern provinces were densely wooded when about #bjj ,b4,c4 the ,romans first took possession2 but soon after a great forest fire starting from the ,pyrenees ran over the country1 exposing deposits of silver ore1 which invited a large influx of miners1 the cause of reckless deforestation of the country4 ,the interior of this peninsula1 however1 was probably always forestless or at least scantily wooded4 ,while through colonization1 exploitation1 fire and other abuse1 the useful forest area was decimated in many parts1 the location of the ,mediterranean peninsular countries was such that wood supplies could be readily secured by water from distant parts1 and the lignarii or wood merchants of ,italy drew their supplies even from ,india by way of ,alexandria2 they went for ,ash to ,asia ,minor2 for ,cedar to ,cilicia2 ,paphlagonia1 ,liguria and ,mauritania became the great wood export countries4 ,it is interesting to note that a regular wood market existed in ,rome1 as in ,jerusalem1 and at the former place firewood was sold by the pound 7#ge;c per #bjj lbs41 in ,cicero's time74 ,at the same time that the causes of devastation were at work the forest area also increased in some parts1 recovering ground lost during wars and through the neglect of farms by natural seeding2 much less by active effort1 although planting of trees in parks1 vineyards and groves was early practiced to a limited extent4 #b4 ,development of ,property4 ,as to development of forest property we have also only fragmentary information4 ,nomads do not know soil as property4 ,when they become settled farmers the plowland1 the vineyard or olive grove and orchard are recognized as private property1 but all the rest remains common property or nobody's in particular2 and even the private property was not at first entirely exclusive4 ,hence for a long time 7and in some parts even to date7 the exclusive property right in forests is not fully established4 ,at least the right to hunt over all territory without restriction was possessed by everybody1 although an owner might prevent undesirable hunters from entering his property if it was enclosed4 ,the setting aside of hunting grounds for private use came into existence only in later ,roman times4 ,but woodland parks1 planted or otherwise1 like the 8paradises0 of the ,persian kings and the nemora of the ,romans and ,carthaginians were early a part of the private property of princes and grandees from which others were excluded4 ,forests formed a barrier and defense against outsiders1 or a hiding place in case of need1 hence we find in early times frontier forests1 or as the ,germans called them 8,grenzmarken10 set aside or designated for such purposes and withdrawn from use1 and sometimes additionally fortified by ditches and other artificial barriers4 ,even before the 8,grenzmarken0 of the ,germans the forest was used by ,greeks1 ,romans and still earlier among ,asiatic tribes to designate the limit of peoples as well as to serve as a bulwark against attacks from invaders4 ,again1 the pantheistic ideas of the ancients led to consecrating not only trees but groves to certain gods3 holy groves were frequent among the ,greeks and ,romans1 and also among other pagans2 the ,jews1 however1 were enjoined to eradicate these emblems of paganism in the promised land with axe and fire1 and they did so more or less1 removal and re-establishment of holy groves varying according to the religious sentiment of their rulers4 ,altogether1 in ,palestine the forests were left to the free and unrestricted use of the ,israelites4 ,out of religious conceptions and priestly shrewdness arose church property in farms and forests among the ,indian ,brahmans1 the ,ethiopians and ,egyptians1 as also among ,greeks and ,romans4 ,it appears that the oriental kings were exclusive owners of all unappropriated or public forests4 ,this was certainly the case with the princes of ,india and of ,persia1 and such ownership can be proved definitely in many other parts1 as in the case of the forests of ,lebanon1 of ,cyprus1 and of various forest areas in ,asia ,minor4 ,that in the ,greek republics the forests were mainly public property seems to be likely2 for ,attica1 at least1 this is true without doubt4 ,while the first ,roman kings seem to have owned royal domains1 which were distributed among the people after the expulsion of the kings1 the public property which came to the republic as a result of conquest was in most cases at once transferred to private hands1 either for homesteads of colonists1 or in recognition of services of soldiers and other public officers1 or to mollify the conquered1 or by sale1 or for rent1 not to mention the rights acquired by squatters4 ,the rents were usually farmed out to collectors 7publicani7 or to corporations formed of these4 ,livy1 however1 mentions also ,state forests in which the cutting was regulated1 probably by merely reserving the ship timber4 ,that occasionally single cities and other smaller municipal units owned forest properties in common seems also established4 ,private forest properties connected with farm estates existed in ,ethiopia1 in ,arabia1 among the ,greeks and among the ,romans at home as well as in their colonies4 ,especially pasture woods 7saltus7 connected with small and large estates 7latifundia7 into which probably most forest areas near settlements were turned1 are frequently mentioned as in private ownership2 but also other private forests existed4 ,the institution of servitudes or rights of user 7usus and usus-fructus7 and a considerable amount of law regarding the conditions under which they were exercised and regarding their extinguishment were in existence among the ,romans in the first centuries of the ,christian era4 #c4 ,forest ,use4 ,restrictions in the use of woods were not entirely absent1 but with the exception of reserving ship timber in the ,state forests1 they refer only to special classes of forest4 ,in the frontier forests reserved for defensive purposes1 timber cutting was forbidden4 ,and in the holy groves set aside by private or public declaration no wood could be cut thereafter1 being in the latter case considered nobody's property but sanctified and dedicated to religious use 7res sacra71 and whoever removed any wood from them was considered a 8patricide10 except the cutting be done for purposes of improvement 7thinnings7 and after a prescribed sacrifice4 ,with the extension of ,christendom the holy trees and groves became the property of the emperors1 who sometimes substituted ,christian holiness for the pagan1 and retained the restrictions which had preserved them4 ,thus the cutting and selling of cypress and other trees in the holy grove near ,antioch1 and of ,persea trees in ,egypt generally 7which had been deemed holy under the ,pharaos7 was prohibited under penalty of five pounds gold1 unless a special permit had been obtained4 ,in ,attica as well as in ,rome the theory that the ,state cannot satisfactorily carry on any business was well established4 ,hence1 the ,state forests were rented out under a system of time rent or a perpetual license1 the renters after exploiting the timber usually subletting the culled woods merely for the pasture1 except where coppice could be profitably utilized4 ,the officials1 with titles referring to their connection with the woods1 as the ,roman saltuarii or the ,greek hyloroi 7forestguards7 and villici silvarum1 the overseers1 both grades taken from the slaves1 had hardly even police functions4 ,forest management proper1 i4e41 regulated use for continuity1 except in coppice1 seems nowhere to have been practiced by the ancients1 although arboriculture in artificial plantations was well established and occasionally even attempts at replacement in forest fashion seem to have been made deliberately4 ,not only were many arboricultural practices of to-day well known to them1 but also a number of the still unsettled controversies in this field were then already subjects of discussion4 ,the culling system of taking only the most desirable kinds1 trees and cuts1 which until recently has characterized our ,american lumbering methods was naturally the one under which the mixed forest was utilized4 ,fire used in the pasture woods for the same purposes as with us effectively prevented reproduction in these1 and destroyed gradually the remnants of old trees4 ,only where for park and hunting purposes some care was bestowed upon the woodland1 was reproduction purposely attempted1 as1 for instance1 when in a hunting park an underwood was to be established for game cover4 ,the treatment of the coppice and methods of sowing and planting were well understood in spite of the lack of natural sciences4 ,whatever forestry practice existed was based merely on empirical observations and was taught in the books on agriculture as a part of farm practice4 ,silviculture was mainly developed in connection with the coppice1 which was systematically practiced for the purpose of growing vineyard stakes1 especially with chestnut 7castanetum71 oak 7quercetum71 and willow 7salicetum71 while the arbustum denoted the plantings of trees for the support of grapes1 and incidentally for the foliage used as cattle feed1 still in vogue in modern ,italy4 ,this planting of vine supports was done with saplings of elm1 poplar and some other species2 by pollarding and by a well devised system of pruning1 these were gradually prepared and maintained in proper form for their purpose4 ,the coppice seems to have been systematically managed in ,attica as well as in ,italy in regular fellings2 the mild climate producing sprouts and root suckers readily without requiring much care1 even conifers 7cypress and fir7 reproducing in this manner4 ,the oak coppice was managed in #g year rotation1 the chestnut in #e year1 and the willow in #c year rotation4 ,yield and profitableness are discussed1 and the practice of thinnings is known1 but only for the purpose of removing and using the dead material4 ,forest protection was poorly developed3 of insects little1 of fungi no knowledge existed4 ,hand-picking was applied against caterpillars1 also ditches into which the beetles were driven and then covered2 the use of hogs in fighting insects was also known4 ,that goats were undesirable in the woods had been observed4 ,some remarkable precocious physiological knowledge or rather philosophy existed3 it was recognized that frost produces drought and that a remedy is to loosen the soil1 aerating the roots1 to drain or water as the case might require1 and to prune2 but also sap letting was prescribed4 ,against hail1 dead owls were to be hung up2 against ants1 which were deemed injurious1 ashes with vinegar were to be applied1 or else an ass's heart4 ,curiosities in wood technology were rife and many contradictions among the wood sharps existed1 as in our times4 ,only four elements1 earth1 water1 fire1 air1 composed all bodies2 the more fire in the composition of a wood1 the more readily would it decay4 ,spruce1 being composed of less earth and water but more fire and air1 is therefore lighter than oak which1 mostly composed of earth1 is therefore so durable2 but the latter warps and develops season splits because on account of its density it cannot take up readily and resists the penetration of moisture4 ,wood impregnation1 supposed to be a modern invention1 was already practiced2 cedrium 7cedar oil7 being used as well as a tar coating or immersion in seawater for one year1 to secure greater durability4 #d4 ,literature4 ,as regards literature1 we find in ,greece1 besides what can be learned incidentally from the historians ,herodotus and ,xenophon and from the natural history of ,aristotle1 the first work on plant history and wood technology1 if not forestry1 in #ah volumes by ,theophrastus 7#cij-bhf ,b4,c471 a pupil of ,aristotle and ,plato4 ,among the ,romans1 besides a number of historians1 at least three writers before ,christ discussed in detail agriculture and1 in connection with it1 tree culture2 namely1 ,cato 7#bcd-adi ,b4,c47 who wrote an excellent work ,de re rustica1 in #afb chapters2 ,varro 7#aaf-bf ,b4,c471 also ,de re rustica1 in three books2 and ,vergilius ,maro 7#gj-ai ,b4,c471 who in his ,georgica records in six books the state of knowledge at that time4 ,of the many writers on these subjects who came in the ,christian era there are also three to be mentioned1 namely1 ,cajus ,plinius ,major 7#bc-gi ,a4,d471 who in his ,historia naturalis1 in #cg books1 discusses also the technique of silviculture2 ,lucius ,junius ,moderatus ,columella 7about #ej ,a4,d471 with #ab books1 ,de re rustica1 and one book ,de arboribus1 the former being the best work of the ancients on the subject2 and ,palladius1 writing about #cej ,a4,d41 #ac books1 ,de re rustica1 which in the original and in translations was read until past the middle ages4 ,only a few references which exhibit the state of knowledge on arboricultural subjects among the ,romans as shown in this literature may be cited1 some of which knowledge was also developed in ,greece and found application1 more or less1 throughout the ,roman empire from ,india to ,spain4 ,nursery practice was already well known to ,cato1 while ,varro knew1 besides sowing and planting1 the art of grafting and layering1 and ,columella discusses in addition pruning and pollarding 7which latter was practiced for securing fuelwood71 and the propriety of leaving the pruned trees two years to recuperate before applying the knife again4 ,the method of wintering acorns and chestnuts in sand1 working them over every #cj days and separating the poor seed by floating in water1 was known to ,columella and1 indeed1 he discusses nursery management with minute detail1 even the advantages of transplants and of doubly transplanted material4 ,the question whether to plant or to sow1 the preference of fall or spring planting with distinction for different species and localities are matters under his consideration2 and preference of sowing oak and chestnut instead of transplanting is pointed out and supported by good reasons4 ,pliny1 the ,humboldt of the ancients1 recognizes tolerance of different species1 the need of different treatment for different species1 the desirability of transplanting to soil and climatic conditions similar to those to which the tree was accustomed1 and of placing the trees as they stood with reference to the sun4 ,but1 to be sure1 he also has many curious notions1 as for instance his counsel to set shallow rooted trees deeper than they stood before1 his advice not to plant during rain1 or windy weather and his laying much stress on the phases of the moon as influencing results4 99 99 99 99 99 ,while then the ancients were not entirely without silvicultural knowledge1 indeed possessed much more than is usually credited to them1 the need of a forest policy and of a systematic forest management in the modern sense had not arisen in their time2 the mild climate reducing the necessity of fuelwood and the accessibility by water to sources of supply for naval and other construction delaying the need for forest production at home4 ,there is little doubt1 that some of the agricultural and silvicultural knowledge and practice of the ,romans found entrance among the ,german tribes who1 especially the ,allemanni1 came into contact with the ,romans in their civilized surroundings during the fourth century4 ,,germany4 ,besides a dozen or more earlier histories of forestry in ,germany1 some of which date back to the beginning of the #aith century1 there are two excellent modern compilations1 namely3 ,geschichte des ,waldeigenthums1 der ,waldwirtschaft und ,forstwissenschaft in ,deutschland1 by ,,august ,,bernhardt1 #ahgb-ge1 #c ,vols41 #ajfb pp41 a classic1 which treats especially extensively of political and economic questions having a bearing on the development of forestry2 and ,handbuch der ,forst- und ,jagdgeschichte ,deutschlands1 by ,,adam ,,schwappach1 #ahhf1 #b ,vols41 #hib pp41 which appeared as a second edition of ,bernhardt's history1 abridging the political history and expanding the forestry part4 ,this volume has been mainly followed in the following presentation of the subject4 ,in condensed form this history is also to be found in ,,lorey',s ,handbuch der ,forstwissenschaft1 #ahhh1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #adc-baj4 ,in ,schwappach's history a full list of original sources is enumerated4 ,these are1 for the oldest period1 ,roman writings1 which are unreliable2 the laws of the various ,german tribes2 the laws of kings 7,capitularia72 the laws of villages and other territorial districts2 8,weisthmer0 7judgments72 inventories of properties 7especially of churches and cloisters72 documents of business transactions and chronicles4 ,for the time after the ,middle ages the most important source is found in the ,forest ,ordinances of princes and other forest owners2 forest laws2 police orders2 business documents1 and finally special literature4 ,it is generally conceded that both the science and art of forestry are most thoroughly developed and most intensively applied throughout ,germany4 ,it must1 however1 not be understood that perfection has been reached anywhere in the practical application of the art1 or that the science1 which like that of medicine has been largely a growth of empiricism1 is in all parts safely based2 nor are definitely settled forest policies so entrenched1 that they have become immutable4 ,on the contrary1 there are still mismanaged and unmanaged woods to be found1 mainly those in the hands of farmers and other private owners2 there are still even in well managed forests practices pursued which are known not to conform to theoretical ideals1 and others which lack a sure scientific foundation2 and while the general policy of conservative management and of ,state interest in the same is thoroughly established1 the methods of attaining the result are neither uniform throughout the various ,states which form the ,german ,federation1 nor positively settled anywhere4 ,in other words1 the history of forestry is still1 even in this most advanced country1 in the stage of lively development4 ,for the student of forestry the history of its development in ,germany is of greatest interest not only because his art has reached here the highest and most intensive application1 but because all the phases of development through which other countries have passed or else will eventually have to pass are here exemplified1 and many if not most of the other countries of the world have more or less followed ,german example or have been at least influenced by ,german precedent4 ,there is hardly a policy or practice that has not at some time in some part been employed in the fatherland of forestry4 ,one reason for this rich historical background is the fact1 that ,germany has never been a unit1 that from its earliest history it was broken up into many independent and1 until modern times1 only loosely associated units1 which developed differently in social1 political and economic direction4 ,this accounts also for the great variety of conditions existing even to-day in the #bf principalities which form the ,german empire4 ,politically1 it may be mentioned that out of the very many independent principalities into which the ,german territory had been divided1 variable in number from time to time1 the #bf which had preserved their autonomy formed in #ahga the federation of ,states1 known as the ,german ,empire4 ,each of these has its own representative government including the forest administration1 very much like the state governments of the ,united ,states2 only the army and navy1 tariff1 posts1 telegraphs1 criminal law and foreign policy1 and a few other matters are under the direct jurisdiction of the empire1 represented in the ,reichstag1 the ,bundesrath1 and the ,emperor4 ,the #bjh1hcj square miles of territory1#b which supports a population of about #fj million people1 still contain a forest area of around #ce million acres 7#bf of the land area7 or 4#fa acre per capita1 which although largely under conservative management has long ago ceased to supply by its annual increment 7somewhat over #ej cubic feet per acre7 the needs of the population2 the imports during the last #ej years since #ahfb1 when ,germany began to show excess of imports over exports1 having grown in volume at the average rate of #aj to now round #chj million cubic feet 7#de million dollars7 or nearly #ae of the consumption4 #b ,the statistics in this book do not pretend to be more than approximations4 ,the larger part of ,germany1 two thirds of the territory and population is controlled by modern ,prussia1 with a total forest area of #bj million acres2 ,bavaria comes next with one seventh of the land area and #f million acres of forest2 the five larger states of ,wurttemberg1 ,baden1 ,saxony1 ,mecklenburg and ,hesse1 occupying together another seventh of the territory with #e million acres of forest4 ,the balance of the area is divided among the other #ai states4 ,fifty per cent4 of ,germany roughly speaking1 is plains country1 the larger part in the northern and eastern territory of ,prussia2 #be is hill country1 mostly in ,west and ,middle ,germany2 and #be is mountain country1 the larger portion in the southern states4 ,there are at best only five species of timber of high economic general importance1 the 7,scotch7 pine which covers large areas in the northern sandy plain and the lighter soils in the south2 the 7,norway7 spruce and 7,silver7 fir which form forests in the southwestern and other mountain regions and represent1 in mixture with broadleaf forest1 a goodly proportion in the northeastern lowlands2 the 7,english7 oak1 of which botanically two species are recognized2 and the beech4 ,the last two are the most important hardwoods found throughout the empire1 but especially highly developed in the west and southwest4 ,in addition1 there are half a dozen species of minor or more local importance1 but the five mentioned form the basis of the forestry systems4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the history of the development of forestry in ,germany may be divided into periods variously4 ,bernhardt recognizes six periods2 ,schwappach makes four divisions1 namely1 the first1 from the earliest times to the end of the ,carlovingians 7#iaa71 which is occupied mainly with the development of forest property conditions2 the second1 to the end of the ,middle ,ages 7#aejj71 during which the necessity of forest management begins to be sporadically recognized2 the third1 to the end of the #ahth century1 during which the foundation for the development of all branches of forestry is laid2 the fourth1 the modern period1 accomplishing the complete establishment of forestry methods in all parts of ,germany4 ,for the later historian it would be proper to recognize a fifth period from about #ahfc1 when1 by the establishment of experiment stations1 a breaking away from the merely empiric basis to a more scientific foundation of forestry practice was begun4 ,for our purposes we shall be satisfied with a division into three periods1 namely3 first1 to the end of the middle ages1 when1 with the discoveries of ,america and other new countries1 an enlargement of the world's horizon gave rise to a change of economic conditions2 second1 to the end of the eighteenth century1 when change of political and economic thought altered the relation of peoples and countries2 third1 the modern period1 which exhibits the practical fruition of these changes4 ,i4 ,,from ,,earliest ,,times ,,to ,,end ,,of ,,middle ,,ages4 ,many of the present conditions1 especially those of ownership1 as well as the progress in the development both of forest policy and of forest management1 can be understood only with some knowledge of the early history of the settlement of the country4#c #c ,,felix ,,dahn1 ,urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen ,vlker1 #ahha4 ,as is well known1 ,aryan tribes from central ,asia had more than a thousand years before ,christ begun to overrun the country4 ,these belonged to the ,keltic 7,celtic7 or ,gaelic race which had gradually come to occupy partly or wholly1 ,france1 ,spain1 northern ,italy1 the western part of ,germany and the ,british ,islands4 ,they were followed by the ,germani 7supposedly a ,celtic word meaning neighbor or brother71 also ,aryan tribes1 who appeared at the ,black ,sea about #ajjj ,b4,c41 in ,switzerland and ,belgium about #ajj ,b4,c4 ,these were followed by the ,slovenes1 ,slovaks1 or ,wends1 crowding on behind1 disputing and taking possession of the lands left free by1 or conquered from the ,germani4 ,through these migrations1 by about #djj ,a4,d41 the whole of ,western ,europe seems to have been fully peopled with these tribes of hunters and herders4 ,the mixture of the different elements of victors and vanquished led to differentiation into three classes of people1 economically and politically speaking1 namely the free1 the unfree 7serfs or slaves71 and the freedmen--an important distinction in the development of property rights4 #a4 ,development of ,property ,conditions4 ,the ,german tribes who remained conquerors were composed of the different groups of ,franks1 ,saxons1 ,thuringians1 ,bajuvarians1 ,burgundians1 etc41 each composed of families aggregated into communal hordes with an elected ,duke 7dux1 ,herzog1 ,graf1 ,frst71 organized for war1 each in itself a socialistic and economic organization known as ,mark1 owning a territory in common1 the members or ,markgenossen forming a republic4 ,outside of house1 yard and garden1 there was no private property2 the land surrounding the settlement1 known as ,allmende1 7commons7 was owned in common1 but assigned in parcels to each family for field use1 the assignment first changing from year to year1 then becoming fixed4 ,the outlying woods1 known as the ,marca or ,grenzwald1 forming debatable ground with the neighboring tribes1 were used in common for hunting1 pasturing1 fattening of hogs by the oak mast1 and for other such purposes1 rather than for the wood of which little was needed4 ,in return for the assignment of the fields1 the free men1 who alone were fully recognized citizens of the community1 had to fulfil the duties of citizens and especially of war service4 ,only gradually1 by partition1 immigration and uneven numerical development1 was the original ,mark or differentiation into family associations destroyed and a more heterogeneous association of neighbors substituted4 ,at the same time1 inequality of ownership arose especially from the fact that those who owned a larger number of slaves 7the conquered race7 had the advantage in being able to clear and cultivate more readily new and rough forest ground4 ,those without slaves would seek assistance from those more favored1 exchanging for rent or service their rights to the use of land2 out of this relationship a certain vassalage and inequality of political rights developed4 ,under the influence of ,roman doctrine1 a new aspect regarding newly conquered territory gained recognition1 by which the ,dukes as representatives of the community laid claim to all unseated or unappropriated land2 they then distributed to their followers or donated to the newly established church portions of this land1 so that by the year #ijj ,a4,d41 a complete change in property relations had been effected4 ,by that time the large baronial estates of private owners had come into existence which were of such great significance in the economic history of the ,middle ,ages1 changing considerably the status of the free men1 and changing the free mark societies into communities under the dominion of the barons4 ,the first real king1 who did not1 however1 assume the title1 was ,clovis1 a ,duke of the ,franks1 who had occupied the lower ,rhine country4 ,about #ejj ,a4,d41 picking a quarrel with his neighbors1 the ,allemanni1 he subdued them and aggrandized himself by taking their ,mark4 ,in this way he laid the foundation for a kingdom which he extended by conquest mainly to the westward1 but also by strategy to the eastward1 the warlike tribes of ,saxons and other ,germans conceding in a manner the leadership of the ,franks4 ,a real kingdom1 however1 did not arise until ,charlemagne1 in #ggb1 became the ruler1 extending his government far to the ,east4 ,at times1 the kingdom was divided into the western ,neustria1 and the eastern ,austria1 and then again united1 but it was only when the dynasty of ,charlemagne became extinct with the death of ,louis the ,child 7#iaa71 that the final separation from ,france was effected1 and ,germany became a separate kingdom1 the eastern tribes between the ,rhine and ,elbe choosing their own king1 ,conrad1 ,duke of ,franconia4 ,there were then five tribes or nations1 each under its own ,duke and its own laws1 comprising this new kingdom1 namely the ,franks1 ,suabians1 ,bavarians1 ,saxons on the right1 and the ,lorainers on the left bank of the ,rhine1 while the country ,east of the ,elbe river was mostly occupied by ,slovenians4 ,with ,clovis began the new order of things which was signalized by the aggrandizement of kings1 dukes and barons4 ,in addition to the rule regarding the ownership of unseated lands there developed1 also under ,roman law doctrine1 the conception of seignorial right1 i4e41 the power of the king to jurisdiction over his property4 ,this right1 first claimed by the duke or king for himself1 is then transferred with the territory given to his friends and vassals1 who thereby secure for themselves his powers and jurisdiction1 immunity from taxes and from other duties1 as well as the right to exact taxes and services from others1 the favored growing into independent knights and barons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the forest1 then1 originally was communal property and the feeling of this ownership in common remains even to the present day4 ,indeed1 actually it remained in most cases so until the #acth century1 although the changes noted had their origin in the #gth century when the kings began to assert their rights of princely superiority4 ,in these earlier ages1 the main use of the forests was for the hunt1 the mast and the pasture1 and since wood was relatively plentiful1 forest destruction was the rule4 ,those who became possessed of larger properties through the causes mentioned tried to secure an increased value of their possessions by colonization1 in which especially the slaves or serfs were utilized4 ,these often became freedmen1 paying rent in product or labor1 and acquiring the rights of usufruct in the property1 out of which developed the so-called servitudes or rights of user1 the praedium of the ,romans1 a limited right to use the property of another4 ,with the development of private property there naturally also developed the right of preventing the hunting on such lands1 this being then their main use4 ,this exclusive right to the chase or hunt we find recognized as a part of the property of the kings and barons in the #hth century1 when the kings forbade trespass under penalty of severe fines2 the king's ban 7interdiction7 of #fj shillings being imposed upon the trespassers4 ,indeed1 by the end of the #hth century the word ,forst 7voorst--foresta7 which until then had been used merely to denote the king's property was exclusively used to designate not necessarily woodland 7the latter being referred to as silva or nemus71 but any territory in which the hunt had been reserved4 ,this right to reserve the chase and the fishing1 that is1 to establish banforests was in the #ajth century extended by the kings to territory not belonging to them1 the right to the chase being according to the ,roman doctrine a regal right over any property4 ,under this conception fields and pastures1 woods and waters1 and whole villages with their inhabitants became 8inforested0 grounds4 ,the ,norman kings1 imbued with a passion for the chase1 exercised this right widely1 especially in ,england2 the forests of ,dean1 ,epping and the ,new ,forest being such inforested territories1 the inhabitants of which were placed under special 8forest laws10 and adjudged by special 8forest courts40 ,presently the king's right of ban was granted with the land grants to his barons and to the clergy4 ,banforests also grew up through owners of properties placing themselves and their possessions under the protection of kings or bishops or other powerful barons and giving in exchange this hunting right1 and in various other ways4 ,at the same time the headmen of the ,mark 7,obermrker1 ,graf1 ,waldgraf71 who from being elected officers of the people had become officials of the king1 began to exercise1 by virtue of their office1 the jurisdiction of the king1 and declaring the ban for their own or their friends' benefit1 excluded the ,mrker from their ancient right to hunt and fish freely over the territory of the ,mark4 ,while in this way the freedom of the communal owners was undermined1 the institution of banforests had nevertheless its value in that it led to forest protection1 restriction in forest use and restriction in clearing1 all this1 to be sure1 merely for the benefit of the chase4 ,special officers to guard the rights of the king1 forestarii1 chosen from the free and freedmen1 and also superior officers1 forestmasters1 were instituted1 to administer the chase and enforce the restrictions which went with it4 ,gradually1 with the loss of property rights1 there came also a change in the political rights of the mrker or commoners1 through the large barons interfering with self-government1 assuming for themselves the position of ,obermrker1 appointing the officials1 and issuing strict forest ordinances to regulate the cutting of wood2 finally1 the original right which belonged to every commoner of supplying himself with wood material1 became dependent upon permission in each case1 and thus his title to ownership became doubtful4 ,undoubtedly also through the influence of ,roman institutions with which the ,franks under their ,merovingian kings came into close contact1 there arose that social and political institution which became finally known as the feudal system4 ,by the grants of lands which the kings made out of their estates to their kinsmen and followers with the understanding that they would be faithful and render service to their masters1 a peculiar relationship grew up1 based on land tenure1 the land so granted being called a fief or feud1 and the relationship being called vassality or vassalage4 ,this vassalage denoted the personal tie between the grantor and grantee1 the lord and the vassal2 the lord having the obligation to defend the vassal1 and the vassal to be a faithful follower of his lord4 ,similar relationship arose from the surrender by landowners of their estates to the church or to other powerful barons1 to be received back again as fiefs and to be held by them as tenants in exchange for rent or service4 ,in this way a complete organization of society developed in which1 from the king down to the lowest landowner1 all were bound together by obligation of service and defence1 both the defence and service being regulated by the nature and extent of the fief4 ,finally1 all kinds of property of whatever nature1 as well as official positions which would give an income1 were subject to be treated as fiefs4 ,the obligations of the recipient were of various nature1 but finally service in army or court became the main one1 giving rise to the class of knights 7,ritter7 or barons1 while the fiefs to the small farmer gave rise to the class of peasants 7,bauern1 this name appearing first in #aajf under ,conrad ,,ii74 ,the fiefs of the higher class1 while at first given only to the individual1 became early hereditary1 and hereditary succession to estates and offices generally became the rule4 ,primogeniture in the succession to the estates did then not as in ,england prevail in ,germany2 instead1 either tenancy in common1 or else equal division among the sons was practised4 ,as a result the very many small principalities came into existence in the #adth and #aeth centuries1 these growing smaller and smaller by subdivision4 ,the first to institute the primogeniture rule by law was the house of ,brandenburg 7in the #aeth century74 ,in addition to the class of peasants and knights1 there came into existence a third class1 the burghers1 when1 by the order of ,conrad ,i in the beginning of the #ajth century1 towns were built with walls and towers for defence against the encroachments of the ,huns1 who endangered the eastern frontier ,mark4 ,in order to encourage the settlement of these towns1 any slave moving to town was declared a freeman2 and the cities became free republics2 gifts of land1 including forest areas1 were made to the cities1 and the development of industries was encouraged in every way4 ,these cities1 favored by the kings1 and1 having become rich and powerful1 in the later quarrels of the kings with the lawless nobility1 gave loyal support with money and arms4 ,in return for their loans1 the forest properties of the kings were often mortgaged to the burghers2 and1 failing of redemption1 were often forfeited to them4 ,in this way and through purchases the city forests came into existence4 ,still other property conditions arose when1 under ,otto the ,great 7#ifj71 colonization of the eastern country beyond the ,elbe was pushed4 ,in these cases1 the ,mark institution was absent1 although the colonists did often become part owners in the king's forest1 or acquired parts of it as common property1 or else secured rights of user in the nearest royal forest4 ,by the end of the period1 due to these various developments1 a great variety of property conditions in forest areas had developed1 most of which continue to the present time1 namely royal properties1 which by the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth were in part to become state property2 princely and lordly possessions under separate jurisdiction1 with or without entail1 and mostly encumbered with rights of user2 allodial possessions 7held independent of rent or service72 municipal possessions owned by city corporations2 communal properties1 the remnants of the ,mark2 and farmers' woodlots 7,bauernwald71 resulting from partitions of the ,mark4 ,all these changes from the original communal property conditions did not1 of course1 take place without friction1 the opposition often taking shape in peasants' revolts2 hundreds of thousands of these being killed in their attempts to preserve their commons1 forests and waters free to all1 to re-establish their liberty to hunt1 fish and cut wood1 and to abolish tithes1 serfdom and duties4 #b4 ,forest ,treatment4 ,as stated1 the ,german tribes which settled the country were herders and hunters1 who only gradually developed into farmers while the country was being settled4 ,at first1 therefore1 as far as the forest did not need to give way to farm lands1 its main use was in the exercise of the chase and for pasture1 and especially for the raising and fattening of hogs2 the number of hogs which could be driven into a forest serving as an expression of the size of such a forest4 ,oak and beech furnishing the mast were considered the preferable species4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 that1 wood being plentiful and the common property of all1 the first regulation of forest use had reference to these1 now minor benefits of forest property1 as for instance the prohibition of cutting mast trees1 which was enforced in early times4 ,the first extensive regulation of forest use came however1 from the exercise of the royal right of the ban and merely for the avowed purpose of protecting the chase4 ,real forest management1 however1 did not exist1 the forestarii mentioned in these early times being nothing but policemen guarding the hunting rights of the kings or other owners4 ,the conception that wood on the stump was of the same nature as other property and its removal theft had not yet become established3 8quia non res possessa sed de ligno agitur0 7wood not being a possessed thing71 a conception which still pervades the laws of modern times to some extent4 ,the necessity of clearing farm lands for the growing population continued1 even in the western1 more densely populated sections1 into the #abth and #acth centuries4 ,the cloisters were especially active in colonizing and making farm land with the use of axe and fire1 such cloisters being often founded as mere land speculations4 ,squatters1 as with us1 were a frequent class of colonists1 and in eastern ,prussia continued even into the #agth and #ahth centuries to appropriate forest land without regard to property rights4 ,the disturbed ownership conditions1 which we have traced1 led also often to wasteful slashing1 especially in the western territory1 while colonization among the ,slavs of the ,eastern sections led to similar results4 ,in the #abth century1 however1 here and there appear the first signs of greater necessity for regulating and restricting forest use in the ,mark forest1 and for improvement in forest conditions with the purpose of insuring wood supplies4 ,in that century1 division of the ,mark forest begins for the alleged reason that individual ownership would lead to better management and less devastation4 ,in the #abth and #acth centuries also1 stricter order in the fellings and in forest use was insisted upon in many places4 ,in the forest ordinances of the princes and barons1 which1 of course1 have always reference to limited localities1 we find prescriptions like the following3 ,the amount to be cut is to be limited to the exact needs of each family and the proper use of the wood is to be inspected2 the timber is to be marked1 must be cut in a given time and be removed at once2 only dry wood is to be used for fuel and the place and time for gathering it is specially designated1 similar to the present practice4 ,the best oak and beech are to be preserved 7this1 however1 merely with reference to the mast71 and in the ,alps we find already provisions to reserve larch and pine4 ,the charcoal industry is favored 7because of easier transportation of its product71 but permitted only under special precautions4 ,bark peeling and burning for potash is forbidden4 ,the pasture is regulated with regard to the young growth1 and sheep and goats are excluded4 ,such measures are1 to be sure1 found only here and there where local conditions gave rise to a fear of a timber famine2 such communities may also be found making attempts to protect themselves against reduction of home supplies by forbidding the export of wood from their territory4 ,an amusing restriction of this kind is found at ,altenstadt where the bakers were forbidden to bake bread for any but the citizens of the town4 ,the first ordinance prohibiting for clearings is found at ,lorsch in the ,rhenish country in #aafe1 and other ordinances with such prohibition are on record in other parts in the #acth century4 ,in #abcg1 at ,salzburg1 clearings were prohibited in the interest of the salt mines1 8so that the cut forest may grow up to wood again10 and also in other parts where mining interests made a special demand for props or charcoal the regulation of forest use was begun early4 ,the difficulties of transportation in the absence of roads rendered local supply of more importance than at present1 and this accounts for the early measures to secure more economical use while distant woods were still plentiful but unavailable4 ,while in the #abth and #acth centuries a merely restrictive and regulative1 or else a let-alone policy1 8allowing the wood to grow up10 prevailed1 we find in the #adth century the first beginnings of an attempt at forest extension or recuperation4 ,in #acji1 ,henry ,,vii ordered the reforestation of a certain stripped area by sowing4 ,of the execution of this order we have no record1 but the first actually executed plantation on record is that by the city of ,nuremberg1 in #acfh1 where several hundred acres of burned area were sowed with pine1 spruce and fir2 and there is also a record that in #addi this crop was harvested4 ,in #adbj1 the city of ,frankfort on the ,main followed this example1 relying on the ,nuremberg seed dealer1 whose correspondence is extant and who was invited to go to ,frankfort for advice how to proceed4 ,he sowed densely in order to secure clear boles1 but expressed the opinion that the plants could not be transplanted2 he also relied on the phases of the moon for his operations4 ,the planting of hardwoods seems to have been begun much later2 the first reference to it coming from the cloister and city of ,seligenstadt1 which agreed in #adia to reforest annually #bj to #cj acres with oak4 ,natural regeneration by coppice was in quite general practice and proved satisfactory enough for fuelwood production4 ,the system of coppice with standards was also frequently practised1 the standards1 #bj or #cj to the acre1 being 8reserved for the lord40 ,in the timber forest1 the unregulated selection system was continued generally through the period1 although in #aded we find in the ,harz ,mountains a transition to a seed tree management1 a few seed trees or groups of seed trees being left on the otherwise cleared area1 somewhat in the manner of the ,french mthode tire et-aire4 ,toward the end of the #aeth century we find here and there a distinction made between timber forest1 where no firewood is to be cut1 and 8leaf forest0 which is to serve the latter purpose1 and is to be treated as coppice4 ,toward the end of the period we find1 however1 various provisions which are unquestionably dictated by the fear of a scarcity of timber4 ,the discovery that pasture prevents natural regeneration led to a prohibition of pasturing in the newly cut felling areas4 ,in #adhh1 we find already a diameter limit of #ab inches--just as is being advocated in the ,united ,states now--as a basis for conservative exploitation1 the city of ,brunswick buying stumpage1 and in the contract being limited to this diameter1 and in addition obligated to leave #ae oaks or aspen per acre for seed trees4 ,attempts at regulating the use of a given forest by division into felling areas are recorded in #acei1 when the city forest of ,erfurt1 #bhf acres1 was divided into seven felling areas4 ,it is questionable whether this referred to a coppice with short rotation or whether a selection forest with seven periodic areas is meant4 ,we see1 then1 that the first sporadic and1 to be sure1 crude beginnings of a forest management in ,germany may be traced back to the #adth and #aeth centuries2 but it took at least #bej to #cej years before such management became general4 ,outside of the information found scattered in forest ordinances1 instructions and prescriptions of various kinds there is no forestry literature to be recorded from this period except one single book1 published about the year #acjj1 by an ,italian1 ,petrus de ,crescentiis1 which was translated into ,german4 ,it was merely a scholastic compilation on agriculture and allied subjects1 mostly cribbed from old ,roman writers and without value for ,german conditions4 ,,ii4 ,,first ,,development ,,of ,,forestry ,,methods4 7,period #aejj to #ahjj47 ,the period following the middle ages marks the gradual changes from the feudal system to the modern ,state organizations and to considerable change of ownership conditions and forest treatment4 ,various causes which led to an increased development of industrial life were also instrumental in hastening the progress of forest destruction4 ,at the same time1 during this period the germs and embryonic beginnings of every branch of forestry1 real forestry policy1 forestry practice and forestry science are to be noted4 ,by the end of this period1 preparatory to more modern conditions1 we find organized technical forest administrations1 well developed methods of silviculture and systems of forest management4 #a4 ,development of ,forest ,property ,conditions4 ,a number of changes in the conceptions of political relations1 in methods of life and of political economy brought further changes in property conditions on the same lines as those prevailing in the #adth and #aeth centuries4 ,these changes were especially influenced by the spread of ,roman law doctrine regarding the rights of the governing classes2 by the growth of the cities1 favoring industrial development and changing methods of life2 by the change from barter to money management1 favored by the discovery of ,america1 by other world movements1 and by the resulting changes in economic theory4 ,through the discovery of the new world and the influx of gold and silver that came with it gave impetus to industry and commerce of the cities2 the rapid increase of money capital increased extravagance and induced a desire for amassing wealth1 which changed modes of life1 changed policies and systems of political economy4 ,the fiscal policy of the many little principalities was dominated by a desire to get a good balance of trade by fostering exports of manufactures1 but forbidding exports of raw materials like forest products1 also by forbidding imports1 subsidizing industries1 fixing prices by law1 and taking in general an inimical attitude towards outsiders except in so far as they sent gold and silver into the country4 ,this so-called mercantilistic system1 which saw wealth not in labor and its products but in horded gold and silver1 had also full sway in ,england under ,cromwell1 and in ,france under ,colbert's influence4 ,this fiscal policy1 which was bent upon bringing cash into the country1 led1 under the direction of servile officials1 to oppressive measures4 ,a reaction naturally followed1 when it was pointed out that the real wealth of a nation lies in its natural resources and in its labor4 ,but this so-called physiocratic doctrine had little practical influence except to prepare men's minds for the reception of the teachings of ,adam ,smith at the end of the period4 ,the doctrine of the ,roman law1 deified by the jurists and commentators1 undermined the national conceptions and institutions of free citizenship and of existing property relations2 courts1 legislation and administration were subject to their sway1 and this influence lasted1 in spite of reactions1 until the end of the #ahth century4 ,under it the doctrine of the imperium--the seignorage or superior power of the princes 7,hoheitsrecht7--was further developed into the dominium terrae1 i4e41 superior ownership of all the land1 which gives rise to the title and the exercise of the function of 8,landesherren10 masters of the land1 and confers the privilege of curtailing and even discontinuing private property rights4 ,to sustain their position in each of the state units1 a restriction of the autonomy of churches and cloisters1 of the ,mark and of the vassals became needful to the princes4 ,this was secured by taking the first under their protection1 by making themselves ,obermrkers1 and by changing vassals who held office in fief into employes 7,beamte74 ,for a time the three privileged classes of prelates1 knights and burghers1 combined in the ,landstand or ,landtag1 participated in some of the functions of government1 especially in raising and administering taxes1 but by the second half of the #adth century the princes had become absolute1 and the doctrine of the ,hoheitsrecht was firmly established4 ,under this doctrine1 the historic position of the ,mark is perverted and instead of being the common property of the people1 it becomes the property of the prince1 on which he graciously permits the usufruct2 for1 forest1 pasture and water 7,wald1 ,weide1 ,wasser7 are res publicae1 hence ownerless and at the disposal of the king4 ,through this new construction of relationship1 as well as through the same machinations and tricks which the princes as ,obermaerker or headmen of the ,mark had employed during the foregoing period in usurping power1 and partly through voluntary dissolution was the decadence of the social1 economic and political organization of the ,mark gradually completed4 ,the original usufruct of a property held in common is explained in the ,roman sense as a precarium or servitude1 and from being a right of the whole organization becomes a right of the single individual or group of individuals4 ,in this way the socialistic basis of the ,mark is destroyed4 ,through the exercise of the ,forsthoheit1 i4e41 the superior right of the prince over all forest property1 by the appointment of the officials instead of their election1 by issuance of ordinances1 in short1 by the usurpation of the legislative and police power1 the political power of the ,mark is broken and the ,thirty ,years' ,war completes the breakdown2 the pride of the burgher and the peasant is gone1 their autonomy destroyed and their economic and political organizations sink into mere corporations based on land tenure1 which1 according to ,roman doctrine come under the regulation of the ,state or ,prince4 ,the nobility move into the cities and leave the administration of their estates to officials who are constantly pressed to furnish the means for the extravagant life of their masters4 ,these in turn harass and oppress the peasantry1 who finally become bondsmen1 ,gutshrige 7bound to the glebe7 and lose their independence entirely4 ,these1 briefly1 are the steps by which the changes1 social and economic1 progressed4 ,reforms in this situation of the peasantry began first in ,prussia in #agjb1 when bondage was abolished for all those who could purchase their houses and farms from the gentry4 ,as few had the means to do so1 the result was the creation of a proletariat1 hitherto unknown because under the old feudal system the lord had to feed his impoverished bondsmen from which he was now absolved4 99 99 99 99 99 ,changes in forest property in particular were brought about by the increase of princely property through the various methods of exercising the seignorage4 ,especially after the ,thirty ,years' ,war ownerless tracts falling under this right were plentiful4 ,in addition1 wherever waste lands grew up to wood1 they were claimed by the princes3 8,wenn das ,holz dem ,ritter reicht an den ,sporn ,hat der ,bauer sein ,recht verlorn40 ,when wood has grown up to the spur of the knight1 the peasant has lost his right4 ,some additions came from the secularization of church and cloister property1 and others by the slices which the princes as ,obermrker secured from the ,mark forests by various artifices4 ,it is these properties1 which in ,prussia were turned over by the ,king to the ,state in #agac1 and by other princes1 not until the #aith century4 ,the same means which the princes employed were used by the landed gentry to increase their holdings especially at the expense of the ,mark from which in their capacity of ,obermrker they secured portions by force or intrigue4 ,the peasants' forest property--the ,mark forest--had by the #aith century been almost entirely dismembered1 part having come into the hands of the princes and barons1 part having been divided among the ,mrker1 and part having become corporation forest in the modern sense4 ,partition had become desirable when the restrictions of use which were ordered for the good of the forest became unendurable under the rigid rule of appointed officials1 but the expected improvement in management which was looked for from partition and private ownership was never realized4 ,after the ,thirty ,years' ,war the free cities were impoverished and their autonomy undermined by ,roman doctrine4 ,from free republics they became mere corporations under the supervision of appointed officials1 and experienced decadence in political as well as material directions4 ,hence1 no increase in city forest took place except through division of the ,mark forest in which cities had been co-owners1 and through secularized properties of cloisters4 ,the worst feature1 from the standpoint of forest treatment1 which resulted from these changes in property conditions and relationship1 was the growth of the pernicious servitudes or rights of user1 which were either conferred to propitiate the powerless but dangerous peasantry1 or evolved out of the feudal relations4 ,from the #afth to the #aith centuries these servitudes grew to such an extent that in almost every forest some one outside of the owner had the right to use parts of it1 either the pasture1 or the litter1 or certain classes or sizes of wood4 ,these rights have proved the greatest impediment to the progress of forestry until most recent times1 and only within the last few decades have the majority of them been extinguished by legal process or compromise4 #b4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,under the exercise of these various rights and the uncertainty of property conditions1 the forest conditions naturally deteriorated continuously until the end of the #ahth century2 the virgin woods were culled of their wealth and then grew up to brush1 as is usual in the ,united ,states4 ,every forest ordinance began with complaints regarding the increasing forest devastation1 and predicted a timber famine in view of the increasing population1 increasing industry and commerce1 and hence increased wood consumption4 ,especially along the water routes1 which furnished the means of transportation1 the available supplies were ruthlessly exploited4 ,more serious enemies than the exploitation of the timber proved the pasturing of cattle1 the removal of the litter1 and above all1 the fires4 ,towards the end of the #afth century1 ordinances against forest fires began to be enacted2 yet1 as late as #aggh1 the necessity of keeping the rides or fire lanes open in the forests of ,eastern ,prussia is justified by the statement that 8otherwise the still constantly recurring fires could not be checked40 ,at another place it is stated that 8not a single acre of forest could be found in the province that had not been burnt in former or later times10 and that 8the people are still too much accustomed to the ruthless use of fires1 so that no punishment can stop them40 ,other causes of devastation were the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 the wars of the #ahth century1 and the loss of interest in the forest by the peasants after the collapse of the ,mark4 ,these had often to steal what they needed1 and their depredations were increased by the desire to revenge themselves on the landed proprietors for the oppressions to which they were subjected4 ,the increase in game1 which was fostered by the landed gentry1 did much damage to the young growths1 and the increase in the living expenses of the nobility who mostly abandoned country for town had to be met by increased exploitation4 ,by the end of the middle ages the reduction of forest area had proceeded so far that it was generally believed desirable to restrict the making of clearings to exceptional necessities1 except in the northeastern parts and in the distant mountain districts4 ,yet a growing population increased the need for farm land1 and since intensive use of the existing farm area was not attempted until the end of the #ahth century1 the forest had to yield still further4 #c4 ,methods of ,restriction in ,forest ,use4 ,all ordinances issued by the princes to regulate the management of their properties contain the prescription1 that permission of the ,landesherr is necessary for clearings1 and that abandoned fields growing up to wood are to be kept as woodland2 this partly for timber needs1 partly for considerations of the chase4 ,still1 ,frederick the ,great in colonizing ,east ,prussia1 expressed himself to the effect that he cared more for men than for wood1 and enjoined his officials to colonize especially the woods far from water1 which entailed even more waste of wood than where means of transportation allowed at least partial marketing4 ,improvident clearings proceeded even under his reign on the ,frische ,nehrung between ,danzig and ,pillau1 and started the shifting sands of that peninsula4 ,in the absence of all knowledge as regards the extent of existing supplies or of the increment1 and with poor means of transportation1 at least local distress was imminent4 ,to stave off a threatening timber scarcity1 regulation in the use of wood was attempted by the forest ordinances1 even to the extent of forbidding the hanging out of green brush to designate a drinking hall1 or the cutting of ,may trees1--similar to our crusade in the ,united ,states against the use of ,christmas trees4 ,a diameter limit to which trees might be permitted to be cut1 was also frequently urged4 ,regulation of forest use did not confine itself to the princely properties alone1 but1 in the interest of the whole1 the restrictions were extended to all owners4 ,these restrictions were directed either to the practice in the exploitation of the forest or in the use of the material4 ,in the latter direction the attempts at reducing the consumption of building timber are of special interest4 ,building inspectors were to approve building plans and inspect buildings to see that they were most economically constructed2 that repairs were made promptly1 to avoid the necessity of more extensive ones2 that new buildings replacing old ones were not built higher than the old ones4 ,in ,saxony1 as early as #aefj1 it was ordered that the whole house must be built of stone1 while elsewhere1 the building of stone base walls and the use of brick roofs instead of shingles was insisted upon4 ,even the number of houses in any community was restricted4 ,fences were to be supplanted by hedges and ditches4 ,economies in charcoal burning1 in potash manufacture for glass works1 and in the turpentine industry were prescribed1 and about #afjj1 the burning of potash for fertilizer was forbidden entirely2 but these laws proved unavailing4 ,even in fuel-wood a saving was to be effected by using only the poorer woods and windfalls1 by instituting public bake ovens 7still in use in ,westphalia71 by improving stoves1 restricting the number of bathing rooms1 etc4 ,the consumption of fuelwood seems to have been enormous1 for we find record of #bjj cords used by one family in a year and of #a1bjj cords or more used by the ,court at ,weimar during the same time4 ,the substitution of turf and coal for firewood was ordered in some sections in #afig and again in #aggg1 but practically not until #aghj did coal come in as a substitute4 ,tanbark peeling was also forbidden1 or only the use of bark of trees soon to be felled was allowed4 ,for cooperage only the top-dry oak2 for coffins only soft-wood1 or1 according to ,joseph ,,ii of ,austria1 no wood1 but black cloth was to be used4 ,in some parts of the country the use of oak was restricted1 even as early as #aefb4 ,for regulating practices in the forest the restrictions often took only the general form of forbidding devastation1 without specifying what that meant4 ,then1 besides establishing a diameter limit1 and regulating pasture in order to protect young growth1 excluding sheep and goats entirely1 an attempt was made to secure at least orderly procedure in the fellings4 ,foresters were to designate what was to be cut even for firewood4 ,marking irons and hammers were employed for this purpose by the middle of the #aeth century 7usually two markings1 by forester and by inspector to check74 ,and this designation by officials extended even into the private forest1 where finally no felling was allowed without previous permission and designation by a forester4 ,the use of the litter by the small farmers had grown to a large extent in these times and it was thought desirable to stop it1 but this aid to the poor peasant was so necessary that only regulating the gathering of it could be insisted upon4 ,it must be understood that all these various attempts at securing a conservative forest use were by no means general but refer to circumscribed territory1 and much of it was only paper legislation without securing actual practice4 #d4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,with the beginning of the #ahth century we find1 besides these prescriptions against wasteful use1 and ordinances regulating the management of the properties of the princes1 definite forest policies in some sections1 having in view forest preservation and improvement of forest conditions1 and also means of providing wood at moderate prices4 ,between the years #aeae and #aeij1 most of the ,german ,states had already enacted ordinances which had the force of general law exercising police functions over private forest property1 although in ,prussia this general legislation did not occur until #agbj4 ,the objects in view with this legislation were entirely of a material kind3 the conservation of resources4 ,besides securing the rights of the ,landesherr to the chase1 it was to secure a conservative use of the princely as well as private forests1 since devastation of the latter would require the former to be drawn on extravagantly2 it was to stave off a timber famine1 and in certain localities to assure particularly the mining industry of their wood supplies4 ,there were1 however1 concessions made to the privileged and influential classes of forest owners4 ,by the end of the #ahth century1 this forest police1 owing to the uncontrolled harshness and the grafting practices of the lower officials had become the most hated and distasteful part of the administration4 ,the argument of the protective influence of forest cover did not enter into this legislation2 this argument belongs to the #aith century4 ,yet reboisement of torrents had already in #aghh1 been recognized as a proper public measure in ,german ,austria1 although active work in that direction was not begun until nearly a century later4 ,the rise of prices during the #agth and #ahth centuries had been very considerable1 doubling1 trebling and even quadrupling in the first half of the #ahth century4 ,the mercantilistic doctrines of the time led1 therefore1 to attempts to keep prices low by prescribing rates for wood and in general by restricting and regulating wood commerce4 ,this was done especially by interdicting sale to outsiders1 forbidding export from the small territory of the particular prince2 or1 at least1 giving preference to the inhabitants of the territory as purchasers and at cheaper rates4 ,owing to the small size of the very many principalities1 the free development of trade was considerably hampered by these regulations4 ,sometimes also wood imports were prohibited1 as for instance1 in ,wurttemberg1 when1 in #agdj1 widespread windfalls had occurred which had to be worked up and threatened to overstock the market4 ,wood depots under government control were established in large cities1 and the amount of wood to be used per capita prescribed1 as in ,koenigsberg 7#agjb74 ,in ,berlin1 in #agff1 a monopoly of the fuel wood market was rented to a corporation1 excluding all others except by permission of the company4 ,this was in #aghe supplanted by government administration of the woodyards4 ,another such monopoly was created in the 8,nutzholzhandelsgesellschaft0 7,workwood sales agency7 for the export trade of building materials from ,kurmark and ,magdeburg1 which had prior right of purchase to all timber cut within given territory1 the idea being to provide cheap material for the industries4 ,this1 too1 came into the hands of the ,state in #agga4 ,in ,prussia1 to prevent overcharges1 the ,jews were excluded from the wood trade in #agfa4 ,the exercise of the ,forsthoheit 7princely supervision71 originating in the ban forests1 and favored by the mercantilistic and absolutist ideas of the #agth and #ahth centuries1 gradually grew until the end of the #ahth century to such an extent that the forest owners themselves were not allowed to cut a tree without sanction of some forest official1 and could not sell any wood without permission1 even down to hop-poles1 although the large landed property owners vigorously resisted this assumption of supervisory powers4 ,much discussion and argument regarding the origin of this right to supervision was carried on by the jurists upon the basis of ,roman law doctrine1 and it was proved by them to be of ancient date4 ,the degree1 however1 to which this supervision was developed varied considerably in the different parts of the empire1 according to different economic conditions4 ,the interference1 and the protection of forests appeared more necessary1 where advanced civilization and denser population created greater need for it4 ,we find therefore that the restrictive policy was much more developed in the ,southern and ,western territories than in the ,northern and ,eastern ones1 where the development begins two centuries later4 ,the oldest attempts of controlling private forest property are found in ,bavaria 7#aeaf71 ,brunswick 7#aeij7 and ,wurttemberg 7#afad74 ,here1 forest properties were placed either entirely under the supervision of the princely forest administration1 or1 at least1 permission for intended fellings had to be secured4 ,later1 these restrictions were considerably reduced in rigor 7,bavaria1 #aghi74 ,in ,prussia1 private forest property remained free from government interference well into the #ahth century4 ,an edict by the ,great ,elector1 in #afgj1 merely inveighs against the devastation of forests by their owners1 but refrains from any interference2 and the ,forstordnung of #agbj also contains only the general injunction to the owners not to treat their forests uneconomically4 ,but1 in #agff1 ,frederick the ,great instituted a rigid supervision providing punishment for fellings beyond a special budget determined by experts4 ,soon after the ,french revolution1 however1 unrestricted private ownership was re-established4 ,church and cloister property had always been severely supervised1 similar to the ,mark and other communal forest property1 under the direction either of specially appointed officials or the officials of the princes4 ,finally1 in some sections 7,hesse-,kassel1 #agaa2 ,baden1 #aghg71 the management of these communal forests was entirely undertaken by the government4 ,in ,prussia1 by the ,order of #aged1 the foresters of the ,state were charged with the supervision of the communal forests1 in which they were to designate the trees to be felled and the cultures to be executed2 but as there was no pay connected with this additional duty and the districts were too large1 the execution of this supervision was but indifferently performed4 ,in #agdi1 a special city forest order placed the city forests in ,prussia under the provincial governments1 requiring for their management the employment of a forester and the inspection of his work by the provincial forestmaster4 #e4 ,personnel4 ,although all this supervision was probably more or less lax1 the possibility of more general and incisive influence was increasing because the personnel to whom such supervision could be intrusted was at last coming into existence4 ,the men in whose hands at the beginning of the #ahth century lay the task of developing and executing forest policies and of developing forestry practice came from two very different classes4 ,the work in the woods fell naturally to the share of the huntsmen and forest guards1 who by their practical life in the woods had secured some wood lore and developed some technical detail upon empiric basis4 ,these so-called holzgerechte ,jaeger 7woodcrafty hunters7 prepared for their duties by placing themselves under the direction of an established huntsman1 who taught them what he knew about the rules of the chase1 while by questioning woodchoppers1 colliers1 etc41 and by their own observation the knowledge of woodcraft was acquired4 ,at the head of affairs stood the so-called cameralists or chamber officials1 men who had prepared themselves by the study of philosophy1 law1 diplomacy and political economy for the positions of directors of finance and ,state administration4 ,rather ignorant of natural science1 and without practical forestry knowledge1 their efforts were not always well directed4 ,they deserve credit1 however1 for having collected into encyclopdic volumes the empiric knowledge of the practitioners or ,holzgerechten1 and for having elaborated it more or less successfully4 ,in this work they were joined by some of the professors of cameralia and law at the universities4 ,by the middle of the #ahth century the hunters had so far grown in knowledge and education as to be able to produce their knowledge in books of their own4 ,quite a literature developed full of acrimonious warfare of opinions1 as is the rule where empiricism rules supreme4 ,notable progress1 however1 came only when hunting was placed in the background and more or less divorced from forest work4 #f4 ,development of ,silviculture4 ,in addition to the restrictive measures and attempts at mere conservative lumbering without much thought of reproduction1 there were as early as the #afth century silvicultural methods applied to secure or foster reproduction4 ,owing to differences in local conditions and difference in necessities1 this development varied greatly in various sections as to the time it took place4 ,the ,western and ,middle country practiced as early as the #afth century what in the ,eastern country did not appear until the #ahth century4 ,the forest ordinances1 from which we derive our knowledge or inferences of these conditions1 prescribed1 to be sure1 many things that probably were not really put into practice4 99 99 99 99 99 a4 ,natural regeneration was at first merely favored1 without the adoption of any very positive measures to secure it1 namely1 by removing the cut wood within the year1 so as to give young growth a chance of establishing itself1 by removing the brush so as not to smother the young growth1 by keeping out cattle from the young growth 7,schonung74 ,if the selection method of lumbering1 most generally practiced without much plan1 did not produce any desirable result in reproduction1 the clear cutting which was practiced without system where charcoal manufacturing or river driving invited to it1 did even less so4 ,in either case1 besides the defective and damaged old stubs which were left in the logging1 a poor aftergrowth of undesirable character remained1 as is the case in the ,american woods on so many areas4 ,as early as #aebd and #aebi1 we have record of a conscious attempt to secure a reproduction by leaving ten to thirty seed trees per acre2 but the result was disappointing1 for this practice1 being applied to the shallow-rooted spruce1 produced the inevitable result1 namely1 the seed trees were thrown by the winds4 ,this experience led to the prescription 7in #aefe7 in the ,palatinate to leave1 besides seed trees1 parts of the other stand for protection against wind damage2 later1 wind protection was sought by leaving parcels standing on all four sides1 giving rise to a checkerboard progress of fellings or a group system of reproduction1 which by the middle of the #ahth century had developed into the regular strip system1 applied in ,austria 7#agff7 to fir and spruce1 and in ,prussia 7#agfd7 to pine4 ,and this marginal seeding method remained for a long time the favorite method for the conifers4 ,to avoid long strips and distribute the fellings more conveniently1 v4 ,berlepsch 7in ,kassel7 recommended 7in #agfj7 the cutting in echelons 7curtain method1 ,kulissenhieb71 which insured better seeding1 but also increased danger from windfalls1 and was never much practiced1 the disadvantages of the method being shown up especially in the ,prussian ,forest ,order of #aghh4 ,in the first half of the #ahth century it was recognized that the wind danger would be considerably reduced by making the fellings progress from ,east or ,northeast to ,west4 ,the conception of a regular1 properly located felling series was first elaborated in the ,harz mountains in #agde by von ,langen1 who also accentuated the necessity of preserving a wind mantle on exposed situations4 ,both of these propositions reappear in the ,prussian ,order of #aghj1 according to which fellings are to proceed in a breadth of twenty to thirty-five rods from ,east to ,west4 ,the application of a nursetree method for conifers was proposed in #aghg by v4 ,burgsdorf 7,prussia71 a dark position 7,dunkelschlag7 and a regeneration period of seven years being advocated4 ,in broadleaved forest1 besides the selection forest1 the natural result of the sprouting capacity of the hardwood had led to a coppice method which was extensively relied upon for fuel production4 ,this was rarely1 however1 a simple coppice1 for1 intentionally or unintentionally1 some seedlings or sprouts would be allowed to grow on1 leading to a composite forest and finally to a regular coppice with standards 7#aefi1 etc471 with an intentional holding over of the valuable oak and ash for standards4 ,probably1 however1 large areas of unconsciously produced composite forest exhibited sad pictures of branchy overwood with suppressed underwood of poor sprouts1 injured by game and cattle--a scrubby growth1 into which crept softwoods of birch and aspen4 ,attempts at pruning such scrub growths into shape on quite an extensive scale are on record4 ,the recognition that more wood per acre could be secured by lengthening the rotation of the coppice1 which seems to have been mostly twelve years or less1 led to twenty and thirty year turns and finally to fifty1 sixty and even eighty year rotations or so-called polewood management 7,brunswick1 #agde71 also called ,hochwald 7high forest74 ,a full description and working plan for such a forest to be managed in eighty year rotation1 the city forest of ,mainz in the ,odenwald and ,spessart mountains1 dates from #aggc1 and this polewood forest management became quite general after the middle of the #ahth century1 but in the last half of the #aith century it was generally replaced by the true high forest management under nursetrees1 the experiences with the natural reproduction of conifer forest having proved the advantages of this method4 ,the primitive beginnings of this so-called ,femelschlag method 7,compartment selection or shelterwood method7 are found1 in #agbj1 in ,hesse ,darmstadt1 where ,oberforstmeister von ,minnigerode prescribed regular fellings progressing from north to south1 in which all material down to polewood size 7in selection or virgin forest7 was to be removed1 excepting only a number of clean boles1 one every ten to twelve paces being left for seed and nursetrees4 ,the good results in reproduction stimulated owners of adjoining estates to imitate the method 7#agcg74 ,the observation that in beech forest the young crop needed protection and succeeded better when gradually freed from the shade of the seed trees1 especially on south and west aspects where drought1 frost and weeds are apt to injure it on sudden exposure1 led to the elaboration of the principle of successive fellings4 ,in the ordinance of ,hanau1 as early as #agcf1 three grades of fellings were developed1 the cutting for seed1 the cutting for light1 which was to begin when the young crop was knee-high1 and the removal cutting when the crop was high4 ,this method spread rapidly and was further developed by the addition 7in #agfg7 of a preparatory cutting1 to secure a desirable seedbed1 and by lengthening the period of regeneration and elaborating other detail1 so that1 by #agij1 the principles of natural regeneration under nursetrees for beech forest were fully developed in ,western ,germany4 ,in other parts1 hardwood forest management was but little developed4 ,the ,prussian ,forest ,ordinance of #aghf contented itself with forbidding the selection method1 by declaring natural regeneration1 as practiced in the pineries1 not applicable2 while the ,austrian ,ordinance of #aghf recognizes only clearing followed by planting as the general rule4 99 99 99 99 99 b4 ,artificial ,reforestation4 ,although sporadic attempts at sowing and planting are on record as early as the beginning of the #adth century1 extensive artificial reforestation did not begin until the middle of the #ahth century1 by which time planting methods were quite fully developed4 ,among the hardwoods1 the oak was the first to receive special attention4 ,by the middle of the #afth century the forest ordinances gave quite explicit instructions for planting oak in the so-called ,hutewald1 a combination of pasture and tree growth such as is found to-day in the bluegrass region of ,kentucky2 the remnants of these poor pasture woods with their gnarly oaks have lasted into modern times4 ,in the forest ordinance of ,brunswick 7#aeih7 orders are given to plant on felling areas3 8every full farmer shall every year at the proper time set out ten young oaks1 every half farmer five1 every farm laborer three1 well taken up with roots 7wildlings71 and plant them in the commons or openings at ,martini 7,november7 or ,mitfasten 7,easter7 and cover them with thorn brush0 7to protect them against cattle74 ,about that time it was1 indeed1 incumbent on every marker to sow annually five oaks1 or plant several young seedlings for every tree cut and to tend them a few years2 and the custom existed in the low country1--afterwards 7#agjj7 introduced by law in ,saxony--to plant in celebration of certain occurrences--a kind of arborday--especially to celebrate the marriage day2 in order to be married the bridegroom had to prove that he had planted a certain number of oaks1 which in ,prussia 7#agai7 had to be six1 besides six fruit trees4 ,the existence of this custom1 now long forgotten1 has given rise in the ,united ,states to the story that this is the method by which the ,german forest is maintained4 ,the method of collecting and keeping acorns over winter was well known in #aegi1 as is evidenced by the ,hohenlohe ,forest ,ordinance1 which advised fall sowing1 but1 if that did not prove successful1 to prepare the ground in summer1 leave it through the winter and sow in the spring4 ,while1 in earlier times1 sowing seems to have had the preference1 at a later period planting was practiced1 at first with wildlings1 but as early as #afjc we find mention of oak nurseries4 ,the ,prussian ,order of #agbj ordered the foresters to plant oaks in the openings before ,christmas1 for which they were to be paid1 if the trees were found alive after three years4 ,the growing and culture of oak also interested ,frederick the ,great1 who ordered its extension everywhere4 ,very explicit and correct rules for growing and transplanting them1 and some to which we would not subscribe1 were given in the books of the #ahth century4 ,among the planting methods we find1 in #agai and again in #aggf1 one similar to the ,manteuffel method of planting in mounds4 ,while oak culture was especially fostered in ,northwestern ,germany1 the cultivation of conifers first received attention in the southwest1 and in the same manner which was inaugurated by the ,nuremberg seed dealer in #acfh4 ,a new idea1 introduced in the ,palatine ,forest ,ordinance 7#aefe7 and in the ,bavarian ,forest ,ordinance 7#aefh71 was the prescription1 to soak the seed before use and sow mixed with sawdust or sand1 bringing the seed under with brush or iron rakes4 ,carlowitz 7#agac7 taught well the methods of collecting1 extracting and keeping the seed1 and even proposed seed tests4 ,the seedbeds were to be made as for carrots1 dense sowings to be thinned1 and the thinnings transplanted into nursery rows1 the seedbeds to be covered with moss and litter to protect them against heaving2 he also discusses the question of cost4 ,the adaptation of plant material to different sites--conifers where oaks are not suitable--was also understood 7,bavarian ,forest ,ordinance1 #afhc74 ,as long as the old method of extracting the seed in hot stoves or ovens prevailed1 conifer sowings gave but indifferent results4 ,in the pine forests of ,prussia1 during the second half of the #ahth century1 the method of sowing the cones on large waste and sand barrens1 where the sun would make them release the seed1 was practised1 and before ,brmontier had written his celebrated mmoire sur les dunes1 sanddunes had been recovered with pine plantations in ,germany in the manner which is still in vogue4 ,the planting of conifers came into practice much later1 and then it was mostly done with wildlings4 ,opinions differing as to the value of sowing or planting1 it was erroneously held until the #aith century that planting was less successful and too costly in comparison with the small harvest yield1 which necessitated cheapness of operations4 ,it was only towards the end of the #ahth century that planting of pine was resorted to1 but merely for repairing fail places in sowings and natural regeneration1 and then with a ball of earth 7#aggi71 using a hollow spade1--a costly method4 ,the cost of a certain plantation made in #agea is1 however1 reported as less than #c4jj per ,m41 in #aggj as low as #gj cents per ,m4 ,to cheapen the operations the labor was exchanged for wood1 pasture or other materials or advantages4 ,in ,prussia1 in #aggc1 all recipients of free wood had to do service in the cultures2 in #aghe1 every farmer had to furnish a certain amount of cones or acorns4 ,the method1 lately adopted in ,russia1 came into vogue in ,prussia in #agai1 namely1 of charging1 besides the value of the wood1 a toll to be paid into the planting fund 7about #g of the value74 ,this method was also imitated elsewhere4 ,the use of the ,waldfeldbau 7combined farm and forest culture7 was also inaugurated for the purpose of cheapening the cost of plantations 7by v4 ,langen in #agdd7 when the great movement for reforesting wastes and openings began1 the tree seed being sown with the grain either at once or after farm use for some years4 ,regular annual planting budgets 7of #ej--ajj--bjj7 were inaugurated in ,brunswick by v4 ,langen in #agde2 and in #agha1 the ,prussian forest administration had attained to entirely modern planting plans and annual planting budgets4 ,it was no wonder that the fear of a timber famine and the apparent hopelessness of bringing improvement into the existing forest conditions created anxiety and a desire to plant rapid growers1 such as birch1 willow1 aspen1 alder2 the planting of the ,white ,birch became so general in the beginning of the #ahth century that a regular betulomania is recorded corresponding to the incipient catalpomania in the ,united ,states4 ,at that time1 to be sure1 firewood was still the main concern1 and the use of these rapid growing species had some justification4 ,but where birch was mixed in spruce plantations its baneful effects consisting in whipping off the spruce tips and injuring its neighbors were soon recognized1 and much trouble was experienced in getting rid of the unwelcome addition4 ,the ,robinia1 which had been brought from ,america in #afch1 was also one of the trees recommended in the middle of the #ahth century and was much planted until ,hartig pointed out that the expectations from it were entirely misplaced4 ,of course no building material could be expected from these species1 hence the larch1 also a rapid grower1 was transplanted from the ,alps 7#agcj in ,harz mountains71 and its use was extended1 as with us1 to conditions for which it was not adapted4 ,it was principally a desire for novelty and perhaps for better1 especially foreign things1 that led to the planting of ,north ,american species in parks during the first half of the #ahth century4 ,but1 although ,f4 ,a4 ,j4 von ,wangenheim's very competent writings on the ,american forest-flora and on the laws of naturalization 7#aghg7 stimulated interest in that direction1 the use of ,american species for forest planting was not inaugurated till nearly #ajj years later1 with the single exception of the ,white ,pine 7,p4 strobus71 of which large numbers were planted4 #g4 ,improvement of the ,crop4 ,thinning of stands had been practiced early in the #afth century1 not for improvement of the remaining stand so much as to secure fence material1 although in #aeca the observation was already recorded that thinning improved and stimulated the remaining growth4 ,in the #agth century1 opposite views1 or1 at least doubts as to its usefulness were expressed in the forest orders1 and sometimes thinning was even forbidden4 ,even in the #ahth century some of the prominent foresters1 ,doebel and ,beckman1 were opposed to it1 and although others favored the operation1 the practice of it remained limited4 ,in #agfa1 we find the first good statement of the theory of thinnings by ,berlepsch1 who advised taking out the suppressed trees when the sound poles were clear of lower and middle branches2 he also accentuated the financial argument of earlier returns and increased value of the remainder4 ,about the same time1 ,zanthier recommended two thinnings1 namely1 for conifers first in the thirtieth to fortieth year and again in the fiftieth year1 for broadleaf forest first in the forty-fifth and again in the eightieth to ninetieth year4 ,in #agfe1 the financial gain from thinnings is figured by ,oettelt1 and the possible reduction of the rotation due to thinnings is recognized by ,leubert in #aggd4 ,just as the thinning in polewoods arose from the need of earlier utilization1 so the weeding of young growths was done for the purpose of getting material for withes to bind the grain1 etc4 ,the removal of coppice shoots in oak plantings was practiced in ,prussia in #agai1 and the thinning of too dense sowings was advised by ,carlowitz in #agac4 ,yet much later1 even such an intelligent man as ,oettelt inveighed against the weeding out of the birch in spruce sowings because 8nature prefers variety1 with which preference it is not good to interfere40 ,this was in opposition to v4 ,langen 7#agde71 who prescribed for the first time regular cleaning or weeding1 especially the removal of the softwoods1 aspen and birch1 and of coppice shoots from seedling forest4 ,it was also known that this weeding is best done 8in the full sap10 in order to kill the stocks4 #h4 ,methods of ,regulating ,forest ,management4 ,organized forest management was slower to develop than silvicultural methods4 ,the first attempts to bring order into the progress of fellings took the form of dividing the whole area into a certain number of felling areas 7#ab1 #af1 #bj1 #cj1 etc471 several ordinances dating from the middle of the #aeth and #agth centuries containing prescriptions to that effect4 ,it is doubtful whether the numbers of these areas indicate years of rotation1 in which case they could only have applied to coppice1 or whether they indicate periods of return in selection forest1 although the historians seem to jump to the former conclusion4 ,the area division practiced by v4 ,langen in the ,harz mountains 7#agde71 who prescribed the division of larger districts into fifty to sixty1 of smaller districts into twenty to thirty felling areas1 also leaves it doubtful1 whether the areas corresponded to an assumed rotation or to a period of return4 ,at first1 the division was not into equal areas1 for no survey existed1 and its object was simply to localize the cutting and provide orderly progress4 ,the subdivision was made in the mountain country by following the topography1 valleys and ridges1 while in the plain the lines opened up for purposes of the chase 7to set up nets71 called ,schneisen or ,gestelle 7rides71 bounding square areas called ,jagen1 ,quadrat1 ,stallung1 were used for the limitation of the felling areas4 ,most commonly1 however1 largely due to absence of surveys1 the ordered division did not materialize1 but existed only on paper4 ,with more exact measuring of areas1 and with the conception of a rotation or longer periods of return1 it was recognized that the inequality of the sites or soil qualities1 especially in mountain districts1 produced very unequal felling budgets4 ,to overcome this inequality1 ,jacobi1 in ,goettingen 7#agda7 introduced proportional felling areas1 making the felling areas on poor sites permanently larger4 ,similarly1 v4 ,langen and ,zanthier attempt to secure equal annual returns without slavishly holding to the geometric division1 merely making sure that the total area be cut over in the predetermined rotation4 ,the first attempts to introduce a regulated management by making a volume division the basis is recorded from the ,harz mountains in #aedg4 ,this method1 based on very crude estimates although upon very fair forest description1 was continued into the #ahth century4 ,in the last half of the #ahth century all these crude methods were improved1 and applied on extensive areas4 ,in #aghe1 ,zanthier combined area and volume division1 determining the felling budget on each felling area by counting and estimating the trees and calculating how many trees could be used annually under a sustained yield management2 the area division being used only as a check or means of control4 ,a very considerable advance was made by ,oettelt1 7who surveyed and regulated the ,weimar forests in #agfj7 in the elaboration of details and establishment of proper principles for regulating the felling budget4 ,in his forest description he introduces for the first time periodic age classes1 usually six1 but of uneven length3 ,young growth1 below twelve years2 thicket1 twelve to twenty-four years2 polewood1 twenty-four to forty years2 clear timber1 forty to fifty2 medium timber1 fifty to seventy-five2 mature timber1 seventy-five years and over4 ,he divides the forest into proportional areas 7which were marked by stones in the woods71 equalizing them according to age1 quality1 increment1 soil1 exposure1 so as to secure equal annual budgets2 the stands were ranged into seven or eight unequal age classes and each into as many annual felling areas as there are years in the age class2 if some of the age classes were absent1 he extended the time for cutting in the older class until the younger had grown to the proper age and by varying the cut from good to poor sites for stands he tried to even out the budgets4 ,the volume budget he determined by average increment measurements4 ,this method was1 however1 much too far advanced and required too much mathematics to find imitators at that time4 ,another method which proved also too complex for the foresters of the time was that of v4 ,wedell2 nevertheless1 by #agij1 he had by it put into working order #hjj1jjj acres in ,silesia4 ,he divided this area into districts1 the districts into blocks or management classes1 and used an elaborated proportional area division for determining the felling budget4 ,he distinguished quality of stand and quality of site1 and made four site classes4 ,the volume of stock1 he found by means of sample areas1 to which he added the increment in order to find the total volume for harvest1 when it could be determined how long with a given budget the stands would last1 or what average annual felling budget could be taken before the next age-class would be mature4 ,in the ,north ,german plain1 with very uniform conditions of soil and timber1 the method of equal felling areas was the most natural and most easily applied4 ,frederick the ,great1 who took a considerable interest in forestry matters1 ordered such an area division for the ,state pineries in #agdj1 fixing upon different numbers of felling areas1 but finally1 in #aggj1 deciding on a rotation of seventy years4 ,lack of personnel retarded progress in this forest survey and regulation until in #aggh v4 ,kropff undertook the direction4 ,not agreeing with his master regarding the short rotation of seventy years1 he arranged to have each district divided into two working blocks1 and by cutting alternately in these1 managed to double that rotation4 ,his successor1 ,hennert1 in #aghh1 devised a new method by introducing allotment of a number of annual felling areas to a period of the rotation when at least the periodic budget could be equalized4 ,a value or money yield equalization of the felling budgets was also attempted4 ,for easier handling1 the forest was divided into small compartments or ,jagen and a classification of four1 still uneven1 periodic age classes 7of different length for conifers and broadleaved forest71 and three site qualities were employed4 ,the merchantable stock was ascertained by a sample area method and the felling budget by dividing the oldest age class by the number of years it must last until the next was ready4 ,since no attempt was made to secure a proper age class gradation1 the method failed to improve conditions for the next rotation4 ,some #ejj1jjj acres were regulated according to this plan in ,prussia1 probably very superficially4 ,in #aghi1 ,bavaria also ordered a division into annual felling areas4 ,in all these methods of regulating the yield or budget1 the area played the main role1 the volume being only a secondary consideration4 ,the first elaboration of a pure volume division was made by ,beckman in #agei4 ,he estimated stock on hand by trees and guessed more or less at the increment1 allowing #b4e1 #b1 and #a for the different sites1 and then made a year to year calculation of stock for #abe years4 ,how the felling budget was finally determined is not known4 ,two methods were simultaneously devised in ,wrttemberg in #aghc1 which form the transition to the so-called allotment methods1 making periodic age classes of an equal number of years and allotting either felling areas or volumes to each period of the rotation4 ,incapacity of the officials prevented the application of the one method1 while the other1 devised by ,maurer1 remained also only a proposition4 ,but1 in #aghh1 ,kregting in his ,mathematical ,contributions to ,forestry ,science teaches a pure volume allotment method with ten year age classes and nearly all the apparatus which was afterward developed by ,hartig1 who in the next period dominated to such a large extent the development of forestry in all its branches4 #i4 ,improvements in ,methods of ,mensuration4 ,in scientific direction1 the mathematical disciplines were the first to be developed2 the natural sciences received attention much later4 ,a considerable amount of mathematical knowledge was required for this work of forest organization4 ,the mathematical apparatus of the foresters even at the end of this period was rather slender1 but its development went hand in hand with the development of these methods of regulation2 and even elaborate mathematical formul for determining felling budgets were not absent4 ,until nearly the middle of the #ahth century1 surveys of exact nature were almost unknown2 only when the division into equal or proportionate felling areas became the basis for determining the felling budgets1 did the necessity for such surveys present itself4 ,plane table and compass were the instruments which came into use in the beginning of the #ahth century4 ,but not until the latter half of that century were extensive forest surveys and maps of various character made1 especially in ,prussia under ,wedell1 ,kropff and ,hennert4 ,the methods of measurement of wood developed still later4 ,until ,oettelt's time no method of precise determination of volumes was known1 everything being estimated by cords or by diameter breast-high and height1 or by the number of boards which a tree would make 7board feet874 ,the diameter was sometimes used as a price maker1 the price increasing in direct proportion to the diameter increase4 ,oettelt calculated the volume of coniferous trees as cones1 and ,vierenklee1 who wrote a book on mathematics for the use of foresters1 calculated timbers with the top removed by using the average diameter1 to which ,hennert added the volume of a cone with the difference of the two diameters as a base1 to make the total tree volume4 ,most measurements of standing trees were1 of course1 made on the circumference1 for1 in the absence of calipers1 the diameter could be directly measured only on the felled tree4 ,doebel had already measured the height by means of a rectangular triangle1 and the first real hypsometer with movable sights was described by ,jung in #agha2 and a complete instrument1 which could be used for measuring both height and diameter at any height1 similar to some more modern ones1 was constructed by ,reinhold4 ,determination of the real wood contents in a cord of wood and of the volume of bark by measurement was taught by ,oettelt1 and the method of immersion in water and measuring the displaced volume1 by ,hennert 7#aghb74 ,in #aghe1 ,krohne first called attention to the variation of the increment in different age classes and the need of determining the accretion for each separately4 ,in #aghi1 ,trunk taught how to determine average felling age increment1 and also the method of determining the change of diameter classes1 which is now used by the ,united ,states ,forest ,service3 8,on good soil a tree grows one inch in three years1 on medium soil in four years1 on poor soil in five years40 ,with this knowledge1 the attainment of a given diameter1 or the change from one diameter or age class to the next could be calculated4 ,volume tables were at ,trunk's command1 and ,paulsen in #aghg1 ,kregting in #aghh1 mention periodic yield tables2 but generally speaking 8ocular taxation0 or estimating was the rule1 checked by experience in actual fellings1 the method of the ,american timber looker4 ,generally1 of course1 only the log timber was estimated as with us1 and only the very roughest estimating or rather guessing was in vogue until near the end of the period4 ,the first attempt at closer measurement was made by ,beckman 7#agef71 who surrounded the area to be measured with twine1 drove a colored wooden peg into each tree1 one color for each diameter class1 when1 knowing the original number of pegs that had been taken out1 the difference gave the number of trees in each diameter class1 and by multiplying the average cubic contents of a measured sample tree in each class by the number in the class its volume was found4 ,the method1 often employed at present1 of ascertaining by tally the diameter classes on strips forty to fifty paces wide1 the so-called strip survey1 was described by ,zanthier in #agfc4 ,these measurements were usually confined to sample areas1 the use of such being already known in #agci4 ,the contents of the sample area1 if a special degree of accuracy was desired1 were ascertained by felling the whole and measuring4 ,oettelt1 of mathematical fame1 was the first to publish something about the determination of the age of trees by counting rings1 although the practice probably antedates this account4 ,he knew of the dependence of the ring width on the site and on the density of the stand4 ,it seems that long before this time the ,french had made the determination of yield in a more scientific manner1 ,raumur reporting in #agba to the ,french ,academy comparative studies of the yield of coppice and of volumes of wood4 ,oettelt1 too1 laid the foundation of forest financial calculations when he ascertained the value of a forest by determining the value of an acre of mature wood--the oldest age class--and multiplying it by half the acreage of the whole forest1 suggesting the well known expression for the normal stock 7,i r_/#b7 soon after to be developed by an obscure ,austrian tax collector4 ,even the first forest finance calculations with the use of compound interest1 and a comparison of the profitableness of the different methods of management1 are to be recorded as made by ,zanthier in #agfd1 bringing the beginning of forestal statics into this period4 #aj4 ,methods of ,lumbering and ,utilization4 ,at the beginning of this period1 rough exploitation was still mainly in vogue1 only parts of trees being used1 just as in the ,united ,states now4 ,here and there1 attempts were made toward more conservative use2 for instance1 at ,brunswick in #aedg1 the use of log timber for fuel was discouraged2 in ,saxony1 as early as #aefj1 the brushwood was utilized for fuel4 ,high stumps were a usual feature in spite of the threats of punishment of the forest ordinances1 as in ,bavaria 7#aeca74 ,the axe was the only instrument used until the end of the #ahth century for felling as well as cutting into lengths2 not until #agge1 do we find an allusion to the use of the saw1 when the forest ordinance of ,weimar ordered that the saw-cut should be made for three-fourths of the tree's diameter and the axe be used to finish 767 the last quarter4 ,not until the #ahth century was the fuel-wood split in the woods1 and it was near the end of the period before it was set up in mixed cords 7round and split7 after the splitting had been introduced4 ,the measurement was1 until about that time1 made merely in loads1 the cord being of later introduction4 ,the value of low stumps and of the use of the saw was recognized in ,austria in #aghf4 ,to show how variously and locally the need of conservative use of wood developed1 we may cite the fact that in the ,harz1 about #agej1 trees were dug with their roots as now in some of the pineries of the ,mark ,brandenburg1 in order to utilize more of the body-wood and the root-wood4 ,in #ageg we find stump-pulling machines described4 ,in measurement of standing trees the circumference at breast-height was measured with a chain1 and for the body-wood when felled the mean diameter was employed4 ,as regards the felling time1 specific advice is found in many forest ordinances which recommend mostly winter felling1 stating the proper beginning and end of the season by the phases of the moon1 the rule being that all white wood1 for example conifers1 beech and aspen should be felled on the increase or waxing of the moon2 oak1 at the waning2 but coppice1 because it is desired to secure a new growth1 at the waxing moon4 ,prescription was also made sometimes regarding the time by which the removal of the wood from the felling area was to be finished 7,may to ,june74 ,means of transportation were poor up to the end of the period2 snow1 as in the ,united ,states1 was in the ,northern country the main reliance for moving the wood4 ,river driving1 both with1 and without rafts was well organized2 various systems of log-slides were developed to a considerable extent2 in one place even an iron pipe1 #ijj feet in length1 is reported to have been used in such capacity4 ,originally1 the consumer cut his own wood1 but in the middle of the #agth century special wood-choppers appear to have been employed1 for1 in #afej1 mention is made in ,saxony of men1 who1 under oath to secure honest service1 were organized for the exploitation of the different classes of wood4 ,a system of jobbers came into existence about this time1 something like the logging bosses in the ,united ,states 7,holzmeister7 who were responsible for the execution of the logging job4 ,the organization of wood-choppers went so far that1 in #agah1 we find in the ,harz mountains mention of an ,accident ,insurance and ,mutual ,charity ,association among them4 ,the sale of wood was at first carried on in the house2 later it became customary to indicate in the forest the trees to be cut or the area from which they should be cut by the purchaser1 and finally they were felled by the employes of the owner4 ,for a long time1 persisting into the #ahth century1 the sale was by area1 and this method developed the necessity of surveying2 at the same time1 however1 sales by the tree and by wood measure occurred1 but only in the #ahth century did the present method of selling wood by measure after felling come into existence4 ,in ,prussia1 the buyer had to take the risk of felling1 and pay1 even if the tree proved to be rotten1 or broke in the felling4 ,the forest owner seems to have had the whip hand in determining the price one-sidedly1 revising1 i4e41 increasing the toll in longer or shorter intervals4 ,but1 in #agac1 we find mention of wood-auctions1 or at least similar methods of getting the best prices4 ,finally1 special market days for making sales and for designating of wood were instituted2 on these days also1 all offences against the forest laws were adjudged4 #aa4 ,forest ,administration4 ,the administration of the different forest properties which the princes had aggregated in the course of time was at first a part of the general administration of the princely property4 ,the requirements in the woods being merely to look after utilization and protection1 illiterate underlings 7,forstknechte7 were sufficient to carry out the police functions1 generally under a ,forstmeister1 or ,oberforstmeister1 who from time to time would make an inspection tour4 ,later on1 when a more intensive forest management had come into existence1 it became customary to call in experienced foresters from outside to make inspections and give advice4 ,a much more elaborate organization of service is1 however1 reported in the mining districts of the ,harz mountains1 in #aedg1 with the ,director of ,mines 7,berghauptman7 at the head1 and different grades of officials under him1 who were called together periodically for reports and discussions4 ,until the middle of the #ahth century all those employed in the forest service1 at least those in the superior positions1 had also duties in connection with the chase1 the head official of the hunt being also the head of the forest service2 and hunting had usually superior claims to forestry4 ,the men were supposed to be masters of the two branches1 i4e41 to be familiar with the technique of the hunt and of forestry 7,hirschgerecht and ,holzgerecht74 ,the higher positions were usually reserved to the nobility until 7during the #ahth century7 the ,cameralists came into control of the administration2 and with them1 under the mercantilistic teachings1 the apparatus of officials also increased4 ,these men usually possessed wide1 but not deep knowledge of matters bearing upon their charges4 ,in ,prussia1 in #agdj1 the forest service was at least in part combined with the military service1 ,frederick the ,great instituting the corps of riding couriers for the carrying of dispatches who were selected from the forest service1 an institution which persists up to date in the corps of ,feldjaeger1 while the sons of foresters were enlisted in a troop known as ,fussjaeger 7chasseurs74 ,a new era dates from the middle of the #ahth century when the connection with the hunt1 the military organization1 and the preferred position of the nobility1 were at least in part abrogated1 and a more technical organization was attempted4 ,the cause for this change was the increase of wood prices1 which made a more technical management desirable1 and also a decrease in the passion for the hunt4 ,still1 although the forests in ,bavaria were declared1 in #aghj to #agij1 to be of more importance than the hunt1 and the two services were distinctly separated1 the head of the hunt still ranked above the head of the forest service4 ,in ,prussia1 the professional men became early independent and influential1 and by #aggj1 an organization had been perfected which excelled in thoroughness and simplicity4 ,the salaries of the foresters consisted originally mainly in a free house1 use of land and pasture rights1 their uniform1 and incidental emoluments1 such as a toll for the designation of timber etc4 ,later1 when everywhere else a regular money management had been introduced1 the absence of a cash income and general poverty forced the foresters to steal and extort2 and the bad reputation established in the last part of the #ahth century1 as well as the bad practice1 persisted until the #aith century4 ,the lower grades in the service were exceedingly ignorant1 and their social position1 consequently1 very low4 ,their main business was1 indeed1 simple1 and consisted in the booking of the cut1 issuing permits for the removal and the sale of wood1 and looking after police functions in the woods4 ,yet1 by #agha1 we find regular planting plans submitted in the ,prussian administration1 and1 in #aghg1 felling plans are on record4 ,the administration of justice against offenders in the forests was until the end of the #ahth century in charge of the head foresters1 and only then was transferred to law officers4 ,theft of wood1 as in olden days1 was considered as a smaller offense than other thefts1 except if it was cut wood4 ,in the beginning of the period1 the judge had wide latitude as to amount of the fine to be imposed1 but in the #agth century more precise fines were fixed1 and in the #ahth century1 a revision of the fines brought them into proportion with the value of the stolen wood2 a choice of punishments by fines1 imprisonment or labor in the woods was then also instituted4 #ab4 ,forestry ,education4 ,the course of education for the foresters until the middle of the #ahth century was a simple one and mainly directed to learning the manipulations of the chase1 training of dogs1 tending of horses1 setting of nets1 shooting1 etc4 ,two or three years' life with a practical hunter were followed by journeying and working for different employers1 woodlore being picked up by the way from those that knew4 ,when in the #ahth century the need for better woods knowledge became pressing1 the few really good forest managers were sought out by the young men who wished to secure this knowledge4 ,in this way1 a number of so-called 8master-schools0 came into existence1 each depending on one man4 ,such a school was that of v4 ,zanthier in ,wernigerode1 later transferred to ,ilsenburg1 started in #agfc and ending with his death in #aggh4 ,theoretical teaching and opportunity for practical demonstration here was such that even students from the ,berlin school and men in actual employment attended the courses4 ,the two great masters and fathers of modern forestry1 ,hartig and ,cotta1 each instituted such master-schools1 the former in #aghi1 and the latter in #aghe4 ,cotta's school was afterwards transferred to ,tharandt and became a ,state institution4 ,the interest of the ,state in forestry education found first expression in ,prussia in a course of lectures in botany1 later also in forest economy1 given to the forest officials by ,gleditsch1 professor of botany at the ,university of ,berlin 7#aggj71 to which was added a practicum at ,tegel under ,burgsdorf1 who finally became the head of this mixed ,state school1 and continued in this position until at his death1 in #ahjb1 the school was discontinued4 ,in imitation of this move by ,prussia1 a military planting school was instituted by ,wrttemberg at ,solitude in #aggj4 ,the most noteworthy feature of this school1 which under various changes lasted less than #be years1 was the course of lectures by ,stahl1 mentioned before4 ,besides this higher school1 a lower grade school was started in #aghc1 but its career was even briefer1 not more than ten years4 ,bavaria organized a forest school at ,munich in #agij with a four years' course1 and at least three years' study at this school was required of those seeking employment in the ,state service2 but without having ever flourished1 this school1 too1 collapsed by #ahjc4 #ac4 ,forestry ,literature4 ,the oldest forestry literature of this period is contained in the many forest ordinances1 which allow us to judge from their prescriptions as to the conditions of the practice in the woods and as to the gradual accumulation of empiric knowledge4 ,of a forestry science one could hardly speak until an attempt had been made to organize the knowledge thus empirically acquired into a systematic presentation1 and this was not done until the middle or last half of the #ahth century4 ,the first attempts at a literary presentation of the empiric knowledge are found in the encyclopdic volumes of the so-called 8,hausvter0 7household fathers--domestic economists71 who treated in a most diffuse manner of agriculture in all its aspects1 including silviculture4 ,a number of these tomes appeared during the #agth century2 the best and most influential being published at the very beginning of that century 7#aeie-afji71 written by a preacher from ,silesia1 ,johann ,colerus1 and entitled ,oeconomia ruralis et domestica1 worin das ampt aller braven ,hausvter und ,hausmtter begriffen4 ,colerus relied upon home experience and not1 as ,petrus de ,crescentiis in his earlier work1 ,praedium rusticum 7translated from the ,french1 in #aeib71 had done1 upon the scholastic expositions of the ,italians4 ,he was rewarded by the popularity of his work which went through thirteen editions and became very widely known4 ,somewhat earlier1 a jurist1 ,no ,meurer1 wrote a book on forest law and hunting 7second edition1 #aegf71 which on this field remained long an authority1 and gives insight into the condition of forest use at the time4 ,but the first independent work on forestry1 divorced from the hunt and farming1 did not appear until #agac1 ,sylvicultura conomica1 written by the ,saxon director of mines1 ,hans ,carl v4 ,carlowitz4 ,this book1 while containing quaint and amusing ideas1 gives many correct rules for silvicultural methods1 especially as regards planting and sowing1 but the subject of forest management or organization is entirely neglected4 ,at about the same time 7#agaj7 a forest official1 v4 ,gchhausen1 published ,notabilia venatoris1 which1 however1 contained little more than a description of the species of trees and methods of their utilization4 ,about the middle of the #ahth century great activity began in the literary field4 ,this was carried on by two distinct classes of writers1 namely1 the empiricists and the cameralists4 ,the former--the holzgerechte ,jger--were the 8practical0 men of the woods who proved in many directions most unpractical1 and exhibited in their writings1 outside of the record of their limited experience1 the crassest ignorance4 ,the cameralists were educated in law and political economy and1 while lacking practical contact with the woodswork1 tried to sift and systematize the knowledge of the empiricists1 and to secure for it a tangible basis4 ,some five or six of the empiricists deserve notice as writers2 the first and most noted of them was ,doebel 7,heinrich ,wilhelm7 whose book1 ,jgerpraktica 7hunters' practice71 published in #agdf1 remained an authority until modern times for the part referring to the chase4 ,the author was pre-eminently a hunter1 who worked in various capacities in ,saxony1 a self-taught man with very little knowledge of natural history4 ,being familiar mainly with broadleaf forest he condemned planting and thinning1 but described quite well for his time the methods of survey1 subdivision1 estimating and measuring1 and the methods of selection forest and coppice with standards4 ,his ignorance is characterized by his reference to the 8sulphurous and nitric elements of the soil0 as cause of spontaneous forest fires4 ,opinionated and one-sided1 like many so-called practical men1 he came into polemic controversies with other practitioners1 not less opinionated1 among them ,j4 ,g4 ,beckmann1 who worked in another part of ,saxony1 where1 having to deal with coniferous woods1 he had gathered different experiences from those of ,doebel4 ,although he was himself poorly educated1 especially in natural sciences1 he complained of the ignorance of the foresters1 and in his book 7,anweisung zu einer pfleglichen ,forstwirthschaft1 #agei71 used for the first time the word ,forstwissenschaft 7forest science71 and insisted upon the necessity of studying nature4 ,he may be credited with having really advanced forest organization by devising the first good volume division method1 and silviculture by advocating the method of clearing followed by sowing4 ,the first practical forester with a university education was ,j4 ,j4 ,bchting1 who worked in the ,harz mountains4 ,his main interest lay in the direction of survey1 division and orderly utilization4 ,he did not1 however1 make any striking advance1 except that he gave equal standing to both planting and sowing4 ,the two most eminent practitioners of the period1 however1 active during the middle of the century1 were ,johann ,georg von ,langen and his pupil1 ,hans ,dietrich von ,zanthier1 both of noble family1 and better educated than most of their contemporaries1 and both engaged in the organization and management of ,harz mountain forests1 namely1 those of the ,duke of ,brunswick and of the ,count of ,stolberg-,wernigerode4 ,the former1 without occupying himself directly with literary work1 laid down in his expert reports and in his working plans many instructions which form the basis for orderly management and silviculture far ahead of the times4 ,zanthier1 writing considerably 7especially ,kurzer systematischer ,grundriss der praktischen ,forstwissenschaft1 #agfd71 is also notable as the founder of the first forestry school 7at ,wernigerode71 #agfc4 ,another of this class of better educated practitioners1 and co-worker with the former two1 was von ,lassberg1 who in #agfd-aggg organized the ,saxon forests4 ,an interesting incident in the life of the last three men is their journey to ,denmark and ,norway1 whither they were called to organize the management of the forests connected with the mines4 ,another prominent forest manager of the last half of the century1 whose literary work is to be found only in various excellent official instructions1 among which is one for the teaching of foresters1 was the head of the ,hessian forest service1 a nobleman1 v4 ,berlepsch4 ,of the cameralists who helped to make forestry literature1 six or seven deserve mention4 ,these1 men of education and polyhistors1 were either at the head of affairs1 or else professors at universities1 where they included forestry as one of the branches of political economy4 ,the credit of the first really systematic presentation of forestry principles and rules1 as developed at the time1 belongs to ,wilhelm ,gottfried von ,moser1 a pupil of von ,langen1 who served in various principalities1 and finally with the ,prince of ,taxis4 ,in his ,principles of ,forest ,economy1 published in #ageg1 which for the first time brought out the economic importance of the subject1 he discusses in two volumes divided into nine chapters the different branches of forestry4 ,a mining engineer1 ,j4 ,a4 ,cramer1 came next with a very notable book1 8,anleitung zum ,forstwesen0 7#agff71 which1 although not as comprehensive as ,moser's1 treats the subject of silviculture very well4 ,equal in arrogance and opinionated self-satisfaction to any of the empiricists with whom he frequently crossed swords1 was the ,brunswick councillor1 von ,brocke1 who1 as an amateur1 practising forestry on his own estate1 developed the characteristic trait of the empiricists1 namely1 a profound belief in his own infallibility4 ,he produced1 besides many polemic writings1 in which he charged the whole class of foresters with ignorance1 laziness and dishonesty1 a magnum opus in four volumes1 entitled 8,true bases of the physical and experimental general science of forestry10 which is an olla podrida of small value4 ,less original1 but more fair and well informed1 a typical representative of the cameralists1 was ,j4 ,f4 ,stahl1 finally head of the forest administration of ,wrttemberg1 and at the same time lecturer on mathematics1 natural history and forestry at the forest school of ,solitude 7,stuttgart74 ,although an amateur in the field of forestry1 he was a good teacher and left many valuable and wise prescriptions evolved during his administration4 ,he compiled in four volumes a dictionary of forest1 fish and game practice 7,onomatologia forestalis-piscatoria-venatoria1 #aggb-agha7 and founded the first forestry journal4 ,since #aggj1 forestry courses had been given for the cameralists at most of the ,german universities1 and many of the professors prepared textbooks for the purpose4 ,at least three of these professors deserve mention1 ,beckman1 ,jung and ,trunk4 ,the first1 ,j4 ,beckman1 professor of political economy at ,gttingen1 one of the most noted cameralists1 was author of a work in forty-five volumes on the ,principles of ,german ,agriculture 7#agfi71 in which he devotes sixty-one pages to forestry1 giving a complete system of forestry1 with extracts from all known forestry writings4 ,j4 ,h4 ,jung1 who gave a special course on forestry at the ,kameralschule of ,lautern1 published a textbook in #agha in which forest botany was well treated4 ,j4 ,j4 ,trunk1 who was ,oberforstmeister in ,austria1 as well as professor at ,freiburg1 was the most prominent of the three1 and wrote a comprehensive work full of practical sense 7,neues vollstndiges ,forstlehrbuch oder systematische ,grundstze des ,forstrechtes1 der ,forstpolizei und ,forstkonomie1 nebst ,anhang von auslndischen ,holzarten1 von ,torf und ,steinkohlen1 #aghi74 99 99 99 99 99 ,while at first the ephemeral writings1 especially the polemic ones of the empiricists1 found room in literary and cameralistic magazines1 the need of a professional journal first found expression in #agfc1 in ,stahl's ,allgemeines konomisches ,forstmagazin1 which ran into twelve volumes1 and contains many articles important to the history of forestry1 and is especially rich in its references to foreign literature4 ,two continuations of the magazine under different editorships were of less value4 ,but von ,moser's ,forstarchiv1 running from #aghh to #ahjg with its thirty volumes1 is an authority and a historical source of the first rank4 ,a very characteristic literature of the last half of the #ahth century consisted in forest calendars in which advice as to monthly and seasonal procedures in the forest were given1 ,beckman and ,zanthier being among the authors4 ,,iii4 ,,development ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,the last hundred years or so has seen in ,germany the development of fully established forest policies and the complete organization of stable forest administrations1 based upon thorough and careful recognition of the principles of forest management and intensive application of silvicultural methods4 #a4 ,changes in ,property ,conditions4 ,the change in forest treatment from that prevailing during the previous period was mainly due to the change in property conditions1 and especially to the establishment of state forests4 ,this change was largely the result of the revolutionary movements at the beginning of the new century which brought about changes in state organizations4 ,in ,prussia1 the princely forest property had been declared state domain in #agac1 but elsewhere1 the public domain had been considered the property of the princes in their capacity as head of the country1 as domanium1 outside of their personal private property 7,chatullgter74 ,the income from this domanium was in part liable to be applied to the expenses of the court and of the administration of the realm1 to some extent alleviating the burdens of taxation4 ,this property arose from a variety of relations which have been discussed at length in the foregoing chapters4 ,it was derived mainly from feudal properties1 fiefs of vassalage and fiefs of official position1 secularized church property and other forfeited property1 division of mark forests1 and from allodial possessions of the family4 ,gradually1 by agreement with the landed estates1 it was understood that this property could not be disposed of or dissipated by the prince1 and was inherited by the eldest son together with the princely dignity1 being an attribute of his position in the state4 ,in the reconstruction period of #ahjf to #ahae1 during and after the ,napoleonic wars1 many of the small princes lost their seigniorage 7,landeshoheit ipso jure71 and with the loss of the princely dignity1 the obligation of carrying the expense of court and administration naturally falling away1 these properties became in most cases purely individual property of the former princes4 ,not1 however1 until the revolutionary movements of #ahdh and even later1 was this divorce of the state idea from that of the person of the prince everywhere accomplished1 nor was it carried through without many bickerings and quarrels between the princes and the representatives of the people1 who claimed this domanium for the state4 ,in the larger states1 all this domanial property was finally declared state lands1 while in the smaller principalities a partition of the land between the princes and the state took place1 or else a relation was established by which a part of the revenue resulting from the state lands was secured to the princes4 ,an increase of the ,state's property came also during the first decade of the century through the abolishment of cloisters and secularization of church property generally1 the lands of both ,protestant and ,catholic church institutions being taken by the ,state4 ,curiously enough1 at the same time that the idea of state forest was being realized1 the changes in economic thought which brought the principle of individualism to the fore gave rise to a movement to sell the state properties4 ,this movement was inspired by ,french doctrines1 whose influence was at the time very strong1 by the teachings of ,adam ,smith who held that the state is not fit to conduct business1 and by the hope that in private ownership an improvement in forest conditions would be more readily realized4 ,these ideas by themselves would1 probably1 not have led to the adoption of a policy of sale if it had not been for the need for cash which1 as a result of the ,french wars1 was felt everywhere during the first years of the decade4 ,the sale of this property seemed to provide a ready means for ,states to secure funds4 ,in ,prussia1 after the collapse of #ahjf1 this measure was widely discussed1 and eventually1 in #ahaj to #ahac1 repeatedly instructions for the sale of state forest property were issued4 ,there were to be excluded from such sales only large complexes of forest1 those on the sea coast1 sand dunes and river fronts1 where the protection of the forest cover was needed1 and those which it was desirable to maintain for the use of important industrial establishments4 ,only the accession of ,hartig 7#ahaa71 as chief of the forest administration which was a branch of the ,treasury department1 prevented the execution of this dismemberment4 ,it was due to him that the difference in character between farm and forest property began to be recognized4 ,although1 after #ahbj1 sales of forest property took place1 they were never a fiscal measure1 but were made either for the purpose of rounding off existing state forest property or paying off servitudes1 or else in order to turn over agricultural soil to farm use4 ,at present everywhere in ,germany state properties are on the increase4 ,the property conditions of the communal forests naturally changed also with the political changes of the #aith century1 when existing communities were made part of the large political machine and changed from economic and social to modern political municipalities4 ,the ownership conditions1 however1 were not simplified1 but as before1 remained extremely varied4 ,of the ,mark forest but a very small portion remains to-day4 ,the majority of it had been finally divided among the ,mrker in the first decade of the century1 and the few remaining parts became independent of the political organization and now exist merely in the form of appurtenances to certain farm property known as ,genossenwald 7association forests74 ,in addition to the variety of communal ownerships existing in the preceding period1 some new communal properties originated from the granting of land in the settlement and dissolution of servitudes1 whereby an undivided property 7,interessentenwald7 in which sometimes even the state retains an interest1 came into existence4 ,the municipal property of the cities had become either the property of the entire community or of that part which constituted the real citizenship1 or at least of a certain class of citizens of the municipality4 ,the incumbrances which had grown up with regard to forest property under the name of servitudes and which so much retarded the development of better forest management continued into this period1 and although through the influences of the ,french revolution a desire had been stimulated to get rid of all curtailments of property1 some have persisted to this day4 ,indeed1 for a time an increase of these servitudes took place1 due to the carelessness of forest officials in keeping unjustified use of the forest in check1 when ancient usage of these rights of user was claimed and new servitudes were established4 ,in ,bavaria1 it became at last necessary 7#aheb7 to positively forbid the further establishment of new servitudes or rights of user4 ,laws having in view the dissolution or buying out of these rights were issued in ,bavaria in #ahje1 and in ,prussia in #ahba1 giving the right to forest owners whose properties were so encumbered1 to call for a division of interests2 but as at first the only way to settlement was by exchange for definite parcels of forest property1 the progress in the abolishment of these rights was slow1 until money exchange was permitted 7as in ,saxony1 #ahcb74 ,at the present time1 the state forest administrations have mostly got rid of these servitudes1 or at least have progressed so far in their regulation that they are now rarely impediments to forest management4 ,these peaceable adjustments of the rights of user constitute the last act of freeing property socially and economically4 #b4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,in spite of the sporadic efforts which had been made to bring about the recuperation of forest areas during the #ahth century1 the conditions of the forest at the beginning of the new century were most pitiable2 the division of the ,mark1 by which the peasants became individual owners1 profited little1 and led to devastation rather than to improving the condition of the property4 ,in addition1 export trade in wood had become brisk1 and the financial depression1 a result of the ,french wars1 led to increased exploitations1 which1 with the improvement in means of transportation1 progressed to the more distant forest areas1 and enlarged the waste area4 ,especially in the more densely populated parts of the country1 the deforested area widened1 and large wastes with poor young growth increased in all directions1 in the same manner as now in the ,united ,states4 ,the alarmists had good cause for renewing their cries1 and1 around the year #ahjj1 a considerable literature sprung up on the subject of the threatened timber famine4 ,it is interesting to note that at that time the ,catalpa played a role1 at least on paper1 as it does in our own day1 being recommended as the only means of staving off the timber famine4 ,a renewed betulomania spread widely over the country4 ,in ,north ,germany especially1 great efforts were made to replant the denuded areas and to change the coppice areas1 fit only for firewood1 to coniferous species1 pine1 etc41 by which eventually a great change in the forest type from the original mixed forest to the pure forest was effected4 #c4 ,personnel4 ,the great change which led to improved conditions1 during the first half of the century1 was pre-eminently due to the knowledge and intelligence of a group of men1 six in number1 competent foresters1 who combined the high grade education of the ,cameralists with the practitioners' knowledge3 ,hartig1 ,cotta1 ,hundeshagen1 ,koenig1 ,pfeil and ,heyer4 ,these men built1 to be sure1 on the shoulders of their precursors of the century in which they were born1 but1 being placed in authoritative positions1 found better opportunities for putting their teachings into practice4 ,the first two mentioned were older than the rest1 and are usually described as the 8fathers of modern forestry40 ,born about a year apart1 both educated at universities1 they excelled in both scientific and practical directions4 ,georg ,ludwig ,hartig 7#agfd-ahcg71 studied at the ,university of ,giessen and1 after having served in various functions in various parts of ,southern ,germany1 became1 in #ahaa1 head of the ,prussian forest administration4 ,he was equally eminent as a practical man and organizer1 as a writer1 and as a teacher4 ,in literary direction his work lay not so much in developing new ideas as in formulating clearly the known ones1 as evidenced in his celebrated 8,general ,rules0 in silviculture4 ,not less than thirty separate publications attest his assiduity4 ,among them stands pre-eminent 8,anweisung zur ,holzzucht fr ,foerster0 7#agia2 #hth edition1 #ahah74 ,as a teacher he began his work by establishing a masterschool 7#aghi-agia7 at ,hungen1 transferred to ,stuttgart in #ahjg2 and afterwards1 as head of the ,prussian forest administration1 he lectured at the ,university of ,berlin1 continuing his lectures there1 even after the forestry school at ,eberswalde had been established1 until his death4 ,he may be considered as having established on a firm basis the forest administration of ,prussia2 and many of the things he instituted still prevail4 ,in organizing the service1 he introduced fixed salaries1 he relieved the foresters from financial responsibilities1 transferring all handling of money to a separate set of officials1 whereby the temptation to fraudulent practice of graft was removed1 and he issued instructions for the different grades of foresters2 and every part of this work was all his own4 ,in regulating the forest area of the state he developed the volume allotment method1 which1 however1 proved too cumbersome to be readily applied to large areas4 ,toward the end of his life1 his work was not entirely successful1 and he lost prestige in his later years4 ,heinrich von ,cotta 7#agfc-ahdd7 studied at the ,university of ,jena1 and afterwards practiced in ,thuringia1 where he established a master school at ,zillbach 7#agie74 ,in #ahaa1 he was called to ,saxony1 as director of forest surveys1 whither he also transferred his school1 at ,tharandt1 which in #ahaf was made a state institution and is still flourishing4 ,in that year he was made the director of the ,bureau of ,forest ,management4 ,like ,hartig1 he was eminent in the three directions of practical1 literary1 and educational work1 but he excelled ,hartig in originality1 developing new principles and thought4 ,being a good plant-physiologist and observer of nature1 he developed new ideas in silviculture1 especially with reference to methods of thinning1 and his 8,anweisung zum ,waldbau10 written in the simplest1 clearest and most forceful manner1 forms a classic worthy of study to this day4 ,in the field of forest management he became the inventor of the area allotment method and the originator of the highly developed ,saxon forest management4 ,as a teacher he excelled in clearness1 exposition1 wealth of ideas and geniality4 ,of an entirely different stamp was the third of the great masters1 ,johann ,christian ,hundeshagen 7#aghc-ahcd71 who having studied in ,heidelberg1 became after some years of practice1 professor of forestry at ,tuebingen1 in #ahag1 and at ,giessen1 #ahbe4 ,he was a representative of the theoretical or philosophical side of forestry1 being highly cultivated and imbued with the spirit of science4 ,his bent was to systematize the knowledge in existence and extend it by means of exact experiments4 ,in forest organization1 he invented the well known formula method or 8rational method0 of regulating felling budgets and became also one of the founders of ,forest ,statics 7#ahbf7 which he called 8the doctrine of measuring forestal forces10 being thus the forerunner of modern scientific forestry4 ,the fourth of the group1 ,gottlob ,knig 7#aggf-ahdi71 was a practitioner without a university education1 who had enjoyed the teaching and influence of ,cotta whom he succeeded in ,eisenach as the head of the ducal forest administration4 ,he also founded here a private forest school1 which1 in #ahcj1 became a state institution1 and is still in existence4 ,knig became noted by his contributions to the scientific1 especially the mathematical side of forestry1 developing forest mensuration and statics4 ,in this latter branch he was the forerunner of ,pressler and of the modern school of finance4 ,in his 8,anleitung zur ,holztaxation0 7#ahac7 he gives a complete account of forest mensuration and in the part devoted to forest valuation he develops the first soil rent formula and the methods of determining the cost value of stands4 ,his 8,forest ,mathematics0 7#ahce7 in which he introduces factors of form and many other new ideas was an original contribution to science4 ,very different in character from these four leaders was the aggressive1 sharp-witted ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,leopold ,pfeil 7#aghc-ahei71 who1 without a university education1 and in spite of his poor knowledge of mathematics and natural history1 advanced himself by native wit and genius4 ,after a brief period of employment in private service1 in the province of ,silesia1 he accepted the position of professor of forestry at the ,berlin ,university1 in #ahba1 in connection with ,hartig1 with whom1 however1 he was at sword's point4 ,it was at his instigation1 with the assistance of von ,humboldt1 that the school was transferred1 in #ahcj1 to ,eberswalde1 ,pfeil becoming its director4 ,while ,hartig was a generalizer1 ,pfeil was an individualizer1 free from dogma1 and most suggestive2 a free lance and a fighter4 ,critical in the extreme and prolific in his literary work1 he domineered the forestry literature of the day by means of his ,kritische ,blaetter1 a journal of much import and merit4 ,the youngest of the group1 ,karl ,heyer 7#agig-ahef71 a thoroughly educated man1 combined the professorial position in the ,university of ,giessen 7#ahce7 with practical management of a forest district1 but in #ahcd abandoned the latter in order to devote himself entirely to literary work4 ,he was one of the clearest and most systematic expounders1 and both his ,waldbau 7silviculture1 #ahed7 and his ,waldertragsregelung 7forest organization1 #ahda7 are classics4 ,the last1 fifth edition of the ,waldbau1 appearing in #aijf in two volumes1 has been brought up to date by ,professor ,hess4 ,he devised one of the most rational methods of forest organization1 and1 imbued with the necessity of basing forest management on exact scientific inquiry1 instead of on empiricism alone1 he formulated instructions for forest static investigations1 a subject which his son1 ,gustav ,heyer1 elaborated into a science4 #d4 ,progress in ,silviculture4 ,natural regeneration continued to be the favorite method well into this period1 and1 for a long time1 selection forest and coppice were all that was known in practice until ,hartig and ,cotta forced recognition of the shelterwood system4 ,the only way in which a transition from the generally practiced1 unregulated selection forest to an intensive management was possible1 with the ignorant personnel of underforesters1 was to formulate into an easily intelligible prescription the necessary rules1 allowing the least play to individual judgment4 ,this was done by ,hartig when he formulated his eight 8,general ,rules0 7#ahjh7 which coincided also closely with the teachings of ,cotta4 ,since these rules represent in brief and most definitely the status of silvicultural knowledge on natural regeneration at the time1 it may be desirable to translate them verbatim4 7#a7 8,every forest tree which is expected to propagate itself by natural regeneration must be old enough to bear good seed4 7#b7 8,every district or stand which is to be replaced by a thoroughly perfect stand by means of natural regeneration1 must be brought into such position 7density7 that the soil may everywhere receive sufficient seeding4 7#c7 8,each compartment must be kept in such condition 7density7 that it cannot1 before the seeding takes place1 grow up to grass and weeds4 7#d7 8,with species whose seed loses its power of germination through frost1 as is the case with the oak and beech1 the compartments must be given such a position 7density7 that the foliage which after the fall of seed covers and protects the same cannot be carried away by wind4 7#e7 8,all stands must be given such density that the germinating plants in the same1 as long as they are still tender1 find sufficient protection from their mother trees against heat of the sun and against cold4 7#f7 8,so soon as the young stand resulting from natural regeneration does not any longer require this motherly protection1 it must gradually1 through the careful removal of the mother trees1 be accustomed to the weather1 and finally must be entirely brought into the open position4 7#g7 8,all the young growths1 whether secured by natural or artificial seeding1 must be freed from the accompanying less useful species and from weeds1 if these in spite of all precaution threaten the better kinds4 7#h7 8,from every young forest until it is full grown1 the suppressed wood must be removed from time to time1 so that the trees which are ahead or dominate may grow the better2 the upper perfect crown cover1 however1 must not be interrupted until it is the intention to grow a new forest again in the place of the old one40 ,since these rules are applicable only in beech forests1 much mischief and misconception resulted from their generalization2 pure1 even-aged high forests became the ideal1 and the mixed forest1 which was originally the most widespread condition1 vanished to a large extent4 ,this was especially unfortunate in ,northern and ,northeastern pine forests4 ,a reaction against ,hartig's generalization began about #ahcj1 under the lead of ,pfeil4 ,he had at first agreed with ,hartig1 and then with equal narrowness advocated for many years a clear cutting system with artificial reforestation4 ,finally1 however1 he was not afraid to acknowledge that his early generalizations in this respect were a mistake1 and that different conditions required different treatment4 ,in the development of the shelterwood system there was at first1 under the lead of ,hartig1 a tendency to open up rather sharply1 taking out about three-fourths of the existing stand1 but gradually he became convinced that this was too much1 and finally reduced the first removal to only about one-third of the stand4 ,this was the origin of his nickname of ,dunkelman4 ,in spite of the fact that it was claimed that ,cotta took the opposite view 7for which he was called ,lichtman71 he1 too1 grew to favor a dark position1 and1 as he progressed1 leaned more and more towards more careful opening up4 ,hartig originally recognized only three different fellings3 the cutting for seed2 the cutting for light2 and the removal cutting4 ,by and by1 a second cut was made during the seed year1 and the number of fellings to secure gradual removal were increased1 so that1 by #ahja1 this system seems to have been pretty nearly perfected to its modern conditions4 ,the best exposition of this ,femelschlagbetrieb 7shelterwood system71 as then developed1 is to be found in ,karl ,heyer's ,handbook1 #ahed4 ,the method was unfortunately extended by ,burgsdorf 7#aghg7 to the ,northern pineries with a seventy year period of rotation4 ,within ten years1 however1 he recognized its inappropriateness1 and modified it by instructions to leave only six to twelve seed trees per acre4 ,his successor1 ,kropff1 reduced the number of seed trees to four or five1 which were to be removed within two or three years4 ,in spite of the development of this more rational method1 the practitioners under ,hartig's approval1 held mainly to a dark position even for pine1 much in the manner of a selection forest1 which produced a poor growth of oppressed seedlings1 retarding for a long time the development of the pineries4 ,in spruce or fir1 either a pure selection forest or a strip system was employed4 ,attempts at a shelterwood system were made1 but experience with the wind danger soon taught the lesson that this was not a proper method with shallow-rooted species4 ,even ,hartig preferred for spruce clearing and planting1 and this is still the most favored method with that species4 ,for the deep-rooted and shade-enduring fir the shelterwood method with a long regeneration period was thoroughly established in the ,black ,forest1 and in ,wrttemberg by #ahah4 ,natural regeneration being the main method of reproduction until the beginning of the #aith century1 artificial means1 as is evident from the forest ordinances of ,prussia and ,bavaria 7#ahab and #ahad71 were usually applied only to repair fail-places1 or to plant up wastes4 ,in this artificial reforestation1 with the exception of the planting of oak in pastures1 sowing was almost entirely resorted to because it could be done cheaper and easier1 but as the sowings were mostly made on unprepared soil and with very large amounts of seed 7#cj to #fj pounds per acre1 now only #g to #aj pounds71 the results were not satisfactory1 either because the seed did not find favorable conditions for germinating1 or when germinated the stand was too dense4 ,planting1 if done at all1 was done only with wildlings dug from the woods1 and usually1 following the practice of the planting of oak in pastures1 with saplings3 the plant material was too large for success4 ,nurseries1 except for oak1 were not known1 even to ,cotta in #ahag2 and ,heyer1 having to plant up several thousand acres1 still relied on wildlings1 two to three years old1 which he took up with a ball of earth by means of his 8hole spade10 a circular spade re-invented by him and much praised by others4 ,hartig1 in #ahcc1 still advised the use of four to five year old pine wildlings1 root-pruned1 but1 eventually1 having met with poor success1 for which he was much discredited1 came to the conclusion that un-pruned two-year-old plants were preferable4 ,the credit of having radically changed these practices belongs to ,pfeil1 who1 entirely reversing his position1 advocated for pine forest a system of clearing followed by sowing1 or by planting of wildlings with a ball of earth4 ,then1 suggesting that possibly planting without this precaution could be attempted1 and pointing out the necessity of securing a satisfactory root system1 he recommended1 about #ahcj1 the use of one-year-old seedlings grown in carefully prepared seed beds4 ,while for securing these1 he relied upon the simple preparation of the soil by spading1 ,biermans added the use of a fertilizer in the shape of the ashes of burned sod4 ,the method of growing pine seedlings and planting them when one to three years old was further developed by ,butlar 7#ahde71 who introduced the practice of dense sowing in the seed beds4 ,he also invented an ingenious planting iron or dibble1 a half cone of iron1 which was thrown by the planter with great precision1 first to make a hole and then to close it4 ,this was improved by the addition of a long handle into the superior1 well-known and much used ,wartenberg planting dibble4 ,at the same time 7#ahdj71 ,manteuffel devised the method known by his name of planting in mounds1 which is especially applicable on wet soils4 ,it was not until #ahdj that transplanting of yearling pines with naked roots became general4 ,the widespread application of this latter system resulted in abandoning to a large extent mixed growth1 and led to the establishment of pure pine forests1 introducing thereby most intensively all the dangers incident to a clearing system and pure forest which are avoided by the mixed forest1 namely1 insects1 frost and drought4 ,a practice of planting spruce in bunches1 originally twelve to twenty plants in a bunch1 had been in existence since #aghj4 ,this practice increased until #ahej1 and is still in use in the ,harz mountains and in eastern ,prussia1 although the bunches have been reduced so as to contain only from three to five plants1 the object of the bunching being to make sure that one or the other of the plants should live4 ,much discussion as to the merits of this method took place between the old masters1 ,cotta favoring the small bunches upon the basis of a successful plantation of his own1 ,hartig and ,pfeil opposing it1 but finally weakening4 ,since #ahej1 however1 the practice of setting out single plants has become more general4 ,a reaction from the indiscriminate application of the shelterwood method to the hardwoods and of the clearing method to the pine set in during the last quarter of the #aith century under the lead of ,burkhardt and ,gayer4 ,these advocated return to mixed forest and to natural regeneration with long periods1 approaching a selection forest4 ,gayer especially1 professor of silviculture at ,munich1 became the foremost apostle of this school4 ,yet even to this day1 the principles of silvicultural treatment under the many different conditions remain unsettled4 ,on the whole however1 with the financial question assiduously brought forward1 the clearing system has made most progress1 and the selection system has nearly vanished1 being replaced by the group method and the shelterwood system4 ,a number of special forms of silvicultural management applicable under special conditions have been locally developed1 without1 however1 gaining much ground and being mainly of historical value4 ,among these may be mentioned ,seebach's ,modified ,beech ,forest1 which consists in opening up a beech stand so as to secure regeneration1 merely to form a soil cover1 leaving enough of the old stand on the ground to close up in thirty or forty years4 ,by this treatment the large increment due to open position is secured without endangering the soil4 ,similarly the ,storied or ,two-aged ,high forest1 was applied to the management of oak forest in mixture with beech4 ,in a few localities also1 on limited areas1 a combination of forest and farming 7,waldfeldbau7 has been continued and elaborated1 besides the more general use of coppice and coppice with standards4 ,according to the statistics for #aijj the following distribution of the acreage under different silvicultural methods prevailed throughout the empire3 ,deciduous ,coniferous ,per cent4 ,per cent4 ,total ,forest #cb4e #fg4e ,high ,forest #ah4d #fj4a ,selection ,forest #b4c #g4d ,coppice #f4h -- ,coppice with standards #e4 -- ,coniferous forest1 of which #fh is pine and #cj spruce1 prevails in ,eastern and ,middle ,germany1 deciduous forest1 of which #bj is oak1 the balance principally beech1 in the ,west and ,south4 ,coppice and coppice with standards are mostly in private hands as well as the coniferous selection forest1 the ,state forests being almost entirely high forest1 i4e41 seed forest1 other than under selection method4 ,methods of ,improving the ,crop4 ,the credit of having first systematically formulated the practice of thinnings under the name of ,durchforstung 7for the first thinning71 ,durchplenterung 7for the later thinnings71 belongs to ,hartig1 although the practice of such thinnings had been known and applied here and there before his time4 ,he confined himself mainly to the removal of the undesirable species1 dead and dying1 suppressed and damaged trees1 being especially emphatic in his advice not to interrupt the crown cover4 ,excepting the early weeding or improvement cuttings1 these thinnings were not to begin until the fiftieth to seventieth year in the broadleaved forest1 but in conifers in the twentieth to thirtieth year4 ,the first attempt to explain on a biological basis the process and effect of thinning was made by ,spth in a special contribution 7#ahjb74 ,cotta1 in his ,silviculture1 although at first agreeing with ,hartig1 later in his third edition 7#ahba7 changes his mind1 and improves both upon the biological explanation of ,spth and the practice of ,hartig1 pointing out that the latter came too late with his assistance1 that the struggle between the individuals should be anticipated1 and the thinning repeated as soon as the branches begin to die2 but he also recognizes the practical difficulty of the application of this cultural measure on account of the expense4 ,curiously enough1 he recommends severer thinnings for fuel-wood production than for timber forests4 ,pfeil accentuates the necessity of treating different sites and species differently in the practice of thinnings4 ,hundeshagen accentuates the financial result and the fact that the culmination of the average yield is secured earlier by frequent thinnings4 ,heyer formulates the 8golden rule30 8,early1 often1 moderate10 but insists that first thinning should not be made until the cost of the operation can be covered by the sale of the material4 ,propositions to base the philosophy and the results of thinning on experimental grounds rather than on mere opinion were made as early as #ahbe to #ahbh1 and again from #ahci to #ahdf1 at various meetings of forestry associations1 until1 in #ahfj1 ,brunswick and ,saxony inaugurated the first more extensive experiments in thinnings4 ,the two representatives of forest finance1 ,koenig and ,pressler1 pointed out1 in #ahdb to #ahei1 the great significance of thinnings in a finance management as one of the most important silvicultural operations for securing the highest yield4 ,in spite of the advanced development of the theory of thinning1 the practice has largely lagged behind1 because of the impracticability of introducing intensive management4 ,only lately1 owing to improvement in prices and the possibility of marketing the inferior material profitably enough to justify the expenditure1 has it become possible to secure more generally the advantages of the cultural effect4 ,within the last thirty or forty years1 great activity has been developed among the experiment stations in securing a true basis for the practice of thinning4 ,new ideas were introduced through ,french influence and by others independently in the latter part of the eighties1 when the distinction between the final harvest crop 7,fr4 lite1 le haut7 and the nurse crop 7le bas7 was introduced4#d #d ,the conception of such subdivision and the ,english nomenclature was independently first employed by the writer in his ,report for #ahhg1 as ,chief of ,forestry ,division1 when discussing planting plans for the prairies4 ,the physiological reasons for the practice of thinning upon experimental basis1 were advanced by the botanists ,goeppert and ,r4 ,hartig1 and among foresters1 the names of ,kraft1 ,lorey1 ,haug1 ,borggreve1 ,wagener1 and others are intimately connected with the very active discussion of the subject lately going on in the magazines4 ,thinnings have become such an important part of the income of forest administrations 7#be to #dj of the total yield7 that the prominence given to the subject is well justified1 and a more modern conception of the advantages of thinnings and especially of severer thinnings is gaining ground4 ,the proposition1 now much ventilated1 of severe opening up near the end of the rotation1 in order to secure an accelerated increment 7,lichtungshiebe7 is1 however1 much older2 ,hossfeld1 in #ahbd1 and ,jger in #ahej1 advocated this measure for financial reasons1 while ,koenig and ,pressler anticipated the development of an individual tree management by pruning1 and differentiation of final harvest and nurse crop1 a method which is working itself out at the present time4 #e4 ,methods of ,forest ,organization4 ,as stated before1 to ,hartig and ,cotta belongs the credit of having applied systematically on a large scale methods of forest organization for sustained yield2 ,hartig having been active in ,prussia since #ahaa1 and ,cotta beginning to organize the ,saxon forests in the same year4 ,the method employed by ,hartig1 the so-called volume allotment1 had been already formulated and its foundation laid by ,kregting and others 7although ,hartig seems to have claimed the invention74 ,but it was reserved to ,hartig to build up this method in its detail1 and to formulate clearly and precisely its application1 as well as to improve the practice of forest survey1 calculation of increment1 and the making of yield tables4 ,his method involved a survey1 a subdivision1 a construction of yield tables and the formulation of working plans1 in which the principle according to which the forest was to be managed during the whole rotation was laid down for each district4 ,the rotation was determined1 divided into periods1 finally of twenty years1 and the periodic volume yield represented by all stands was distributed through all the periods of the rotation in such a manner as to make the periodic felling budgets approximately equal2 or1 since the tendency to increased wood consumption was recognized1 an increase of the felling budget toward the end of the rotation was considered desirable4 ,cotta based his system of forest organization upon a method described by a ,bavarian1 ,schilcher 7#agif72 it relied primarily upon area rather than volume division4 ,this method was later on 7#ahag71 called by him ,flaechenfachwerk 7area allotment74 ,it divides the rotation into periods and allots areas for each periodic felling budget4 ,but before this time1 in #ahjd1 ,cotta had himself formulated a method of his own1 which combined the area and volume method1 the volume being the main basis and the area being merely used as a check4 ,while ,hartig dogmatically and persistently carried out his difficult scheme1 ,cotta was open-minded enough to improve his method of regulation1 and by #ahbj1 in his ,anweisung zur ,forst-,einrichtung und -,abschaetzung1 he comes to his final position of basing the sustained yield entirely on the area allotment1 using the estimate of volume simply to secure an approximately uniform felling budget4 ,he laid particular stress on orderly procedure in the subdivision and progress of the fellings4 ,he did not prepare an elaborate working plan binding for the entire rotation1 but merely prescribed the principles of the general management1 and1 after #ahaf1 he confined the formulating of felling and planting plans only to the next decade4 ,a similar method1 making a closer combination of volume and area allotment1 now known as the combined allotment1 in which the area forms the main basis for distributing the felling budgets1 was prescribed by ,klipstein in #ahcc4 ,this1 also1 confines the working plan to the first period of the rotation and for this period alone makes a rather careful statement of the expected volume budget2 a new budget is then to be determined at the beginning of the next period4 ,this idea of confining the budget determination to a comparatively short period is now generally accepted1 the future receiving only summary consideration4 ,these methods of organization were the ones generally applied in practice1 and are still with some modifications in practical use4 ,about #ahbj1 however1 new theories were advanced which led to the formulation of methods based upon the idea of the normal forest4 ,the conception of a normal forest1 with a normal stock1 distributed in normal age classes1 so as to insure a sustained yield management1 was evolved1 in #aghh1 by an obscure anonymous official in the ,tax-collector's office of ,austria1 designed for assessing woods managed for sustained yield4 ,this fertile idea1 which is still the basis of forest organization in ,austria1 and explains better than any other method the principles involved in forest organization1 did not find entrance into forestry literature in all its detail until #ahaa when ,andr compared this so-called ,cameraltaxe with ,hartig's method of regulation4 ,we find1 however1 that1 simultaneously with the ,austrian invention of this method1 ,paulsen 7#aghg7 proposed to determine the felling budget as a relation between normal stock and normal yield1 and in his yield tables 7the first of the kind1 #agie71 he gives the proportion of increment to normal stock in percentic relation1 so that the felling budget may be either expressed as a fraction of the stock or as a per cent42 in beech forests1 for instance1 he determines the felling budget as #c4c on best sites1 #b4e on medium1 and #a4h on poor sites4 ,probably stimulated by ,andr's description1 ,huber 7#ahab7 developed a method and formula which may be considered the foundation of the later development by ,carl ,heyer 7,felling budget ,i 77,sa - ,sn7_/e774 ,based upon the normal forest idea1 a number of methods were elaborated which1 because of their employing a mathematical formula for the determination of the felling budget1 are known as formula methods2 they are1 indeed modified rational volume divisions4 ,hundeshagen has the merit of having first clearly explained the basis of these methods1 and himself developed a formula1 of the correctness of which he was so convinced as to designate his method as 8the rational0 one4 ,two other formul were brought into the world by ,koenig 7#ahch-ahea71 but the credit of the most complete elaboration both of the principles of the normal forest idea and of its practical application belongs to ,carl ,heyer4 ,the principles of his method are briefly3 ,first determine upon the period of regulation during which the abnormal forest is to be brought nearer to normal conditions2 the length of this period to be determined with due regard to the financial requirements or ability of the owner and to the conditions of the forest4 ,the actual stock on hand is then determined and the total increment1 based on the average increment at felling age of each stand1 which will take place during this period1 is added4 ,deducting from this total what has been calculated as the proper normal stock requisite for a sustained yield management1 the balance is available for felling budgets which may be utilized in annual or periodic instalments during the period of regulation4 ,a working plan is provided which takes care of securing an orderly progress of fellings and proper location of age classes1 to be revised every ten years4 ,although this is undoubtedly the most rational method yet devised1 it has remained largely unused1 and is found in somewhat modified application only in ,austria and ,baden4 ,an entirely new principle in the theory of forest organization was introduced1 when the aim of forest management was formulated to be the highest soil rent4 ,according to this requirement the proper harvest time of any stand1 or even of any tree1 was to be determined by the so-called index per cent41 that is1 a calculation which determines whether a stand or a tree is still producing at a proper predetermined rate1 or is declining4 ,the advocates of this principle were especially ,pressler 7professor of mathematics at ,tharandt1 #ahdj to #ahdc7 and ,g4 ,heyer1 son of ,carl ,heyer1 who based his method on his father's formula1 merely introducing values for volumes4 ,judeich1 director of the ,tharandt school1 also developed in the sixties a method1 based upon financial theory1 which is to attain the highest rate per cent4 on the capital invested in forest production4 ,on the basis of survey and subdivision of working blocks composing a felling series1 and with a rotation determined by financial calculations with interest accounts1 he makes a periodic area division for determining the felling budget in general1 and in addition employs the index per cent41 as explained1 for determining in each allotted stand the more exact time for its harvest4 ,while these men pleaded for a strict finance calculation1 such as is properly applied to any business making financial results the main issue1 the defenders of the old regime1 which sought the object of forest management mainly in highest material or value production1 advanced as their financial program the attainment of the highest forest rent as opposed to the highest soil rent4 ,they neglected and derided the complicated interest calculations which have to take into consideration uncertain future developments1 and were satisfied with producing a satisfactory balance1 a surplus of income over expenses1 no matter what interest rate on the capital involved in soil and forest growth that might represent4 ,at the present time these financial propositions are still mainly under heated discussion4 ,in actual practice1 the various state forest administrations1 with the exception of the ,saxon one1 continue to rely upon the older methods in regulating the management of their forest properties without reference to financial theories4 ,this is largely due to momentum of the practical existence and application of these methods in earlier times and the difficulty and impracticability of a change4 ,just now1 however1 several of the ,state administrations are preparing to radically revise their working plans4 ,in ,prussia1 the instructions for working plans of #ahai formulated by ,hartig were improved upon by his successor1 ,oberlandforstmeister von ,reuss 7#ahcf71 and these instructions formed the basis of the work of forest regulation until the end of the #aith century4 ,it is a periodic area allotment with only a summary check by volume4 ,the working plan is only to secure a rational location and gradation of age classes2 the calculations of yields and specific rules of management are lately confined to the first period and are revised every six years4 ,in ,saxony1 ,cotta's area method was systematically developed1 and1 as the larger part of ,saxon forests is coniferous1 mainly spruce1 the proper location of age classes forms a special consideration for the progress of fellings4 ,the determination of volume and increment was left to summary estimates1 and the area division became entirely superior4 ,the original idea of ,cotta that orderly procedure in the management is of more importance than the actual determination and equalization of yield still pervades the ,saxon practice4 ,since #ahfj1 an attempt has been made to calculate the rotation and determine the felling budget on the principle of the soil rent1 at least as a corrective of the annual budget1 and in general to lean towards ,judeich's stand management4 ,in ,bavaria1 after various changes1 a complete allotment method of area and volume had come into vogue1 in #ahai2 but1 at the present writing 7#aiaa7 an entirely new and modern re-organization has been begun1 in which most modern ideas and especially much freedom of movement1 even to deviation from the principle of sustained yield1 is allowed4 ,in ,wrttemberg1 where1 in #ahah to #ahbb1 a pure volume allotment had been introduced1 in #ahfb to #ahfc the combined allotment method was begun1 the felling budget being determined in a general way for the next two or three periods1 and more precisely for the first decade1 without attempting more than approximate equality4 ,in #ahih1 new instructions were issued1 which abandon the allotment method and restrict the yield regulation to designating felling areas for the first period4 ,in ,baden1 where the forest organization began in #ahcf upon the basis of volume allotment1 a change was made in #ahdi to an area allotment1 simplifying to a greater extent than anywhere else the calculation of the yield2 finally1 ,heyer's method was adopted entirely in #ahfi4 ,it appears then that the schematic allotment methods found the most general application in the earlier time of the period1 being favored probably on account of their simplicity in application4 ,the improvement in their present application over the original methods as designed by ,hartig and ,cotta1 is that now they require no volume calculation for any long future1 but are satisfied with making a sufficiently accurate calculation and provision for the proper felling budget for the present4 #f4 ,forest ,administration4 ,about the middle of the #ahth century the recognition of the importance of forestry led to a severance of the forest and hunting interests1 and it became the practice to place the direction of the former into the hands of some more or less competent man--a state forester--usually under the fiscal branch or treasury department of the general administration4 ,fully organized forest administrations1 in the modern sense1 however1 could hardly be said to have existed before the end of the ,napoleonic wars 7#ahae7 which had undoubtedly retarded the peaceful development of this as well as of other reforms4 ,the present organization of the large ,prussian forest department in its present form dates from #ahbj1 when ,hartig instituted the division into provincial administrations1 and differentiated them into directive1 inspection and executive services4 ,the direction of the provincial management was placed in the hands of an ,oberforstmeister1 with the assistance of a number of ,forstmeister1 who acted mainly as inspectors1 each having his inspection district consisting of a number of ranges4 ,the ranges 7#ajj1jjj to #abe1jjj acres7 were placed in charge of ,oberfrster or ,revierfrster1 who with the assistance of several underforesters 7,frster7 conducted the practical work4 ,at first only indifferently educated1 these latter were allowed little latitude1 but with improvement in their education they became by degrees more and more independent agents4 ,this tri-partite system of directing1 inspecting and executive officers1 after various changes in titles and functions1 finally became practically established in all the larger ,german states2 in some rather lately1 as for instance1 in ,bavaria1 not until #ahhe1 and in ,wrttemberg in #ahhg4 ,with this more stable organization1 the character and the status of the personnel changed greatly3 the prior right of the nobility to the higher positions1 which had lasted in some ,states until #ahdh1 and the practice of making connection with military service a basis for appointment were abolished1 and1 instead of ,cameralists1 educated foresters came everywhere to the head of affairs4 ,the lower service1 which had been recruited from hunters and lackeys1 and which was noted for its low social1 moral and pecuniary status1 was improved in all directions4 ,the change from incidentals in the way of fees1 and natural instead of money emolument for the lower grade foresters1 7which had been the rule1 and still play a role even to date71 to definite salaries1 and the salutary change of methods in transacting business1 which ,hartig introduced1 became general4 ,with the development and improvement of forestry schools1 the requirement of a higher technical education for positions in ,state service could be enforced4 ,yet only within the last twenty-five or thirty years1 has the ranking position of forest officers been made adequate and equalized with that of other public officials of equal responsibility1 and still later have their salaries been made adequate to modern requirement4 ,the central administration now lies in the hands of technical men 7,oberlandforstmeister7 with a council of technical deputies 7,landforstmeister7 all of whom have passed through all the stages of employment from that of district managers up4 ,this central office or 8division of forestry0 is either attached to the department of agriculture1 or to that of finance1 and has entire charge of the questions of personnel1 direction of forest schools1 of the forest policy of the administration1 and the approval of all working plans1 acting in all things pertaining to the forest service as a court of last resort4 ,the working plans are made and revised by special commissioners in each case1 or1 as in ,saxony1 under the direction of a special bureau1 with the assistance of the district manager4 ,upon the basis of the general working plan prepared by these commissions1 an annual plan is elaborated by the district managers with consultation and approval of the provincial and central administration4 ,these plans contain a detailed statement of all the work to be done through the year1 the cost of each item1 and the receipts expected from each source4 ,this annual working plan requires approval by the provincial administration1 which is constituted as a deliberative council1 consisting of a number of ,forstmeister with an ,oberforstmeister as presiding officer4 ,the titles of these officers1 to be sure1 and the details of procedure vary somewhat in different states1 but the system as a whole is more or less alike4 ,the district manager or ,oberfrster1 now often called ,forstmeister1 has grown in importance and freedom of position1 although his district has grown smaller 7mostly not over #be1jjj acres71 and1 being one of the best educated men in the country district1 he usually holds the highest social position1 although his emoluments are still moderate4 ,he holds many offices of an honorary character1 as for instance that of justice of the peace1 and the position of states' attorney or public prosecutor in all cases of infraction of the forest laws4 ,these forest laws are still largely local1 i4e41 ,state laws1 although the criminal code of the empire has somewhat unified practice4 ,curiously enough1 wood on the stump is still not considered property in the same sense as other things1 so far as theft is concerned2 the stealing of growing timber is not even called theft1 the word used in the laws being ,frevel 7tort71 and1 like other infractions against forest laws1 it is punished by a money fine1 more or less in proportion to the value of the stolen material or the damage suffered4 ,this money fine may be transmuted into imprisonment or forest labor1 but corporal punishment1 which still prevailed in the first decades of the century1 has been abolished4 ,wood stealing was very general and rampant during the beginning of the century1 but improvement in the condition of the country population and in the number and personnel of the forest officers since #ahej has now reduced it to a minimum4 ,formerly1 and until #ahdh1 the administrators and even the forest owners acted at the same time as prosecutor1 judge and executioner1 and only in #ahgi1 was this condition everywhere and entirely changed1 and infractions against forest laws adjudged by regular courts of law1 holding meetings at stated times for the prosecution of such infractions4 ,nevertheless1 the court proceedings in forest matters still vary from the usual court practice1 providing a simpler1 cheaper and more ready disposal of testimony and witnesses1 and quicker retribution1 which is largely rendered possible through having every forest officer under oath as a sheriff1 and his statement1 and perhaps the confiscated tools employed in the theft1 being accepted as prima facie evidence of the infraction4 ,the social position of the underforesters and the forest protective service has also been improved until all charges of incompetency and immorality1 which were not undeserved even until past the middle of the nineteenth century1 have become reversed2 the forest service being morally on as high a plane as all the departments of ,german administrations4 #g4 ,forest ,policy4 ,during the first half of the century the old conception of ,forsthoheit--superior right of the princes to supervise and interfere with private property--changed into the more modern conception of the police function of the state1 and1 by #ahej1 after the revolutionary period1 the seignorage of the princes had passed away4 ,the issue of forest ordinances 7the last in #ahdj7 was replaced by the enactment of forest laws which1 since the establishment of representative government1 has become a function of legislatures4 ,the tendency to restrict the exercise of private property rights had been assailed by the theories of ,laissez faire and the teachings of ,adam ,smith1 and1 as a consequence1 all the restrictive mandates of the older forest ordinances had been weakened and had more of less fallen into disuse4 ,especially the attempts to influence prices and markets had nearly if not entirely vanished during the first decade4 ,only for the state forest1 it was still thought desirable to predetermine wood prices1 or at least keep rates low1 because wood was a necessary material for the industries4 ,this theory prevailed until1 perhaps under the lead of ,hundeshagen 7see above71 the propriety of securing the highest soil rent was recognized as the proper aim1 when the practice of selling wood at auction in order to secure the best prices became the rule4 ,the regulations regarding export and import between the different ,states1 which had been enacted under the mercantilistic teachings of the last century 7see page #eb71 and the many tariffs which impeded a free exchange of commodities1 lasted for a long while into the #aith century1 and were not all abolished until #ahfe1 when under the lead of ,prussia1 the ,north ,german ,federation instituted the ,zollverein 7,tariff alliance7 which abolished not only all tariffs between the ,states of the ,federation1 but also tariffs on wood products against the outside world4 ,import duties were1 however1 again established in #ahgi1 and the policy of protecting the established organized forest management against competition by importations from exploiting countries has been again and again recognized as proper in the revision of tariff rates and railroad freight rates on the government railroads4 ,during the first decades of the century1 the supply question was uppermost1 and although such men as ,pfeil 7#ahaf7 laughed at the idea of a wood famine1 there was good reason1 prior to the development of railroads1 of coal fields1 of iron and steel manufactures1 etc41 for discussing with apprehension the area and condition of supply and the extent of the consumption4 ,nevertheless1 the attitude of the state toward private property was much more influenced by the economic theories then prevalent1 which taught the ideas of private liberty to which the ,french ,revolution had given such forcible expression4 ,with the change of municipal communities from mere associations with common material interest into units or parts of political or state machines1 also independence in the management of their property was secured1 and many of the old restrictions which had circumscribed this right fell away4 ,curiously enough1 during the ,french domination under ,napoleon1 the new masters1 forgetting the spirit of the revolutionary period1 introduced the prescriptions of the old ,french ordinance of #affi which restricted the use of communal property to the extent of excluding the owners entirely from the management of their property1 and placed it under government officers4 ,after the ,french withdrew1 this method1 of course1 collapsed1 although it probably had an influence on the final shaping of forest policies in these respects4 ,altogether1 there was such variety of historic development in the different parts of ,germany that it is not to be wondered at that one finds a great variety of policies still prevailing not only in different ,states but in different localities of the same ,state4 ,at the present time three different principles in the relations of the state to the corporation forests may be recognized1 namely1 entire freedom1 excepting so far as general police laws apply1 which is the case with most of the corporation forests in ,prussia 7law of #ahgf72 special supervision of the technical management under approved officials with proper education1 which is the case in ,saxony1 most of ,bavaria1 the ,prussian provinces of ,westphalia1 ,rhineland and ,saxony1 and in some of the smaller states2 or lastly1 the absolute administration by the state1 which prevails in ,baden1 parts of ,bavaria1 provinces ,hesse-,nassau1 and ,hanover4 ,the tendency1 however1 in modern times appears to be toward a more strict interpretation of the obligation of the state to prevent mismanagement of the communal property4 ,private forest property1 which during the preceding century had been largely under restrictions1 first under the application of the hunting right1 and then under the fear of a wood famine1 became in the first decades of the century under the influences already mentioned1 almost entirely free1 all former policies being reversed2 indeed ,prussia1 in #ahaa1 issued an edict insuring absolutely unrestricted rights to forest owners1 permitting partition and conversion of forest properties1 and even denying in such cases the right of interference on the part of possessors of rights of user4 ,this policy of freedom was also applied1 although less radically1 in ,bavaria1 except as to smaller owners4 ,the result was1 to a large extent1 the increase of exploitation and forest devastation1 creating wastes and setting shifting sand and sanddunes in motion4 ,the reaction1 which set in against this unrestricted use of forest property1 resulted in ,prussia not in renewal of restrictive measures1 but in the enactment of promotive ones4 ,the law of #ahge sought improvement by encouraging small owners to unite their properties under one management2 but the expectations which were founded on this ameliorative policy seem so far not to have been realized4 ,this promotive policy has especially since #ahii found expression in the institution in many provinces of information bureaus1 which give technical advice1 make working plans1 secure plant material and give other assistance to woodland owners4 ,a new relation1 however1 of a conservative character arose by the establishment of the entail1 i4e41 a contract made by the head of the family with the government under which the latter assumes the obligation of forever preventing the heirs from disposing of1 diminishing1 or mismanaging their property4 ,as a result of this arrangement1 many of the larger private forest properties are forced to a conservative management1 not as a direct influence of the law1 but as a matter of agreement4 ,the condition of state supervision of private and communal forest property at present prevailing is expressed in the following statement of divisions by property classes of forest areas of ,germany1 which shows that at least #fc4i are under conservative management3 ,total ,forest #cd1gfi1gid acres4 ,crown forest #a4h ,state forest #ca4i ,corporation forest #af4a ,institute forest #a4e ,association forest #b4b ,private forest 7#aj4d entail7 #df4e ,until the beginning of the present century1 the protective function of the forest had played no role in the arguments for state interference1 but just about the beginning of the century cries were heard from ,france that1 owing to the reckless devastation of the ,vosges and ,jura ,alps by cutting1 by fires and over-grazing1 brooks had become torrents1 and the valleys were inundated and covered by the debris and silt of the torrents4 ,a new aspect of the results of forest devastation began to be recognized1 which found excellent expression in a memoir by ,moreau de ,jonns 7,brussels1 #ahbe71 on the question 8,what changes does denudation effect on the physical condition of the country40 ,this being translated into ,german by ,wiedenmann1 was widely spread1 being interestingly written1 although not well founded on facts of natural history and physical laws4 ,nevertheless1 sufficient experience as regards the effect of denudation in mountainous countries had also accumulated in southwest ,germany and in the ,austrian ,alps1 and the necessity of protective legislation was recognized4 ,this necessity first found practical expression in the ,bavarian law of #aheb1 in ,prussia in #ahge1 and in ,wrttemberg in #ahgi4 ,but a really proper basis for formulating a policy or argument for protective legislation outside of the mountainous country is still absent1 although for a number of years attempts have been made to secure such basis4 #h4 ,forestry ,science and ,literature4#e #e ,the necessarily brief statements which are made under this heading presuppose knowledge of the technical details to which they refer4 ,in this short history it was possible only to sketch rapidly the development of the science in terms familiar to the professional man4 ,the habit of writing encyclopdic volumes1 which the ,cameralists and learned hunters had inaugurated in the preceding century1 continued into the new one1 and we find ,hartig1 ,cotta1 ,pfeil and ,hundeshagen each writing such encyclopdias4 ,carl ,heyer began one in separate volumes1 but completed only two of them4 ,even an encyclopdic work in monographs by several authors was undertaken as early as #ahai by ,j4 ,m4 ,bechstein1 who with his successors brought out fourteen volumes1 covering the ground pretty fully4 ,while in the earlier stages the meager amount of knowledge made it possible to compress the whole into small compass1 the more modern encyclopdias of ,lorey1 ,frst and ,dombrowski arose from the opposite consideration1 namely1 the need of giving a comprehensive survey of the large mass of accumulated knowledge4 ,since #ahbj1 monographic writings1 however1 became more and more the practice4 ,among the volumes which treat certain branches of forestry monographically1 the works of the masters of silviculture1 ,cotta1 ,hartig and ,heyer1 based on their experiences in west and middle ,germany1 and of ,pfeil1 referring more particularly to ,north ,german conditions1 were followed by the ,south ,german writers1 ,gwinner 7#ahcd71 and ,stumpf 7#ahdi74 ,in #ahee1 ,h4 ,burkhardt introduced in his classic ,sen und ,pflanzen a new method of treatment1 namely1 by species1 and after #ahej1 when the development of general silviculture had been accomplished1 such treatment by species became frequent4 ,of more modern works on general silviculture elaborating the attempts at reform of old practices those of ,gayer 7#ahhj71 ,wagener 7#ahhd71 ,borggreve 7#ahhe71 ,ney 7#ahhe71 all writing in the same decade1 are to be especially mentioned4 ,in this connection should be also noticed ,frst's valuable collective work on nursery practice 7,pflanzenzucht im ,walde1 #ahhb74 ,at present the magazine literature furnishes ample opportunity to discuss the development of methods in all directions4 ,the text books at present appearing seem to be justified by or intended mainly for the needs of the teacher and rarely for the practitioner4 ,such a text book is that by ,weise4 ,but the latest contributions to silvicultural literature by ,wagner 7#aijg71 and ,mayr 7#aiji7 are works of a new order1 utilizing broader ecological knowledge4 ,other branches than silviculture were similarly first treated in comprehensive volumes and then in monographic writings on special subjects of the branch4 ,the literature on forest utilization covering the whole field1 was enriched especially by ,pfeil1 ,koenig1 ,gayer1 and ,frst4 ,the first investigation into the physical and technical properties of wood was conducted by ,g4 ,l4 ,hartig himself1 followed by ,theodor ,hartig1 and the subject has been most broadly treated by ,h4 ,noerdlinger 7#ahfj74 ,in later years1 ,schwappach's investigations deserve special mention4 ,the question of means of transportation gradually became also a subject capable of monographic treatment and a series of books came out on locating and building forest roads4 ,braun issued such a book in #ahee for the plains country1 and ,kaiser 7#ahgc7 for the mountains1 also ,mhlhausen 7#ahgf71 who had been commissioned to locate a perfect road system over the demonstration forest at the forest academy of ,muenden4 ,only within the last quarter of the century were railroads introduced into the economy of forest management4 ,the first comprehensive book on the subject of logging railroads was issued by ,foerster 7#ahhe71 and a later one by ,runnebaum4 ,stoetzer 7#aijc7 furnished in his compact style the latest discussion on the subject of roads and railroads4 ,a very comprehensive literature on the value of forest litter was brought into existence by the established usage of small farmers of supplying their lack of straw for bedding and manure by substituting the litter raked from the forest4 ,hartig and ,hundeshagen were active in the discussion of this subject as well as almost every other forester1 the discussion being1 however1 mainly based on opinions4 ,but1 after #ahfj1 the subject became so important both to the poor farming population and to the forest1 which was being robbed of its natural fertilizer1 that a more definite basis for regulating its use was established by analysis and by experiments at the experimental stations4 ,with the inauguration of the various methods of forest organization described before1 there naturally went hand in hand the development of methods of measurement4 ,better forest surveys developed rapidly1 the transit generally replacing the compass and plane table4 ,at this period the necessity for books teaching the important methods of land survey was met by ,baur 7#aheh7 and by ,krafft 7#ahfe74 ,this subject does no longer occupy a place in forestry literature1 the knowledge of it being taken for granted4 ,on the other hand the subject of forest mensuration which formerly was generally treated in connection with forest organization has developed into a branch by itself1 and has been very considerably developed in its methods and instruments1 making a tolerably accurate measurement of forest growth possible1 although many unsolved problems are still under investigation4 ,still1 late into the century it was customary to measure only circumferences of trees1 by means of a chain or band1 although an instrument for measuring diameters is mentioned by ,cotta1 in #ahjd1 and by ,hartig1 in #ahjh4 ,schner and ,richter are in #ahac mentioned as inventors of the first 8universal forest measure0 or caliper4 ,the improvement of calipers to their modern efficiency has been carried on since #ahdj by ,carl and ,gustav ,heyer and by many others until now self-recording calipers by 7,reuss1 ,wimmenauer1 etc47 have become practical instruments4 ,for measuring the heights of trees1 ,hossfeld had already a satisfactory instrument in #ahjj2 a very large number of improvements in great variety followed1 with ,faustmann's mirror hypsometer probably in the lead4 ,as a special development for measuring diameters at varying heights ,pressler's instrument should be mentioned1 and a very complicated but extremely accurate one constructed by ,breymann4 ,various formulas for the computation of the contents of felled trees had already been developed by ,oettelt and others in the eighteenth century and a formula by ,huber1 using the average area multiplied by length was definitely introduced in the ,prussian practice in #ahag4 ,the names of ,smalian1 ,hossfeld1 ,pressler and others are connected with improvements in these directions4 ,the idea of form factors and their use was first developed by ,huber1 who made three tree classes according to the length of crowns1 measured the diameters six feet above ground1 and used reduction factors of 4#ge1 4#ff1 4#ej for the three classes4 ,but the first formula for determining form factors is credited to ,hossfeld 7#ahab74 ,hundeshagen and ,koenig also occupied themselves with elaborating form factors4 ,smalian 7#ahcg7 introduced the conception of the normal or true form factor relating it to the area at one-twentieth of the height4 ,an entirely new idea has lately been introduced by ,schiffel1 an ,austrian ,german1 under the name of form quotient1 placing two measured diameters in relation4 ,volume tables giving the volumes of trees of varying diameters and height were already in use to some extent in the #ahth century2 ,cotta gives such for beech in #ahjd1 and1 in #ahag1 furnished a new set of so-called normal tables which were1 however1 based upon the assumption of a conical form of the tree4 ,koenig perfected volume tables by introducing further classification into five growth classes 7#ahac71 published volume tables for beech and other species1 and1 in #ahdj1 published volume tables not for single trees but for entire stands per acre classified by species1 height and density2 using the so-called space number which he had developed in #ahce to denote the density4 ,it is interesting to note that these tables1 which he called ,allgemeine ,waldschtzungstafeln1 were made for the ,imperial ,russian ,society for the ,advancement of ,forestry4 ,in #ahdj and succeeding years1 the ,bavarian government issued a comprehensive series of measurements and a large number of form factors1 which were used in constructing volume tables2 these were found to be so well made and so generally applicable that they were used in all parts of ,germany and1 translated into meter measurement by ,behm 7#ahgb71 are still generally in use1 although new ones based upon further measurements have been furnished by ,lorey and ,kuntze4 ,for arriving at the volume of stands1 estimating was relied upon long into the nineteenth century1 although ,hossfeld1 in #ahab1 introduced measuring1 and the use of the formula ,,ahf1 in which ,a was the measured total cross-section area of the stand1 ,h and ,f the height and form factors1 the latter being at that time still estimated4 ,he first made form classes for the same heights1 but1 in #ahbc1 simplified the method by assuming an average form factor for the whole stand4 ,even in #ahcj1 ,knig still estimated the form factor1 although he introduced the measurement of the cross-section area and determined the height indirectly as an average of measurements of several height classes1 but ,huber 7#ahbd7 knew how to measure both the average height and form factor by means of an arithmetic sample tree4 ,this method found entrance into the practice and held sway until about #ahfj1 when the well-known improvements by ,draudt and ,urich supplanted it4 ,these last mentioned methods have become generally used in the practice1 while other methods1 like ,r4 ,hartig's and ,pressler's1 have remained mainly theoretical4 ,the study of the increment and the making of yield tables which had been inaugurated toward the end of the last century1 by ,oettelt1 ,paulsen1 ,hartig1 and others1 was just at the end of that century placed upon a new basis through ,spth 7#agig71 who constructed the first growth curves by plotting the cubic contents of trees of different ages1 and through ,seutter 7#agii7 by introducing stem analysis1 on which he based his yield tables4 ,on the shoulders of these1 ,hossfeld 7#ahbc7 built1 when he conceived the idea of using sample plots for continued observation of the progress of increment1 and he also taught the method of interpolation with limited measurements1 laying the basis for quite elaborate formul4 ,but the first normal yield tables1 based on the average trees of an index stand1 were published by ,huber 7#ahbd7 and1 in the same year1 by ,hundeshagen4 ,from that time on1 yield tables were constructed by many others1 but only since the ,experiment stations undertook to direct their construction is the hope justified of securing this most invaluable tool of forest management in reliable and sufficiently detailed form4 ,even the newest tables are1 however1 still deficient1 especially in the direction of detailed information regarding the division into assortments4 ,the yield tables of ,baur1 ,kuntze1 ,weise1 ,lorey1 and others are now superseded by those of ,schwappach for pine and spruce1 and of ,schuberg for fir4 ,as a result of the many yield tables which gradually accumulated1 the laws of growth in general became more and more cleared up and finally permitted their formulation as undertaken by ,r4 ,weber 7,forsteinrichtung1 #ahia74 ,the idea of using the percentic relations for stating the increment1 and of estimating the future growth upon the basis of past performance for single trees was known even to ,hartig 7#agie7 and ,cotta 7#ahjd7 who published increment per cent4 tables4 ,the methods of making the measurements of increment on standing trees were especially elaborated by ,koenig1 ,karl1 ,edward and ,gustav ,heyer1 ,schneider 7his formula1 #ahec71 ,jaeger1 ,borggreve1 and especially by ,pressler 7#ahfj7 who opened new points of view and increased the means of studying increment by causing the construction of the well-known increment borer1 and in other ways4 ,the most modern text-book which treats fully of all modern methods of forest mensuration giving also their history is that of ,udo ,mller 7,lehrbuch der ,holzmesskunde1 #ahii71 superseding such other good ones1 as those of ,baur 7#ahfj-ahhb71 ,kuntze 7#ahgc71 ,schwappach 7short handbook1 last edition #aijc74 99 99 99 99 99 ,the many sales of forest property which took place at the beginning of this period naturally stimulated the elaboration of methods of forest valuation4 ,even the soil rent theory finds its basis at the very beginning 7#agii7 in a published letter by two otherwise unknown foresters 7,bein and ,eyber71 who proposed to determine the value of a forest by discounting the value of the net yield with a limited compound interest calculation to the #abjth year4 ,this idea was elaborated1 in #ahje1 by ,nrdlinger and ,hossfeld into the modern conception of expectancy values1 and the now familiar discount calculations were inaugurated by them4 ,cotta and ,hartig participated also in the elaboration of methods of forest valuation2 ,cotta writing his manual in #ahjd1 recognizes the propriety of compound interest calculations1 while ,hartig1 #ahab1 still uses only simple interest1 and exhibits in his book as well as in his instructions for practice in the ,prussian state forests rather mixed notions on the subject4 ,altogether1 even in the earlier part of the period1 there arose considerable difference of opinion and warm discussions1 in which all the prominent foresters took part1 as to the use of interest rates and methods of calculation4 ,but this warfare broke into a red hot flame when ,faustmann 7#ahdi7 with much mathematical apparatus developed his formula for the soil expectancy value1 and when ,pressler and ,g4 ,heyer transferred the discussion into statical fields1 making the question of the financial rotation the issue4 ,then the advocates of the soil rent and of the forest rent theories ranged themselves in opposite camps4 ,this war of opinions1 although abated in fervor1 still continues1 and the issue is by no means settled4 ,the discussion of what should be considered the proper felling age or rotation naturally occupied the minds of foresters from early times2 a maximum volume production being originally the main aim4 ,as early as #agii1 ,seutter had recognized the fact that the culmination of volume production had been obtained when the average accretion had culminated4 ,hartig1 in #ahjh1 made the distinction of a physical1 an economic and a mercantilistic1 i4e41 financial felling age1 and ,pfeil1 considerably ahead of his time1 is the first to call 7#ahbj7 for a rotation based on maximum soil rent4 ,as1 however1 he had so often done1 he changed his mind1 and while he first advocated even for the state a management for the highest interest on the soil capital involved1 he later rejected such money management4 ,about the same time ,hundeshagen clearly pointed out the propriety and proper method of basing the rotation on profit calculations1 but it was reserved for a man not a forester to stir up the modern strife for the proper financial basis1 namely ,pressler1 a professor of mathematics at ,tharandt1 who became a sharp critic of existing forest management1 and developed to the extreme the net yield theories4 ,it was then that the danger of a shortening of the existing rotations1 due to the apparent truth that long rotations were unprofitable1 called for a division into the two camps alluded to2 ,g4 ,heyer1 ,judeich and ,lehr1 elaborated especially the mathematical methods of the soil rent theory1 ,krafft and ,wagener came to the assistance of ,pressler1 while ,burkhardt1 ,bose1 ,baur1 ,borggreve1 ,dankelmann1 ,fischbach and others1 pleaded for a different policy for the state at least1 namely1 the forest rent with the established rotations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as in the previous period1 the mathematical subjects1 namely1 forest measurement and forest valuation1 were more systematically developed than the natural history basis of forestry practice2 the slower progress of the latter being caused by the greater difficulties of studying natural history and of utilizing direct observation4 ,in botanical direction1 descriptive forest botany was first developed1 and several good books were published by ,walther1 ,borkhausen1 ,bechstein1 ,reum1 the latter 7#ahad71 of high value1 and also by ,behlen1 ,gwinner and ,hartig4 ,in the direction of plant physiology1 ,cotta1 early and creditably1 attempted 7#ahjf7 to explain the movement and function of sap1 but remained unnoticed4 ,mayer's 7#ahje-ahjh7 essay on the influence of the natural forces on the growth and nutrition of trees1 contains interesting physiological explanations for advanced silvicultural practice4 ,but these sporadic attempts to secure a biological basis were soon forgotten4 ,not until ,theodor ,hartig 7#ahdh7 published his ,anatomy and ,physiology of ,woody ,plants was the necessity for exact investigation of forest biology as a basis for silvicultural practice fully recognized4 ,with the development of general biological botany or ecology1 a new era for silviculture seems to have arrived4 ,perhaps in this connection there should be mentioned as one of the earlier important contributions of much moment1 ,g4 ,heyer's ,verhalten der ,bume gegen ,licht und ,schatten 7#ahef7 in which the theory of influence of light and shade on forest development was elaborated4 ,among those who placed the study of pathology of forest trees on a scientific basis should be mentioned first ,willkomm 7#ahgf71 followed by ,r4 ,hartig4 ,in zology1 the early writers began with a description of the biology of game animals4 ,next1 interest in forest insects became natural1 and1 in #ahah1 ,bechstein in his ,encyclopdia devoted one volume 7by ,scharfenberg7 to the natural history of obnoxious forest insects4 ,toward the middle of the century1 with the planting of large areas with single species1 insect pests increased1 hence the interest in the life histories of the pests grew and gave rise to the celebrated work by ,ratzeburg1 8,die ,waldbverderber und ,ihre ,feinde0 7#ahda74 ,a number of similar hand-books on insects and on other zological subjects followed2 the latest1 a most complete work on insects1 being still based on ,ratzeburg's work1 is that of ,judeich and ,nitzsche1 in two volumes 7#ahie74 ,of course1 the general works on forest protection always included chapters on forest entomology4 ,the first of these text-books on forest protection was published by ,laurop 7#ahaa71 and others by ,bechstein1 ,pfeil1 ,kauschinger and recently by ,hess 7#ahif71 and ,frst 7#ahhi74 99 99 99 99 99 ,knowledge of the soil was but poorly developed in the encyclopdic works of the earlier part of the period4 ,not till ,liebig's epochmaking investigations was a scientific basis secured for the subject4 ,then became possible the improvements in the contents of such works as ,grebe 7#ahhf71 ,senft 7#ahhh71 and of ,gustav ,heyer1 whose volume 7,lehrbuch der ,forstlichen ,bodenkunde und ,klimatologie1 #ahef71 well records the state of knowledge at that time4 ,but only since then has this field been worked with more scientific thoroughness by ,ebermayer1 ,schrder1 ,weber1 ,wollny1 and by ,ramann1 whose volume on ,bodenkunde 7#ahic7 may be still considered the standard of the present day 7newest edition1 #aiaj74 ,the question of the climatic significance of forests is one which first became recognized as capable of solution by scientific means when the movement for forest experiment stations began to take shape and the systematic collecting of observed data was attempted4 ,most of the problems are still unsolved4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with the aspects of political economy in reference to forest policy the foresters had occupied themselves but little1 leaving the shaping of public opinion to the ,cameralists1 whose influence lasted long into the century4 ,these produced a good deal of literature in the early years of the century when the question of retaining or selling state forests was under discussion1 and1 under the influence of the teachings of ,adam ,smith1 their opinion was mostly favorably to sale4 ,only gradually was the propriety of state forests recognized by them1 till finally the leading economists1 ,rau1 ,roscher and ,wagner1 took a decided stand in favor of this view4 ,the foresters naturally were for retention of the existing ,state properties1 but one-sided mercantilistic views regarding their administration persisted with them till modern times4 ,wedekind1 as early as #ahba1 advocated the theory which is now becoming a practice1 that the state should not only retain1 but increase its present forest property by purchase of all absolute forest soil for the purpose of reforestation4 ,the erratic and radical ,pfeil alone was found with the ,cameralists on the opposite side in #ahaf1 but1 by #ahcd1 he had entirely gone over to the side of the advocates of state forest1 declaring anyone who opposed them fit for the lunatic asylum4 ,division of opinions existed also regarding the supervision by the state of private and communal forests4 ,the political economists were inclined to reduce1 the foresters to increase supervision1 excepting again ,pfeil in his earlier writings3 he modified his views later by recognizing supervision as a necessary evil4 ,cotta1 who was inclined to favor free use of forest property sought to meet the objections to such free use by increasing the state property4 ,the main incentive urged by the earlier advocates of state supervision was the fear of a timber famine4 ,this argument vanished1 however1 with the development of railroads1 and was then supplanted by the argument of the protective functions of the forest1 a classification into supply forests and protective forests suggesting differences of treatment4 ,nevertheless1 the belief that absolute freedom of property rights in the forest is not in harmony with good political economy--a belief correct because of the long time element involved--still largely prevails4 ,the difficulty1 however1 of supervising private ownership1 and the advantages of state ownership find definite expression in the policy which ,prussia especially is now following1 in acquiring gradually the mismanaged private woodlands and impoverished farm areas for reforestation1 making annual appropriations to this end4 ,many other states also are beginning to see the propriety of this movement4 ,on the whole the systematic study of the economics of forestry has been rather neglected by foresters1 although the subject was discussed by early writers1 ,meyer1 ,laurop1 ,pfeil1 and in modern times by ,r4 ,weber1 ,lehr and ,schwappach 78,forstpolitik10 #ahid74 ,the latest comprehensive volume on this subject comes from ,endres 7#aije74 #i4 ,means of ,advancing ,forestry ,science4 ,during the century1 the means of increasing knowledge in forestry matters have grown in all directions2 schools1 associations1 journals and prolific literature attesting the complete establishment of the profession and practice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the master schools which began to take shape at the end of the last century1 and a number of which were found in the beginning of the century as private institutions1 were usually either of short duration or were changed into state institutions3 they became either 8middle schools0 for the lower service1 or else academies4 ,for the higher education1 the chairs of forestry at the universities continued to do service1 as at ,heidelberg1 ,giessen1 ,leipzig1 ,berlin1 etc41 but1 as these were mostly occupied by ,cameralists 7although ,hartig in #ahaa filled a chair at ,berlin71 and were intended for the benefit of such rather than of professional foresters1 the education of the latter was somewhat neglected4 ,most of the existing institutions had their beginnings in private schools4 ,both these and the state schools passed through many changes4 ,the first high class forest academy was established at ,berlin directly by the ,state1 in #ahba1 in connection with the university4 ,here1 ,pfeil was the only professor of forestry subjects1 the other subjects being taught by other university professors4 ,the fact that in the absence of railroads a demonstration forest was not easily accessible1 and perhaps the friction between ,pfeil and ,hartig brought about a transfer to ,neustadt-,eberswalde1 in #ahcj1 with two professors till #ahea1 when a third professor was added 7now #af with #h assistants674 ,at the same time the lectures at ,berlin were continued by ,hartig1 until #ahcg4 ,in ,saxony1 ,cotta's private school became a state institution in #ahaf1 the forest academy of ,tharandt1 with six teachers 7now #ac71 and later1 in #ahcj1 an agricultural school was added to it4 ,in ,bavaria1 a private school was begun in #ahjg at ,aschaffenburg4 ,it was made a state institution1 divided into a higher and lower school1 in #ahai1 but was closed in #ahcb on account of interior troubles and inefficiency4 ,it was re-opened and re-organized in #ahdd with four teachers1 and was intended to prepare for the lower grades of the service4 ,meanwhile the lectures at the ,university of ,munich1 supplementing this lower school1 were to serve for the education of the higher grades4 ,a reorganization took place in #ahgh1 when a special faculty for forestry was established at ,munich1 with ,gustav ,heyer as head professor4 ,this was done after much discussion1 which is still going on throughout the empire1 as to the question whether education in forestry was best obtained at a university or at a special academy4 ,the present tendency is toward the former solution of the question since railroad development has removed the main objection1 namely1 the difficulty of reaching a demonstration forest4 ,nevertheless1 ,prussia retains its two forest academies ,eberswalde and ,mnden 7since #ahfh7 for the education of its forest officials1 the other state academies being at ,tharandt and ,eisenach1 while chairs of forestry are found at the universities of ,tbingen 7since #ahag71 ,giessen 7since #ahca71 and ,munich1 and for ,baden at the polytechnicum in ,karlsruhe 7#ahcb74 ,for the lower grades of forest officials there are also schools established by the various governments 7#c in ,prussia1 #e in ,bavaria74 ,in #aiaj1 the school at ,aschaffenburg was discontinued and the entire education of foresters for ,bavaria left to the ,university4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although as early as #ahbj1 ,hundeshagen had insisted upon the necessity of exact investigation to form a basis for improved forest management and especially for forest statics1 and1 although1 in #ahdh1 ,carl ,heyer elaborated the first instruction for such investigations which he expected to carry on with the aid of practitioners1 the apathy of the latter and the troublesome times prior to #ahej retarded this powerful means of advancing forestry4 ,during the decade from #ahfj to #ahgj1 however1 the movement for the formation of experiment stations took shape1 the first set being instituted in ,saxony1 #ahfb1 by establishing nine stations for the purpose of securing forest meteorological data2 the next in ,prussia1 in #ahfe1 to solve the problems of the removal of litter2 and in ,bavaria 7#ahff71 also for the study of forest meteorology 7,ebermayer71 and of the problem of thinnings4 ,but not until ,baur1 #ahfh1 had pointed out more elaborately the necessity of systematic investigations1 and a plan for such had been elaborated by a committee instituted by the ,german ,foresters ,association was a system of experimentation as organized in modern times secured 7#ahgb74 ,the various states established independently such experiment stations1 but at the same time a voluntary association of these stations was formed for the purpose of co-ordinating and planning the work to be done4 99 99 99 99 99 ,forestry associations instituted merely for the purpose of propaganda1 were apparently not organized4 ,the first association of professional foresters appears to have been formed as the result of ,bechstein's conception1 who proposed in connection with his school 7#agie at ,gotha1 #ahjj at ,dreissigacker7 the formation of an academy of noted foresters4 ,as a result1 the ,societt der ,forst- und ,jagdkunde was formed1 in which all the noted foresters joined with much enthusiasm1 and1 in #ahja1 a membership of #ha regular and #fa honorary members was attained4 ,at the same time the official organ ,diana was founded 7#agig71 in which the essays of the members were to be printed2 after having passed four censors4 ,two sessions were to be held annually4 ,this much too elaborate plan for the then rather undeveloped education and deficient means of transportation defeated to some extent the great object4 ,by #ahab1 it was thought necessary to divide the academy at least into a northern and southern section1 and for the latter an additional journal1 edited by ,laurop1 was instituted4 ,the interest1 however1 decreased continually1 and by #ahdc1 at ,bechstein's death1 the academy was abandoned4 ,at the same time1 there had sprung up a number of local associations in the modern sense4 ,the first1 in #ahbj1 composed of the foresters and agriculturists of ,nassau2 the next1 in #ahci1 of the foresters of ,baden1 and1 by #ahfj1 nine such local societies of foresters were in existence1 and they have since increased rapidly until now some thirty may be counted4 ,the desire to bring these local associations into relation to each other led to the first ,forestry ,congress in #ahcg 7,congress der ,land und ,forstwirthe71 meeting at ,dresden4 ,at that time1 and in the congresses following1 the agriculturists played a leading part1 so that1 in #ahci1 the ,south ,german foresters separated1 and peripatetic congresses were held every one or two years4 ,in #ahfi1 a general organization was determined upon1 and1 in #ahgb1 the first general ,german ,congress of ,foresters met1 holding yearly meetings thereafter4 ,a rival association having been organized in #ahig1 two years later an amalgamation of the two was effected in the ,deutscher ,forstverein 7now over #bjjj members74 ,the most striking feature of this forceful means of advancing forestry is the institution of the ,forstwirtschaftsrat 7#ahij71 a permanent committee of about #ej members1 which is to look after the political and economic interests of forestry1 forming a semi-official national council4 ,there also exists an international association of forest experiment stations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the magazine literature1 the ,cameralists dominated until the eighteenth century4 ,the first journal edited by a forester was ,reitter's 8,journal fr ,forst- und ,jagdwesen0 which ran from #agij to #agig4 ,during the first part of the century many others were started1 especially after #ahbj1 usually failing soon for lack of support4 ,hartig himself participated in this literature with five volumes 7until #ahjg7 of the ,journal des ,forst-1 ,jagd- und ,fischereiwesens and later 7#ahaf to #ahbj7 with the semi-official journal ,forst- und ,jagdarchiv4 ,pfeil's ,kritische ,bltter were continued by him from #ahbc to #ahei1 when ,nrdlinger had the editorship till #ahgj4 ,an irregular publication of much note was ,burkhardt's 8,aus dem ,walde0 7#ahfe-ahha74 ,some of the journals founded in earlier times have continued1 with changes in title and editorships1 to the present day4 ,of these1 it is proper to mention as the oldest1 8,allgemeine ,forst- und ,jagdzeitung01 founded by v4 ,behlen1 #ahbe1 later conducted by ,g4 ,heyer2 8,forstwissenschaftliches ,centralblatt0 7#ahbh72 8,zeitschrift fr ,forst- und ,jagdwesen0 founded in #ahfi by ,dankelmann2 8,forstliche ,bltter0 founded #ahfa by ,grunert1 continued by ,borggreve until #ahij4 ,the ,tharandter ,forstliche ,jahrbcher were begun in #ahdb1 and the ,mndener ,forstliche ,hefte in #ahib4 ,in #ahic1 the ,forstlich-naturwissenschaftliche ,zeitschrift was established to discuss mainly the biological basis of forestry 7changed in #aijc to ,naturwissenschaftliche ,zeitschrift fr ,land- und ,forstwesen74 ,for the lower grades there has been published1 since #ahgb1 ,zeitschrift der deutschen ,forstbeamten4 ,several lumber trade journals also discuss forestry matters4 ,a weekly journal1 ,silva was begun in #aijh4 ,to assist in keeping track of the historic and scientific development of the art1 an annual summary of magazine literature is being published4 ,the first effort in this direction was made in #ahgf by ,bernhardt's ,chronik des deutschen ,forstwesens1 which was continued for several years1 but is now supplanted by ,jahresbericht ber die ,leistungen und ,fortschritte der ,forstwirthschaft 7since #ahhj74 ,besides this more scientific magazine literature1 8,pocket ,books0 and 8,calendars0 have been published from early times1 the regular annual appearance of the latter1 giving detailed statistics1 personalia1 tables useful in the practice1 etc41 dates from #ahea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with the accomplishment of the unity of the empire in #ahga1 with the establishment of the ,experiment ,stations and their association in #ahgb1 and with the organization of the ,society of ,german ,foresters1 which dates from the same year1 a new and most active era in the development of forestry science may be recognized1 the tendency of which is to lift the art out of the shackles of empiricism1 and place it on a more scientific basis4 ,,austria-,,hungary4 ,zur ,forstgeschichte ,oesterreichs1 by ,,binder ,,von ,,kreigelstein1 in ,verhandlungen der ,k4 ,k4 ,landwirthschaftsgesellschaft1 #ahcf4 ,geschichte der ,oesterreichischen ,land- und ,forstwirtschaft und ihrer ,industrieen1 #ahdh-ahih4 #e vols41 #aijb1 parts referring to forestry1 vols4 #d and #e1 by ,dr4 von ,guttenberg and #ae others2 a unique and most comprehensive work1 magnificently published as a jubilee of the semi-centennial of the coronation of ,emperor ,franz ,joseph4 ,die ,forste der ,staats- und ,fondsgter1 by ,,karl ,,schindler1 #ahhe and #ahhi1 #b vols41 pp4 #dhg and #gdb1 contains in greatest detail with historical data a description of the ,state and ,funds forests and their management4 ,jahrbuch der ,staats- und ,fondsgter-verwaltung1 #i vols41 by ,l4 ,,dimitz1 #ahig-aijd cont4 ,urkundensammlung zur ,geschichte der ungarischen ,forstwirthschaft by ,,albert ,v4 ,,bed1 #ahif1 in ,magyar4 ,die ,wirthschaftlichen und ,kommerziellen ,beschreibungen der ,wlder des ,ungarischen ,staates1 by ,a4 v4 ,,bed1 #b;d edition1 #ahif1 #d vols41 #bbdb pp41 #do1 published as a jubilee of the ten-centennial existence of ,hungary4 ,first volume contains the general description1 third volume the details of government forests4 ,a magnificent work describing in detail the forests and forest management of ,hungary4 ,this is briefed by the same author in a chapter in 8,the ,millennium of ,hungary and its ,people1 by ,,jekelfalussy1 #ahig40 ,germany's neighbor to the south-east1 and until #ahff a member of the ,german ,empire or ,federation1 largely settled by ,germans and hence swayed by ,german thought1 developed forestry methods on much the same lines as the mother country4 ,yet there are differences to be found1 due to difference in economic development1 and there is for the ,united ,states perhaps more to be learned from ,austria in the matter of introducing forestry methods1 especially as lately practiced in ,bosnia-,herzegovina1 than from any other country1 for economic conditions are in several respects alike4 ,the interest in the forest history of ,austria lies especially in the fact that private forest property in large holdings is predominant1 and that large areas are still untouched or just opened to exploitation1 so that ,austria is still in the list of export countries1 although in some parts intensive management has been long in existence4 ,in the main1 although movements for reform in forest use date back to the middle ages1 the condition of forestry in ,austria was past the middle of the #aith century still most deplorable1 and in a stage of development which most of the ,german ,states had passed long before2 but in the last #ej years such progress has been made that both science and practice stand nearly if not quite on the same level with those of their ,german neighbors4 ,if ,germany exhibits in its different parts a great variety of development1 political and economic1 ,austria1 although long under one family of rulers 7since #aebf71 exhibits a still greater variety due to racial1 natural1 and historical differences within its own borders4 ,it is1 indeed1 an extraordinary and singular country1 without an equal of its kind 7except perhaps ,turkey7 in that it is not a national1 but a dynastic power1 composed of unrelated states or lands1 with people speaking different languages1 mixed races widely different in character4 ,these were gradually aggregated under one head or ruling family1 the ,hapsburgs1 who as ,archdukes of ,austria occupied the elective position of ,german ,emperors for several generations1 and after the collapse of the ,empire1 in #ahjf1 retained the title and called themselves ,emperors of ,austria4 ,the ,kingdom of ,hungary alone 7which was joined to the ,hapsburg dominions by election of its people in #aebf1 and under new relations in #ahfg71 with at least #ej ,hungarians1 is a national unit with a national language 7,magyar71 while all other parts have in their composition preponderatingly ,slavish population1 although ,german elements have the ascendancy more or less everywhere4 ,not less than #aj different languages are spoken among the forty odd million people1 of whom the ,germans comprise about one-quarter1 the ,hungarians one-third1 the balance being ,slavs4 ,originally1 this section of the country was occupied by ,germans with the ,german institution of the ,mark1 but1 when the ,slavish and ,magyar tribes pressed in from the ,east1 it became the meeting ground of the three races1 and during the first #a1jjj years after ,christ the 8,east ,mark0 formed the bulwark of the ,german empire against the eastern invaders1 who1 were1 in succession1 the ,slavs1 the ,huns1 the ,turks4 ,with the unexpected election of ,rudolph of ,hapsburg1 a little known prince of small possessions1 to the dignity of ,german ,emperor1 in #abgb1 the foundation of the ,austrian ,empire was laid4 ,the ,archduchy of ,austria he secured by conquest in #abhb1 and around this nucleus all the other territories were from time to time1 aggregated by the ,hapsburgs through marriage1 conquest1 or treaty4 ,at one time their rule extended over ,spain1 the ,netherlands1 ,switzerland1 ,naples1 ,sicily and ,sardinia4 ,the abdication of ,francis ,,ii1 in the year #ahjf1 prepared the separation from ,germany1 although ,austrian influence persisted in ,germany until #ahff when1 by the crushing defeat suffered at the hands of ,prussia1 its place and voice was permanently excluded from ,german councils4 ,by arrangement with ,hungary1 the new dual empire of ,austria-,hungary came into existence1 and gave a new national life and new policies to the coalition which is to amalgamate these south-eastern territories into a homogeneous nation4 ,by the treaty of ,berlin in #ahgh1 this territory of #bda1idb square miles with over #de million people was further increased by the addition of the ,turkish provinces of ,bosnia and ,herzegovina with #a1bej1jjj inhabitants and #bc1bfb square miles1 first merely placed under ,austria's suzerainty and administration1 in #aijh incorporated as an integral part4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is natural that1 corresponding to this great diversity of ethnological elements and historical development1 we should find a great variety of forest conditions and uneven development of forestry4 ,while in ,bohemia1 ,moravia and ,silesia the most intensive management has long been practiced1 in the ,carpathians of ,galicia and in ,hungary rough exploitation is still the rule1 and in other parts large untouched forest areas still await development4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we can distinguish at least seven regions thus differently developed3 the ,northwest with ,bohemia1 ,moravia and the remaining part of ,silesia1 settled the longest1 and the longest under forest management2 the ,northeast1 ,galicia with the ,carpathian ,mountains1 still largely either exploited or untouched2 the ,danube lands or ,austria proper1 with the ,vienna forest and the forests connected with the saltworks in ,upper ,austria and ,styria1 under some management since the #abth and #afth centuries respectively2 the ,alp territory1 including ,tyrol and ,salzburg1 parts of ,styria1 ,karinthia and ,krain1 much devastated long ago1 and offering all the problems of the reboisement work of ,france2 the ,coast lands along the ,adriatic with ,dalmatia1 ,istria and ,trieste1 which1 from ancient times under ,venetian rule1 bring with them the inheritance of a mismanaged limestone country1 creating the problems of the 8,karst0 reforestation which has baffled the economist and forester until the present time2 the two new provinces east of this region1 ,bosnia and ,herzegovina1 whose rich forest areas have only lately begun to be treated under modern conservative ideas2 and finally ,hungary with a great variety of conditions in itself4 ,the large forest per cent4 7a little over #bd1jjj1jjj acres or over #cb of the land area7 is due to the mountainous character of the country1 the ,alps occupying a large area on the west and southwest1 the ,carpathians stretching for #fjj miles on the northeast1 various mountain ranges encircling ,bohemia1 the ,sudetes forming part of the northern frontier1 and the ,wiener ,wald and other lower ranges being distributed over the empire and bounding the fertile valleys of the ,danube and its tributaries4 ,at least #bj per cent4 is unproductive4 ,the climate in the northern portion of ,austria is similar to that of southern ,germany2 in the southern portions to that of ,italy1 while ,hungary partakes of the characteristics of a continental plains climate with low rainfall and extreme temperature ranges4 ,in addition to the tree species found in ,germany there are of economic value four species of pine 7,pinus austriaca1 cembra1 pinea1 halepensis71 two oaks 7,quercus ilex and suber71 and the chestnut 7,castanea vesca74 ,conifer forest is prevailing in ,austria 7with #hb71 deciduous forest in ,hungary1 mostly beech and oak 7with #ge72 #bg being oak in pure stands4 ,the following pages refer to ,austria proper1 ,hungarian conditions being treated separately further on4 ,the value of the total raw product exported from the ,austrian forests 7some #ahj million cubic feet7 may be estimated at over #ej million dollars annually4 #a4 ,property ,conditions4 ,on the whole1 property conditions developed not unsimilarly to those of ,germany4 ,there were freemen and serfs to start with1 developing into barons1 peasants1 burghers2 there were ban forests1 royal domain1 forests of the mark1 and private properties2 rights of user or servitudes and all the methods and conditions that were developed in other parts of ,europe are also found here1 only perhaps differing in time and rate of progress in their development4 ,as a result of gradual changes1 the present distribution of property resulted1 in which the ,state ownership is comparatively small1 namely1 in ,austria proper not more than #g4c 7with #b4h million acres of which nearly one-third is unproductive land71 while private ownership represents over #eh4f4 ,of this1 #cd is in large landed estates1 among which those of the princes of ,liechtenstein and of ,schwarzenberg with round #cej1jjj acres and #bij1jjj acres respectively are the largest2 and #be others with from #ej1jjj to #bcj1jjj acres may be named4 ,by the middle of the #aith century1 at least #ge of the forest area was in large compact properties1 a guarantee for the possibility of forest management2 the industrial development of the last decade has1 however1 led to considerable exploitation4 ,in upper and lower ,austria and in the ,alpine regions small private ownership prevails4 ,the communal forest comprises #ac1 entailed forest #h1 and the rest belongs to church and other institutions4 ,these so-called ,fondsforste are in part under government administration4 #b4 ,first ,attempts at ,forest ,control4 ,the oldest record of attempts at an orderly management in any part of the empire seems to date back to the #abth century1 when the city forest of ,vienna had been placed under management4 ,during the #afth and #agth century this property appears to have been managed upon the basis of careful surveys and estimates4 ,we also find a definite forest organization in the forests attached to the ducal salt mines in ,styria by #aebd1 and the dams1 canals and water works for floating timber developed by #aeib through ,thomas ,seeauer were the wonder of the times4 ,in #aebd also1 ,archbishop ,mathus ,lang of ,wellenburg issued a forest ordinance which was full of wise prescriptions1 probably little heeded4 ,a forest ordinance of #aeii refers to burning of tops and care of young growth in fellings4 ,generally speaking1 as in ,germany proper1 forest ordinances were issued from time to time1 by the dukes under the theory of the ,forsthoheit1 applying to limited territories and attempting to regulate forest use4 ,no uniformity existed4 ,the iron industry in the more northern provinces had led early to a more conservative use of forest properties for fuel1 and since the mines were regal property the dukes had a special interest in their conservation4 ,in the ,alp territory1 especially in ,styria1 the regal right to the mines combined with the ,forsthoheit led early to the reservation by the dukes of whatever forest was not fenced or owned by special grant for the use of the mines4 ,in addition1 a superior right was asserted by them in some of the private forests to all the forest produce beyond the personal requirements of the owners1 for use of the mines at a small tax2 and what other private property existed was burdened by innumerable rights of user4 ,the exercise of these rights1 and the warfare against irksome restrictions led to widespread illegal exploitation and devastation1 which as early as the #aeth century had proceeded to such an extent that in ,tyrol associations for protection against the torrents were already then in existence4 ,yet in this province1 scantily populated1 with one-third of its area unproductive and one-third forested1 wasteful exploitation continued until recent times4 ,in ,krain1 which was unusually well wooded1 forest reservations were made for the use of the mines and furnaces in #aeaj and #aeae1 these reservations comprising all forest lands within a given radius4 ,the balance was mostly divided among small owners1 whose unrestricted1 unconservative exploitation continued into the latter half of the #aith century4 ,in ,styria1 nearly one-half wooded and one-third unproductive1 a regulated management was attempted as early as #aegb1 and by subsequent forest ordinances of #afie1 #agba and #agfg devastation was to be checked4 ,but the resistance of the peasants to the regulations and the inefficiency of the forest service were such that no substantial improvement resulted4 ,in ,galicia1 unusually extensive rights of user in the crown forests led to their devastation1 and the attempts to regulate the exercise of these rights by ordinances in #aghb and #ahjb were unsuccessful4 ,the forest area along the coast of the ,adriatic in ,istria and ,dalmatia had furnished shiptimber even to the ancients4 ,the ,venetians becoming the owners of the country in the #aeth century declared all forests national property1 reserved for shiptimber1 and placed them under management4 ,they instituted a forest service1 regulated pasturing1 and forbade clearing4 ,the oak coppice was to be cut in #h to #ab year rotation1 with standards to be left for timber1 etc4 ,a reorganization of this service with division into districts is recorded in the #afth century1 when ,charles ,v1 in #aebj1 instituted a 8forest college10 i4e41 administration4 ,but the district officers1 capitani ai boschi1 being underpaid1 carried on a nefarious trade on their own account1 and by #agge1 the whole country was already ruined in spite of attempts at reform2 the 8,karst0 problem remained unsolved2 and1 when ,austria secured ,dalmatia1 in #ahig1 that country too was found in the same deplorable condition1 the forest area1 there in the hands of the peasants1 having suffered by pasture and indiscriminate cutting4 ,it was the work of ,maria ,theresa to reform the administration of the various branches of government1 and wholesome legislation was also extended to the forest branch by her forest ordinance of #aged1 which remained in force until #aheb4 ,it relieved the private owners1 who held most of the forest area1 from the restrictions hitherto imposed1 except in the frontier forests4 ,these1 for strategic reasons1 were to be managed according to special working plans prepared by the 8patriotic economic society40 ,the management of communal forests also was specially regulated4 ,otherwise the ordinance merely recommended in general terms orderly system and the stopping of abuses4 ,in #agga1 another forest ordinance proposed to extend the same policy of private unrestricted ownership to the ,karst forests1 with the idea that thereby better conditions would most likely be secured2 but1 since here the property was not as in ,bohemia in large estates but in small farmers' hands1 the result was disastrous1 as we shall see later3 it merely led to increased devastation4 ,the same result followed the increase of private peasant ownership which came with the abolishment of serfdom in #agha4 ,in #aghb1 an ordinance full of wise prescriptions against wasteful practice intended for the ,northwest territory sought to check the improvident forest destruction4 ,a further wholesome influence on private forest management was exercised by the tax assessment reform in #aghh1 when not only a more reasonable assessment but for the first time a difference was made in taxation of managed as opposed to unmanaged woods and the epoch-making fertile idea of the normal forest was announced 7see p4 #aae74 ,at the same time the hunting privileges and other burdens1 hampering forest properties were abolished1 and measures for the extinguishment of the rights of user enacted4 #c4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,as appears from the foregoing sketch of early attempts at forest control1 no uniformity existed in the empire1 each province being treated differently and the regal rights being applied differently in each case4 ,originally the regular circuit or district governments had charge not only of the management of ,state forests but also of the forest police and the regulation of the management of communal forests4 ,this supervision was exercised by the political administration1 often without technical advisers1 and the different provinces had developed this service very variably4 ,while in some provinces no special effort was made to look after these interests1 the laws remaining mainly dead letters1 in others a better system prevailed4 ,in ,styria1 for instance1 in #ahjg1 five forest commissioners and #bj district foresters were employed2 but this organization was of short duration4 ,a loose administration of the forest laws was most general4 ,the movement for reform and to secure a general law for the empire controlling forest use dates from the year #ahad2 but1 only after the political reaction of #ahdh1 and when the severe floods of #ahea had forcibly called attention to the unsatisfactory state of things was the necessity of change recognized4 ,in #aheb1 such a general law was enacted1 supplanting all the forest ordinances 7with minor exceptions74 ,this law1 which in the main is still in force1 distinguishes between ban forests and protective forests4 ,the former are such as require in their management consideration of their protective value to adjoining private or ,state property and personal safety1 e4g41 to prevent landslides1 snowslides1 avalanches1 etc4 ,protection forests are specially located forests which for their own continuance as well as for that of neighboring ones must be managed under special restrictions1 e4g41 on sand dunes1 shores of waters1 steep slopes4 ,the dangers which they are to prevent being more of an indirect or hidden nature1 and only produced by their mismanagement1 the control also is of a more general nature1 the owner being allowed to manage his property within general prescriptions1 while the ban forests are protective forests of a higher order and are more strictly and more directly controlled by the authorities4 ,the declaration of a ban forest and the prescription for the conservative management depend on the findings of a commission assisted by experts 7since #ahgc74 ,the execution of the law however1 being left to the political administration of the provinces1 jealousies between imperial and provincial governments1 and fear of resistance and ill will of forest owners prevented a strict and uniform application of the law4 ,hence1 from time to time1 we find ministerial rescripts1 and special provincial legislation to secure a more energetic enforcement of the law4 ,at first1 the reform had reference mainly to the ,alp districts1 which had suffered the most1 and1 in ,tyrol1 at least1 an organization was created in #ahef which was to manage the ,state forests1 supervise the management of corporation forests and exercise the forest police4 ,not until the years #ahga-gd1 however1 was a similar service extended to other portions of the empire1 but at the end of that period the entire empire had been placed under the administration of a 8forest protective service40 an organization quite distinct from the ,state forest administration4 ,in #aijj1 there were placed under this service nearly two million acres of protective1 and somewhat over #aej1jjj acres of ban forests1 but some #e to #f million acres of private or communal forest was under some other restrictive policy4 ,in #ahhh1 this service consisted of #ad forest inspectors1 #ef forest commissioners1 #fc forest adjuncts and #hj assistants and forest guards2 in addition #beb special appointees and officers of the ,state forest administration were doing duty in this service1 so that altogether nearly #ejj persons were then employed in carrying on the protective forest policy of the ,state4 ,in #aiaj1 there were #chh technical attachs to the provincial authorities employed1 and #abd on reboisement work1 while the ,state administration employed only #big officials of the higher grade4 ,the law declares the function of this technical service to be3 8to assist the political government by technical advice and observation in supervising forest protection1 and in the application of the forest laws40 ,in #ahhc1 the functions of this organization were extended 8to instruct and encourage forest owners in forest culture1 and to manage forests designated to be so managed40 ,the service has been so satisfactory that1 while at first much complaint against the enforcement of the regulations was heard1 owners now ask constantly for its extension4 ,the details of the duties devolving upon this organization are found in a series of laws1 applicable to different parts of the empire1 which are based upon the recognition of protection forests1 in which sanctioned working plans regulate the management4 ,forcible reforestation and employment of competent foresters in these are obligatory4 ,now1 altogether about #fj of the ,austrian forest area is managed under working plans4 ,a special reboisement law for the extinction of destructive torrents was the result of unusual damage by floods in ,tirol and ,karinthia1 in #ahhb4 ,the basis for this legislation was laid by a translation from the ,french of ,demontzey's great work on the reboisement of mountains1 by v4 ,seckendorff in #ahhj1 and a subsequent report by the same author in #ahhc4 ,a law1 similar to that of the ,french was enacted in #ahhd1 for the regulation of torrential streams4 ,a special fund for the work was created to which the interested parties are required to contribute1 assisted by annual subventions from the ,state4 ,the contributions of the ,state have averaged from #dj to #fj1 of the provinces #bj to #ej1 the interested parties having contributed #cj of the round five million dollars expended on this work by #aija4 ,in #aiaj1 the contribution to the melioration fund by the ,state had grown to #a4f million dollars4 ,at the same time1 for the regulation of the lower rivers an appropriation of #a1cej1jjj was made1 of which #djj1jjj was to be used for reforestation work4 ,this work as well as the reforestation of the ,karst 7see p4 #agc7 under the laws of #ahha1 #ahhc1 #ahhe1 is carried on by the forest protective service4 ,on the whole1 the forest policy of ,austria tends toward harmony with forest owners and liberation of private property4 ,by reduction of railroad freights1 which are under government management1 by abolition of export duties1 by reasonable tax assessments1 etc41 the wood export trade 7now exceeding #cj million dollars7 is favored2 by the extinction of rights of user under liberal laws improvement in forest management is made possible1 the ,emperor setting a good example by having renounced1 in #aheh1 his superior right to forest reservations in the ,alp districts4 ,the best exemplification of the spirit of the ,austrian forest policy and of the methods of forest organization and administration is to be found in the administration of the provinces of ,bosnia and ,herzegovina described in a volume published in #aije by the veteran ,austrian forester1 ,ludwig ,dimitz4#f #f ,die forstlichen ,verhltnisse und ,einrichtungen ,bosniens und der ,herzegovina1 ,,ludwig ,,dimitz1 ,vienna1 #aije1 pp4 #chi4 ,see ,forestry ,quarterly1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aac4 ,here1 the ,austrian government has in the short time of #be years succeeded in bringing orderly conditions into the forest management4 ,until #ahgh1 these countries were provinces of ,turkey and were placed under ,austrian suzerainty as a result of the ,russo-,turkish ,war4 ,the ,turks had already attempted a management of the forest lands1 which were in their entirety claimed by the ,sultan4 ,property conditions being entirely unclear when the ,austrians assumed the administration1 these questions had first to be settled by a survey4 ,this survey resulted in showing a forest area of #f4c million acres1 #ea of the land area1 of which probably all but about #a4e million acres is private or communal property2 half of the state property is fully stocked and it is estimated that about #ajj million cubic feet is the annual increment4 #d4 ,state ,forest ,administration4 ,the ,state domain in the first half of the #aith century had been reduced by sales from nearly #aj million acres to #d4e million acres1 and to a little over #c million acres in #ahee4 ,in that year1 about one-half of this property was handed over to the ,national ,bank to secure the ,state's indebtedness of #cj1jjj1jjj1 and between #ahfj and #ahgj further sales reduced the domain to about its present size of #a4h million acres productive forest4 ,in #ahgb1 however1 a new policy1 and the present organization were instituted4 ,before #ahdi1 the forest properties which the ,crown or ,state owned in the various territories were not managed as a unit or in any uniform manner1 but a number of separate provincial or territorial forest administrations existed which were often connected with mining administrations and were placed under the ,minister of ,finance4 ,these1 under the influence of the educated foresters issuing from the newly established forest school1 had1 to be sure1 been much improved2 nevertheless the ,cameralists1 as in ,germany1 were at the head of affairs and kept the technical development back until after the revolution of #ahdh1 when the accession of ,franz ,joseph ,i brought many reforms and changes in methods of administration4 ,a ministry of ,soilculture and ,mining was created in that year1 and1 as a branch of it1 a forest department1 separated from the department of the ,chase4 ,to the head of this forest department was called a forester1 ,rudolf ,feistmantel1 who elaborated an organization4 ,but1 before much had been accomplished1 the ,ministry and its forest department were abolished 7#ahec7 and the forest domain again transferred to the ,ministry of ,finance4 ,feistmantel returned in #ahef as ,chief of the forest division in that ,ministry1 and his organization of the forest property of the ,state into forest districts under forest managers and into provincial 8forest directions0 was perfected4 ,matters1 however1 did not thrive1 and1 only when public attention and indignation had been aroused by a policy of selling ,state property1 a change of attitude took place in #ahgb which led to the present organization4 ,this places the ,state forest administration in the ,department of ,agriculture1 with an 8,oberlandforstmeister0 and two assistants as superior officers1 and the rest of the organization is also very nearly the same as that in vogue in most ,german ,states1 each province having a directive service of 8,oberforstmeister0 with 8,forstmeister0 as inspectors1 and 8,oberfrster0 with the assistance of 8,forstwarte0 as executive officers4 ,in addition a special corps of 8forest engineers0 and 8superior forest engineers0 is provided for the elaboration of working plans4 ,lately 7#aijd71 a re-organization of the central office provided1 besides the department of administration of ,state and ,funds forests1 a department of reboisement and correction of torrents1 and a department of forest policy charged with the promotion of forest culture1 including the education of foresters and similar matters4 ,most of the ,state property is located in the ,alps and ,carpathian mountains at an elevation above #b1jjj feet1 hence financial results do not make a good showing4 ,since #ahhe it has been the policy to add to the ,state forest area by purchase1 and by #ahih1 over #cej1jjj acres had been added to it4 #e4 ,progress of ,forest ,organization4 ,since #ahgc1 working plans according to unified principles have been prepared for most of the ,state property1 so that1 by #ahih1 about #hb was under regulated management4 ,the progress made in bringing forest areas under organized management varied greatly in the different provinces4 ,in northeastern ,austria1 the first methods of regulated management consisted1 as in the neighboring territories of ,germany1 in a simple division into felling areas4 ,the example of the neighbors was also followed later in the northwestern provinces1 and in both regions this method was improved upon by allotment according to the propositions of ,hartig and ,cotta4 ,in addition1 since #ahaj1 the method of the ,austrian 8,kameraltaxe0 with the new and fertile idea of the 8normal forest0 began to be employed 7see p4 #aae74 ,the new method now largely employed is an area allotment checked by the normal forest formula4 99 99 99 99 99 ,especially in ,bohemia1 most of the large baronial properties had1 by #ahdh1 been put under a regular system of management according to ,saxon and ,prussian precedent4 ,the influence of the former was especially strong1 and ,saxon foresters were largely employed to regulate the management4 ,most prominent among these was ,judeich1 who became the ,director of the ,austrian forest school at ,weisswasser1 7afterwards of ,tharandt74 ,by #ahij1 over #hc of the total forest area of ,bohemia capable of such management had been placed under rational working plans according to the most modern conception1 and nearly the same proportion in the neighboring provinces of ,moravia and ,silesia4 ,in the ,alps territory and in the ,danube provinces1 the regulation of forest management has not progressed with the same rapidity1 partly owing to the existence of the many hampering rights of user2 only here and there1 are properties managed intensively4 ,by #ahij1 only #bc were managed under rational working plans 7#dj state and #fj private and communal property71 mostly regulated by a combined area and volume method4 ,in ,styria1 in the forests attached to mines1 we find already in #agie quite a remarkable effort in the matter of working plans4 ,such a plan by an unknown author deals with volume tables and sample area methods for determining the stock4 ,but the fine plan was stowed away in a cupboard1 and when1 in #ahcj1 forest counselor ,wunderbaldinger proposed to apply a similar plan he had to wait seven years before permission for a trial was granted4 ,he continued1 however1 the organization of these forests until #ahdh1 using ,hundeshagen's 8use per cent40 in the selection forest1 and volume allotment for the woods managed under clearing system4 ,in lower ,austria1 the ,vienna state forest of #gj1jjj acres had for a long time received attention2 the first thorough forest survey and yield calculation being made in #agah-bj1 revised in #aghb-hf1 and regulated for the shelterwood system in #ahbj4 ,within the last #ej years1 the method has been changed again and again1 until in #ahhb the present ,austrian method based on normal stock principles was applied4 ,since in this province #ej of the forest area is small peasant property and communal forest1 which are usually managed without systematic plans1 the #cc under working plans represents more than half of the area capable of such management4 ,in upper ,austria1 where the salt works are situated1 the attempts at regulated management in connection with these date back to the middle of the #afth century1 and1 after various changes1 these forest areas were1 by #ahhh1 placed under working plans of modern style4 ,over #ej of the forest area of this province is so regulated4 ,one of the most modern working plans based upon ,pressler's soil rent theory and a most intensive silviculture1 is that of the ,baron ,mayr-,melnhof on his estate ,kogl4 ,these details are merely brought forward to illustrate the great variation both in the progress of development and in the present conditions in different parts of the empire1 similar differences being found in other portions4 ,suffice it to say that in round numbers about fifteen hundred thousand acres are managed under more or less intensive working plans1 and of the balance seven million acres are farmers' woodlots on which only silvicultural treatment is necessary4 #f4 ,development of ,silviculture4 ,the necessity for conservative forest use and reforestation did not arise as early in ,austria as it did in ,germany4 ,it was not until the middle of the #aith century that this necessity became apparent in most of the provinces1 when ,german experiences in silviculture could be readily utilized4 ,in ,bohemia1 the clearing system with artificial reforestation1 mostly by seed1 had been introduced at the beginning of the century for the conifer forests1 planting as a rule being resorted to only in fail places4 ,for this planting1 wildlings were mostly used4 ,in the broad-leaved forest1 the selection system1 and to some extent the shelterwood method1 were largely followed4 ,the strip system was also much employed1 and1 as the felling areas were often made too large1 undue increase of undesirable softwoods resulted4 ,during the last #ej years1 silvicultural theory and practice developed very much on the same lines as in ,germany1 more intensively in the densely populated and more accessible regions1 and less so in the more distant and thinly settled mountain districts4 ,the most noted work of reforestation which has occupied ,austrian foresters for the last forty years or more is that of the 8,karst10 a name applied to the waste lands in the mountain and hill country of ,istria1 ,trieste1 ,dalmatia1 ,montenegro and adjacent territory skirting the ,adriatic ,sea4 ,it is a dry limestone country of some #fjj1jjj acres in extent1 stony and rough1 and overdrained4 ,originally well forested with conifers and hardwoods1 it had furnished for ages ship timber and other wood supplies to the ,venetians4 ,through reckless cutting1 burning and pasturing by the small farmers it had become almost entirely denuded1 natural reforestation being prevented by these practices combined with the dryness of the soil1 intensified by the deforestation4 ,for centuries1 countless laws were passed to stop the progress of devastation1 but without effect4 ,the first attempt at planting was made by the city of ,trieste in #ahdb1 and found some imitators1 but with meager result4 ,in #ahfe1 the ,austrian government1 acting upon representations of the ,forestry ,association1 undertook to encourage and assist private landowners in reforesting their ,karst lands by remitting taxes on reforested lands for a period of years1 by technical advice1 and by assistance with plant material and money4 ,by this move1 so much land was withdrawn from pasture and taxation that opposition was aroused among the cattle owners1 which led to additional legislation during the years #ahhb to #ahhg1 and finally to the creation of a commission charged to select the lands which in the interest of the country required reforestation1 and empowered to enforce this improvement within a given time1 the ,state expropriating the lands of objecting owners4 ,at the same time1 the ,commission brought about the division of pasture lands which were held in communal ownership4 ,by #aiji1 of the #ge1jjj acres selected by the ,commission as of immediate interest #ae1jjj acres had been planted1 mostly with ,austrian ,pine1 at an average cost of #h to #af per acre1 the cost including stone enclosures for the plantations1 to protect them against cattle and fire1 and the repairs1 which sometimes equalled the original expense4 ,in addition1 some #ej1jjj acres of natural growth were brought into productive condition merely by protection4 ,while this activity refers to the northern portion of the coast region1 the ,karst of ,dalmatia farther south1 being oak country1 was mainly recuperated by protective measures4 ,here1 in #ahgc1 the pasturing of goats was forbidden on areas of over one million acres in extent which were found capable of reforestation4 ,in #ahgf1 the partition of communal holdings was ordered1 and portions were designated for forest use1 to be planted4 ,as a result of these measures1 nearly #djj1jjj acres have been recuperated4 #g4 ,education and ,literature4 ,the first forest schools in ,austria were established through private effort1 namely one in #ahjj in ,bohemia by ,prince ,schwarzenberg1 and another one in ,moravia by ,prince ,liechtenstein1 these two being the largest forest owners in ,austria4 ,in #ahje1 another private forest school was opened in ,bohemia1 and at the same time the state institute near ,vienna came into existence4 ,this was1 in #ahac1 transferred to ,mariabrunn1 and1 after various changes in the character of the teaching1 was1 in #ahfg1 raised to the dignity of an academy with a three years' course4 ,in #ahge1 it was transferred to the ,hochschule fr ,bodenkultur at ,vienna1 an agricultural school1 which had been instituted in #ahgb1 intended to give the higher scientific education in both forestry and agriculture by a three years' course4 ,the course was1 in #aije1 increased to four years4 ,during the years from #ahge to #aijd1 over #b1fjj students in forestry alone had attended this excellent school at which over #gj professors and instructors are employed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the lower grades of foresters1 schools were from time to time opened in addition to the private ones first mentioned4 ,such so-called 8middle schools10 were founded at ,eulenberg 7#aheb71 ,weisswasser 7#ahee7 transferred to ,reichstadt1 and ,lemberg 7#ahgd71 at which latter the course is two years in the ,polish language1 and one at ,bruck 7#aijj71 where the course is three years4 ,at present1 there are five middle schools in operation4 ,for the education of guards1 three ,forstwart schools were instituted in #ahha and #ahhc1 one each for ,tirol1 ,styria and ,galicia1 where1 in an eleven months' course1 #ae forest guards at each receive instruction4 ,in addition there are five schools of silviculture where the course is one year4 ,besides these schools1 courses in forestry of shorter duration are given at three other institutions4 ,besides these schools1 the promotion of forestry science is1 as in ,germany1 secured by forest experiment stations1 which came into existence as a result of the earlier deliberations of the ,german foresters4 ,the first proposition to establish such a station was submitted in #ahfh1 but its establishment was delayed until #ahge1 when such a station was instituted at ,vienna in connection with the school there4 ,the results of the investigations are published from year to year and have enriched the forestry literature in the ,german language with many important contributions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a very active association life exists in ,austria1 largely due to the influence of the many large private forest owners4 ,curiously enough1 the first attempt at forming a society of foresters in ,bohemia was suppressed by the authorities1 probably for fear of revolutionary tendencies1 and the effort simply resulted in a literary or reading association to obviate the need of private purchase of books4 ,not until #ahdh1 the very year of the revolution1 did the ,bohemian forestry association become a fact1 and1 under the leadership of the large forest owners among the nobility1 it has become the strongest in ,austria1 issuing a bi-monthly association journal from the beginning4 ,another strong local association which dates its beginning as a society for agriculture back to #aggj1 is the ,moravian-,silesian ,forestry ,association1 which segregated from the mother society in #ahej1 first as a section1 and1 having by #aheh1 attained a membership of #a1jjj1 it constituted itself as a separate association in #ahhf4 ,besides these1 many smaller ones exist in ,austria4 ,in #aheb1 a general ,austrian forestry association was founded1 which1 in #ahed1 began the publication of a quarterly journal and held sessions in various parts of the empire2 but1 by and by1 the interest seemed to flag1 the attendance at the meetings became smaller and smaller1 and finally the association was abandoned after a rival1 the ,austrian ,forestry ,congress1 had been organized in #ahgd1 which later became the ,oesterreichische ,reichs-,forstverein4 ,in ,galicia and in ,bukowina1 the foresters meet as a section of the ,society for ,soil ,culture4 ,the same method of forming forestry sections of the agricultural societies is followed in other parts of the empire1 and at least a dozen or more other local foresters' associations might be mentioned1 in which owners of forest properties are as fully represented as professional foresters2 and their activity is not only to be found in literary labors1 but also in practical work4 ,in addition to the meetings of these local societies1 representative congresses have met annually at ,vienna since #ahgf1 and have become powerful agents for improving legislation and practice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although1 as was natural1 owing to the difference in conditions the forestry literature in ,austria began much later than that of ,germany1 a very active progress is noticeable since the middle of the last century1 and the ,austrians are vying successfully with the ,germans in this direction4 ,the names of ,fioceli1 ,pokorny1 ,bhm1 ,wiesner1 ,molish1 ,willkomm1 ,hempel and ,kerner in the direction of forest botany1 ,wessely1 von ,lorenz-,liburnau1 ,feistmantel1 ,dimitz1 ,wachtl 7,entomology71 ,dombrowski 7encyclopedia #ahhf71 ,exner1 ,janka 7wood technology71 ,guttenberg 7forest mensuration and regulation71 von ,seckendorff1 ,schiffel 7forest mensuration71 ,cieslar1 ,reuss1 ,bhmerle1 ,hufnagl1 ,marchet1 and many others are familiar to all ,german readers4 ,in addition a very considerable literature in the ,bohemian language is in existence1 some in the ,italian by ,austrian authors1 and some in the ,slavonian4 ,the magazine literature began with publications by various forestry associations which became active after #ahdh4 ,at the present time weekly1 monthly1 bi-monthly1 quarterly1 yearly and irregular publications to the number of not less than #ad in ,german1 in addition to several in ,bohemian1 may be counted1 among which the monthly ,centralblatt fr das ,gesammte ,forstwesen1 in existence since #ahge1 and the weekly ,oesterreichische ,forstzeitung1 since #ahhc1 are perhaps the most widely known4 ,,hungary4 ,hungary is mainly a fertile plain1 traversed by the ,danube and ,theiss1 an agricultural country1 with the forest confined to the hilly portions1 to the mountainous southern provinces of ,slavonia and ,croatia1 and to the ,carpathians1 which bound it on the north and east4 ,nevertheless1 while wood in the plain is scarce1 the total forest area1 including that of the two mentioned provinces1 is but little less than that of ,austria proper1 namely1 #bc1jjj1jjj acres 7#bh74 ,large areas of shifting sands1 and1 along the ,danube and ,theiss rivers1 swamps1 partly created by deforestation1 are interspersed with the heavy black prairie and compact clay-soils4 ,at present1 of the #bc million acres of forest the ,state owns #af1 corporations somewhat over #bj1 churches1 cloisters and other institutes #g4e1 and the balance1 over #ac million acres1 is owned privately4 ,the administration of the ,state forests is in the ,department of ,agriculture but some are still under the control of the military and railroad departments4 ,all but the private forests are under ,state surveillance4 ,of the private properties the majority consists of large holdings and about ten per cent4 are entailed1 a hopeful condition for conservative management4 ,yet with an export of #aj to #ab million dollars or more1 exploitation would appear still to be general1 and devastated areas abound4 ,it is claimed that half the area is under working plans1 and that the #ajjj million cubic feet of annual cut do not approach the annual increment4 ,the ,state forests yield now in the neighborhood of #fjj1jjj net4 ,although naturally influenced by ,austrian precedent1 forestry matters in ,hungary like all matters of administration are largely independent of ,austria1 the connection being only in the identity of the ruler4 ,the forests1 which had been for the most part the property of the kings of the ,arpad dynasty1 had by them been turned over from time to time in donations to the churches1 cloisters and to colonists1 so that when the ,hapsburgs succeeded on the throne1 in #aebf1 only a small portion remained undisposed1 and this became ,state property4 ,in the forests which were necessary for the working of the royal mines and furnaces1 an attempt was early made to secure systematic treatment under an ordinance 7#aefe7 which gave instructions as to the order of fellings1 the reservation of seed trees1 etc4 ,but1 otherwise1 the government did not make much effort at regulating forest use until the middle of the #ahth century1 and then1 largely owing to military considerations1 urged by ,general von ,engelshofen commanding on the frontier against the ,turks4 ,the planting of forests for defense was ordered 7#agdc7 by ,maria ,theresa1 but this order was probably never executed4 ,about this time1 however1 movements of reform in various directions are noticeable4 ,complete working plans were made for the ,kremnitz forest in #agej1 and for the ,schemnitz forest in #agfc4 ,the forest ordinances of #aggj and #agha and the law of #agia attempted to regulate the use of communal forests1 and ordered the reservation of devastated forest areas4 ,other legislation followed in #ahjg1 designed to arrest the further extension of shifting sands4 ,although1 since #ahji1 forest inspectors had been employed to look after the execution of the forest laws1 mismanagement and forest destruction by promiscuous cutting1 pasture and fire remained the rule1 and with the advent of the railroads1 in #ahej1 increased apace4 ,political troubles prevented any attempts at improvement until1 in #ahfg1 comparative peace and the new rgime had arrived1 and finally1 in #ahgi1 it became possible to pass a reform law1 which is the basis of present conditions4 ,a general forest law had been enacted in #ahjg2 this was superseded in #aheh by the adoption of the ,austrian law of #aheb4 ,but1 in #ahgi1 a new law reorganized forest policy and forest service4 ,in that year1 the ,state interests were placed under the administration of the ,department of ,agriculture with a technical forester at the head 7,oberlandforstmeister71 assisted by four section chiefs1 one in charge of the ,state forest administration1 one for the administration of corporation forests1 one for the elaboration of working plans1 and one1 with the assistance of #bj forest inspectors having supervision of the execution of all forest laws4 ,otherwise the general features of ,german administrative methods prevail1 except that for purposes of executing the protective forest laws1 committees composed of three members chosen from the country officials co-operate with the government service4 ,the law of #ahgi1 modified and intensified in #ahih1 provides government supervision of the management of corporation and of protection of forests1 and prescribes that land unfit for farming1 i4e41 absolute forest soil 7three-quarters of all forest land71 no matter by whom owned1 is to be reforested within six years after having been stripped1 and no new clearings may be made on such soils4 ,mountain forests1 which are classed as protection forests 7around one million acres or #e4d of the forest area so classed71 as well as entailed properties1 must be managed according to working plans approved by the forest department4 ,the declaration of protective forests was to be made by a commission within five years of the enactment of the law4 ,new planting for protective purposes could also be ordered1 and this under certain conditions may be done by the interested1 i4e41 protected parties1 which may associate themselves for this purpose4 ,violations of this law are liable to be punished by a fine for each acre1 imposed annually as long as the offense continues4 ,two-thirds of the whole forest area is thus more or less under ,state supervision1 and working plans for over #ab million acres have been1 or are to be prepared by the government4 ,an area allotment method with a normal forest formula as a check has been mostly employed in this work1 which is by no means as yet completed4 ,to promote forest planting several nurseries have been established by the government1 from which around #aj million plants are annually distributed free of charge1 and subventions for reforestation of wastes are also granted annually4 ,it is interesting to note in this connection that more than #agj1jjj acres have been planted to ,black ,locust1 which is managed as coppice for vineyard stakes4 ,in #ahhd1 a special fund for the purchase of forest land by the ,state was instituted by turning all moneys received from eventual sales of forest land into that fund4 ,another fund for forest improvement is accumulated by placing four-fifths of all penalties collected for forest trespasses into a separate account for that purpose4 ,these funds have not accumulated very fast1 the forest improvement fund1 in #ahif1 being only about #abj1jjj4 ,similar to the ,landes in ,france1 there exist in various parts of ,hungary extensive sand wastes and shifting sands1 partly caused by deforestation4 ,ever since #aghh1 legislation has attempted to secure a rehabilitation of these waste areas1 which cover in all some #fjj square miles4 ,in #ahag1 a first systematic beginning was made in the ,banat1 on the 8,alfld0 of the ,magyars1 under the forest director ,bachofen1 similar to ,brmontier's undertaking in ,france4 ,by #ahdb1 the total plantations amounted to about #ab1jjj acres1 and by #ahfi1 some #bj1jjj acres had been reforested1 and parts of the plantations had begun to yield profits4 ,but even to-day1 there are still large areas in a desert condition4 ,a classic volume in ,german by ,joseph ,wessely1 ,hungarian forest director1 ,der europische ,flugsand und seine ,kultur1 describes in detail the principles and methods of reclamation of shifting sands4 ,most of the ,hungarian forestry literature being written in the ,magyar language1 is inaccessible to the rest of the world4 ,efforts by private endeavor to promote forestry education date back as early as #agif1 when ,forest ,inspector ,vizner opened an elementary forest school and wrote a forestry catechism4 ,this effort was followed1 in #ahjf1 by introducing the subject in the agricultural school at ,keszthely1 and1 in #ahjh1 in the school of mines in ,schemnitz 7,selmecz banya71 a ,german forester ,wilkins filling the chair1 while a special forest school was established at ,hermannstadt in #ahag4 ,the forestry courses at ,schemnitz were enlarged and the school re-organized in #ahdf and again in #ahgb2 one of the changes being the use of the ,hungarian language in its instruction1 which had originally been in ,german4 ,in #aijd1 the course1 which was #c years and only optionally #d 7one year for engineering education71 was made #d years for all1 and is obligatory for all higher grade ,state officials4 ,in ,croatia-,slavonia1 which is in many respects separately administered1 an agricultural and forestry school exists at ,kreutz 7,krs7 with a three-year course4 ,for the lower service four schools of two-year courses have been established by the government1 the instruction being given by practitioners1 and some of the students receiving free tuition4 ,a forest experiment station was established in #ahih2 it issues a quarterly magazine1 ,irdeszeti ,kiserletek1 in which its results are recorded4 ,a ,hungarian forestry association was formed in #ahff2 it issues a monthly journal1 distributes pamphlets1 gives prizes for literary effort1 etc41 and is1 with over #bjjj members1 an active agent in the work of reform4 ,a separate forestry association1 which also publishes a monthly in the ,slavish language1 exists in ,croatia4 ,,switzerland4 ,a very good brief statement of present conditions of forestry in ,switzerland with some historical references may be found in ,handwrterbuch der ,schweizerischen ,volkswirthschaft1 ,berlin #aijc1 with two chapters by ,,dr4 ,j4 ,,coaz and ,prof4 ,c4 ,,bourgeois4 ,f4 ,,fankhauser1 ,geschichte des bernischen ,forstwesens bis in die neuere ,zeit1 ,bern #ahic1 gives insight into the developments in one of the cantons1 beginning in #acjd4 ,,landolt1 ,ueber die ,geschichte der ,waldungen und des ,forstwesens1 ,zrich1 #aheh4 ,l'volution forestire dans le canton de ,neuchtel1 ,histoire-,statistique #ahif4 ,,burri1 ,die kulturgeschichtliche ,entwicklung und wirthschaftliche ,bedeutung des schweizerischen ,waldbestands1 ,luzern #ahih4 ,,meister1 ,die ,stadtwaldungen von ,zrich1 #b;d ed1 #aijc1 exhibits on #bbe pages in great detail the history and methods of management of this remarkable city forest of only about #c1jjj acres4 ,report of the ,british ,foreign ,office on ,swiss ,forest ,laws1 by ,,conway ,,thornton1 #ahhh1 gives a very satisfactory expos of the earlier legislation4 ,the interest which we have in the development of forestry in this small territory1 of somewhat less than #af1jjj square miles with over three million people1 lies in the fact that it is a republic1 or rather an aggregation of republics1 the oldest in existence1 and that1 occupying an ,alpine mountain country1 it has developed a unique co-operative policy of forest protection4 ,being largely ,german by origin and sentiment1 ,german influence on the development of forestry methods1 outside of the administrative measures1 has here been as strong as in ,austria4 ,switzerland did not exist as a power in name until the #agth century1 and as a unit not until the reconstruction of #ahae1 and in its present settled condition and constitution not until #ahdh1 although the nucleus of its political existence dates back at least #fjj years1 when1 in #abia1 the people of the three forest cantons1 ,schwyz1 ,uri and ,unterwalden1 formed their first league to resist encroachments on their rights by the church and by the feudal barons4 ,the country became settled1 similarly to ,germany1 by ,germans1 and especially ,burgundians1 a free people2 but when the control of the ,obermrker over the free communities began to ripen into feudal superiority1 it found resistance in the forest cantons1 and these formed a league to fight the duke of ,hapsburg1 who partly as feudal lord1 partly as ,reichsvogt1 the emperor's representative1 claimed obnoxious rights4 ,through admission of neighboring lands and cities to the league1 the number of confederates had by the middle of the #adth century grown to eight1 and when1 by the battles of ,sempach 7#achf7 and ,nfels 7#achh71 the ,austrian ,hapsburg supremacy had been permanently destroyed1 the number of allies grew1 and1 by conquest and annexation and otherwise1 their territory attained nearly the present size by the middle of the #aeth century2 the war against feudalism being the cause for this growth4 ,these various small republics1 however1 always formed a part of and owed allegiance to the ,german ,empire1 although they resisted the arms of the ,emperor as ,archduke of ,austria--until1 with the peace of #adii1 this connection became entirely nominal4 ,the final separation from the ,german empire and acknowledgement of independence was not pronounced until the peace of ,westphalia1 in #afdh4 ,the league of cantons was only a very loose confederation without any central power1 although a diet1 to which each canton sent a delegate1 had deliberative functions4 ,almost immediately after the alliance was formed it became fatally divided1 especially when religious differences arose1 and throughout the #afth and first half of the #agth century1 continuous warfare existed between the different allies4 ,it must not1 however1 be understood that the peasants in the different cantons were entirely free from the ancient tyrannies4 ,with the exception of the three forest cantons1 which were truly democratic republics1 the majority of the ,swiss peasants1 free in the eyes of the outside world1 were mere serfs until the beginning of the #ahth century1 and secured their freedom only after many revolts4 ,after nearly #ejj years of this loose federation1 it was reserved to ,napoleon to proclaim the ,helvetian ,republic one and indivisible1 in #agih1 after a short struggle of #gd days4 ,this constitution fell with the fall of ,napoleon1 and gave place1 in #ahae1 to a reorganized federation1 in which the former sovereignty of each canton was re-established1 the inviolability of the territory being guaranteed by the ,european powers4 ,finally in #ahdh1 the seventh and last phase of reconstruction brought into existence the 8,bund10 the ,confederation of ,switzerland1 very much after the pattern of the ,united ,states1 the constitution then adopted being once more revised in #ahgd4 ,the country is divided into #ai entire and #f half states or cantons1 which are a unit towards foreign powers1 but have as much independence among themselves as each of the ,united ,states1 each self-governing4 ,a parliament 7,bundesversammlung7 of two chambers--the ,nationalrath of #ade members corresponding to the ,house of ,representatives1 the ,standesrath with #dd members1 equivalent to the ,senate--represent the interests of the whole federation4 ,the administration of the cantons lies in the hands of the 8great0 and 8small0 councils1 with an executive ministry of three members chosen for two years by the former council4 ,the administration of the ,bund is in the hands of the ,bundesrath of #g members1 elected by the parliament1 which also elects one of the members as president for one year4 ,the ,referendum1 which1 if #cj1jjj voters demand it within #c months1 requires reference of any law to the direct vote of the people is used as a check on legislation4 ,although the larger part of the population of #c million people is ,german1 parts of ,switzerland are ,french1 and other parts ,italian4 ,from this brief statement of the political development of the country it will appear that the development of forestry must also have varied4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions and ,property ,rights4 ,topographic and soil conditions necessarily had also their influence on this development4 ,in the plains1 the plateau1 and the hill country1 the distinction of forest and field as it now exists had been in general attained in the #aeth century1 while in the mountain country1 forest destruction began only in the #ahth century and continued till the middle of the #aith century1 stimulated by the development of the metal industry and the improvement in means of communication4 ,the clearings made here were turned into pasture and1 being overpastured1 became waste lands4 ,thus1 owing to topographic and soil conditions1 a very uneven distribution of forest has resulted and we find a variation in forest area from #i 7,genf7 to over #ci 7in the ,jura7 of the total land area of the different cantons1 the average being #bj4f1 leaving out of consideration the area above timber limit 7#e1jjj to #g1ejj feet7 and the waters and rocks below4 ,this is less than in ,germany and ,austria1 more than in ,france2 but1 if allowance is made for unproductive soil which is included in the ,german area statements1 the percentage of forest area on productive soil would about equal that of ,germany4 ,in the last #be years1 the area has increased by #aj per cent4 to #b1adj1jjj acres4 ,this area is insufficient to supply the demand1 from #ae to #be of it being imported4 ,in #aijg1 the imports had risen to nearly #be million cubic feet1 valued at #i million4 ,property rights developed at first similarly to those developed on ,german soil1 except that1 as we have seen1 feudal conditions were not allowed to gain foothold to the same extent1 and liberty from serfdom was secured earlier4 ,in #agih1 seigniorial rights had pretty nearly been extinguished4 ,at present1 ownership is still largely communal3 nearly #fg are so owned1 making this property of highest forest political importance2 private owners hold only #bh4e1 and the cantonal forests represent but #d4f2 the ,bund as such owning none4 ,it is also to be noted that communal property is constantly increasing by purchases from private holdings4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,no doubt1 in some parts the first beginnings of care for forest property and forest use date back even to ,roman times4 ,charlemagne had his forest officials here as elsewhere1 and the number of ban forests seems to have been especially great1 some #djj 8bannbriefe10 documents establishing them1 having been collected at ,bern4 ,the first forest ordinance regulating the use of a special forest area in ,bern dates from #acjd4 ,but the first working plan seems to have been made for the city forest of ,zrich1 the so-called ,sihlwald1 in #afhj-afig1 and to this day this corporation property1 with its intensive and most profitable management1 is the pride of all ,switzerland4 ,the ,bernese cantonal forests were first surveyed and placed under management from #agbe to #agci1 and fully regulated by #agfe4 ,an excellent forest code for ,ble was drawn up in #agee by ,bishop ,joseph ,william2 and in #agfj1 through the propaganda of the two scientific societies of ,zurich and ,bern1 the teaching of forestry was begun1 and forest organization in the two cantons secured in #aggc and #aghf4 ,the canton of ,soleure 7,solothurn7 was the first to start a regular system of instruction1 two citizens from each woodland district being given the opportunity to qualify themselves as foresters4 ,each canton had1 of course1 its own laws protecting forest property against theft and fire2 in the latter respect especially great care was exercised and burning of brush could only be done by permit and under a force of watchers4 ,the example of ,zrich and ,bern in organizing the management of their forest areas was followed more or less by other cantons1 but a real serious movement is not discernible until the beginning of the #aith century1 when with the impetus of modern life and trade the value of forest property increased1 and most cantons issued regulative forest laws4 ,forest ordinances had from time to time attempted to prevent the decrease of forest area by forbidding clearings1 regulating pasture1 and forbidding wood export to other villages or cantons1 a local timber famine being dreaded4 ,but1 only when a severe flood1 in #ahcj1 had accentuated the protective value of forest cover1 were the forest ordinances more strenuously enforced1 and a general movement for better management began in the various cantons4 ,this was partly signalized by sending young men to the forest schools of ,germany4 ,largely through the influence of a lively propaganda carried on by such men as ,landolt and ,coaz1 backed by the ,swiss forestry association1 7founded in #ahdh71 and through the increase of torrential floods1 especially in #ahcd and #ahfh1 was it made clear that a central power would have to be clothed with authority to regulate the use at least of the alpine forest4 ,in #aheg1 the ,bund ordered an investigation of the mountain forests in all parts2 this was made by ,landolt4 ,but opposition by the cantons against restrictive measures prevented any legislative result4 ,at the same time1 an annual vote of #b1jjj was made to the forestry association for reforestation and engineering works in the ,alps4 ,this grant was changed1 in #ahga1 by voting an annual credit of #bj1jjj to be expended by the ,bundesrath for similar purposes4 ,the floods of #ahfh brought such distress in certain cantons that contributions from all other parts were required to assist the flood sufferers2 and #bjj1jjj of the collections were appropriated for reforestation4 ,finally1 in #ahgd1 through the effort of the forestry association1 it was determined to create a central bureau of forest inspection for the whole ,bund in the ,department of the ,interior1 and an article was inserted in the constitution declaring the superior right of oversight by the ,federation over the water and forest police in the high ,alps1 at the same time proposing to aid in the engineering and reboisement work necessary to correct the torrents1 and to take measures for the preservation of these works and forests4 ,the result was the installation of a federal forest inspector with one assistant1 in #ahge1 and the enactment of a law1 in #ahgf1 which determined the area within which the federal government was to exercise supervision4 ,the execution of the law was1 however1 left to the cantons--the jealousies of ,state rights as against federal rights being even more strongly developed in ,switzerland than in the ,united ,states4 ,each canton proceeded in its own way1 or neglected to proceed1 and hence no uniform progress in applying the law was made4 ,indeed1 not a single prescription of the law was applied within the prescribed time1 although again and again extended1 and even to-day some cantons have not yet complied4 ,stubborn opposition to the law continues even to date in some cantons4 ,besides the unwillingness to submit to federal authority1 the lack of technically trained foresters--their employment being a requirement of the law--and the objection to their employment by the cantons1 who looked on them as disguised policemen1 impeded the progress of the reform4 ,until #ahhd1 each canton held its own examinations for forest officials1 but in that year a standard was enacted for employment within the federally supervised territory4 ,the most frequent quarrel was as to what was to be considered forest and what pasture1 so that finally as a compromise a classification between the two1 called pasture woods1 was introduced4 ,it will be noted that the federal surveillance was to extend only to the ,high ,alps above a certain limiting line4 ,this limitation was removed1 in #ahih1 by resolution of the ,council1 and change of the constitution1 by which the federal exercise of water and forest police was extended over the whole country1 and a bill to carry this into effect was introduced4 ,finally1 in #aijb1 a revised law was passed establishing fully the present ,federal forest policy4 ,this law places the surveillance of all forest police in all forests of ,switzerland in the ,bund1 the private forests as well as the public1 i4e41 ,state and communal or corporation forests4 ,but1 as there are distinctive differences in the manner of this surveillance1 a differentiation of ownership conditions and forest conditions was to be made by the cantons within two years4 ,the forests are to be divided into protection and non-protection forests 7by the cantons with sanction of the ,bund71 the former being such as are located at headwaters or furnish protection against snowslides1 landslides and rockfalls1 floods1 and climatic damage4 ,most of this segregation had already been made and mapped in consequence of the law of #ahgf4 ,in #aijd1 #ga of the total forest area had been classed as protective forest2 nearly #hj of the communal1 and over #ej of the private forest property4 ,all public forests are to be surveyed and their corners permanently marked by the cantons according to instructions by the ,bund1 the latter furnishing the needed triangulation survey1 and inspecting and revising any older surveys free of charge4 ,the surveyed public forests are to be fully regulated according to a sustained yield management1 under working plans made according to instructions by the ,cantons1 to be sanctioned by the ,bundesrath4 ,for the unsurveyed forest areas at least a provisional felling budget is to be determined1 as nearly as possible representing the sustained yield4 ,in protection forests the working plans must conform to the objects of these forests1 and clearings in these are as a rule forbidden4 ,the fellings are to be made under direct supervision of foresters1 and1 after being cut1 the wood must be measured4 ,sale on the stump is forbidden1 otherwise no interference in the management is intended4 ,up to #aijb1 under the law of #ahgf1 working plans for #edj1jjj acres had been made4 ,in #aijg1 #ij1jjj acres of ,state forest1 and over one million acres of corporation forests were under working plans4 ,for other than protection forests the law provides a number of restrictions1 such as the following3 ,pasture woods may not be decreased in area except by permission of the cantons4 ,communal forests are not to be subdivided without consent of the cantonal government1 except where two or more communities have joint ownership1 nor are they to be sold except with such permission4 ,rights of user in public forests1 especially in protection forests1 may be forcibly extinguished by the cantonal government1 but under appeal to the ,bundesrath4 ,money equivalents are to be the rule1 territorial equivalents to be given only by special permission4 ,by #aijb1 over #cjj1jjj had already been spent in extinguishing #b1hdb different rights of user4 ,the establishment of means of transportation1 roads1 etc41 is encouraged by subventions from the ,bund and in other ways4 ,private forests as far as they fall under the classification of protection forests are subject to the same supervision and rules as the public forests as regards their survey1 the prohibition of clearings except by permission of the ,federal ,government1 of diminishing pasture woods1 the extinguishment of rights of user1 the prevention of damaging use1 and assistance in establishing means of transportation4 ,the cantonal government is obliged to insure the execution of these laws4 ,in addition1 while the law encourages co-operative forest management of small holdings as larger units1 the ,bund paying for the cost of effecting such co-operation1 it empowers the canton or the ,bund to enforce such co-operative management of protection forest areas in specially endangered localities as at the headwaters of torrential streams4 ,otherwise1 in the non-protective private forests1 only the prohibition of clearing except by permission of the cantonal government1 the obligation of reforesting felling areas within three years1 and of maintaining existing pasture woods is ordered4 ,wherever on private properties conversion of forest into farm or pasture is permitted 7after report of the forest administration of ,canton or ,bund7 an equivalent reforestation of other parts may be ordered4 ,wherever by the reforestation of bare ground protective forest areas can be created1 this may be ordered1 the ,federal or the ,cantonal government contributing towards such work2 or else1 if the owner prefers1 he may insist upon having his ground expropriated by the ,canton or other public corporation2 the federal government assisting in the first case to the extent of #cj to #ej of the cost1 and in establishing new protection forests to the extent of #ej to #hj4 ,before #aijb1 under the law of #ahgf1 some #af1jjj acres had been reforested and put in order at an expense of over one million dollars1 the federal government contributing just about fifty per cent4 ,in #aiaj1 the area of planted protection forest had grown to #be1jjj acres4 ,besides the various restrictions with provisions of penalties for disobedience 7from #a to #ajj for each transgression7 and enforced execution by cantonal government1 there are a number of directions in which the ,federal ,government makes contributions for the purpose of encouraging conservative management4 ,for the salaries of the cantonal higher forest officials #bj to #ce per cent4 are contributed1 for the higher corporation and co-operative association officials #e to #be per cent41 for the lower forest service #e to #bj per cent4 ,the ,federation participates to the extent of one-third in the accident insurance of forest officers2 a minimum salary of the officials and also their proper education being made conditions4 ,to secure the latter the ,federation pays for teachers and demonstration material under prescribed conditions4 ,in #aija1 the federal contributions amounted to #ajj1jjj in all4 ,in #aijc1 the total appropriation was #abf1jjj1 namely1 #i1jjj for the ,inspector-,general's office2 #bf1jjj towards salaries of cantonal foresters2 #hj1jjj towards reboisement2 #h1jjj towards survey4 ,the cantonal governments contributed about the same amount outside of the cost of their forest administrations4 ,it is estimated that the budget will have to be increased by #ej1jjj annually for some time to come4 ,by #aiaj1 the federal government had altogether contributed #b million in the #ce years towards the execution of the law1 outside its administrative office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the organization which is to carry out this forest policy is still the one which originated with the law of #ahgf1 somewhat modified by the law of #ahib1 namely1 a forestry division in the ,department of the ,interior1 with one ,superior ,forest ,inspector and three assistants4 ,the ,cantons have their own administrations1 mostly under one forester of higher grade 7called variously ,oberfrster1 ,forstinspektor1 ,forstmeister1 ,oberforstmeister74 ,bern has three co-ordinate ,forstinspektor4 ,the ,cantons are or are to be districted into forest circles 7,forstkreise71 the subdivision to be approved by the ,bundesrath1 and some are further subdivided into ranges 7,unterfrsterei74 ,these forest districts1 from #g1ejj to #de1jjj acres each1 are to be managed by properly educated and paid foresters elected by the people4 ,the eligibility depends upon an examination1 the theoretical part of which is conducted by the forest school1 the practical part1 after a year's practical work1 is conducted by a commission of foresters1 after completion of which the candidate becomes eligible2 the election being for three years1 and re-election being usual1 unless there are good reasons against it4 ,in #aijc1 there were employed as administrators or managers #aai ,state 7,cantonal7 foresters and #cc ,communal foresters1 besides #aa ,federal forest officials4 ,in #aiji1 the total number had grown to #aic1 besides #ajia under-foresters1 to whose salaries the ,bund contributed4 ,the ,state foresters are allowed to manage neighbouring communal properties4 #c4 ,forestry ,practice4 ,the timber forest is the most general form of silvicultural management4 ,selection forest with #aej to #bjj year rotations is practised in the ,alps and in the smaller private forest areas4 ,shelterwood system in compartments is in use in other parts 7with a rotation of #fj to #hj years in the deciduous1 and #hj to #abj years in conifer forest71 supplanting largely the clearing and planting system which had found favor during the middle of last century4 ,in corporation forests1 large areas are still under coppice with standards1 but will probably soon be converted into timber forest1 a policy favored by cantonal instructions4 ,pure coppice is only rarely met1 usually confined to the overflow lands and small private holdings4 ,in some of the public forests in the ,french territory it is practised with a 8double rotation0 7furetage7 according to ,french pattern4 ,artificial means to secure complete stands in natural regenerations is favored by the cantonal regulations1 but thinning operations are still mostly neglected1 except where local market for inferior material makes them advisable1 which is mostly in the plains country1 where the annual yield from thinnings may represent #cj of the total harvest yield4 ,conversion from coppice and coppice with standards into timber forest1 and change from clearing systems to natural regeneration 7proper for mountain forest71 and from pure to mixed forest have become general provisions of the working plans4 ,the average cut in the ,state forests during four years prior to #ahic was over #fd cub4 ft4 p4 acre1 and #db cub4 ft4 for the corporation forests2 an average for all the public forests of round #de cub4 ft41--not a very good showing as yet4 ,so far1 the collection of material for yield tables and for a statement of increment and stock on hand in the country at large are still insufficient1 although1 in #ahhb1 ,prof4 ,landolt estimated the annual product at little less than #ejj million cubic feet1 or #ej cubic feet per acre4 ,only for the intensively managed city forests of ,zrich and the cantonal forests of ,bern are more accurate data available4 ,in the latter1 the ,state forests yield #ej cubic feet in the plateau country1 #gc cubic feet1 in the middle country1 and #gf cubic feet in the ,jura1 while the communal forests of that canton yield #ae1 #ff and #ef cubic feet respectively4 ,prices for wood are higher in the low country than the average in ,germany and have been steadily rising for the last #dj years1 especially for coniferous saw material which at present brings stumpage prices of #ab to #ae cents4 ,owing to these high prices the gross yield of some ,swiss forests is the largest known in ,europe2 the city forest of ,zrich1 exhibiting yields of #ab1 and the city forest of ,aarau as much as #ad per acre on the average1 although in the ,alps forests the gross yield sinks to #c and #d4 ,the more intensively managed city forests mentioned spend on their management #f and even #g per acre1 while most of the ,state forests keep their expenditures within #b4ej to #c4ej1 and in some places down to #a4ej per acre4 ,the net yields vary therefore for the ,state and communal forests of the plateau country between #c and #f4ej for some of the city forests from #f4ej to #h and #i4 ,switzerland has long ago ceased to produce its wood requirements1 and imports from #h to #i million dollars annually of wood and wood manufactures4 #d4 ,education and ,literature4 ,for the education of the higher forest officials the ,federal government instituted a two year course at the ,polytechnicum at ,zrich which was founded in #ahhe1 the course being1 in #ahhd1 increased to three years4 ,three professors of forestry besides the faculty of the institution in fundamental and accessory branches are active here1 the number of students averaging in the neighborhood of thirty-five4 ,two examinations1 a scientific and a practical one1 the latter taken before a special commission1 tests the eligibility of candidates1 foreigners not excluded1 for positions4 ,for the education of the lower grade foresters1 the ,cantons themselves are responsible1 the ,bund only contributing by paying for teachers and demonstration material 7about #a1bej7 to carry on cantonal or intercantonal forestry courses4 ,the courses usually last from two weeks to two months1 in succession or divided into spring and fall courses2 they are mainly practical1 and require candidates to be not less than #ah years of age and to possess a primary school education4 ,their number must be at least #ae1 and not more than #be4 ,there have also been instituted specially conducted excursions and progressive underforesters' courses1 as well as additional scientific courses which the ,bund subsidizes4 ,in connection with the ,zrich school1 forestry science and art are furthermore advanced by a well-endowed central ,forest ,experiment ,station1 with several substations and an annual budget of #aj1jjj4 ,the greatest credit for the advancement of forestry and forest legislation is due to the ,swiss ,forestry ,association 7#cfe members in #aiaa71 which was founded in #ahdc1 meeting annually in various places1 managed by a ,committee of five elected for #c years4 ,this ,association is subsidized by the ,bund for its educational work4 ,schweizerische ,zeitschrift fr das ,forstwesen 7begun #ahej7 is its organ1 with ,dr4 ,fankhauser as editor4 ,in #ahih1 an association of underforesters with a special organ1 ,der ,forstwirth1 came into existence 7#ebf members in #aijb71 and several cantonal foresters' associations are also active4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the literature1 which is largely in ,german1 with some ,french and ,italian volumes1 notable works have appeared and real advances in forestry science especially with reference to management of mountain forests are due to ,swiss writers4 ,in #agfg1 the ,socit d',economie de ,zurich published a foresters' manual1 and during the first quarter of the nineteenth century1 ,zschokke and ,kasthofer developed silviculture in the ,alps4 ,landolt1 in #ahfj1 published the results of his investigations 7under the order of the ,bund of #aheg7 into the forest conditions of the ,alps1 and contributed other volumes along similar lines4 ,he was succeeded by the now venerable ,dr4 ,j4 ,coaz as ,inspector-,general of the ,bund 7still active at #ij years of age71 who also contributed to the science of mountain reboisement and in other directions4 ,the work on the management of the ,city forest of ,zrich by its long-time manager ,meister is classic4 ,under the active direction of ,anton ,bhler for many years1 the publication of 7now under ,dr4 ,engler7 ,mittheilungen der eidgenssischen ,centralanstalt fr das forstliche ,versuchswesen1 since #ahia1 have become important contributions to forestry science4 ,in the direction of wood technology the name of ,l4 ,tetmajer1 who is conducting timber tests1 should be mentioned4 ,,france4 ,no complete monographic history of forestry in ,france is in existence1 and mainly incomplete notes scattered through various volumes were at the disposal of the writer4 ,the work which contains the largest amount of historic information is ,g4 ,,huffel1 ,economie ,forestire1 #c volumes1 #aijd-aijg1 pp4 #dbb1 #dhd1 #eaj1 perhaps the most ambitious work in the ,french language1 which has been largely followed in the account here given4 ,it is a collection of ten studies1 historical data being interspersed throughout the three volumes1 the third volume containing one study entirely historical4 ,l4 ,f4 ,a4 ,,maury1 ,les forts de la ,gaule et de l'ancienne ,france1 #ahfg1 #eja pp4 is mainly descriptive1 but full of interesting historic data and detail up to the revolutionary period4 ,,jules ,,clav1 ,etudes sur l'conomie forestire1 #ahfb1 #cgg pp41 #abo1 while mainly a propagandist essay1 rehearses to some extent the history of forest practice1 policies1 etc41 and gives a good insight into conditions at that time4 ,die forstlichen ,verhltnisse ,frankreichs1 by ,dr4 ,a4 ,v4 ,,seckendorff1 #ahgi1 pp4 #bbh1 furnishes a few historical notes4 ,three ,english publications by ,,john ,,croumbie ,,brown1 ,pine ,plantations in ,france1 ,reboisement in ,france1 #ahgf2 ,french ,forest ,ordinance of #affi1 #ahhb1 are profuse and not entirely accurate1 but give hints of historic development4 ,,ch4 ,,guyot1 ,l'enseignement forestier en ,france1 #ahih1 #cih pp41 gives an insight into the development of forestry education and a complete history of the school at ,nancy1 and throws much light on other developments4 ,code de la lgislation forestire1 par ,,puton1 contains all the legislation having reference to forests4 ,an article on ,l'ide forestire dans l'histoire1 by ,l4 ,f4 ,,tessier1 in ,revue des eaux et forts1 #aije1 ,jan41 ,feb41 gives on #bf pages an interesting brief survey of the history of forest policy in ,france4 ,forestry in ,france1 by ,f4 ,,bailey1 in the ,indian ,forester1 #ahhf1 #fa pp41 describes well conditions at that time4 ,france is one of the countries in which forestry has been practised for a long time and forestry practice has been almost as highly developed as in the preceding ,teutonic countries4 ,germany's neighbor to the ,west has evolved1 however1 forest policies and practices which are different in some respects from those of ,germany1 although the early history of forestry in ,france was largely analogous to that of ,germany4 ,indeed1 until the end of the ninth century1 the two countries being undivided1 the same usages existed more or less in both1 except that in the ,gallic country ,roman influence left a stronger imprint1 ,gallia having been long under the dominion of ,rome4 ,the fact that ,france has for nearly a thousand years been a unit1 while ,germany has until recently been split up into many independent principalities1 did much for uniform1 albeit less ambitious1 development in forestry matters4 ,most of the forest policy as it exists to-day was inaugurated during the monarchical regime1 which came to an end in #ahga4 ,since that year1 a republican form of government1 with an assembly of #ehd1 a senate of #cjj members1 under a ,president elected by the legislature for seven years1 has been in existence4 ,the country is principally a plain1 mostly below #abjj feet in altitude1 sloping to the north and west2 the mountain ranges 7,pyrenes1 ,alps1 ,jura1 ,vosges7 are confined mainly to the south and east boundaries1 with secondary ranges 7,cevennes1 ,cte d',or1 ,auvergne1 etc417 in the southeast part of the country4 ,of the #bjd1jjj square miles of territory1 just about #ah per cent4 is wooded1 which1 with a population of nearly #dj million1 leaves only about 4#f of an acre per capita4 ,in its present condition this area does not produce more than one-third of the home demand1 which requires on the average an import in excess over export to the amount of about #be million dollars 7#cc million in #aijb71 representing over #aaj million cubic feet annually1 mostly workwood1 while the export is of mine props and railroad ties at about half the value of the imported wood4 ,since1 in #ahib1 there were still nearly #ab 7over #ae million acres7 waste land1 opportunity for enlargement of the forest area seems to exist4 ,it appears that about two-thirds of this waste land is capable of bearing forest1 and the existing forest area is capable of much larger production than the present2 three quarters of the production being fuel wood4 ,the distribution of forest area is very uneven1 varying from #c4e to #ef per cent4 in the various departments4 ,only about #bj of the area is located on the mountains1 #ai in hill country1 and #fj in the plains4 ,six forest regions may be differentiated according to ,huffel1 which1 however1 are mainly geographical divisions3 the northeast2 valleys of ,seine and ,loire2 northwest and central2 southwest and ,pyrenees2 ,mediterranean and ,pre-alps2 ,alps4 ,hardwoods1 oak 7#dj71 beech and ash1 etc41 occupy fully #hj1 while pine--the two species silvestris and maritima1 largely planted--represents the bulk of the #bj of coniferous forest area1 fir1 spruce and larch in the mountains forming a very small part4 ,only #be of the forest area is timber forest1 #ch is coppice1 and #ce coppice with standards1 #b being in process of conversion into timber forest4 ,in the ,state forests alone1 however1 #fh are timber forest or in process of conversion to that form4 ,of the #bbg million acres1 hardly more than one-third1 belonging to state and communities1 are placed under the rgime forestier1 i4e41 supervised and managed under working plans4 ,the larger area is under coppice4 ,three-fourths of the communal and one-sixth of the state's timber forest is managed under selection system4 ,combinations of farm and forest culture 7sartage and furetage7 are still quite extensively practised4 ,the production of saw-timber under these practices is naturally small4 ,of the #dj cubic feet of wood per acre produced in the better class of managed state and communal properties1 only #aj cubic feet are saw-logs1 and if the private forests were taken into consideration1 the average product1 on the whole would appear still smaller1 the private properties being mostly small1 poorly managed1 and largely coppice4 ,neither the owners1 nor their managers and guards have1 as a rule1 any professional education1 although the means of obtaining it exist in the schools at ,nancy and ,barres4 ,blessed for the largest part with a most favorable climate and with rich soil of tertiary formation1 the difficulties in forestry practices experienced by other1 more northern and continental countries are hardly known4 ,hence many practices which are successful in ,france might in ,germany prove disastrous1 and such yields as some of the oak forests show1 unattainable4 ,the greatest interest for the forester attaches to the methods of conversion of coppice into timber forest1 to the extensive areas reforested during the last century1 which probably exceed #c million acres1 and to the reboisement work in the mountains4 #a4 ,development of ,forest ,property4 ,as in ,austria1 private ownership of forest property is largely preponderant1 while state property is small4 ,in ancient ,gaul1 the ,romans found the forest outside of holy groves as communal property4 ,after the conquest1 all the unseated lands1 especially the extensive mountain forests1 were declared either ,state or imperial property--more than half the whole territory--and were managed as res publica by the administrators of public affairs4 ,and while later1 with the advent of the ,german hordes1 property conditions shaped themselves somewhat according to their ways1 the influence of the ,roman law and institutions were never quite eradicated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the country1 outside of the public property1 was by the ,romans divided into communities1 called fundus1 each placed under a ,gallic seigneur 7eques71 a former chief1 now proprietor1 his tribesmen and the remnants of the earlier sessile population becoming serfs4 ,one-third of the fundus was handed to the serfs as their property and divided among them--the first private property--2 another third was retained by the seigneur and utilized by means of the service of the serfs 7corves71 but usually also burdened by rights of user on their part2 and the last third became common property of the community at large4 ,there remained1 however1 here and there1 also1 some of the original free communes or ,mark 7vicus71 so that five different property classes were in existence4 ,the #eth century saw the ,teutonic tribes1 ,suevi1 ,alani1 ,vandals and ,burgundians1 overwhelm the ,romans1 who had for #ejj years kept the ,gallo-,celtic population under their rule2 and these were followed by ,visigoths and ,franks1 who in turn took possession of the country4 ,the conquerors did not drive out the ,gallo-,romans1 but merely quartered themselves on them under the euphemistic title of 8guests10 assuming to themselves two-thirds of each estate1 and leaving the remainder to their 8hosts40 ,on these lands1 undoubtedly1 similar economic and social institutions were developed as in ,germany4 ,communal ownership under these was at first developed to such an extent that the ,salic laws declared all trees which were not reserved by special sign as subject to the use of all and any of the ,markers4 ,but later1 as in ,germany1 the socialistic ,mark was followed by the feudal system with its ban forests and the creation of great landed proprietors or lords4 ,when ,clovis1 the king of the ,franks1 in the first decade of the #fth century defeated the ,visigoths and took possession of the country 7see p4 #bi71 he found communal forests of the villagers 7vicus71 property of seigneurs 7equites71 royal forests and ,state forests1 remnants of ,roman origin4 ,the latter properties and much of the ,mark forests he claimed for himself and divided two-thirds among his vassals2 but the larger part of the other third became also gradually property of the nobility and church1 so that1 by the #abth century1 only a relatively small royal property remained4 ,afterwards1 the royal or ,state property grew again in various ways1 as the power of the kings grew4 ,in #aeci1 ,francis ,i declared the same inalienable4 ,but neither himself nor his successors paid heed to this self-imposed prohibition and1 whenever financial troubles made it expedient1 they disposed of some of their holdings4 ,by the ordinance of #aeff 7,edit de ,moulins71 ,king ,charles ,,ix again declared the domain of the crown inalienable4 ,nevertheless he himself in the same year1 and repeatedly afterwards1 sold parts of his domain4 ,henry ,,iii1 in #aegi1 renewed the ordinance of non-alienation and restored some of the last parcels to the domain by the exercise of the royal right4 ,himself and his successors1 however1 continually broke this contract1 and the royal domain decreased while that of the seigneurs grew4 ,similarly to what happened in ,germany1 the church property was taken by machination or force to increase the holdings of kings or seigneurs4 ,nevertheless1 at the beginning of the revolution in #aghi1 the royal domain comprised not more than #a1bjj1jjj acres1 producing a net income of #a4b million dollars4 ,then followed an era of ups and downs1 continuous changes of policy1 increases and decreases of the property until with the inauguration of the republic1 in #ahga1 comparative stability was secured4 ,in #agia1 after the revolution1 the royal property became national domain1 and by further spoliation of church property1 and otherwise1 attained an area of #d1cjj1jjj acres4 ,in the law of #agia1 a distinction was made between the inalienable domain1 which comprises roads1 canals1 fortresses1 harbors1 etc41 and the alienable national domain1 including the forest and other property derived from royal or crown domains4 ,to this national domain was added1 by the law of #agib1 the forest property of the refugees of the revolution which was1 however1 later for the most part restored or indemnified4 ,finally1 when1 by the treaty of ,basel 7#agie71 the ,french frontier had been pushed to the ,rhine1 the total state forest had grown to around #f1ejj1jjj acres1 nearly one-third of the total forest area4 ,but1 through sales and otherwise1 this area had1 by #ahae1 been reduced to #c1bjj1jjj acres1 and during the period until #ahgb1 the area had been further again reduced to less than #b1ejj1jjj acres4 ,at present 7#aije7 it comprises #b4i million acres1 or less than #ab per cent41 of the total forest area1 #ee per cent4 of which comes from the original royal domain1 #bb per cent4 from original church property and #bc per cent4 from recent acquisitions1 secured under the laws of reboisement of mountains1 sand dunes1 etc4 ,the communal property developed largely in a similar manner as in ,germany1 from the ,mark1 and through the feudal system1 with its rights of user as a result4 ,in the twelfth century1 the grandees or seigneurs were active in colonizing their domains1 acquired as fiefs or otherwise1 with serfs and others1 giving them charters for villages with communal privileges and rights4 ,under this method1 another kind of communal forest property grew up1 by written instruments or contracts1 in which limitations and reservations of rights are imposed by the seigneurs4 ,one of the most usual conditions of the contract was the prevention of clearing or sale2 at the same time a new set of rights of user1 this time on the part of the seigneur1 brought new complications4 ,one of the worst features originating in the #adth century as an outgrowth of feudal relations1 was 8the right of the third0 7triage71 which gave to the seigneur1 whenever he wished to exercise it1 one-third of the property free of all rights of user4 ,in this way1 the communal area was diminished until1 in #affg1 the widespread abuse of this right led to an ordinance abolishing it4 ,it was1 however1 re-established by the ordinance of #affi in all cases where the forest had been gratuitously ceded by the seigneurs1 or when the remaining two-thirds was deemed sufficient for the needs of the parish4 ,not until #agij-agib was this exorbitant right finally abolished4 ,as an outgrowth of the revolutionary doctrine of #agic1 the most radical legislation decreed presumptive ownership by the municipal corporations of all lands for which the claimant could not show a deed of purchase1 excluding any title acquired as a result of feudal relations4 ,the day of revenge of all old wrongs had come1 and1 appeal to justice being useless1 the municipalities increased their holdings freely4 ,although later legislation attempted to arrest this public theft and to restitute some of the stolen property1 much of the communal forest area of to-day consists of this kind of ill-gotten property4 ,another method of increasing municipal properties was by exchange of territory for the rights of user4 ,efforts to get rid of these rights1 which grew up as described and to prevent their extension were instituted much earlier than in ,germany1 ,philip of ,valois expressly forbidding such extension as early as #acdf4 ,nevertheless they continued to grow so that1 by the middle of the #ahth century1 they were as general and afforded as great a hindrance to forest management1 as in ,germany4 ,the ordinance of #affi also provided for the extinction of these rights1 apparently without much success1 and the troublesome times after #aghi increased their number4 ,only when the orderly regime following the reign of ,napoleon gave rise to the ,code ,forestier 7#ahbg71 was a systematic attempt for their extinguishment by the cession of territory and cash payment begun1 and by this time the extinction may be considered practically concluded1 at least for the state and communal property4 ,private property1 not seignorial1 was but little developed before the #afth century2 after that the frequent sales by the kings and barons gave rise to small forest owners1 so that1 by #aghi1 over #aj million acres were in such possession4 ,during the #aith century this grew by purchase1 by cessions1 and by reforestation of waste lands to double that amount1 not less than two million acres being added by the latter cause alone1 while some decrease came from clearings4 ,in #aije1 private holdings comprised #ae million acres or #fe per cent4 of the total2 the communal and institutional forests #d4h million acres or #ba per cent41 leaving for ,state forest #b4i million acres1 or a little over #ab per cent4 of the total of #bb4g million acres4 ,twenty-two per cent4 of state and communal property is1 however1 waste land1 and such areas in private hands may be six times as large2 there being altogether between #ad and #ae million acres of waste lands4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,administration4 ,in the earlier times1 and1 indeed1 into the #ahth century1 the most important use of the forest was in the mast from oak and beech for the pigs and pasture for the cattle1 besides firewood1 for which mostly the soft woods were used4 ,this was given free from the royal domain1 and the administration consisted mainly in regulating this use4 ,the main incentive for the regulation of forest use on the part of the king were the interests of the chase4 ,towards the end of the ninth century1 special forest officers1 forestarii1 are mentioned in ,charlemagne's celebrated capitularium1 which describes in detail the administration of the public domains4 ,these were1 to be sure1 only lower rank officials1 working under mayors1 intendants and the count 7comes71 who was the administrator and soon independent arbiter of the royal domain as well as of the administration of justice in general4 ,his office early became hereditary4 ,the first mention of 8forest masters0 7matres des eaux et forts7 dates back to #abia1 and later ordinances mention higher officials4 ,but the credit for a full and detail organization and regulation of management belongs to ,charles ,v1 the wise ,valois1 in his ordinance of #acgf4 ,this organization1 after various changes1 by the end of the #afth century1 under the reign of ,henry ,,iv1 took about the following form3 ,under a general superintendent of forests1 titulary head of the forest service1 a number of grands matres1 gnraux rformateurs des eaux et forts1 some #ag1 were appointed by the ,king to watch over the conduct of the matres and gruyers1 officers in charge of the forest districts 7matrises74 ,all of these officials had their deputies and lieutenants under various designations 7procureur du roi1 greffier1 gardemarteau1 sergent du garde1 etc47 ,a stamping hammer 7kept by the gardemarteau7 was employed for marking trees which defined the boundaries1 or which were to be reserved in the fellings4 ,in addition to these regular officers there were employed a great number of capitaines des chasses whose functions1 as the title indicates1 related mainly to the chase4 ,the function of the forestmasters did not stop with the supervision of the use of the forest and sale of wood1 but included also the jurisdiction of all misdemeanors and crimes committed in the royal1 and later1 in all forests4 ,they became thus gradually a privileged class of immense power4 ,graft and sale of offices became the order of the day4 ,sometimes the offices were made hereditary1 and again were limited to three or four years' tenure1 in the endeavour to break up the shameful practices4 ,for nearly three centuries all efforts at reform were failures4 ,the method of prescribing the rules and regulations during the #abth to #agth century was by ordinances like those issued by the ,german princes2 the first ordinance on record being that issued by ,louis ,,vi in #abae4 ,these ordinances usually appeared under the name ,le fait des eaux et forts 7the matters of waters and woods71 curiously enough thus suggesting the relation of the two4 ,the latter term was used exactly like that of the ,german ,forst1 designating the reserved territory under the ban1 while bois is used to designate actual woodland 7silva74 ,in #acgf1 ,charles ,v1 in his endeavor to build up a navy against ,england1 made reservations for naval timber and also issued the ordinance of ,melun1 a general forest code1 the provisions of which lasted largely until the reform of #affi4 ,in #adjb1 the many ordinances1 often contradictory were codified under one text1 and another codification was made under ,francis ,i in #aeae4 ,by the middle of the #agth century the devastation of forests had progressed so far1 and the abuses in the management of the royal domain had become so evident that ,louis ,,xiv's great minister1 ,colbert1 was induced to make the historical remark 8,france will perish for lack of woods40 ,again the needs of the navy was the prime incentive of the vigorous reform which he instituted after a most searching investigation4 ,the result was the celebrated forest ordinance of #affi4 ,for this purpose he appointed1 in #affb1 a commission which not only investigated conditions but was clothed with power to reform the abuses which it might discover4 ,for this work he selected four trusted men outside of the forest service1 to whom later more were added1 and gave them the aid of technical advisers1 among whom ,froudoir seems to have been most prominent4 ,colbert himself gave close attention to this work of reform4 ,as the first act1 the commission recommended the ceasing of all cutting in the royal forests1 and1 after deliberation and consultation with interested parties through eight years1 the final law was enacted1 a masterpiece whose principles and prescriptions to an extent have persisted into the #aith century4 ,the commission from time to time made reports1 giving their findings in detail1 and these form a most interesting record of conditions prevailing at that time4 ,as one of the historians 7,joubain7 puts it1 8the commissioners did not recoil before long hours of inspection nor high influence1 they neither hesitated to declare against1 nor prosecute1 great and small alike1 nor to pronounce a most serious sentence40 ,a thorough cleaning up was done and a complete reorganization secured4 ,by this ordinance1 three special courts of adjudication in matters pertaining to the forests were established1 with special officers whose duties were carefully defined1 namely the courts of the ,gruries1 of the ,matrises and the ,tables de ,marbre4 ,the first named1 lower grade courts took cognizance of the lesser offences1 abuses1 wastes and malversations1 disputes in regard to fishing or chase1 and murders arising out of these2 gruries being the woods belonging to individuals in which the jurisdiction and the profit from such jurisdiction belonged to the king1 or at least to the seigneurs4 ,the courts of the matrise referred to the forest territory placed under administration of the matres particuliers 7,forstmeister71 and were established near the many royal forests as courts of appeal in forest matters4 ,a final appeal could be made to the tables de marbre 7courts of the marble table71 which also decided on the more weighty questions of proprietorship by whatever term held1 and especially civil and criminal cases relating to the eaux et forts2 the wrong doings in the discharge of official duties 7abus71 contraventions to the orders and regulations1 misdemeanors or depredations 7dlit72 and all kinds of fraud not included under those cited 7malversations74 ,the whole country was divided into #ah arrondissements of grandes-matrises des eaux et forts and these were divided into #acd matrises1 each under a matre particulier1 with a lieutenant1 a garde-marteau1 a garde gnral1 two arpenteurs and a number of gardes4 ,a financial branch for the handling of moneys1 and the judicial branch represented by the three courts described above1 completed the organization1 which lasted until the revolution1 albeit some details were changed soon after its enactment1 and the offices became again purchaseable and hereditary4 ,the sale of royal forests was again forbidden1 penalties being provided for the eventual purchaser4 ,theft and incendiarism were severely punished1 and specific rules of management were established4 ,clearings could only be made by permission even on the part of private owners4 ,the methods of sale and harvest were determined4 ,the prescriptions of older ordinances were renewed to the effect that at least #ac to #af seed trees 7baliveaux7 per acre in the coppice1 and #h seed trees in timber forest1 were to be reserved in all forests without exception4 ,private owners were not to cut these seed trees before they were #dj years old in the coppice1 and #abj years in the timber forest1 while in the public and church forests these seed trees were treated like reserves4 ,similarly1 the prescription that no woods were to be cut before #aj years of age was revived from former ordinances1 the time later 7#aghg7 being increased for public forests to #be years4 ,also the obligation to keep one-fourth of the forest in reserve1 which ,charles ,,ix had decreed in #aefj1 was renewed for the public forests 7those belonging to corporations and other public institutions74 ,for the fir forests of the mountains1 which had become important as furnishers of ship masts1 special regulations were issued1 and the mast timber reserved for the crown4 ,there was lively opposition to the enforcement of these prescriptions1 especially where they interfered with property rights1 nevertheless they persisted until the changes brought about by the revolution of #aghi4 ,certain prescriptions1 as for instance the exclusion of sheepherding were never enforced1 and this practice continues even to-day in certain sections4 ,as a result of the reform1 however1 the revenues from the royal forests trebled in #bj years4 ,during the #ahth century1 several famines occurred and led to the encouragement of extending farm operations at the expense of the forest1 notably in the sixties1 when among other similar efforts some #bjj families returning from ,canada after the ,english conquest were colonized in the forests of ,poitou4 ,at that time1 also the 8declaration0 of #agff exempted those who cleared land for farm purposes for #ae years from all taxes4 ,as a result of this invitation some #gej1jjj acres were cleared1 and the practice of clearing for farm use continued until the middle of the #aith century4 ,in this way1 by inconsiderately exposing soil which would not everywhere be found adapted to farm use1 wastes naturally existing were greatly increased4 ,the revolution brought with it sudden and disastrous changes4 ,the law of #agia abolished not only the jurisdiction of the matrises1 but removed all restraint1 and thereby inaugurated widespread destruction and devastation of forest property against which legislative attempts of the republican government were entirely powerless4 ,not only did the peasants take advantage of the disorder1 and the municipalities cut their reserves without hindrance but extraordinary fellings in the state forests were necessitated by the needs of the navy and the exchequer4 ,in #ahja1 after various previous attempts at organization1 ,napoleon reorganized the service1 with five administrators1 #cj conservators1 #bjj inspectors and #h1fjj inferior officers4 ,at that time1 it appears that the revenue from the public forest domain amounted to #f1jjj1jjj1 a sum justifying such elaborate organization4 ,but otherwise the methods of ,colbert's ordinance were revived4 ,devastation1 however1 continued4 ,incompetence in the service1 was again introduced when in #ahaa half the number of officials was recruited from superannuated army officers4 ,in #ahag1 the whole forest service was abolished1 and the properties placed in the hands of the fiscal agents of the government without any technical knowledge4 ,the old order of things was1 however1 re-established in #ahbj1 and soon after the final organization which has lasted to date was effected4 #c4 ,development of ,modern ,forest ,policy4 ,in #ahbb1 a commission composed of foresters was instituted to revise the ordinance of #affi1 which1 here and there modified1 had continued to be valid1 except during the revolutionary period4 ,the result of the work of this commission was the ,code ,forestier 7#ahbi7 which is the law of the present day4 ,in it1 principles are laid down under which the state1 communal and other public forests are to be managed4 ,all forests submitted to the rgime forestier1 namely1 the state and communal forests and those belonging to public institutions1 are entirely managed by the state forest administration1 the communities or other public forest owners paying for the service not to exceed #i cents per acre1 or #e per cent4 of the revenue4 ,all jurisdiction and execution of forestry laws is in the hands of the officials of the ,forest ,administration4 ,the foresters of the state have the exclusive responsibility of making and executing working plans1 without interference by the municipalities after the plans have once been submitted and approved by them4 ,the corporations have not even the right to appoint their own guards1 all such being appointed by the prefects of the departments upon recommendation by the forest department4 ,the fellings1 usually performed by the purchaser1 7the wood being sold on the stump71 are supervised most rigorously1 making even the smallest deviations from the conditions of the contract sale1 which otherwise would only entail the payment of damage1 punishable by fine2 and the responsibility for any trespass which may occur on the land reaches #bej yards beyond the limits of the purchaser's territory1 unless he gives proper warning and tries to find out the perpetrators of the same4 ,legal proceedings are brought before the courts of correction1 and are greatly simplified1 as is customary in ,germany4 ,the public forests may not be sold1 mortgaged or divided1 and the product can be sold only through state foresters4 ,as in the olden times1 one-quarter of the stands in the timber forests1 and one-fourth of the felling budget in the coppice is placed in reserve for urgent or unforeseen needs4 ,in addition to these and other restrictions which refer to the public forests1 there are prescriptions which apply to all woods in general4 ,all foresters employed1 even on private properties1 have sheriff's power4 ,walking in the woods with axe1 saw and wagon outside of the public roads which pass through them1 is forbidden2 the making of fires is forbidden2 the making of fire lines1 #bj yards wide1 between private forests can be enforced by either owner1 and railroads1 along their rights of way1 are required to make such4 ,by special law of #ahic1 the setting of fires even within #bjj yards of a wood is forbidden in certain regions1 and the punishment of infractions of these laws is very severe4 ,the rights of user are gauged by the administration according to the possible yield1 even in private forests1 and are surrounded by many other restrictions2 the wood falling under such rights of user is cut and delivered by the forest agents1 and the rights can be forcibly extinguished by exchange of territory4 ,the supervision of the communal forests which had1 indeed1 existed since the #afth century was by no means an easy task4 ,the opposition to it which had always existed and was1 in earlier times1 justified by the incompetence and graft of the officials1 continued even after this justification of it had ceased4 ,thanks to the tact and efficiency of the officials of the modern period1 the opposition has been largely overcome1 and1 thanks to the progress made in enforcing these rigorous laws1 their necessity has almost vanished1 and1 at present1 relatively few infractions need to be investigated and punished4 ,moreover1 the rigor of the original law was somewhat abated by the law of #ahei4 ,there are1 however1 voices which proclaim that the supervision by the government is not as thorough as it should be1 and that the conditions of the communal property have deteriorated4 ,while the supervision of the management of communal property is mainly based on fiscal considerations1 the ,code forestier also authorizes the administration to interfere in the management of forests whose influence on the public welfare can be demonstrated4 ,in order to assure the possibility of such interference1 every private owner who desires to clear land is required to advise the government of his purpose1 when the administration can prevent such clearing1 if deemed necessary to prevent landslides1 erosion and torrential action1 to protect watersources1 sand dunes1 for defensive purposes at the frontier 7671 and for public health4 ,otherwise1 the management of private forest is unhampered4 ,by special legislation1 enacted in #ahfj and #ahhb1 however1 the special cases of torrential action were taken care of in a special manner1 which will be set forth in following pages4 ,the reboisement law of #ahhb authorizes the administration to acquire by expropriation mountain forests or mountain slopes needed for reforestation for the sake of safeguarding them and preventing torrential damage4 ,for ,algiers1 the same authorization to expropriate was extended by law of #aijc to include all such areas on which according to the ,code forestier the administration might forbid clearing1 and such extension is advocated for the mother country4 ,as a rule the administration has been able to avoid expropriation and secure the territories by voluntary sale at less than #aj per acre4 ,at present1 the forest service is under the ,minister of ,agriculture as ,president of the ,forestry ,council1 with a ,director-,general as ,vice ,president and technical head1 and three ,administrateurs ,vrificateurs gnraux1 chiefs of the three bureaux into which the administration is divided1 each with two chiefs of sections1 ,inspectors1 and the necessary office staff4 ,for purposes of the local administration the forest area is divided into #cb conservations1 each under charge of a ,conservateur equivalent to the ,german ,oberforstmeister4 ,these are again subdivided into ,chefferies or ,inspections1 two to twelve in each conservation1 which are administrative units1 under the supervision of ,inspectors 7#bjj7 and ,assistant ,inspectors 7#baj74 ,in addition1 a special service for forest-organization and reboisement employs #ad inspectors and some #bj assistants4 ,the forest districts or cantonments 7ranges7 finally are under the direct charge of ,gardes gnraux 7#afb71 with the assistance of ,gardes gnraux stagiaires 7#fg7 and underforesters or guards 7,brigadiers7 7#c1fej72 altogether a personnel of over #d1djj officials4 ,while this is a larger force per acreage1 yet the expense for personnel per acre is less than one-half that of the ,prussian forest administration1 and one-quarter of that in several of the other ,german state administrations4 ,in #aiji1 a reorganization was effected improving to some extent the salaries4 ,the legislation of #aiji also further strengthens ,state influence by placing certain private properties under the control of the ,administration1 and allowing the latter to undertake the management of private properties at the request of owners for a consideration4 ,the budget for #aiaa places the total expenditure for the ,forest ,administration at #c million dollars 7#ih cents per acre71 of which #iej1jjj for reboisement and other improvement work4 ,the receipts for the last five years have averaged near #g million dollars1 so that a net result of #a4fj per acre seems attained1 considering the expense of reboisement as new investment4 #d4 ,work of ,reforestation4 ,the most noted work of the forest administration1 and one for which it deserves high credit1 has been that of the reclamation of waste lands1 of which1 in #ahgi1 it was estimated there were still #bj1jjj1jjj acres in extent4 ,especially the 8reboisement0 work in the ,alpine districts1 as a result of the law of #ahhb1 has become celebrated4 ,the movement for recovery of waste lands dates from the beginning of the #aith century1 and to-day reforestation by state1 communal and private effort encouraged by legislative acts during the last sixty years1 has restored well-nigh more than #c1jjj1jjj acres of ground which had been lost to forest production4 ,there are four definite regions of large extent in which systematic effort in this direction has been made1 namely1 the sand dunes of ,gascony and the ,landes of ,southwestern ,france2 the sandy plains of ,la ,sologne2 the limestone wastes of ,champagne2 and the mountain slopes in the ,vosges and ,jura-,alps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sand dunes on the coast of ,france comprise around #cej1jjj acres2 those on the coast of ,gascony in ,southwest ,france alone have an extent of nearly #bej1jjj acres1 these being the most important and having for a long time endangered the adjoining pastures and fields4 ,it seems that the land occupied by dunes was originally forested1 and that these were created by deforestation4 ,as early as #agag1 successful attempts at reforestation were made by the inhabitants of ,la ,teste1 and from that time on sporadically small plantings came into existence4 ,but the inauguration of systematic reforestation was begun only after a notable report by ,brmontier1 who1 in #aghf1 secured1 as chief engineer of the department of ,bordeaux1 a sum of #aj1jjj to be employed in ascertaining the possibilities of draining the ,landes by means of a canal1 and of fixing the dunes4 ,as a result of this beginning1 the method for their recovery having been1 by #agic1 experimentally determined by ,brmontier1 #bge1jjj acres of moving sand have been fixed during the last century4 ,the revolutionary government1 in #agii1 created a ,commission of ,dunes1 of which ,brmontier was made president1 and annual appropriation of #aj1jjj was made1 later 7in #ahjh7 increased to #ae1jjj4 ,in #ahag1 the work was transferred to the ,administration des ,ponts et ,chausses4 ,the appropriations were increased until1 in #ahed1 they reached #ajj1jjj a year1 and in #ahfe1 the work being nearly finished1 the dunes were handed over to the forest administration4 ,there being still about #bj1jjj acres to be recovered1 this was achieved in #ahfe1 when #bjj1jjj acres had been reforested at an expense of about #b1jjj1jjj1 and an additional expense of #gjj1jjj to organize the newly formed pine forests--,pinus maritima was entirely used4 ,these1 at present1 with their resinous products and wood are furnishing valuable material4 ,an unfortunate policy of ceding some of these forest areas to private and communal owners1 who claimed them as of ancient right1 and also of sales was inaugurated just as the planting was finished1 so that at present only #abe1jjj acres remain in the hands of the state4 ,the returns from the sales1 however1 reimbursed the cost of the reboisement in excess by #adj1jjj1 so that the state really acquired for nothing1 a property1 now estimated to be worth #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,a similar plantation on moving sands1 of #ce1jjj acres1 is found north of this tract4 ,to the eastward of this region of dunes stretch the so-called ,landes1 a territory triangular in shape1 containing #b1jjj1jjj acres of shifting sands and marshes1 on which a poor population of shepherds 7on stilts7 used to eke out a living4 ,in #ahgc1 ,chambrelent1 an engineer of the administration of bridges and roads 7administration des ponts et chausses71 conceived the idea of improving this section by reforestation1 and at his own expense recovered some #a1bjj acres in the worst marsh by ditching and planting4 ,the success of this plantation invited imitators1 and1 by #ahee1 the reforested area had grown to #ej1jjj acres4 ,this led1 in #aheg1 to the passage of a law ordering forestation of the parts of the land owned by the state as well as by the communities1 the state at the same time undertaking the expense of building a system of roads and making the plans for forestation free of charge4 ,the communities were allowed to sell a part of the reclaimed land in order to recover the expense1 and sold some #dgj1jjj acres for #b4g million dollars1 of which less than #cjj1jjj were used to forest the #bej1jjj acres belonging to them4 ,from #ahej to #ahib1 private owners imitating the government and communal work1 altogether nearly #a1gej1jjj acres were covered with pine forest at a cost of #d4jj to #e4jj per acre1 or1 including the building of roads1 for a total expenditure of around #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahgg1 the value of the then recovered area was estimated at over #dj1jjj1jjj1 this figure being arrived at by calculating the possible net revenues of a pinery under a #ge years rotation1 which was figured at #b4ej per acre1 with a production of #ea cubic feet per acre and #bjj quarts of resin 7at #c74 ,an estimate of recent date places the value of the recovered area at #ajj1jjj1jjj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,centrally located between the valleys of the ,loire and the ,cher1 near ,orleans1 lies the region of ,la ,sologne1 a sandy1 poorly drained plain upon an impenetrable calcareous sub-soil giving rise to stagnant waters2 this region too had been originally densely wooded1 and was described as a paradise in early times2 but from the beginning of the #agth century to the end of the #ahth it was deforested1 making it an unhealthy1 useless waste4 ,by #aghg1 #a1bej1jjj acres of this territory had become absolutely abandoned4 ,about the middle of the #aith century1 a number of influential citizens constituted themselves a committee to begin its work of recovery1 the ,director ,general of ,forests being authorized to assume the presidency of that committee4 ,as a result1 a canal #be miles in length and #cej miles of road were built1 and some #bjj1jjj acres1 all non-agricultural lands1 were sowed and planted with ,maritime and ,scotch ,pine1 the state furnishing assistance through the forest service and otherwise4 ,a set-back occurred during the severe winter of #ahgi1 frost killing many of the younger plantations1 which led to the substitution of the hardier ,scotch ,pine for the ,maritime ,pine in the plantings4 ,the cost per acre set out with about #c1ejj two-year old seedlings amounted to #e4jj4 ,an estimate of the value of these plantations places it at1 not less than #ah1jjj1jjj1 so that lands which #ej years ago1 could hardly be sold for #d4jj per acre1 now bring over #c4jj as an annual revenue4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the province of ,champagne1 ,south of ,rheims1 a plain of arid lime-stone wastes of an extent which in the #ahth century had reached #a1gej1jjj acres is found4 ,about #ahjg1 the movement for the recovery of these wastes began2 first in a small way1 gaining strength by #ahcj after some sporadic experiments had shown the possibility of reforestation1 and to-day over #bjj1jjj acres of coniferous forest 7mainly ,austrian and ,scotch ,pine71 largely planted by private incentive1 are in existence1 the better acres being farmed4 ,it is interesting to note that land which #ej years ago was often sold without measurement by distance1 8as far as the cry would carry10 and rarely for more than #d4jj per acre1 is to-day worth over #dj4jj at a cost for planting of less than #be4jj4 ,the stumpage value of a thirty years' growth is figured at from #ej to #ajj1 the total forest area is valued at #aj1jjj1jjj1 with net revenue from the #bjj1jjj acres at #b4jj per acre4 99 99 99 99 99 ,france is unfortunate in having within her territory1 although so little mountainous1 the largest proportion of the area in ,europe liable to torrential action4 ,not less than #a1dfb brooks and mountain streams have been counted as dangerous waters in the ,alps1 the ,cevennes1 and the ,pyrenees mountains2 or two-thirds of the torrents of ,europe4 ,an area nearly #a1jjj1jjj acres in extent1 of mountain slopes1 is exposed to the ravages of these waters by erosion4 ,here the most forcible demonstration of the value of a forest cover in protecting watersheds was furnished by the results of the extensive forest destruction and devastation which took place especially during and following the years of the ,revolution4 ,long ago1 in the #afth century1 the local parliaments had enacted decrees against clearing in the mountains1 with severe fines1 confiscation and even corporal punishment1 and these restrictions had been generally effective2 but during the ,revolutionary period all these wholesome restrictions vanished2 inconsiderate exploitation by the farmers began1 and the damage came so rapidly that in less than ten years after the beginning of freedom1 the effect was felt4 ,within three years 7#agib71 the first complaints of the result of unrestricted cutting were heard1 and1 by #ahjc1 they were quite general4 ,the brooks had changed to torrents1 inundating the plains1 tearing away fertile lands or silting them over with the debris carried down from the mountains4 ,yet in spite of these early warnings and the theoretical discussions by such men as ,boussingault1 ,becquerel and others1 the destructive work by axe1 fire and over-pasturing progressed until about #h1jjj1jjj acres of tillable land had been rendered more or less useless1 and the population of #ah departments had been impoverished or reduced in number by emigration4 ,a young engineer1 ,surell1 was the first to study the possibility of coping with the evil and proved in his ,etude sur les torrents1 in #ahda1 its relation to forest cover1 and the need of attacking it at the sources4 ,the first work of recovery was tentatively begun in #ahdc1 but the political events following did not promote its extension1 until1 in #ahfj1 a special law charged the ,forest ,department with the mission of extinguishing the torrents4 ,there were recognized two categories of work1 the one1 considered of general public interest being designated as obligatory1 the other with less immediate need being facultative2 the territories devastated by each river and its affluents on which the work of recovery was to be executed were known as perimeters4 ,in the obligatory perimeters1 private lands were to be acquired by the state by process of expropriation1 the communal properties were to be only for a time occupied by the state and after the achievement of the recovery were to be restituted on payment of the expense of the work2 or else the corporation could get rid of the debt by ceding one-half of its property to the state4 ,in the facultative perimeters1 the state was simply to assist in the work of recovery by gratuitous distribution of seeds and plants1 or even by money subventions in some cases4 ,it appeared hard that the poor mountaineers should have to bear all the expense of the extinction of the torrents1 and much complaint was heard4 ,in response to these complaints1 in #ahfd1 a law was passed allowing the substitution of sodding instead of forest planting for at least part of the perimeters1 with a view of securing pastures2 but this method seems not to have been successful and was mostly not employed4 ,finally1 by the reboisement law of #ahhb1 the complaints of the mountaineers were properly taken care of by placing the entire expense of the reboisement work on the state4 ,the attitude of the mountaineers1 which was at first hostile1 due to the restriction of the pasture1 has been overcome by the beneficial results of the work1 and now the most hostile are ready to offer gratuitously their territory to the ,forest ,department4 ,wherever necessary the state has bought territory1 and from year to year has increased its holdings1 and continues to acquire land at the rate of #be1jjj to #cj1jjj acres per year1 the budget of #aijb1 for instance1 containing #a1jjj1jjj for this purpose2 that of #aiaa1 only #dj1jjj4 ,altogether the state had1 up to #aijj1 acquired #djj1jjj acres1 of which #bah1jjj have been planted1 and it is estimated that about #dcj1jjj acres more will have to be acquired4 ,the total expense1 outside of subventions to communities and private owners1 up to #aijj has been over #ac1jjj1jjj1 of which somewhat over #e1jjj1jjj was expended for purchases1 it is estimated that round #be to #cj million more will be needed to complete the work4 ,of the #a1dfb torrents there were in #ahic1 #afc entirely controlled1 and #fed begun to be 8cured40 ,among the former1 there were #ca which #ej years ago were considered by engineers incurable4 ,it is estimated that1 with the expenditure of #fjj1jjj per annum1 the work may be finished by #aide4 ,the names of ,matthieu and ,demontzey1 especially the latter1 are indelibly connected with this great work4 ,lately1 however1 ,briot in his classical work ,les ,alpes franaises criticizes severely as improperly extravagant the large expenditures in places where the result does not warrant them1 and proclaims as illusory some of the methods adopted4 #e4 ,forestry ,science and ,practice4 ,until the #afth century1 whatever regulations had been issued regarding forest use were merely of administrative or police character and had nothing to do with management or silviculture1 except perhaps so far as the number of baliveaux1 reserved trees to be left1 might be considered as bearing upon the subject4 ,the rformateurs who were from time to time appointed had to deal only with judicial questions and abuses2 and usually the ordinances referred only to special forests1 but in #aefc1 the ,table de marbre of ,paris issued instructions which were to serve in all forests4 ,a futile attempt to secure statistical knowledge of the forest domain was made1 apparently with a view to regulation of the cut1 by de ,fleury1 the chief of the forest service in #aefa4 ,in default of data from many of the matrises1 a provisional partial order to regulate the cut was issued in #aegc1 which remained in force for a hundred years1 and was regularly disregarded1 extraordinary cuts being made without authority and with the connivance of the officers4 ,an ordinance of #aegi describes the deplorable condition of the forests at length1 and calls for statistical data1 but again without result4 ,a number of further ordinances also made no impression upon the callous and corrupt officials of the forest service4 ,a first class attempt to secure more conservative forest use and to regulate the cut was made by ,henry ,,iv in instituting a commission1 and1 as a result of its report1 issuing his general order of ,rouen1 in #aeig1 a highly interesting document giving insight into conditions and opinions of the foresters of that period4 ,it also remained without any result whatsoever4 ,repeated replacement of the higher officials had no more effect than the issuance of ordinances4 ,not until ,colbert's vigorous reform in #affi came a change in conditions4 ,meanwhile1 some forestry notions had been developed3 a sequence of felling areas in the coppice1 and hence an area division1 an idea of rotation and of the exploitable age 7#aj to #bj years1 although sometimes down to #c and #d years71 the leaving of overwood1 which became obligatory in the royal domain1 and a kind of regulation of its age 7#dj years--too short according to one writer of the time to furnish valuable trees71 and some proper considerations of its selection4 ,in the timber forest1 the fellings proceeded by area in regular order from year to year1 leaving a prescribed number of marked seed trees1 at least #f to #h per acre1 on such areas as were outside the rights of user and removed from the likelihood of depredations2 the felling age being at least #ajj years1 under the notion that the oak1 the most favored species1 8grows for one hundred years1 keeps vigorous but stands still for another hundred1 and declines in a third hundred40 ,sowing of acorns on prepared ground was also ordered in the #afth century1 and perhaps occasionally done4 ,young growths were sometimes protected by ditches or fences against cattle1 although objections were raised against the former as impeding the chase4 ,a diameter limit sometimes reserved all oak and beech two feet in circumference at six inches from the ground1 the height of the stump4 ,even improvement cuttings 7called recpages7 are on record in ,normandie1 mainly for the purpose of cutting out softwoods and freeing the young valuable reproduction1 repeated in decennial returns4 ,later1 thinnings assumed the character of selection fellings and1 indeed1 received the name of jardinage4 ,they were continued until the time for final cut and regeneration had arrived4 ,in the coniferous mountain forests1 selection cutting1 pure and simple1 was the rule4 ,it appears1 then1 that quite sane notions of silviculture existed1 albeit they may not have been very generally and very strictly carried out4 ,especially during the #afth century1 the maladministration of the royal domain brought with it a decadence of the practice in the woods2 the area of the coppice increased by clear cutting at the expense of the timber forest1 and1 by ,colbert's time1 all forestry knowledge had wellnigh become forgotten4 ,the forest ordinance of #affi attempted to reform not only the administrative abuses but to improve the method of exploitation hitherto practised2 at least it put in writing1 codified as it were1 the best usage of the time4 ,a commission of #ba was instituted to make working plans and prescribe the practice4 ,the prescriptions had reference both to management and silvicultural practice4 ,a felling budget 7tat d'assiette7 was prescribed annually by the grand matre for each garderie 7district71 and felling areas were also1 sometimes1 but not always1 definitely located4 ,besides1 extraordinary fellings might be ordered4 ,the garderies were divided into triages 7now called cantons71 management classes or site classes under different rotations1 and the fellings proceeded in each triage in sequence4 ,in each felling area1 as had supposedly been the practice1 at least #h seed trees per acre1 and generally #af1 besides those under the diameter limit1 were to be left--the method tire et aire4 ,intermediary fellings--thinnings--were avoided and frowned down upon1 probably because of the abuses to which they had given rise4 ,meanwhile their need grew more and more1 especially in those places where the felling method did not produce satisfactory regeneration1 and softwoods impeded the development of the better kinds4 ,to improve the chances for valuable regeneration and to keep the softwoods down1 the foresters proposed the reduction of rotations from #ajj to #ej and even #dj years1 and1 as with each felling the number of reserve trees had to be left1 the forest assumed a form resembling the coppice under standards4 ,in the coniferous woods of the mountains 7fir71 which in ,colbert's time appear almost like a new discovery to his reformers1 the selection forest with a diameter limit 7e4g41 #f inch at the small end of the #ba-;foot log7 was the method most generally in vogue1 and is still to a large extent the method in use1 but somewhat better regulated and modified1 sometimes with improvement fellings added4 ,in some parts1 especially in ,lorraine1 for a time1 artificial regeneration and a strip system were tried1 and even a group selection with a regeneration period of probably #be to #cj years and an exploitable age of #ajj years1 was practised in the #ahth century4 ,buffon1 in #agci1 proposed a treatment for the pineries to secure natural regeneration by cutting one-third to one-half1 leaving #dj to #ej seed trees per acre1 while ,duhamel 7#aghj7 considers selection method best for larch and pine as well as fir1 although pine might1 like oak1 be readily reproduced by sowing4 ,while system and orderly progress of fellings in selection forest had gradually been established1 during the revolution this was largely disregarded and unconservative fellings became the order4 ,guiot's ,manuel forestier1 published in #aggj1 gives a good idea of the status of forestry at that time4 ,it appears that for timber forest1 mostly royal woods1 rotations varying from #fj to #bjj years1 for coppice from #aj to #bj years1 were in use on the royal domain2 that fellings were regulated according to species1 soil quality and the most advantageous yield4 ,to facilitate regeneration1 a superficial culture of the soil is also advocated4 ,the prescription of ,colbert's ordinance to leave a certain number of seed trees1 no matter for what species or conditions of soil or climate had as early as #aebj been pointed out as faulty by one of the grand masters1 ,tristan de ,rostaing1 who had recommended a method of successive fellings4 ,this prescription1 applied pretty nearly uniformly as a matter of law1 removed from the officials all spirit of initiative and desire or requirement of improving upon it4 ,no knowledge beyond that of the law was required of them1 hence no development of silvicultural methods resulted during the #agth and #ahth century4 ,the seed trees left on the felling areas grew into undesirable and branchy 8wolves10 injuring the aftergrowth1 or else were thrown by the wind or died1 and many of the areas became undesirable brush4 ,not until the first quarter of the #aith century was a change in this method proposed through men who imported new ideas from ,germany4 ,when the inefficiency of the mthode tire et aire was recognized1 the only remedy appeared to lie in a clearing system with artificial reforestation 7recommended by ,raumur and ,duhamel72 and1 indeed1 the ordinance of #affi recognized the probable necessity of filling up fail places in that manner4 ,yet the success of the plantings in waste lands does not seem to have brought about much extension of this method to the felling areas4 ,as late as #ahfb1 ,clav1 complaining of the conditions of silviculture in ,france1 and of the ignorance regarding it1 refers to the clearing system as mthode allemande1 the ,german method4 ,the shelterwood system1 la mthode du rensemencement1 which was introduced in theory from ,germany by ,lorentz in #ahbg1 was hardly applied until the middle of the century4 ,indeed1 the promulgation of this superior method cost ,lorentz his position in #ahci1 and other officers suffered similarly for this 8,german propaganda40 7see p4 #bdb7g #g ,in this statement we follow ,clav and other authors4 ,huffel takes exception to this conception of the origin of the shelterwood system1 because he finds in some documents allusion to a modified application of the tire et aire method which might be construed into shelterwood regeneration4 ,indeed1 ,guiot 7#aggj7 and ,varennes de ,fenille 7#agij7 describe methods of procedure which resemble somewhat this method of regeneration4 ,but as the method of successive fellings was practised in ,germany since #agbj1 and fully developed in all its detail by #agij--;,hartig formulating merely into rules what was long practised--it is likely that the ,french authors had heard of it4 ,moreover1 in another place 7vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bga7 ,huffel says3 8,at this time 7#ahba7 one made several tentative regeneration cuttings by successive fellings according to the new formula--but without success40 ,at the present time large areas of coppice and of coppice with standards characterize the holdings of the municipal and private owners1 and the selection forest still plays a considerable part even in the ,state forests2 the method of shelterwood in compartments1 being still more under discussion than found in practice4 ,the main credit for advance in silvicultural direction which belongs to the ,french foresters in particular is the development of new and fertile ideas regarding the operations of thinnings2 here the differentiation of the crop into the final harvest 7le haut7 and the nurse crop 7le bas7 7see page #aje7 and the differentiation of the operations1 par le haut and par le bas1 seems to have been for the first time described by ,boppe in #ahhg4 ,indeed1 the theory of thinnings1 at least1 seems to have been well understood by ,buffon1 who advanced his theories in a memoir to the ,academy of ,france1 in #aggd1 and gives a very clear exposition of the value of thinnings and improvement cuttings4 ,nevertheless1 thinning practice1 while often accentuated in the literature1 is too often omitted in practice1 or exercised only in long intervals1 while otherwise silvicultural practice is excellent1 especially in the coppice4 ,most valuable lessons may be had especially from the experience in converting coppice into timber forest4 ,at the ,international ,congress of ,silviculture1 convening in connection with the ,universal ,exposition in #aijj1 supposedly the best home talent was represented1 but it cannot be said that anything new1 or striking1 or promotive of the art or science transpired4 ,the desirability of establishing experiment stations outside the one in existence at ,nancy 7established in #ahhb71 and the desirability of constructing yield tables still required arguments at this meeting4 ,in the direction of forest organization1 it is stated by ,clav that in #ahfj only #ijj1jjj acres of the ,state domain were under a regulated management1 namely #chj1jjj acres in timber forest and #ebj1jjj in coppice with standards1 leaving about #a1ejj1jjj acres at that time still merely exploited4 ,the same writer states that of the corporation or communal forests hardly any are under management for sustained yield1 and private forest management is not mentioned in this connection4 ,even to-day less than one-third of the total area is under systematic control4 ,in #aijh still1 about #ad of the ,state forests were without working plans1 and #ae in selection forest4 ,the method of forest organization employed1 outside of the crude determinations of a felling budget in the selection forest1 is an imitation of ,cotta's combined area and volume allotment1 with hardly any attempt of securing normality1 introduced in #ahbe4 ,characteristic1 and differing from the ,german model1 is the practice of actually collocating in each district 7canton7 the periodic felling areas 7affectations7 on the ground so as to secure a schematic felling series or periodic block 7sries74 ,this is done often at great sacrifice4 ,lately1 various1 more pliable modifications have come into vogue 7mthode de l'affectation unique7 and freer methods 7mthode du quartier de rgnration71 somewhat similar to ,judeich's stand management1 are proposed4 ,altogether working plans1 such as are elaborated in ,germany1 are rare1 and yield tables are still looked upon by ,huffel as doubtfully useful4 ,the management of the ,state forests is extremely conservative1 large accumulations of old stock1 the holding over of one quarter for reserve1 and high rotations--only apparently based on maximum volume production1 since the statistical data are scanty--are characteristic4 ,the opposite conditions appear in the private forests4 #f4 ,education and ,literature4 ,in the earlier times the service established was as we have seen1 often1 nay mostly in incompetent hands2 the offices of forestmasters were purchasable1 were given to courtiers as benefices1 and became hereditary4 ,in all these1 higher professional knowledge was unnecessary4 ,the ignorance of the subordinates was as great as that of their ,german counterparts1 but lasted longer4 ,hardly any book literature on the subject of forestry developed before the #aith century1 and educational institutions had to wait until long past the beginning of that century4 ,the first1 and up to the present1 only forest school1 came into existence after a considerable campaign1 directed by ,baudrillart1 ,chief of ,division1 ,administration ,gnrale des ,forts1 and professor of political economy4 ,his campaign in the ,annales ,forestires1 the first volume of which appeared in #ahjh1 and in other writings as in his ,dictionnaire des eaux et forts 7#ahbe71 led to the establishment of the forest school at ,nancy in #ahbe4 ,the first director of this school1 ,bernard ,lorentz1 having become acquainted with and befriended by ,g4 ,l4 ,hartig1 and his assistant1 afterward his son-in-law and successor1 ,adolphe ,parade1 having studied under ,cotta 7#ahag-ahah7 in ,tharandt1 this school introduced the science of forestry as it had then been developed in ,germany2 but later generations under ,nanquette1 ,bagneris1 ,broillard1 ,boppe and ,puton1 imbued with patriotism1 attempted in a manner to strike out on original lines4 ,as a consequence of the 8unpatriotic0 ,german tendencies of its first directors the continuance of the school at ,nancy was several times threatened1 there being friction between the administration of the school and the service1 which in #ahdd came to a climax1 agents in the service being employed without preparation in the school1 a condition which lasted until #ahef4 ,even to date an active service of #ae years is considered equivalent to the education in the school for advancement in the service4 ,in #ahci1 ,lorentz was disgracefully displaced1 in spite of his great merits1 because he advocated too warmly the application of the superior system of regeneration under shelterwood to replace the coppice and selection forest1 an incident almost precisely repeated in the ,state of ,new ,york in abandoning its ,state ,college at ,cornell ,university2 and in other respects the two cases appear parallel4#h ,parade1 the successor of ,lorentz being imbued with the same heretical doctrines was constantly in trouble1 and in #ahdg1 a most savage attack in the legislature was launched which threatened the collapse of the school4 ,this condition lasted until ,parade's death1 in #ahfd1 when ,nanquette assumed guidance of the school and steered in more peaceful waters by avoiding all ideas at reforms and innovations1 but otherwise improving the character of the school and introducing the third year study4 ,but he1 too1 was much criticized and in difficulties until #ahhj2 nor was ,puton1 his successor1 free from troubles1 until in #ahhi a new regime and new regulations were enacted4 #h ,according to others 7a reviewer of this volume71 the difficulties which befell the institution were financial ones1 8the too rapid conversion into timberforest reducing receipts1 which the ,minister of ,finance resented40 ,guyot's history of the school1 however1 leaves little doubt of the above interpretation being correct4 ,in the case of the ,state ,college at ,cornell ,university1 a later historian might similarly claim financial difficulties1 the school having actually been closed for lack of appropriation2 nevertheless political trickery was the real cause of this lack4 ,the school is organized on military lines4 ,the students1 who intend to enter the ,state service are chosen from the graduates of the ,institute national agronomique of ,paris1 only a limited number being admitted4 ,it has #ab professors1 two for forestry1 two each for natural science1 mathematics1 and one each for law1 soil physics and agriculture1 for military science and for ,german4 ,a three year course1 which includes journeys through the forest regions of ,france1 leads to government employment2 indeed1 the first paid position as garde gnral stagiaire is attained after two years study and before leaving school4 ,for several years1 7#ahfg to #ahhd7 ,english students preparing for the ,indian service received their instruction here1 and #chj foreigners have received their education in this school since its foundation4 ,for the education of the lower grades1 an imperial rescript ordered the establishment of several schools1 which were1 however1 never organized4 ,in #ahfc1 were proposed1 and in #ahfh1 opened1 four schools1 where efficient forest guards were to secure some knowledge that would assist them to advancement2 three of these schools persisted until #ahhc4 ,in #ahgc1 an additional school for silviculture for the education of underforesters was organized at ,barres-,vilmorin1 where annually a limited number of students are permitted to enter4 ,this institution has persisted to date4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,french forestry literature has never been prolific1 and to this day occupies still a limited amount of shelf room4 ,the first book on record is a translation of the well known volume of the ,italian1 ,peter de ,crescentiis1 translated at the instance of ,charles ,v in #acgc4 ,in the #afth century we have reference to an encyclopdic volume1 probably similar to the ,german ,hausvter1 by ,oliver de ,serres1 ,thatre d',agriculture et ,mesnage des ,champs1 in which a chapter is devoted to the forests4 ,during the #ahth century1 just as in ,germany the cameralists1 we have in ,france a number of high class writings1 not by foresters1 but by savants or students of natural history1 the names of ,raumur1 ,duhamel1 ,buffon and ,micheaux appearing with memoirs transmitted to the ,academy of ,france1 the highest literary and scientific body of men1 on subjects relating to forestry4 ,raumur1 in his ,rflexions sur l'tat des forts1 in #agba1 recommended the conversion of coppice forests into timber forests by a system of thinnings1 but it is evident that his words were not heard beyond the ,academy4 ,duhamel 7in #agee1 #agfd1 #aghj7 repeats the recommendation of ,raumur in his three memoirs1 ,semis et ,plantations1 ,exploitation des ,bois and ,trait de la ,physique des ,arbres1 in which he exhibits considerable learning1 while ,buffon1 the great naturalist1 in #agci and after1 presented several memoirs on forestry subjects full of excellent advice4 ,varennes de ,fenille1 another one of the ,academicians1 but also one of the conservators is on record with two memoirs 7#agij1 #agia7 on the management of coppice and timber forests in which also the theory of thinnings was well developed4 ,but among the foresters of the service there seems not to have been sufficient education to appreciate these writings1 or1 with the exception of ,guiot with his ,manuel forestier 7#aggj71 to bring forth any contributions to the literature and art1 until the #aith century4 ,in #ahjc1 we find the first encyclopdic volume in ,trait de l',amnagement des ,forts1 which was followed1 in #ahje1 by a very incorrect translation of ,hartig's ,lehrbuch1 both by ,baudrillart1 professor of political economy1 who also published in #ab volumes his ,trait ,gnral des ,eaux et ,forts4 ,perthuis1 in #agif1 and ,dralet1 a forester1 in #ahjg1 also brought out treatises on forest management1 which include all branches of the subject4 ,according to ,huffel1 the foresters of this period 7,louis ,,xv and ,,xvi7 were of superior character1 and forestry in ,france the first in the world2 the writings of ,french authors were being translated into ,german and studied by foreign foresters4 ,he has to admit1 however1 that the majority of these authors were not really members of the forest service4 ,in #ahcf appeared ,parade's ,cours ,elmentaire de ,culture des ,bois1 an excellent book1 recording the teachings of ,hartig and ,cotta4 ,this seems to have been all-sufficient until #ahgc1 at least4 ,such things as yield tables are still a mere wish1 when ,tassy wrote his ,etudes1 etc41 in #aheh1 while de ,salomon a little later reproduced ,cotta's yield tables1 and to this day this needful tool of the forester is still almost absent1 at least in the literature of ,france4 ,nanquette1 ,broillard1 ,bagneris1 ,puton1 ,reuss1 ,boppe1 all directors or professors at the forest school1 enriched the ,french literature by volumes on silviculture and forest management1 and ,henry on soil physics4 ,he also translated from the ,german ,wollny's ,dcomposition des matires organiques4 ,it is claimed by ,guyot1 that a truly 8,french science0 767 of forestry dates from ,broillard's ,cours d'amnagement in #ahgh4 ,demontzey's ,reboisement des montagnes1 #ahhb1 is a classic volume4 ,of more modern book literature may be mentioned three voluminous publications1 namely ,trait des arbres by ,mouillefert 7#ahib-ahih7 in #c volumes1 and ,trait d'exploitation commerciale des bois by ,matthey in two volumes1 and ,guyot's ,cours de droit forestier in two volumes4 ,a very complete work on valuation of damage under the misleading title ,incendies en fort was published by ,jacquot in #aijc4 ,but the latest and perhaps most ambitious work in the ,french language and especially of intense interest from the historical point of view1 tracing not only the development of forest policies but of silvicultural and managerial practices in ,france1 is ,g4 ,huffel's ,economie ,forestire in three volumes published #aijd-aijg4 ,there should not be forgotten as among the non-professional promoters of forest questions1 ,chevandier1 a chemist and manufacturer1 who1 in #ahdd1 made investigations regarding the influence of irrigation on wood growth and on the influence of fertilizers1 and in connection with ,wertheim1 laid the foundation for timber physics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one bi-weekly magazine1 ,revue des ,eaux et ,forts1 in existence for #ej years1 the successor to the ,annales forestires1 begun in #ahjh1 satisfies the needs of current literature1 besides the journals of various forestry associations1 among which the ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,franche ,comt et ,belfort has for a long time taken a prominent rank4 ,a very active propagandist literary and association work has within the last decades been inaugurated1 and forestry associations of local character abound4 ,among these the 8,touring ,club10 a sporting association with some #af1jjj members in #cfd branches is active by writing out prizes and promoting waste land planting4 ,through its agency some #djjj acres had been planted by #aiaj1 some #ijj nurseries furnishing plant material4 ,an active ,section of ,silviculture in the ,socit des ,agriculteurs some time ago absorbed the forestry association and is also doing practical work in the direction most needed1 improvement of forestry practice among private woodland owners4 #g4 ,colonial ,policies4 ,the ,french possess extensive colonies in ,africa1 ,asia1 ,america and ,oceania1 covering not less than four million square miles with over #ij million people1 to some of which at least they have extended some features of their forest policy1 notably in ,algeria1 ,tunis1 ,indo-,china and ,madagascar4 ,algeria1 which was conquered in #ahbh1 is about four-fifths of the size of ,france1 but only #e4e per cent4 is forested4 ,besides the desert1 there are two forest regions1 the northern slope1 the so-called ,tell1 abutting on the ,mediterranean1 which1 with #bj per cent4 forested1 contains the most valuable forests of ,cork ,oak1 various other oaks1 and ,aleppo ,pine2 and the high plateau to the south1 a region of steppes with about #f forested1 mostly with brushwood4 ,the adjoining ,tunis also contains some #b million acres of forest1 a part of which clothed with the valuable ,cork ,oak4 ,although the population does not exceed #e million1 import of wood from ,sweden and elsewhere to nearly one million dollars in amount is necessary4 ,the first advance of civilization led to wide-spread destruction of the originally larger forest area2 fire and pasture being specially destructive4 ,before the ,french occupation1 the #h million acres of forest were all1 as usual in the mussulman's empires1 the property of the sultan1 but were used like communal property by the people4 ,by #ahga1 the larger portion1 some #f million acres remained in possession of the state1 much encumbered by rights of user4 ,at the same time1 considerable areas 7some #gjj1jjj acres7 had been ceded to communities outright1 and others 7#a4be million acres7 had been sold to private parties4 ,at first1 these latter lands were let for exploitation of the cork oak on #dj year leases1 later extended to #ij years with indemnities for damage by fire--an incentive to allow these to run1 until in #ahgj1 the fire damage having become onerous1 all areas burned after #ahfc were gratuitously ceded to the contractors1 more than one-third the areas involved1 and the other two-thirds were then sold at a ridiculously low price and under the easiest conditions of payment1 in the same shameful manner in which the timberlands of the ,united ,states were given away4 ,in #ahcf1 a forest administration for the state domain was inaugurated1 but the unfortunate division of powers between military and civil authorities was a hindrance to effective improvement of conditions4 ,the fire ravages of #ahga led to a thorough re-organization under the direction of ,tassy1 in #ahgc4 ,nevertheless1 in #aijj1 ,lefebvre1 ,inspector of ,forests1 in his book1 ,les forts de l',algrie1 still complains that the forests are being ruined1 especially by pasturing1 the means allowed the administration being too niggardly measured4 ,the ,forest ,code of the home country and special laws enacted from time to time applies4 ,the administration of the state and communal forest is directly under the home department and is regulated in similar manner4 ,a re-organization and a special forest code for ,algiers was enacted in #aijc4 ,this legislation relies still largely on the general principles of the ,code of #ahbg4 ,the most interesting features are the provision for expropriation and addition to the state domain of forests the preservation of which is of public interest1 and the rigorous forest fire legislation1 which permits the treatment of incendiaries as insurrectionists1 makes the extinction of forest fires a duty of the forest officials1 and provides the forcible establishment of fire lines 7rides7 between neighbors4 ,in the forests placed under the forestry regime1 permits from the governor-general are required for clearing4 ,for the administration of these properties1 the state receives ten per cent4 of the gross yield4 ,reforested hilltops or slopes and sand dunes are relieved from taxes for #cj years1 burnt areas for #aj years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the other ,african possessions1 unregulated exploitation of the tropical forests1 largely for by-products1 like caoutchouc1 kola1 and fine furniture woods1 is still the order of the day1 except in ,madagascar1 which with #be to #cj million acres of tropical forest area1 was1 in #aijj1 provided with a forest service1 which is under the ,minister of ,colonies4 ,here1 a license system is in vogue1 giving concessions to exploit limited areas for a given time1 at an annual rent of less than one cent1 per acre per year4 ,the concessions run from #e to #bj years1 and on #ab1ejj acres or more1 the time of their duration being extended from the lowest term for one year for every #b1ejj acres4 ,police regulations and fines are intended to check abuses1 and to regulate the rights of user exercised by natives4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,indo-,china 7,cochin-,china1 ,cambodia1 ,anam1 ,tonquin7 the total forest area is still unknown4 ,only that of ,cochin-,china with #b4e million acres1 and of ,cambodia with #aj million acres can be stated1 and ,cochin-,china seems to possess the only approach to a forest service4 ,although it is estimated that in #aija in the whole of ,indo-,china1 with #ah million people1 some #he million cubic feet of wood were cut 7nine-tenths fire wood7 an import of over #bjj1jjj worth of workwood from ,europe was needed4 ,the first attempts at regulating forest use in these ,asiatic possessions date back to #ahfb1 when exploitation was confined to delimited areas4 ,the administration1 however1 remained inefficient1 and under impracticable and heterogeneous orders1 which were issued from time to time1 devastation progressed with little hindrance4 ,for ,cochin-,china1 a more definite forest policy was formulated in #ahid-e1 when not only the ,state domain but also the private forest property was placed under the rgime forestier4 ,the supervision of the private forests consists in requiring the marking of trees to be cut by government agents1 and a permit for their removal4 ,the ,state forests are of two classes3 ,reserves in which all cutting is forbidden1 only some #bjj1jjj acres2 and those in which licenses to cut may operate4 ,such licenses are given for one year and for a price of #ajj piastres4 ,the villagers have free use of the less valuable woods1 their only obligation being to assist in protection against fire and theft4 ,a real forest service was not instituted until #aija a director with four assistants being placed in charge under the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,until recently reports of the deplorable condition due to absence of technical management reached the outside1 but lately 7#aiaa71 the ,governor-,general discussing the situation not only speaks approvingly of the forest service1 which on the two million acres under its immediate management had1 by #aiji1 trebled the revenue1 but talks of extending its activities to planting up waste places in order to secure favorable water conditions for irrigating lands4 ,the rest of the colonies are being merely exploited4 ,,russia ,,and ,,finland4 ,les ,forts de la ,russie1 ,ministre de l',agriculture1 ,paris ,exposition ,universelle1 #aijj1 pp4 #aij1 gives a very detailed description of forest conditions1 markets and management1 with a few historic points4 ,russlands ,wald1 by ,f4 ,v4 ,,arnold1 ,berlin1 #ahic1 pp4 #ebf1 contains historic notes and a profuse discussion of the law of #ahhh4 ,the ,industries of ,russia3 ,agriculture and ,forestry1 issued by the ,department of ,agriculture1 ,ministry of ,crown ,lands1 at ,world's ,columbian ,exposition1 translated by ,j4 ,m4 ,,crawford1 #ahic1 contains a chapter on ,forestry by ,,roudzski and ,,shafranov1 professors at the ,forest ,institute1 in #ce pp4 ,annual reports by the ,russian ,forest ,administration are published since #ahff4 ,four diffuse volumes1 by ,,john ,,croumbie ,,brown1 treat of ,russian conditions1 namely1 ,forests and ,forestry in ,poland1 ,lithuania1 etc41 #ahhe2 ,finland1 its ,forests and ,forest ,management1 #ahhc2 ,forestry and ,mining districts of the ,ural ,mountains1 #ahhd2 ,forests and ,forestry of ,northern ,russia1 #ahhd4 ,numerous articles and ,reviews by ,o4 ,,guse1 scattered through the ,german forestry journals1 give insight into ,russian forest conditions4 ,an excellent idea of prevailing forestry practice can be gained from an extended article by ,,dr4 ,,schwappach1 ,forstliche ,reisebilder aus ,russland in ,zeitschrift fr ,forst- und ,jagdwesen1 #aijb4 ,for ,finland an article by ,b4 ,,ericson in ,forstwissenschaftliches ,centralblatt1 #ahif1 and another article by ,p4 ,w4 ,,hannikainen in ,allgemeine ,forst- und ,jagdzeitung1 #ahib1 both native foresters1 give considerable information4 ,finland3 ,its ,public and ,private ,economy1 by ,n4 ,c4 ,,frederiksen1 #aijb1 #cjf pp4 ,while ,germany and ,france were forced into the adoption of forest policies through necessity1 after the natural woods had been largely destroyed or devastated1 ,russia started upon a conservative forest management1 long before the day of absolute necessity seemed to have arrived4 ,indeed1 even to-day ,russia is one of the largest and increasingly growing exporter of forest products in the world1 its annual export having grown in the five years1 #aijc to #aijh1 from #d to #f million tons and from #ce to #fb million dollars4 ,a vast territory of untouched woods is still at her command1 representing roughly two-thirds of the forest area of ,europe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the vast empire1 second only to the ,british empire in extent1 gradually acquired since the #aeth century1 occupies in ,europe 7including ,finland7 somewhat over #b million square miles with over #abj million inhabitants1 and in ,asia somewhat over #f4e million square miles1 with only #cj to #dj million people4 ,until #aijf1 when as a result of a revolution1 a kind of representative government was secured1 the hereditary ,czar was ostensibly and by title an autocrat1 governing with the assistance of four great councils and #ab ministers1 but in reality the government was in the hands of a bureaucracy and court cabal1 to a large extent corrupt1 and hence the many good laws and institutions of which we read1 may not always be found executed in practice as intended4 ,the ,european section of the country is divided into #ih governments or provinces1 each under a governor1 who is1 however1 largely dependent on the central power4 ,the large territory of ,siberia is divided into three governor-generalships1 much of it1 as well as of the other ,asiatic provinces1 is still unorganized1 undeveloped and unexplored1 or at least little known4 ,originally used mainly as a penal colony for criminal and political exiles1 since the completion of the great ,trans-,siberian railway1 the country has been peopled by ,russian farmers4 ,both ,european ,russia and ,siberia are in the main vast plains1 the former sloping northwestward from the ,ural mountains in the ,east and from the ,caucasus in the ,south1 and the latter from the ,altai1 ,lyan and ,yabloni mountains north to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,both sections exhibit in the southern ranges the effect of continental climates1 prairie and plains country3 the steppe2 and in its northern ranges the effect of an arctic climate1 short hot summers and long1 severe winters3 tundra and swamps4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions and ,ownership4 ,both the forest area and the ownership conditions vary very much throughout the empire4 ,russian statistics are very unreliable and are based on estimates rather than enumerations1 and vary from year to year4 ,so little is known of conditions in ,asia1 where ,russia occupies a territory three times as large as its ,european possessions1 that we can dispose of them briefly4 ,there exists a vast forested area1 almost unknown as to its extent and contents1 or value4 ,this area is mainly located in ,siberia1 and although its extent is uncertain1 it is known to exceed #gjj million acres1 but it is also known that its character is very variable1 and much of it is 8taiga0 or swamp forest1 much of it devastated1 and much of it in precarious condition1 fires having run and still running over large portions1 destroying it to such an extent that in several of the provinces within the forest belt1 the question of wood supplies is even now a troublesome one4 ,the natives are especially reckless1 and devastation difficult to control4 ,the railroad has only increased the evils4 ,here1 in ,siberia1 the first attempt at a management was made in #ahig in the government forests1 which are estimated at over #cjj million acres2 in addition about #djj million acres have been declared reserved forests4 ,not one-third1 however1 even of the government forests is well stocked and less than #d million acres are under some form of management4 ,in ,european ,russia1 the forest area comprises about #dfe million acres1 or #cf of the land area4 ,the population being now over #abj million 7nearly one-half escaped from serfdom only since #ahfa71 the forest area per capita is only about #d acres1 somewhat less than in the ,united ,states1 half of what is claimed for ,sweden and ,norway1 although seven times as large as that of ,germany or ,france4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that ,russia1 although still an exporting country1 has reasons for a conservative policy1 even if only the needs of the domestic population are considered1 which alone probably consumes more than the annual increment of the whole forest area2 and the consumption is growing with the growth of civilization as appears from the increase of wood consuming industries1 which in #ahgg showed a product of #h million dollars1 in #ahhg1 of #ab million1 in #ahig1 of #ej million dollars4 ,this assertion1 that the era of over-cutting has actually arrived1 may be made in spite of the stated fact1 that in the northern provinces only two-fifths of what is supposed to be a proper felling budget1 is cut and marketed1 and that other most uncertain estimates make the cut #ag cubic feet per acre of productive forest area1 and the annual growth1 on still more uncertain basis1 #ca cubic feet4#i ,the same reasons that operate in the ,united ,states contribute to wasteful practices1 namely uneven distribution of forest and population4 #i ,an idea of the supposed productive conditions may be gathered from the estimates which have been made1 in #ahih1 for the ,state forests and the operations in these4 ,in the two northern provinces1 in which the state owns nearly the entire forest area it is estimated that #h cubic feet per acre would be available felling budget1 but only #aj per cent4 of this is actually cut and sold4 ,outside of this territory the available felling budget is calculated at #bd cubic feet per acre1 but only #fj per cent4 or #ad cubic feet is being cut4 ,altogether in #ahih there were cut in the ,state forests 7somewhat over #cjj million acres71 #a1hfj million cubic feet1 say #f cubic feet per acre or #dj per cent4 of the estimated proper felling budget4 ,the administration claims that three-fifth of the projected felling budget is saleable4 ,in #aijf1 the budget was placed at #cde million cubic feet1 but only #acj million were cut4 ,an estimate of the cut in the communal forests with #ab cubic feet1 in the peasants holdings with #bj cubic feet1 and in the private forests with #dj cubic feet per acre1 brings the total for the country to round #aj billion cubic feet1 worth round #ajj million dollars for stumpage4 ,it is assumed that #cj cubic feet should be the annual increment per acre1 when it would appear that only #gj per cent4 of the increment is cut4 ,the cut in the ,state forests was sold for #ba million dollars 7#ahih71 or at an average of less than #a;c4 per cubic foot4 ,the highest price paid in the ,vistula district was #b4e cents1 which scales down to #a;c4 in ,siberia and to one-third cent4 in the ,caucasus4 ,this refers to stumpage1 nearly all sales being made on the stump to wood merchants by bids1 the trees being marked in some parts1 in others the area only being designated4 ,the transportation is almost entirely by river4 ,from #ahhc to #aija the net revenue from the ,state forests increased from #af to #dg million dollars1 while the expenditures dropped from #bi per cent4 of the gross revenue to #ah4d per cent4 ,the gross result is #df cents per acre4 ,in #aijf1 the returns were #bg million1 and expenses #e million4 ,as in the ,united ,states the ,east and ,west are or were well wooded1 with a forestless agricultural region between1 so in ,russia the ,north and the ,south 7,caucasus ,mountains7 are well wooded1 with a forestless region1 the steppe1 between4 ,this leads1 as with us1 to an uneconomical exploitation of the woods1 the inferior materials being wasted because not paying for their transportation in one section1 and dearth of timber and fuelwood in the other section4 ,the two most northern provinces of ,archangel and ,vologda1 in size equal to all ,germany1 are wooded to the extent of #ge and #hi per cent4 respectively1 and the #ad northern provinces together contain nearly one-half the entire forest area4 ,here the forest covers #fd per cent4 of the land area1 and nowhere below #bj per cent41 and the acreage per capita ranges from #c to over #bjj4 ,these largely unsettled provinces are the basis of the active wood export trade1 and1 as in the similarly conditioned areas of ,north ,america1 the territory is devastated by fires1 which sweep again and again over large areas without check4 ,southern ,russia 7excepting the ,caucasus71 is largely prairie or steppe1 forest cover sinking below #bj per cent4 on the whole1 down to #b per cent41 and less than one-half acre per capita4 ,altogether1 one-half the country and three-fourths of the population are1 with less than #ad per cent4 of the forest area1 exposed to a dearth of timber4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the northern forest1 the most important economic factor1 is composed largely of pure or mixed coniferous woods 7#gd71 principally ,norway ,spruce 7#cd7 and ,scotch ,pine 7#bi4e7 with only slight admixtures of larch and fir1 and more frequently ,white ,birch4 ,open stand1 comparatively poor development1 and slow growth1 characteristic of northern climate1 reduce its productive capacity1 while frequent bogs and other natural waste places outside of those produced by mismanagement reduce its productive area by not less than #bj per cent4 ,toward the south1 deciduous species are more frequent1 oak finally becoming the prevailing timber and forming forests1 with beech1 maple1 ash and elm as admixtures4 ,as the plains are approached pure deciduous forest indicates the change of climate4 ,the forest of the ,caucasus is principally of coniferous composition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are six classes of forest property3 the government domain2 the apanage or imperial family 7crown7 forests2 private forests2 peasant or communal forests2 institute or corporation forests2 and forests of mixed ownership in which government and private owners participate4 ,the larger part of the forest area of ,european ,russia is in control of the ,crown or ,state1 namely1 nearly #bgh million acres1 or a little less than two-thirds of the whole1 and a similar amount in ,asia1 besides the so-called apanage forests of #ad million acres set aside for the support of the court4 ,especially the northern forest is in government control1 in some governments 7,archangel7 the entire area2 #fg of the domain forest lies in the two governments of ,archangel and ,wologda4 ,in the less wooded districts ,state property1 is insignificant4 ,the area under government control in ,europe and ,asia is estimated in the official report for #aijh at around #ieg million acres4 ,this is1 however1 not the exclusive property of the ,state2 only about #bfj million acres are so claimed1 the larger balance includes #agj million acres which are to be apportioned to the liberated peasants1 #bjj million acres in which the government is only part owner1 or the ownership is in dispute2 and the rest is only temporarily placed under the management or surveillance of the administration4 ,yet1 #fj in ,europe and #ac in ,asia is exclusive ,state property4 ,in #aijg1 the area in ,europe under working plans of the ,forest ,administration1 however1 was only #dh million acres1 #hf million having been examined for working plans4 ,of the ,state property in ,europe #cd is spruce forest1 #cj pine1 and #bf mixed conifer forest2 altogether #hh of coniferous timber4 ,the ,asiatic area is also over #hj per cent4 coniferous4 ,the apanage or crown forests1 the yield of which goes toward maintenance of the imperial family1 comprise about #af million acres1 or #c4d4 ,private forest property to the extent of over #ajj million acres 7#bc7 is most developed in the ,baltic provinces and along the ,vistula4 ,mining corporations and other institutes own about #g million acres4 ,the peasants1 who until #ahfa were mere serfs and had no ownership of any kind1 being supplied with their necessities by the landed proprietors1 still largely supply themselves in the northern provinces by the exercise of rights of user from the public domain on designated areas4 ,in the central and southern provinces1 farm and forest land1 the latter to the extent of nearly #dj million acres1 were given to them in communal ownership4 ,as stated above1 about #agj million acres classed as government domain still awaits partition and cession to the peasants4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,the first record of attention to the woods as a special property dates from ,michael1 the founder1 and ,alexis1 the second of the house of ,romanoff1 the former becoming ,czar in #afac1 the latter in #afde4 ,he it was who began to introduce ,western civilization4 ,he confined himself1 however1 to regulating property rights1 which up to that time had remained somewhat undefined1 the forest1 as elsewhere1 being considered more or less public property4 ,he issued deeds of ownership1 or at least granted exclusive rights to the use of forests1 somewhat similar as was done in the banforests4 ,soldiers alone were permitted to help themselves1 even in private forests1 to the wood they required4 ,protection against theft and fire was also provided4 ,the peasants1 being serfs1 were bound to the glebe1 and had1 of course1 no property rights1 being maintained by the bounty of the seigneurs4 ,alexis' successor1 the far-seeing ,peter the ,great1 who in his travels in ,germany and other ,european countries had1 no doubt1 been imbued with ideas of conservatism1 inaugurated in the end of the #agth and beginning of the #ahth century a far-reaching restrictive policy1 which had two objects in view1 namely economic use of wood1 which he had learned to appreciate while playing carpenter in ,amsterdam1 and preservation of ship timber1 which his desire to build up a navy dictated4 ,all forests for #ce miles alongside of rivers were declared in ban1 and placed under the supervision of the newly organized ,administration of ,crown forests4 ,in these banforests1 the felling of timbers fit for ship building was forbidden4 ,minute regulations as to the proper use of wood for the purposes for which it was most fit were prescribed1 and the use of the saw instead of the axe was ordered4 ,these rules were to prevail in all forests1 with a few exceptions1 and penalties were to be exacted for contraventions4 ,this good beginning experienced a short setback under ,catherine ,i 7#agbe71 ,peter's wife1 who1 influenced by her minister1 ,menshikoff1 abolished the forest administration and the penalties1 and reduced the number and size of banforests4 ,but the entire legislation was re-enacted within three years after ,catherine's death 7#agbg7 under ,anna ,ivanovna's reign1 and many new prescriptions for the proper use of wood were added and additional penalties enforced4 ,at this time1 under the influence of a ,german 8forest expert10 ,fokel1 the increase of forest area by sowing oak1 etc41 in the poorly wooded districts1 was also inaugurated2 and this planting was made obligatory1 not only on the administration of crown forests1 but also upon private owners1 who in case of default were to lose their land and have it reforested by the forest administration4 ,to ,fokel's initiative is also to be credited the celebrated larch forest on the ,gulf of ,finland4 ,these restrictions of private rights and the tutelage exercised by the forest administration were abolished in toto by ,catherine ,,ii1 in #aghh1 and although it was reported by the admiralty1 concerned in the supply of shipbuilding materials1 that as a consequence the cutting1 especially of oak timber1 was proceeding rapidly1 no new restrictive1 but rather an ameliorative policy was attempted1 such as1 for instance1 the offering of prizes for plantations in certain localities by the provincial governors4 ,upon the abolishment of the serfdom of the peasants1 under ,alexander ,,ii1 in #ahfc1 lands1 both farm and woodlands1 were allotted to them1 and in this partition1 in some parts as much as #be to #ej of this forest property was handed over to them4 ,immediately a general slaughtering1 both by peasants and by the private owners1 who had suffered by losing the services of the serfs1 was inaugurated1 leading to wholesale devastation4 ,servitudes or rights of user also prevailed in some districts and proved extremely destructive4 ,by #ahfd1 complaints in regard to forest devastation had become so frequent that a movement for reform was begun by the ,czar1 which led to the promulgation of a law in #ahfg1 followed by a number of others during the next decade1 designed to remedy the evils4 ,this was to be done by restricting the acreage that might be felled1 by forbidding clearings1 and by giving premiums for good management and plantations4 ,finally1 in #ahge1 a special commission was charged with the elaboration of a general order which1 after years of hearing of testimony and of deliberation1 was promulgated in #ahhh1 a comprehensive law for the conservation of forests1 private and otherwise1 which in many respects resembles the ,french1 in other respects the ,swedish conservation laws4 ,the devastation and its evil consequences on waterflow and soil conditions had been especially felt in the southern districts adjoining the steppe1 and these experiences were the immediate cause for the enactment of the law1 which1 however1 was framed to apply conditionally to the entire ,european ,russia4 ,the law makes an interesting distinction between 8protective10 8protected0 and non-protective1 or unprotected forests1 as well as between different ownership classes1 and it makes distinction of four regions as to the extent of its application4 ,in the far northern governments1 densely forested 7#fj7 and thinly populated1 only the protective forests are under the operations of the law4 ,in the ,caucasus also1 none of the restrictions of private property except in protective and communal peasant forests are to apply1 perhaps because the forest area 7averaging not over #ag7 is there largely owned by members of the imperial house and by nobles4 ,in certain districts adjoining the northern zone 7with #cg forest7 also only the last two classes of forest1 namely protective and communal properties1 with institute forests added1 are subject to the provisions of the law4 ,the rest1 a territory of over one million square miles with only #ab in forest1 is subject to all the provisions of the law1 which is remarkably democratic in treating ,state1 imperial and private forests alike4 ,this law declares as 8protective forests10 to be managed under special plans prescribed by the ,crown forest department1 those forest areas which protect shifting sands and dunes1 the shores of rivers1 canals and other waters2 and those on the slopes of mountains1 where they serve to prevent erosion1 landslides and avalanches4 ,conversion of these protective forests to farm use is forbidden1 and the use of a clearing system in forest management1 as well as pasturage and other uses supposed to be detrimental1 may be interdicted1 and the method of management may be prescribed4 ,an instruction regarding the execution of the law promulgated in #ahhi prohibited clear cutting in conifer forests1 permitting only selection forest1 and in especially endangered localities only the use of the dry wood and such trees as interfere with natural reproduction4 8,protected0 forests are those which are located at the head waters and upper reaches of streams and their affluents4 ,here the rules as regards clearing1 mismanagement1 reforestation and pasture applicable to the non-protective forests1 prevail1 except that clearing may be prohibited or permitted1 if the committee deems it not dangerous owing to the small size of the clearing4 ,in forests1 which are not protective forests1 conversion into farms or clearing with the sanction of the committee is permitted1 if thereby the estate is improved1 e4g41 if the soil is fit for orchards and vineyards4 ,such clearing may also be allowed if the soil is fit for temporary field use1 but in that case the area must be eventually reforested4 ,clearing is also permitted1 if another formerly farmed parcel of the same size has been reforested at least three years prior to the proposed clearing2 or if in artificial plantations the growth is not yet #bj years old2 also in a few special cases where property boundaries are to be rounded off1 roads to be located1 etc4 ,if after six months from the time of the application the committee has not forbidden the clearing1 it is considered as permitted4 ,it is also forbidden to make fellings which prevent natural regeneration1 and the running of cattle in young growth is prohibited4 ,private owners are not required1 but are permitted1 to submit working plans1 and if these are accepted1 they are exempted from any other restrictions4 ,such plans may be considered as accepted if the committee does not express itself within one year4 ,all clearings made in contravention to the committee's decision must be replanted within a prescribed time or may be forcibly reforested by the committee4 ,the most interesting feature1 because thoroughly democratic1 is the creation of the local forest protection committees1 which are formed in each province and district1 composed of various representatives of the local administration1 one or two foresters included1 the justice of the peace or other justice1 the county council and two elected forest owners1 in all nine to eleven members1 under the presidency of the governor4 ,this committee is vested with large powers4 ,it decides1 without appeal1 what areas are included in protective forests and approves of the working plans for these as well as for the unreserved forests2 it determines what clearings may be made1 and exercises wide police powers with reference to all forest matters working in co-operation with the ,forest ,administration1 which latter has the duty of making working plans free of charge for the reserved forests1 and1 at the expense of the owner for the private unreserved forests4 ,owners of the latter are1 however1 at liberty to prepare their own plans subject to approval4 ,appeal from decisions of the ,forest ,committees lies through the ,committee to the ,minister of ,crown lands and ,minister of the ,interior4 ,in case the owner refuses to incur the extra expense arising from measures imposed upon him1 the domain ministry may expropriate him1 but the owner may recover within #aj years by paying costs with #f interest in addition to the sale price4 ,in addition to the above cited and other restrictive measures1 some ameliorative provisions are also found4 ,all protective forests are free from taxes forever2 those artificially planted also for #cj years4 ,some of the best forest officials are detailed to give advice gratuitously to forest owners 7forest revisor--instructors7 and prizes are given for the best results of silvicultural operations4 ,at the recommendation of the ,forest ,committees1 medals or money rewards or other distinctions are given to the forest guards and forest managers of private as well as public forests4 ,plant material is distributed free or at cost price1 and working plans for protective forests are made free of charge4 ,the ,imperial ,loan ,bank advances long term loans on forests1 based upon detailed working plans made by the ,state1 which insure a conservative management4 ,in #aijj1 over #g1jjj1jjj acres were in this way mortgaged under such management4 ,the minutest details are elaborated in the instructions for the execution of this most comprehensive law4 ,how far this law is really executed and what its results so far have been1 it would be difficult to ascertain4 ,it is1 however1 believed that it has worked satisfactorily4 ,by #aijj1 #a4e million acres had been declared protection forests1 nearly #b million protected or river forests1 and nearly #ajj million private and communal forests had been placed under the regime4 ,in #aijg1 the total area under the regime had grown to over #acf million acres4 ,of private forests1 #ah million acres in #fjae forests were being managed according to working plans made or approved by the forest committees4 ,in these plans1 usually1 the strip system or seed tree system with natural regeneration under #fj year rotation for conifers1 and at least #cj year rotation for broadleaf forest1 is provided4 ,in #aijc1 the application of the law was extended to the ,caucasus1 the ,trans-caucasian and other southern provinces1 but in the absence of suitable personnel and in a half civilized country1 no result for the immediate future may be anticipated4 ,the surveillance of the execution of this law lies1 with the assistance of the ,forest ,committees1 in the hands of the ,state ,forest ,administration4 ,this latter1 centralized in the ,department of ,agriculture1 consists of a ,director ,general with two ,vice-,directors and a so-called bureau of forests with seven division chiefs1 a number of vice-inspectors and assistants4 ,the local administration in the governments is represented by the ,direction of ,crown lands with a superintendent or supervisor and several inspectors4 ,the crown forests1 divided into some #abfj administrative units1 are under the administration of superintendents1 with foresters and guards of several degrees4 ,the whole service comprised1 in #aijh1 about #cgij higher officials1 some #hej of whom in the central office at ,st4 ,petersburg1 and over #cj1jjj lower officials some #bj1jjj of whom are educated underforesters4 ,large as this force appears to be1 it is small in comparison with the acreage1 and inadequate4 ,although the net income from the #cjj million acres of ,state forest which are actually worked is now close to thirty million dollars1 the expenditures being near #f million1 the pay of the officials is such as to almost force them to find means of subsistence at the cost of their charges4 ,perhaps nowhere else is there so much machinery and so much regulation with so little execution in practice4 ,nevertheless1 progress is being made in gradually improving matters1 and the forest property1 or at least the cut1 has become more and more valuable4 ,while in the middle of the last century the income from the domain forest was only #ejj1jjj1 by #ahib it had grown to #aj1jjj1jjj1 by #aija to #bc1jjj1jjj1 in #aijh to nearly #cj1jjj1jjj1 besides several million dollars' worth of free wood4 ,in #aijh1 the department spent over half a million dollars on planting and assisting natural regeneration4 ,timber is sold as a rule to contractors by the tree or acre1 and a diameter limit is almost the only restriction4 ,in #ahig1 however1 an arrangement was made by which the lumberman was obliged to reforest1 or at least to pay a certain tax into a planting fund1 and a part payment of #b to #d per acre as guarantee must be made before cutting4 ,this order has1 however1 remained mostly a dead letter1 the buyer preferring to allow his guarantee to lapse4 ,in #aijf1 there stood #c1jjj1jjj to the credit of this planting fund1 and only half of it had been applied4 ,meanwhile the unplanted area increases1 since natural regeneration generally proves a failure4 #c4 ,education and ,literature4 ,the attempts at forestry education date back to the year #agcb when a number of foresters were imported from ,germany to take charge of the forest management as well as of the education of foresters1 each forstmeister having six pupils assigned to him4 ,this method failing to produce results1 the interest in ship timber suggested a course in forestry at the ,naval ,academy1 which was instituted in #ahjj4 ,soon the need of a larger number of educated foresters led to the establishment of several separate forest schools1 one at ,zarskoye ,selo 7near ,st4 ,petersburg7 in #ahjc1 another at ,kozlovsk in #ahje1 and a third at ,st4 ,petersburg in #ahjh4 ,this latter under the name of the ,forest ,institute absorbed the other two1 and from #ahac has continued to exist through many vicissitudes4 ,now1 with #ae professors and instructors and an expenditure of nearly #bej1jjj1 and over #ejj students1 it is the largest forest school in the world4 ,it prepares in a four years' course for the higher positions in the forest service4 8,the history of this ,forest ,institute is practically the history of forestry in ,russia40 ,a second school at ,novo-,alexandria1 near ,warsaw1 was instituted in #ahfj4 ,in these schools1 as in the methods of management1 ,german influence is everywhere visible4 ,in addition to these schools1 chairs of forestry were instituted in the ,petrovsk ,school of ,rural ,economy in ,moskau and in the ,riga ,polytechnic ,institute1 and also in seven intermediate schools of rural economy4 ,in #ahhh1 ten secondary schools were established after ,austrian pattern for the lower or middle service1 rangers and underforesters2 their number1 by #aijj1 having been increased to #cj and1 in #aijh1 to #cc1 with #dfj students4 ,these are boarding schools in the woods1 where a certain number of the students are taught free of charge1 the maximum number of those admitted being #aj to #bj at each school4 ,the course is of two years' duration1 and is mainly directed to practical work and theoretical study in silviculture4 ,the total expense of such a school is about #c1cjj1 of which the ,state contributes #b1ejj1 the total expenditure1 in #aijh1 being #hd1acd4 ,a number of experiment stations were established in various parts of the country by the ,administration of ,crownlands1 and a very considerable and advanced literature testifies to the good education and activity of the higher forest service4 ,two forestry journals1 ,lesnoj ,journal 7since #ahgj7 and ,lessopromychlenny ,vestnik1 the first bi-monthly1 the latter weekly1 besides several lesser ones1 keep the profession informed4 ,there are in existence several general societies for the encouragement of silviculture4 ,probably the oldest1 which ceased to exist in #ahej1 was the ,imperial ,russian ,society for the ,advancement of ,forestry which was founded in #ahcb4 ,it published a magazine and provided translations of foreign books1 among which the ,forest ,mathematics of the noted ,german forester ,knig1 who also prepared yield tables for the ,society4 7,see p4 #ace47 ,a society of professional foresters was founded at ,st4 ,petersburg in #ahga1 another exists in ,moscow1 and recently two associations for the development of forest planting in the steppes have been formed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the prominent writers and practitioners there should be especially mentioned ,theodor ,karlowitsch ,arnold1 who is recognized as the father of ,russian forestry4 ,he was the soul of the forest organization work1 for which he drew up the instructions in #ahde1 and as professor1 afterwards director1 of the ,institute for ,agronomy and ,forestry at ,moscow since #aheg1 he became the teacher of most of the present practitioners4 ,finally he became the head of the forest department in the ,ministry of ,apanages where he remained until his death in #aijb4 ,he is the author of several classical works on silviculture1 forest mensuration1 forest management1 etc41 and1 in conjunction with ,dr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,tichonoff1 published an encyclopdic work in three volumes4 ,in the first volume1 ,russland's ,wald 7#ahij71 which has been translated into ,german1 the author makes an extended plea for improved forestry practice and describes and argues at length the provisions of the law of #ahhh4 ,in #ahie1 he published a history of forestry in ,germany1 ,france and ,russia4 ,of other prominent foresters who have advanced forestry in ,russia we may cite ,count ,vargaci de ,bedemar1 who made the first attempt to prepare ,russian growth and yield tables in #ahdj to #ahej4 ,professor ,a4 ,f4 ,rudzsky1 who was active at the ,forest ,institute until a few years ago1 developed in his volumes especially the mathematical branches and methods of forest organization4 ,the names of ,tursky1 ,kravchinsky and ,kaigodorov are known to ,russian students of dendrology and silviculture1 and among the younger generation the names of ,morozov1 ,nestorov1 ,orlov1 and ,tolsky may be mentioned4 ,it is well known how prominent ,russian investigators have become in the natural sciences1 and to foresters the work of the soil physicists1 ,otozky and ,dokuchaev would at least be familiar4 #d4 ,forestry ,practice4 ,while then a very considerable activity in scientific direction exists1 the practical application of forestry principles is less developed than one would expect1 especially in view of the stringent laws4 ,so far not much more than conservative lumbering is the rule4 ,generally speaking1 the ,state and crown forests are better managed than the private1 many of which are being merely exploited2 and in the northern departments large areas remain still inaccessible4 ,some notable exceptions to the general mismanagement of private forests are furnished by some of those owned by the nobility1 like those of ,count ,uwaroff with #aej1jjj acres under model management by a ,german forester1 and of ,count ,strogonoff with over #a1jjj1jjj acres under first-class organization with a staff of over #bcj persons4 ,a regular forest organization was first attempted in the forests attached to iron furnace properties in #ahdj4 ,by this time some #ajj million acres have come under regulated management1 half of the area being government forests4 ,the method of regulation employed is that of area division and sometimes area allotment according to ,cotta4 ,in some regions a division by rides into compartments1 ranging from #fj to #d1jjj acres each1 according to intensity of exploitation1 has been effected4 ,it is estimated that at the present rate of progress it would take #cjj years to complete the work of organization4 ,the selection method is still largely employed1 a felling budget by number of trees and volume being determined in the incompletely organized areas2 while a clearing system with artificial reforestation is used in most cases where a complete yield calculation has been made4 ,the rotations employed are from #fj to #ajj years for timber forest1 #cj to #fj years for coppice4 ,in the pineries1 the strip system in echelons is mostly in vogue1 the strips being made #ajh feet wide1 leaving four seed trees per acre1 and on the last strip1 which is left standing for five years1 this number is increased to eight which are left as overholders4 ,this method1 according to some1 seems to secure satisfactory reproduction4 ,to get rid of undesirable species1 especially aspen and birch1 these are girdled4 ,in spruce forest1 #ej to #fj per cent4 of the trees are left in the fellings1 when after three to four years the natural regeneration requires often repair1 which is done if at all by bunch planting2 after eight to ten years the balance of the old growth is removed4 ,while for a long time natural regeneration was alone relied upon1 now1 at least1 artificial assistance is more and more frequently practiced4 ,yet1 although over #b million acres were under clearing system1 not more than #e of the revenue1 or #ajj1jjj1 was in #ahih allowed for planting as against #g4e in ,prussia2 the total budget of expenses then remaining below #c million dollars4 ,but1 ten years later1 over half a million dollars was employed by the government in planting1 the planting fund contributed by the lumberman 7see p4 #bfi7 furnishing the means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the forest administration of the province of ,poland1 where the ,state owns over #a4e million acres was for some time independent1 but1 about #ahge1 was reorganized and placed under the central bureau at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,although the forests of ,poland are the most lucrative to the government and1 with good market and high prices for wood1 which are now rapidly increasing1 would allow of intensive management1 the stinginess of the administration1 the low moral tone of the personnel1 and long established bad practice have retarded the introduction of better methods4 ,the private forests of ,poland comprise over #d4e million acres1 and are mostly not much better treated than the ,state forest2 in the absence of any restrictive policy they have diminished by #be in the last #bj years4 ,considerable efforts have been made towards reforesting the steppes in southern ,russia1 first as in our own prairies and plains by private endeavor1 but lately with more and more direct assistance of the ,state forest administration4 ,this planting was begun by ,german colonists at the end of the #ahth century1 but without encouraging results1 although over #be1jjj acres had been planted by the middle of the #aith century4 ,since #ahdc1 the government has had two experimental forest reserves in the steppes of the governments of ,ekaterinoslav and ,tauride1 on which some #aj1jjj acres have been planted2 the originator of this work being von ,graff1 a ,german forester1 whose plantations1 made with #h1jjj plants to the acre1 are still the best4 ,later1 the number of plants was reduced to one-half1 and the results have not been satisfactory4 ,altogether1 planting on large areas on soils unfit for the purpose and by wrong methods has produced poor results4 ,at present the policy is not to create large bodies of forest1 but to plant small strips of #bj to #hj yards square in regular distribution1 which are to serve as windbreaks1 and the result has been satisfactory1 especially in the government of ,samara4 ,there are now annually #b1jjj acres added to these plantations4 ,the reclamation of shifting sands and sand dunes has also received considerable attention and1 to some extent1 the reboisement of mountain slopes in the ,crimea and ,caucasus4 ,of the former1 some #aj million acres are in existence in ,european ,russia1 and in the province of ,woronesh alone each year #ajj1jjj acres are added4 ,for #ej years sporadical work in their recovery was done4 ,not until #ahia and #ahib1 when two droughty famine years had led to an investigation of agricultural conditions1 was a systematic attempt proposed1 and this was begun in #ahig4 ,by #aijb1 some #hj1jjj acres had been fixed1 and by #aijd1 #aej1jjj acres4 ,in this work the government contributes #cf of the cost1 the benefited communities the balance4 ,in addition1 #a1ejj square miles of swamps in ,western ,russia were reclaimed by extensive canals and recovered with meadow and forest at a cost of #cjj1jjj1 of which the ,imperial ,treasury paid one-third1 the owners one-half1 the local government the balance4 ,while rational forest management1 as we have seen1 is far from being generally established1 the government tries at least to prevent waste and to pave the way from exploitation to regulated management4 ,,finland4 ,the ,grand ,duchy of ,finland in the northeast of ,russia is still in some respects independent of ,russia4 ,finland1 the 8land of a thousand lakes0 and of most extensive forests1 is hardly less important as a wood producer than ,russia itself2 its wood exports amounting at present to around #bjj million cubic feet and over #be million dollars in value1 represent over #ej per cent4 of its trade1 and its most important resource4 ,settled in the #gth century by an ,aryan tribe1 the ,finns1 congeners of the ,magyars1 who subdued the aboriginal ,laplanders1 ,finland became by conquest in the #abth century1 and remained for #ejj years1 a province of ,sweden4 ,in the wars between ,sweden and ,russia2 parts of this province were conquered by ,russia1 and finally1 in #ahji1 ,sweden lost the whole2 but the ,finns succeeded in preserving national unity and partial independence under a constitution1 adopted in #aggb and recognized by the ,czar4 ,finland stands very much in the same relation to ,russia as does ,hungary to ,austria1 the union being merely a personal one3 the ,czar is the ruler or ,grand ,duke1 but the administration is otherwise largely separate from that of the empire1 under a ,governor-,general1 appointed by the ,czar1 and a ,senate of #ah members at ,helsingfors1 with a national parliament of the four estates1 nobles1 clergy1 burgers1 peasants1 which convenes every five years2 the ,czar having the veto power over its legislation4 ,the ,war ,department of ,russia1 however1 is in charge of military affairs1 and other departments seem to be under more or less supervision of the ,russian administration4 ,lately repressive measures are threatening or have nearly accomplished the destruction of this autonomy4 ,of the #ade1jjj square miles of territory1 nearly #ej is occupied by lakes and bogs1 marshes or tundra2 less than #i million acres 7#i4g7 is in farms1 and #cg4e million acres or #db1 is forestland1 actual or potential2 ,the major part of this is located in the northern and eastern sections1 where the population is scanty1 agriculture little developed1 and sand soils prevail4 ,beyond the #fith degree1 forest growth ceases1 and naturally near the forest limit the scrubby growth partakes of the character of all northern forests4 ,not more than #b4e million acres1 mostly in the southwestern sections1 are actually under cultivation2 the population being short of #b4e million4 ,the rigorous climate makes a large consumption of fuelwood necessary1 and1 since houses are also mostly built of wood1 the home consumption is over #cb cubic feet per capita4 ,over #aj million cubic feet of pine are consumed in making tar1 and a like amount for paper pulp4 ,the total cut is in the neighborhood of #cgj million cubic feet1 four-fifth of which comes from private forests of the middle and southern area1 and over one-third of it is being exported4 ,the country generally is a tableland with occasional low hills4 ,the forest consists principally of pine1 the latter a variety of the ,scotch ,pine 7or species871 called ,riga ,pine which excels in straightness of bole and thrifty growth1 and of spruce 7#aj per cent4 of the whole1 mainly in the southeast74 ,aspen1 alder and birch1 especially the latter1 are considered undesirable weeds1 and fire is used to get rid of them where coniferous aftergrowth is desired1 although birch is also employed for fuel1 bobbins and furniture1 and aspen for matches4 ,basswood1 maple1 elm1 ash and some oak occur1 and larch 7,larix sibirica7 was introduced some #aej years ago4 ,long1 severe winters and hot1 dry summers produce slow growth1 the pine in the north requiring #bjj to #bej years1 in the middle sections #adj to #afj years to grow to merchantable size4 ,fires1 used in clearing1 have from time to time run over large areas and have nearly killed out the spruce except in the lowlands1 but the pine being more resistant has increased its area and in spite of the deterioration of the soil by fire reproduces well4 99 99 99 99 99 ,originally the forest was communal property1 but in #aebd1 ,gustav ,vasa declared all forest and water not specially occupied to belong to 8,god1 ,king and the ,swedish ,crown10 although he allowed the usufruct to the people free of charge or nearly so4 ,these rights of user are still the bane of the forest administration4 ,being left without supervision it mattered little who owned the land1 the forest was ruthlessly exploited4 ,later1 the rights of user thus originating were bought off by ceding lands to the peasants4 ,not until #ahea did an improvement in these conditions occur when a provisional administration of the ,state forests was provided in connection with the ,land ,survey2 but a rational organization materialized only after an eminent ,german forester1 v4 ,berg1 ,director of the forest school of ,tharandt1 had been imported 7#aheh7 to effect a reconstruction4 ,his advice was1 however1 only partially followed1 and the organization was not perfected until #ahfi4 ,almost immediately1 a powerful opposition to the administration developed1 because it could not at once show increased profits1 and the personnel which had been scanty enough1 was still further reduced1 the large districts into which the ,state property had been divided were still further enlarged1 and to this day1 improvement in these respects has been only partial4 ,the ,state forest area1 situated mainly in the north is stated as between #ce and #de million acres 7variable because of clearing for farms and new settlements71 but it contains about #ae million acres of bogs and moors and much other waste land1 which reduces the productive forest area to about #ab million acres 7#ce71 leaving #fe of the productive forest area to private ownership4 ,this ,state forest was divided 7#ahif7 into #ec districts1 the districts being aggregated into #h inspections1 and the whole service placed under a central office with a forest director and #e assistants under immediate control of the ,senate4 ,the forest guards numbered #gej1 their ranges averaging #ej1jjj acres1 while the districts average #fjj1jjj acres and several contain as high as #b4e million acres2 the ,forstmeister in charge may live sometimes #bjj miles from the nearest town and #fj miles from the nearest road4 ,his function is mainly to protect the property1 to supervise the cutting and sales1 and to teach the people the need of conservative methods4 ,in spite of this insufficient service1 considerable reduction in forest fires and theft has been attained4 ,beyond restriction of waste by axe and fire1 and conservative lumbering of the ,state forest1 positive measures for reproduction have hardly yet been introduced1 both personnel and wood values being insufficient for more intensive management4 ,at present1 with a cut hardly exceeding #ajj million cubic feet1 the revenue is still almost nominal1 say #fjj1jjj1 and hardly the annual growth is cut4 99 99 99 99 99 ,selection forest is1 of course1 the rule1 but since no trees are marked and cut less than #aj inch diameter at #be feet from the ground 7671 at least the possibility for improved management will not be destroyed when1 through the exhaustion of the private forests and increased wood prices1 more intensive management has become practicable4 ,when the market is good1 a clearing system with #ajj to #afj year rotation is practised2 on the clearings about #bj seed trees are left1 and after #f years the natural regeneration is repaired by planting4 ,this latter method is especially prescribed on the government farms4 ,these form an interesting part of the ,state property1 some #ijj small farms with woodlots aggregating over #ejj1jjj acres1 mostly in the southern districts4 ,these came into existence in the #agth and #ahth centuries1 being granted as fiefs to officers of the army as their only compensation4 ,they reverted to the ,state and are rented for terms of #ej years upon condition that the woods are to be managed according to rules laid down by the ,state department2 and special inspectors are provided to supervise this work4 ,this system1 in vogue since #ahfc1 at first met with opposition on the part of the renters on account of the impractical propositions of the department4 ,at present the department manages many of these woodlots directly1 as well as those which the clergy have received in lieu of emoluments4 ,since #ahhc1 a corps of forest surveyors has been occupied in making working plans based upon diameter accretion at the curiously selected height of #be feet from the ground4 ,a commission was also instituted some years ago to segregate forest and farm soils in the ,state domain with a view of disposing of the latter preparatory to improved management of the remaining forest area4 ,the ,state has also in a small way begun to purchase absolute forest soils in the southern provinces with a view to reforestation4 ,the private forest areas1 located in the more settled southern portions are found mostly in small parcels and in peasants' hands1 although the nobility also owns some forest properties1 but the size of single holdings rarely exceeds #a1jjj acres4 ,these areas are mostly exploited without regard to the future1 furnishing still four-fifths of the large export1 and according to competent judges will soon be exhausted4 ,although attempts have been made from time to time to restrict the use of private forest1 practically little has been accomplished1 and such restrictions as have been enacted are hardly enforced4 ,a law1 enacted in #ahhf1 forbids clearing along waters adapted to fishing1 and orders the leaving of seed trees or 8providing otherwise for regeneration10 if more than #ab acres are cut at one time4 ,the method of utilizing the ground for combined forest and farm use1 which is still frequently practised1 was forbidden on the light sandy soils of the pineries1 or was otherwise regulated4 ,forest fire laws are also on the statutes4 ,propositions for further restrictions1 made in #ahia1 were promptly rejected by the parliament4 99 99 99 99 99 ,educational opportunities are offered in the ,forest ,institute at ,evois1 first established in #ahfb as a result of v4 ,berg's visit1 and re-organized in #ahgd4 ,it accepts new students only every second year for the two years' course4 ,it has had a precarious existence1 being left sometimes without students1 and is naturally not of a high grade1 practical acquaintance with woodswork being its main aim4 ,since #ahgf1 a school for forest guards and private underforesters has been in existence1 where #f students are annually accepted for a two years' course4 ,in addition there are two instructors provided by the government1 wandering teachers who are to advise private owners4 ,premiums are paid for the best managed woodlots on the government farms4 ,the ,finnish forestry association1 which is in part of propagandist nature1 was organized in #ahgg4 ,it supplies1 besides an annual report1 other forestry literature1 and employs an experienced planter to direct efforts at reforestation4 ,a forestry journal 7quarterly7 is also published1 and a professional literature is beginning to start into existence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it may be of interest in this connection to cite a rough calculation made by ,dr4 ,mayr of the available material in ,european ,russia and ,finland combined1 which he places at #d1ejj million cubic feet1 and of which he considers one-half available for export4 ,it is impossible to prognosticate what position ,russia and ,finland1 together the largest wood producers in ,europe1 will take in the future world commerce1 and how rapidly better practices1 for which the machinery is already half started1 will become generally adopted4 ,at present1 especially in ,russia proper1 the general corruption of the bureaucracy is an almost insurmountable obstacle to improvement4 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,states4 ,in the ,english language the ,report on ,forestry in ,sweden1 by ,gen4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,andrews1 ,u4 ,s4 ,minister at ,stockholm1 #ahgb1 revised #aijj1 #ce pp41 gives a statement of present conditions with historical notes4 ,a very good idea in detail of the wood trade of ,sweden may be obtained from ,the ,wood ,industries of ,sweden1 published by ,,timber ,,trades ,,journal of ,london in #ahif4 ,la ,sude1 son ,peuple et son industrie1 by ,g4 ,,sundbarg1 #aijj1 #b vols41 contains several pertinent chapters4 ,it is an official work1 very complete1 and was translated into ,english in #aijd4 ,the ,economic ,history of the ,swedish ,forest1 by ,,gunnar ,,schotte1 #aije4 #cb pp41 in ,swedish1 published by the forestry association1 gives a brief account of conditions and data of the forestry movement4 ,norway4 ,official publication for the ,paris ,exposition1 #aijj1 contains a chapter on ,forestry by ,k4 ,a4 ,fauchald1 pp4 #cbb-cej1 with a map of forest distribution4 ,skogsvaesenets ,historie ved ,skogs direktoren1 ,i ,del1 ,historik1 #aiji1 is an official publication of the ,norwegian ,forest administration1 giving a full account of the development during the #ej years from #aheg to #aijg1 with notes of the earlier history4 ,le ,danemarc4 ,etat ,actuel de sa civilization et de son organization sociale1 by ,j4 ,,carlsen1 ,h4 ,,olric and ,c4 ,n4 ,,starcke1 #aijj1 #gad pp4 ,denmark1 its history and topography1 etc41 by ,h4 ,,weitemeyer1 #ahia4 ,bidrag til det ,danske ,skovbrugs ,historie1 by ,o4 ,l,,tken1 #aijj1 was not accessible to the writer4 ,extensive notes are found through the ,german1 ,austrian and ,french forestry journals4 ,especially an article in the ,centralblatt fr das gesammte ,forstwesen1 #aije 7briefed in ,forestry ,quarterly1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bib7 and another 7briefed in same ,quarterly1 vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #de7 gives extended accounts of forest conditions in ,sweden4 ,under the name of ,scandinavian ,states we may comprise the countries of ,sweden1 ,norway and ,denmark1 which were settled by the same group of ,german tribes1 the so-called ,norsemen2 they originally spoke the same language1 which only later became more or less differentiated4 ,the settlement of the country by these tribes seems to have been accomplished in the main by the end of the #hth century2 and the separation into the three several kingdoms in the ninth to twelfth centuries1 during which time they were sometimes united1 or at least under one ruler1 sometimes at war with each other1 and always torn by interior dissensions bordering on anarchy4 ,in #acig1 by the ,calmar convention1 a more permanent union into one kingdom was effected between ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,denmark under ,margaret1 8the ,semiramis of the ,north40 ,after another period of variable fortunes1 ,sweden1 about #aebc1 became an independent constitutional monarchy under ,gustav ,vasa1 and ,norway remained joined to ,denmark under ,frederick ,i4 ,sweden then started on a career of conquest1 being almost continuously at war with all her neighbors and especially with ,russia and ,poland1 whereby1 especially under ,gustavus ,adolphus and the adventurous ,charles ,,xii1 her territory was greatly enlarged4 ,with the treaties of ,stockholm and ,nystadt 7#agbj and #agba7 she came into more peaceful waters1 but permanent peace and a settled policy was not attained until the election of ,bernadotte1 one of ,napoleon's administrators1 to the kingship1 and by the peace of ,kiel1 in #ahad1 ,sweden became a constitutional hereditary monarchy in the modern sense4 ,at the same time1 ,norway was taken away from ,denmark and forced to a union with ,sweden1 which persisted until #aijg1 when a peaceful separation took place by the action of the ,norwegian people4 ,the union has always been hateful to the ,norwegians1 although only the king and the department of foreign affairs 7in which ,norway was represented by a delegation from its ,council7 were in common1 all other matters of administration being separate as well as the parliaments 7,storthing in ,norway1 and ,riksdag in ,sweden74 ,denmark1 powerful in the #aath century under ,canute1 who subjugated not only ,norway but ,england1 losing both these countries shortly after his death1 was shorn by ,sweden of much of its territory in the #agth century1 and1 in #ahad1 was separated from ,norway4 ,originally an elective monarchy1 largely dominated by the nobility1 the crown in #affa became hereditary and absolute1 and ,sweden did not become a constitutional monarchy until #ahdi4 ,,sweden4 ,this country is of greatest interest to the world at large in forestry matters1 because it has been until lately the largest exporter of wood and has only just fully waked up to its need for a conservative forest management3 the law of #aijc promises to bring about very decided changes1 and to curtail the exports upon which other ,european nations so much rely4 ,sweden1 with #agb1hgf square miles1 occupies the eastern two-thirds of the ,scandinavian peninsula4 ,it is not like ,norway1 a mountain country1 but the greater part consists of low granitic hills4 ,the mountain range 7,koelen7 which forms the boundary towards ,norway falls off in a long slope towards the gulf of ,bothnia and the ,baltic sea1 the coast being a broad level plain1 with a series of islands1 larger or smaller1 girdling the outer coast line and forming an archipelago4 ,the country is cut into numerous water sheds1 the many rivers 7called elfs71 furnishing means of transportation1 expanding frequently into lakes 7sj7 in the upper reaches1 and falling with cataracts into the lower plain1 giving rise to fine water powers4 ,eight per cent4 of the total area is in lakes4 ,only #ab per cent4 of the land area is in farms4 ,the forest area1 with nearly #ej million acres1 occupies nearly #dh per cent41 leaving #dj per cent4 waste land or otherwise occupied4 ,half of the population of over #e million pursues agriculture1 while iron manufacture and the lumber industry occupy one-quarter4 ,of the three main divisions of the country1 the southern1 ,gtaland1 is richest in lowlands and agricultural soils1 and1 as it has also a favorable maritime climate1 farming is the main industry4 ,here1 a population of #ej to #fj1 and in parts up to #aij per square mile is found4 ,beech and oak are here the principal trees1 with spruce occasionally intermixed4 ,in the central part1 ,svealand or ,sweden proper1 the forest region begins1 with pine and spruce1 pure or in mixture1 covering the granite hills and plateau2 birch and other hardwoods1 oak1 beech1 elm1 basswood and aspen being found in the river valleys2 but the third division1 ,norrland1 is the forest region of commercial importance1 the seat of the extensive export trade4 ,it is a vast1 almost unbroken forest country1 with hardly more than #c people to the square mile1 in the northernmost part1 called ,lapland1 ,laps and ,finns forming a not inconsiderable part of the population4 ,pine and spruce are the timber trees1 with ,white ,birch intermixed4 ,towards the northern boundary the pine increases1 in more and more open stands as one goes northward into the drier climate4 ,an open stunted growth of birch and aspen forms the transition to the treeless tundra4 ,a treeless alpine region occupies the northwestern frontier1 fringed at lower elevations by a belt of birch in natural coppice1 a result of repeated fires4 ,the northeastern part is a level coast plain1 but the climate is too severe for agriculture and the forest growth also is short and of inferior quality4 ,large areas of swampland are found in nearly all parts1 recoverable for farm or forest use1 and mismanaged and devastated forest areas are found all over the country4 ,the forest1 nearly #aj acres per capita1 on account of its accessibility to the sea by means of the many rivers1 plays an important rle in the economy of ,sweden1 not only because it covers such a large area and favorable composition 7#hj coniferous71 but because it has long been a prominent source of income4 ,especially after the abolition of the ,english import duties1 in #ahff1 and of the ,swedish export duties which had restricted trade1 in #ahfc1 did a rapid increase in wood exports take place1 until in #aijj1 it amounted to over #ed million dollars 7of which #ab million for woodenware71 being the leading export article and representing over one-half of all exports4 ,in addition to this export which may represent at least a round #cjj million cubic feet of wood1 there are about #bej million cubic feet of pulpwood and #aej million feet used for charcoal1 besides the domestic fuel consumption4 ,the total draft on the forest may be estimated to come near to #a1bjj million cubic feet which is believed far in excess of the annual growth1 much of the nearly #ej million acres of forest area having been devastated or deteriorated by axe and fire and being located in a northern zone where the growth is slow 7#a inch in #ab to #ae years74 ,according to others1 the cut remains below the increment by about #be per cent41 the latter being figured at #be cubic feet per acre4 ,in the ,state forests1 to be sure1 mostly located in the more northern tiers1 the cut is kept between #f and #g cubic feet effective1 but here a waste of sometimes #dj is incurred in the exploitation due to the difficulties in transport4 #a4 ,property ,conditions4 ,it was ,gustav ,vasa who1 in #aedb1 declared all uncultivated lands the property of the ,crown4 ,parts of them1 however1 were given to colonists1 and these as well as the resident population had the right to use the neighboring forest to supply their needs for wood and pasture4 ,by the continued exercise of this right1 the forest came to be considered commons1 proprietary rights remaining long in doubt4 ,finally1 a division came about1 some of the lands becoming the property of the parishes1 others of smaller districts 7the hundreds71 others again encumbered or unencumbered property of the ,state1 and some remained in joint ownership of ,state and private individuals under various complicated conditions4 ,the ,state now owns somewhat over #af million acres1 of which1 however1 only #gj are really forest1 and controls more or less #d million more1 of which about #ijj1jjj acres are ecclesiastical benefices and forests belonging to public institutions1 and #b4g million acres in ,state farms1 which are rented4 ,since #ahge1 the ,state has pursued a policy of purchase1 which has added over #ejj1jjj acres 7at #g per acre7 to the domain4 ,lately1 this policy has found considerable opposition4 ,in this way1 by reforesting1 and by settlement of disputed titles the ,state property in absolute possession of the government has grown by nearly #e per cent41 to #aj million acres4 ,in ,lapland the entire forest area used to belong to the ,state1 but in order to attract settlers these were given forest property for their own use1 from #aj to #ajj times the area which they had cleared4 ,this forest area the settlers disposed of to wood merchants 7lumbermen71 until the law of #ahgc intervened1 restricting the settlers to the usufruct alone1 the government taking charge of the cutting of wood for sale and limiting the cut to a diameter of #h inch at #af feet from the base4 ,this interference with what was supposed to be private rights seems to have been resented1 and has led to wasteful practices1 in the absence of a sufficient force of forest guards4 ,nevertheless the law was extended to ,westerbotten in #ahhb4 ,in other provinces1 ,wermland1 ,gestrikland1 etc41 the government vested in the owners or ironworks the right to supply themselves with charcoal from ,state forests4 ,but about the middle of the #aith century1 when1 owing to railroad development in other parts1 some of the ironworks became unremunerative and were abandoned1 their owners continued to hold on to the forest privileges1 and by and by exercised them by cutting and sawing lumber for sale1 or even by selling the forest areas as if they were their properties2 and in this way these properties changed hands until suddenly the government began to challenge titles1 and commenced litigation1 about #ahif4 ,grants of certain log cutting privileges on government lands were also made to sawmills in past times1 usually by allowing sawmillers to cut a certain number of logs annually at a very low price4 ,in #ahgj these grants1 which were very lucrative1 were modified by substituting the right of an increased cut for a stated number of years at a modified price1 after which the grant was to cease4 ,in #aijj1 there were still some #cjj1jjj acres under such grants4 ,no wonder that under these circumstances the value of the ,state forest property was1 in #ahih1 assessed at only #a4fj per acre2 the net income being #a1fhj1gec1 or about #ab cents per acre2 the expenditures for administration1 supervision1 and forest school amounting to #dbc1fei1 to which should be added an undetermined amount for the participation of the domain bureau1 the agricultural department and provincial governments1 all taking part in the forest administration4 ,many of the towns and country districts 7haerad7 have received donations of forest areas from the ,crown1 which have been a considerable source of revenue to them4 ,the parish of ,orsa1 e4g41 realized from its forest property some #b4e million dollars1 and other similar results are recorded4 ,these communal and institute forests of various description comprise somewhat over #b4f million acres1 or #e4e1 and are placed under management of local committees1 with the governor of the province as chairman4 ,the management consists in selling stumpage of all trees over #ac inches in diameter #e feet above ground1 to be cut by the purchaser under regulations4 ,in the years from #ahdj to #ahej1 the government sold to ,english wood merchants considerable tracts of timberland1 and in the latter part of the #aith century1 as the sawmill industry expanded1 many mill firms acquired wood-cutting leases for #ej year terms for prices which were often realized from the forest in the first winter4 ,at present longer leases than for #bj years are prohibited by law4 ,the diameter limit of #ab inches1 #ah or #bj feet above ground1 was usually the basis of the leases2 and as the owners could then lease away other sizes1 it might happen that #b or #c persons besides the original owner would have property rights in the same forest4 ,of late years many of the mill owners have endeavored to get rid of the resulting inconvenience by buying the fee-simple of the land4 ,this movement has resulted in the aggregation of large areas in single hands or more often in the hands of large mill companies4 ,by the acquisition of these properties a certain amount of cultivated land is usually included1 which is then left to the former owner at a nominal rent1 provided that he pays the taxes on the whole2 thereby creating a class of renters in lieu of owners of farms4 ,the area thus privately owned1 mostly by sawmill companies1 must be over #be million acres2 the total private forest area1 which includes the bulk of the commercial forest1 is about #cj million acres 7#fa4c71 unreclaimable waste lands swelling the figure to over #ej million4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,from the times of ,olaf ,tratlja1 the first ,christian king of ,sweden 7about #ajjj ,a4,d471 who gained fame by the part he took in exploiting the forests of ,wermland1 down to the #adth century ,sweden suffered from a superabundance of forest4 ,nevertheless1 by the end of that century restriction of the wilful destruction by fire was felt necessary1 and an ordinance with that object in view was promulgated4 ,it is questionable whether this order had any effect in a country1 where the homestead law provided1 that a settler might take up 8as much pasture and arable land as he could make use of1 twice as much forest1 and in addition on each side of this homestead as much as a lame man could go over on crutches without resting40 ,not till #afch1 do we again find an attempt at forest conservancy1 this time in the interest of supply of charcoal for the iron industry1 by the appointment of overseers of the public forests4 ,the first general forest code1 however1 dates from #afdg1 which among other useless prescriptions made the existing usage of planting two trees for every one cut obligatory1 and this provision remained on the statutes until #aghi4 ,in spite of this and other1 restrictive1 laws1 exploitation by the liege lords and the communities continued until1 in #agbj1 a director of forests for the two southern districts1 ,halland and ,bohus1 was appointed1 and1 at least in this part of the country1 the execution of the laws was placed under a special officer4 ,this appointment may be considered the first germ of the later forest department4 ,a policy of restriction seems to have prevailed during the entire #ahth century1 although it is questionable whether the restrictions were enforced since there was no personnel to watch over their enforcement1 and the governors1 in whose hands the jurisdiction lay1 had other interests1 more engrossing4 ,a law1 enacted in #agcd1 restricted the peasant forest owners in the sale of wood from their own properties1 and1 in #aghi1 this restriction and other supervision was extended to those of the nobility4 ,it appears that soon after this a considerable sentimental solicitude inside and outside the ,riksdag was aroused regarding an apprehended deterioration of climate as well as scarcity of wood as a result of further forest destruction--in the light of present experience a rather amusing anticipation4 ,these jeremiads1 however1 after an unsatisfactory attempt at legislation in #agic1 led1 in #agih1 to the appointment of a commission which reported after #e years of investigation4 ,a new set of forest regulations was enacted as a result in #ahje4 ,in further prosecution of these attempts at regulating forest use a commissioner1 ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,radloff1 was sent to ,germany1 in #ahji1 to study methods employed in that country4 ,long before that time1 about #agfb1 some of the iron masters1 owning large forest areas had imported a commission of ,german forest experts 7among them von ,langen and ,zanthier1 the same who had done similar work in ,norway and ,denmark7 with a view of systematizing the forest use2 but apparently without result4 ,after much discussion of ,radloff's report1 and consultation with the provincial governors1 who suggested the propriety of different plans for different localities1 new legislation was had in #ahaj1 #ahah1 #ahbc1 and new regulations for the crown forests were issued in #ahbd4 ,yet at this very time not only the partition of the communal forests but also the sale of town forests was ordered2 and this policy of dismemberment lasted till #ahff1 over #a million acres having been sold by that time4 ,nor was any diminution in wasteful practices to be noted as a result of legislation1 and it seems that1 while on the one hand restrictive policies were discussed and enacted1 on the other hand unconservative methods were encouraged4 ,indeed1 in #ahdf1 the then existing restrictions of the export trade were removed2 apparently a reversion of restrictive policy had set in1 and exploitation increased1 in the belief of inexhaustible supplies4 ,on the other hand1 encouragement of reforestation was sought by giving bounties for planting waste land and for leaving a certain number of seed trees in the felling areas1 also by paying rewards for the best plantations2 all without result4 ,meanwhile a check to the wood trade had occurred through the imposition of exorbitant customs duties by ,great ,britain1 and at the same time the government imposed an export duty to discourage export from ,norrland1 and this was not abated until #aheg4 ,a further project of forest supervision was attempted through a report by a new commission appointed in #ahbh1 which formulated rules for the control of public and private forests1 and recommended the establishment of a ,central bureau for the management of forest affairs1 as well as the organization of a ,forest ,institute1 for the teaching of forestry4 ,this ,institute was established at ,stockholm in #ahbh1 but1 instead of organizing the bureau1 the director of that institute was charged with the duties of such bureau4 ,again for years1 committee reports followed each other1 but led to no satisfactory solution of the problems4 ,in #ahcf1 however1 a forestry corps 7skogstaten7 was organized for the management of the ,state forests under the direction of the ,forest ,institute1 and1 as a result of persistent propaganda1 the central bureau of forest administration 7skogsstyrelsen7 was created in #ahei with ,bjrkman at the head1 charged with the supervision of all the ,state1 royal1 communal and other public forests1 and the control of private forest use4 ,the law of #ahei1 however1 did not settle upon any new policy of control over private forest properties4 ,again and again1 forest committees were appointed to propose proper methods of such control1 but not until #aijc was a general law enacted1 which was to go into effect on ,january #a1 #aije4 ,previous to this1 locally applicable laws were enacted4 ,in #ahff1 a law was passed which referred only to a particular class of private lands1 namely those forests of ,norrland which the ,state was to dispose of for ground rent1 or which had been disposed of and on which the conditions of settlement had not been fulfilled4 ,in #ahfi1 a law applicable only on the island of ,gotland provided a dimension limit1 and that in case of neglect of regeneration on private fellings the owner may not cut any more wood for sale1 until the neglect had been remedied4 ,exactly in the same manner as the homestead and other colonization laws in the ,united ,states have been abused to get hold of public timber lands1 so in ,sweden large areas of government land had been taken up for settlement1 but actually were exploited4 ,it was to remedy this evil that in #ahfj an examination of the public lands was ordered with a view of withdrawing portions from settlement and of making forest reservations4 ,the royal ordinance of #ahff resulted1 which was to regulate the cutting on settled lands and in such new settlements as were thereafter allowed4 ,here1 private owners at first were allowed to cut only for their own use1 and the new law prescribed the amount of yearly cut and required the marking of timber designed for sale by the government officers4 ,this 8compulsory marking0 or 8,lapland0 law with a dimension limit1 was1 in #ahgc1 extended to all private forests in ,norbotten1 and in #ahhh1 to ,vesterbotten4 ,this law limits the diameter to which fellings are to be made 7#h inches at #ae feet from base71 and if the cutting of smaller trees is deemed desirable for the benefit of the forest these are to be designated by forest officials4 ,the law for ,gotland was renewed in #ahid1 adding a reforestation clause1 the governor being authorized to prohibit shipping of timber under #h inch diameter1 and that not until new growth was established2 or at least no new fellings may be made until this condition is fulfilled4 ,the same law applies to sand dune plantations in other1 southern districts4 ,altogether one-quarter of the private forest property was in this manner subjected to restrictions1 until the present conservation law came into existence4 ,this law1 of #aijc1 which became operative in #aije1 was the result of a most painstaking1 extended canvass by the legislative committee1 appointed in #ahif1 which reported in #ahii1 and of a further canvass by the ,director of ,domains1 who reported in #aija4 ,a large amount of testimony from private forest owners1 sawmill men1 provincial and local government officials1 etc41 was accumulated1 and it may be reasonably expected that this new legislation will be more effective than most of the preceding seems to have been4 ,the law requires in general terms the application of forestry principles in the management of private woodlands4 ,for this purpose1 a ,forest ,protection ,committee1 one for each province1 is constituted which has surveillance over all private forests1 an institution similar to that existing in ,russia4 ,the ,committee1 or ,forest ,conservation ,board1 consists of three persons who are appointed for three years1 one by the government1 one by the ,county ,council1 one by the managing committee of the ,county ,agricultural ,society4 ,in addition1 where the communities desire1 elected ,forest ,conservation ,commissioners may be instituted to make sure of the enforcement of the law4 ,the ,board secures the services of an expert adviser from the ,state forest service paid by the government but leaves to the ,board discretion as to the interpretation of the law which is for the most part expressed in general terms1 to secure conservative management4 ,hence different ,boards have worked in different ways1 but gradually all are coming to similar methods1 and all apply persuasive means rather than force4 ,the law requires regeneration1 but does not prescribe detail methods as to how re-growth is to be obtained1 leaving these to be determined by the ,board in consultation with the owners4 ,if no agreement can be arrived at1 or if the measures stipulated are not taken by the owner1 the ,board may enforce its rulings by ,court proceedings1 in which injunctions to prevent further lumbering1 confiscation of logs1 or of lumber1 or money fines may be adjudged4 ,the time of contracts for logging rights is reduced from #bj to #e years4 ,short courses of instruction to forest owners1 and the issuing of popularly written technical publications 7,folkskrifter7 is one of the efficient methods of securing the result1 which seems to have been attained in the few years since the law is in operation1 namely in arousing such interest that opposition has become very small4 ,an export duty 7#d to #h cents per #ajj cubic feet of timber1 #h to #ad cents per ton of dry wood pulp7 is levied for the purpose of carrying out the law the export duty amounting to over #afj1jjj1 and a more general export duty is under contemplation4 ,the management of communal forest is to be placed under the ,state forest administration1 the corporations paying #a4f;c4 per acre2 but this feature does not seem entirely settled4 ,protective forests under special regulations are established at the alpine frontier and on the drift-sand plains1 which are planted up4 #c4 ,forest ,administration and ,forestry ,practice4 ,the central forestry bureau as it exists now was organized in #ahhc as the ,domain ,bureau in the ,department of ,agriculture with1 at present1 a forester as ,general ,director1 and under it a forestry corps 7skogstaten7 7reorganized in #ahij7 which has charge of the public forests1 and also of the forest control in the private forests where such control exists outside of the ,conservation ,boards4 ,for the purpose of this administration the country is divided into #aj districts1 each under an inspector 7or fverjgmstare72 the districts are divided into ranges 7revir71 now #ij1 each under a chief of range 7or jgmstare7 with assistants and guards 7kronojgare72 the nomenclature of the officers suggesting the hunt rather than the forest management4 ,in addition1 #f forest engineers are employed on working plans1 engineering works1 and in giving advice and assistance to private owners who pay for such service4 ,when it is stated that the ranges in the northern provinces average over #cjj1jjj acres of public and #djj1jjj acres of private forest2 in central ,sweden #aej1jjj acres of public and #ade1jjj acres of private forest1 and in the southern provinces nearly #ee1jjj acres of ,state and communal forest1 it will be understood that the control cannot be very strict4 ,the net revenue from the ,state forest during the last #cj years has increased from #cjj1jjj to #a1gej1jjj4 ,the management of even the ,state forests can only be very extensive4 ,the ,state still sells mostly stumpage1 rarely cutting on its own account4 ,the lumbering is carried on very much as in the ,united ,states by logging contractors1 and the river driving is done systematically by booming companies4 ,selection forest is still the general practice1 now often improved into group system1 although a clear cutting system with planting has been practised1 but is supposed to be less desirable1 probably because it entails a direct money outlay or else because it was not properly done4 ,a seed tree management preferred by private owners for pine seems frequently not successful4 ,of the ,state forests #ij are under selection system1 and of the private forest #fj4 ,in the southern provinces where planting is more frequently resorted to1 #b-c year old pines and #b-e year old spruces1 nursery-grown1 #b1jjj to the acre1 are generally used or else sowing in seedspots is resorted to1 which is more frequently practised in the middle country4 ,some #aj1jjj acres were1 for instance1 planted by the forest administration in #ahih1 at a cost of #b per acre1 and the budget contains annually about #bj1jjj for such planting4 ,that private endeavor in the direction of planting1 has also been active1 is testified by a plantation of over #bf1jjj acres1 now #ce years old1 reported from ,finspong ,estate4 ,complete working plans are rare even for the ,state forests1 a mere summary felling budget being determined for most areas1 the trees to be cut being marked4 ,under instructions issued in #ahif1 working plans for the small proportion of ,state forest management by clearing system are to be made4 ,in these an area allotment method is employed with rotations of #ajj to #aej years4 ,forest fires are still very destructive1 especially in northern ,sweden1 although an effective patrol system1 greatly assisted in some provinces by watch towers1 has reduced the size of the areas burnt over4 ,the coniferous composition and the dry summers in the northern part together with the methods of lumbering are responsible for the conflagrations4 ,in this direction too1 the activities of the ,conservation ,boards have been highly useful4 #d4 ,education and ,literature4 ,among the propagandist literature1 which had advanced the introduction of forestry ideas in ,sweden it is proper to mention the writings of ,israel ,adolf of ,strm1 who after extensive travels in ,germany established the first private forest school in #ahbc1 and was instrumental in securing the establishment of the ,state ,forest ,institute in ,stockholm 7#ahbh74 ,in regard to education a most liberal policy prevails4 ,at the ,institute the tuition is free and in addition #d students receive scholarships of #bej dollars per year2 appointment to assistantships follows immediately after promotion1 and in #aj years the position of jgmstare may be attained4 ,the number of students is limited to #cj4 ,the director of this school is also general adviser in forestry matters4 ,besides the director1 six professors are employed4 ,the course at this school is two years of #aa full months4 ,there are now a higher and a lower course1 the former requiring previous graduation from another preparatory forest school1 either the one at ,omberg 7founded #ahhf71 or that at ,kloten 7#aijj71 where a one-year course1 mainly in practical work1 is given4 ,for the lower service there are not less than #f schools in various parts of the country1 each with one teacher and assistants1 managed under a chief of range4 ,in these1 not only is tuition free but #aj pupils receive also board and lodging2 the course lasting #h months4 ,these schools prepare for ,state service1 as well as for managers of private forests4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a forest experiment station was organized in #aijc1 an independent institution in the ,domain ,bureau1 under the direct charge of a practitioner4 ,every third year1 a commission is to determine what work is to be undertaken4 ,the appropriation1 which so far is hardly #e1jjj per annum1 will not permit much expansion4 ,the first number of its publication1 ,meddelanden fran ,statens ,skogsfrsksanstalt1 was issued in #aijd1 and work of a superior character has been accomplished since then4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that a forestry public exists in ,sweden is attested by a forest association with an organ ,skogsvards ,freningens ,tidskrift1 which was founded in #aijb4 ,this journal is really the continuation of an earlier magazine1 ,tidskrift for ,skogshushallning1 a quarterly1 begun in #ahfi and running until #aijc4 ,a forestry association for ,norrland alone which also issues a yearbook1 was organized a few years ago4 ,a periodical for rangers1 etc41 is also in existence under the name of ,skogsvnnen4 ,in #aijb also1 there was formed a lumberman's trust to regulate the output1 which the forest owners proposed to meet by an associated effort to raise stumpage charges4 ,the attempt of the lumbermen to restrict the cut in #aijb was1 however1 a failure1 for the export of that year was #aj larger than the previous year4 ,it is expected that the new law will have the tendency of decreasing the cut and of inaugurating a new era in forestry matters generally4 ,,norway4 ,originally divided up among a number of petty kings1 ,norway was brought under one rule by ,harold in #hfc2 and united to ,denmark in the #aath century1 becoming gradually a mere dependency4 ,its later political fortunes and changing relations with ,denmark and ,sweden have been referred to on p4 #bhf4 ,the history of the forestry development1 however1 has proceeded more or less independently of the other two countries4 ,norway1 occupying with #abd1dde square miles over one-third of the ,scandinavian peninsula1 is for the most part a mountainous plateau with deep valleys and lakes4 ,its numerous fjords and water ways make accessible much of the interior mountain forest1 yet a large part of the inland area still remains inaccessible and trackless4 ,more than #ge of the country is waste land and water2 only #c in farms1 leaving for the forest area #ba1 or little over #ag million acres4 ,according to latest data 7#aijg7 from this productive area a further #b million acres must be deducted as non-producing4 ,the distribution of this forest area is most uneven4 ,the bulk and the most valuable portion of it is found in the south-eastern corner around ,christiania in eight counties1 in which the forest per cent4 exceeds #dj to #ej1 with conifer growth 7pine and spruce7 up to the #c1jjj foot level4 ,again in the three counties around ,trondhjem a large and important forest area is located at the head of the fjords4 ,but the entire western coast and the higher elevations are devoid of valuable forest growth and the northern third of the country 7north of the ,arctic circle7 is mostly heath and moors with only #g wooded1 mainly birch growth of little commercial value4 ,the commercially important forest area is1 therefore1 locally confined4 ,it is estimated that one-half of the territory has to import its lumber1 one-quarter has sufficient for home consumption1 and the excess which permits exportation is confined to the last quarter4 ,this export1 mostly in logs and staves1 which amounts to nearly #bj million dollars 7#dj of the total export7 half of it woodpulp is estimated to represent only one-fifth or one-sixth of the total cut1 which is stated as about #cej million cubic feet1 or at the rate of #bc cubic feet on the productive area while the annual growth is estimated at less than this amount1 namely at the rate of nearly #ba cubic feet in the southern districts1 and in the northern not over #ab cubic feet4 ,scotch ,pine is the principal timber1 and occurs beyond the ,arctic ,circle--the northernmost forest in the world--where its rotation becomes #aej to #bjj years1 with ,norway ,spruce more or less localized1 these two species forming #ge per cent4 of the forest growth2 oak1 ash1 basswood and elm occurring sporadically1 and ,white ,birch being ubiquitous4 99 99 99 99 99 ,forest property developed on the same lines as in ,sweden and in other ,european countries1 hence we find ,state1 communal1 and private property4 ,when in the ninth century1 upon ,harold's accession1 the commons were declared the property of the king1 the rights of user1 both to wood and grazing1 were retained by the mrker1 and the so-called ,state commons 7stats-almenninger7 remain to date encumbered by these rights1 similar to conditions in ,sweden4 ,from the end of the #agth to the middle of the #aith century it was the policy of the kings to dispose of these commons whenever their exchequer was low1 and the best of these lands became1 by purchase1 property of the districts 7bygdealmenning71 provinces1 city and village corporations1 or else became private property on which the rights of user continued 7privatalmenninger74 ,at present the ,state owns1 largely in the northern districts1 somewhat over #d4h million acres 7#bh4e72 but of this hardly #b million acres are productive1 and of these productive acres half a million consists of encumbered commons from which the ,state receives hardly any income4 ,the district commons or communal1 and other public institute forests comprise around #g1hjj1jjj acres 7#df72 but here again only #ehj1jjj acres are productive4 ,the balance then1 or a full one-quarter is in private hands4 99 99 99 99 99 ,export trade in wood had been very early carried on1 and had been considerably developed in the #acth and #adth century4 ,by the middle of the #agth century the coast forest of oak had been cut out by ,dutch and ,english wood merchants who had obtained logging privileges under special treaties of #abag and #acjh1 and by ,hanseatic cities1 especially ,hamburg entering this market in the middle of the #afth century4 ,there are records which would make it appear that at least some of the now denuded coast was forested in olden times4 ,the development of the iron industry increased the drain on these supplies1 which forest fires1 insects and excessive grazing prevented from recuperating4 ,as early as the middle of the #afth century we find attempts to arrest the devastation by regulating the export trade and supervising the sawmills1 forbidding especially the erection of sawmills intended to work for export only4 ,in the #agth century1 various commissions were appointed by ,christian ,,iv to make forest reconnaissances and elaborate rules for proper forest use4 ,in #afhc1 ,christian ,v issued a forest ordinance increasing the number of forest inspectors instituted by his predecessor1 and giving in detail the rules governing forest use1 many of which proved impractical4 ,in #agbe1 a commission1 the socalled forest and sawmill commission1 was appointed to organize a forest service4 ,it functioned until #agci1 when the first ,generalforstamt was established and the first attempt at real forest management was made4 ,this came into existence through the efforts of two famous ,german foresters1 ,j4 ,g4 von ,langen and von ,zanthier1 who with six assistants were called in from the ,harz mountains 7as also afterwards to ,denmark and ,sweden71 during the years #agcf to #agdj1 to make a forest survey and organize a management4 ,descriptions and instructions were elaborated in ,german and the service was largely manned by ,german 8wood foresters0 7holzforsterne74 ,the strictness of the department which had been organized after von ,langen's departure in #agci1 made it1 however1 unpopular1 and1 in #agdf1 it was abolished1 von ,zanthier returning to his country1 the sole survivor1 the other assistants having succumbed to scurvy4 ,the administration was again placed in the hands of a commission which continued till #agfj4 ,only the forests connected with mines remained under the administration as instituted1 and those belonging to the copperworks of ,roras continued under its forest inspectors until #aija4 ,in that year1 #agfj1 another shortlived attempt to organize a forest administration was made1 but the new organization did not fare any better and was superseded in #agga4 ,then followed an interim regimen1 during which the general government and district officers were in charge4 ,the old orders under which forest use had been regulated remained mostly in force until in #agie all the reasonable and the unreasonable obstructions to export were removed4 ,the sawmill privileges1 under which ,english lumbermen held large areas for long terms and devastated them without regard to the impractical regulations1 were1 however1 not ended until #ahfj4 ,the wood industries were then relieved entirely from restrictions1 and forest destruction progressed even more rapidly with the increasing facilities for transportation4 ,this final cessation of the destructive policy was the outcome of a campaign which started once more with a forest commission instituted1 in #ahdi1 to take stock and make new propositions4 ,this commission reported in #ahej1 and pointed out not only the necessity of terminating the sawmill privileges1 which was done in #ahed1 giving time till #ahfj1 but also very wisely accentuated the need of technically educated foresters if anything for forest recuperation was to be done4 ,to meet this latter want1 young men were sent to ,germany at government expense to study forestry4 ,some #aj or #ab men were educated in this way during the next decade and thereby the basis for a technical forest management was laid4 ,in #aheg1 the first two professional foresters1 ,mejdell and ,barth1 were placed in charge of affairs under the ,interior ,department1 and when in #ahei a new commission was charged with organizing a forest service1 these two men were members4 ,gradually an organization took shape under the direction of these two forestmeisters1 and1 finally1 in #ahfc1 the modern forest department and forest policy was established by law1 placing the ,state domain and other public forests under an effective management1 making provision for the extinction of the ruinous rights of user and also for reducing the mismanagement of private forests4 ,the forest service1 as now constituted after a reorganization in #aijf1 is in the ,department of ,agriculture under a director 7,skovdirector7 and #d ,forstmeister or inspectors with some executive officers under various names1 and #cfj rangers 7skogsvogternes71 including the rangers employed in the public forests outside the ,state domain4 ,the ranges are so large1 sometimes several million acres1 and many of them so inaccessible that only the most extensive management is possible2 the officials being poorly paid and poorly educated1 the management is1 of course1 not of a high order4 ,besides a 8forest engineer10 who is a public lecturer1 the officers of the forest department are under the obligation of advising private forest owners in their management1 under contracts somewhat similar to the present practice of the ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bureau1 the owners agreeing to follow the advice4 ,since #ahfj1 the ,state has begun to purchase forest lands for reforestation in the forestless districts and where1 for protective reasons1 it is desirable4 ,in late years1 regular appropriations of #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj were annually made for this purpose1 besides extraordinary grants4 ,in this way1 the cut-over lands1 neglected by their owners1 are cheaply acquired by the ,state4 ,besides its own planting1 the ,state assists private owners by advice and money grants and plantmaterial in reforesting their waste lands4 ,the communal forests are under government supervision2 they are usually worked under plans and under supervision of foresters with a view to supply the needs of the community4 ,only when the area is more than sufficient may they obtain the right to cut for sale outside of their parish2 on the other hand all fellings may be prohibited by the government1 if this is found desirable4 ,as regards private property there seems to be little or no supervision1 although the law of #ahfc had declared ,kulturplight and ,kulturtvank1 i4e41 the duty of reforesting1 but it had not defined that duty1 and the law remained a dead letter4 ,in #ahgd1 a special commission was charged to consider the forest policy which the public welfare required4 ,the commission reported in #ahgi with propositions1 which were submitted to the officials of the department and the district4 ,a new proposition was worked out and submitted in #ahhb1 but it was pigeonholed until #ahia1 when the forest administration brought in not a general law but one merely forbidding the export from ,nordland1 ,tromsoe and ,finmarken1 the thinly forested northern provinces4 ,finally1 in #ahic1 legislation was had enabling municipalities to protect themselves against destruction of forests needed for their protective function4 ,this gives to them the right to formulate rules which are to prevent devastation1 as for instance a diameter limit for felling1 or reforestation of clearings4 ,but the costs of such restriction must be borne by the municipalities as well as half the cost of inspection1 the other half being paid by the ,state4 ,the procedure to determine the protective quality of forests and the financial difficulty have left the law unused4 ,in #ahgh1 however1 a committee of private owners formed itself1 to fix the sand dunes1 which with the ,state subventions started work the following year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,many of the ,state forests are so burdened with rights of user1 which were granted to help in developing the country1 that the financial results of the forest administration and the conditions of the ,state property are most unsatisfactory1 and the application of silviculture greatly circumscribed4 ,the silvicultural system applied is most generally the rough selection forest or an approach to group system1 relying upon voluntary reproduction entirely4 ,management is much hampered by rights of user to certain dimensions1 and in the more distant districts by the difficulty of disposing of any but the best sizes4 ,an orderly organization is still almost unknown4 ,the stumpage is sold and removed by the buyer and the axe is still mainly used4 99 99 99 99 99 ,higher forest schools there are none1 but three schools for the lower grades had existed for some time1 the first having been established in #ahge at ,kongsberg2 one of them was abandoned in #ahhi4 ,forestry is also taught at two farm schools4 ,until recently the higher class foresters had to get their education in ,germany1 or in the ,swedish ,forest ,institute at ,stockholm2 but in #ahgi1 a chair of forestry was instituted in the ,agricultural college at ,kristiania4 ,in #ahha1 the first forestry association was formed1 which by #ahih had over #ejj members1 and then was re-organized with a special view to elevate private forestry practice4 ,it has now 7#aijg7 #a1ejj members1 and employs a forester paid by the ,state1 to give professional advice1 and works with ,state aid4 ,it has set out over #ej million trees besides sowing #h1jjj lbs4 of seed4 ,it publishes a journal ,tidskrift for ,skogsbruk1 and a ,yearbook4 ,there is also another journal1 ,forstligt ,tidskrift1 and a professional ,society of ,foresters4 ,altogether forestry is not yet on a high level in this country1 but the subject is now being brought even into the primary schools1 and the efforts to improve conditions are widespread4 ,,denmark4 ,forestry in ,denmark is of interest especially on account of the intensive methods developed on small areas1 and of the efforts at reforestation of sand dunes1 moors and heaths4 ,greatly curtailed in area when1 as a result of the war of #ahfd1 ,prussia detached the provinces of ,schleswig and ,holstein1 ,denmark now has an area of #ae1cfj square miles with #b4e million people 7or #afc to the square mile74 ,it is largely a farming country1 #hj per cent4 being productive1 only #f4c per cent4 of it1 or less than #fjj1jjj acres being under forest1 and this also mostly on soil capable of farm use2 hence an import of over #g million dollars worth of wood material is required4 ,in addition1 there are about #ge1jjj acres of heaths and other wastes in process of reforestation4 ,especially on the island of ,sjlland1 on which the capital ,copenhagen1 is situated1 the forest area is now increasing by planting4 ,the balance1 or nearly #bj per cent4 of the land area1 consists of heaths1 moors1 peatbogs and sands4 ,half the forest area is located on the islands1 and as these represent about one-third of the total area1 they are twice as densely forested as the peninsula of ,jtland4 ,this latter along the north and west coast for #bjj miles represents a large sandbank with extensive sand dunes1 shifting sands1 heaths and moors1 a desolate almost uninhabited country of sterile downs1 called ,klitten1 the recovery of which has been in progress for a hundred years4 ,according to some1 this once bore a coniferous forest1 more likely it was never forested4 ,while originally beech was and is still the predominant timber 7#fj7 with considerable additions of oak 7#g7 and other hardwoods1 a conifer forest of spruce and pine1 covering more than #bj of the forest area1 has been established by planting4 ,this planting has been mainly done on the dunes and sandwastes1 and in the reclamation of the extensive heaths and moors or peat bogs1 especially in the northern ,limfjord district1 which occupy one-sixth of the unproductive area4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as was natural1 the forest stocking on good farm land had to yield early to plow and pasture4 ,attempts at conservative use of the forest area date back to #aeeg when ,christian ,,iii issued a forest ordinance directing his vassals or liege lords to permit the peasants to secure their domestic wood requirements at a cheap rate1 but not to permit cutting for sale or export1 and reserving to himself all returns from such sales4 ,there were also regulations for the pasture1 especially as to goats1 and for the use of the mast1 which then formed more than one-quarter of the income from the royal forests4 ,in the #ahth century the need of forest management was recognized1 and in #agfb the two eminent ,german foresters1 von ,langen and von ,zanthier 7see p4 #hh7 were invited to visit ,denmark and ,norway 7see above7 with a view of organizing such management4 ,in #agfj1 eight young ,danes were sent to von ,langen in ,wernigerode to study his methods for three years1 and these with the two ,german foresters returned in #agfb1 and under the direction of von ,langen organized the ,seeland forest areas and started the first plantations of conifers1 which are now the pride of ,danish foresters4 ,in #agha1 the ,state forests were altogether placed under an organized administration4 ,by the beginning of the #aith century the reduction of forest areas had progressed to such an extent that1 in #ahje1 a law was enacted providing that the then existing forest area containing beech and oak should be maintained as such forever1 or at least that for any new clearing an equivalent area be planted to forest4 ,this law was perhaps the result of a journey in #ahjb1 to ,germany made by two leading officials of the forest department1 ,german influence through ,cotta and ,hartig being at this time visible everywhere4 ,other restrictions in the disposal of peasants' farms or woodlands and in the manner of farming the large estates 7otherwise than by renting to farmers71 were also enacted in order to secure stability of the peasant class4 ,it was at this time that the accumulative taxing of landed estates now under heated discussion in ,great ,britain1 was used effectively to break up the aggregation of landed property and changed the country from one of baronial estates to small farmer's holdings4 ,in this reform movement the name of ,count ,reventlow1 ,chief of the ,state forest department1 appears as the leading spirit4 ,the forest area1 which until #ahbj was on the decrease1 has since that time increased steadily1 and is especially now increasing through reforestation of waste lands4 ,at present1 most intensive forest management is practised in the ,state forest as well as in the communal and private forest areas1 which latter as stated1 are largely in farmers' wood lots since the law forbids the union of small farms into large estates4 ,there is little communal property1 and large private estates are also rare4 ,the ,state owns about #bd of the forest area or #adb1jjj acres1 of which one third is nonproductive or otherwise occupied1 and one third consists of coniferous plantations4 ,excepting in the beech forest1 most of the timber is of the younger age classes1 below #fj to #hj years1 and it is anticipated that the cut will have to be reduced1 and the import of wood and woodenware increased4 99 99 99 99 99 ,artificial reproduction is the most general silvicultural practice except in the beech forest which is reproduced naturally after preparation of the soil and sowing acorns for admixture at the same time1 spending altogether #ab to #ae per acre in this preparation4 ,since #ahhj1 thinnings have been based on the idea of favoring final harvest trees somewhat after the ,french fashion2 they are begun in the twentieth to thirtieth year and are repeated every three years1 aided by pruning4 ,then in each subsequent decade the return occurs in as many years as the decade has tens4 ,especially in the direction of thinnings1 the ,german practice and even theory is outdone1 the thinnings being made severer and recurring more frequently4 ,more than a hundred years ago the ,state began the reclamation work of the dunes and heaths1 but it progressed more actively only since the sixties of last century as a result of legislation had in #aheg4 ,in #ahfg1 a special ,dune ,department was instituted1 and through the effort of a ,state engineer1 ,capt4 ,dalgas1 an association was formed for the reclamation of heaths and moors4 ,a small subvention of #fjj started the work of the association1 in its useful campaign under the advice of ,staats planteur 7,state forest planter7 ,jensen ,tusch4 ,the ,state subvention now amounts to about forty thousand dollars annually1 and the success of the association has been such that it has become almost a fad for large land owners and others to buy up these waste lands and have them planted through the agents of the ,heath ,association4 ,the planting is mainly of spruce in plow furrows at a cost of #aj to #ab per acre2 #fj to #hj year old stands of earlier plantings testifying to the possible results4 ,in the last #dj years nearly #bjj1jjj acres of heath have been planted1 of which over one-half are to the credit of the association4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the education of the higher grade foresters a department of forestry 7now with two professors7 was instituted in the ,royal ,veterinary and ,agricultural ,high ,school at ,copenhagen in #ahfi1 with a course of five years including one and a half year of practical work4 ,this education is given free of charge4 ,the ,heath ,association educates its own officers1 including in their subjects the management of meadows and peatbogs4 ,a ,forestry ,association1 composed one-half of forest owners1 with its organ ,tidskrift for ,skovvaesen1 in existence since #ahhh1 and a valuable book literature1 in which the problems of the heath are especially fully and authoritatively treated1 places ,denmark in the foremost rank in the forestry world in these particulars4 ,among the prominent contributors are to be mentioned1 besides ,reventlow and ,dalgas1 ,p4 ,e4 ,mller1 well known by his discussions of the problems of moor soils4 ,from #ahgf to #ahia1 he issued a magazine1 in which ,oppermann contributed a history of ,danish forestry4 ,the latter author also1 in co-operation with ,hauch1 published in #aijj a ,hand-book of ,forestry4 ,,the ,,mediterranean ,,peninsulas4 ,geographically1 and to some extent climatically1 the three peninsulas of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 the ,iberian1 ,italian1 and the ,balkan1 are situated alike4 ,their people1 if not in race1 are in temper and characteristics1 and in their political economy more or less alike4 ,they represent the oldest civilization in ,europe1 and in their long history have been frequently in collision with each other4 ,their forests1 through centuries of abuse1 are wherever accessible1 in poorest condition4 ,long-continued political disturbances1 which have prevented peaceful development1 and poverty1 have been the greatest hindrances to economic reforms like the recuperation of forests1 which require sacrifices4 ,ancient rights of user1 and the necessity of politicians to respect them are also responsible for the fact that1 while praiseworthy attempts in legislation have been made1 execution has been usually lagging behind4 ,the accessibility to sea1 permitting readily importation1 the temperate climate1 the simple life and abstemiousness of the people1 and the lack of industrial development have made the deficiency of wood material less felt than it would otherwise be1 but the detrimental influence of forest destruction is being repeatedly experienced in floods and drouths4 ,there is probably no more potent cause of forest devastation in all this section of the world than the pasturing of the woods1 especially with sheep and goats4 ,while ,italy is now a united country1 and only two peoples1 ,spain and ,portugal1 occupy the ,iberian peninsula1 the ,balkan peninsula is occupied by eight separate peoples1 if we include all the country south of the ,danube ,river and ,east of the ,carpathian ,mountains4 ,,turkish ,,and ,,slavish ,,territories4 ,the ,turks for centuries warred with1 had under vassalage or otherwise controlled1 and misruled all the ,slavish ,states1 as well as ,macedonia and ,greece--a territory of around #agj1jjj square miles and #af1jjj1jjj people--until1 by the ,congress of ,berlin 7#ahgh71 ending the ,russo-,turkish war1 these ,states were recognized as independent kingdoms1 namely ,bulgaria1 ,servia1 ,montenegro1 ,roumelia1 and ,roumania1 while ,bosnia-,hercegovina was placed under ,austrian administration 7see page #aee and #aff74 ,with the exception of ,roumania1 these people are still in the lower stages of civilization1 the countries undeveloped1 the forest still serves largely for the mast and pasturage1 probably less than #bd per cent4 of the country being forest covered1 mostly with deciduous trees1 oak1 beech and walnut1 etc4 ,roumania alone has systematically taken advantage of her freedom from ,turkish rule in developing a modern civilization1 and can also boast the beginning of a forestry system4 ,roumelia1 comprising ,macedonia1 ,albania and ,thrace1 the ,turkish possessions in ,europe1 with #fg1jjj square miles and #e1jjj1jjj people1 contain large areas of untouched forest 7not less than #e1jjj1jjj acres in ,macedonia alone#aj7 with valuable oak and walnut1 which have remained unused owing to their inaccessibility and the undesirability of developing them under ,turkish rule4 ,where accessible1 the forest is maltreated or destroyed4 #aj ,lacretelle1 ,rapport sur les forts de la ,macdoine1 #ahic4 ,bulgaria1 to which1 in #ahhe1 ,east ,roumelia was attached1 represents now #ch1jjj square miles and over #d1jjj1jjj people1 independent under a ,german prince as king since #ahgi4 ,the forest area#aa of #g4e million acres 7#cj per cent4 of the land area71 mostly deciduous 7oak1 beech1 walnut1 etc471 and largely confined to the mountains1 is one-half in communal ownership1 one-sixth in private hands1 mostly small woodlots1 and one-third ,state property2 but ownership rights are still much in doubt1 and until #ahfi the ,state forests were freely open to the use of all1 when some sort or regulation of the cut according to the needs of different communities was attempted4 ,since within #aj years such rights of user establish ownership1 endless litigation has resulted1 until in #ahhc a law was enacted ordering the stoppage of rights of user1 substituting money payment 7#aj per cent4 of value71 and another restricting the diameter to which the most valuable export timber1 walnut1 may be cut4 ,changes in detail were made in #ahig1 but political exigencies1 absence of an adequate organization1 and other undeveloped conditions have largely prevented enforcement of these laws1 and rough exploitation continues in spite of the nominal ,state control4 #aa ,forstliche ,rundschau1 #aijc4 ,owing to inaccessibility of many of the agricultural districts to the wooded mountains1 a large import was necessary1 but lately export almost equals the import1 and indeed the export of walnut has increased fourteenfold in a few years4 ,the forest administration is vested in a bureau under the ,minister of ,commerce and ,agriculture1 with a chief1 an inspector general1 and two assistant chiefs4 ,when it is stated that in #aije the entire budget for forestry was #aej1jjj1 the inefficiency of the service is apparent4 ,servia1 a kingdom with #ai1jjj square miles and #b1jjj1jjj people1 has over #db per cent4 7five million acres--according to others only #cb7 still in untouched forest1 with valuable oak and walnut1 the forest being mainly used for hograising4 ,over #cf is ,state forest1 over #dc communal and institutional forest1 leaving about #bj in private hands2 but1 just as in ,bulgaria1 property conditions are still somewhat unsettled4 ,like ,bulgaria also on account of the uneven distribution of forest area1 lack of transportation and systematic development--a large part of the population are more cheaply supplied by importation1 which amounts to near one million dollars4 ,curiously enough1 by the law of #ahia only the wood cut from ,state and church forests could be exported free of duty4 ,this export duty was abolished in #aijd1 and the first attempt was made by the ,minister of ,agriculture to bring order into the forest administration by importing ,german foresters4 ,the law of #ahia1 with various subsequent additions and changes1 placed private forest property located on exposed mountain slopes or on shifting sands1 or on bogsoils under government surveillance1 and relieved plantations made under direction of the government of taxes for #aj years4 ,roumania1#ab with #ej1jjj square miles and nearly #f1jjj1jjj people1 under the capable administration of a ,hohenzollern prince1 ,king ,charles1 was in ,roman times as ,dacia felix one of the most prosperous provinces1 half of it hilly and mountainous1 the other half in the rich alluvial valley of the ,danube1 now largely deforested4 ,the hill and mountain country was until the end of the eighteenth century still well wooded4 ,a rapid depletion then took place by the demands of the ,turkish markets1 until now not quite #ag per cent4 7according to others #ah or #bj per cent47 of the area is forested1 and multifarious rights of user1 which made commons of the woods1 have naturally led to widespread devastation in the accessible parts4 ,in #ahdg1 the ,national ,assembly attempted regulation of the cut and of the rights of user1 but with little effect4 ,in #ahid1 the total area had decreased to less than #e million acres 7according to others #f4g million acres71 of which two-fifths is in private hands1 two-fifths ,state property and ,royal forest 7formerly1 until #ahfc1 in the hands of the monks71 the small balance belonging to communities and institutes4 ,in the higher mountains1 fir and spruce with some pine and larch form the forest2 but broadleaf forest1 especially oak and beech is the prevailing type occupying the middle altitudes and the hill country4 ,the private forest of small owners is being rapidly depleted1 only the ,state forest and that of large proprietors being in good condition4 #ab ,die forstwirtschaftlichen ,verhltnisse ,rumaniens1 ,von ,mihail ,vasilescu1 #ahia4 ,notice sur les forts de ,roumanie1 in ,statistica pdurilor ,statulin4 #aijc4 ,in #ahfc1 when the cloister property was secularized and taken over by the state1 the rights of user in this property were suspended1 and sales at auction to contractors were inaugurated1 under condition that a certain number of seed trees per acre be left4 ,there was little enforcement of this rule4 ,the first comprehensive law organizing the ,state property and inaugurating a protective policy was enacted in #ahha4 ,this law recognized ,state1 ,royal and ,communal property as of public concern1 and also placed such private property under supervision as was situated on steep slopes1 near watercourses1 and near the boundaries 7of strategic importance74 ,these areas1 coming under the protective policy1 comprise #hd per cent4 of the whole forest area4 ,they were not to be cleared except by special permit1 and not to be exploited except under specially approved working plans4 ,in #ahhe1 three ,french foresters were called in to organize a ,state forest department and to inaugurate the making of working plans4 ,the personnel 7#be inspectors and #hi district officers7 being insufficient1 and wood prices low 7the income from state property being not over #djj1jjj71 the progress of the work was slow4 ,although1 in #ahid1 the income had doubled1 the administrative forces had not been enlarged to any great extent 7#acg foresters of various grades71 and by that time only #aej1jjj acres had been brought under working plans4 ,by #aijj1 about #bjj1jjj acres of ,state property1 or #ad per cent41 and #ejj1jjj acres of private forest1 or #bb per cent41 were organized in some fashion4 ,lack of means of transportation1 however1 prevents a really well regulated management4 ,altogether only #fe per cent4 of the ,state property is accessible so that it can be worked1 and the working plans consist mainly in leaving a number of seed trees4 ,in #ahhi1 a ,forestry ,association 7,progressul ,silvic7 was formed1 which with its organ1 ,revista pdurilor1 pushes the propaganda4 ,in #ahij1 an energetic ,minister of ,domains1 ,carp1 sought strenuously to bring improvement into the situation4 ,a budget of #ejj1jjj for foresters' dwellings was secured to bring the forest managers into closer contact with their charges1 a planting fund of #ajj1jjj1 later increased to #adj1jjj per annum1 was voted1 and reforestation and reclamation of sand dunes was begun4 ,a forest improvement fund was inaugurated in #ahib by setting aside #b per cent4 of the gross forest yield4 ,but1 in the political struggles1 ,carp's party was displaced1 and1 depression in agricultural prosperity causing financial distress1 an era of increased exploitation followed1 so that the export of forest products1 largely cooperage1 7mainly to ,greece1 ,italy and ,france7 which had been declining to less than half1 rose again to about four million dollars annually4 ,the financial embarrassment of the ,state led even to a proposition to sell ,state forests1 but1 before contracts for this purpose were consummated1 relief came and the danger was averted4 ,the ,state cuts about #bb1jjj acres annually1 yielding about #a1jjj1jjj1 the administration costing 7in #aijc7 #bdj1jjj1 leaving a net yield of #cj cents per acre4 ,in #ahih1 the ,forest ,department1 in the ,direction of ,domains under the ,ministry of ,agriculture consisted of a ,forest ,director with #aef foresters academically educated 7mostly in ,france1 and since #ahib in the ,agricultural ,institute at ,bucharest71 and over #b1ejj underforesters and guards4 ,of some #cj1jjj acres of sand dunes1 one-half belonging to the ,state1 about #ah1jjj acres have been recovered by planting ,black ,locust1 and some #i1jjj acres of plains country have been reforested1 for which #ccj acres of nurseries furnish the material4 ,in spite of all these efforts1 excessive pasturing1 although forbidden in the ,state forest1 and fires continue to devastate the property4 ,private forestry is1 of course1 much less developed2 yet some large properties 7,princess ,schoenburg1 with #bj1jjj acres7 are under efficient ,german forest management4 ,here1 money is spent on developing means of transportation1 and a better revenue is secured than in ,state forests4 ,,greece4 ,,dr4 ,,chloros1 ,waldverhltnisse ,griechenlands4 ,thesis for the ,doctorate at ,munich4 #ahhd4 #de pp4 ,,anderlind1 ,mittheilungen ber die ,waldverhltnisse ,griechenlands4 ,allgemeine ,forst- und ,jagdzeitung4 #ahhd4 ,the history of the country has been so unfortunate1 and political conditions so unsettled that only lately efforts at improvement in economic conditions could hope to receive attention4 ,for centuries after ,greece had become a ,roman province 7#adf ,b4,c471 it changed rulers1 ,romans1 ,byzantines1 ,franks1 ,venetians following each other1 until1 between #adfj and #adgc1 it came under the ,turkish yoke4 ,as a result of an insurrection started in #ahba1 freedom1 but no settled order as yet1 was attained in #ahbi through the assistance of ,great ,britain1 ,france and ,russia1 and the elected kings1 ,otho 7of ,bavaria71 ,alfred 7of ,england7 and ,george 7of ,denmark7 successively tried to secure social order and efficient constitutional government4 ,by the time this new era had arrived there was probably little valuable forest worthy of the name left1 except in the inaccessible mountain districts4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,although certain districts1 like ,attica1 were already practically denuded in ,plato's time1 there is little doubt that originally the whole of ,greece with small exceptions was a continuous forest4 ,the destruction of the forest1 protected by thousands of gods and nymphs in holy groves1 proceeded slowly under the regime of the ancient ,greeks1 until the fanaticism of the ,christian religion led to a war against these pagan strongholds1 and the holy groves were reduced by axe and fire4 ,turkish misrule for centuries1 over-taxation1 reckless cutting1 extensive herding of goats and sheep1 and fires have reduced the forest area until now it occupies only #ab or #ad per cent4 of the land area 7#be1jjj square miles74 ,in #ahed1 a survey developed about #b million acres of woodlands 7probably an excessive figure7 for the now #b4e million people1 while #fg per cent4 of the surface is a useless waste1 and only #bj per cent4 under cultivation1 so that the general aspect of the country is desolate4 ,the many islands are entirely deforested1 and so are the seashores4 8,where in olden times dense shady poplars stood1 now only infertile sand and dreary rock waste remain40 ,the forest in northern and middle ,greece is confined to the two rugged mountain ranges with numerous spurs which run parallel1 north and south1 with ,mt4 ,olympus 7nearly #i1jjj feet7 and ,mt4 ,pindus 7#f1jjj feet7 the highest elevations4 ,the large fertile plains of ,thessaly and ,boeotia are forestless4 ,so is the large ,arcadian plateau of the ,peloponnesus1 and the other smaller1 hot but fertile plains and plateaus4 ,the most valuable conifer forest is found on the higher ranges between the #b1ejj and #e1jjj foot level1 below the snow-clad mountain tops1 where especially two species of fir1 ,abies ,apollinis and ,abies regin ,amaliae 7a species remarkable for its sprouting habit71 with other firs and several species of ,juniperus and ,cupressus1 form sometimes extensive forests4 ,other common trees are chestnut1 sycamore1 several species of oak and poplar1 and1 on the coast1 ,pinus halepensis4 ,the firs occupy about #ce per cent4 of the forest area1 oaks and deciduous forest #de per cent4 ,among the forest products which are exported1 we find galls1 vermillion and sumach prominent4 ,it is believed that ,greece in ancient times was more fertile than it is now1 and that the deterioration is due to deforestation4 ,undoubtedly soil conditions favored such deterioration1 for1 with the exception of the ,pindus range1 which is composed of metamorphic rock1 a poor1 dry limestone is characteristic of the country except where fertile1 alluvial and diluvial deposits cover it in valleys along the coast4 ,the climate is1 however1 so favorable that even the poor soil would readily reclothe itself if left alone4 ,the winters are short1 hardly three months1 and with hardly any snow or ice except on the high mountains1 making the vegetative period nine months2 and1 with temperature ranges from #bj to #ajf degrees ,f42 rainfall average #djj mm42 the summers1 to be sure1 rainless and dry1 but the other seasons humid1 somewhat less than in middle ,europe1 rapid growth is the result of these conditions4 ,but the continued pasturing of goats and sheep--some six million--prevents any natural reforestation4 ,increased taxation on this industry has had no effect1 and the practice of permitting the people to gather dry wood for fuel is an incentive for making dry wood by setting fires1 which also serve to improve the pasture2 perhaps nowhere are forest fires more frequent1 in spite of heavy penalties4 ,that a baneful influence on the water condition and river flow has been the result is historically demonstrated by ,chloros4#ac #ac ,see ,allgemeine ,forst- und ,jagdzeitung #ahhd1 p4 #ahc ff41 and #ahhg1 p4 #cbg ff4 for interesting details4 ,in the mountains some fine and quite extensive bodies of fir still exist1 lack of transportation having preserved them4 ,elsewhere the rights of user1 and the herding of goats are so well established that reforms appear1 indeed1 difficult4 ,firewood1 #c loads for each person1 supposed to be taken from the dead or otherwise useless trees1 and small dimension material is free to all4 ,for the right to cut workwood1 the government charges a tax of #be to #cj per cent4 of the value of the material1 the price for this being annually determined4 ,on the material cut in private forests1 the government also levies a tax of from #ab to #ah per cent4 of its value4 ,this pernicious system of promiscuous cutting leads to the most wasteful use imaginable1 not only high stumps1 but large amounts of good material are left in the woods so that it is estimated that hardly #ej per cent4 of what is cut is really utilized4 ,the cut1 as far as the tax gives a clue to it1 amounts to around #b4g million cubic feet workwood1 but with the firewood included it was estimated that near #ij million cubic feet are cut annually4 ,importation to the amount of #a4e million dollars1 mostly from ,austria and ,roumania1 makes up the deficit in work material1 especially for the box factories which manufacture the packages for the large export of currants1 some #b million boxes4 ,the tax during the decade from #ahfb to #ahga produced an annual income of #fjj1jjj1 a little less in #ahie4 ,the forest has been from olden times1 and is now almost entirely1 ,state property 7some #hj or #ij per cent47 and in nearly all the remaining1 private1 communal and cloister property the ,state has a partial ownership or supervision4 ,the waste land of probably #c million acres extent also belongs to the ,state1 the whole ,state property covering over #cj per cent4 of the land area4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policies4 ,a first definite attempt to regulate matters was made by ,otho1 who being a ,german1 took a personal interest in this forest property1 and instituted for each province forest inspectors 7dasarchys7 under one chief inspector1 with forest guards1 to prevent devastation by fire and theft4 ,the mistake was made of employing in these positions superannuated ,bavarian army officers1 who were merely a burden on the treasury4 ,no management or even regular fellings were attempted4 ,the population could1 as before1 supply its needs upon permits1 always granted1 from the governor of the province1 one of the forest guards being supposed to vise these1 and to see that the wood was properly employed1 not1 however1 to supervise the cutting4 ,in #ahgg1 further legislation was had1 instituting in the ,ministry of ,finance1 a forest inspector1 technically trained1 with two assistant inspectors1 also technically trained1 to superintend the outside work4 ,a forest survey was begun in #ahgi1 but interrupted in #ahhj for lack of funds and personnel4 ,the same law placed the duty of guarding the ,state property in the hands of the general police or gendarmerie1 #ej officers and some #cdj guards1 and during the fire danger 7,june to ,october7 #aaj more1 being detailed for this service under direction of the ,minister of ,war4 ,the pernicious permit system1 however1 was continued4 ,dr4 ,chloros1 who obtained his education in ,germany1 became finally ,forest ,director and was responsible for securing further legislation in #ahhh1 the object of which was1 as a first step towards improvement1 to survey and delimit and round off the ,state property4 ,it provided that enclaves1 and all absolute forest soil was to be expropriated4 ,if no amicable agreement with the owner could be reached1 the price was to be determined by the net yield which had been obtained from the property during the last five years1 capitalized at #e per cent4 ,no attempts1 however1 at an efficient organization or change of the destructive permit system were made4 ,by general law1 the ,state has the right to surveillance of private property1 although the extent of this right is not fully defined4 ,the government may take for its own use1 by paying for it1 upwards of one-sixth of the annual cut2 it collects a tax of #ab to #ah per cent4 for all woodwork cut2 it forbids the pasturing of woods that have been burned within #aj years1 and obliges all owners of over #abjj acres to employ forest guards4 ,this and other interference with property rights naturally acts as deterrent to private forest management4 ,a notable exception is the small private royal forest property near ,athens1 which1 since #ahgb under a ,danish forester1 appears to have been managed under forestry principles4 ,a thorough re-organization of the forest service was effected in #ahic1 when #bj district foresters were employed1 the number of forest inspectors was increased to four1 and a regular ,division of ,forestry was instituted in the ,finance ,department4 ,the general police or gendarmerie was continued as forest guards4 ,until a native personnel could be educated by sending young men to ,germany1 foreigners were to be employed for the making of working plans4 ,yet in #ahif1 the then ,director of the ,forest ,department1 a lawyer1 still complains of the absence of a proper organization and of any personnel with forestry knowledge4 ,apparently no progress had been made4 ,in that year1 however1 the gendarmerie was to be replaced by forest guards 7#eb superior and #bih subaltern7 who were to be appointed from graduates of a special secondary school1 which had been instituted at ,vytina some two years before4 ,this replacement could1 of course1 not be effected at once1 since hardly more than #be men could be graduated annually2 hence even this improvement in the lower class police would not be completed for six or eight years4 ,no steps had been taken to educate officers for the higher grades1 and in this direction1 propositions merely were discussed4 ,in #ahii1 a change in the permit system was made1 but hardly for the better1 justices of the peace being empowered1 under certain conditions1 to issue such permits4 ,nor do we find in #aija anything more than expressions of good wishes1 and desire for further legislation1 besides some attempts at popular education through the formation of tree-planting associations under the patronage of the ,crown ,princess4 ,in #aije no change in conditions are reported4 ,forest fires still continue as a common occurrence4 ,while the government makes efforts to improve conditions1 the indifference1 stupidity1 cupidity1 and malevolence of the people1 and the long established abuses prevent rapid progress at reform4 ,,italy4 ,bolletino ufficiale per l'amminstrazione forestale ,italiana4 ,direzione generale dell' ,agricoltora3 ,relazione interno all' amministrazione dei boschi domaniali inalienabili4 ,various essays by ,prof4 ,,vittorio ,,perona of ,vallambrosa in ,german magazines2 notably in ,allgemeine ,forst- und ,jagdzeitung1 #ahhb1 #ahhh4 ,archeologia forestale4 ,dell' antica storia e giurisprudenza forestale in ,italia4 ,a4 ,,di ,,berenger4 #ahei4 ,,maffei1 ,revista forestale4 ,italy4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,,deeke4 #aijd4 ,il rimboschimento dello ,appennino meridionale1 by ,,luigi ,,savastano1 #ahic4 ,an exceedingly well written popular treatise on silviculture1 which gives also briefly insight into forest conditions and forest practices4 ,i boschia e la nostra politica ,italiana1 by ,,bertagnolli1 #ahhi4 ,italia moderna4 #aijd1 article by ,,lunadoni4 ,the efforts to secure improvement in the treatment of forest resources have been more active and strenuous in ,italy than in ,greece4 ,they were induced especially by the urgent need of protecting watersheds1 the rivers throughout ,italy having been turned into torrents by deforestation4 ,but1 owing to the weakness of the government and to poverty1 the actual execution of the very good laws has lagged behind4 ,indeed1 while ample legislation has been enacted1 the people1 overburdened with debt1 and needing the small income that can be derived from pasturing or renting the pasture in the woods1 make it difficult to carry on any reform1 and the enforcement of the laws has again and again led to serious trouble4 8,forestry is a sore point in the national economy of ,italy1 as it involves sacrifice of money and time40 ,italy1 therefore1 is still in the transition period from forestal rapine to forest culture4 ,densely populated 7#cc million on #aaj1fjj square miles71 with fully one-fifth of its area unproductive1 or at least unused1 and one-quarter of this almost or quite beyond redemption1 no country offers better opportunities for studying the evil effects of deforestation on soil and waterflow4 ,as a result of the combination of geology 7slates and limestones71 topography 7steep slopes71 climate1 and forest devastation or destruction1 mainly by pasturage of goats 7two million71 the ,italian rivers are invariably flooded in ,march and mostly dry in summer2 the melting of the snow coinciding with the heavy spring rains turns them into raging torrents 7fiumare71 silting over the fertile lands in the valleys and occasional landslides in the mountain country1 where extensive tracts are nearly bare of vegetation4 ,especially the rivers around ,bologna1 which in #ahig again caused damage in excess of one million dollars1 are dreaded4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,situated similarly to ,greece as regards accessibility and climate1 and similarly torn by wars and political strife1 and in unstable conditions for centuries1 ,italy has in proportion to population1 if not to area1 reduced her forest resources even more than ,greece2 less than one-third of an acre per capita remains1 with a total of somewhat over twelve million acres1 or about #ag per cent4 of the land area1 and this includes much useless brushland1 over #b million acres4 ,apparently1 if the uncertain statistics may be relied upon1 a reduction of several million acres has taken place even since #ahgj4 ,some #ae million acres of waste land and swamps offer ample opportunity for increasing this forest area without infringing on the #db million acres of usefully employed agricultural soil4 ,of the forest area1 #be per cent4 is to be found in the ,alps1 about #ej per cent4 on the ,apennines1 the one mountain range which forms the backbone of ,italy2 less than one-quarter is distributed over the plains1 and the small balance is found on the islands1 especially ,sicily1 which is a hill and mountain country1 once magnificently wooded1 now largely denuded 7#d per cent4 wooded71 and on ,sardinia1 which1 with nearly #de per cent4 under forest1 is the best wooded part of ,italy1 although the condition of the forest is here no better than elsewhere4 ,with the exception of the slopes of the ,alps 7#b4e million acres of spruce1 fir1 beech1 larch71 and the tops of the ,apennines and remote plateaus 7#d4e million acres71 and of a few special places on which now and then even magnificent remnants of virgin forest may be found--lack of transportation having preserved them--most of the area is occupied by miserable brush forest1 coppice or else open forest with scattered trees among a shrub undergrowth of thorns1 hazel and chestnut 7called macchia1 i4e41 chaparral71 so that most ,italians have never seen a real forest4 ,nevertheless1 ,italy is by no means as treeless as this condition of forest would imply1 for trees 7poplar1 ash1 elm7 are dotting the plains and slopes1 planted for vine supports and boundaries1 unshapely through pollarding and lopping the branches for firewood4 ,olive and chestnut groves on the hills 7of the former #b million acres1 of the latter over #djj1jjj acres planted for the fruit71 and #h4e million acres in vineyards add to the wooded appearance of the country and to the wood supply4 ,the annual product of firewood from these planted trees is estimated at #f million cords4 ,on the sand dunes and near the seashore1 especially in the marshes1 the ,maritime1 the ,aleppo ,pine1 and the umbrella-shaped ,pinus pinea1 and picturesque ,cypresses are sometimes found in small groves1 while the calcareous hills in this region up to #abjj feet are studded with olives1 cork and evergreen oak4 ,osier growing is here also quite extensively practiced4 ,in the mountains1 above the #bgjj foot level1 conifer forest1 composed of ,pinus silvestris and laricio1 and ,abies pectinata1 has been reduced to less than #g per cent4 of the whole1 mixed conifer and deciduous forest represents #d per cent41 the bulk being deciduous forest of oak 7several species7 and beech1 with chestnut4 ,forty-eight per cent4 of the forest area is in coppice 7ceduo71 and of the #eb per cent4 of high forest1 the bulk is managed under selection system 7a scelta71 a small part under clearing system 7ad alto fusto71 although management can hardly be said to exist except in small groves4 ,that supply of workwood is insufficient for the needs of the population1 and is decreasing1 is attested by the fact that the importations more than doubled in the decade from #ahib to #aijc to near #ad million dollars1 #hj per cent4 of which was saw material1 in addition to #b million dollars of wood manufactures1 while nearly #e million dollars' worth was exported in the last named year1 mostly cork1 casks1 thin box-boards1 olive wood manufactures1 and charcoal4 ,no better picture of the forest conditions can be had than by a statement of the home production1 which1 in #ahhf1 7last official data7 was placed at #dh million cubic feet of workwood1 valued at #c4d million dollars1 #bbc million cubic feet firewood1 valued at #d4a million1 #ajf million cubic feet charcoal1 worth #c4f million1 and by-products to the large amount of #f4d million dollars1 altogether a little less than #ag4f million dollars4 ,firewood and charcoal1 which represent over #hj per cent4 of the product1 are1 of course1 furnished by coppice1 and in addition by the pollarded material1 almost the only fuel to be had4 ,the ownership of the forest area is for the greater part private 7#ec per cent47 and communal 7over #dc per cent471 the ,state owning a little over #djj1jjj acres1 less than #d per cent4 ,the ,state property being so small1 supervision of communal and private forest has become the policy4 ,the ,state forest is of two classes1 the alienable1 under the ,department of ,finance1 the larger part1 about #cge1jjj acres1 and the inalienable1 so declared by law of #ahga1 which was then about #aae1jjj acres1 and was placed under a forest administration in the ,department of ,agriculture2 but of this about #bj per cent4 is not forest1 and even in #ahif1 some of this small area was sold so that now only #dj1jjj acres remain4 ,this area is to serve for demonstration of model management1 and to supply government needs4 ,beech and oak with fir1 pine and larch1 mostly in timber forest1 characterize this property1 which is managed mostly in selection system4 ,curiously enough1 in #ahhh1 the difficulty of disposing advantageously of the old timber is complained of1 due to lack of means of transportation4 ,the personnel of the administration consists of a central bureau with one ,inspector ,general1 three ,inspectors1 and a ,council4 ,for each province1 and in some cases for two or more provinces together1 an ,inspector with several ,sub-inspectors and a number of guards or brigadieri are charged with the management of the ,state property and the enforcement of the forest laws4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,for centuries1 since the fall of the ,roman ,empire 7#dgf ,a4,d47 until the end of the eighteenth century1 ,italy has been the victim of war and strife with neighbors or within its borders1 being divided into numberless commonwealths1 almost each city being independent4 ,hence1 no economic improvements could take place until1 under the influences of the ,french ,revolution1 the regeneration period began4 ,not1 however1 until the seven or eight states1 which the ,congress of ,vienna 7#ahae7 had established1 were moulded into one united ,italy under ,victor ,emmanuel1 during the years #ahei to #ahgj1 could an effective reconstruction be inaugurated4 ,it is true that some of the republics in earlier times paid attention to their forest property4 ,notably in ,venice1 old forest ordinances#ad date back to #fig1 and1 in #adec1 a regular forest administration was instituted1 especially to take care of the large forest area in ,istria and ,dalmatia1 which fell into the hands of the ,venetians about #adbj4 ,a tolerably conservative management continued here until the beginning of the eighteenth century when1 in consequence of political complications1 supervision became lax1 and devastation began which continued through the century1 leaving to the new century1 and finally to the ,austrians1 the legacy of the ,karst 7see p4 #agc74 #ad ,,berenger1 ,saggio storico della legislacione ,veneta forestale1 #ahfc4 ,an excellent source4 ,florence too1 managed to prevent the deforestation of the summit of her mountains until the beginning of the eighteenth century1 and in other republics1 kingdoms and duchies1 similar efforts at forest administration existed4 ,yet ,genoa1 which in ,strabo's time was the principal timber market of ,italy1 had by #ahfj nearly all its mountain slopes denuded4 ,before the general legislation for all ,italy was enacted there were at least a dozen laws in operation in the various provinces2 in ,lombardy1 the law of #ahaa2 in ,naples1 the law of #ahbf2 in ,rome1 of #ahbg2 in ,umbria1 of #ahje2 in ,bologna1 of #ahbi2 in ,tuscany1 of #ahbi2 in ,piedmont1 of #ahcc2 in ,sardinia1 of #ahea2 etc4 ,if these had been heeded much better conditions would have been inherited by the new kingdom4 ,with the arrival of a national spirit1 many schemes for the promotion of forestry and of forest policy were discussed4 ,the academies of ,florence1 ,milan1 ,modena1 ,palermo1 and ,pesaro offered premiums for reforesting of mountains1 and called for popular treatises on silviculture4 ,a forestry journal came into being1 furthering the propaganda4 ,in #ahfj a very well written account of 8,present ,conditions of ,forestry and ,production of ,sulphur in ,sicily10 a collection of reports1 was published by ,shiro4 ,in #ahfj also1 an investigation of forest conditions in each province was ordered by royal decree1 and propositions for their improvement were called for1 which led to legislative proposals1 introduced in #ahfb1 and legislation enacted in #ahfc4 ,the law of #ahfc still treated each province independently3 forest inspectors for each province1 and for ,naples an ,inspector ,general1 with district foresters and a large number of forest guards were appointed4 ,another law1 applicable only to certain parts of the ,kingdom1 was enacted in #ahgd1 intended to check the progress of deforestation and prevent turning waste woodlands into pasture2 these absolute forest soils were to be reforested within five years4 ,the law remained a dead letter1 yet it is still in force in part1 with modifications enacted in #ahhf4 ,the final unification of the country as far as legislative unity is concerned1 was completed in #ahgg1 and in that year the first general forest law for all ,italy was also enacted4 ,this law1 which has mainly in view the protective influence of forest cover as a factor in the public welfare1 leaving all private property not falling under the character of protection forest entirely free1 established provincial forest commissions--conservation boards--unpaid1 who were to enact rules and regulations best adapted to their localities4 ,the ,board of ,commissioners consisted of the prefect of the province1 ex-officio president2 an inspector of forests1 the technical officer who administers the government property2 an engineer appointed by the governor2 and three members chosen by the provincial council2 in addition1 each communal council was to send one member to take part in the deliberations of the board as far as his particular commune was interested4 ,by this law the country is divided into two sections vertically1 namely the territory above the limit of chestnut1 and that below this limit1 the latter representing the farming country1 the territory above being unfit for agricultural use4 ,to the former the restrictions of the law apply as a rule 7terreni soggetti al vincolo forestale--ban forest71 to the latter1 as exception1 namely where the removal of forest or brush cover might cause landslides1 or affect stream flow or health conditions unfavorably4 ,the chestnut limit naturally varies in different parts1 but1 generally speaking1 lies between #a1hjj and #b1jjj feet elevation4 ,the determination of these areas was to be made by the provincial forest committees1 and it is significant to note that in these the ,state forest administration did not have the majority4 ,the territory under restriction1 was in #ahhg1 after various revisions1 established as comprising #g4e million acres of forest and #b4e million acres of brush and waste1 nearly #ga of the forest area being thus placed under restriction2 leaving #b4e million acres of forest and over #b million of brush and waste outside the working of the law2 these latter areas are left entirely without restrictions1 except as general police regulations apply4 ,the execution of the law and regulations is left to the ,state ,forest ,department with an organization of forest guards 7some #c1jjj in #ahhc71 appointed by the prefect of the province with the advice of the forestry commission1 but acting under the ,state forest administration4 ,their pay was to come to the extent of two-thirds from the communes1 the other third from the provincial treasurer4 ,in the forests placed under the law1 clearing and agricultural use is forbidden4 ,fellings and cultures must be made under direction of the ,committee4 ,no compensation is made for this limitation in use except where hygienic influence was the basis for placing the forest under ban4 ,if the regulations of the commissions had been observed to their full extent1 all would have been well in time1 but it is evident from subsequent legislative efforts that the execution of the laws was not what could be desired4 ,political exigencies required leniency in the application of the law4 ,an interesting report on the results of the first quinquennium shows that during that time #agj1jjj acres were cleared1 over #dj1jjj without permission1 and by #aijj1 it was estimated1 deforestation had taken place on about #e million acres4 ,wrangling over the classification of the lands under ban has continued until the present1 and local authorities have continued to favor private as against public interest1 to withdraw lands from the operation1 and to wink at disregard of the law4 ,moreover1 rights of user to dead wood1 pasturage 7goats are by law excluded7 and other privileges continued to prevent improvement1 although several laws to effect their extinction had been passed4 ,the devastating floods of #ahhb led to much agitation1 and1 upon a report of a special commission in #ahhf1 the law of #ahgd1 which had obligated the communities to reforest their waste lands within five years or else to sell1 was revived1 extending the term of obligatory reforestation in the endangered sections to ten years4 ,by that time1 out of #hjj1jjj acres originally declared as requiring reforestation1 not more than #dj1jjj acres had been planted1 but the acreage involved had also been gradually scaled down by the forest committees to #bdj1jjj acres4 ,the report1 on the other hand1 found that the area needing reboisement was at least #ejj1jjj acres1 requiring an expenditure of #ab million dollars4 ,the law of #ahgg did not contemplate enforced reforestation of banforests2 it sought to accomplish this by empowering either the ,department of ,agriculture or the provinces or the communities or special associations to expropriate for the purpose of reforestation4 ,results were nil4 ,a revision and broadening of the law led to the general reboisement act of #ahhh1ae which has in view the correction of torrents1 fixing of mountain slopes and sand dunes--one of the best laws of its kind in existence anywhere4 #ae ,for details see ,fernow1 in ,garden and ,forest1 #ahhh1 page #dag4 ,the principal features of the law are3 obligatory reboisement of mountains and sand dunes according to plans1 and under direction of the ,department of ,agriculture1 the areas to be designated by the department1 with approval or disapproval of the forest committees2 contribution to the extent of two-fifths 7finally raised to two-thirds7 of the expense by the government2 expropriation where owners do not consent1 or fail to carry out the work as planned2 right to reclaim property by payment of costs and interest1 or else sale by government2 right of the department to regulate and restrict pasture1 but compensation to be paid to restricted owners2 encouragement of co-operative planters' associations4 ,the area to be reforested was estimated at somewhat over #ejj1jjj acres and the expense at over #g million dollars4 ,the execution of the law was not any stricter than before4 ,in #aijj1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture reports that 8the laws do not yet receive effective application40 ,the difficulty of determining what is and what is not necessary to reforest1 what is and what is not absolute forest soil made ostensibly the greatest trouble and occasioned delay1 but financial incapacity and political influences bidding for popularity are probably the main cause of the inefficiency4 ,meanwhile the forest department tried to promote reforestation by giving premiums from its scanty appropriation and distributing from its #acj acres of nurseries1 during the years from #ahfg to #ahii1 some #df million plants and over #ejj pounds of seed1 and furnishing advice free of charge4 ,in #ahig1 again a commission was instituted to formulate new legislation4 ,this commission reported in #aijb1 declaring that all accessible forests were more or less devastated1 accentuating the needs of water management1 and proposing a more rigorous definition of ban forests1 a strict supervision of communal forests1 and the management of private properties under working plans by accredited foresters or else under direct control of the forest department1 the foresters to be paid by the ,state1 which is to recover from the owners4 ,it was found that in the past #ce years of the #abe1jjj acres needing reforestation urgently only #eh1cjj acres had been planted at an expense of #a1cdj1jjj4 ,in #aiaj1 conditions seem not to have much improved1 for again a vigorous attempt at re-organization and improvement on the law of #ahgg was made by the ,minister of ,agriculture2 so far without result4 ,it is to be noted that ,italy is perhaps the only country where forest influence on health conditions was legally recognized1 by the laws of #ahgg and #ahhh4 ,the belief that deforestation of the maremnae1 the marshy lowlands between ,pisa and ,naples1 had produced the malarial fever which is rampant here1 led the ,trappist monks of the cloister at ,tre ,fontane to make plantations of ,eucalyptus 7#hd1jjj7 beginning in #ahgj1 the ,state assisting by cessions of land for the purpose4 ,a commission1 appointed to investigate the results1 in #ahha1 threw doubt on the effectiveness of the plantation1 finding the observed change in health conditions due to improvement of drainage2 and lately1 the mosquito has been recognized as the main agency in propagating the fever4 ,the new propositions1 however1 did not any more recognize this claimed influence as a reason for public intervention4 ,incidentally it may be stated that to two ,italians is due the credit of having found the true cause of salubriousness of forest air1 namely in the absence of pathogenic bacteria4 #c4 ,education and ,literature4 ,the first forest school was organized by ,balestrieri1 who had studied in ,germany1 at the ,agricultural ,school near ,turin about #ahdh1 transferred to the ,technical ,institute in ,turin in #ahea4 ,this school continued until #ahfi1 and from #ahfc on1 had been recognized by the ,state1 assuring its graduates employment in ,state service4 ,in #ahfi1 the ,state established a forest school of its own 7,institute ,forestale7 at ,vallambrosa near ,florence1 with a three years' course 7since #ahhf1 four years7 and1 in #aijj1 with eleven professors and #dj students4 ,in spite of the ,state subvention of #h1ejj1 it appears that some peculiar economies are necessary1 for owing to the absence of stoves the school is closed from ,nov4 #a to ,march #a4 ,in spite of the existence of this school1 the ,state ,service is recruited also from men who have not passed through this school4 ,the legislative propositions brought forward in #aiaj also provide for transfer of this school to ,florence1 leaving only the experiment station in ,vallambrosa1 and also for raising the standard of instruction4 ,at the same time1 however1 there was at the old institution ordered a 8rush course0 to be finished in #ae months1 since it appeared that not enough foresters were in existence to carry out the proposed re-organization4 ,in #aije1 a school of silviculture for forest guards was instituted in ,cittaducale1 the course being #i months4 ,besides the technical school at ,vallambrosa1 agricultural schools have chairs of forestry or arboriculture1 as for instance the ,royal school at ,portici4 ,as an educational feature1 the introduction of ,arbor ,day1 in #aijb1 la festa dei alberi1 should also be mentioned4 ,the existence of a forest school naturally produces a literature4 ,while a considerable number of popular booklets attempt the education of the people1 who are the owners of the forest1 there is no absence of professional works4 ,among these should be mentioned ,di ,berenger's ,selvicoltura1 a very complete work1 which also contains a brief history of forestry in the ,orient1 ,greece and ,italy4 ,g4 ,carlos ,siemoni's ,manuele d'arte forestale 7#ahfd71 and the earlier ,scienza selvana by ,tondi 7#ahbi7 are encyclopedias of inferior quality4 ,in #ahei1 ,r4 ,maffei1 a private forester1 began to publish the ,revista forestale del regno d' ,italia1 an annual review1 for the purpose of popularizing forestry in ,italy1 afterwards changed into a monthly1 which continued for some time under subventions from the government4 ,a number of propagandist forestry associations were formed at various times1 publishing leaflets or journals1 one of these ,l',alpe1 a monthly1 in #aijb4 ,in #aiaj1 the two leading societies combined into a federation ,pro montibus ed enti affini1 merging also the ,rivista forestale italiana with ,l',alpe1 which serves both propagandist and professional needs4 ,,spain4 ,revista de ,montes1 a semi-official journal1 established in #ahgg1 is the best source4 ,el ,manuel de ,legislacion y ,administracion ,forestal1 by ,,hilario ,,ruiz1 and ,novisima ,legislacion ,forestal1 by ,,del ,,campo1 #aija1 elaborate the complicated legislation up to #ahid4 ,dicionaro ,hispano-,americano1 #ahic1 contains an article 7montes7 on the administrative practice of the forest laws4 ,a ,year in ,spain1 by a young ,american 7,,slidell7 #ahbi1 gives an excellent account of physical conditions of the country and character of the people at that time4 ,das ,moderne ,geistesleben in ,spanien1 #ahhc1 and ,kulturgeschichtliche und ,wirtschaftspolitische ,betrachtungen1 #aija1 by ,,gustav ,,dierks1 details character of institutions and people4 8,poor ,spain0 is the expression which comes to the lips of everybody who contemplates the economic conditions of this once so powerful nation1 almost the ruler of the world4 ,once1 under the beneficent dominion of the ,saracens1 a paradise where1 as a ,roman author puts it1 8,nil otiosum1 nihil sterile in ,hispania10 it has become almost a desert through neglect1 indolence1 ignorance1 false pride1 lack of communal spirit1 despotism of church1 and misrule by a corrupt bureaucracy4 ,with the exception of a narrow belt along the seashore1 the whole of the ,iberian peninsula is a vast high mesa1 plateau or tableland1 #a1ejj to #c1jjj feet above sea level1 traversed by lofty mountain chains1 or sierras1 five or six in number1 running parallel to each other1 mainly in a westerly and southwesterly direction4 ,these divide the plateau into as many plains1 treeless1 and for the most part1 arid1 exposed to cold blasts in winter1 and burning up in summer4 ,they are frequently subjected to severe droughts1 which sometimes have lasted for months1 bringing desolation to country and people4 ,the rivers1 as they usually do in such countries similar to our arid plains1 form caons and arroyos1 and1 being uncertain in their water stages1 none of them are navigable although hundreds of miles long1 but useful for irrigation1 on which agriculture relies4 ,the great mineral wealth had made ,spain the ,california of the ,carthaginians and ,romans1 and it is still its most valuable resource4 ,spain awakened to civilization through the visits of ,phoenicians and ,carthaginians followed by the ,romans4 ,during the first centuries of the ,christian era there occurred one of the several periods of extreme prosperity1 when a supposed population of #dj million exploited the country4 ,after the dark days of the ,gothic domination1 a second period of prosperity was attained for the portion which came under the sway of the industrious and intelligent ,moors or ,saracens 7#gaa to #a1jjj ,a4,d47 who made the desert bloom1 and whose irrigation works are still the mainstay of agriculture at present4 ,centuries of warfare and carnage to re-establish ,christian kingdoms still left the country rich1 when1 in #adgi1 the several kingdoms were united into one under ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 and the ,moors were finally driven out altogether 7#adib74 ,this kingdom persisted in the same form to the present time with only a short period as a republic 7#ahgc74 ,spain was among the first countries to have a constitution4 ,after the ,conquest of the ,moors1 and with the discovery of ,america1 again a period of prosperity set in for the then #bj million people1 but1 through oppression by ,state and ,church 7,inquisition71 which also led to the expulsion of the ,jews and large emigration to ,america1 the prosperity of the country was destroyed1 the population reduced to #aj million in #ahjj1 and the conditions of character and government created which are the cause of its present desolation4 ,since the beginning of the century1 the population has increased to near #ah million1 but financial bankruptcy keeps the government inefficient and unable to accomplish reforms even if the people would let it have its way4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,it has been a matter of speculation whether ,spain was1 or was not1 once heavily wooded 7see page #aa74 ,in ,roman times1 only the ,province of ,la ,manca is reported as being unforested1 and1 in the #acth and #adth centuries1 extensive forest zones are still recorded4 ,the character of the country at present1 and the climate1 both resembling so much our own arid plains1 make it questionable to what extent the forest descended from the mountain ranges1 which were undoubtedly well wooded4 ,at present the forest is mainly confined to the higher mountains4 ,the best is to be found in the ,pyrenees and their continuation1 the ,cantabrian mountains4 ,the area of actual forest 7bosques7 is not known with precision1 since in the official figures mere potential forest1 i4e41 brush and waste land1 is included 7montes71 and the area varies1 i4e41 diminishes through new clearings1 of which the statistics do not keep account4 ,moreover1 the statistics refer only to the 8public forests10 leaving out the statement of private forest areas1 if any4 ,in #ahei1 this area was reported as over #be million acres or #bj per cent4 of the land area 7#aif1jjj square miles72 in #ahhe1 the acreage had been reduced to about #ag4e million acres2 and1 in #aijj1 about #af million acres1 or #ac per cent4 of the land area remained as public forest1 and the total was estimated at somewhat over #bj million acres4 ,the following peculiar classification1 published in #ahgd1 gives 7in round figures7 at once an insight into the meaning of montes1 and the probable condition of the 8public forest0 area3 ,acres4 ,state ,reserves #hfe1jjj ,salable ,state ,property #d1eej1jjj ,public ,institute ,forest #bj1jjj ,communal ,forest #i1hfj1jjj ,open ,commons for ,wood and ,pasture #a1hhj1jjj ,common ,pasture for ,draft ,animals #dbe1jjj ---------- ,total #ag1fjj1jjj ,an estimate of the actual forest 7timber and coppice71 does not exceed #ab million acres for a population of #ah million1 or 4#g acres per capita4 ,the latest official figures claim as ,state property around #fjj1jjj acres1 and municipal institutional property #aa4e million acres2 these constituting the public forests4 ,according to official classification1 these public forests are to the extent of #e4c million acres high forest1 #c million coppice1 the balance brushwoods4 ,in spite of this evident lack of wood material1 except for firewood or charcoal1 the importations in #aijc did not exceed #ac4e million dollars1 accentuating the absence of industrial development4 ,the official statement of imports reports #f4e million dollars more than the above figure1 but this includes horses and cattle enumerated as forest products--products of the 8montes40 ,these also figure in the exportations of #ae million dollars1 which to the extent of one-half consists of cork 7some #e million dollars from #fcj1jjj acres7 and tanbark1 while chestnuts1 filberts and esparto furnish the balance4 ,in #aijh1 the imports of lumber and staves alone amounted to #g1chb1jjj4 ,in #ahhb1 all the public forests produced from wood sales only #ijj1jjj1 but the value of the products taken by rights of user was estimated at nearly twice that amount4 ,in #aiaj1 the average income of the forest service was reported as having averaged for the decade in the neighborhood of #b million dollars1 and the expense approximately #a million1 a net yield of about #cj cents per acre on the area involved resulting1 the total cut being #e4g million cubic feet annually4 ,the forest flora and its distribution is very similar to that of ,italy1 and is described fully in two volumes prepared by a special commission appointed for this purpose4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,spain is noted for its comprehensive legislation without execution2 it is also known that official reports are rarely trustworthy1 so that what appears on paper is by no means always found in reality1 hence all statements must be accepted with reservations4 ,the forest laws of ,spain are somewhat similar to those of ,italy1 yet show less appreciation of the needs of technical forest culture4 ,the value of forest resources and need of economy in their use was1 indeed1 recognized early4 ,recommendations for their conservative use are recorded from the #acth century on4 ,an ordinance of ,pedro ,i1 in #acea1 imposed heavy fines upon forest destroyers4 ,ferdinand ,v1 in #adif1 expressed alarm at the progressing devastation1 and1 in #aeah1 we find a system of forest guards established1 and even ordinances ordering reforestation of waste lands1 which were again and again repeated during the century4 ,in #aefg and #aehb1 notes of alarm at the continuing destruction prove that these ordinances had no effect4 ,the same complaints and fears are expressed by the rulers during the #agth and #ahth centuries1 without any effective action4 ,in #agdh1 ,ferdinand ,,vi placed all forests under government supervision1 but in #ahab1 the ,cortes of ,cadiz1 under the influence of the spirit of the ,french ,revolution1 rescinded these orders and abolished all restrictions4 ,an awakening to the absolute necessity of action seems not to have arrived until about #ahcc1 when a law was enacted and an ordinance issued1 at great length defining the meaning of 8montes10 and instituting in the ,corps of ,civil ,engineers a forest inspection4 ,at the same time1 a special school was to be established in ,madrid4 ,this last proposition does not seem to have materialized1 for1 in #ahdj1 we find that several young men were sent to the forest school at ,tharandt 7,germany74 ,no doubt1 under the influence of these men on their return1 backed by ,la ,sociedad ,economica of ,madrid1 a commission to formulate a forest law was instituted in #ahdf1 and in the same year1 carrying out ordinances of #ahce and #ahdc1 a forest school was established at ,villaviciosa de ,odon1 later 7#ahfi7 transferred to the ,escurial near ,madrid4 ,this school1 under semi-military organization1 first with a three-year1 later a four-year1 course1 and continually improved and enlarged in its curriculum 7one ,director and #ac professors in #aijj71 is the pride of the ,spanish foresters1 to all appearances deservedly so4 ,it was organized after ,german models by ,bernardo della ,torre ,royas as first ,director4 ,the creation of a forest department1 however1 ,cuerpo de ,montes1 had to wait until #ahec4 ,this department1 under the ,minister of ,public ,works 7now under the ,minister of ,agriculture71 is a close corporation made up of the graduates of the school as ,ingenieros de ,montes1 acceptance into which is based upon graduation and four years' service in the forest department as assistants besides the performance of some meritorious work4 ,the school stands in close relation to the department service4 ,the first work of the new administration was a general forest survey to ascertain conditions1 and especially to determine which of the public forests1 under the laws of #ahee and #ahei1 it was desirable to retain4 ,the investigation showed that there was more forest 7defined as in the above classification7 than had been supposed1 but that it was in even worse condition than had been known4 ,the public forests1 i4e41 those owned by the ,state1 the communities and public institutions1 were divided into three classes according to the species by which formed1 which was the easiest way of determining their location as regards altitude1 and their public value2 namely1 the coniferous forest and deciduous oak and chestnut forests1 which were declared inalienable2 the forests of ash1 alder1 willow1 etc41 naturally located in the lower levels1 therefore without interest to the state1 which were declared salable2 and an intermediate third class composed of cork oak and evergreen oak1 whose status as to propriety of sale was left in doubt4 ,in #ahfb1 a revision of this classification left out this doubtful class1 adding it and the forest areas of the first class which were not at least #bej acres in extent to the salable property4 ,the first class1 which was to be reserved1 was found to comprise nearly #ag million acres 7of which #a4b million was owned by the ,state71 while the salable property was found to be about half that area4 ,ever since1 a constant wrangle and commotion has been kept up regarding the classification1 and repeated attempts1 sometimes successful1 have been made by one faction1 usually led by the ,minister of ,finance1 to reduce the public forest area 7desamortizadoro71 opposed by another faction under the lead of the forest administration1 which was forced again and again to re-classify4 ,in #ahhc1 the alienable public forest area was by decree placed under the ,minister of ,finance1 the inalienable part remaining under the ,minister of ,public ,works 7,fomento72 very much the same as it was in the ,united ,states until recently4 ,the public debt and immediate financial needs of the corporations gave the incentive for desiring the disposal of forest property1 and1 to satisfy this demand1 it was ordered1 in #ahgh1 that all receipts from the ,state property and #bj per cent4 of the receipts from communal forests were to be applied towards the extinguishment of the debt4 ,the ups and downs in this struggle to keep the public forests intact were accentuated on the one hand by the pressing needs of taking care of the debt1 on the other hand by drought and flood4 ,thus1 in #ahgd1 the sale in annual instalments of over #d4e million acres in the hands of the ,minister of ,finance was ordered1 but the floods of the same year were so disastrous1 7causing #g million dollars damage1 #gfj deaths1 #bh1jjj homeless71 being followed by successive droughts1 that a reversion of sentiment was experienced1 which led to the enactment of a reboisement law in #ahgg4 ,this law1 having in view better management of communal properties1 ordered with all sorts of unnecessary technical details1 the immediate reforestation of all waste land in the public forests1 creating for that purpose a corps of #djj cultivators 7capatacas de cultivos74 ,to furnish the funds for this work the communities were to contribute #aj per cent4 of the value of the forest products they sold or were entitled to4 ,but funds were not forthcoming1 and1 by #ahie1 under this law only #ba1jjj acres had been reforested 7three-fourths by sowing74 ,the financial results of the management of the public forests1 although the forest department probably did the best it could under the circumstances1 had1 indeed1 not been reassuring4 ,in #ahfa1 a deficit of #bf1jjj was recorded2 in #ahgj1 #fjj1jjj worth of material was sold1 #a4c million dollars worth given away1 and #gjj1jjj worth destroyed4 ,altogether1 by fire and theft1 it was estimated that #ae per cent4 of the production was lost4 ,in #ahhe1 this loss was estimated at #be per cent41 when the net income had attained to #ae cents per acre1 or1 on the #ag4e million acres to less than three million dollars4 ,when it is considered that the governors of provinces and their appointees1 besides the village authorities1 had also a hand in the administration1 it is no wonder that the forest department was pretty nearly helpless4 ,while1 under the law of #ahfc1 the department was specially ordered to regulate the management of communal forests and to gauge the cut to the increment1 the political elements in the administration1 which appointed the forest guards1 made the regulations mostly nugatory4 ,at last1 in #aijj1 a new era seems to have arrived1 a thorough reorganization was made1 which lends hope for a better future4 ,the technical administration was divorced from the political influence and placed under the newly created ,minister of ,agriculture4 ,the machinery of the ,cuerpo de ,montes was remodeled4 ,this consists now of one ,chief ,inspector-,general1 four ,division ,chiefs1 ten ,inspectors-,general for field inspection1 #ej chief engineers of district managers1 #ahe assistants1 and #cdb foresters and guards1 the latter now appointed by the department1 instead of the ,governors1 and not all1 as formerly1 chosen from veteran soldiers4 ,the better financial showing referred to above was the result4 ,in #aiaj1 a special reboisement service1 the ,servicio ,hidrological ,forestal1 was also placed on a new footing1 the country being divided into ten districts for this purpose1 and an engineer placed in charge of each4 ,but from a statement that1 in #aiaj1 of some #cjj1jjj acres planned to be recovered only #ca1jjj had been completed it may be inferred that financial difficulties still retard the work4 ,private forests1 which had been without any interference1 were1 in #aijh1 placed under government control so far as located within a defined protective zone 7zona protectora dasocratica74 ,such must be managed under plans provided by the ,forest ,service1 and in case of refusal on the part of owners expropriation proceedings are provided1 but the money for taking advantage of this provision would probably not be in the ,treasury4 ,indeed1 according to ,professor ,miguel del ,campo at the ,escurial forest school1 results so far are nil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since #ahif1 popular education is attempted through ,arbor days1 various associations fostering the idea2 in #aijd1 ,la ,fiesta del ,arbol was made a national holiday1 and premiums are distributed for plantations made on that day4 ,the ,revista de ,montes1 a semi-official monthly journal1 began its publication in #ahgg1 and serves the purpose of propaganda1 as well as the professional needs4 ,a considerable book literature is also developed4 ,,portugal4 ,a pamphlet written for the ,international ,exposition at ,rio de ,janeiro in #aijh1 contains a chapter written by a forester1 ,borges1 which gives most recent and authentic information4 ,besides notes scattered through the literature1 an article by ,l4 ,parde1 a ,french botanist1 in ,revue des ,eaux et ,forts1 #aiaa1 gives an extensive description of forest conditions and especially of the forest of ,leiria4 ,the small kingdom which occupies the west coast of the ,iberian peninsula1 with #cd1jjj square miles and #f million people1 is in many respects similar to ,spain1 except that a larger portion is fertile1 being situated in the litoral region1 the climate less excessive1 and the people somewhat more enterprising4 ,not much more than one-half of the country1 however1 is utilized2 nearly #ae1jjj square miles being waste4 ,three sections or zones are recognized1 the northern1 bounding on ,spain which is mainly mountainous but also contains extensive sand dunes1 is the best wooded2 the central1 which is hilly and less well wooded1 contains 7in ,estremadura and ,beira7 one of the most desolate regions of ,europe and at the same time the best managed forest2 the southern1 the richest in farm lands1 with semi-tropic climate and flora1 the zone of evergreen broadleaf flora4 ,about #aj of the land area1 or #d million acres are under forest1 although #b million more are wooded with olive1 fig1 almond plantations1 or open woodlands and brushwood4 ,of the actual forest area the ,state owns only #hb1jjj acres1 #cj1jjj of which reforested areas or sand dunes in process of recovery4 ,the composition is nearly one-half of pine 7,pinus maritima and pinea71 one-fifth1 cork oak 8with pastures10 a little over one-fifth1 other evergreen oaks 8with pastures10 and the balance1 chestnut and deciduous oaks4 ,the fact of the extensive private ownership and the reference to the pastures in the enumeration of forest areas suffice to give an idea of the condition of most of them4 ,the oak forest is also to a large extent still used for hog raising4 ,besides the native forest areas1 there are in existence a number of parks and plantations of exotics1 the climate of ,portugal in parts resembling that of ,california and permitting a wide range of introductions1 even tropical4 ,there is perhaps nowhere such a good opportunity of seeing the most varied forest flora in fine development as the forest parks of ,montserrate1 of ,bussaco1 and in the various botanical gardens4 ,extensive ,eucalyptus and ,acacia plantations1 some #aejj acres1 of high economical value1 near ,abrants1 are the enterprise of a private landowner1 ,w4 ,c4 ,tait4 ,the deficiency of wood supplies is covered by an importation of about #a4e million dollars against which there is an export of a little over half a million1 mainly cooperage stock4 ,the best developed forest industry is the growing of cork giving rise to an export of around #e million dollars4 ,a considerable naval store production is also developed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first attempt at a real management of the ,state's property dates from #ahfh2 a regular organization1 however1 did not take place until #ahgb1 when1 under the ,director-,general of ,commerce and ,industries1 a forest administrator with a technical staff of three division chiefs1 corresponding to the three sections of country1 and six forestmasters were installed4 ,at present1 the staff of the ,inspector consists of #h technically educated assistants1 each in charge of some branch of service4 ,under these1 there are a number of field agents or supervisors 7some #ad in #aijc7 with less education1 and underforesters and guards4 ,the only really well managed forest1 the pride of the ,portuguese foresters1 is the forest of ,leiria in ,estremadura1 a planted pinery of about #be1jjj acres1 on which over #ej men of various grades are employed1 with naval store distilleries1 impregnating works1 and saw mills4 ,its management 7in natural seed tree system7 dates from #ahib4 ,besides attending to the management of the ,state forests1 a committee composed of the administrator and some of the technical staff1 were to examine the country and decide what parts needed reforestation4 ,as a result of a very full report1 in #ahhb1 a reboisement law was enacted under which some of the sand dunes were fixed4 ,in #aijc1 a more thorough organization of this work took place1 which1 with liberal appropriations1 promises more rapid progress4 ,this law recognizes two ways of placing private property under a forestry regime1 namely obligatory and facultative or voluntary4 ,territory in the mountains and on dunes may if deemed by the superior ,agricultural ,council as requiring it from the point of view of public utility be placed under the regime by royal decree4 ,or else private owners may ask to have their properties so placed1 either merely securing police protection1 obligating themselves to keep the property wooded1 or working under a working plan or reforestation plan provided by the ,forest ,service4 ,in either case the owner is obliged to pay the guards and at the rate of about #b cents per acre for the working plans4 ,planting material is furnished free or at cost price1 and exemption from taxes for #bj years is granted for reforested lands4 ,expropriation of waste lands declared as of public interest is provided1 if owners object to enforced reforestation4 ,some #bge1jjj acres have so far been placed under the forestry regime4 ,there are provisions for forestry education in the ,school of ,agriculture at ,lisbon1 or the education for the higher positions in the forest service may be secured at ,german or ,french forest schools1 and some have secured it at ,vallambrosa4 ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,her ,,colonies4 ,historical ,inquiries concerning ,forests and ,forest ,laws1 by ,,percival ,,lewis1 #ahaa1 gives a full account of the practices in the old ban forests4 ,english ,forests and ,forest ,trees1 #ahec1 anonymous1 gives an interesting account of the old #8forests' and their history4 ,our ,forests and ,woodlands1 by ,,john ,,nisbet1 #aijj1 has a chapter on the historical development of forest laws4 ,,wm4 ,,schlich1 ,manual of ,forestry1 vol4 ,i1 #c;d ed41 #aijf1 brings in convenient form an account of conditions in various parts of the ,british ,empire4 ,,schwappach1 ,forstliche ,zustnde in ,england1 ,zeitschrift fr ,forst- und ,jagdwesen1 #aijc1 is an account of forest conditions from the pen of a practical observer4 ,b4 ,,ribbentrop1 ,forestry in ,india1 #aijj4 ,also various reports of the forest departments of the various ,british ,colonies4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the nation which can boast of the most extensive forest department in one of her colonies1 has at home not yet been able to come to an intelligent conception even1 not to speak of application1 of proper forest policy or forest economy4 ,one of the ,english authorities on the subject writes still in #aijj3 8,with so much land of poor quality lying uncultivated in many parts of the ,british ,isles1 the apathy shown towards forestry in ,britain is one of the things that it is impossible to understand40 ,if we should venture to seek for an explanation1 we would find it in geographical and physical conditions1 but still more in personal and political characteristics1 historically developed1 such as also in the ,united ,states make progress of forestry slower than it would otherwise be4 ,due to her insular position with which in part the development of her naval supremacy is connected1 ,england can readily supply her needs by importations4 ,situated within the influence of the ,gulf stream1 the climate is much milder than her northern location would indicate1 and is in no respect excessive4 ,the topography is mostly gentle1 except in ,scotland and ,wales1 and the riverflow even all the year4 ,hence the absence of forestcover has not been felt in its physical influences4 ,britons1 ,picts1 ,scots1 ,scandinavians1 ,anglo-,saxons and ,normans are the elements which have amalgamated to make the ,english people4 ,through endless warfare and political struggle the three countries1 ,england1 ,scotland and ,ireland had1 by the year #afjj1 come under one ruler1 although final legislative union with ,scotland did not take place until #agjg1 and with ,ireland not until #ahjj4 ,theoretically1 forming a constitutional monarchy1 practically1 an aristocracy with republican tendencies1 the history of the islands has been a struggle1 first to establish race supremacy1 then to secure the ascendency of the nobility and landholders over the king and the commoners1 in which the former have been more successful than the barons in other parts of ,europe4 ,politically1 the ,englishman is an individualist1 jealous of his private interests and unwilling to submit to government interference for the public welfare4 ,hence1 ,state forestry1 which is finally the only solution of the forestry problem1 appears objectionable4 ,commercial and industrial enterprise rather than economic development appeals to him2 the practical issue of the day rather than demands of a future and systematic preparation for the same occupy his mind4 ,he lacks1 as ,mr4 ,roseberry points out1 scientific method1 and hence is wasteful4 ,moreover1 he is conservative and self-satisfied beyond the citizens of any other nation1 hence if all the wisdom of the world point new ways1 he will still cling to his accustomed ones4 ,in the matter of having commissions appointed to investigate and report1 and leaving things to continue in unsatisfactory condition he reminds one of ,spanish dilatoriness4 ,these would appear to us the reasons for the difficulty which the would-be reformers experience in bringing about economic reforms4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,csar's and ,strabo's descriptions agree that ,great ,britain was a densely wooded country4 ,the forest area seems to have been reduced much less through long-continued use1 than through destruction by fire and pasture1 and by subsequent formation of moors1 so that it is now1 excepting that of ,portugal1 the smallest of any ,european nation in proportion to total area1 and1 excepting that of ,holland1 in proportion to population4 ,of the #aba1chj square miles1 which ,great ,britain and ,ireland represent1 less than #d per cent41 or #c million acres1 7#hhj1jjj in ,scotland1 #cjc1jjj in ,ireland7 are forested1 one-fourteenth of an acre per capita2 but there are nearly #cc of waste lands1 namely over #ab million acres of heaths1 moors and other waste lands capable of forest growth1 and another #ab million acres partly or doubtfully so1 while the agricultural land in crops and pasture comprises about #dh million acres4 ,the waste areas re-forested1 it is believed1 could meet the consumption now supplied by importations4 ,notably in ,scotland1 extensive heaths and moors of many hundred square miles in the ,northern ,highlands and the ,grampian mountains--well wooded in olden times1 the woods having been eradicated supposedly for strategic reasons--are now without farms or forests1 and are mainly used for shooting preserves4 ,in the last thirty years1 the land under tillage has continuously decreased1 and now represents less than #be per cent4 of the whole land area1 grasslands occupying #ch per cent4 ,the agricultural land as well as the mountain and heath lands1 are to the largest extent owned by large proprietors 7in #ahgf1 #aa1jjj persons owned #gb per cent4 of the total area of the ,british ,islands74 ,with the exception of #fg1jjj acres of crownlands1 the entire forest area is owned privately1 and that mostly by large landed proprietors1 there being no communal ownership1 except that the municipality of ,london owns a forest area 7,epping ,forest7 devoted to pleasure1 and the ,water ,board of ,liverpool has begun to plant some of its catchment basins4 ,practically the entire wood supply is imported1 and the rate of importation is rapidly increasing4 ,while in #ahfd it was #c4d million tons1 in #ahib1 #g4h million tons worth #ib million dollars2 in #ahii1 #aj million tons and #abe million dollars2 in #aijb1 it had grown to #ach million dollars1 and in #aijf to #ada million 7#gjj million cubic feet7 in which #g4d million of wood manufactures1 against which an export of #ai million mainly wood manufactures1 must be offset4 ,this makes ,england the largest wood importer in the world1 ,germany coming next1 and the amount paid to other countries exceeds the value of her pig iron output4 ,nearly #ij per cent4 of the import is coniferous material1 from ,sweden1 ,russia and ,canada4 ,the home product1 mostly oak ties1 mineprops1 etc41 satisfies about one-sixth of the consumption4 ,in addition to timber and lumber1 over #aj million dollars of wood pulp1 and #fj million dollars of by-products are imported4 ,the total wood consumption per capita is between #ab and #ad cubic feet1 half of what it was #ej years ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pine is the only native conifer of timber value1 and oak is the most important native deciduous tree1 found mostly in coppice or in old1 overmature1 straggling pasture woods4 ,compact larger forest areas are entirely absent1 but there are many small plantations and parks4 ,for1 while ,englishmen have not been foresters1 they have been active treeplanters1 and the mild climate has permitted the introduction of many exotics1 especially ,american conifers4 ,most of these plantings have been for park and game purposes4 ,the most noted forest plantations are found in ,scotland1 among them the larch plantations of the ,duke of ,athole 7begun in #agbh71 of at one time over #aj1jjj acres1 the ducal woodlands now covering over #bj1jjj acres2 the pinery of #be1jjj acres1 belonging to the ,countess of ,sealfield1 the best managed forest property1 partly in natural regeneration1 and others4 ,but these plantations too are mostly widely spaced and trimmed1 hence not producing timber of much value1 so that timber of ,british production is usually ruled out by architects4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policies4 ,the ,saxons and ,normans were primarily hunters1 and this propensity to the chase has impressed itself upon their forest treatment into modern times4 ,the ,teutonic ,saxons undoubtedly brought with them the feudal and communal institutions of the ,germans1 under which territory for the king's special pleasure in the chase was set aside as #8forest'1 and this exclusive right and privilege was on other territory extended to the vassals1 while the commoners were excluded from the exercise of hunting privileges on these grounds4 ,the ,normans not only increased the lands under #8ban'1 but they increased also in a despotic manner the penalties and punishments for infraction of the forest laws1 and enforced them more stringently than was done on the continent4 ,the feudal system was developed to its utmost4 ,besides #8forests' in which the king alone had exclusive rights1 and in which a code of special laws1 administered under special courts1 was applied1 there were set aside #8chases'1 hunting reserves without the pale of the forest laws2 #8parks'1 smaller1 enclosed hunting grounds2 and #8warrens'1 privileged by royal grant or prescription as preserves for small game4 ,whole villages were wiped out1 or lived almost in bondage to satisfy this taste for sport4 ,in the #8forests'1 of which in ,elizabeth's time not less than #ge distinct ones were enumerated1 withdrawing an immense area from free use1 both #8vert' and #8venison'1--wood and game1--belonged to the king2 a host of officers1--stewards1 verderers1 foresters1 regarders1 agistors1 woodwards1--exercised police duties1 and oppressed and ground the people by extortions1 while special courts1--#8woodmote'1 #8swainmote'1 #8court of justice seat'1--enforced the savage and cruel laws4 ,the first of these laws was supposed to date from ,canute the ,great1 in #ajaf1 but was eventually found to be a forgery perpetrated by ,william ,i in order to lend historical color to his assertion of #8forest' rights4 ,a partial reduction of forests1 and a modification of the cruelty and unreasonableness of the laws was obtained by the ,charta de ,foresta1 in #abbe1 which formulated the laws into a code1 and again by the ,forest ,ordinance of #acjf4 ,but not until #adhc1 under ,edward ,,iv1 were the people living within #8forests' permitted to cut and sell timber1 and to fence in for seven years portions of the reserved territory4 ,the last territory was #8afforested'1 i4e41 withdrawn for purposes of the chase1 under ,henry ,,viii1 but he had to secure the consent of the freeholders4 ,the ,long ,parliament1 in #afda1 stopped at least the extension of forests1 and modified the application of the laws to a more reasonable degree4 ,the forest laws are still on the statutes1 but have fallen into desuetude2 the last #8forest court of justice seat' was held under ,charles ,i4 ,the #8forests' themselves have also almost entirely vanished1 some being abolished as late as ,queen ,victoria's time1 by act of parliament1 but the last action under the #8forest laws' was had in #ahfb when the ,duke of ,athole tried to establish his right as #8forester' for the crown4 ,a full account of the forest laws is contained in ,manwood's volume1 the title page of which is here reproduced4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,treatise ,,of ,,the ,,lawes ,,of ,,the ,,fo- rest3 ,wherein is declared not onely those ,lawes1 as they are now in force1 but also the ori- ginall and beginning of ,forests3 ,and what a ,forest is in his owne proper nature1 and wherein the same doth dif- fer from a ,chase1 a ,parke1 or a ,warren1 with all such things as are incident or belonging there into1 with their seuerall proper tearmes of ,art4 ,,also ,a ,,treatise ,,of ,,the ,pourallee1 declaring what ,pourallee is1 how the same first began1 what a ,pourallee man may do1 how he may hunt and vse his owne ,pourallee1 how farre he may pursue and fol- low after his chase1 together with the limits and bounds1 as well of the ,forest1 as the ,pourallee4 ,collected1 as well out of the ,common ,lawes and ,statutes of this land1 ,as also out of sundrie learned auncient ,au- thors1 and out of the ,assises of ,pickering and ,lancaster1 by ,,iohn ,,manvvood4 ,whereunto are added the ,statutes of the ,forest1 a ,trea- tise of the seuerall offices of ,verderors1 ,regardors1 and ,fore- sters1 the ,courts of ,attachments1 ,swanimote1 ,iustice seat of the ,forest1 and certaine principall ,cases1 ,iudgements1 and ,entries of the ,assises of ,pickering and ,lan- caster3 neuer heretofore printed for the publique ,,london1 ,printed for the ,societie of ,stationers1 ,anno ,dom4 #afae4 ,cum ,priuilegio4 ,facsimile of ,title page of ,manwood's celebrated volume4 7,original1 the property of ,mr4 ,joly de ,lotbinire74 ,in ,scotland the same usages and laws existed1 only very much less rigorously enforced1 until1 in #afha1 the extension of #8forests' was discontinued by parliamentary act4 ,it will be understood that the term forest did only distantly refer to woodland and that no economic policy had anything to do with the laws4 ,only incidentally was forest growth protected and preserved for the sake of the chase--the same medieval policy which still largely animates the forest policy of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,the woods outside the #8forests'1 which had mainly served for the raising of hogs1 and for domestic needs1 experienced at various times unusual reduction by fire4 ,general ,monk1 among others1 laid waste large areas on the ,scottish borderland in ,cromwell's time4 ,the first serious inroads by extensive fellings occurred under ,edward ,,iii in the first half of the #adth century to enrich the treasury for the ,french wars4 ,again1 ,henry ,,viii in the #afth century1 when he seized the church properties for his own use1 turned them into cash4 ,a hundred years later1 ,james ,i reduced the forest area1 especially in ,ireland1 by his colonization schemes4 ,yet both1 ,henry ,,viii and ,james ,i1 are on record as encouraging forest planting for utility4 ,charles ,i1 ,james' successor1 always in need of cash1 alienated many of the crown forests1 and turned them into cash1 besides extorting money through the forest courts4 ,during the ,revolution1 beginning in #afdb1 and during ,cromwell's reign a licentious devastation of the confiscated or mortgaged noblemen's woods took place4 ,finally1 under ,charles ,,ii1 the needs for the royal navy forced attention to the reduction of wood supplies1 and as a result of the agitation to encourage the growth of timber1 a member of the newly formed ,royal ,society was deputed to prepare an essay1 which1 published in #affb1 has become the classic work of ,english forest literature1 namely ,john ,evelyn's ,sylva1 or 8,a ,discourse of ,forest ,trees10 which has experienced eleven editions4 ,it should1 however1 be mentioned that an earlier writer1 whom ,evelyn often quotes1 ,tuffer1 before the reign of ,elizabeth1 in #aebf1 published his 8,five ,hundred ,points of ,husbandry10 a versification in which treeplanting received attention4 ,ever since that time1 periodically and spasmodically1 the question of forestry has been agitated1 without much serious result4 ,from #agge to #agha1 the ,society of ,arts in ,london offered gold medals and prizes for treeplanting1 and in the beginning of the #aith century a revival of arboricultural interest was experienced1 perhaps as a result of an interesting report by the celebrated ,admiral ,nelson on the mismanagement of the forest of ,dean1 concern for naval timber giving the incentive1 in which he recommended the planting of oak for investment4 ,at that time1 a ,surveyor-,general1 with an insufficient force1 was in charge of the crown forests4 ,in #ahji1 the management was placed under a board of three ,commissioners1 one of whom being a member of the parliament was to be changed with the administration4 ,under this management1 graft became so rampant that1 in #ahdh1 a committee of the ,house of ,commons was appointed1 whose report revealed the most astonishing rottenness1 placing a stigma on government management such as we still uncover in the ,united ,states from time to time4 ,a reorganization took place in #ahea4 ,at that time the royal forests and parks1 reduced in extent to about #bjj1jjj acres1 showed a deficiency of #abe1jjj1 mostly1 to be sure1 occasioned by the parks4 ,there was then still a tribute of some #fjj bucks to be delivered to various personages1 as was the ancient usage4 ,at present there are some #aae1jjj acres classed as royal forest1 but only #fg1jjj acres are really forest1 consisting of more or less mismanaged woods1 under the administration1 not forest management1 of the ,commissioners of ,woods and ,forests1 with ,deputy ,surveyors in charge of the ranges4 ,although there are a few notable exceptions in the management1 it is to be noted that the same stupid ignorance1 which introduced the clause into the ,constitution of the ,state of ,new ,york1 was enacted into law in #ahgg by the ,english ,parliament1 forbidding in the ,new ,forest all cutting and planting4 ,in #aijj1 there existed just one planting plan1 made by a professional forester1 namely1 for a portion of the forest of ,dean1 while now only two other ,state properties and two or three private estates are managed under working plans4 ,in #ahhg1 a ,committee appointed to inquire into the administration of this property1 expressed itself most dissatisfied1 but a ,committee of ,parliament in #ahij whitewashed the administration and reported that the management was satisfactory4 ,these committees1 as well as an earlier one1 in #ahhe1 were also to recommend measures for the advancement of forestry4 ,they laid in their recommendations the main stress upon education1 but no action followed1 and it can be said that the government has never done anything for the advancement of forestry in the home country1 whatever it may have done for the dependencies4 ,a ,departmental ,committee again reported in #aijb with all sorts of recommendations1 which have remained unheeded4 ,the interests of forestry as far as the government is concerned are at present committed to the ,board of ,agriculture1 an unwieldy body created in #ahhi1 from which this ,departmental ,committee was appointed4 ,there is now1 however1 a strong movement on foot1 led by foresters returned from ,india1 to commit the government to some action with reference to the waste lands1 and towards providing for educational means4 ,another committee1 appointed in #aijh to enquire into prospects of afforestation in ,ireland1 reported in favor of acquiring #cjj1jjj acres of wood and #gjj1jjj acres of unplanted land1 dwelling especially on the benefit to be secured by providing employment and a check upon emigration of the rural population4 ,instead of acting upon this proposition the government directed the ,royal ,commission on ,coast ,erosion1 which had issued its first report in #aijg1 to suspend its inquiry into the inroads of the sea and apply themselves to the inquiry as to 8whether in connection with unclaimed lands or otherwise it is desirable to make an experiment in afforestation as a means of increasing employment during periods of depression1 and how1 and by whom such experiment should be conducted40 ,in #aiji1 the ,royal ,commission on ,afforestation and ,coast ,erosion reported at length1 proposing the reforestation by a special ,commission of nine million acres of waste land at a rate of #ge1jjj or #aej1jjj acres a year to be acquired by purchase--an elaborate plan1 which so far has remained without result4 ,the government1 although various committees have recommended it1 has remained also callous in respect to educational policy1 except that1 in #aijd1 the ,commissioners of ,woods and ,forests instituted a school 7one instructor7 in the ,forest of ,dean for the education of woodsmen and foremen4 ,as illustrative of the government's peculiar attitude to forest policy in general1 we may note a curious anachronism1 namely the act of #ahid1 which relieves railway companies from liability for damage from locomotive fires1 if they can prove that they have exercised all care1 although traction engines cannot offer this excuse4 ,the first attempt to secure educational facilities dates to #ahhd when a chair of forestry was established in the ,royal ,engineering ,college at ,cooper's ,hill1 an institution designed to prepare for service in ,india purely4 ,through private subscriptions1 another chair of forestry was instituted in #ahhg at the ,university of ,edinburgh1 and several agricultural colleges1 notably that of ,cirencester1 as well as the ,universities of ,cambridge and ,oxford1 had made provisions for teaching the subject in a way1 but outside of ,cooper's ,hill no adequate education in forestry was obtainable in ,great ,britain1 until #aije4 ,in #aije1 the forest department in ,cooper's ,hill was transferred to ,oxford1 the three years' course--one year to be spent in the forests of ,germany or other countries--being as before designed mainly for aspirants to the ,indian forest service4 ,now1 besides ,oxford1 some nine other institutions offer courses in forestry--the reason for this educational development being difficult to imagine4 ,the name of ,sir ,william ,schlich1 a ,german forester1 and for some time the head of the ,indian forest department now in charge of this school1 is most prominently connected with the reform movement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,altogether forest management and silvicultural practice are still nearly unknown in ,england1 and1 until within a few years1 the useful idea of working plans had not yet penetrated the minds of owners of estates4 ,this apathy is1 no doubt1 in part due to the fact that the government is in the hands of the nobility1 who prefer to keep their 8shooting ranges01 and do not see even a financial advantage from turning them into forest as long as they can derive a rent of from #aj to #dj cents per acre for shooting privileges4 99 99 99 99 99 ,private endeavor has been active through the two arboricultural societies1 the ,royal ,scotch1 founded in #ahed1 and the ,royal ,english1 beginning its labors in #ahhj4 ,the transactions of these societies in annual or occasional volumes represented the current magazine literature on forestry since the monthly ,journal of ,forestry and ,estates ,management1 which began its career in ,london in #ahgg1 transferred to ,edinburgh in #ahhd1 ceased to exist in #ahhe4 ,at present1 a very well conducted ,quarterly ,journal of ,forestry1 started in #aijg by the ,royal ,english ,arboricultural ,society replacing its ,transactions and that of the ,irish ,forestry ,association1 also the ,journal of the ,board of ,agriculture1 occasionally1 supply the needs of the continuously improving chances for development on forestry lines4 ,until within a short time the ,english professional book literature has been extremely meager1 although a considerable propagandist1 arboricultural1 and general magazine literature exists4 ,schlich's ,manual of ,forestry1 first in three volumes published from #ahhi to #ahie1 now in its second to fourth edition1 enlarged to five volumes1 is the most comprehensive publication4 ,another author deserving mention is ,john ,nisbet1 known by his ,studies in ,forestry 7#ahid71 who also engrafted continental silvicultural notions into later editions of ,james ,brown's ,the ,forester1 an encyclopdic work of merit4 ,several ,german and ,french works have been translated into ,english1 notably ,k4 ,gayer3 ,die ,forstbenutzung2 ,r4 ,hess3 ,der ,forstschutz2 ,h4 ,frst3 ,waldschutz4 ,john ,croumbie ,brown's sixteen volumes on forests and forestry in various countries may be mentioned among the propagandist literature4 ,the ,arboricultural ,societies mentioned also make a brave effort to advance professional development of forestry in their publications4 ,,india4 ,while so neglectful of her forest interests at home1 ,great ,britain has developed in her possessions in the ,east ,indies a far-seeing policy1 and1 under the lead of ,german influence1 has established there one of the largest1 if not most efficient1 forest departments in the world4 ,contrary to a frequently expressed idea that the conditions and problems of ,india are comparable to the conditions and problems of the ,united ,states1 so that the example of ,great ,britain in ,india rather than that of any ,european country might serve us in the ,united ,states1 the writer thinks that the very opposite is true4 ,not only are the natural conditions for the most part different1 ,india being mainly tropical with an entirely different flora and different conditions of growth1 but industrial1 cultural1 social and political conditions are also entirely different2 all of which entails difference in methods of procedure4 ,there are1 to be sure1 a few points of similarity3 the large size of country under one government1 and that in the hands of an ,english speaking race2 the fact that the fire scourge1 as with us1 but from different reasons1 is still the greatest problem2 that there are arid regions and deserts 7not over #aj per cent471 and irrigation problems and flood dangers to deal with2 and finally the long delay in establishing a definite forest policy4 ,although this policy was inaugurated over #dj years ago1 ,india has not yet1 and will by the nature of things1 not soon pass out of the first stage of development which we may confidently expect to pass through much more rapidly1 due to the conditions in which we resemble ,europe more closely4 ,the greater part of ,india1 namely #fb per cent4 of the #a1ggc1jjj square miles1 is under ,british administration1 and is peopled by a subject race of nearly #bdj million1 without a voice in their government1 which is carried on by a small handful of the conquerors 7about #ajj1jjj ,englishmen are living in ,india71 while the balance1 around #gjj1jjj square miles with #ec million people1 is divided among a large number of more or less independent native ,states1 very different in their civilization from ours4 ,industrially1 the difference will appear from the statement that about #gj per cent4 of the population is engaged in agricultural pursuits1 hence there is no active wood market as with us1 except for domestic purposes1 and1 as the woods1 like those of most tropical forest1 are mainly cabinet woods1 even the export trade is insignificant1 amounting to hardly #c million dollars1 while minor forest products 7lac1 cutch and gambier1 myrobalan1 caoutchouc1 etc47 represent about #ab million dollars4 ,climatically1 as is to be expected1 on such a large territory1 great variation exists1 which is increased by differences in altitude from the sea level to the tops of the ,himalayas4 ,the climate is1 of course1 largely tropical1 with a rainfall which varies from the heaviest known1 of #fjj inches1 to almost none at all4 ,nevertheless1 in spite of these differences from our conditions1 much may be learned from ,indian experience in the matter of organization1 both to follow and to avoid1 and the fact that this can be done without the need of a foreign language will be attractive to most ,americans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,british1 like other nations1 gained a foothold in ,india for trading purposes during the #agth century4 ,this they extended during the #ahth century1 especially after they had attained the ascendancy by ,clive's subjection1 in #ageg1 of the great ,mogul1 one of the most powerful native princes4 ,by conquest and amicable arrangement1 the territory of ,british influence was gradually increased through the agency of the ,east ,india ,company1 until1 in #aheh1 the ,british government in ,india was formally established by royal proclamation2 and1 in #ahgg1 it was declared an empire4 ,as stated1 native princes still control1 under ,british influence and restrictions1 over one-third of the country1 or a territory of nearly #gjj1jjj square miles1 divided into #ac feudatory states4 ,the total area under direct ,british control and government is #a1jhg1jjj square miles1 of which #be per cent4 7#bhj1jjj square miles7 is probably forested and waste1 some #bcb1jjj square miles or nearly #aej million acres of which are so far declared government property4 ,the ,british territory is divided into three presidencies 7,madras1 ,bombay and ,bengal7 and nine provinces1 each with a separate government under a governor1 or commissioner1 with a council1 and all subject to control by the resident governor-general or viceroy and his council1 and he in turn is responsible to the ,secretary of ,state at home4 ,there is1 however1 little centralization of government functions1 the provincial governments being to a large degree at least semi-autonomous1 like the states in the ,united ,states1 and considerable variation exists in the conduct of affairs4 ,the difficulties in introducing something like a uniform forest policy were1 indeed1 not small1 and much credit is due to the wisdom and tact of the three ,german foresters1 who in succession filled the difficult position of head of the ,imperial ,forest ,department and organized the service--,brandis1 ,schlich and ,ribbentrop4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,in the tropics1 rainfall conditions more than any other factor determine forest conditions4 ,the rains of ,india depend on extraordinary sea winds1 or 8monsoons10 and their distribution is regulated by the topography of land and relative position of any district with regard to the mountains and the vapor-laden air currents4 ,thus excessive rainfall characterizes the coast line along the ,arabian ,sea to about latitude #bj degrees ,n41 and still more along the coast of ,lower ,burma1 and to a lesser extent also the delta of the ,ganges and the southern slopes of the ,himalayas4 ,a moderately humid climate1 if gauged by annual rainfall1 prevails over the plateau occupying the larger part of the peninsula and the lower ,ganges valley1 while a rainfall of less than #ae inches occurs over the arid regions of the lower ,indus4 ,the rainfall1 so unevenly distributed territorially1 is1 moreover1 as unevenly distributed through the year4 ,in most districts the principal rains are experienced in summer1 the rainy season being followed by a long dry season4 ,but on the ,eastern coast the summer rains are slight1 and the principal rainy season is delayed into ,october and ,november1 while in ,northern ,india and the ,himalayas1 also winter rains occur1 irregular and of short duration4 ,even where a relatively large rainfall prevails1 the climate is dry on account of the high temperature1 hence some #cj1jjj1jjj acres of the cultivated acreage 7which comprises #bbe1jjj1jjj acres in all7 depend on irrigation1 over half of this irrigated area lying in the tropical zone4 ,roughly speaking1 at least four climatic zones with many sub-types1 may be recognized3 the truly tropic1 intensely hot and wet 7over #ge inch rainfall71 prevailing on the plains and tablelands of the lower half of the peninsula2 the hot and dry 7below #ae inch rainfall7 climate of the ,northwestern ,indus plain and plateau2 the moderately warm and dry to humid 7#cj-ge inch rainfall7 climate of the ,ganges plain and central plateau2 and the temperate to alpine1 humid climate of the ,himalaya mountains1 with snow and ice in winter1 and moderate heat in summer4 ,in keeping with this great diversity of climate1 both as to temperature and humidity1 there is a great variation in the character and development of the forest cover4 ,at least six types can be recognized1 namely the evergreen forest1 found along the ,west coast1 in ,burma1 ,andaman ,islands1 and the sub-,himalaya zone1 which is composed of broadleaved species with a dense undergrowth of small trees and tangled lianas 7vines71 but few shrubs1 as is characteristic of most tropical forest2 the deciduous forest1 mainly in the interior of ,central ,india1 with ,sal1 ,teak and ,ironwood as characteristic trees2 the arid region forest1 found in the ,punjab1 in ,raiputana1 and in ,sindh1 of varying composition1 from the open shrub forests of the latter province1 composed of acacias1 tamarisk and mesquite1 to the denser1 more diversified1 dry1 low tree forest of the former2 the alpine coniferous forest of the ,himalayas and of the mountains of ,afghanistan1 ,belutchistan1 and ,burma1 composed of pine1 deodar1 juniper1 with oak1 walnut1 boxwood1 approaching our own forest types4 ,in addition1 there may be segregated the coast forest1 of small extent1 composed of trees which1 like the mangrove1 will bear salt water2 the overflow forest along rivers2 and river forests in the desert regions1 of which latter large areas exist4 ,the natural differences in the forest cover are emphasized by the action of man1 who for many centuries has waged war against the forest1 clearing it permanently or temporarily for agricultural purposes1 or else merely burning it over to improve grazing facilities1 or for purposes of the chase4 ,statistics1 except of government properties1 are somewhat doubtful4 ,apparently1 the forested area of the whole of ,india comprises somewhat over #dj per cent4 of the land area4 ,the government forests1 settled and unsettled1 represent at present about #bd per cent4 of the area under ,british rule 7#adi million acres71 not over #bj per cent4 being under cultivation1 leaving about #ef per cent4 either natural desert1 waste1 or grazing lands4 ,the great forests of ,india are in ,burma2 extensive woods clothe the foothills of the ,himalayas and are scattered in smaller bodies throughout the more humid portions of the country1 while the dry northwestern territories are practically treeless wastes4 ,large areas of densely settled districts are so completely void of forest that millions of people regularly burn cow dung as fuel1 while equally large districts are still impenetrable1 wild woods1 where1 for want of market1 it hardly pays to cut even the best of timbers4 ,the great mass of forests in ,india are stocked with hardwoods1 which in these tropical countries are largely evergreen1 or nearly so1 although the large areas of dry forest are deciduous by seasons2 only a small portion of the forest area is covered by conifers1 both pine and cedar1 these pine forests being generally restricted to higher altitudes in the ,himalayas4 ,the hardwoods1 most of which in ,india truly deserve this name1 belong to a great variety of plant families1 some of the most important being the ,leguminos1 ,verbenace1 ,dipterocarpe1 ,combretace1 ,rubiace1 ,ebenace1 ,euphorbiace1 ,myrtace1 and others1 and a relatively small portion represented by ,cupulifer and other families familiar to us4 ,the most important1 valuable species are ,teak1 ,sal1 and ,deodar4 ,in the greater part of ,india the hardwood forest consists not of a few species1 as with us1 but is made up1 like most tropical forest1 of a great variety of trees unlike in their habit1 their growth1 and their product2 and1 if our hardwoods offer on this account considerable difficulties to profitable exploitation1 the case is far more complicated in ,india1 several thousand species entering into the composition4 ,in addition to the large variety of timber trees there is a multitude of shrubs1 twining and climbing plants1 and in many forest districts also a growth of giant grasses 7bamboos71 attaining a height of #cj to #abj feet1 which is ready to take possession of clearings4 ,these bamboos1 valuable as they are in many ways1 prevent often for years the growth of any seedling trees1 and thus form a serious obstacle to the regeneration of valuable timber4 ,the growth of timber is generally quite rapid1 although to attain commercial size1 ,teak requires usually a rotation of #aej years4 ,but in spite of their rapid growth and the large areas now in forest capable of reforestation1 ,india is not likely--at least within reasonable time--to raise more timber than it needs4 ,in most parts of ,india1 the use of ordinary soft woods1 such as pine1 seems very restricted1 for only durable woods1 those resisting both fungi and insects 7of which the white ants are specially destructive71 can be employed in the more permanent structures1 and are therefore acceptable in all ,indian markets4 ,at present1 ,teak is the most important hardwood timber1 while the ,deodar 7a true cedar7 is the most extensively used conifer4 ,teak occurs in all moist regions of ,india except the ,himalayas1 grows usually mixed with other kinds1 single1 or in clumps1 is girdled two or three years before felling1 is generally logged in a primitive way1 commonly hewn in the woods and shipped--usually floated--as timber1 round or hewn1 and rarely sawn to size4 ,in #aije-f1 the cut in the ,state forest area was #bdj1jjj1jjj cubic feet1 timber 7#be7 and fuel1 of which #bj per cent4 was given to grantees or those holding rights of user free of charge1 and less than #b per cent4 was exported4 ,in addition1 over #bjj million bamboos and nearly two million dollars worth of by-products1 such as lac1 caoutchouc1 cutch1 gambier1 myrobalans1 were secured4 #b4 ,property ,conditions4 ,prior to the ,british occupation1 the native rulers1 or rajahs1 laid claim to a certain proportion of the produce from all cultivators of the soil4 ,they also reserved absolute right to the forests1 and to all unseated or waste lands1 although usually the people were allowed to supply their needs from these4 ,the ,english government1 by right of conquest1 fell heir to these rights as well as to the properties1 but1 without care in asserting its rights1 the unimpeded use of unguarded forest property led to the assertion of rights of user by the people1 and such were also sometimes granted by the government4 8,joint village0 communities in some parts1 i4e41 settlements which occupy contiguous areas1 claimed and occupied large areas of forest and waste as commons1 and in general the original property rights of the government became uncertain4 ,the necessity of bringing order into this question led to various so-called settlements1 by which the rights were defined1 properties de-limited1 and payment in kind changed into cash payments4 ,after attempts to regulate these matters by local rules1 the first general ,indian ,forest ,act1 passed in #ahfe1 modified by the ,forest ,act of #ahgh1 laid down the basis upon which the rights of forest property were to be settled4 ,these acts divide the forests into three classes1 namely1 those in which the right of the ,state is absolute2 those in which the ,state has property rights1 but which are burdened with prescriptive or granted rights of user2 and those which are private property1 but on which the ,state reserves the right to cut certain kinds of trees for government use1 ,teak1 ,sandalwood1 and in some parts ,deodar1 these being considered 8royal trees40 ,the forest act being throughout applicable only at the choice and under the construction of the provincial governments1 modified acts1 applicable to different parts of the ,empire1 and different in details1 were passed from time to time1 and many different local rules were issued by the provincial governments1 but all agree in fixing one definite policy1 namely declaration or demarcation of government forests1 after inquiry into all existing rights1 and division of the declared government forests into three classes1 reserves or permanent state forests1 protected forests1 and unclassed1 the latter two still open to change in ownership1 and adjustment in rights of user1 etc4 ,the absolute and relative areas of government property1 therefore1 are continuously changing4 ,in #aijj the reserve forests comprised #ha1djj square miles1 or #h4f of the total territory controlled by the ,british government2 the protected forest #hhjj square miles1 and the demarcated but unclassified area1 #aag1jjj square miles4 ,these figures had1 in #aijd1 changed to #ia1efg for permanent reserves 7#eh million acres71 #ihfe for protected1 and #aca1bfi for unclassed1 showing the rapid change now taking place in the status of classification4 ,the name of ,b4 ,h4 ,baden-,powell1 at one time conservator of the ,punjab and ,acting ,inspector-,general of ,forests during #ahgb-d1 is closely connected with placing this forest legislation on a sound basis4 ,the object of this legislation was mainly to settle the question of ownership and rights1 hence reserved forests are not necessarily set aside for forest purposes like the forest reservations in the ,united ,states1 although ultimately this will probably be their condition4 ,rights of user were under this legislation regulated or commuted4 ,in some parts1 even on the reserved forest areas1 there are still retained rights to cut taungyas1 i4e41 to make partial clearings for temporary agricultural use1 under the restriction of not destroying teak trees over #ah inches in diameter1 and with the right of the cultivators to supply their domestic needs1 under obligation to cut out fire traces1 burning the brush1 and instituting similar protective measures4 ,the title to the forest property having been secured1 its permanent demarcation and a survey of the same were the next steps2 the first having gradually been nearly accomplished1 the latter being still far in arrears4 ,the area of private and communal forests is not precisely known1 but1 including waste land and lands of uncertain conditions1 there are at least #ejj1jjj square miles so owned1 including those of feudatory rulers within the provinces4 ,of these1 some #ejj square miles or more of forest are leased to the government and under its control2 and in some cases forest administrations are instituted by the rajahs themselves4 ,in the ,act of #ahgh1 there was a clause calling for protection of private forest property against trespass and encroachment1 but this remained a dead letter4 ,by later legislation the government is entitled to exercise control over private forests and lands1 if it appears necessary for the public weal1 or if the treatment which such forests have received from their owners affect the public welfare or safety injuriously2 but in such cases the owner can require the government to expropriate the land in question4 ,the forest act also provided that the government may assign to village communities from the reserved forest area so-called village forests1 and make rules for their protection1 use and management4 ,how far this policy has been applied does not appear4 ,there are still areas the ownership of which is not settled1 and rights which are still in doubt1 the work of the so-called forest settlements still going on1 several thousand square miles being annually changed in status1 and several thousand dollars annually spent to quiet rights of user4 #c4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,through the long history of ,india that preceded the arrival of the ,mohammedans in the #ajth to #abth centuries1 it appears that the forest area was only slowly encroached upon by the ,hindoo civilization4 ,even when the invaders1 nomads by habit1 drove many of the native race into the jungle to eke out a precarious existence1 owing to the remarkable recuperative powers of a tropical nature the impression made was not permanent4 ,although much forest growth was then destroyed1 cleared or mutilated1 changes took place only slowly4 ,it has been claimed1 that in consequence of the destruction1 which was incident to the nomadic life of the ,mohammedans and the shifting agriculture of the aborigines1 climatic changes were produced1 but the proof for this assertion has remained questionable4 ,when in the #ahth century the ,british entered ,india in rivalry with the ,french and other ,european nations1 it was1 of course1 only for purposes of exploitation1 and for a long time after the ,british had attained the ascendancy and had subjected most of the territory now ruled by them1 not much concern was had about the forests2 they furnished but small values1 excepting in one particular1 namely supplies of ,teak for naval purposes4 ,in the beginning of the #aith century the ,government became concerned regarding these supplies1 which under the rough exploitation threatened to become exhausted4 ,the first step towards securing some conservative management dates back to #ahjf1 when ,captain ,watson was sent to ,india as ,conservator of ,forests1 to look after the interests of the ,east ,india ,company in this direction4 ,his inability to compromise with those who had secured timber privileges led to his removal and an abandonment of the office1 in #ahbc4 ,ineffective1 sporadic efforts at administration by the provincial governments then followed4 ,in #ahci-dj1 the government of the ,bombay ,presidency stopped the cutting of ,teak trees on government property4 ,in #ahcd1 ,m4 ,connolly1 ,collector of ,malabar in the ,madras ,presidency1 began to plant ,teak on a large scale at ,nilambur4 ,in #ahdg1 ,dr4 ,gibson was appointed ,conservator of ,forests in ,bombay2 from #ahdh to #ahef1 ,lieutenant 7now ,general1 ,c4 ,s4 ,i47 ,james ,michael conducted the government timber operations in the ,anamalai ,teak forests 7,madras71 and made the first recorded attempts to protect ,indian forests from injury by annual jungle fires4 ,in #ahef1 ,dr4 ,hugh ,cleghorn was appointed ,conservator of ,forests in ,madras4 ,he checked the destructive practices of temporary cultivation in the government forests of that ,presidency1 a measure1 which at first was strongly opposed by the people1 but his well-known desire to promote native interests inspired the rulers of the country with confidence1 and finally his measures were successful4 ,various attempts at some kind of regulation of the exploitation by lumbermen were also made by the general government1 after various examinations and reports1 and1 in #ahdg1 even a small and ineffective forest department was organized4 ,the annexation of the ,province of ,pegu in lower ,burma1 in #aheb1 introduced a new complication1 and proved the turning point in forestry matters4 ,in this province1 the right to cut ,teak had been reserved by the native princes1 and hence became a right of the crown1 but private lumbermen began to cut this timber1 and1 after an investigation and report1 it was decided to take definite steps to regulate the use of these valuable ,teak forests at least4 ,lord ,dalhousie1 the then ,governor-,general1 upon the basis of the report of the superintendent of forests at ,pegu1 ,dr4 ,mc,clelland1 in #ahee laid down in statesmanlike manner an outline of a permanent forest policy for the government1 and introduced the first professional adviser4 ,in #ahef1 a ,german forester from ,hesse1 ,dietrich ,brandis 7afterward ,sir7 was installed as superintendent of forests for ,pegu with wide powers under contract for #aj years1 at a liberal salary1 and pension after retirement4 ,the only possible check that could at first be applied was to force the lumbermen to make contracts1 limit the diameter to which the exploitation was to be allowed1 and mark the trees to be felled4 ,this was done1 naturally not without a large amount of friction4 ,the result of this experiment in forest conservancy1 as the ,english are pleased to call it1 was so satisfactory1 that1 in #ahfb1 it was decided to organize a forest department for all ,india2 ,brandis was entrusted with the organization1 and1 in #ahfd1 he was appointed head of the new department under the ,secretary of ,public ,works with the title of ,inspector-,general1 acting as adviser of the various provincial governments4 ,the forests of ,india during the next #bj years during which ,brandis held office1 were1 province by province1 brought under the regime of the ,imperial ,forest ,department1 although the provincial governments retain full and independent administrative power4 ,the first problem was to settle ownership conditions1 which was done in the manner described before1 by the act of #ahfe1 and by later acts4 ,the discontent which was created by this act came very near wrecking the whole enterprise1 and much difference of opinion between the local and general governments existed1 the government of ,madras going so far as to declare the impossibility of establishing ,state property in view of the acknowledged rights of the villagers over waste lands4 ,the general policy1 however1 finally prevailed1 and an increasingly harmonious cooperation of the provincial governments has allowed the development of an efficient forest service4 ,various provincial legislation was considered1 passed and repealed1 until1 in #ahgh1 the ,indian ,forest ,act ,,vii settled the policy at least for the majority of the provinces1 ,madras and ,burma and some minor districts still declining to extend its provisions to their forests4 ,the ,burma government enacted1 however1 similar legislation in #ahha1 and the ,madras government in #ahhb1 and1 much later1 the other outstanding governments followed 7#ahhf to #ahia71 so that1 while the detail of application varies not inconsiderably1 the general policy regarding forest property of the ,state is the same throughout the empire4 ,whatever of uniformity exists had to be secured mainly by persuasive means4 ,the forest acts1 as stated on a previous page1 contain certain provisions regarding formation of village forests and control of private forest property1 but no interference with private forest property has been attempted1 although in some parts this is more important and larger than the ,state holdings4 ,most of the owners merely exploit their property1 but some of the larger1 more enlightened native princes have established forest administrations1 imitating the example of the ,imperial government4 ,those of ,mysore and ,kashmir and ,hyderabad have placed this administration under an imperial forest officer1 furloughed for this purpose1 and derive handsome revenues2 the ,kashmir forests of about #bejj square miles yielding round #ahj1jjj2 those of ,mysore1 near #bjjj square miles1 over #ccj1jjj1 this largely derived from sales of sandal wood2 those of the ,nizam of ,hyderabad1 with #ebjj square miles in reserves and #ddjj in protected forests1 deriving a revenue of #ge1jjj1 seven times what it was ten years before4 #d4 ,forest ,organization and ,administration4 ,the condition of affairs in the forest department can be briefly summarized as follows for the year #aiji4 ,total area under government control3 #bda1ggd square miles1 namely1 ,reserved1 #id1efa2 ,protected1 #h1hce2 ,unclassed1 #ach1cgh4 ,officials 7in #aije73 ,higher grades1 #cab2 ,lower grades1 #a1ffc2 ,guards1 #h1ecc4 ,the controlling staff was in #aiji increased by #cd2 and numbers in all other grades increased4 ,rounded off ,expenditures1 #d1ejj1jjj2 ,revenues1 #h1bbe1jjj2 ,net ,proceeds1 #c1fge1jjj 7#de of gross74 ,variation in the value of the rupee makes comparison with earlier years uncertain4 ,in spite of the many difficulties1 a poor market 7no market at all for a large number of woods71 wild1 unsurveyed1 and practically unknown woodlands1 requiring unusual and costly methods of organization and protection1 the forestry department has succeeded1 without curtailing the timber output of ,india1 in so regulating forest exploitation as to insure not only a permanence in the output1 but also to improve the woodlands by favoring the valuable species4 ,it has prepared for an increase of output for the future1 and at the same time has yielded the ,government a steadily growing revenue1 which bids fair to rank before long among the important sources of income4 ,in #ahfe the net revenue was only #cfj1jjj1 it had about doubled by #ahge1 and more than trebled by #ahhe1 and since then has more than quadrupled4 ,while in the period of #ahgj to #ahgd the expense of the administration was still #gj per cent4 of the gross income1 it has gradually been reduced to near #de per cent41 while the outturn in material has in the last five years increased by #ce over the preceding quinquennium4 ,at first1 the department and its operations as well as its finances were ,imperial1 the local governments having no control over its officers or over the revenue derived1 but1 in #ahhb1 decentralization was effected1 the local governments obtaining a direct interest in the revenues4 ,as a result the financial interest overruled the conservative policy1 and over-cutting was the consequence4 ,in #ahhd1 the general government recognized the need of a change4 ,after some struggle1 the ,imperial department was placed at least in charge of preparing the working plans1 and pressure for their execution if not direct enforcement can be brought through appeal to the general government by the ,inspector-,general1 which1 however1 has never been necessary to use4 ,the organization of the forest service passed through various stages1 and the arrangement in the different provinces is even now not quite uniform4 ,the forest service1 then1 is peculiarly organized as regards division of responsibilities and relationships between the imperial and the provincial governments1 the autonomy of the latter being jealously guarded4 ,it is divided into the ,imperial and the ,provincial ,service1 the former consisting of the higher grade officials entirely recruited from ,england1 the latter1 the executive service1 being in administrative functions independent of the former4 ,an ,inspector-,general1 directly under the ,secretary of ,revenue and ,agriculture1 7for some time under the ,home ,department7 is the head of the service1 and acts as professional adviser both of the ,imperial and the ,provincial ,governments4 ,but this head of the service is shorn of most of executive functions1 all administrative matters being reserved to the provincial authorities4 ,the ,inspector-,general has charge only of the forest school administration1 of forest surveys1 and of the making of working plans1 which later1 after approval by the ,provincial government1 are in their execution inspected and critically supervised by him1 but without power to enforce them1 or to give direction directly to the ,conservators in charge 7at least in ,madras and ,burma74 ,he also watches over and reports on the progress of all forestry matters in the empire4 ,peculiarities and great variety are also found in other official relations and in the appointing power1 the general and provincial governments exercising certain rights in this respect4 ,the ,controlling ,staff 7#eg officers in #ahfi1 now about #cjj7 under the ,inspector-,general1 consists of ,conservators1 ,deputy ,conservators and ,assistant ,conservators4 ,the ,conservators1 now some #bj1 so far as they are not directly acting as assistants in the ,inspector-,general's office1 are the heads of the provincial departments and conservatorships1 and in that capacity directly subordinate to the local government1 which in ,madras and ,bombay also has their appointment2 each is in charge either of the entire forest business of the ,province1 or of a circle forming part of a ,province and the administration unit in ,india4 ,these are1 therefore1 the most influential and most responsible agents in introducing forestry practices4 ,conservatorships are divided into divisions1 each in charge of a divisional forest officer1 a member of either the ,imperial or the ,provincial ,controlling ,staff2 but these have to acknowledge subordination to the ,chief ,civil officer1 the ,collector of the district in which they are located1 in order to harmonize the financial and forestal interests4 ,about #hj per cent4 of the ,controlling ,staff in the ,imperial ,service are appointed by the ,secretary of ,state from graduates formerly from the forest school at ,cooper's ,hill ,college1 now ,oxford1 the remaining #bj per cent4 from ,englishmen in the provincial service1 the members of which have passed through the ,dehra ,dun forest school and through the lower branches of the service4 ,in addition to this ,superior ,staff1 a ,subordinate ,staff of ,extra ,deputy ,conservators and ,extra ,assistant ,conservators forms the ,provincial ,service1 which is mainly recruited from the natives4 ,the districts are divided into ranges1 for which an ,executive ,service is organized1 of rangers 7over #djj71 who are now selected from graduates of the forest school in ,dehra ,dun4 ,deputy rangers and foresters1 a lower grade 7some #agjj71 and guards1 having their separate beats 7over #hejj71 form the ,protective ,service1 mostly or all recruited from the better class of natives4 #e4 ,forest ,treatment4 ,with the irregular distribution of forests1 the peculiarities of ,indian government affairs and population1 and the wild and difficult forest conditions themselves1 it is but natural that the work thus far has been chiefly one of organization1 survey1 and protection4 ,in the protection against unlawful felling or timber stealing and grazing1 the ,government of ,india has shown itself fully equal to the occasion by a liberal policy of supplying villagers in proximity of the forests with fuel1 building material1 pasture1 etc41 at reduced prices or gratis4 ,over #a1ejj1jjj worth is thus disposed of annually1 the incentive to timber stealing being thereby materially reduced4 ,a reasonable and just permit system for grazing1 where again the needs of the neighboring villagers are most carefully considered1 not only brings the government a yearly revenue of over #hjj1jjj1 but enables the people to pasture about #ad1jjj1jjj head of animals in the ,state forests without doing any material damage to tree growth4 ,thirty-one per cent4 of the total forest area is open to grazing4 ,the work of preventing and fighting fires can with the means available not be carried on over the entire forest area1 of which large tracts are not even crossed by a footpath1 and in a land where the regular firing of the woods has become the custom of centuries1 and where1 in addition1 intensely hot and dry weather1 together with a most luxuriant growth of giant grasses1 render these jungle fires practically unmanageable4 ,each year1 however1 additional territory is brought under protection4 ,in #aijb1 nearly #cg1jjj square miles1 or nearly #dj of the area in reserve1 but only #ab of the total government forest area1 were under protection at a cost of #d4jj per square mile or less than one cent per acre1 half of what it was #aj years before1 and over #b per cent4 of the gross revenue4 ,nearly #e1jjj fires occurred1 to be sure1 which burnt over #c1jjj1jjj acres1 that is to say over #ij per cent4 of the area the protection was effective4 ,for nearly half the fires the cause remains unknown4 ,danger from fire has1 however1 become less in protected areas because of the changes in herbage and moisture conditions4 ,yet it costs still about two per cent4 of the gross revenue to protect the area1 and the figures just cited show that this expenditure is only partially effective4 ,in #aiji1 the protected area had increased to #dc1jjj square miles1 the cost to #e1 the efficiency to #id per cent4 ,the first successful attempts to deal with forest fires were made in #ahfd by ,major 7later ,colonel7 ,g4 ,f4 ,pearson1 who was then ,conservator of ,forests in the ,central ,provinces1 and who devised a system of cleared fire lines or 8fire traces10 surrounding the areas to be protected1 which were cut and burned over early in the season1 a system now in vogue in all ,india4 ,in the jungle forests the traces must be broad2 the grass often taller than an elephant must be cut and burned before the grass on either side of the fire lane is dry enough to burn4 ,this protection forms the most important duty of the forest officials1 a trying one as it has to be carried on during the hot season4 ,a separate branch of the forest service carried on the work of surveying and mapping the forest area instead of the regular ,survey of ,india1 with the result of cheapening the cost4 ,some #gd1jjj square miles had been mapped on the scale of #d inch to the mile1 the standard1 some smaller areas on smaller scale1 at the rate of #be per square mile4 ,in #aijh1 however1 this work was handed over to the ,survey4 ,silviculture4 ,silvicultural practices are naturally but little developed4 ,protection against fire1 grazing1 overcutting has been the first requisite4 ,the unregulated selection system with a diameter limit1 which ,brandis introduced1 still prevails mostly1 although beginnings of a compartment and group system in converting miscarried selection forest of ,deodar1 ,pine and ,sal have been made1 or rather of an improved selection method1 which seeks to secure reproduction in groups4 ,clearcutting with seed trees held over is practised in the coniferous mountain forest4 ,coppice and coppice with standards 7reserves of sprouts7 is a natural condition over large areas1 especially with ,teak and ,sal4 ,even improvement cuttings or sowing on barren hillsides with remarkable success1 are not absent4 ,the attempts at securing reproduction1 especially in the truly tropic forests have often miscarried1 inferior species filling the openings4 ,girdling of inferior species to favor the better classes has hardly had the desired result4 ,in the deciduous forest1 the same difficulty of undesirable aftergrowth is experienced1 deteriorating the composition1 except in the case of the gregarious ,sal tree 7,shorea robusta71 the treatment of which for reproduction has1 after many failures1 been well established4 ,other gregarious species also can be satisfactorily reproduced4 ,the culled and burned-over forests1 of which1 there are many1 are re-habilitated in a manner by merely removing the old overmature and defective timber1 with comparative success4 ,in some parts1 the large gregarious bamboos are a serious obstacle to reproduction4 ,here1 the only chance for reproduction exists when they flower and die4 ,killing the bamboos by cutting the annual shoots proved a failure1 but burning over the whole area and sowing seems to be followed by success4 ,in other parts1 as in the large ,teak forests of ,burma1 as well as of other provinces1 the useless kinds of trees are girdled1 huge climbers are cut off1 and a steady war is waged against all species detrimental to teak regeneration with satisfactory results4 ,with ,teak1 even planting on a larger scale is resorted to1 especially by means of taungyas1 i4e4 plantations1 where the native is allowed to burn down a piece of woods1 use it for a few years as field 7though it is never really cleared7 on condition of planting it with teak1 being paid a certain sum for every hundred trees found in a thrifty condition at the time of giving up his land4 ,similarly1 the department has expended large sums in attempting to establish forests in parts of the arid region of ,beluchistan1 and1 on the whole1 during #ahid-ie about #aej1jjj were expended on cultural operations1 which up to that time involved about #gf1jjj acres of regular plantations and #cf1jjj acres taungyas 7mostly teak17 making a total of #aab1jjj acres1 besides numerous large areas where the work consisted merely in aiding natural reproduction4 ,but1 in #aiji1 the plantations seem to have been reduced to #ei1jjj acres1 7probably through failures71 the taungyas however increased to #hd1jjj acres1 and the budget for plantings and other cultural measures formed a little over two per cent4 of the gross revenues4 ,we see then1 that though the forests of ,india are now1 and will continue for some time to be little more than wild woods with some protection and a reasonable system of exploitation in place of a mere robbing or culling system1 yet the work of actual improvement steadily increases in amount and perfection4 ,in disposing of its timber the ,government of ,india employs various methods4 ,in some of the forest districts the people pay merely a small tax and get out of the woods what and as much as they need4 ,in other cases1 the logger pays for what he removes1 the amount he fells being neither limited in quantity nor quality4 ,the prevalent systems1 however1 are the permit system1 when a permit is issued indicating the amount to be cut and the price to be paid for the same1 and the contract system1 when the work is more or less under the control of government officers and the material remains government property until paid for4 ,to a limited extent the governments carry on their own timber exploitation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,working ,plans4 ,only a relatively small part of the total forest area1 each year1 however1 increasing1 is as yet worked under plans4 ,in #ahhe1 only #aji square miles1 in #ahii1 #bj1jjj square miles1 and in #aijc1 nearly #cj1jjj square miles1 about #ac per cent4 of the total1 or #cj per cent4 of the reserved area1 were operated under working plans1 and each year about #djjj square miles are added1 so that now 7#aiji7 over half the reserved area is under working plans4 ,only gradually was the character of these plans brought into practical form1 and their execution1 in spirit at least1 enforced1 the ,conservators having the right to deviate from the plans4 ,a map1 prepared by the survey branch naturally forms the basis of the plan4 ,the form of the plan is prescribed by the provincial regulations1 and the preparation is also carried on by the provincial service under advice and supervision of the imperial department4 ,the 8strip valuation survey10 which ,brandis introduced1 covering sometimes as much as #cj per cent4 of the area1 is employed in determining number of trees and sizes1 growing stock and cut1 modeled after the ,european practice1 except that little1 perhaps too little1 money is spent on their elaboration1 especially on determining the proper amount of cut4 ,that the cut is controlled at all is the most important result4 #f4 ,education and ,literature4 ,in #ahff1 ,sir ,dietrich ,brandis selected as assistants two young men who had been trained in the forest schools of ,germany--in turn his successors--and at the same time arrangements were made for the training of young ,englishmen in the ,forest schools of ,france and ,germany4 ,at the end of #ahge the professional education was entirely transferred to ,nancy4 ,the present force of ,conservators is composed largely of these men4 ,for some reason1 the training of men in ,germany and ,france became unpopular1 and this objection finally led1 in #ahhd1 to the establishment of a chair of forestry at ,cooper's ,hill ,college for ,engineering in ,england4 ,at first1 the course of study extended over #bf months1 during #bb of which the candidates prosecuted their studies at the college2 the remaining four months being spent under suitable supervision in selected ,british and ,continental forests4 ,in #aije1 this department was transferred to ,oxford ,university and the course extended to three years1 one year to be spent in continental forests4 ,at present this time may1 however1 be reduced to two years and the vacations in continental forests4 ,this is a government affair1 and probationers receive stipends from the government4 ,mr4 ,brandis as early as #ahfi saw also the necessity of providing the means of giving the natives of ,india some sort of technical education in forestry4 ,the first step in this direction was to place natives1 selected ones1 under one or two officers of the ,imperial ,service who were deemed fit to instruct them1 and in this way a few good men were turned out4 ,another experiment1 after the ,german pattern1 was made by apprenticing likely young men under some forester for a year or two and then sending them to an engineering school for theoretical instruction4 ,this was also a failure4 ,after much hard work1 the ,indian forest school at ,dehra ,dun was established in #ahgh1 the forests between the ,jumna and the ,ganges rivers were set aside as training grounds1 formed into a special ,forest ,circle and placed under the control of the director of the school4 ,these forests have been subjected to regular systems of management1 based on ,european experience1 and excellent results have been obtained4 ,the first course of systematic theoretical instruction was opened on the #ast of ,july1 #ahha4 ,in #ahhd the school was made an imperial institution by the ,government of ,india1 and the ,inspector-,general of ,forests was charged with its supervision1 under a ,board of ,control1 consisting of the ,inspector-,general1 the ,director1 and three ,conservators1 with the ,assistant ,inspector-,general as secretary4 ,this board meets once a year at ,dehra1 conducts the examinations1 and looks into all of the workings of the ,school very carefully4 ,there were two courses--one in which the teaching was given in ,english for rangers1 the other in which the instruction was given in the vernacular for foresters2 courses extending over #bd months4 ,in #aijf the school was raised to the rank of a college and the course in the vernacular abolished4 ,the graduates may aspire to the rank of division officers4 ,the training of lower grade officers is left to the provinces4 ,the ,bombay ,presidency had for some time their own forest school in connection with the ,engineering ,college at ,poona1 but this is now abandoned4 ,another school1 however1 is located at ,tharrawaddy1 with a two-year course in ,burmese1 and one in ,madras with a one-year course2 so that the education of lower grade officials is well attended to4 ,forest ,experiment and ,investigations have never been systematically instituted1 being left to individual initiative1 but lately 7#aiji7 provision has been made in this direction in connection with the ,dehra ,dun school by the establishment of an ,imperial ,research ,institute4 ,besides a monthly journal1 the ,indian ,forester which came into existence in #ahge through ,schlich's initiative1 and the annual reports of the various conservators and of the ,inspector-,general1 a small book literature has developed within the last ten or fifteen years4 ,descriptive volumes of note are ,j4 ,s4 ,gamble's ,manual of ,indian ,timbers1 new edition1 #aijb2 ,trees1 ,shrubs and ,woody ,climbers of ,bombay ,presidency by ,w4 ,a4 ,talbot1 #aijb2 ,ribbentrop's ,forestry in ,british ,india1 #aijj1 and the earlier publication of ,h4 ,r4 ,morgan1 ,forestry in ,southern ,india2 ,brandis' ,indian ,forestry and ,distribution of ,forests in ,india4 ,of professional interest are ,e4 ,e4 ,fernandez ,manual of ,indian ,silviculture1 unfortunately out of print2 the same author's ,forest ,industries2 ,d',arcy's ,manual of ,forest ,working ,plans2 ,c4 ,c4 ,roger's ,manual of ,forest ,engineering in ,india1 and ,b4 ,h4 ,baden-,powell1 ,forest ,law4 ,the influence of the development of the ,indian ,forest ,service on the forest policy of other ,british colonies and of the home country has been considerable and is growing1 ,indian forest officers being detailed to assist in developing forest policies in these other parts of the ,british ,empire4 ,,canada4 ,report on the ,forest ,wealth of ,canada1 by the ,statistician of the ,department of ,agriculture1 #ahie4 ,reports of ,crown ,lands ,departments1 of ,bureau of ,forestry of ,ontario1 and of ,forestry ,branch of the ,dominion4 ,,defebaugh',s ,history of the ,lumber ,industry of ,america1 ,vol4 ,i1 #aijf1 brings together much information on this phase of the subject4 ,,hough',s ,report on ,forestry1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #ahhj1 has a compilation of earlier statistics4 ,an ,analysis of ,canada's ,timber ,wealth1 by ,b4 ,e4 ,,fernow1 in ,forestry ,quarterly1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 #aijh1 attempts a differentiation of commercial forest areas4 ,the largest single colony of ,great ,britain and the most important as regards forest supplies1 both as to quantity and character1 ,canada has been for a long time supplying the mother country with a large proportion of her imports4 ,although in size larger than the ,united ,states1 its land area being estimated at over #c1fjj1jjj square miles1 ,canada has so far attained only one-fifteenth of the population of her neighbor1 namely less than #g million1 although now rapidly growing4 ,much of her territory is still unknown1 and will remain for a long time unavailable for civilization owing to its inhospitable climate4 ,indeed1 as yet not one-third of its territory may be considered opened up to civilization1 and not much more than #ajj1jjj square miles can be said to be occupied1 one-half improved in farms1 and two-thirds of this in crops4 ,much of the northern country remains unorganized and the vast ,north ,west ,territory 7#b1fef1jjj square miles7 between ,hudson's ,bay and the ,rocky ,mountains1 as well as ,labrador1 are for the most part uninhabited except by ,indians and a few military and trading posts4 ,the central interior region1 dotted with lakes and intricate river systems1 is a continuation of the forestless arid and subarid1 plains and prairies of the country ,west of the ,mississippi ,river1 toward the north changing by steps into lowlands studded with open treegrowth1 and barren tundra frozen all the year1 a million square miles answering to this last description4 ,the ,pacific ,slope is a rough and lofty mountain country1 the extension of the ,rockies and ,coast ,ranges1 with a variable1 in part humid and temperate1 in part dry and rigorous climate1 more or less heavily wooded1 about #fjj1jjj square miles1 with the ,fraser ,river in the ,south forming the most important drainage basin4 ,the ,atlantic portion1 south of the plateau-like1 bare1 or scantily wooded ,hudson ,bay and ,labrador country1 with a climate1 somewhat similar to ,north ,eastern ,germany1 is formed by the slopes of the watersheds of the ,great ,lakes and of their mighty outlet1 the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river and its ,gulf2 the slopes rising gradually northward to the low range of the ,height of ,land1 a plateau with low hills1 not over #aejj feet elevation1 which cuts it off from the northern country and forms the limit of commercial forest4 ,this region1 the bulk of the provinces of ,ontario and ,quebec--a belt of not exceeding #cjj miles in width and about #aejj miles in length1 altogether #cjj1jjj square miles--with #ic1jjj square miles in the maritime provinces1 around #bej million acres in all1 represents1 outside of ,british ,columbia1 the true forest region of ,canada1 and at the same time the centre of ,canadian civilization4 ,although the ,cabot brothers discovered ,cape ,breton and ,labrador in #adig and #aejj1 the first settlement of ,canadian territory was not made until #aeda by ,french colonists1 after the first ,captain-,general of ,canada1 ,jacques ,cartier1 the discoverer and explorer of the ,st4 ,lawrence 7in #aecd71 had taken possession of the country for ,francis ,i2 but not much progress in colonizing was made until ,champlain's arrival in the first years of the next century4 ,quebec was founded as early as #afjh1 and ,montreal in #afaa1 but ,ottawa dates its first beginnings not farther back than #ahjj4 ,the northern country around ,hudson's ,bay was1 under the name of ,rupert's ,land 7after ,prince ,rupert1 the head of the enterprise71 undefined in limits1 granted by ,charles ,,ii1 in #afgj1 to the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 a powerful fur-trading corporation which had not only a commercial monopoly but1 except for occasional interference by the ,french1 held absolute governmental sway over the country through #bjj years1 its jurisdiction at one time extending to the ,pacific ,coast4 ,friction and warfare with the ,english resulted in the latter acquiring by the treaty of ,utrecht in #agac1 ,newfoundland1 and settling their rights on ,hudson's ,bay4 ,the final conquest of 8,new ,france0 by the ,english ended ,french rule in #agfc1 but the ,french colonists remained peacefully1 and their descendants form to-day1 at least in ,quebec1 the predominating influence4 ,indeed1 in #aggd1 by the so-called ,quebec ,act1 the first permanent system of self government was established much on the lines of the ,french feudal system1 and the ,french civil law was retained4 ,at first1 under ,english rule1 the territory1 then including the ,states of ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin and ,minnesota1 formed one colony1 but after the war of the ,revolution1 in #agia1 the territory remaining ,english was divided into two separately governed provinces1 ,upper and ,lower1 or ,west and ,east ,canada4 ,they were re-united in #ahdj1 and continued so until #ahfg when the so-called ,union or ,british ,north ,america ,act effected the present organization of the ,dominion of ,canada1 a federal union1 comprising only the provinces of ,ontario1 ,quebec1 ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia4 ,after various combinations and subdivisions all of the ,british ,possessions in ,north ,america1 except ,newfoundland and its dependencies in ,labrador1 came into the union1 and1 in #ahhb1 the union was completed with the then seven provinces 7those mentioned with ,prince ,edward ,island1 ,manitoba and ,british ,columbia7 and all the organized and unorganized territory4 ,in the same year1 four territories1 ,assiniboia1 ,saskatchewan1 ,alberta and ,athabasca1 in #ahie the territory of ,ungava in ,labrador1 and in #ahih that of ,yukon were organized1 with a view of their eventual elevation into provinces1 the relationships of the federation being quite similar to that of the states and territories in the ,united ,states4 ,in #aije1 the ,western territories were organized into two provinces1 ,saskatchewan and ,alberta4 ,the government1 although practically much like a republic and largely independent of the home country1 is theoretically a limited monarchy1 the king being represented by a ,governor-,general1 appointed by the king1 and a privy council selected by the governor4 ,the latter also appoints 7now #ha7 senators for life to form the upper house of the ,parliament or legislative body1 while the lower ,house of ,commons is elected by the people4 ,besides this imperial government1 each province has its own separate government with a lieutenant-governor1 appointed by the ,governor-,general1 and an elected legislature2 this autonomy being somewhat similar to that of the states of the ,united ,states and the division of functions between federal and provincial governments being also similar4 ,although the home government retains the veto power1 the supreme jurisdiction and various other powers1 and although apparently1 by the appointment of officials1 its influence is guarded1 practically the party management as exercised in ,great ,britain prevails1 and independence from imperial influence and from the home government is continually increasing4 ,in regard to the crownlands1 including forests1 this division as well as this relationship becomes important4 ,each provincial government except those of the three middle provinces administers the crownlands within its boundaries in its own way1 yet on similar lines1 while the ,dominion government controls only the lands located outside of the provinces together with those of the middle provinces and the so-called railway belt in ,british ,columbia4 ,these latter lands were mostly acquired by purchase from the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 the ,company relinquishing its territorial rights in #ahfh1 and the transfer being completed in #ahgj upon payment of #cjj1jjj4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,the forest area has at various times and by various authorities been roughly estimated as between one and a quarter and over one and three quarter million square miles1 which would make the forest per cent4 at least over #cb4 ,but this includes the open woodlands of the northern territory and of the prairies1 which1 while of great importance to the local settlers1 are for the most part probably or surely not of commercial value4 ,commercially valuable forests1 actually or prospectively1 are found almost only in ,british ,columbia and in the old provinces1 the two forest regions separated1 just as in the ,united ,states1 by a forestless region1 except that north of the prairie region a continuous belt of open woodland extends to near the mouth of the ,mackenzie ,river4 ,a careful examination of the sources of information has led the writer to the conclusion that less than #cej1jjj square miles or round #bjj million acres would cover fully the commercially valuable forest land1 although the wooded area of the provinces in which the commercial timber occurs is stated officially as around #dej million acres1 two-fifths of which is to be found in ,british ,columbia4 ,indeed1 although we are accustomed to look upon ,canada as a great forest country1 it really possesses about #fj per cent4 less commercial forest area than the ,united ,states1 and about one-quarter of the mature timber of that country4 ,it will be understood that all such statistics are merely rough estimates1 the data being slim1 and eked out by conjectures based on geographical conditions which predicate the character of the country4 ,most unreasonable speculations and calculations#af as to amount of timber standing and value have been made on impossible assumptions4 #af ,as an instance1 one statistician by mere mathematical figuring1 namely1 deducting the known crop and pasture area from the total land area would make the forest area of ,quebec alone over #bji million acres4 ,this includes the country north of the ,height of ,land1 of #afc million acres1 which by another mathematical calculation is made to be able to furnish over #fe billion feet of lumber1 besides over #fjj million cords of pulpwood and #cgj million railroad ties2 but under present conditions1 owing to topography and character of the timber it cannot be utilized and its commercial value is altogether problematic4 ,this calculation would leave as really or potentially available forest land south of the ,height of ,land #df million acres in addition to over #e million on farms4 ,it is claimed that this forest area may still produce some #aaj billion feet of coniferous and #a4e billion feet of hardwoods1 or #bejj feet to the acre4 ,the chief of the provincial ,forest ,service lately made the forest area of the province #aca million acres1 including #b million acres of waste land4 ,while by the change of standards and by local needs1 forest areas may become commercially valuable which were not so considered before1 and thereby the above figures may be eventually increased1 from the standpoint of valuable lumber supply for the world trade1 the above named area may be assumed to set the limit for the present4 ,a computation based on slender information has placed the country with open woodlands in the central region as exceeding #bhj1jjj square miles4 ,the ,director of ,forestry estimated that #aej1jjj square miles of this area might contain nearly #bjj billion feet merchantable timber4 ,the southeastern territory south of the ,height of ,land was originally all densely wooded4 ,from it a farm area of round #be million acres has been cut out1 less than #g per cent4 of the land area included4 ,especially the south-western half of ,ontario1 between the ,great ,lakes1 which contains the most fertile land1 is densely settled1 as also the shores of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,a large part of the remaining forest area is cut over and culled1 especially for pine2 the amount of ,white ,pine remaining according to estimates made in #ahie would now be less than #bj billion feet4 ,extensive areas have been turned into semi-barrens by repeated fires4 ,the ,statistician of the ,dominion in his report made in that year comes to the conclusion that 8the first quality pine has nearly disappeared0 and that 8we are within measurable distance of the time when1 with the exception of spruce as to wood1 and of ,british ,columbia as to ,provinces1 ,canada shall cease to be a wood exporting country40 ,the composition in general is the same as that of the northern forest in the ,united ,states3 hardwoods 7birch1 maple and elm prevailing7 with conifers mixed1 the latter1 especially spruce1 becoming occasionally pure4 ,the nearly pure hardwood forest of the southern ,ontario peninsula has been almost entirely supplanted by farms1 and here1 even for domestic fuel1 coal1 imported from the ,united ,states1 is largely substituted for wood4 ,although ,white ,pine1 the most important staple is found in all parts of this forest region1 the best and largest supplies are now confined to the region north of ,georgian ,bay4 ,unopened spruce and fir lands still abound especially in ,quebec on the ,gasp peninsula and northward4 ,spruce forms also the largest share in the composition of the ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia and ,newfoundland forest1 the pine in the first two provinces having practically been cut out4 ,extensive1 almost pure ,balsam ,fir forest1 fit for pulp wood1 still covers the plateau of ,cape ,breton1 while ,prince ,edward ,island is to the extent of #fj per cent4 cleared for agricultural use4 ,much of this ,eastern forest area is not only culled of its best timber1 but burnt over1 and thereby deteriorated in its composition1 the inferior ,balsam ,fir appearing in largest number in the reproduction4 ,north of the ,height of ,land1 in ,ungava and westward1 spruce continues to timber line1 but1 outside of narrow belts following the river valleys1 only in open stand1 branchy1 and stunted1 hardly fit even for pulp1 for the most part with birch and aspen intermixed4 ,this open spruce forest1 interspersed among muskegs continues more or less to the northern tundra and across the continent to within a few miles of the mouth of the ,mackenzie ,river and the ,arctic ,ocean1 the ,white ,spruce being the most northern species4 ,in the interior1 northern prairie belt1 groves of aspen1 dense and well developed1 skirt the water courses and form an important wood supply4 ,the forests of ,british ,columbia partake of the character of the ,pacific forest of the ,united ,states1 the ,coast ,range along the coast for about #bjj miles being stocked with conifers of magnificent development1 ,douglas ,fir1 ,giant ,arborvit1 ,hemlock1 ,bull ,pine and a few others1 the ,rocky ,mountain range also of coniferous growth1 pine and larch1 but of inferior character1 large areas being covered with ,alpine ,fir 7,abies lasiocarpa7 and ,lodgepole ,pine1 important as soilcover and for local use in the mining districts1 but lacking in commercial value4 ,if much of the forest area in the settled provinces is burnt over and damaged by forest fire1 much more extensive destruction is wrought in this northern forest by fires sweeping annually over millions of acres unchecked1 many of them said to be started by lightning4 ,about #ej per cent4 of this country is said to be fire-swept4 ,among the large notable forest fires the great ,miramichi fire in ,new ,brunswick in #ahbe destroyed more than #f1jjj square miles in a few hours4 ,in #ahhj the loss by forest fires in the ,ottawa valley alone was still estimated at #e1jjj1jjj annually4 ,in #aiji1 reports indicate over half a million acres burnt over in that year4 ,the river systems of ,eastern ,canada1 with the mighty ,st4 ,lawrence permitting sea-going vessels to come up to ,montreal1 have been most potent factors in the development of the lumber industry and export trade1 without the need of railroads4 ,yet although1 as a consequence this trade was early developed to a relatively large figure1 it has not grown at as rapid a rate as might have been expected1 and to-day with an export in excess of imports of less than #dj million dollars is considerably below that of the ,united ,states4 ,the small export trade of earlier times1 having been stimulated by exempting ,canadian timber from paying duties in the home country1 or at least allowing it a preferential tariff1 had by #ahbj grown to #ae million cubic feet1 all squared timber1 and sent to ,england4 ,in #ahcj1 it had crept up to only #bj million cubic feet1 but by #ahej1 it amounted to over #ej million cubic feet1 two-fifths of which was sawed material1 the #bfcb mills being reported by the ,census 7#ahea7 as having cut #ggf million feet ,b4,m4 ,by #ahfg1 when the ,dominion was formed1 the total export of forest products had advanced in value to #ah million2 the next decade1 with a climax year in #ahgc of #bf million1 saw an increase to #bj million in the average1 the proportion of sawn material being nearly three times that of hewn wood1 and the entire cut of ,ontario going to the ,united ,states4 ,at that time it was computed that the waste of value in shipping square timber amounted for the province of ,ontario alone still to over #cej1jjj annually4 ,at present sawed lumber1 deals1 boards1 planks1 etc41 form #gj per cent4 of the total export4 ,in the last #bj years a steady increase in exports at an average rate of about #c per cent4 per annum is noted1 the total in #aijc culminating at nearly #da million1 but in the following year sinking to #cf4g million4 ,in #aiaj1 the total export amounted to #ec million1 against which an import of nearly #af million is to be offset1 nearly double what it was three years before4 ,adding wood manufactures1 the net export must be increased by some #cf million4 ,the bulk of the export goes1 of course1 to the ,united ,states4 ,but1 while exports of forest products thus increased absolutely1 relatively to other exports they have considerably declined1 i4e41 the lumber industry has not grown proportionally to other developments1 for while1 in #ahfh1 forest products formed #cd per cent4 of the total export1 in #aijd they represented only about half that figure4 ,the same conclusion1 namely that the lumber business has not increased rapidly in the last #be years1 may be derived from the report of the ,decennial ,census4 ,while1 for #ahij1 the total cut amounted to over #e billion feet and its value to nearly #hj million1 in #aijj1 the cut or at least the ,census report fell below #d billion and its value to #ec million4 ,in #aiji1 the total lumber cut was reported as #c4h billion feet ,b4 ,m4 and its value #fb4h million4 ,a measure of the depletion of the great staple ,white ,pine is found in the statement that from #ahfe to #ahic the average size of pieces decreased by one-quarter to one-third1 and that1 in #ahfc1 over #bc million cubic feet were exported from ,quebec as against #a4e million feet in #aijd1 while the price had more than quadrupled in that period4 ,spruce has here taken the place of pine1 and ,ontario is now the main producer of pine4 ,yet in #aiji1 the ,white ,pine cut in amount almost equaled that of spruce1 and in value exceeded it by #dj per cent4 ,spruce1 and especially pulpwood1 forms an ever increasing item in cut and export1 export of pulpwood having increased sevenfold in the last decade1 to nearly #b million1 and of woodpulp to over #d million4 ,a notable economic improvement has taken place during the last ten or fifteen years in that the proportion of raw materials exported1 especially logs and square timber1 has decreased in favor of manufactures4 ,while originally the home country took the bulk of exports of forest products1 the cut of ,ontario has been always1 duty or no duty1 sent almost entirely to the ,united ,states4 ,in the last six or eight years1 the export to the ,united ,states has been doubled1 amounting now to about half of the total export1 and as the ,states return of its own forest products largely in the form of manufactures to the extent of about #f million dollars worth1 a balance of trade for the ,canadian forest product of #ab million dollars is left4 #b4 ,ownership4 ,when the ,french took possession of the country1 all the land belonged to the king1 and could be held by others only under feudal tenure1 i4e41 as a gift under obligation of counter service4 ,the whole country was placed as a fief under the rule of the ,hundred ,associates1 a company which also exercised a trading and colonizing monopoly1 but made no success1 and was dissolved in #affc4 ,it was then that ,richelieu introduced the system of seigniorial tenure1 the land being divided into portions of from #ajj to #ejj square miles1 usually with a certain amount of river front1 and given outright to younger noblemen1 favorites of the court1 and clerics1 who were1 however1 obligated to subgrant to colonists1 thereby becoming so many immigration agents4 ,these not only treated their colonists as tenants1 exacting rent and service1 but exercised nearly absolute jurisdiction within their domains1 the colonists becoming virtually serfs or retainers of the seigneurs4 ,this condition continued until #ahed1 when an adjustment of rights was formulated by the ,seigneurial ,tenures ,act1 and the government aided the 8habitans0 to secure their freedom by indemnifying the seigneurs1 or else by paying rent1 which was done mostly4 ,under ,english rule1 the granting of lands1 without1 however1 the seignorial rights1 was continued4 ,in #aghd1 such grants were made along the ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,bay of ,quinte to veterans of the loyalist army1 some #bj1jjj1 in lots of #bjj acres for privates up to #e1jjj acres for field officers4 ,in #agia1 every seventh section was ordered to be set aside as ,clergy ,reserves for the support of the ,protestant ,church1 a measure which created much friction1 and formed1 especially in the ,roman ,catholic province of ,quebec1 a chief grievance in starting the ,papineau rebellion of #ahcg4 ,some #c1cjj1jjj acres were gradually withdrawn for this purpose1 and as far as possible leased to secure an income4 ,some of these lands were sold after #ahbg1 and finally1 in #ahec1 a statute was passed to sell the remainder and turn over the proceeds to municipalities for educational purposes and local improvement4 ,extensive grants and sales were made to lumbermen and speculators4 ,in this manner1 by the granting of #ac1jjj acres to an ,american1 ,philemon ,wright1 in #ahjj1 the great lumber industry of ,ottawa was started1 and1 in #ahcf1 another ,american syndicate secured about a million acres of grants4 ,out of the #ej million acres granted in aid of railroad construction1 some portion must also have been in timber4 ,by all these methods as well as by small grants and sales to settlers a large area of uncertain extent has become private property4 ,in ,nova ,scotia1 nearly the entire government domain has passed by grant and sale into private hands1 some #f million acres1 one-half in small holdings4 ,of the lands remaining in the crown at least two-thirds is on barrens4 ,similarly1 in ,prince ,edward ,island1 the #hjj square miles of woodland remaining are almost wholly owned privately1 the #ad1jjj acres of state land being1 like most of the private property1 stripped of its value4 ,in ,new ,brunswick over #a4f million acres1 mostly woodland 7containing over #aj billion feet7 was granted to the railway company and another million acres or so is in other private possession2 a liberal disposal of lands having been continued until #ahhc1 when about #g million acres of timber and waste land remained to the crown4 ,in ,quebec some #f million acres are estimated as privately owned1 mostly in woodlots on farms4 ,in ,ontario the private woodland area of commercial character may be over #e million acres4 ,besides the large grants which were and still are probably to the greatest extent in timberlands1 the farms in the various provinces1 according to the ,census of #aija1 have from #bb to #eg per cent4 in woodlots1 or altogether probably in the neighborhood of #cj million acres4 ,the total area privately owned may then be placed at not to exceed1 say #dj million acres1 and the largest part of the forest area1 is still crown lands1 the government of the different provinces and the ,dominion government in the territories and in the middle provinces administering them and deriving the revenue therefrom4 ,this condition has prevailed since #ahcg1 when the home government gave up its claim to land and revenues4 ,the provincial ownership extends over about #ejj1jjj square miles4 ,the ,dominion government owns an area of #bj1jjj square miles in the railway belt of ,british ,columbia1 #bj miles on each side of the railway for #ejj miles1 which contains good timber1 and some #gbb1jjj square miles of land in the middle provinces which contains practically only timber suitable for local use4 #c4 ,administration of ,timberlands4 ,in the development of ownership conditions1 the realization of the valuable assets in timber growth had not been overlooked by the home government1 care of supplies for naval construction giving1 as in the ,united ,states1 the first incentive to a conservative forest policy4 ,even under the early ,french rule1 the grants of land were made under reservation of the oak timber fit for naval use1 as is evidenced from a landgrant made in #afhc4 ,this reservation led to considerable friction as it hampered the colonists in making their clearings on the best lands4 ,later1 the reservation was extended to include other timber needed for military purposes1 and when the ,british occupation began1 these established rights of the crown were not only continued1 but reservations of larger areas for the timber were ordered1 notably around and north of ,lake ,champlain4 ,in #agfc1 and again in #agge1 the home government ordered reservations to be set aside in every township4 ,but the great timberwealth seemed so inexhaustible that the governors paid little attention to the wise instructions of the home government for the creation of reservations1 and whatever regulations regarding the cutting of timber were made1 failed to be strictly enforced4 ,in #aghi1 the policy of reserving to the crown all the timber as far as not granted1 and giving licenses to cut1 was inaugurated2 but not until #ahbf was even the revenue feature strongly enough realized to attempt systematically to secure the benefit of it1 namely by allowing anyone to cut timber 8such as was not required for the navy0 who would pay a fixed rate for what was cut2 a surveyor-general of woods and forests being appointed to collect the timber dues with the aid of qualified 8cullers0 7#ahaa74 ,there was even an attempt made to prevent waste by doubling the rate of timber dues on all trees cut which would not square more than #h inches2 this restriction probably remained a dead letter for lack of supervision4 ,lumbermen1 however1 found it cheaper to buy the land1 making only part payment1 and after cutting the best timber1 forfeiting the land2 contractors who had the monopoly for cutting the timber for the royal navy cut also for their own account2 corruption and graft pervaded the administration1 which enriched its followers with the revenues obtained from the timber licenses and otherwise4 ,the strong hand which1 in the absence of a strong government1 lumbermen were driven to use in order to protect themselves from piracy by their neighbors1 or else to perpetrate such1 brought about many bloody conflicts4 ,the general maladministration of the so-called 8,family ,compact0 besides other grievances1 caused the revolution of #ahcg1 which1 although readily put down1 led to the union of the provinces of ,upper and ,lower ,canada in #ahda1 and to reform of the abuses4 ,it was then1 that1 after the new governor-general1 ,lord ,durham's admirable report on the situation1 the home government turned over the administration 7in part at least7 and revenues of the crownlands to the several provincial governments4 ,at that time in ,new ,brunswick1 where a thriving export trade had been early established the dues on #b million worth of production were involved1 and in ,quebec and ,ontario the income amounted to between #bjj1jjj and #cjj1jjj4 ,but even then1 the immediate revenue1 and not any concern for its continuation animated the administration of the public or crown forests4 ,the free-hand sales for nominal sums were changed into licenses to cut1 and in order to secure larger returns these were by and by put up at auction for competitive bids1 the premium or 8bonus0 being paid for the limits1 7i4e41 a limited territory on which the holder or licensee had the exclusive right to cut71 in addition to the fixed dues or charges per unit for the timber actually cut4 ,later1 to discourage the holding of timber limits for a rise of prices1 an annual cut of first #a1jjj1 then #ejj feet per square mile of holdings was required4 ,to still further accelerate the use of the licenses to cut1 the ,crown ,timber ,act of #ahdi limited the license to one year1 and provided for an eventual limit in size of the grants4 ,all these provisions forced to more rapid cutting and overproduction1 and depression in the lumber market was the result1 the supply in #ahdg being #dd million feet to meet an export of #ai million4 ,new rules were promulgated in #ahea1 introducing a ground rent system1 a set price being paid per square mile of limit1 and doubling the ground rent for unused limits each year4 ,needless to say1 the impracticability of this geometric progression in ground rents became visible in a few years4 ,the final present systems in the disposal of timber limits1 varying in detail1 were gradually perfected in varying manner by the several provincial governments1 but they agree in general principles1 in that they grant limits for a certain time1 some by the year1 others by periods1 usually #ba years1 during which certain conditions as to establishment of mills and amount of manufacture without waste must be fulfilled1 and a ground rent1 a bonus1 and timber dues for all timber cut are to be paid by the limit holder1 details and prices varying and being changed from time to time4 ,a diameter limit below which trees are not to be cut also mostly prevails4 ,lately1 sales by the thousand feet ,b4 ,m4 have been inaugurated in ,ontario1 and sale by the mile is to be abandoned4 ,as a rule licenses become negotiable and can be transferred upon paying a small fee per square mile4 ,the governments reserving absolute rights to change conditions of this contract at any time1 the interest of the licensee is to cut as fast as he can2 other unsatisfactory conditions leading in the same direction4 ,a ,department of ,crown ,lands in the ,dominion government and in each province 7in ,nova ,scotia the ,attorney-,general acting as head7 administers the lands4 ,scalers or cullers attend to the measuring of the cut4 ,the revenue derived by this system by all the provinces amounts now to round #d4e million dollars per year1 ,ontario leading with about #bj1jjj square miles now under license1 7mostly pine71 producing in #aiaj1 #a1hce1jjj2 the yearly average for the decade ending #aiaj was #a million dollars1 and some #da million dollars have altogether accrued since #ahfg2 ,quebec1 with over #gj1jjj square miles under license1 7mostly in spruce17 producing only about #gjj1jjj1 nearly #cj million dollars having accrued during the #dc years1 or at the rate of #dah per square mile1 two-thirds of which from dues4 ,since land for settlement is1 as in the ,united ,states1 obtainable by homestead and other entries1 a good many fraudulent applications under guise of settlement have curtailed the revenue1 until now closer scrutiny of the fitness of land for settlement is made4 ,the retention of the lands by the government is naturally a feature which would permit and should have earlier induced conservative forestry methods1 but the immediate revenue interest has had and still has a more potent influence than considerations of the future4 #d4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,the impetus to introduce conservative features seems to have largely come through the influence of the forestry movement in the ,united ,states1 and1 although1 voices of prominent ,canadians1 like that of ,james and ,william ,little1 and ,sir ,henry ,joly de ,lotbinire had been heard before in advocacy of a more far-seeing policy1 the meeting of the ,american ,forestry ,congress at ,montreal in #ahhb1 7see p4 #dhj7 may be set as the date of the inception of this movement in ,canada4 ,the definite result of that meeting was the inauguration of forest fire legislation in the various provinces4 ,in the ,province of ,ontario1 the ,fire ,act of #ahgh1 which had until then remained a dead letter1 was improved1 in #ahhe1 by inaugurating a fire ranger system1 in which limit holders pay one-half the cost of the rangers4 ,the force of fire fighters1 #cg in the first year was gradually increased until1 in #aiaj1 nearly #ajjj were employed at a cost of #cjj1jjj4 ,in that year a change was made1 the whole service including inspection being charged against the limit holder4 ,in ,new ,brunswick1 a fire law was passed in #ahhe1 followed1 in #ahig1 by the introduction of the ,ontario ranger system4 ,in #ahhc1 ,nova ,scotia passed a forest fire law1 which1 like that of ,new ,brunswick1 remained ineffective for lack of machinery2 this was not provided until #aijd1 and since then has worked most satisfactorily4 ,recently a forest survey of this ,province was made4 ,quebec also enacted fire legislation in #ahhc1 but did not provide means to carry it into effect until #ahhi4 ,since at first only #e1jjj annually was allowed for its execution1 and by #aija-b not more than #g1bbf was expended for fire protection over an area of #dj million acres1 its effectiveness may be doubted4 ,but in #aije1 a special ,forest-,protection ,branch1 with a ,superintendent and a ranger system after the ,ontario pattern was organized1 and the service has become more effective4 ,the need for more organized effort and advice led to the establishment of special bureaus of forestry4 ,in ,ontario1 a ,clerk of ,forestry was established in the ,department of ,agriculture in #ahhc1 and1 in #ahie1 he was replaced by a ,clerk in the ,crown ,lands ,department1 later named ,director of ,forestry 7,mr4 ,thomas ,southworth74 ,this office1 later1 was changed to a ,bureau of ,forestry and ,colonization1 and a technically educated man was appointed as ,provincial ,forester1 with a view of developing a forest management1 at least in the ,reserves4 ,this movement1 however1 soon collapsed for lack of appreciation2 the office was transferred back to the ,department of ,agriculture1 which does not control any timberlands1 the ,forester resigned1 and the bureau was1 finally1 in #aijg1 restricted to the colonization work1 the forestry part being deliberately abandoned4 ,meanwhile the ,province of ,quebec pursued a more enlightened course4 ,to control the cut1 a ,culler's office was established in #ahdb1 which1 however1 only checked the square timber1 then the principal material4 ,in #ahgc1 after various futile attempts to secure better supervision1 a corps of forest rangers was created2 but as they worked without organization the results were only partial until1 in #ahhi1 they were placed under seven chiefs or superintendents4 ,in #ahig1 the number of superintendents were reduced to one1 but having to work with incompetent men1 political appointees1 this improvement in headship did not produce much result4 ,in #aijg1 a re-organization took place by introducing two professional foresters educated at government's expense at ,american colleges of forestry who upon their return were employed to supply the technical supervision of cutting on licensed lands1 and otherwise to forward forestry reforms4 ,in #aiaj1 the logical sequence occurred by placing the entire forest service except the protection against fire under one of these technical men as chief1 with the other one as his assistant1 and a corps of three civil engineers1 #dj forest rangers and six scalers1 besides #bj student assistants--the first organized provincial forest service in ,canada1 administered under the ,superintendent of ,woods and ,forests in the ,department of ,crownlands4#ag #ag ,see ,report of ,canadian ,forestry ,convention1 #aiaa4 ,in #ahih1 the ,dominion government had also recognized the need of more technical administration by instituting a ,forestry ,branch in the ,department of the ,interior under a superintendent with a view of developing improved methods4 ,at first manned without technical advisers1 who were1 indeed1 not in existence1 gradually the professional element was introduced1 and the scope of the ,branch enlarged1 the irrigation interests of the country being added4 ,under the able guidance of the present director--whose task under the political conditions surrounding it is not an easy one--this department may in a few years also become fully organized with technical men1 of whom there are now seventeen employed1 besides student assistants4 ,these various government agencies and other propaganda produced at least the important result of committing the governments to see the propriety of setting aside permanent forest reserves4 ,the first movement in this direction was made in #ahic1 and in #ahie1 the first ,dominion reservations were made by ,executive ,order through the ,minister of the ,interior4 ,these1 to be sure1 were located in the thinly timbered parts of the province of ,manitoba1 the ,turtle ,mountains and ,riding ,mountain1 mainly for the protection of water supply4 ,several other similar reserves were set aside by the ,minister1 but to give more stability to these reservations1 an ,act of ,parliament was passed in #aijf1 declaring their permanence and placing them1 #c1chj1jjj acres1 under the administration of the ,superintendent of ,forestry4 ,there are so far1 some #bf ,dominion ,forest ,reserves created1 or in the act of creation1 comprising an area of over #be1jjj square miles4 ,the ,forestry ,branch is making a brave beginning to survey and manage these reserves under forestry principles4 ,of the provinces1 ,ontario was the first to recognize the principle of reservations in #ahic1 when a partially cut over1 partially licensed territory of over one million acres was set aside as the ,algonquin ,national ,park in the ,nipissing ,district1 but the first definite establishment of a forest reserve policy dates from the ,forest ,reserve ,act1 passed in #ahih1 which authorizes the ,executive1 as in the ,united ,states1 to withdraw lands for reserves4 ,some eight reserves and two parks have so far been established1 and the reserved area amounts to around #bj1jjj square miles4 ,of management on forestry lines on these reserves there is so far little to be heard1 except an effort to keep fires out4 ,quebec has followed this example of ,ontario1 first by setting aside the ,laurentides ,park in the ,saguenay region1 7#a1fcd1jjj acres71 which1 like ,algonquin ,park1 was more in the nature of a game preserve4 ,during #aijf-g1 however1 under a law authorizing the ,lieutenant ,governor to set aside forest reserves1 over #ajj million acres were placed in reserve4 ,apparently1 however1 no administration of this preserve in the forestry sense is as yet attempted4 ,british ,columbia1 which until lately was only concerned in disposing of the well timbered crownlands1 after having disposed of the best parts1 has placed under reservation the balance1 and a forest commission of inquiry has been constituted to devise further measures in the interest of forestry4 ,its report1 appearing in #aiaa1 gives a very clear statement of conditions in the province and the promise of active organization of a better service4 ,of other attempts to foster forestry interests may be mentioned a law in ,quebec1 passed in #ahhb1 providing a bonus of #ab per acre for tree planting1 which seems to have remained without effect2 another1 providing for a diameter limit of #ab inches on the stump for pine and #i inches for other kinds 7these dimensions are now varied7 inaugurated in #ahhh1 may have preserved some young growth on the limits1 although1 since pulpwood is now the main product1 and supervision has been inefficient1 not much may be expected from such laws4 ,indeed1 the chief of the forest service reports that #fj of the regeneration is of the inferior balsam fir4 ,in ,ontario1 a very competent ,commission was created in #ahig1 with a noted lumberman1 ,mr4 ,bertram as president1 to formulate methods of reform2 but the able report remained barren of results4 ,the ,dominion has been active in encouraging tree-planting in the prairies4 ,the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station at ,ottawa not only set out object lessons by planting some #bj acres of sample plots1 but for a number of years distributed plant material to settlers4 ,this work was later taken over by the ,forestry ,branch and increased to a larger scale1 some #he acres being in nursery1 and the distribution having grown to #ae1jjj1jjj seedlings in #aiaj4 ,ontario1 under the direction of its ,department of ,agriculture and in co-operation with the ,agricultural ,college at ,guelph1 has lately embarked in two movements of amelioration1 namely1 establishing a ,state nursery from which plant material at cost1 with advice as to its use1 is given to farmers1 and purchasing and reforesting waste lands in the agricultural section4 ,tariff legislation is another means which is in the hands of the ,dominion government to be used for encouraging forest conservancy4 ,it has1 however1 so far not been used directly for such purpose1 fiscal and commercial policies being uppermost4 ,but the provinces have in this respect helped themselves by encouraging manufacture rather than export of raw materials1 ,ontario leading in this matter by prohibiting export of unmanufactured logs from ,crownlands in #ahih4 ,other provinces impose an export duty on pulpwood cut on crownlands1 as does also ,ontario4 ,at present writing1 a reciprocity agreement with the ,united ,states is under contemplation1 which would admit wood products from ,canada free of duty--an arrangement which whatever its commercial advantages bodes no good for a conservative forest policy4 ,meanwhile private limit holders1 here and there1 had begun to see the need of conservative methods1 and by #aijh1 at least two large ,paper and ,pulp concerns had placed foresters in charge of their logging operations4 #e4 ,education4 ,until #aijj1 associated effort to advance forestry in ,canada had relied on the international ,american ,forestry ,association4 ,in that year1 largely through the officials of the ,dominion ,forestry ,branch 7,mr4 ,e4 ,stewart71 the ,canadian ,forestry ,association was formed4 ,this ,association has grown more and more vigorous1 and having escaped the period of sentimentalism which in the ,united ,states retarded the movement so long1 could at once accentuate the economic point of view and bring the lumbermen into sympathy with their effort4 ,in #aije1 a quarterly magazine1 the ,canadian ,forestry ,journal was started by the ,association1 making its work of instruction and propaganda more effective4 ,the technical literature1 as yet slightly developed is found mainly in ,bulletins of the ,forestry ,branch4 ,a most promising convention held in ,january #aijf1 with the ,premier of the ,dominion presiding1 participated by prominent officials and business men1 seemed to foreshadow the time when a real rational forest management1 at least in some parts of the ,dominion would be inaugurated4 ,but it can hardly be said that the expectations were realized1 and another such convention was held in #aiaa1 which may perhaps be followed by better results4 ,in #aiji1 following the precedent of the ,united ,states1 a ,conservation ,commission was appointed for the ,dominion under federal support1 manned by the leading officials and prominent representative men from all provinces1 and here the forestry interests may find at least educational advancement4 ,the first two years of the existence of this ,commission have1 however1 produced little advancement4 ,while the ,ontario government had directly discredited the forestry movement by abolishing its bureau of forestry1 indirectly it laid the foundation for a sure future1 in #aijg1 by establishing in its provincial ,university at ,toronto a ,faculty of ,forestry1 with full equipment4 ,a year later1 the ,province of ,new ,brunswick also established a chair of forestry in its ,university1 while some time earlier1 the ,guelph ,agricultural ,college had introduced the subject of farm forestry in its curricula4 ,the latest development in educational direction is the forest school organized in #aiaj by the government of ,quebec in connection with its forest service for the purpose of educating its own agents4 ,,newfoundland4 ,newfoundland1 probably the first discovery of ,america by the ,norsemen1 remained a mere fishing station until modern times1 and1 except for the open coast1 unknown as regards the wooded interior1 which was supposed to be largely barren4 ,it became a possession of ,great ,britain in #agac4 ,development did not begin until #ahhj when the first railroad was built1 and has progressed more rapidly since the ,newfoundland ,railway traversing the entire island was opened in #ahih4 ,it was found that1 while the shores and a considerable part of the ,west and ,south coast are barren or poorly timbered1 and on the interior plateau large moss barrens exist1 there are extensive timber areas of mixed growth1 ,white and ,red ,pine1 ,balsam and ,spruce1 with ,white ,birch4 ,a lumber industry1 which by #aijd had grown up to probably not less than #ajj million feet1 is rapidly extending over the whole island1 and an extensive paper pulp industry is preparing to establish itself1 on timber limits under a license system similar to that applied in other parts of ,canada4 ,some #ejjj square miles are now under license4 ,forest fires have repeatedly devastated large areas1 especially in #aijd4 ,the experience of that year led to the enactment of a forest fire law1 but without any agency to make it effective4 ,no forest policy exists1 except the commercial restriction of the license system4 ,a forestry association has lately been formed4 ,,other ,,british ,,possessions ,,and ,,colonies4 ,under the influence of the ,indian forest service1 or stimulated by its success1 some of the other ,british ,colonial governments in ,africa and ,australia have attempted and sometimes succeeded in establishing a forest policy4 ,of ,east ,indian territories1 ,ceylon1 the nearest neighbor to ,india1 with over #be1jjj square miles1 of which #db per cent4 wooded1 mostly with second growth forest of small value1 attempted long ago an organization with the aid of ,indian foresters1 but by #aijj had of over #aj1jjj square miles only #dca in reserves1 in addition to nearly #ahjj acres planted4 ,one ,conservator and #h ,assistant ,conservators produce a net revenue of less than #cj1jjj1 there being an import of #bej1jjj necessary to eke out the wood requirements of the #c4e million people4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,straits ,settlement1 an area of #aebf square miles1 had1 by #aijj1 a reserved state forest area of #ach square miles under an experienced ,indian forest officer4 ,gutta percha1 rubber and gums are here the most valuable products4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,federated ,malay ,states1 with #bf1cej square miles1 and heavily wooded1 after a report by the ,indian ,inspector-,general1 have begun to reserve forest areas1 some #ajj1jjj acres having been set aside1 which are administered by the ,conservator of the ,strait ,settlement's reserves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the government of the island of ,cyprus also employs a forest officer and guards to look after its #gjj square miles of forest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,africa1 during the last few years small forest departments have been established by the governments of the ,soudan1 ,east ,africa1 ,nigeria1 ,transvaal1 ,orange ,river and ,natal1 mostly for the purpose of planting on the treeless plains4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the government of ,mauritius had made attempts at conservancy for many years1 but without notable success4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the most successful attempt in ,africa so far is reported from ,cape ,colony1 which as early as #ahai had a ,superintendent of ,lands and ,woods1 and in #ahgf1 a ,department of ,forests and ,plantations1 neither of which have left much of record4 ,in #ahha1 a new forest department under a ,french forest officer was started1 which has grown until now its consists of one ,conservator 7,d4 ,e4 ,hutchins71 #bb ,assistant ,conservators1 #hd ,european foresters1 and a few native guards4 ,in #ahhh1 the needed legislation was had for regulating the working of the nearly half million acres of forest area1 which1 in #aijb1 was declared inalienable government property4 ,since the wood imports amount to over two million and a quarter dollars annually1 the need of conservative use is appreciated especially as climatic conditions are unfavorable to reproduction4 ,some #bd1jjj acres have been planted during #bb years1 at a cost of #a1ejj1jjj1 the first plantations beginning to yield a substantial revenue1 and it is believed that another #dj1jjj acres of such plantations would supply all the timber needed in the ,colony4 ,treeplanting by private land owners and municipalities is encouraged by furnishing advice gratis and plant material at low cost1 and to municipalities in addition government aid is extended to the extent of half the cost of planting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the seven ,australian colonies are very variously situated regarding timber supplies1 three of them1 ,queensland1 ,western and ,south ,australia being poorly wooded1 the others more or less heavily forested1 especially ,tasmania with #fe per cent41 and ,new ,zealand with #ca per cent4 ,generally speaking the forest areas are confined to the coast in narrower and wider belts1 the interior being forestless or with scrubby growth4 ,this portion is large enough to reduce the total forest per cent4 to less than #f4e4 ,the mountains and hill ranges facing the ,eastern1 ,southern and ,western coasts are especially heavily wooded with magnificent ,eucalypts1 ,jarrah and ,karri while the ,kauri pine is the most valuable tree in ,new ,zealand4 ,the one successful attempt at a forest policy was made by the almost forestless colony of ,south ,australia1 which in #ahhb reserved its scanty forest area of #bag1jjj acres and started to plant1 7now #ac1jjj acres planted71 employing a ,conservator and six ,foresters4 ,in the other colonies at various times unsuccessful beginnings were made1 and there exist in ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,victoria so-called ,forest ,branches or departments1 but mostly without power or equipment1 and no intelligent conception of forest policy seems practically to exist4 ,in ,queensland1 since #ahig1 the ,governor in ,council may reserve forest lands and regulate the cutting by diameter limit4 ,one and a half million acres have been reserved1 but no staff for administration exists4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales six million acres were withdrawn from settlement1 but it is mostly used for pasture1 and withdrawal may be revoked at any time4 ,no effective system of control exists4 ,in ,victoria five and a half million acres have been declared reserves under act of #ahij1 nearly half the forest area4 ,there exists a forest department of one ,conservator1 two ,inspectors and #be ,foresters1 but no plan of management4 ,four ,state nurseries of doubtful value seems the whole result4 ,the other colonies still merely exploit their forest resources under loosely managed license systems1 without even an inefficient attempt at intelligent treatment4 ,,japan4 ,forestry of ,japan1 #aijd1 published by the ,imperial ,bureau of ,forestry in connection with the ,louisiana ,purchase ,exposition1 and a reprint with additions in #aiaj1 contains most of the information utilized above4 ,aus den ,waldungen ,japans1 by ,dr4 ,heinrich ,mayr1 #ahia1 gives a full account of the forest geography1 which is also to be found in ,j4 ,j4 ,rein1 ,japan1 #ahhf4 ,der ,wald in ,japan1 an article by ,dr4 ,hefele in ,forstwissenschaftliches ,centralblatt1 #aijc1 gives an insight into forest conditions from the point of view of a forester4 ,a very clear analysis of the development of property rights is to be found in an article by ,dr4 ,zentaro ,kawase in ,allgemeine ,forst- und ,jagdzeitung1 #ahid4 ,an article in ,zeitschrift fr ,forst- und ,jagdwesen from the pen of ,prof4 ,h4 ,matsuno1 the first professional forester of ,japan1 gives a brief account of the development of forestry1 especially in earlier times4 ,a report by ,special ,canadian ,trade ,commissioner ,w4 ,t4 ,r4 ,preston1 #aijh1 contains valuable statistics on the lumber trade4 ,the modernization of this remarkable island empire of ,niphon 7the native name71 which began in #ahfh1 included the organization of a forest department after ,german models4 ,curiously enough1 there are other noteworthy points of similarity to be found in the historic development of forestry in ,germany and ,japan4 ,the empire comprises four larger islands--,kiushiu1 ,shikoku1 ,hondo or ,honshiu1 and ,hokkaido or ,yesso--and a host of smaller ones1 stretching in a chain of nearly #c1jjj miles north and south along the ,asiatic shore1 the width of land being nowhere over #bjj miles4 ,it comprises an area of nearly #aej1jjj square miles1 with a population approximating #ej million1 largely engaged in fisheries and other sea industries4 ,the islands are of volcanic origin--part of the 8girdle of fire0 which reaches from the ,alaska peninsula through the ,philippines to the ,antilles--with many active craters1 subject to frequent disastrous earthquakes and tidal waves2 mountainous1 with numerous ranges of high hills and with lofty central ridges1 with numerous short rivers1 apt to turn into treacherous torrents1 while hurricanes and waterspouts1 typhoons and equinoctial gales sweep the surrounding seas frequently4 ,the soil is nowhere particularly fertile1 but the patient and painstaking labor of the ,japanese has brought every available foot of it--little more than #aj is arable--into producing condition1 wherever the climate compensates for the infertility1 especially in the most densely populated part1 the southern half of ,hondo4 ,extending through #cj degrees of latitude1 the climate naturally varies from the tropical one of ,formosa1 through all variations of the temperate1 to the alpine one of the high mountains and the nearly arctic one of the ,kurile islands4 ,the ,japan current skirting the eastern coast1 and the mountain ranges1 with elevations generally not exceeding #f1jjj feet1 occasionally up to over #ac1jjj feet1 which cut off the dry continental west winds1 also produce great climatic variations between east and west coasts4 ,in general1 however1 the climate of the whole empire is characterized by a high percentage of relative humidity and ample rainfall1 especially during the hot season1 producing luxuriant growth4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions1 and ,ownership4 ,due to these great variations in climate1 four climatic regions being differentiated1 the forest flora of ,japan almost rivals in variety that of the ,united ,states1 with over #bjj deciduous1 and more than #cj coniferous species of size 7besides a large number of half-trees71 although not more than some #ej or #fj are of silvicultural importance1 and not more than #aj or #ab species form the basis of forest management and of the lumber trade1 which requires some two billion cubic feet annually1 and supports an export of over six million dollars4 ,the value of the total cut was1 in #aijg1 placed at over #ag million dollars1 of which six million was to the credit of the ,state ,treasury4 ,in the tropical districts1 bamboos form the main staple2 in the subtropical region1 the most densely populated and hence also almost forestless1 the broadleaf evergreens1 especially several species of oak1 furnish desirable fuel wood1 and two species of pine are most valued for timber1 one1 the ,red ,pine 7,p4 densiflora7 extending its realm rapidly over waste areas2 camphor tree and boxwood furnish ornamental wood4 ,the region of temperate forest furnishes1 out of over #fj species1 some #ad conifers and #ai broadleaf trees of value1 the former mainly of the cedar tribe1 with ,chamaecyparis obtusa and ,cryptomeria japonica the most widely used1 while of the broadleaf species1 which occupy more than #ej per cent4 of the forest area1 ,zelkowa keaki1 of the elm tribe1 a chestnut1 a beech1 several oaks1 a walnut1 and an ash count among the most useful4 ,spruce1 ,fir1 and ,white ,birch are the trees of the northern forest4 ,mixed forest forms #de1 broadleaf #be1 conifer #ba1 and #i is rated as blank or thinly stocked4 ,the forest area1 which1 over the whole1 covers1 with the addition of the newly acquired island of ,saghalien1 #fg of the land area1 or around #ge million acres 7#a acres per capita71 is quite unevenly distributed according to topography and population1 being mostly confined to the mountain ranges and hills which form the backbone of the country1 and to the northern provinces1 which contain still large1 untouched areas4 ,hokkaido1 which was opened up to colonization only #ce years ago1 now with a population of only #bj to the square mile1 has #fc of forest1 #ae acres per capita2 the northern part of ,hondo has a somewhat greater area per cent41 mostly on the high steep mountains1 but only #a4b acres per capita2 on the southern portion1 the low ranges of hills and valleys the forest area has been reduced to #ec1 but shows only three-quarter acre per capita2 and ,okinawa1 with #bf1 and less than one-third acre per capita1 shows the lowest4 ,of this forest area1 however1 almost one-half is 8hara10 brush forest1 chaparral1 or dwarfed tree growth--the result of mismanagement1 excessive cutting and fires--and in the southern districts1 impenetrable thickets of dwarf bamboo1 which crowd out tree and even shrub growth wherever such mismanagement gives it entrance4 ,these extensive haras are cut every two or five years for the brush1 which is used to cover and furnish manure for rice fields4 ,fire1 which1 until lately1 ran over #e or #f million acres annually1 and ruthless cutting1 have in the past and are still deteriorating the forest area4 ,grassy prairie and barrens due to natural conditions are not absent1 and are due to excessive drainage through loose coarse-grained rock soil2 they are found1 not extensively1 at the foot of volcanoes1 and on highest elevations4 ,the differentiation of land areas is not quite certain4 ,in #ahid1 there was still #cj4e of grassy prairie reported1 but some of this1 no doubt1 was forested1 probably one-half4 ,the bulk of the forest area is owned by the ,state and the ,imperial ,household4 ,communal forests are estimated to aggregate1 in #aijd1 somewhat over four million acres 7#g4e71 in #aiaj reported as #aa1 and private property some #ah million 7#bf2 in #aiaj1 #bb7 leaving #cj million for the ,state and for ,imperial or ,crown forest 7#ff71 the latter comprising some #e4e million acres4 ,these figures are liable to variation1 due to sales of the latter class1 and to adjustments of the somewhat obscure property rights4 ,the ownership by the ,state and a conservative use of the mountain forest is necessitated by the protective value of the forest cover1 the cultivation of the extensive rice fields being dependent upon irrigation4 #b4 ,development of ,forest ,policy4 ,the history of ,japan dates back to #ffj ,b4,c41 when the empire was founded on the island of ,kiushiu by the warrior king ,jimmuteno4 ,he established a kind of feudal government1 with the daimios 7knights or barons7 holding their fiefs from the mikado1 who was considered the sole owner of the soil1 or at least all exercise of ownership rights emanated from him4 ,private property seems then not to have existed at all1 the people having merely rights of user4 ,colonization of the islands brought under the mikado's dominion progressed rapidly1 and with it1 not only arable portions but even mountains were denuded4 ,with the beginning of the ,christian era1 the need of better protection against floods seems to have been recognized1 and1 in #bgj ,a4,d41 we find the first forest official appointed1 a son of the royal house1 who with assistants was to regulate the use of the forest property1 which1 under the rights of user granted by the mikado1 was being excessively exploited and devastated4 ,in the fifth century1 the feudal method of giving fiefs of land and forest to the deserving vassals had come generally into vogue1 and later1 with the rise of ,buddhism1 forests were assigned to the temples and priests1 who1 as in ,germany the monks1 were assiduous in cultivating and utilizing them4 ,soon the daimios1 similarly to the barons in ,germany1 began to assert exclusive property rights1 and1 notwithstanding various edicts1 issued from time to time to secure free use to the people1 more and more of the forest area was secured by daimios1 and by priests as temple forests4 ,in the ninth century1 deforestation and excessive exploitation had so far progressed that not only the need of protecting watersheds was recognized by edicts1 but fear of a timber famine led even to planting in the provinces of ,noto4 ,a period of internal strife and warfare during the following centuries which left forest interest in the background1 led1 in #aaib1 to the establishment of the rule of the shoguns1 the hereditary military representatives of the mikado1 who made him a mere figurehead1 and exercised all the imperial functions themselves1 until the revolution of #ahfh restored the mikado to his rights4 ,the effort at conservative forest use was renewed with increased harshness when1 after a period of warfare and devastation1 the great shogun family of ,tokugawa 7#afjc7 assumed the rule of the empire1 enforcing the restrictive edicts with military severity4 ,even at that early age1 the protective influence of forest cover on soil and waterflow was fully recognized1 and a distinction of open or supply forest and closed or protection forests seems to have been made1 the latter being placed under the ban of the emperor or shogun1 and withdrawn from utilization4 ,the extensive forests of the province of ,kiso1 the best remaining1 owe their preservation to these efforts4 ,the daimios1 #bfj in number1 each in his district1 enforced the edicts in their own way1 giving rise thereby to great differences in forest administration2 yet in the absence of technical knowledge1 deterioration continued4 ,the severity of punishments for depredations etc41 reminds us of those of the ,german ,markgenossen1 a hand or finger being the penalty for theft1 death by fire that for incendiaries4 ,the idea of protecting or reserving certain species of trees1 which was practiced in ,india by the rajahs1 we find here again in the beginning of the #ahth century1 the number of such protected species varying from one to seven and even fifteen in different districts4 ,another unique and peculiar way of encouraging forest culture was to permit peasants who made forest plantations in the ,state forests1 to bear a family name1 a right which was otherwise reserved to the knights or samurli1 or to wear a double-edged sword like the latter4 ,arbor days were also instituted1 memorial days and festivities1 as at the birth of children1 being marked by the planting of trees4 ,while in ,germany the love of hunting had led to the exclusion of the people from the forests1 in ,japan it was a question of conserving wood supplies that dictated these policies4 ,it is claimed that to these early efforts is due the preservation of the remaining forests4 ,but1 while this may be true in some instances1 as in the province of ,kiso1 more probably their distance from centers of consumption and their general inaccessibility preserved those of ,hokkaido and of the northern mountains4 ,certainly the brush forests south of ,tokyo do not testify to great care4 ,the detested shogunate was abolished in #ahfg by a revolution which brought the mikado to his rights again and crushed the power of the daimios1 whose fiefs were surrendered1 and their acquisitions of forest property1 as well as 7a few years later7 those of the priests1 were declared ,state property1 with the exception of some which were recognized as communal properties4 ,similar to the experiences of ,france1 the disturbances in property conditions1 which implied instantaneous loss by the people of all rights of user in the ,state property as well as removal of all restrictions from private and communal properties1 led to wholesale depredations from the ,state domain1 and to widespread deforestation and devastation1 an area of a million acres of burnt waste near ,kofu1 west of ,tokyo1 testifying to the recklessness of these times4 ,without any force to guard property rights1 stealing on an extensive scale1 similar to past experiences in the ,united ,states1 with the accompanying wastefulness1 became the order of the day1 and is even now not uncommon4 ,a first provisional administration of ,state forests was inaugurated1 and a forest reconnaissance ordered in #ahge in order to secure insight into the mixed-up property relations1 and restore to their rightful owners such portions as had been wrongly taken by the ,state4 ,in #ahgh1 the ,state forests were placed under a special bureau organized by ,matsuno1 who had studied forestry in ,germany 7,eberswalde7 for five years4 ,but it was not academic knowledge that was needed in the situation2 it was necessary first to mould public opinion in order to secure means for administrative measures4 ,this he set himself to do through public addresses and pamphlets1 and by organizing a society of friends of forest culture1 and finally1 in #ahhb1 by establishing an experiment station at ,nishigahara1 and1 a year later1 a dendrological school1 which four years later was combined with the agricultural school at ,komaba2 five years later both were joined to the ,university of ,tokyo4 ,with the transfer of the forestry bureau to the ,department of ,agriculture and ,commerce in #ahha1 and a reorganization in #ahhf1 a new era seemed to be promised1 yet a substantial progress in organized forest management of the ,state property does not seem to have been made for another decade at least1 the slow progress being largely due to lack of personnel and the continuance of mixed property conditions1 which involved not only uncertainty of boundaries1 but also mixed ownerships4 ,although this last trouble1 namely of mixed ownership by ,state and private individuals1 had been recognized as inimical to good management1 it was deliberately increased by the law of #ahgh in a curious way1 reviving an old custom1 namely by permitting private individuals to plant up clearings in the ,state forests2 in this way1 these individuals secured a certain percentage1 usually #bj per cent41 of the eventual profits arising from the results4 ,some #bjj1jjj acres were planted under this arrangement4 ,to remove the boundary difficulty1 a survey of the boundaries of ,state property and adjustment of property rights1 as well as segregation of the ,state lands to be disposed of1 namely small lots and others not needed1 was ordered in #ahij4 ,it was then also that the first provisional working plan for the fellings on ,state lands was elaborated1 and gradually with the progress of the survey1 more permanent plans were adopted for district after district4 ,by #ahii1 the adjustment had progressed far enough to begin the restoration of properties1 which the ,state had improperly claimed1 to their proper owners4 ,it was then also that the ,imperial forests1 intended for the support of the ,imperial household1 were increased to about #e million acres4 ,meanwhile1 the personnel had increased in numbers and improved in character4 ,in #aijd1 the organization of the forestry bureau under the ,minister of ,agriculture and ,commerce1 arranged somewhat after ,german models1 consisted of one director and four forest commissioners with ten clerks1 forming the head office2 the sixteen districts into which the ,state forests were divided were presided over by #cb conservators and #hj inspectors1 while #cbe district officers with #hhj assistants and #fbf guards1 altogether over #a1hjj employes1 formed the field force4 ,in #aiaj1 the number had increased to #bejj1 mainly by additional rangers4 ,this organization applies to the ,state forests under control of the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,strangely enough1 those in ,saghalien1 ,hokkaido and ,formosa are not under that department1 but under the supervision of the ,minister of ,home ,affairs1 and are merely exploited1 while the ,imperial forests are under the ,household ,department4 ,in #aijg1 only #g per cent4 of the ,state forests were under working plans4 ,the need of supervision of the ill-managed private and communal forests1 mostly located near the settled portions1 early attracted the attention of the new regime1 mainly on account of their protective value4 ,annual losses through floods to the amount of four million dollars1 and similar losses due to unchecked forest fires gave the incentive to the passage of a law1 in #ahhb1 simply forbidding all forest use in protection forest1 which simple prescription evidently did not work until a further revision was made in #ahig4 ,this latter does not confine itself to legislation for protection forests alone1 but also authorizes the supervision of supply forests1 under the special control of the local governors4 ,under this law1 which also extended the assistance of local authorities to would-be planters1 aided by reforms in the corporation system1 remarkable activity in planting waste lands ensued1 so that in the next two years not less than one million acres of communal property was set out with trees1 numbering over #hjj million1 while in the ,state forests1 some #djj1jjj acres of vacant land had been planted by #aigj4 ,some sand dune planting and reboisement works are also the result of this legislation4 ,further legislation more closely defining ,state control was had in #aijg4 ,in connection with this planting1 it may be of interest to record the attitude of ,japanese foresters toward natural regeneration3 8,this is no longer popular in these days when the knowledge of forest management possessed by foresters has become highly developed1 for if that method is the easiest and least troublesome1 nevertheless it is not advisable1 in view of the necessity of effecting a thorough improvement in our silvicultural conditions4 ,only on steep slopes and for protection forests is it applicable40 ,in #ahig1 also1 some eight experiment stations were organized1 in addition to the earlier one at ,nishigahara organized1 in #ahhb1 by ,matsuno4 ,education in forestry has lately run riot in ,japan as it has in the ,united ,states4 ,since the first school1 organized in #ahhb1 not less than #fb institutions had seen the need of offering the opportunity to become acquainted with that subject4 ,by #aiaj1 these had been reduced to #dg4 ,here1 however1 different grades are frankly acknowledged4 ,there are three collegiate institutions whose diploma admits to the higher service1 four are of secondary grade1 nineteen give special courses1 and the rest treat the subject merely as a subsidiary of a practical education including agriculture1 stock-farming and fishery4 ,a ranger school1 which was instituted under ,matsuno's guidance1 controlled by the forestry bureau1 came to an end during the ,russian war for lack of funds1 but has probably been revived again4 ,a forestry association now with #djjj members carries on propaganda and publishes a magazine1 and co-operative associations among small owners to facilitate better management are being formed under the law of #aijg4 ,in conclusion1 we may say that ,japan has done wonders in reorganizing its forestry system in a short time1 but1 according to one competent observer1 while all the ,japanese care for detail and love for orderliness is apparent in the office1 not all that is found on paper is to be found as yet in the woods1 and that1 for similar reasons as have been indicated for ,russia2 many things happen in the woods that are not known in the office4 ,,korea4 ,the latest move in forest reform in this part of the world1 as a result of ,japanese influence1 is to be recorded from ,korea4 ,indeed1 in #aiaj1 ,japan annexed ,korea1 and will doubtless apply her own methods in the new province4 ,the forest area of ,korea comprises only about #b1ejj1jjj acres1 out of an area of nearly #ec million acres of very mountainous country4 ,a concession for the exploitation of the northern forests to a ,russian1 which included the re-planting with 8exotic0 tree species1 was the immediate cause of the ,russo-,japanese war4 ,in #aijg1 by co-operative arrangements with ,japan1 a conservative forest policy was to be inaugurated by laws similar to those of ,japan4 ,drouth1 floods and erosion of soils have been common experiences4 ,the preservation of forest cover1 especially at the headquarters of the ,yalu and ,tumen in the northern part of the country1 is aimed at4 ,for this purpose the government has taken all forests under its care4 ,all private owners or lease holders must report their holdings and have their property listed1 and in case of failure to do so the property is forfeited4 ,the government may then expropriate1 or else regulate the cutting1 or1 where protective functions of the forest cover require it1 may forbid cutting altogether4 ,a forestry school is also part of the program4 ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america4 ,report upon ,forestry1 #ahgh-i1 by ,dr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,hough2 contains references to the earlier history of forest development4 ,history of the ,lumber ,industry1 by ,j4 ,e4 ,defebaugh1 #aijf-g2 is valuable as a reference to statistical matter4 ,report upon ,forestry ,investigations of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 #ahgg-ahih1 by ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow4 ,house ,document ,no4 #aha1 #eeth ,congress2 contains amplifications of the matter contained in this chapter4 ,annual and other reports issued by the ,department of ,agriculture1 by the various ,state ,forest ,commissions1 and ,forestry ,associations4 ,for latest developments1 consult ,conservation 7,american ,forestry7 and ,forestry ,quarterly4 ,the great and exuberant republic of the ,united ,states1 vast in extent and rich in natural resources generally1 excelled and still excels in extent1 importance and value of her timber resources2 and1 having only lately begun to inaugurate rational forest policies1 promises to become of all-absorbing interest to foresters4 ,the marvelous growth of the nation1 which from three million in #aghj had attained to a population of #gf million in #aijj1 and1 by the last ,census numbered around #ib million people1 has been the wonder of the world by reason of its rapid expansion2 and yet the limit is far from being reached4 ,annually some three-quarters of a million or more immigrants from all parts of the world arrive1 and there is still room and comfortable living for at least another #ajj million1 if the resources are properly treated4 ,the large land area of nearly two billion acres 7over three million square miles7 is undoubtedly the richest contiguous domain of such size in the world1 located most favorably with reference to trade by virtue of a coast line of over #bj1jjj miles1 and diversified in climate so as to permit the widest range of production4 ,while a simple mathematical relation would make the population at present about #ca to the square mile1 such a statement would give an erroneous conception of economic conditions1 for the distribution of the population is most uneven1 a condition which must eventually diversify the application of forestry methods in different parts of the country4 ,in ,massachusetts and ,rhode ,island combined1 for instance1 the density of population is #dbh to the square mile1 exceeding that of the similar-sized ,state of ,wrtemberg in ,germany1 while in the neighboring ,state of ,maine it is not #be2 the ,atlantic ,coast ,states south of ,south ,carolina1 a territory slightly larger than ,germany1 show about half1 and the ,central agricultural ,states about one-third the density of that densely populated country2 on the other hand1 some of the ,western ,states1 ,montana1 ,wyoming1 ,nevada1 ,arizona1 and ,new ,mexico have less than three to the square mile4 ,similar unevenness is found in the distribution of resources1 especially of timber wealth1 and1 to some extent at least1 the present populational distribution is explained by the uneven distribution of farm soils and timber4 ,outside of the unorganized territory of ,alaska and the disfranchised ,district of ,columbia1 the country is divided into #df ,states and two ,territories which will eventually acquire statehood4 ,in addition1 there are a number of insular possessions under the direct control of the federal government4 ,each ,state being under the ,constitution sovereign in itself as far as its internal administration is concerned1 it is evident that no uniformity of policies can be expected1 except so far as imitativeness1 in which the ,american citizen excels1 may lead ,state after ,state to repeat the experiment attempted by one4 ,the federal government has no direct jurisdiction in matters concerning the management of resources within the ,states1 except so far as it still owns lands in the ,western1 so-called ,public ,land ,states1 and a few parcels in the ,eastern ,states over which it still retains jurisdiction4 ,the severest test of democratic institutions is experienced when the attempt is made to establish a policy which shall guard the interests of the future at the expense of the demands and needs of the present4 ,democracy produces attitudes and characteristics of the people which are inimical to stable economic arrangements looking to the future1 such as are implied in a forest policy4 ,the vast country with an unevenly distributed and heterogeneous population presents the greatest variety of natural1 as well as of economic conditions2 the immediate interests of one section naturally do not coincide with those of other sections2 particularistic and individualistic tendencies of the true democrat are antagonistic to anything which smacks of 8paternalism10 the attitude under which alone a persistent1 farsighted policy can thrive4 ,frequent change of administration1 or at least the threat of such change1 impedes consistent execution of plans2 fickle public opinion may subvert at any time well laid plans which take time in maturing2 the true democratic doctrine of restricting ,state activity to police functions1 and the doctrine of non-interference with private rights1 as well as the idea of ,state rights in opposition to federal power and authority--all these characteristics of a democratic government are impediments to a concerted action and stable policy4 ,that1 in spite of these antagonistic interests1 conditions and doctrines1 substantial progress toward establishing at least a federal forest policy has been made1 is due to the fact that the ,american1 in spite of his reputation as a materialistic1 selfish opportunist1 is really an idealist2 that he responds readily to patriotic appeals2 that1 in spite of his rabid nationalism1 he is willing to learn from the experiences of other nations2 that1 indeed1 he is anxious to be educated4 ,finally1 much credit is due to the men who with single purpose devoted their lives to the education of their fellow citizens in this direction4 ,it must1 to be sure1 be added that remarkable changes in the political attitude of the people have taken place in the last #cj years since the propaganda of forestry began2 changes1 partly perhaps induced by that propaganda1 which have aided this movement1 and which1 if they persist1 promise much for the future development of forest policies4 ,a decidedly paternalistic1 if not socialistic attitude has1 lately been taken by the federal government2 and by skilful construction of the ,constitution as regards the right to regulate interstate relations1 has led to an expansion of federal power in various directions4 ,a similar paternalistic attitude has developed in the legislatures of several ,states to a noticeable degree4 ,even the judiciary has taken up this new spirit1 and is ready to sanction interference with private property rights to a degree which1 a decade ago1 would have been denounced as undemocratic and tyrannical4 ,two courts have lately ruled that owners of timberlands may be restricted1 without compensation1 as regards the size of trees they may fell on their property1 if the welfare of the ,state demands such interference4 ,the argument of the ,roman doctrine utere tuo ne alterum noceas1 which forestry propagandists have so strenuously used1 seems finally to have found favor1 and the inclusion of the community at large1 present and future1 as the possibly damaged party does not appear any more strained4 ,the idea of the providential function of governments1 as the writer has called it1 seems to have taken hold of the people4 ,the democratic doctrine of ,state rights1 and restriction of government functions has1 even among ,democrats1 been weakened through the long continued reign of the ,republican party1 the party of centralizing tendencies1 to such an extent that the latest ,democratic platform of a ,presidential campaign 7#aijh7 outdid the ,republican platform in centralizing and paternalistic propositions4 ,it is proper to emphasize the growth of this socialistic attitude1 as it is bound to influence1 and influence favorably1 the further development of forest policies4 ,nevertheless1 it is still necessary to keep in mind that the ,states are autonomous1 and that1 while the federal government1 in spite of the antagonism in the ,western ,states1 in which the public lands are situated1 has been able to change its land policy from that of liberal disposal to one of reservation1 it alone cannot save the situation4 ,while a few of the ,states have made beginnings in working out a policy to arrest the destruction of their forest resources1 which are mostly in private hands1 still much water must flow down the ,mississippi before adequate measures will be taken to stave off the threatening timber famine1 and the energy of the various local and national ,conservation associations will need to be exercised to the utmost4 #a4 ,forest ,conditions4 ,three extensive mountain systems1 running north and south1 give rise to at least eight topographic subdivisions of the country1 going from east to west4 #a4 ,the narrow belt of level coast and hill country along the ,atlantic shore1 from #ajj to #bjj miles in width with elevations up to #a1jjj feet1 but especially low along the seacoast from ,virginia south2 drained by short rivers navigable only for short distances from the mouth2 a farming country1 with the soils varying from the richest to the poorest2 some #cjj1jjj square miles4 #b4 ,the ,appalachian mountain country1 nearly of the same width as the first section1 with elevations up to #e1jjj feet2 the watershed of all the rivers to the ,atlantic1 of several rivers to the ,gulf1 and of the eastern affluents of the ,mississippi2 a mountain country1 of about #cfj1jjj square miles extent1 rich in coal1 iron and other minerals1 except in its northern extension formed of archean rock4 #c4 ,the great river basin of the ,mississippi1 a ,central plain of glacial and river deposit1 rising gradually from the ,gulf to the headwaters for more than #abjj miles1 and nowhere over #a1jjj feet above sea level2 the richest agricultural section1 #gjj1jjj square miles1 more or less1 in extent4 #d4 ,the plateau1 rising towards the ,rocky ,mountains from #a1jjj to #e1jjj feet above sea level1 some #hgj1jjj square miles in extent1 a region of scanty rainfall1 hence of prairie and plain1 but mostly rich soil of undetermined depth1 capable of prolific production where sufficient water supply is available4 #e4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain region1 rising from #e1jjj to near #aj1jjj feet 7except some higher peaks71 an arid to semi-arid district of rugged ranges1 covered mostly with forest growth1 often open and of inferior kind1 with tillable soils in the narrow valleys1 requiring irrigation for farm use2 a mining country1 rich in gold and silver1 extending over #aej1jjj square miles4 #f4 ,the ,sierra ,nevada ,mountain ,range1 including the ,coast ,range1 rarely over #g1jjj feet elevation1 arid to semi-arid on the ,eastern slopes2 humid1 and supporting magnificent forest growth on the ,western slopes2 some #aij1jjj square miles4 #g4 ,the ,interior ,basin1 lying between the two preceding mountain ranges1 some #djj1jjj square miles2 for the most part a desert1 although in parts supporting a stunted growth of pinon and juniper1 and1 where irrigation is possible1 productive4 #h4 ,the interior valleys of the ,sierra1 comprising about #cj1jjj square miles1 which1 under irrigation1 have become the garden spots of the ,pacific4 ,to these topographic subdivisions correspond in part the climatic and the forest conditions1 although variation of soil1 and of northern and southern climate produce further differentiation in types1 and in distribution of field and forest4 ,the first three sections were originally densely wooded--the great ,atlantic forest region--but farms now occupy most of the arable portions2 the fourth and seventh are forestless1 if not treeless1 while the fifth and sixth were more or less forested--the ,pacific ,coast region4 ,floristically also1 these topographic conditions are reflected1 namely in the wide1 north and south distribution of species1 unimpeded by intervening mountain ranges1 and in the change in composition from east to west4 ,the two grand floristic divisions of the ,atlantic and the ,pacific forest1 having but few species in common1 are separated by the plains and prairies4 ,the ,atlantic forest is in the main composed of broadleaf trees with conifers intermixed1 which latter only under the influence of soil conditions form pure stands1 as in the extensive pineries of the ,south and ,north1 and in the northern swamps and on southern mountain tops4 ,the central region west of the ,alleghanies exhibits little conifer growth in its composition1 and is most widely turned to farm use4 ,white ,pine1 hemlock and spruce are the important coniferous staples of the northern section1 and a number of ,yellow ,pine species1 with ,bald ,cypress and ,red ,cedar1 are the valuable conifer species in the ,south4 ,as regards valuable hardwoods1 there is but little change from north to south4 ,the ,pacific forest flora is almost entirely coniferous1 but here also climatic conditions permit a distinction of two very different forest regions1 the ,rocky ,mountain forest being mostly of rather inferior development1 and the ,sierra forest exhibiting the most magnificent tree growth in the world4 ,nearly half the country is forestless1 grassy prairie and plain1 some #djj million acres being of the latter description1 while open prairie and brush forest1 or waste land occupies #fjj million acres4 ,within the forest region of the ,east some #bej million acres have been turned into farms1 leaving still two-thirds of the area either under woods1 or else wasted by fire4 ,although any reliable data regarding this acreage are wanting1 the area of really productive woodland in this section may probably be set down as not exceeding #cjj million acres1 which would be nearly #dj of the total area1 varying from #ac in the ,central agricultural ,states to #ej in the ,southern ,states2 ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire and ,arkansas being most densely wooded1 with over #fj4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain and ,sierra forests1 each with #ajj million acres1 would bring the total productive woodland area to a round #ejj million acres1 or about #bf of the whole4 7,later estimates including brushlands of doubtful productive capacity1 increase this area to #eej million acres47 ,it is almost idle to attempt an estimate of the timber still standing ready for the axe2 not only are the data for such an estimate too scanty1 but standards of what is considered merchantable change continuously and vitiate the value of such estimates4 ,the writer's own estimate1 made some years ago1 of #b1ejj billion feet1 which by others has been treated as authoritative and forming a basis for predicting the time of a timber famine1 and which was lately sustained by an extensive official inquiry1 must nevertheless be considered only as a reasonable guess1 ventured for the purpose of accentuating the need of more conservative treatment of these exhaustible supplies1 in comparison with the consumption which represents around #de billion feet ,b4,m41 and altogether #bc billion cubic feet of forest-grown material1 the ultimate value of all forest products reaching the stupendous sum of around #a1bej million dollars4 ,and1 as in other countries1 this lavish consumption of forest growth1 from five to fifteen times that of ,europeans1 has shown in the past a per capita increase of #cj per cent4 for every decade4 ,the bulk of the standing timber is to be found along the ,pacific ,coast1 in the ,sierra1 and in the ,southern ,states with their extensive pineries2 the ,northern and ,eastern sections are within measurable time of the end of their virgin supplies of saw timber4 ,the practice of culling the most valuable species has changed the composition in the regeneration1 making it inferior1 and large areas have been rendered worthless by fires4 ,the loss by fire1 the bane of ,american forests1 as far as loss in material is concerned probably does not exceed #b or #c per cent4 of the consumption1 and may be valued at say #be million dollars per annum4 ,but the indirect damage to forest and soil1 changing the composition1 baring the soil1 and exposing it to erosion and washing1 turning fertile lands into wastes1 and brooks and rivers into torrents1 is incalculable4 ,there is no doubt that at the present rate of consumption the bulk of the virgin supplies will be used up in a measurable time1 which will force a reduction in the use of wood materials2 a more or less severe timber famine is bound to appear1--indeed1 has begun to make its appearance2 and all recuperative measures will not suffice to stave it off1 although they may shorten the time of its duration4 #b4 ,early ,forest ,history4 ,the early colonizers1 settling on the ,atlantic ,coast soon after the discoveries of ,columbus1 did not1 as is usually believed1 find an untouched virgin forest4 ,the aboriginal ,indians had1 before then1 hewn out their corn fields1 and had supplied themselves with fuel wood and material for their utensils2 and fires1 accidental1 intentional1 or caused by lightning1 had1 no doubt1 also made inroads here and there4 ,the white man1 to be sure1 is a more lavish wood consumer2 his farms increased more rapidly1 his buildings and his fireplaces consumed more forest growth1 and carelessness with fire was1 as it is still1 his besetting sin4 ,moreover1 a trade in timber with the ,old ,world developed1 in which only the best and largest-sized material figured4 ,wastefulness was bred in him by the sight of plenty1 and the hard work of clearing his farm acres incited a natural enmity to the encumbering forest4 ,the first sawmill in the ,new ,world was erected in #afca in the town of ,berwick1 ,maine1 and the first gang saw1 of #ah saws1 in #afej in the same place1#ah while1 before that time1 masts and spars1 handmade cooperage stock1 clapboards and shingles formed commonly parts of the return cargoes of ships4 ,by #afhj1 nearly #ej vessels1 engaged in such trade1 cleared from the ,piscataqua ,river4 ,the ordinances on record which were issued at the same early times by the town governments of ,exeter 7#afdj71 ,kittery 7#afef71 ,portsmouth 7#affj71 and ,dover 7#affe71 restricting the use of timber1 remind us of the early ,european forest ordinances2 they were probably not dictated by any threatening deficiency of this class of material1 but merely intended to secure a proper and orderly use of the town property4 #ah ,see ,forestry ,quarterly1 vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ad4 ,the appointment of a ,royal ,surveyor of the ,woods for the ,new ,england colonies in #afii1 and the penalties imposed in ,new ,hampshire 7#agjh7 for cutting mast trees on ungranted lands 7#ejj for cutting #bd-;inch trees71 and in ,massachusetts 7#aghd7 for cutting ,white ,pine upon the public lands 7#ajj71 were probably also merely police regulations1 to protect property rights of the ,crown or commonwealth4 ,that this last move was in no way conceived as a needed conservatism is proved by the fact that two years later the ,legislature of ,maine devised a lottery scheme for the disposal of fifty townships2 and #c1ejj1jjj acres were disposed of in this way during the twelve years following the war4 ,altogether the ,states sacrificed their 8wild lands0 at trifling prices4 ,but1 when ,william ,penn1 the founder and first legislator of the ,state which represented his grant1 stipulated1 in #afhb1 that for every five acres cleared one acre was to be reserved for forest growth by those who took title from him1 that may properly be considered an attempt to inaugurate a conservative policy1 dictated by wise forethought1--an attempt1 which1 however1 bore little or no fruit4 ,thoughtful men probably at all times looked with pity and apprehension upon the wasteful use of the timber as they do now1 yet squander went on1 just as it still does2 but the apparently inexhaustible supplies in those early times called for no restriction in its use4 ,at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century1 a fuel-wood famine must have appeared in some parts of the country1 just as in ,germany at that time and for the same reasons1 the wood having been cut along the rivers1 which were the only means of transportation1 and hence1 the distance to which wood had to be hauled increasing the cost4 ,this was probably the reason why the ,society of ,agriculture1 ,arts and ,manufactures of ,new ,york1 after an inquiry by circular letter1 issued in #agia1 published1 in #agie1 a report on the 8best mode of preserving and increasing the growth of timber40 ,this condition probably also led the wise ,governor of ,new ,york1 ,de,witt ,clinton1 of ,erie ,canal fame1 in a message in #ahbb1 to forecast an evil day1 because 8no system of economy0 for the reproduction of forest supplies was being adopted2 and he added3 8,probably none will be1 until severe privations are experienced40 ,like ,great ,britain at that time1 the federal government became concerned as regards supplies for naval construction1 and1 by act approved in #agii1 appropriated #bjj1jjj for the purchase of timber fit for the ,navy1 and for its preservation for future use4 ,small purchases were made on the ,georgia coast1 but nothing of importance was done until1 in #ahag1 another act renewed the proposition of the first1 and directed the reservation of public lands bearing live-oak or cedar timber suitable for the ,navy1 as might be selected by the ,president4 ,under this act1 a reservation of #ai1jjj acres was made1 in #ahbh1 on ,commissioners1 ,cypress and ,six ,islands1 in ,louisiana4 ,another appropriation of #aj1jjj was made in #ahbh1 and some lands were purchased on ,santa ,rosa ,sound1 where1 during a few years1 even an attempt at cultivation was made1 including sowing1 transplanting1 pruning1 etc4 ,this was done under a more general act of #ahbg1 by which the ,president was authorized to take proper measures to preserve the live oak timber growing on the federal lands4 ,under these acts1 altogether some #bdd1jjj acres of forest land were reserved in ,alabama1 ,florida1 ,louisiana and ,mississippi4 ,but1 although another act1 of #ahca1 provided for the punishment of persons cutting or destroying any ,live ,oak1 ,red ,cedar1 or other trees growing on any lands of the ,united ,states1 no general conception of the need of a broad forest policy1 or even of a special value attaching to the public timberlands dictated these acts1 except so far as the securing of certain material1 then believed necessary for naval construction1 was concerned4 ,indeed1 the act of #ahca remained for #fj years the only expression of interest in this part of the federal domain4 ,in those early times1 the extent of our forest domain was entirely unknown1 and the concern of occasional early voices in public prints regarding a threatened exhaustion of timber supplies can only be explained by the fact that1 in the absence of railroads1 the supplies near centers of civilization1 or near drivable and navigable rivers1 were alone of any account4 ,that the earlier propagandists of forest culture received scant attention was due to the fact that conditions soon changed2 and with these changes the evil day seemed indefinitely postponed1 and the necessity for forest culture apparently vanished4 ,these changes were mainly wrought by the opening up of the west1 by extending means of transportation through canals and railroads1 and by distributing population1 whereby the need for near-by home supplies was overcome2 a continental supply of apparently inexhaustible amount was brought into sight and within reach4 ,meanwhile the population began to grow1 immigrants began to pour in by the hundred thousand1 and the westward stream opened up new country and new timber supplies1 and a lumber industry of marvellous size began to develop4 ,the small country mill1 run in the manner of1 and often in connection with1 the grist mill1 doing a petty business by sawing as occasion demanded1 to order for home customers or export1 gave way to the large mill establishment as we know it now2 and with the development of railroad transportation and the settlement of the western country1 especially the forestless prairies1 the industry grew at an astonishing rate4 ,it is worth while to briefly trace the history of this industry1 for the sake of which the need of conservative forest policies is essential4 ,that the petty method of doing business lasted until the middle of the century is evidenced by the census of #ahdj1 which reported #ca1efj lumber mills1 with a total product valued as #ab1idc1ejg1 or a little over #djj per mill4 ,by #ahgf1 the product per mill had become #f1ejj2 by #ahij1 with only #ba1jjj mills1 it was #ai1jjj2 in #aijj1 nearly the same number of mills as were recorded in #ahdj 7#cc1jce7 furnished a product of #eff million dollars1 and in #aijg1 the banner year of production1 the cut of #bh1hej mills was reported at over #dj billion feet1 and the gross product per mill had grown to #bc1jjj1 or a value for all of #fff1fda1cfg4 ,in #aiji1 #dh1aab mills cut #dd1eji1gfa1jjj feet valued at #fhd1dgi1hei4 ,nearly half this product came from the ,southern ,states4 ,in the fifty years from #ahej to #aijj1 the value of all forest products harvested increased from #ei million to #efg million1 and in #aijg the value had risen to #a1bhj million1 representing a consumption of over #bj million cubic feet of forest-grown material4 ,especially after the ,civil ,war1 the settlements of the ,west grew as if by magic2 the railroad mileage more than doubled in the decade from #ahfe to #ahge1 and with it1 the lumber industry developed by rapid strides into its modern methods and volume4 ,how rapidly the changes took place may be judged from the fact that1 in #ahfe1 the ,state of ,new ,york still furnished more lumber than any other ,state2 now it supplies only insignificant amounts1 a little over two per cent4 of the total lumber cut4 ,in #ahfh1 the golden age of lumbering had arrived in ,michigan2 in #ahga1 rafts filled the ,wisconsin2 in #ahge1 ,eau ,claire had #cj1 ,marathon #cj1 and ,fond du ,lac #bj sawmills1 now all gone2 and mills at ,la ,crosse1 which were cutting millions of feet annually1 are now closed4 ,by #ahhb1 the ,saginaw ,valley had reached the climax of its production1 and the lumber industry of the great ,northwest1 with a cut of #h billion feet of ,white ,pine alone1 was in full blast4 ,the ,white ,pine production reached its maximum in #ahij1 with #h4e billion feet1 then to decrease gradually but steadily to less than half that cut in #aijh4 ,southern development began to assume large proportions much later2 at the present time1 the lumber product of the ,southern ,states has grown to amounts nearly double that of all the ,northern ,states combined4 ,but not only the unparalleled and ever increasing wood consumption1 which now has reached #bfj cubic feet per capita1 five times that of ,germany and ten times that of ,france1 threatened the exhaustion of the natural supplies4 ,reckless conflagrations almost invariably followed the lumberman and destroyed generally the remaining stand1 and surely the young growth4 ,so common did these conflagrations become1 that they were considered unavoidable1 and though laws intended to protect forest property against fires were found on the statute books of every ,state1 no attempt to enforce them was made4 ,no wonder that those observing this rapid decimation of our forest supplies and the incredible wastefulness and additional destruction by fire with no attention to the aftergrowth1 began again to sound the note of alarm4 ,besides the writings in the daily press and other non-official publications1 we find the reports of the ,department of ,agriculture more and more frequently calling attention to the subject4 ,in a report issued by the ,patent ,office as early as #ahdi1 we find the following significant language in a discussion on the rapid destruction of forests and their influence on water flow3 8,the waste of valuable timber in the ,united ,states1 to say nothing of firewood1 will hardly begin to be appreciated until our population reaches #ej1jjj1jjj4 ,then the folly and shortsightedness of this age will meet with a degree of censure and reproach not pleasant to contemplate40 ,in #ahfe1 the ,rev4 ,frederic ,starr discussed fully and forcibly the ,american forests1 their destruction and preservation1 in a lengthy article in which1 with truly prophetic vision1 he says3 8,it is feared it will be long1 perhaps a full century1 before the results at which we ought to aim as a nation will be realized by our whole country1 to wit1 that we should raise an adequate supply of wood and timber for all our wants4 ,the evils which are anticipated will probably increase upon us for thirty years to come with tenfold the rapidity with which restoring or ameliorating measures shall be adopted40 ,and again3 8,like a cloud no bigger than a man's hand just rising from the sea1 an awakening interest begins to come in sight on this subject1 which as a question of political economy will place the interests of cotton1 wool1 coal1 iron1 meat1 and even grain1 beneath its feet4 ,some of these1 according to the demand1 can be produced in a few days1 others in a few months or a few years1 but timber in not less than one generation4 ,the nation has slept because the gnawing of want has not awakened her4 ,she has had plenty and to spare1 but within thirty years she will be conscious that not only individual want is present1 but that it comes to each from permanent national famine of wood40 ,the article is full of interesting detail1 and may be said to be the starting basis of the campaign for better methods which followed4 ,another unquestionably most influential1 official report was that upon 8,forests and ,forestry in ,germany10 by ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,warder1 ,united ,states ,commissioner to the ,world's ,fair at ,vienna in #ahgc4 ,dr4 ,warder set forth clearly and correctly the methods employed abroad in the use of forests1 and became himself one of the most prominent propagandists for their adoption in his own country4 ,about the same time appeared the classical work of ,george ,b4 ,marsh1 our minister to ,italy1 8,the ,earth as ,modified by ,human ,action10 in which the evil effects on cultural conditions of forest destruction were ably and forcibly pointed out4 ,among these earlier publications designed to arouse public attention to the subject1 should also be mentioned ,general ,c4 ,c4 ,andrews' report on #8,forestry in ,sweden1' published by the ,state ,department in #ahgb4 ,the ,census of #ahgj attempted for the first time a canvas of our forest resources under ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,brewer1 as a result of which the relative smallness of our forest area became known4 ,all these publications had their influence in educating a larger number to a conception and consideration of the importance of the subject1 so that1 when1 in #ahgc1 the committee on forestry of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science was formed and presented a memorial to ,congress1 pointing out 8the importance of promoting the cultivation of timber and the preservation of forests1 and recommending the appointment of a commission of forestry to report to ,congress10 there already existed an intelligent audience1 and although a considerable amount of lethargy and lack of interest was exhibited1 ,congress could be persuaded1 in #ahgf1 to establish an agency in the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 out of which grew later the ,division of ,forestry1 a bureau of information on forestry matters4 ,dr4 ,franklin ,b4 ,hough1 one of the signers of the memorial1 was appointed to the agency4 ,it is to be noted as characteristic of much ,american legislation1 that this agency was secured only as a 8rider0 to an appropriation for the distribution of seed4 ,while these were the beginnings of an official recognition of the subject by the federal government1 private enterprise and the separate ,states also started about the same time to forward the movement4 ,in #ahfg1 the agricultural and horticultural societies of ,wisconsin were invited by the legislature to appoint a committee to report on the disastrous effects of forest destruction4 ,in #ahfi1 the ,maine ,board of ,agriculture appointed a committee to report on a forest policy for the ,state1 leading to the act of #ahgb 8for the encouragement of the growth of trees1 exempting from taxation for twenty years lands planted to trees1 which law1 as far as we know1 remained without result4 ,about the same time a real wave of enthusiasm regarding the planting of timber seems to have pervaded the country1 and especially the ,western prairie ,states4 ,in addition to laws regarding the planting of trees on highways1 laws for the encouragement of timber planting1 either under bounty or exemption from taxation1 were passed in ,iowa1 ,kansas and ,wisconsin in #ahfh2 in ,nebraska and ,new ,york in #ahfi2 in ,missouri in #ahgj2 in ,minnesota in #ahga2 in ,iowa in #ahgb2 in ,nevada in #ahgc2 in ,illinois in #ahgd2 in ,dakota and ,connecticut in #ahge2 and finally the federal government joined in this kind of legislation by the so-called timber-culture acts of #ahgc and #ahgd1 amended in #ahgf and #ahgg4 ,for the most part these laws remained a dead letter1 excepting in the case of the federal government offer4 ,the encouragement by release from taxes was not much of an inducement2 nor does the bounty provision seem to have had greater success1 except in taking money out of the treasuries4 ,finally1 these laws were in many or most cases repealed4 ,the timber-culture act was passed by ,congress on ,march #c1 #ahgc1 by which the planting of timber on #dj acres of land 7or a proportionate area7 in the treeless territory1 conferred the title to #afj acres 7or a proportionate amount7 of the public domain4 ,this law had not been in existence ten years when its repeal was demanded1 and this was finally secured in #ahia1 the reason being that1 partly owing to the crude provisions of the law1 and partly to the lack of proper supervision1 it had been abused1 and had given rise to much fraud in obtaining title to lands under false pretenses4 ,it is difficult to say how much impetus the law gave to bonafide forest planting1 and how much timber growth has resulted from it4 ,unfavorable climate1 lack of satisfactory plant material1 and lack of knowledge as to the proper methods1 led to many failures4 ,a number of railroad companies1 opening up the prairie ,states1 planted at this time groves along the right of way for the sake of demonstrating the practicability of securing forest growth on the treeless prairies and plains4 ,there was also considerable planting of wind-breaks and groves on homesteads1 which was attended with better results4 ,altogether1 however1 the amount of tree planting1 even in the prairies and plains1 was infinitesimal1 if compared with what is necessary for climatic amelioration2 and it may be admitted1 now as well as later1 that the reforestation of the plains must be a matter of co-operative1 if not of national1 enterprise4 ,at this time also1 an effort was made to stimulate enthusiasm for tree planting among the homesteaders and settlers on the plains by the establishment of arbor days4 ,from its inception by ,governor ,j4 ,sterling ,morton1 and its first inauguration by the ,state ,board of ,agriculture of ,nebraska in #ahgb1 ,arbor ,day gradually became a day of observance in nearly every ,state4 ,while with the exception of the so-called treeless ,states1 perhaps not much planting of economic value is done1 the observance of the day in schools as one set apart for the discussion of the importance of trees1 forests and forestry has been productive of an increased interest in the subject4 ,arbor days have perhaps also had a retarding influence upon the practical forestry movement1 in leading people into the misconception that forestry consists in tree planting1 in diverting attention from the economic question of the proper use of existing forest areas1 in bringing into the discussion poetry and emotions1 which have clouded the hard-headed practical issues1 and delayed the earnest attention of practical business men4 ,private efforts in the ,east in the way of fostering and carrying on economic timber planting should not be forgotten1 such as the offering of prizes by the ,massachusetts ,society for the ,promotion of ,agriculture 7as early as #ahjd and again in #ahgf71 and the planting done by private land holders at ,cape ,cod1 in ,rhode ,island1 ,virginia1 and elsewhere4 ,these efforts1 to be sure1 were only sporadic and unsystematic1 and on no scale commensurate with the destruction of virgin forest resources4 ,a touching attempt of two noble ,frenchmen to teach their ,american hosts a better use of their magnificent forest resource1 although of little result1 should never fail of mention4 ,andr ,michaux and his son1 ,andr ,francois1 who1 between #aghe and #ahje1 explored and studied the forest flora of the ,united ,states1 and published a magnificent ,north ,american ,sylva in three volumes1 left1 in recognition of the hospitalities received1 two legacies of #bj1jjj for the 8extension and progress of agriculture and more especially of silviculture in the ,united ,states10 which bequests became available in #ahgj4 ,the ,american ,philosophical ,society at ,philadelphia1 a trustee of one of the legacies1 has devoted its income to beautification of ,fairmount ,park1 providing a few lectures on forest botany and forestry1 and collecting a forestry library1 while the other legacy has been used by the ,massachusetts ,society for the ,promotion of ,agriculture to aid the botanical gardens at ,harvard and the ,arnold ,arboretum1 besides offering the prizes for tree planting referred to above4 #c4 ,development of a ,forest ,policy4 ,this first period of desultory efforts to create public opinion on behalf of a more conservative use of forest resources was followed by a more systematic propaganda1 in which the ,division of ,forestry1 growing out of the agency in the ,department of ,agriculture1 took the lead4 ,this it did officially as well as by assisting the ,american ,forestry ,association1 soon after organized with a view of educating public opinion4 ,for #ae years1 the chief of the ,division acted either as ,secretary or ,chairman of the ,executive ,committee of the ,association4 ,the first forestry association had been formed on ,january #ab1 #ahgf1 in ,st4 ,paul1 ,minn41 largely through the efforts of ,leonard ,b4 ,hodges1 who was the first to make plantations in the prairies for the ,st4 ,paul and ,pacific ,railroad4 ,this association was aided by ,state appropriations1 which enabled it to offer premiums for the setting out of plantations1 to distribute plant material1 and also to publish and distribute widely a ,tree ,planters' ,manual1 revised editions of which were issued from time to time4 ,in #ahge1 ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,warder issued a call for a convention in ,chicago to form a national forestry association4 ,this association was completed1 in #ahgf1 at ,philadelphia1 but never showed any life or growth4 ,in #ahhb1 a number of patriotic citizens at ,cincinnati called together a forestry congress1 incited thereto by the visit and representations of ,baron von ,steuben1 a ,prussian forest official1 when visiting this country on the occasion of the centennial celebration of the surrender of ,yorktown4 ,a very enthusiastic and representative gathering1 on ,april #be1 was the result1 lasting through the week1 which led to the formation of the ,american ,forestry ,congress4 ,in the same year1 in ,august1 a second meeting was held in ,montreal1 under the patronage of the ,canadian government1 and the name was changed to the ,american ,forestry ,association4 ,in #ahih1 it began the publication of a propagandist journal1 ,the ,forester 7later changed to ,forestry and ,irrigation then to ,conservation1 and now again to ,american ,forestry74 ,it has now a member-ship of over #e1jjj4 ,much of the early educational propaganda was done through this association4 ,indeed1 this association1 holding yearly and intermediate meetings in different parts of the ,states1 became the center of all private efforts to advance the forestry movement4 ,twelve volumes of its proceedings contain not only the history of progress in establishing a forest policy1 but also much other information of value on forestry subjects4 ,other local or ,state forestry associations were formed from time to time1 more or less under the lead of the national association1 and exist now in almost every ,state1 while several other societies1 like the ,sierra ,nevada ,club and the ,mazamas of the ,pacific coast1 and ,state horticultural societies in various ,states1 made the subject one to be discussed and to be fostered4 ,the most active of these associations1 since it was formed in #ahhf1 publishing also a bi-monthly journal1 ,forest ,leaves 7at first less frequently71 is the ,pennsylvania ,state ,forestry ,association1 which has succeeded in thoroughly committing its ,state to a proper forest policy1 as far as official recognition is concerned4 ,usually as a result of this associated private effort1 the ,states appointed forestry commissions or commissioners4 ,these commissions were at first for the most part instituted for inquiry and to make reports1 upon which a forest policy for the ,state might be framed4 ,others have become permanent parts of the ,state organization1 with executive1 or merely educational functions4 ,such commissioners of inquiry were appointed at various times1 in ,connecticut 7#ahgg71 ,new ,hampshire 7#ahha and #ahhi71 ,vermont 7#ahhb71 ,new ,york 7#ahhd71 ,maine 7#ahia71 ,new ,jersey 7in ,geological ,survey #ahid71 ,pennsylvania 7#ahic71 ,north ,carolina 7in ,geological ,survey #ahia71 ,ohio 7#ahhe71 ,michigan 7#ahii71 ,wisconsin 7#ahig71 ,minnesota 7#ahii71 ,north ,dakota 7#ahia71 ,colorado 7#ahhe71 ,california 7#ahhe74 ,it was but natural in a democratic country that these movements sometimes became the play balls of self-seeking men1 political wire pullers1 and grafters1 or more often of ignorant amateurs and shallow sentimentalists1 aided by half-informed newspaper writers4 ,infinite patience was required to steer through these rocks the ship of true economic reform1 and to educate legislators and constituents to its true needs4 ,the very first forestry congress was really conceived with a view of advancing political preferment of one of its organizers1 and many another 8forestry0 meeting was utilized for a similar purpose1 the new1 catchy title attracting the gullible4 ,one of the first ,state forest commissions1 well endowed to do its work1 soon fell into the hands of grafters1 and created such scandals that they led to its abolishment1 and to a set-back in the movement everywhere4 ,arbor day sentimentalism discredited and clouded the issue before the business world2 the movement was in constant danger at the hands of its friends4 ,antagonism of the lumber world was aroused by the false idea of what the reform contemplated1 and1 in the absence of technically trained foresters to instruct the public and the amateur reformers1 and to convince legislators of the absolute need of discontinuing old established habits1 progress was naturally slow1 and experienced many setbacks4 ,it was a hard field to plow1 grown up with the weed growth of prejudice and custom1 and means and tools for the work were inadequate4 ,the federal government was naturally looked to to take the lead4 ,the first two agents1 employed in the ,department of ,agriculture to 8report on forestry01 unfortunately lacked all technical knowledge of the subject1 the first1 a most assiduous worker1 being a writer of local histories and gatherer of statistics1 the second a preacher4 ,the third1 the writer himself1 had at least the advantage of this technical training1 but1 at the same time1 the disadvantage of being a foreigner1 who had first to learn the limitations of democratic government4 ,only the paltry sum of #h1jjj was at his disposal for plowing the ground1 and even after the agency had been raised to the dignity of a ,division in #ahhf1 for years no adequate appropriations could be secured1 and hence the scope and usefulness of the work of the ,division was hampered4 ,the ,forestry ,association1 inaugurated with such a flourish of trumpets and with such a large membership at the start1 had in the first two years dwindled to a small number of faithful ones1 and was without funds when the writer became its secretary4 ,in spite of these drawbacks1 the propaganda had progressed so far in #ahia1 that1 through the earnest insistence of the then ,secretary of the ,interior1 ,john ,w4 ,noble1 who had been won over to the views for which the ,division and the ,association stood1 a clause was enacted by ,congress in 8,an act to repeal timber-culture laws and for other purposes10 giving authority to the ,president to set aside forest reservations from the public domain4 ,again1 this important legislation1 which changed the entire land policy and all previous notions of the government's functions concerning the ,public ,domain1 was not deliberately enacted1 but slipped in as a 8rider01 at the last hour1 in ,conference ,committee4 ,in this connection the name of ,edward ,a4 ,bowers1 in #ahhg ,special ,agent in the ,department of the ,interior1 and later ,assistant ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 deserves mention as most active in securing this reservation policy4 ,acting under this authority1 ,presidents ,harrison and ,cleveland proclaimed1 previous to #ahid1 seventeen forest reservations1 with a total estimated area of #ag1ejj1jjj acres4 ,the reservations were established usually upon the petition of citizens residing in the respective ,states and after due examination1 the ,forestry ,association acting both as instigator and as intermediary4 ,meanwhile no provision for the administration of the reserves existed1 and the comprehensive legislation devised by the ,chief of the ,division of ,forestry1 which included withdrawal and administration of all public timberlands1 failed to be enacted1 although in the ,fifty-third ,congress it was passed by both ,houses1 but failed to become a law merely for lack of time to secure a conference report4 ,but the purpose of the advocates of forestry was to create such a condition as would compel ,congress to act1 by continually withdrawing forested lands that would lie useless until authority was given for their proper use and administration4 ,in order to secure influential support from outside1 a committee of the ,forestry ,association induced the then ,secretary of the ,interior1 ,hoke ,smith1 in #ahif1 to request the ,national ,academy of ,sciences1 the legally constituted adviser of the government in scientific matters1 to investigate and report 8upon the inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forested lands of the ,united ,states40 ,after an unnecessary so-called 8junket0 of a committee of the ,academy to investigate the public timberlands1 a preliminary report was submitted recommending the creation of thirteen additional reservations1 with an area of over #bj million acres1 and later a complete report was made with practically the same recommendations which had been urged by the ,forestry ,association4 ,president ,cleveland1 heroically1 proclaimed the desired reserves all on one day1 ,washington's birthday1 #ahig1 without the usual preliminary ascertainment of local interests1 and immediately a storm broke loose in the ,united ,states ,senate1 which threatened the overthrow of the entire1 toilsomely achieved reservation policy2 and impeachment of the ,president was strongly argued in a two-day 7,sunday7 session4 ,congress1 however1 came to an end on ,march #d1 before it had taken any action1 but1 as it had also failed to pass the annual ,sundry ,civil ,appropriation ,bill1 it was immediately recalled in extra session4 ,then1 again1 by a clever trick and in an indirect and surreptitious manner1 instead of by open1 direct and straightforward consideration and deliberation of a proper policy1 most important legislation was secured in the ,sundry ,civil ,appropriation ,bill1 which provided for the temporary suspension of the reservations lately set aside until they could be more definitely delimited1 private claims adjusted1 and agricultural lands excluded1 by a survey1 for which #aej1jjj was appropriated to the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,the agricultural lands were then to be returned to the public domain for disposal4 ,at the same time1 provisions for the administration of the remaining reservations1 much in the sense of the legislation advocated by the ,division of ,forestry and by the ,forestry ,association1 and especially for the sale of timber1 were hung on to this appropriation clause4 ,under this act the reserves were administered until #aijd4 ,if the interior history of this bit of legislation were revealed1 it would probably appear that1 not conception of the importance of the subject1 but the need for the employment of a certain organized survey party in the ,geological ,survey was at the bottom of it4 ,while this law had set aside one year and a limited sum to accomplish the survey1 this could not1 of course1 be done1 and hence appropriations were continued1 and the date for the segregation of the lands was deferred sine die4 ,for years this forest survey continued1 giving rise to magnificent volumes1 issued from the ,geological ,survey1 describing the forest reservations--a very useful1 educational piece of work1 not at all contemplated by the legislation--for which not less than #a4e million have been expended4 ,by #aije some #aaj1jjj square miles had been examined when this work was handed over to the ,forestry ,bureau4 ,thus it happened1 almost by accident1 that finally the aims of the reformers were realized1 the appointment of forest superintendents1 rangers1 etc41 to take charge of the forest reservations was secured1 and rules and regulations for their administration were formulated by the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 marking the beginning of a settled policy on the part of the ,united ,states government to take care of its long neglected forest lands4 ,in this work of first organization the name of ,filibert ,roth1 a ,german-born forester1 deserves mention4 ,meanwhile1 the ,division of ,forestry had continued to bring together and distribute in the shape of reports1 bulletins1 circulars1 addresses and letters1 such information useful for the education of the public1 of wood consumers1 and timberland owners1 as its limited appropriations permitted1 undertaking also some scientific investigations1 especially in the line of timber physics4 ,soon after1 in ,july1 #ahih1 when the writer resigned his position as ,chief of the ,division of ,forestry1 to organize the first professional forest school1 the ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,forestry1 ,mr4 ,gifford ,pinchot1 took charge of the division4 ,young1 ambitious1 aggressive1 with some knowledge of forestry acquired in ,europe and with influential connections and a large fortune1 he easily secured the first need for effective sowing on the well-plowed field before him--appropriations4 ,whatever had been feebly begun could be broadly1 sometimes lavishly1 extended1 and the new idea of making 8working plans0 for private timberland owners could be developed--a great educational work1 which1 earlier1 when even co-operation with ,state institutions was considered a questionable proposition1 would have been turned down as too paternal4 ,in five years the appropriations had increased tenfold1 to over #bej1jjj2 and in the first decade of the new regime1 around #c1jjj1jjj had been spent on forestry investigations1 not counting expenditures on forest reservation account4 ,a further strong support came into the field1 when ,mr4 ,roosevelt became ,president of the ,united ,states1 in #aija1 and unreservedly threw his overpowering influence into the balance1 to advance forest policies4 ,owing to his interest1 the withdrawal of public timberlands from entry proceeded at a rapid rate3 by #aijb1 the reservations had grown to #fe million acres2 in #aije1 there were over #ajj million acres included2 and by the end of his administration1 #age million acres had been placed in reservation4 ,the anomalous condition1 which placed the survey of the forest reserves in the ,geological ,survey1 their administration in the ,land ,office1 and the scientific or technical development of forestry in the ,department of ,agriculture1 was finally ended in #aijd1 when1 on ,february #ast1 the whole matter was placed in the hands of the ,department of ,agriculture1 with its ,forestry ,division1 which had been changed into a ,bureau of ,forestry1 and then changed its name again to ,forest ,service4 ,with this transfer1 it may be said1 the federal forest policy was fully established1 at least for its own lands1 and all that remains to be done is the perfection of details in their administration and the development of silvicultural methods4 ,with appropriations which now 7#aijg7 exceed #iej1jjj for investigating work alone1 limitless opportunity seems to be open to extend the many directions of inquiry and solve the silvicultural problems1 and satisfy the educational function of this government agency4 ,but1 besides the administration of the federal timberlands and the educational and other assistance of private owners1 a further expansion of the ,forest ,service is developing under the paternalistic and socialistic tendencies referred to before1 which may ultimately lead to the purchase and federal control of forest reserves in the ,eastern ,states4 ,such expansion1 was1 indeed1 proposed in the establishment of reserves in the ,white ,mountains and the ,southern ,appalachians1 propositions which have been resisted by ,congress for the last seven years1 but with ever weakening resistance4 ,finally in #aiaj1 success was attained1 and the federal government placed in position to acquire these forest areas1 to the amount of #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,meanwhile the single states have begun to develop their own policies4 ,outside of legislation aiming at protection against forest fires--which nearly every ,state possessed from early times1 ineffective for lack of machinery to carry it into effect--and outside of the futile attempts to encourage timber planting referred to1 no interest in timberlands was evinced by ,state authorities for the first two-thirds of the century1 since practically all these lands had been disposed of to private owners1 and the authorities did not see any further duties regarding them4 ,the first ,state to institute a commission of inquiry was ,wisconsin1 in #ahfg2 but with the rendering of the report1 prepared by ,i4 ,a4 ,lapham1 one of the active early propagandists--the matter was allowed to mature for thirty years4 ,the next ,state to move1 in a feeble way1 in #ahgf1 was ,minnesota1 the legislature making an annual grant of money to its forestry association4 ,the appointment of commissions of inquiry then became fashionable4 ,new ,hampshire appointed such a commission in #ahha1 which reported in #ahhe1 without result1 and another commission in #ahhi1 whose report1 in #ahic1 led to the establishment of a permanent commission of inquiry and advice1 with a partial supervision of forest fire laws4 ,vermont followed suit with a commission of inquiry1 in #ahhb1 whose report made in #ahhd1 remained without consequences4 ,in ,michigan the expedient was resorted to of constituting the ,state ,board of ,agriculture a commission of inquiry1 whose report1 published in #ahhh1 had also no consequences except those of an educational character4 ,similarly1 the ,state of ,massachusetts ordered the ,state ,board of ,agriculture in #ahij1 to inquire 8into the consideration of the forests of the ,state1 the need and methods of their protection10 with similar results1 or lack of result4 ,in ,new ,jersey1 the matter was referred to the ,state ,geologist1 who1 since #ahid1 has made reports on forest conditions and needs4 ,similar reference of the subject was made in the ,state of ,north ,carolina1 in #ahia1 and in ,west ,virginia4 ,the first more permanent ,state institution deliberately established as an educational and advisory agent was the ,forestry ,bureau of ,ohio1 in #ahhe1 which published a number of annual reports1 but eventually collapsed for lack of support4 ,in the same year1 three important ,states1 ,new ,york in the ,east1 ,colorado in the ,middle ,states1 and ,california in the ,west1 seemed simultaneously to have awakened to their duty1 largely as a result of the propaganda of the ,american ,forestry ,association4 ,in ,california1 a ,state ,board of ,forestry was instituted1 with considerable power and ample appropriations1 which1 however1 eventually fell into the hands of unscrupulous politicians and grafters1 the resulting scandals leading to its abolishment in #ahhi4 ,in ,colorado1 which when admitted to ,statehood in #ahgf1 had1 in its ,constitution1 directed the general assembly to legislate on behalf of the forestry interests of the ,state1 these interests were rather tardily committed to a forest commissioner1 who was charged to organize county commissioners and road overseers throughout the ,state as forest officers in their respective localities1 to act as a police force in preventing depredations on timbered school lands and in enforcing the fire laws4 ,col4 ,e4,t4 ,ensign1 who had been most instrumental in bringing about this legislation1 was appointed commissioner1 and1 with singular devotion1 in spite of the enmity aroused by his activity1 which eventually led to a discontinuance of appropriations1 tried1 for a number of years to execute this law4 ,with his resignation from the office1 this legislation also fell into innocuous desuetude4 ,in ,new ,york1 concern in the water supply for the ,erie ,canal1 had led such a far sighted statesman as ,horatio ,seymour1 twice ,governor of the ,state and once running for the ,presidency1 to conceive the need of preserving the ,adirondack watershed in ,state hands4 ,accordingly a law was passed1 in #ahgb1 naming seven citizens1 with ,horatio ,seymour chairman1 as ,state park commission1 instructed to make inquiries with the view of reserving or appropriating the wild lands lying northward of the ,mohawk1 or so much thereof as might be deemed expedient1 for a ,state park4 ,the commission1 finding that the ,state then owned only #dj1jjj acres in that region1 and that there was a tendency on the part of the owners of the rest to combine for the enhancement of values should the ,state want to buy1 recommended a law forbidding further sales of ,state lands1 and their retention when forfeited for the non-payment of taxes4 ,it was not until eleven years later1 in #ahhc1 that this recommendation was acted upon1 when the ,state through the non-payment of taxes by the owners of cut-over lands had become possessed of #fjj1jjj acres4 ,in #ahhd1 the comptroller was authorized to employ 8such experts as he may deem necessary to investigate and report a system of forest preservation40 ,the report of a commission of four members was made in #ahhe1 but the legislation proposed was antagonized by the lumbermen's interests4 ,the legislature finally passed a compromise bill1 which the writer had drafted at the request of ,senator ,lowe1 entitled 8,an act establishing a forest commission1 and to define its powers1 and for the preservation of forests10 the most comprehensive legislation at that time4 ,the original forest commission1 appointed under the act of #ahhe1 was superseded in #ahie1 by the commission of fisheries1 game1 and forests1 which brought allied interests under the control of a single board of five members appointed by the ,governor for a term of five years4 ,in #aijc1 the commission was changed to a single commissioner1 and another backward step was taken in #aiaa by handing over the work of this commissioner to the newly created ,state ,conservation ,commission1 consolidating with it several other commissions4 ,here1 then1 for the first time on the ,american continent1 had the idea of ,state forestry1 management of ,state lands on forestry principles1 taken shape2 a new doctrine of ,state functions had gained the day4 ,not only was the commission charged to organize a service1 with a 8chief forester0 and 8underforesters10 to administer the existing reserve according to forestry principles1 but also from the incomes to lay aside a fund for the purchase of more lands to constitute the ,state forest preserve4 ,unfortunately1 instability of purpose1 the characteristic of democracy1 spoiled the dream of the forester4 ,both1 commission and chief forester were1 of course1 political appointees1 and1 rightly or wrongly1 fell under the suspicion1 when proposing the sale of stumpage1 that they were working into the hands of lumbermen4 ,a set of well-meaning but ill-advised civic reformers succeeded1 in #ahic1 in securing the insertion into the ,constitution1 then being revised1 of a clause preventing the cutting of trees1 dead or alive1 on ,state lands1 declaring that they shall forever be kept as 8wild lands40 ,later1 this constitutional provision was deliberately set aside by the commission1 which began to plant up some of the fire-wasted areas1 the legislature appropriating money for this breach of the ,constitution because it was popular3 and lately permission has also been granted by the legislature to remove trees from burnt areas in order to reduce the fire danger--the foolish objection of a ,constitution notwithstanding4 ,in #ahig1 new legislation was passed to authorize the ,state to purchase additional forest lands within a prescribed limit1 to round off the ,state's holdings1 a special agency1 the ,forest ,preserve ,board1 being constituted for that purpose4 ,under this law1 some #c1ejj1jjj have been spent1 and by #aijg1 over one and a half million acres had been added to the ,state ,forest ,preserve4 ,this large area is withdrawn from rational economic use1 reserved for a pleasure ground of wealthy ,new ,yorkers1 who have located their camps in the 8wilderness0 under the avowed assumption that the ,state can be forced to maintain forever this anomalous condition4 ,in later years1 private planting has been encouraged by the ,commission selling plant material from the ,state nurseries at low rates4 ,the most important administrative function of the ,commission has been the reduction of forest fires1 in which1 also owing to political conditions1 only partial success has been attained4 ,the legislation of #ahhe for the first time attacked this problem in a more thorough manner1 providing for the organization of a service1 and this served as an example to other ,states who copied and improved on it4 ,notably the forest fire legislation of ,maine 7#ahia71 of ,wisconsin 7#ahie71 and of ,minnesota 7#ahie7 was based on this model4 ,another of the large ,states to start upon and1 differently from ,new ,york1 to develop consistently a proper forest policy1 was the ,state of ,pennsylvania4 ,as a result of a persistent propaganda by the ,pennsylvania ,forestry ,association1 formed in #ahhf1 and especially by its active secretary1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,rothrock1 a commission of inquiry was instituted in #ahic4 ,before its report was established1 the legislature of #ahie provided for an executive ,department of ,agriculture1 and included in its organization a provision for a ,division of ,forestry1 the botanist member of the previous commission1 ,dr4 ,rothrock1 being appointed ,commissioner of ,forestry at the head of the ,division4 ,two years later1 the final legislation1 which firmly established a forest policy for the ,state1 was passed namely for the purchase of ,state forest reservations4 ,all later legislation was simply an expansion of these propositions4 ,by #aiaj1 the ,state had acquired by purchase1 wild1 mostly culled lands to the extent of over #ijj1jjj acres1 and the ,commission had progressed far towards providing for their management and recuperation4 ,the unusually disastrous conflagrations of #ahid2 the growing conviction that the pleaders of the exhaustibility of timber supplies were right1 accentuated by a rapid decline in ,white ,pine production and a rapid1 and1 indeed1 almost sudden1 rise in stumpage prices2 the example which the federal government had set in withdrawing public timberlands from spoliation2 together with an increasing number1 not only of advocates of saner methods1 but of technically educated men1 who came from the schools lately organized--all these influences had worked as a leaven in all parts of the country so as to bring in the new century with a realization of the seriousness of the situation4 ,and1 within the first seven years of the century1 the change of attitude1 at least1 was almost completed in all parts of the country1 and among all classes1 the lumbermen and others depending directly on wood supplies becoming especially prominent in recognizing the need and value of forestry4 ,state after ,state came into line in recognizing that it had a duty to perform1 and in some way gave expression to this recognition1 so that1 by #aijh1 hardly a ,state was without at least a germ of a forest policy4 ,two principles had been recognized as correct and were brought into practice1 namely1 that the forest interests of the ,state called for direct ,state activity1 and that eventually the ,state must own and manage at least portions of the forest area4 ,the first principle took shape in appointing single ,state foresters1 as in ,maine 7#ahia and #aijc72 in ,massachusetts 7#aijd72 in ,connecticut 7#aijc72 in ,vermont 7#aijf72 in ,rhode ,island 7#aijf72 or ,commissions or ,boards as in ,new ,york 7#ahhe71 changed to a single commissioner with ,superintendent and ,state foresters in #aijc2 in ,pennsylvania 7#aija72 in ,new ,hampshire 7#ahic72 ,maryland with a ,state forester 7#aije72 ,wisconsin1 with a ,state forester 7#aije72 ,indiana 7#aija-jc72 ,louisiana1 with a ,state forester 7#aijd72 ,michigan 7#ahii72 ,minnesota 7#ahii72 ,california 7revived1 with a ,state forester1 in #aije72 ,washington1 with a ,state forester 7#aije72 ,kentucky 7#aijf72 in ,new ,jersey1 with a ,state forester 7#aijd72 ,alabama 7#aijg74 ,a very important feature in these appointments was the fact1 that1 more and more professional or technically educated men displaced the merely political appointees1 or were at least added to the commissions4 ,the idea of ,state forests found expression1 more or less definitely1 in setting aside forest reservations or else in enabling the ,state to accept and administer donations of forest lands4 ,among the ,states recognizing this principle were ,new ,hampshire1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,jersey1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 ,indiana1 ,california4 ,where neither of these two principles had as yet found application1 at least some agency was established to give advice and investigate or experiment in matters of forest interests1 and sometimes to offer assistance to private woodland owners or planters1 as in ,delaware1 ,ohio1 ,north ,carolina1 etc4 ,meanwhile1 largely through the influence and with the co-operation of the federal ,bureau of ,forestry1 private owners had begun1 if not to apply1 at least to study the possibility of the application of forestry to their holdings4 ,the ,bureau prepared 8working plans0 which were now and then followed in part1 or at least led to attempts at a more conservative method of logging4 ,notably1 various paper and pulp manufacturers realized the usefulness of more systematic attention and conservative methods in the use of their properties4 ,in this connection the object lesson furnished by ,mr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,vanderbilt on his ,biltmore ,estate in ,north ,carolina1 which was begun by ,mr4 ,pinchot and conducted by ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,schenck1 a ,german forester1 requires special mention as the first1 and for nearly #bj years continued experiment in applying forestry methods systematically in ,america4 ,at present writing the continuance of this experiment is in doubt4 ,with the second decade of the century1 we shall enter upon the flood tide of development1 when no more need of argument for its necessity1 and only the question of practicable methods1 will occupy us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so far1 silviculturally1 the selection forest1 i4e41 culling the best and the stoutest1 practiced hitherto by the lumberman1 without reference to reproduction1 but carried on somewhat more conservatively1 is still the method advocated in most cases by the ,forest ,service4 ,this so-called conservative lumbering is1 to be sure1 the transition to better methods4 ,according to reports of the federal ,forest ,service in #aijg1 some million acres of private timberland were under forest management or conservatively lumbered4 ,planting of waste or logged lands1 as distinguished from planting in the prairies1 which had1 sporadically and in a small way1 been done by individuals here and there for many years1 is practised in ever increasing amount1 both by ,state administrations and by private owners2 the ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,forestry starting such planting in its ,college ,forest on a larger scale and systematically1 in #ahii4 ,at present writing1 the forestry department of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company is perhaps the largest single planter in the country1 having set out over four million trees 7by #aiaj71 with the avowed purpose of growing railroad ties4 ,by #aijh1 popular interest in forest conservation had become so keen1 and at the same time paternalistic tendencies so fully developed by the ,roosevelt administration--the federal government having entered upon extensive plans of reclaiming lands by irrigation1 and preparing to develop water powers1 and inland waterways1--that the time seemed ripe to bring all these conservative forces into unity4 ,the ,president called together in conference the governors of all the ,states with their advisers1 together with the presidents of the various national societies interested1 and others1 to discuss the broad question of the conservation of natural resources4 ,as a consequence national and ,state ,conservation ,associations and ,commissions were formed in all parts of the ,union1 and a new era of active interest in economic development seems to have arrived4 #d4 ,education and ,literature4 ,the primary education of the people at large and of their governments in particular1 the propaganda for the economic reform contemplated by the forestry movement1 was carried on1 as stated1 by the federal ,division of ,forestry and especially by the forestry associations1 which sprang up in all parts of the country1 by means of their annual and special meetings1 aided by the general press and sometimes by special publications4 ,the first ,journal of ,forestry1 a monthly publication1 ventured into the world as a private enterprise1 edited by ,dr4 ,hough1 soon after the ,forestry ,congress in ,cincinnati1 but it survived just one year1 vanishing for lack of readers4 ,this was followed by irregularly appearing ,forestry ,bulletins1 of which the writer prepared four under the aegis of the ,american ,forestry ,association4 ,in #ahhf1 the ,pennsylvania ,forestry ,association began the publication of a bi-monthly journal1 ,forest ,leaves1 which has persisted to this day4 ,in #ahie1 ,dr4 ,john ,gifford launched another bi-monthly1 the ,new ,jersey ,forester1 soon to change its name to ,the ,forester1 and under that name1 three years later1 taken over by the ,american ,forestry ,association1 continued as ,forestry and ,irrigation1 changed to ,conservation and now again changed to ,american ,forestry4 ,now1 half a dozen or more similar publications emanate from the various ,state ,associations4 ,in this connection there should not be forgotten the journal1 ,garden and ,forest1 edited by ,professor ,c4 ,s4 ,sargent1 which for ten years1 from #ahhh to #ahig1 did much to enlighten the public on forestry matters4 ,some provision for technical education was made long before opportunity for its application had arisen1 and1 indeed1 before any professional foresters were in existence to do the teaching4 ,the new doctrine attracted the attention of educational institutions1 and the desire to assist in the popular movement led to the introduction of the subject1 at least by name1 into their curricula2 the professor of botany or of horticulture1 adding 8forestry0 to his title1 and explaining in a few lectures the objects1 and1 as far as he knew them1 the methods of forestry2 or1 at least some lectures on dendrology and forest geography were introduced in the botanical courses4 ,by #ahig1 twenty institutions--land grant colleges--had in this way introduced the subject4 ,perhaps the first attempt to present systematically a whole course of technical forestry matter to a class of students was a series of twelve lectures1 delivered by the writer1 at the ,massachusetts ,college of ,agriculture in #ahhg1 and another to students of political economy at ,wisconsin ,university in #ahig4 ,the era of professional forest schools1 however1 was1 inaugurated in #ahih1 when the writer organized the ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,forestry at ,cornell ,university1 and almost simultaneously ,dr4 ,schenck opened a private school at ,biltmore4 ,a year later1 another ,forest school was opened at ,yale ,university1 an endowment of the ,pinchots1 father and sons4 ,in #aijc1 the ,university of ,michigan added a professional department of forestry1 and then followed a real flood of educational enthusiasm1 one institution after another seeing the necessity for adding the subject as an integral part to its courses4 ,before there were enough competent men in the field1 some twenty colleges or universities called for teachers1 besides private institutions4 ,an inevitable result of this over-production of forest schools and of foresters all at once must be an overcrowding of the profession with mediocre men before the profession is really fully established4 ,brief reference to the history of the first school1 established by the ,state of ,new ,york1 may be of interest1 as exemplifying in a striking manner the political troubles besetting reforms under republican conditions4 ,but for a similar occurrence in ,france 7see p4 #bdb71 this case might be unique in the history of educational institutions4 ,although the school thrived almost beyond expectation1 having in its fourth year attained in numbers to #gj1 larger than any ,french or ,german forest school at the time1 and readily finding employment for its graduates1 it suddenly came to an end in #aijc4 ,its appropriation1 unanimously voted in the ,legislature1 was vetoed by the ,governor1 on the alleged ground that the silvicultural methods applied in the demonstration forest of the ,college 8had been subjected to grave criticism40 ,it is true the only silvicultural method officially sanctioned 7by the ,forest ,service71 the selection forest1 had not been applied1 yet the war against the ,college being waged by two wealthy bankers of ,new ,york and the well-known character of the then ,governor suggest that other 8considerations0 than mere criticism of professional judgment were at the bottom of his action4 ,as from the start1 the federal ,forestry ,bureau naturally continued in ever increasing degree to be the educator of the nation1 not only as regards popular conceptions and attitudes1 but as regards technical matter4 ,its bulletins1 circulars1 and reports on the subjects which come under investigation form the bulk of the ,american literature on the technical side of the subject4 ,during the first #bj years of its existence1 some #bj1jjj pages of printed matter were produced1 and the next decade increased the crop of information apace4 ,at first intended for popular propaganda1 the matter printed was naturally argumentative1 statistical and descriptive1 but gradually more and more technical matter filled the pages1 and now most of the publications are of technical nature4 ,one of the first extensive and important lines of investigation undertaken by the ,division was that into the characteristics and strength1 the timber physics1 of ,american woods1 which in its comprehensiveness commanded the admiration of even the ,germans1 and gave rise to a series of reports4 ,the biology of ,american species1 more or less exhaustively studied1 was also begun in the old ,division1 as well as forest surveys1 etc4 ,by #aijb1 enough professional interest was in the country to make the publication of a professional journal possible and desirable1 the ,forestry ,quarterly being launched by the writer1 with a ,board of ,editors chosen mainly from the forest schools4 ,the first association of professional foresters was formed in #aijj--the ,society of ,american ,foresters--which issues from time to time proceedings containing technical discussions4 ,the technical book literature1 partly due1 no doubt1 to the overpowering publication facilities of the federal government1 is still scanty1 and good textbooks especially are still lacking in most branches4 ,a series of ephemeral popular books answered the demands of earlier days1 but outside of ,professor ,henry ,s4 ,graves' volumes on ,forest ,mensuration and lately on ,the ,principles of ,handling ,woodlands1 and a few minor aid books and lecture notes1 there is as yet nothing of permanent value to be recorded4 ,the writers' own publication1 ,economics of ,forestry1 is intended less for foresters than students of political economy4 ,three monumental works can be mentioned in the dendrological line1 however1 namely the #ajth volume of the ,,xii ,census 7#ahhj7 on the ,forests of ,north ,america2 ,micheaux and ,nuttall's ,north ,american ,silva in #e volumes1 #ahfe2 and ,c4 ,s4 ,sargent's ,silva of the ,united ,states1 in #ad magnificent volumes1--three publications which can take rank with any similar literature anywhere4 ,,insular ,,possessions4 ,the ,spanish ,war1 in #ahih1 brought to the ,united ,states new outlying territory1 over #aej1jjj square miles1 in three locations1 the relationship as regards government varying in the three cases1 namely ,porto ,rico1 the ,sandwich ,islands1 and the ,philippine ,islands1 besides several smaller islands in the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,while the latter are only temporarily under control or tutelage of the ,united ,states1 and are expected sooner or later to attain complete self government1 ,hawaii was annexed as a ,territory in the same sense as all other ,territories1 the inhabitants having become citizens of the ,united ,states1 while ,porto ,rico is a dependency with partial self-government1 but its inhabitants do not enjoy citizenship in the ,states4 ,all these islands are located in the tropics and hence the composition of the forest is of tropical species4 ,commercially1 the forests of ,porto ,rico and of ,hawaii are relatively of little value1 but their protective value is paramount1 and a conservative policy is needed in order to preserve the water supply for agricultural use 7sugar plantations in ,hawaii7 and to prevent erosion4 ,for ,porto ,rico1 a beginning of forest policy was made by setting aside1 in #aijc1 the ,luquillo ,forest ,reservation1 some #bj1jjj acres in the ,eastern mountainous part of the island1 which is under direct control of the ,united ,states government4 ,the rest of public lands and forests was placed under the ,department of the ,interior of the island4 ,in ,hawaii1 even before annexation1 a movement on the part of the ,sugar ,planters ,association was made in #ahig1 to induce the insular government to devise protective measures4 ,the result was the appointment of a ,committee who made a report in which the writer had a hand4 ,but not until #aijc was a ,board of ,commissioners of ,agriculture and ,forestry established1 a ,superintendent of ,forestry appointed1 an organization of district foresters effected1 and a number of forest reservations established4 ,the principle of ,state forest was fully recognized by planning the gradual withdrawal of some #cjj1jjj acres and by beginning the extension of forested area by plantations4 ,in #aiaj1 #bc reserves with an area of #ege1jjj acres had been made4 ,distribution of plant material and of advice to planters is also part of the policy4 ,annual ,reports are issued which attest the good common sense in the administration4 ,in the ,philippine ,islands1 a territory of #abj1jjj square miles1 largely mountainous1 not only the protective but the commercial value of the timberlands is considerable4 ,the extent is variously estimated as covering between #dj and #ej million acres 7#ej of total area71 much of it virgin1 and #af million acres of it commercially valuable4 ,of the seven hundred odd species of trees1 mostly heavy woods1 composing the forest1 some #afj are marketable at home and in ,china2 yet almost fifty per cent4 of the home consumption is imported from the ,states1 owing to absence or inaccessibility of softwoods1 and high cost due to excessive expense of present logging methods4 ,when the ,united ,states took charge of the islands it was found that the ,spaniards had since #ahfc a forestry service1 manned by ,spanish foresters1 and in the lower ranks by ,filipinos4 ,to be sure1 the activities of this forestry bureau went hardly beyond the collection of dues for timber licenses1 which yielded little more than the cost of the service1 although on paper excellent instructions were found elaborated4 ,it so happened that an officer of the ,american army1 ,captain ,george ,p4 ,ahern1 had for some time given attention to forestry matters in the ,states1 and he naturally was placed in charge of this bureau1 in #aijj4 ,there were found to be around one million acres private and church property1 the rest being considered ,state lands1 but all private owners were required to register their holdings before being allowed to exercise their rights4 ,a system of licenses for cutting timber1 and of free use permits to the poor population was continued after ,spanish models4 ,not only was an efficient administration gradually secured1 but the technical side of dendrological and silvicultural knowledge was developed as rapidly as possible under the able administration of ,captain ,ahern1 a continuously growing literature being the result4 ,,index4 ,,administration1 ,austria1 #afg2 ,canada1 #dbd2 ,denmark1 #caf2 ,finland1 #bha2 ,france1 #bag1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bbd2 ,germany1 #hj1 #abj;ff2 ,great ,britain1 #cge2 ,greece1 #ccb1 #ccc2 ,hungary1 #aha2 ,india1 #cif2 ,italy1 #cci2 ,japan1 #dej;ff2 ,norway1 #cji1 #caa2 ,portugal1 #cfb2 ,roumania1 #cbe1 #cbg2 ,russia1 #bfh1 #bfi2 ,spain1 #cei2 ,sweden1 #bia1 #cja1 #cjb2 ,switzerland1 #aig2 ,united ,states1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #dhh4 ,africa1 #dci4 ,alabama1 #dif4 ,albania1 #cbb4 ,algiers1 #bbc1 #bej4 ,allmende 7,germany71 #bh4 ,allotment methods1 #gc1 #aad1 #abj1 #cjc4 ,andr1 #aae4 ,andrews1 #dgd4 ,arabia1 #ae4 ,arborday1 ,germany1 #fc2 ,italy1 #cdh2 ,japan1 #ddi2 ,spain1 #cfj2 ,united ,states1 #dgg4 ,area allotment1 ,austria1 #agj2 ,france1 #bdj2 ,germany1 #aad2 ,sweden1 #cjc4 ,area division1 ,france1 #bdj2 ,germany1 #dj1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd2 ,russia1 #bgd4 ,arnold1 #bgb4 ,artaxerxes1 regulations by1 #aj4 ,aschaffenburg1 #adf4 ,asia ,minor1 #aj4 ,associations1 ,austria1 #agf2 ,canada1 #dce2 ,denmark1 #cai2 ,finland1 #bhd2 ,france1 #bdg2 ,germany1 #adh2 ,great ,britain1 #cgh2 ,greece1 #ccd2 ,hungary1 #ahd2 ,italy1 #cdi2 ,japan1 #ded2 ,norway1 #cad2 ,roumania1 #cbf2 ,russia1 #bga1 #bgb2 ,sweden1 #cje2 ,switzerland1 #bja2 ,united ,states1 #dgi1 #dhj1 #dha1 #ejc4 ,australia1 #ddj4 ,austria1 #aeb4 ,,baden1 #abj4 ,baden-,powell1 #cij1 #djh4 ,bagneris1 #bdb1 #bdf4 ,balestrieri1 #cdg4 ,ball planting1 ,germany1 #fe4 ,banforest1 ,austria1 #afc2 ,germany1 #ba2 ,great ,britain1 #cgj2 ,italy1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cdf2 ,japan1 #ddh2 ,russia1 #bfa2 ,switzerland1 #aij4 ,barres1 #bdd4 ,baudrillart1 #bdb1 #bde4 ,baur1 #acc1 #acg1 #ach1 #adj1 #adg4 ,bavaria1 #aai4 ,bechstein1 ,j4 ,m41 #aca1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adh4 ,beckman1 ,j4 ,g41 #gc1 #gf1 #hg4 ,beckman1 ,j41 #ij1 #ia4 ,bedemar1 #bgc4 v4 ,behlen1 #adj1 #aej4 ,behm1 #acf4 ,bein and ,eyber1 #ach4 v4 ,berlepsch1 #fg1 #hh4 ,berlin forest school1 #hc1 #hd4 ,bern1 #bjj4 ,bernhardt1 #aej4 ,bertram1 #dcd4 ,betulomania 7,germany71 #ff4 ,biermans1 #ajg4 ,biltmore1 #dig4 ,bohemia1 #agj1 #agb1 #agf4 ,boppe1 #bdb1 #bdf4 ,borggreve1 #aab1 #aca1 #ach1 #adj1 #aej4 ,borkhausen1 #adj4 ,bose1 #adj4 ,bosnia-,herzegovina1 #aee1 #aff4 ,bowers1 #dhc4 ,brandis1 #chc1 #cid1 #djb1 #dje1 #djf1 #djh4 ,braun1 #acb4 ,brmontier1 #bbe4 ,brewer1 #dgd4 ,breymann1 #acd4 v4 ,brocke1 #hi4 ,broillard1 #bdb1 #bdf4 ,bchting1 #hg4 ,buffon1 #bcg1 #bci1 #bde4 ,bhler1 #bjb4 ,bulgaria1 #cbb4 ,bunch planting1 ,germany1 #ajh4 ,burgsdorf1 #hd1 #aje4 ,burkhardt1 #ajh1 #aca1 #adj1 #aej4 ,butlar1 #ajg4 ,,california1 #dia1 #dif1 #dig4 ,calipers1 #acd4 ,cameralists1 ,austria1 #afh2 ,germany1 #eg1 #ha1 #abb1 #adc4 ,canada1 #dji4 ,cape ,colony1 #dci4 ,carlowitz1 #fd1 #fh1 #hf4 ,catalpa 7,germany71 #ff4 ,cato1 #ai1 #bj4 ,ceylon1 #dch4 ,champagne1 reboisement 7,france71 #bbi4 ,chevandier1 #bdg4 ,church forests1 #ad1 #df1 #ee1 #ic4 ,city forests 7,germany71 #cd1 #df1 #ef4 ,clav1 #bch1 #bci4 ,clearing system1 ,france1 #bah2 ,germany1 #ajh2 ,italy1 #cch2 ,india1 #djb2 ,sweden1 #cjb4 ,cleghorn1 #cic4 ,cleopatra1 #aj4 ,cleveland1 #dhd1 #dhe4 ,clinton1 #dfh4 ,cloister forests1 ,germany1 #cg1 #df1 #ee1 #ic4 ,clovis1 #bi1 #cj4 ,coaz1 #aia1 #bjb4 ,cochin ,china1 #bea4 ,code forestier1 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,colbert1 #bae4 ,colbert's ordinance1 ,france1 #bce1 #bch4 ,colerus1 #he4 ,colonies1 7,french71 #bdh-beb2 7,great ,britain71 #chj-dda4 ,colorado1 #dij1 #dia4 ,columella1 #ai1 #bj4 ,commissions1 ,austria1 #afb1 #agd2 ,canada1 #dcd1 #dcf2 ,france1 #bae2 ,great ,britain1 #cge1 #cgf1 #cgg2 ,hungary1 #aha2 ,italy1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cde2 ,norway1 #cjh1 #cji1 #cab2 ,russia1 #bfc1 #bff2 ,spain1 #cee2 ,sweden1 #bie1 #big1 #bii2 ,united ,states1 #dge1 #dha1 #dhi1 #dib1 #dic1 #did4 ,communal forests1 ,austria1 #aeh1 #agd2 ,france1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bdj2 ,finland1 #bhj2 ,germany1 #bh1 #df1 #ef1 #id1 #abg2 ,hungary1 #ahj2 ,india1 #cij1 #cia2 ,italy1 #cci2 ,japan1 #ddf2 ,norway1 #cjg1 #cab2 ,russia1 #bei1 #bfj2 ,sweden1 #bia1 #bic2 ,switzerland1 #aie4 ,compartment method1 ,germany1 #fa4 ,conifer planting1 ,germany1 #fe4 ,connecticut1 #dif1 #dig4 ,conservation1 ,united ,states1 #dii4 ,conservation ,board1 ,sweden1 #bii4 ,consumption1 world1 #d4 ,coopers ,hill1 #cgh1 #djf4 ,coppice1 ,france1 #bcd2 ,germany1 #fj1 #aaj2 ,india1 #djb2 ,italy1 #ag1 #cch2 ,switzerland1 #aii4 ,corporation forests1 see ,communal ,forests4 v4 ,cotta1 #hc1 #ii1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aai1 #acj1 #aca1 #ace1 #ach1 #adj1 #add1 #ade1 #agj1 #bdb1 #bdf4 ,cramer1 #hi4 de ,crescentiis1 #he1 #bdd4 ,cyprus1 #aj1 #dci4 ,,dalhousie1 #cic4 ,dalmatia1 #afa4 ,dankelmann1 #adj1 #aej4 ,d',arcy1 #djh4 ,dehra ,dun1 #djg4 ,delaware1 #dig4 ,demontzey1 #bdf4 ,denmark1 #cad4 ,diameter limit1 ,canada1 #dbg2 ,france1 #bce2 ,germany1 #dj1 #di2 ,sweden1 #bic1 #bih4 pricemaker1 ,germany1 #gd4 ,diodorus1 #ad1 #af4 ,doebel1 #ge1 #hf4 ,dokuchaev1 #bgc4 ,dombrowski1 #aca4 ,dralet1 #bde4 ,draudt1 #acf4 ,duhamel1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bde4 ,,ebermayer1 #adb4 ,eberswalde1 #adf4 ,egypt1 #ad1 #af4 ,eisenach1 #adf4 ,endres1 #add4 ,ensign1 ,united ,states1 #dia4 ,entail1 ,germany1 #abi4 ,entomology1 ,germany1 #adb4 ,ethiopia1 #ad1 #ae4 ,evelyn's ,silva1 ,great ,britain1 #cgd4 ,experiment stations1 ,austria1 #agf2 ,france1 #bci2 ,germany1 #adg2 ,hungary1 #ahd2 ,italy1 #cdh2 ,japan1 #dec2 ,sweden1 #cjd2 ,switzerland1 #bja4 ,exports1 see ,imports4 ,export trade1 ,canada1 #dah1 #dai4 ,,faustmann1 #acd1 #aci4 ,feldjger1 #ha4 ,felling time1 ,germany1 #gh4 ,femelschlag1 ,germany1 #fa4 ,fernandez1 #djh4 ,feudal system1 ,france1 #bjh1 #baj2 ,germany1 #cc2 ,japan1 #ddg4 ,finland1 #bgg4 ,fires1 ,canada1 #dah1 #dbi2 ,france1 #bba1 #bej2 ,germany1 #dh2 ,india1 #djj1 #dja2 ,sweden1 #cjc2 ,switzerland1 #aij2 ,united ,states1 #dfe1 #did4 ,fischbach1 #adj4 de ,fleury1 ,france1 #bcc4 ,forest area1 world1 #d4 ,forest conditions1 ancient1 #i2 ,austria1 #aee;ff2 ,canada1 #dad-dag2 ,denmark1 #cad1 #cae2 ,finland1 #bgi2 ,france1 #bje1 #bjf2 ,germany1 #bd1 #dg1 #if1 #aji2 ,great ,britain1 #cfg2 ,greece1 #cbh1 #cbi2 ,india1 #chc-chh2 ,italy1 #ccf2 ,japan1 #ddd2 ,norway1 #cjf1 #cjg2 ,portugal1 #cfj2 ,russia1 #bed-beh2 ,spain1 #ceb2 ,sweden1 #bhg1 #bhh2 ,switzerland1 #ahh2 ,turkey1 #cbb2 ,united ,states1 #dfa-dff4 ,forest courts1 ,france1 #baf2 ,germany1 #cb2 ,great ,britain1 #cgj1 #cga4 ,foresters1 ,forestarii1 #cb1 #cf4 ,forest influences1 ,austria1 #afc2 ,france1 #bcj2 ,germany1 #abi1 #add2 ,italy1 #cdb-cdg2 ,russia1 #bfd2 ,switzerland1 #aia1 #aid4 ,forest management1 ancient1 #af4 ,forest ordinances1 ,austria1 #aeh1 #afa2 ,france1 #bab-baf2 ,germany1 #cg1 #ch1 #eb4 ,forest organization1 ,austria1 #afi-agb2 ,france1 #bci1 #bdj2 ,germany1 #aac- #abj2 ,japan1 #deb2 ,russia1 #bgd2 ,sweden1 #cjc4 ,forest police1 ,austria1 #afd-aff4 ,forest protection1 by ancients1 #af1 #ah2 ,germany1 #ada1 #adb4 ,forest rent1 ,germany1 #aah1 #aci4 ,forest schools1 ,austria1 #age2 ,canada1 #dcf2 ,denmark1 #cai2 ,finland1 #bhc2 ,france1 #bda1 #bdb-bdd2 ,germany1 #hc1 #hd1 #ij1 #ade2 ,great ,britain1 #cgg1 #cgh2 ,hungary1 #ahc1 #ahd2 ,india1 #dje2 ,italy1 #cdg1 #cdh2 ,japan1 #dej1 #dea1 #ded2 ,norway1 #caj1 #cac2 ,portugal1 #cfd2 ,russia1 #bgj1 #bga2 ,spain1 #cee1 #cef2 ,sweden1 #cjc1 #cjd2 ,switzerland1 #aij1 #bjj2 ,united ,states1 #dhg1 #ejj1 #eja4 ,forest service1 see ,administration4 ,forest use control1 early1 ,austria1 #aeh2 ,denmark1 #caf2 ,france1 #bac;ff2 ,germany1 #cf;ff1 #di1 #ej1 #ee1 #ef2 ,hungary1 #ahj2 ,norway1 #cjh2 ,sweden1 #bid4 ,forestry congress1 ,canada1 #dbi2 ,united ,states1 #dhj4 ,forestry council1 ,germany1 #adi4 ,forestry journals see ,journals4 ,forestry1 origin1 #b1 #da4 ,form factors1 ,germany1 #acd4 ,form quotient1 ,germany1 #ace4 ,frederick the ,great1 #gb4 ,french revolution1 #abf4 ,frontier forests1 ancient1 #ac1 #ae4 ,france1 #bbb2 ,germany1 #bh2 ,hungary1 #ahj4 ,frst1 #aca1 #acb1 #adb4 ,,galicia1 #afj4 ,gamble1 #djh4 ,gayer1 #ajh1 #aca1 #acb4 ,german influence1 ,denmark1 #cag1 #ccb2 ,france1 #bdb2 ,india1 #chj2 ,russia1 #bfb2 ,sweden1 #bie2 ,switzerland1 #aia2 ,united ,states1 #dhj1 #dig4 ,germany1 #bb4 ,gibson1 #cic4 ,gifford1 #ejj4 ,giessen1 #adf4 v4 ,gleditsch1 #hd4 ,gchhausen1 #hf4 ,goeppert1 #aab4 ,graves1 #ejc4 ,great ,britain1 #cfe4 ,grebe1 #adb4 ,greece1 ancient1 #aj1 #ad1 #af4 modern1 #cbg4 ,grenzmark1 #ac4 ,guiot1 #bcg1 #bde4 ,guyot1 #bdc1 #bdf4 ,gwinner1 #aca1 #adj4 ,,harrison1 #dhc4 ,hartig1 ,g4 ,l41 #hc1 #id1 #ih1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aba1 #acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #ade1 #adi1 #agj1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bdf4 ,hartig's rules1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #aje4 ,hartig1 ,r41 #aab1 #ada1 #acf4 ,hartig1 ,th41 #acb1 #ada4 ,hauch1 #cai4 ,haug1 #aab4 ,hausvter1 #he4 ,hawaii1 #eje4 ,hennert1 #gb1 #gd1 #ge4 ,henry1 #bdf4 ,hess1 #ajb1 #adb4 ,heyer1 ,e41 #ach4 ,heyer1 ,g41 #ajb1 #aag1 #acd1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adf1 #aej4 ,heyer1 ,k41 #aja1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #aaf1 #acj1 #aca1 #acd1 #adg4 ,heyer1 ,k4 method1 #abj4 ,historical periods1 ,germany1 #be1 #bf4 ,hodges1 #dgi4 ,holy groves1 #ac1 #ae1 #af4 ,hossfeld1 #aab1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach4 ,hough1 #dge4 ,huber1 #aae1 #acd1 #acf1 #acg4 ,huffel1 #bci1 #bdg4 ,hundeshagen1 #ajj1 #aaa1 #aaf1 #abe1 #acj1 #aca1 #ace1 #acg1 #adj1 #adg1 #aga4 ,hungary1 #aed1 #agh4 ,hunting grounds of ,romans1 #ac4 ,hygienic influences1 ,italy1 #cdd1 #cdg4 ,hypsometer1 ,germany1 #ge1 #acd4 ,,imports1 ,,canada1 #dah2 ,denmark1 #cae2 ,finland1 #bgg2 ,france1 #bjf2 ,germany1 #bd1 #abf2 ,italy1 #cch2 ,great ,britain1 #cfh2 ,norway1 #cjh2 ,spain1 #cec2 ,sweden1 #bhi2 ,russia1 #bec4 ,improvement fellings1 ,france1 #bce2 ,germany1 #aaj4 ,increment measuring1 ,germany1 #ge4 ,index per cent4 ,germany1 #aag4 ,india1 #ad1 #chj4 ,indiana1 #dif1 #dig4 ,indo-,china1 #bea4 ,information bureau1 ,germany1 #abh4 ,isaiah1 reference1 #aj4 ,israelites1 #aj1 #ac4 ,istria1 #afj4 ,italy1 #aa1 #cce4 ,,jacobi1 #gj4 ,jacquot1 #bdg4 ,jaeger1 #aab1 #ach4 ,jaeger1 holzgerechte1 ,germany1 #ef1 #ha1 #hf4 ,japan1 #ddb4 ,jews1 #aj1 #ac4 ,josephus1 reference to forest destruction1 #aj4 ,journals1 ,austria1 #agh2 ,canada1 #dce1 #dcf2 ,denmark1 #cai2 ,finland1 #bhd2 ,france1 #bdg2 ,germany1 #adi1 #aej2 ,great ,britain1 #cgi2 ,hungary1 #ahd2 ,india1 #djh2 ,italy1 #cdi2 ,norway1 #cad2 ,roumania1 #cbf2 ,russia1 #bga2 ,spain1 #cfj2 ,sweden1 #cjd1 #cje2 ,switzerland1 #bjb2 ,united ,states1 #dhj1 #dha1 #dii1 #ejj1 #ejc4 ,judeich1 #aag1 #adj1 #agj4 ,judeich and ,nitzsche1 #adb4 ,jung1 #ij4 ,,kaigodorov1 #bgc4 ,kaiser1 #acb4 ,karl1 #ach4 ,karlsruhe1 #adf4 ,karst1 #aef1 #afa1 #agc1 #agd4 ,kauschinger1 #adb4 ,kentucky1 #dif4 ,klipstein1 #aad4 ,kogl1 #agb4 ,knig1 #ajj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aaf1 #acb1 #ace1 #acf1 #ach1 #bgb4 ,korea1 #dee4 ,krafft1 #aab1 #acc1 #adj4 ,krain1 #aei4 ,kravchinsky1 #bgc4 ,kregting1 #gc1 #aac4 ,krohne1 #ge4 v4 ,kropf1 #gb1 #gd1 #ge4 ,kuntze1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach4 ,,landes1 reboisement1 ,france1 #bbf1 #bbg4 ,landolt1 #aia1 #bjb4 v4 ,langen1 #fh1 #gj1 #hh1 #cji1 #caf4 ,lapham1 #dhi4 v4 ,lassberg1 #hh4 ,laurop1 #adb1 #add1 #adh4 ,lefebvre1 #bdi4 ,lehr1 #adj1 #add4 ,leiria forest1 ,portugal1 #cfc4 ,literature1 ancient1 #ai2 ,austria1 #agh2 ,denmark1 #cai2 ,france1 #bdd-bdg2 ,germany1 #bb1 #da1 #fg1 #hd-ia1 #acj;ff2 ,great ,britain1 #cgi2 ,hungary1 #ahc2 ,italy1 #cdi2 ,india1 #dje2 ,russia1 #bga1 #bgb2 ,sweden1 #cjc2 ,switzerland1 #bjb4 ,litter1 #ea1 #acc4 ,logslides1 ,germany1 #gi4 ,lorentz1 #bch1 #bdb4 ,lorey1 #aab1 #aca1 #acf1 #acg4 ,louisiana1 #dif4 ,lumber industry1 ,united ,states1 #dga2 ,canada1 #dai1 #dbj4 ,,macedonia1 #aa1 #cbb4 ,maine1 ,united ,states1 #did1 #dij4 ,malay ,states1 #dch4 ,manteuffel1 #fc1 #ajg4 ,maria ,theresa reforms1 ,austria1 #afa1 #ahj4 ,mark forests ,austria1 #aed2 ,france1 #bjg2 ,germany1 #bg;ff1 #cg1 #dd1 #df1 #ie2 ,norway1 #cjg2 ,sweden1 #bij;ff4 ,marsh ,g4,p41 #dgd4 ,maryland1 #dif4 ,massachusetts1 #dij1 #dif4 ,matsuno1 #dej1 #dec4 ,mauritius1 #dci4 ,mayer1 #ada4 ,mayr1 #acb4 ,mc,clelland1 #cid4 ,mediterranean countries1 #aj1 #ab1 #cbj4 ,meister1 #bjb4 ,mensuration1 ,germany1 #gc1 #gh1 #acc;ff4 ,mercantilistic system1 ,germany1 #db1 #ec1 #abf4 ,mesopotamia1 #aj4 ,mthode tire et aire1 ,germany1 #eh1 #bag2 ,france1 #bcf4 ,meurer1 #he4 ,meyer1 #add4 ,micheaux1 #bde1 #dgh4 ,michigan1 #dij1 #dif1 #dig4 ,mine forests1 ,austria1 #aei2 ,hungary1 #ahj4 ,minnesota1 #dhi1 #did1 #dif1 #dig4 ,moreau de ,jonns1 #acj4 ,morozov1 #bgc4 v4 ,moser1 #hi4 ,mound planting1 ,germany1 #ajg4 ,mount ,lebanon1 #aj1 #ad4 ,mhlhausen1 #acb4 ,mller ,p4,e41 #cai4 ,mller1 ,u41 #ach4 ,mnden1 #adf4 ,munich1 #hd1 #adf4 ,municipal forests1 #ad4 ,,nancy1 #bdb1 #djf4 ,nanquette1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdf4 ,napoleon1 #bai4 ,natural regeneration1 development in ,germany1 #ci1 #eh;ff4 ,navy reservations1 ,canada1 #dbd2 ,france1 #bae2 ,great ,britain1 #cgd2 ,russia1 #bfb2 ,united ,states1 #dfi4 ,nestorov1 #bgc4 ,newfoundland1 #dcg4 ,new ,hampshire1 #dij1 #dif1 #dig4 ,new ,jersey1 #dij1 #dif1 #dig4 ,new ,york1 #dij1 #dia-did1 #dih4 ,new ,south ,wales1 #dda4 ,ney1 #aca4 ,nisbet1 #cgi4 ,noble1 #dhc4 ,noerdlinger1 #acb1 #ach1 #aef4 ,normal forest1 ,austria1 #agj1 #aga2 ,germany1 #aae2 ,hungary1 #aha4 ,north ,carolina1 #dij1 #dig4 ,norway1 #cje4 ,nurseries1 ancient1 #bj2 ,germany1 #ajf1 #ajg2 ,hungary1 #ahb4 ,nursetree method1 ,germany1 #fj4 ,,oettelt1 #fh1 #gj1 #gd1 #gf1 #gg1 #acd1 #acf4 ,ohio1 #dij1 #dig4 ,oliva de ,serres1 #bdd4 ,ordinances1 ,austria1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afe2 ,france1 #bad1 #bae1 #baf1 #bag1 #bcc2 ,germany1 #cc1 #ch1 #dg1 #dh1 #di;ff1 #fb2 ,italy1 #cdj2 ,japan1 #ddg2 ,norway1 #caj2 ,spain1 #cee2 ,sweden1 #bid2 ,united ,states1 #dfg4 ,orlov1 #bgc4 ,otozky1 #bgc4 ,oxford ,university1 #cgh1 #djf4 ,,palestine1 #i1 #ac4 ,palladius1 #ai4 ,parade1 #bdb1 #bdf4 ,paradises of ,persians1 #ac4 ,pasture in forests1 ,greece1 #cca2 ,india1 #djj2 ,italy1 #cdf4 ,pasture woods1 ,germany1 #fb2 ,switzerland1 #aic1 #aie1 #aif4 ,pathology1 ,germany1 #ada4 ,paulsen1 #aae1 #acf4 ,pearson1 #dja4 ,pennsylvania1 #die1 #dif4 ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company1 #dih4 ,persia1 #ad4 ,perthuis1 #bde4 ,peter de ,crescentiis1 #da1 #bdd4 ,pfeil1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #abf1 #acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #aci1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #ade1 #aej4 ,physiocratic doctrine1 ,germany1 #dc4 ,pinchot1 #dhg1 #dig1 #eja4 ,philippines1 #eje1 #ejf4 ,planting1 ,austria1 #agb1 #agc2 ,denmark1 #cah1 #cai2 ,france1 #bbd;ff2 ,germany1 #ci1 #fb1 #fe1 #ff1 #hb1 #aff;ff2 ,great ,britain1 #cfi2 ,india1 #djd2 ,japan1 #dea1 #dec2 ,portugal1 #cfb1 #cfc2 ,russia1 #bgf2 ,sweden1 #cjb2 ,united ,states1 #dgf1 #dgg1 #dgh1 #dih4 fund1 ,germany1 #fe2 ,russia1 #bfi2 ,spain1 #ceh4 budgets1 ,germany1 #ff4 ,plant material distribution1 ,germany1 #abh2 ,hungary1 #ahb2 ,italy1 #cdf2 ,portugal1 #cfd2 ,russia1 #bfg2 ,united ,states1 #dih4 ,pliny1 #ai1 #bj4 ,poland1 #bge4 ,polewood management1 ,germany1 #fa4 ,portugal1 #cfj4 ,porto ,rico1 #ejd4 ,pressler1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aag1 #acd1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj4 ,private forests1 ancient1 #ae2 ,austria1 #aeh1 #afb2 ,canada1 #dbc2 ,denmark1 #cag2 ,finland1 #bhc2 ,france1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bab1 #bbd1 #bdj1 #bda2 ,germany1 #bi1 #ee1 #abh2 ,greece1 #ccc2 ,hungary1 #agi2 ,india1 #cij1 #cia2 ,italy1 #cci2 ,japan1 #ddg2 ,norway1 #cjh2 ,portugal1 #cfa1 #cfc2 ,russia1 #bgc2 ,spain1 #cfj2 ,sweden1 #bic2 ,switzerland1 #aie1 #aif4 ,property conditions1 ancient1 #ab2 ,austria1 #aeg2 ,canada1 #dbb1 #dbc1 #dbd2 ,denmark1 #baf1 #bag2 ,finland1 #bhj2 ,france1 #bab2 ,germany1 #bg-cf1 #db-dg1 #ib2 ,great ,britain1 #cge2 ,india1 #chh2 ,italy1 #cci1 #cdb2 ,japan1 #ddg1 #dej2 ,norway1 #cjg2 ,portugal #cfa2 ,russia1 #bei1 #bfj2 ,spain1 #ceb2 ,sweden1 #bij;ff2 ,switzerland1 #ahi2 ,united ,states1 #deh1 #dfa4 ,protection forest1 ,austria1 #afc2 ,france1 #bbb1 #bej2 ,hungary1 #aha2 ,italy1 #cdb2 ,japan1 #dec2 ,norway1 #cab1 #cac2 ,russia1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bff2 ,switzerland1 #aid1 #aif4 ,puton1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdf4 ,,queensland1 #dda4 ,,railroad planting1 ,united ,states1 #dgi1 #dih4 ,ramann1 #adb4 ,ratzeburg1 #adb4 ,raumur1 #gg1 #bch1 #bde4 ,reboisement1 ,austria1 #aej1 #aei1 #afe2 ,denmark1 #cag2 ,france1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbi1 #bcb1 #bch2 ,germany1 #fb1 #ajf2 ,great ,britain1 #cgg2 ,hungary1 #aha2 ,portugal1 #cfc2 ,russia1 #bfi1 #bge1 #bgf-bgg2 ,italy1 #cdd1 #cde2 ,norway1 #caa2 ,russia1 #bgf2 ,spain1 #ceh1 #cei4 ,reforestation1 see ,planting and ,reboisement4 ,reservations1 ,canada1 #dbd1 #dbe1 #dcb2 ,united ,states1 #dfi4 ,reum1 #adj4 v4 ,reuss1 #aah1 #acd1 #bdf4 ,ribbentrop1 #chc1 #chj1 #djh4 ,richter1 #acd4 ,rhode ,island1 #dif4 ,rights of user1 ancient1 #ae2 ,denmark1 #cbb2 ,france1 #bjf1 #baj1 #baa1 #bba2 ,germany1 #ba1 #cb1 #dd1 #dg1 #if1 #abh2 ,greece1 #cca2 ,india1 #chh1 #chi1 #cij1 #cia2 ,japan1 #ddg2 ,norway1 #cjg1 #cac2 ,sweden1 #bia2 ,switzerland1 #aie4 ,road building1 ,germany1 #acb4 ,robinia1 ,germany1 #ff4 ,roger1 #djh4 ,romans1 forest conditions1 #aa4 wood markets1 #ab4 management1 #ab4 ownership1 #af4 ,roosevelt1 #dhg1 #dii4 ,rostaing1 #cch4 ,rotations1 ,france1 #bcd1 #bcg2 ,germany1 #aci1 #adj2 ,russia1 #bgd4 ,roth1 #dhf4 ,rothrock1 #die4 ,roumania1 #cba1 #cbd1 #cbg4 ,roumelia1 #cbb4 ,royal trees1 ,india1 #chi2 ,japan1 #ddh4 ,rudzsky1 #bgc4 ,runnebaum1 #acb4 ,russia1 #bec4 ,,de ,,salomon1 #bdf4 ,sand dune planting1 ,denmark1 #cah2 ,france1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bej2 ,germany1 #fe2 ,hungary1 #ahj1 #ahc2 ,italy1 #cch2 ,russia1 #bgf4 ,sargent1 #ejj4 ,saxony1 #aai4 ,saw1 use1 ,germany1 #gg1 #gh4 ,scandinavia1 #bhe4 ,schenck1 #dig1 #eja4 ,schiffel1 #ace4 ,schilcher1 #aac4 ,schlich1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #chc1 #djh4 ,schneider1 #ach4 ,schoener1 #acd4 ,schroeder1 #adb4 ,schuberg1 #acg4 ,schwappach1 #acb1 #acg1 #ach1 #add4 v4 ,seckendorff1 #afe4 ,seebach modified beech forest1 ,germany1 #aji4 ,seed tree management1 ,france1 #bcd4 ,seed tree methods1 ,sweden1 #cjb4 ,seigniorage1 ,austria1 #aei2 ,germany1 #cb1 #dc1 #dd1 #ed1 #ib4 ,selection forest1 ,austria1 #agb2 ,finland1 #bha2 ,france1 #bjf1 #bce1 #bcg1 #bci2 ,germany1 #dj1 #eh1 #fb1 #ajh1 #aaj2 ,india1 #djb2 ,italy1 #cch2 ,norway1 #cac2 ,russia1 #bgd2 ,sweden1 #cjb2 ,switzerland1 #aih2 ,united ,states1 #dih4 ,senft1 #adb4 ,servia1 #cbc4 ,servitudes1 see ,rights of user4 ,seutter1 #acg1 #aci4 ,seymour1 #dia4 ,shelterwood system1 ,austria1 #agb2 ,france1 #bch1 #bci1 #bdb2 ,germany1 #ajb1 #ajg1 #aje1 #ajh2 ,switzerland1 #aih4 ,shifting sands1 see ,sand dunes4 ,siberia1 #bed1 #bee1 #bef4 ,sihlwald1 #aij4 ,silviculture1 ,austria1 #agb2 ,france1 #bce-bdj2 ,denmark1 #cah2 ,germany1 #eg;ff1 #fh1 #ajb-aab2 ,india1 #djb2 ,romans1 #af1 #ag2 ,russia1 #bgd2 ,sweden1 #cjb2 ,switzerland1 #aih4 ,slavish countries1 #cba4 ,smalian1 #acd1 #ace4 ,smith1 ,adam1 #ic1 #adc4 ,smith1 ,hoke #dhd4 ,soil knowledge1 ,germany1 #adb4 ,soil rent1 ,germany1 #aag1 #ach1 #aci4 ,solitude1 school1 ,germany1 #hd1 #ij4 ,sologne1 reboisement1 ,france1 #bbh4 ,south ,australia1 #ddj4 ,southworth1 #dcj4 ,sowing1 ,germany1 #fc4 ,sowing cones1 ,germany1 #fd4 ,space number1 ,germany1 #ace4 ,spain1 #i1 #aa1 #cdi4 ,spth1 #aaj1 #acf4 ,stahl1 #hd1 #hi1 #ia4 ,starr1 #dgc4 ,state foresters1 ,canada1 #dca2 ,france1 #bbj2 ,germany1 #abj2 ,united ,states1 #dif2 ,switzerland1 #aih4 ,state forests1 ,austria1 #afg1 #afh2 ,denmark1 #cag2 ,finland1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhc2 ,france1 #baj1 #bah1 #bai2 origin in ,germany1 #ib2 ,great ,britain1 #cgd1 #cge1 #cgf2 ,greece1 #cca2 ,hungary1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb2 ,india1 #chh1 #cif2 ,italy1 #cci2 ,japan1 #dej1 #dea2 ,norway1 #cjg1 #caa2 ,portugal1 #cfb2 ,russia1 #bef2 ,spain1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cei2 ,sweden1 #bij1 #bia1 #bib4 ,state supervision1 ,austria1 #afa-afe2 ,germany1 #add2 ,greece1 #ccc2 ,hungary1 #aha2 ,france1 #bbj-bbc2 ,finland1 #bhc2 ,denmark1 #caf2 ,italy1 #cdb;ff2 ,japan1 #deb2 ,norway1 #cab2 ,portugal1 #cfc2 ,russia1 #bfc;ff2 ,spain1 #cfj2 ,sweden1 #big1 #bii;ff2 ,switzerland1 #aic4 v4 ,steuben1 #dhj4 ,stoetzer1 #acb4 ,straits ,settlement1 #dch4 ,strip system1 ,austria1 #agb2 ,germany1 #ei2 ,russia1 #bgd4 ,styria1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb1 #aga4 ,successive fellings1 ,germany1 #fa1 #ajb4 ,supplies1 of world1 #d4 ,swamps reclaimed1 ,russia1 #bgg4 ,sweden1 #bhg4 ,switzerland1 #ahe4 ,syria1 #aj4 ,,tariff1 ,germany1 #abf4 ,tassy1 #bdf1 #bdi4 ,taungya1 ,germany1 #fe2 ,india1 #djc4 ,tax release1 ,austria1 #agc1 #agd2 ,france1 #bah2 ,united ,states1 #dgf4 ,technology1 ancient1 #ah1 #ai2 ,switzerland1 #bjb4 ,tharandt1 #hd1 #adf4 ,thrace1 #cbb4 ,theophrastus1 #ai4 ,tichonoff1 #bgb4 ,thinnings1 ,denmark1 #cah2 ,france1 #bcf1 #bci2 ,germany1 #fg1 #aaj-aab2 ,switzerland1 #aii4 ,thirty years' war1 ,germany1 #dh4 ,timber culture acts1 ,united ,states1 #dgf1 #dgg4 ,timber famine1 ,germany1 #c1 #dj1 #di1 #ig1 #abf1 #add2 ,united ,states1 #dff1 #dfh4 ,timber licenses1 ,canada1 #dbe1 #dbf1 #dbg4 ,timber ,physics1 ,united ,states1 #ejc4 ,tire et aire method1 ,france1 #bcf1 #bch1 #bda4 ,tolsky1 #bgc4 ,torrents1 ,austria1 #afe2 ,france1 #bbi-bcb2 ,italy1 #ccf1 #cde4 ,transportation means1 ,germany1 #gi4 ,tree marking1 ,germany1 #ea4 ,triage1 #baa4 ,trunk1 #ge1 #ij4 ,tbingen1 #adf4 ,tuffer1 #cgd4 ,turkey1 #cba4 ,tursky1 #bgc4 ,tyrol1 #aei4 ,,united ,,states1 #def4 ,urich1 #acf4 ,utilization1 ,germany1 #acb4 ,,valuation1 ,germany1 #ach4 ,vanderbilt1 #dig4 ,varro1 #ai1 #bj4 ,venice1 #afa4 ,vergil1 #ai4 ,vermont1 #dif4 ,vienna forest1 #aga4 ,vizner1 #ahc4 ,volume allotment1 ,germany1 #gc1 #aac4 ,volume tables1 ,germany1 #ge1 #gf1 #ace4 ,,wagener1 #aab1 #aca1 #adj4 ,wagner1 #acb4 ,waldfeldbau1 ,germany1 #fe1 #aji4 ,walther1 #adj4 ,wangenheim1 #ig4 ,warder1 #dgd1 #dgi4 ,wartenberg dibble1 #ajg4 ,washington1 #dif4 ,waste lands1 ,canada1 #dcd2 ,france1 #bbd2 ,japan1 #dec4 ,weber1 ,r41 #acg1 #adb1 #add4 ,wedekind1 #adc4 v4 ,wedell1 #ga1 #gd4 ,weise1 #acg4 ,weisswasser1 #agj4 ,wellenburg1 ,lang von1 #aeh4 ,wertheim1 #bdg4 ,wessely1 #ahc4 ,west ,virginia1 #dij4 ,wiedenmann1 #acj4 ,willkomm1 #ada4 ,wimmenauer1 #acd4 ,wind danger1 ,germany1 #ei4 ,wisconsin1 #dhi1 #did1 #dif1 #dig4 ,wollny1 #adb4 ,wood chopper1 league1 ,germany1 #gi4 ,wood prices1 ,switzerland1 #bjj4 ,working plans1 ,france1 #bce2 ,germany1 #aac1 #aba1 #abb2 ,india1 #dje2 ,japan1 #dea4 ,world1 wood supply and consumption1 #d4 ,wrttemberg1 #aai4 ,,yield1 regulation methods1 #fh4 ,yield tables1 ,germany1 #gf1 #aae1 #acf4 ,v4 ,,zanthier1 #fh1 #gj1 #gf1 #gg1 #hc1 #hh1 #ia1 #cji1 #caf4 ,zrich1 #aji1 #bjj4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,this ebook follows the text of the original printed work1 except as mentioned below4 ,inconsistencies 7spelling1 _/oe_/1 diacritics1 hyphenation1 capitalisation1 compound words1 single_/double l1 etc47 have been retained4 ,various pages3 ,german 7nick7names ending in -man3 the original spelling has been retained 7e4g41 ,beckman is usually spelled ,beckmann 7,johann ,gottlieb1 #agjj-aggg and ,johann1 #agci-ahaa774 ,page #cf4 8its removal theft03 as printed in the original work4 ,page #fc1 ,mitfasten 7,easter73 ,mitfasten is not ,easter1 but half-lent4 ,page #acd3 7,reuss1 ,wimmenauer1 etc473 there seems to be no reason for the parentheses4 ,page #bdd1 8translated at the instance of03 as printed in the original work2 possibly an error for another word 7instigation874 ,page #ddb1 8utilized above03 as printed in the original work1 this appears to refer to the first two paragraphs only 78,the modernization 444 other sea industries407 ,page #dgf3 closing quote mark missing1 this should possibly be inserted after 8lands planted to trees0 ,index3 not all entries are in alphabetical order2 this has not been changed4 ,changes made to the text3 ,several chapters have a list of literature at the bottom of the first page4 ,this list has been moved to directly below the chapter header4 ,minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors 7including ,french and ,german diacritics7 have been corrected silently4 ,various pages3 chauss changed to chausse2 ,forst und ,jagd444 and ,forst-und ,jagd444 changed to ,forst- und ,jagd4442 ,bremontier changed to ,brmontier2 v4 ,kropf changed to v4 ,kropff2 ,b4 ,c4 changed to ,b4,c4 ,page v3 order of ,introductory and ,preface reversed ,page ix3 #bjg changed to #bjc 7#bx7 ,page #ba3 ,beranger changed to ,berenger2 giurisprudenzia changed to giurisprudenza ,page #bd3 a round #ce million changed to around #ce million ,page #bi3 became extent changed to became extinct2 separation of from ,france changed to separation from ,france 7cf4 #ast edition7 ,page #ci3 #cj or #cj to the acre changed to #bj or #cj to the acre 7cf4 #ast edition7 ,page #fc3 wildings changed to wildlings ,page #acj3 ,moreau de ,jonns changed to ,moreau de ,jonns ,page #acf3 ,oetellt changed to ,oettelt ,page #ahj3 von ,engelshoffen changed to von ,engelshofen ,page #bad3 sergen changed to sergent2 closing parenthesis added after etc4 ,page #beb3 ,les forts de la ,gaule l'ancienne ,france changed to ,les forts de la ,gaule et de l'ancienne ,france ,page #beh3 parenthesis added after ,caucasus ,page #bgf3 #b4jjj acres changed to #b1jjj acres ,page #bgg3 #hj4jjj acres changed to #hj1jjj acres ,page #cai3 historal changed to historical ,page #cca3 round #b4g million changed to around #b4g million ,page #ccg3 chapparal changed to chaparral ,page #cdi3 ,rivista forestate italiana changed to ,rivista forestale italiana ,page #cfd3 ,leira changed to ,leiria ,page #cgb3 transcription added ,page #dbf3 over one and three quarter million and changed to and over one and three quarter million ,index page vi3 ,moreau des ,jonns changed to ,moreau de ,jonns ,index page ix3 ,sttzer changed to ,stoetzer ,index page x3 ,wellenberg changed to ,wellenburg2 ,wiedenman changed to ,wiedenmann