,,blocking ,,machine 8,,carre ,,vive ,,brochier0 ,illustration ,inventors and ,makers of other special adjusting1 dressing and pressing machines and accessories for the manufacture of ,,straw ,,boaters of perfect and correct shape ,,soci,t ,,anonyme ,,des ,,etablissements ,j4 ,b4 ,,brochier1 #h ,rue de la ,viabert1 ,,lyon ,,comfort ,,in ,,hats ,amongst the allied trades associated with the ,straw ,hat ,industry must be included the production of the ,pneumatic or ,easy-,fitting ,sweats or ,leathers1 which during the last #be years have been the chief means of establishing the ,straw ,boater as the most popular ,summer ,head-wear4 ,,the ,,hat ,,manufacturers' ,,supply ,,co41 ,,ltd41 of ,stockport1 ,england1 make claim to be the producers of the best of these kind1 and many of their patent productions have a place in the ,history of the ,straw ,hat ,industry2 the following have stood out prominently3 8,,ivy0 and 8,,marvel10 but apparently the zenith was reached with the production of the ,world-famed-- ,patent 8,,bon-,,ton ,,ivy0 ,this patent ,comfort ,leather is acknowledged as the 8,,landmark0 in ,head-comfort for any ,hat4 ,and considerably over twenty millions have been sold for ,straw ,hats alone1 which fact must undoubtedly prove that this ,leather has been greatly instrumental in aiding the progress of the ,straw ,boater2 so much so1 that the ,patentees have appointed manufacturing agents in various parts of the ,world to cope with the increasing demand4 ,the latest production in these ,easy-fitting ,leathers is the-- 7,patent7 8,,new ,,bon-,,ton ,,ivy0 7introduced #aiba7 which is suitable for any kind of hats and1 like its well-known parent patent1 guarantees ,perfect ,fit1 ,comfort1 and ,ventilation4 ,it is worth bearing in mind that all genuine 8,bon-,ton ,ivy0 leathers have adjustable ,elastic ,fitting1 also see name ,stamp on the leather4 ,patentees and ,sole ,manufacturers1 at the ,,headquarters ,,for ,,hatters' ,,specialities4 ,gold ,printers1 etc4 ,,the ,,hat ,,manufacturers ,,supply ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,pretoria ,,works1 ,,stockport1 ,,england ,samples on ,application4 ,tlphone3 ,no4 #hbi ,tlgrammes3 ,,burgisser1 ,,florence 99 99 99 99 99 ,soc4 ,an4 ,burgisser 99 99 99 99 99 ,,italian ,milans and ,fancy ,braids ,men's and ,ladies' ,leghorns ,fancy ,bodies ,novelties ,,bleaching and ,,dyeing ,,florence ,,via ,,masaccio #adi ,,sole ,,representatives-- ,e4 ,t4 ,,raban ,,sons #c-f ,australian ,avenue1 ,london1 ,e4,c4#a ,,established ,,over #ajj ,,years ,benjamin ,bennett ,,ltd4 ,manufacturers of ,ladies' and ,children's ,hats1 ,trimmed and ,untrimmed--,velours1 ,felts1 ,straws1 and ,fancies1 also all kinds of ,strawboard and ,leatherboard ,boxes 99 99 99 99 99 ,factories3 ,connaught ,house1 ,upper ,george ,street1 ,luton #ag #bb ,high ,street1 ,dunstable ,showrooms ,offices3 #fa ,george ,street1 ,luton ,telegrams3 ,beebee ,luton ,telephones3 ,luton #iba 7#b lines72 ,dunstable #c ,illustration ,h4 ,,godfrey ,,co4 ,,engineers ,,to ,,the ,,hat ,,trade ,makers of the ,keston ,blocking ,machines #ad;a ,,stuart ,,street1 ,,luton ,the ,london ,varnish and ,enamel ,co41 ,ltd4 ,successors to ,conrad ,wm4 ,schmidt 7,f4 ,a4 ,glaeser71 ,ltd4 ,city ,works ,carpenters ,road1 ,stratford ,london1 ,e4#ae1 ,england ,illustration ,,the ,,original ,,and ,,largest ----,,manufacturers ,,of---- ,,straw ,,hat ,,polishes ,,in ,,all ,,colours ,,luton ,illustration3 ,,trade ,,mark ,,brand ,these ,spirit ,hat ,polishes were introduced in #ahgh and have been extensively used ever since in ,luton1 ,london1 and all ,hat ,making ,centres throughout ----the ,world---- ,a4,b4,c4 ,,code #dth and #eth ,,edition ,,used ,,cable ,,address3 8,,lovarnamel1 ,,london0 ,h4 ,spratley 7,late ,h4 ,,spratley ,,son7 #af1 #ah #bj ,barber's ,lane1 ,luton ,illustration ,the ,oldest ,established ,firm in the ,trade for the making of ,ladies'1 ,gent's1 and ,children's ,shapes for ,straws and ,felts in ,wood1 ,plaster1 ,iron1 ,spelter and ,aluminium ,pans and ,dishes4 ,all ,accessories for the ,trade ,the ,noted ,blockmaker for ,high-,class ,work ,tel4 #ggh ,,established #ahff ,colling ,company ,,proprietor3 ,,chas ,f4 ,,colling ,illustration ,plain and ,fancy ,silk1 ,satin and ,cotton ,goods 99 99 99 99 99 ,manufacturers of all kinds of ,hat ,linings #ci ,king ,street1 ,luton ,,telegrams3 8,,colling1 ,,king ,,st41 ,,luton0 ,,telephone3 ,,luton #ag ,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,and ,,industries ,,series ,each book in crown #hvo1 illustrated1 #c_/- net ,,tea4 ,by ,a4 ,ibbetson ,,coffee4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 ,keable ,,sugar4 ,by ,geo4 ,martineau ,,oils4 ,by ,c4 ,ainsworth ,mitchell ,,wheat4 ,by ,andrew ,millar ,,rubber4 ,by ,c4 ,beadle and ,h4 ,p4 ,stevens ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,by ,c4 ,hood ,,copper4 ,by ,h4 ,k4 ,picard ,,coal4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,wilson ,,timber4 ,by ,w4 ,bullock ,,cotton4 ,by ,r4 ,j4 ,peake ,,silk4 ,by ,luther ,hooper ,,wool4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,hunter ,,linen4 ,by ,alfred ,s4 ,moore ,,tobacco4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,tanner ,,leather4 ,by ,k4 ,j4 ,adcock ,,knitted ,,fabrics4 ,by ,j4 ,chamberlain and ,j4 ,h4 ,quilter ,,clays4 ,by ,alfred ,s4 ,searle ,,paper4 ,by ,harry ,a4 ,maddox ,,soap4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,simmons ,,the ,,motor ,,industry4 ,by ,horace ,wyatt ,,glass4 ,by ,percival ,marson ,,gums ,,and ,,resins4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,parry ,,the ,,boot ,,and ,,shoe ,,industry4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,harding ,,gas4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,y4 ,webber ,,furniture4 ,by ,h4 ,e4 ,binstead ,,coal ,,tar4 ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,warnes ,,petroleum4 ,by ,a4 ,lidgett ,,salt4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,calvert ,,zinc4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,lones ,,photography4 ,by ,wm4 ,gamble ,,asbestos4 ,by ,a4 ,l4 ,summers ,,silver4 ,by ,benjamin ,white ,,carpets4 ,by ,reginald ,s4 ,brinton ,,paints ,,and ,,varnishes4 ,by ,a4 ,s4 ,jennings ,,cordage ,,and ,,cordage ,,hemp4 ,by ,t4 ,woodhouse and ,p4 ,kilgour ,,acids ,,and ,,alkalis4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,j4 ,adlam ,,electricity4 ,by ,r4 ,e4 ,neale ,,aluminium4 ,by ,g4 ,mortimer ,,gold4 ,by ,benjamin ,white ,,butter ,,and ,,cheese4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,walker-,tisdale and ,jean ,jones ,,the ,,british ,,corn ,,trade4 ,by ,a4 ,barker ,,lead4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,smythe ,,engraving4 ,by ,t4 ,w4 ,lascelles ,,stones ,,and ,,quarries4 ,by ,j4 ,allen ,howe ,,explosives4 ,by ,s4 ,i4 ,levy ,,the ,,clothing ,,industry4 ,by ,b4 ,w4 ,poole ,,telegraphy1 ,,telephony1 ,,and ,,wireless4 ,by ,j4 ,poole ,,perfumery4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,parry ,,the ,,electric ,,lamp ,,industry4 ,by ,g4 ,arncliffe ,percival ,,ice ,,and ,,cold ,,storage4 ,by ,b4 ,h4 ,springett ,,gloves4 ,by ,b4 ,e4 ,ellis ,,jute4 ,by ,t4 ,woodhouse and ,p4 ,kilgour ,,drugs ,,in ,,commerce4 ,by ,j4 ,humphrey ,,the ,,film ,,industry4 ,by ,davidson ,boughey ,,cycle ,,industry4 ,by ,w4 ,grew ,,sulphur4 ,by ,harold ,a4 ,auden ,,textile ,,bleaching4 ,by ,alec ,b4 ,steven ,,wine4 ,by ,andre ,l4 ,simon ,,ironfounding4 ,by ,b4 ,whiteley ,,cotton ,,spinning4 ,by ,a4 ,s4 ,wade ,,alcohol4 ,by ,c4 ,simmonds ,,concrete ,,and ,,reinforced ,,concrete4 ,by ,w4 ,n4 ,twelvetrees ,,sponges4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,j4 ,cresswell ,,wall ,,paper4 ,by ,g4 ,whiteley ,ward ,,clocks ,,and ,,watches4 ,by ,g4 ,l4 ,overton ,,anthracite4 ,by ,a4 ,l4 ,summers ,,incandescent ,,lighting4 ,by ,s4 ,i4 ,levy ,,the ,,fishing ,,industry4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,gibbs ,,oil ,,for ,,power ,,purposes4 ,by ,s4 ,h4 ,north ,,starch4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,auden ,,talking ,,machines4 ,by ,o4 ,mitchell ,,nickel4 ,by ,b4 ,h4 ,white ,,player ,,piano4 ,by ,d4 ,m4 ,wilson ,,internal ,,combustion ,,engines4 ,by ,j4 ,okill ,,dyes4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,hall ,,motor ,,boats4 ,by ,f4 ,strickland ,,velvet4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,cooke ,,the ,,straw ,,hat ,,industry4 ,by ,h4 ,inwards ,,brushes4 ,by ,w4 ,kiddier ,,patent ,,fuels4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,greene and ,f4 ,mollwo ,perkin ,,furs4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,sachs ,,straw ,,hats ,always leading for ,style and ,quality ,frank ,harden1 ,ltd4 ,manufacturers of ,,ladies' ,,hats of all descriptions ,,wholesale ,,and ,,shipping ,,only ,illustration #eh-fb ,bute ,street ,luton ,illustration3 ,model as worn #be-cj years ago ,,manufactured ,,by ,,frank ,,harden ,illustrated3 ,model as worn #aibb season ,,manufactured ,,by ,,frank ,,harden1 ,,ltd4 ,telegrams3 ,harden1 ,luton ,codes3 ,marconi and ,a4,b4,c4 #eth edition ,illustration3 ,,finishing1 ,,lining ,,and ,,trimming ,,straw ,,hats ,frontispiece ,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,and ,,industries ,,straw ,,hats ,,their ,,history ,,and ,,manufacture ,,by ,,harry ,,inwards ,,ex-,,president ,,luton ,,chamber ,,of ,,commerce ,illustration ,,london ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,,parker ,,street1 ,,kingsway1 ,w4,c4#b ,,bath1 ,,melbourne1 ,,toronto1 ,,new ,,york ,,printed ,,in ,,bath1 ,,england ,,by ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,,to ,,my ,,wife ,,emily ,,inwards ,a ,,loving ,,tribute ,cable ,address3 ,codes3 ,a ,b ,c 7#dth1 #eth #fth ,editions7 8,attention1 ,luton40 ,a#a1 ,bentley's1 ,marconi ,henry ,durler and ,son1 ,ltd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,importers1 ,exporters1 ,bleachers ,dyers 99 99 99 99 99 of all kinds of ,chinese and ,japanese ,straw ,plaits for ,hat ,manufacture 99 99 99 99 99 ,luton1 ,bedfordshire ,,england ,,foreword ,it will be noticed throughout this book that the author has deviated from the dictionary methods of spelling words illustrative of the action of plait4 ,the ,oxford ,dictionary reads-- 8,plait 7pleit1 ploet1 plit7 444 see also plat40 8,plat4 ,to form hats1 etc41 is now a less usual spelling than plait40 8,plat-ting1 the action of plat40 ,nuttall gives the pronunciation of plait as plate1 and that of the action word plaited as plated4 ,in the district where the manufacture is sufficiently ancient to have established a claim to its regular pronunciation1 plait1 as it is invariably spelt1 has always been pronounced plat1 and the action words plat-ter1 plat-ted1 and plat-ting4 ,that this is not a local solecism of pronunciation is proved by the renderings given under the headings plat and platting in the ,oxford ,dictionary1 and further1 a literary and ancient example can be found in 8,a ,lover's ,complaint10 where ,shakespeare speaks of 8a plat-ted hive40 ,the author thinks it is time some definite method1 in proper accord with the custom of the industry1 should be adopted1 and he proposes a precedent1 which he claims to be well founded and sensible1 viz41 to continue to use the word plait 7pronounced plat7 as the substantive1 and to establish the spelling plait-ter1 plait-ted and plait-ting as designations of the action words properly interpreting the universal pronunciation4 ,i should like to express grateful thanks for assistance and information given me in the course of my work1 to ,messrs4 ,murry ,barford 7,mayor of ,luton71 of ,barford ,sons1 ,luton2 ,percy ,currant1 of ,currant ,creak1 ,luton2 ,henry ,george ,draper1 of ,walsh ,sons1 ,luton2 ,george ,field1 of ,luton2 ,henry ,gregory1 of ,gregory ,sons1 ,barbican1 ,london1 ,e4,c42 ,charles ,hubbard1 of ,luton2 ,thomas ,mann1 of ,vyse ,sons ,co41 ,luton2 ,james ,saunders1 ,f4,l4,s41 of ,saunders ,son1 ,luton2 ,frank ,e4 ,shoosmith1 of ,luton2 ,john ,irving ,wright1 ,j4,p41 of ,luton2 all of whom have intimate knowledge of the straw trade and its machinery2 and to ,mr4 ,t4 ,maw1 ,librarian ,luton ,public ,library4 ,the help of these gentlemen has materially added to the correctness of many details1 of which my knowledge was uncertain4 ,,harry ,,inwards ,luton4 #cast ,march1 #aibb4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,,foreword vii ,i4 ,,origin ,,and ,,classical ,,history #a ,,ii4 ,,commercial ,,rise ,,and ,,growth #ac ,,iii4 ,,straw ,,plait--,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,the ,,straws #be ,,iv4 ,,straw ,,hoods--,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,and ,,of ,,weaving ,,the ,,fibres #ce ,v4 ,,straw ,,plait ,,and ,,plaitting #de ,,vi4 ,,dyeing #eb ,,vii4 ,,bleaching #fj ,,viii4 ,,blockmaking #ff ,,ix4 ,,hand ,,and ,,machine ,,sewing #ga ,x4 ,,stiffening #hd ,,xi4 ,,blocking ,,by ,,hand #ic ,,xii4 ,,blocking ,,by ,,machine #ajj ,,xiii4 ,,finishing4 ,,polishing4 ,,trimming4 ,,lining #aaa ,,index #abe ,,ermen ,,roby',s ,,cotton ,,is ,,luton',s ,,favourite ,,brand ,illustration ,white and ,black on #aj1jjj ,yard ,reels ,all ,colours on #e1jjj ,yard ,reels ,,illustrations ,,page ,,finishing1 ,,lining ,,and ,,trimming ,,straw ,,hats ,frontispiece ,,the ,,petasus #b ,,the ,,stephanos #c ,,the ,,etruscan ,,hat #d ,,hat ,,of ,,penelope #e ,a ,,pompeian ,,bonnet #e ,,straw ,,plaitters ,,at ,,work #cj ,,panama ,,hood ,,making #ci ,,bleaching ,,and ,,dyeing ,,of ,,plaits ,,and ,,hoods #ee ,a ,,tipper #fi ,,section ,,of ,,four ,,rows ,,of ,,plait #gb ,,sewing ,,straw ,,plait ,,into ,,hats ,,by ,,machine #ge ,,section ,,of ,,rollers #hb ,,stiffening ,,straw ,,hats #hi ,,hand ,,blocking #ig ,,machine ,,blocking #ajc ,,machine ,,blocking 7,,brochier ,,type7 #aji ,,every ,,description ,,of ,,straw ,,hats ,,of ,,guaranteed ,,excellence ,illustration3 ,the 8,cavalier0 ,make ,english ,boater ,genuine 8,luton ,lodge0 ,,regd4 ,english ,boater ,genuine 8,walsh ,luton0 ,,regd4 ,established #ahfb ,,rowland ,,cunningham 7,,wm4 ,,walsh7 ,,limited ,,straw ,,hat ,,manufacturers ,,stuart ,,lodge ,,hat ,,works ,,luton1 ,,beds ,telegraphic ,address3 8,,walsh ,,luton0 ,telephone3 #acb ,,luton ,code ,a ,b ,c #dth #eth ,editions ,,marconi',s1 ,,bentley',s ,,straw ,,hats ,,chapter ,i ,,origin ,,and ,,classical ,,history ,the origin of what is known as a 8,straw ,hat0 is lost in the mists of antiquity4 ,ambiguous references to what may have been hats of vegetable materials are to be found in the works of almost all ancient writers1 but very little that is specific can be discovered4 ,perhaps one reason for the paucity of information on this subject may be that the home made hats of plaitted straws or rushes were probably worn only by the common people4 ,with society1 as it existed in early days1 if such were the case1 the matter would be considered almost too vulgar for the classical writers to mention4 ,doubtless in the earliest stages of human development any kind of convenient material was utilized by primeval man in the endeavour to keep his head or body warm or cool as the case might require4 ,now the mere fact of the shelter afforded by trees would create some inducement towards using leaves for covering the body1 for one may assume that even before vegetable products were gathered and used1 say1 as thatch1 for collective shelter1 some of them were adopted for individual protective purposes4 ,the earliest reference to such is the well-known account of the 8aprons of fig leaves0 mentioned in the third chapter of ,genesis4 ,this primitive method of clothing was soon followed by the use of skins 7as noted later in the same chapter71 but even in this record the vegetable product was used by man before that of animals1 and shows in a most unmistakable1 even if allegorical1 manner1 the natural trend of all development1 viz41 that articles easiest to procure are those that are first used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,,petasus1 ,,from ,,parthenon ,,frieze 7,,elgin ,,marble7 ,,by ,,phidias 7circ4 #dej ,b4,c47 ,shaded part is now broken4 ,it is1 therefore1 not unfair to assume that the manipulation of vegetable fibres1 such as leaves1 rushes1 straws and other similar products1 was really the earliest textile operation4 ,that once conceded1 it is no long step to the use of the 8plaitted0 article as a head covering4 ,the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 in its articles on 8,costume0 and 8,hats0 states that the 8modern hat can be traced back to the ,petasus worn by the ancient ,romans when on a journey02 and similar hats1 known as ,kausia1 were also used by the ancient ,greeks on like occasions4 ,the ,greek ,kausia and the ,roman ,petasus are described as 8hats of a pliant material which could be bent down at the sides like that worn by ,atalanta40 ,la ,croix1 a ,french writer on the subject1 assures us that the early ,romans and ,franks 8sought ,bast and ,straw of which to make them hats10 and there is an antique statue of ,mercury in the ,vatican at ,rome1 which has for head covering a hat of a 8wide-awake0 nature1 sculptured in close imitation of a finely plaitted straw4 ,the ,goddess ,hera 7the ,grecian name for the ,roman ,juno71 ,queen of ,olympus1 is depicted on ancient vases1 coins and statues wearing a ,stephanos one of the statues1 the original of which was by ,praxiteles 7#cej ,b4,c471 representing ,hera ,teleia standing1 is known to moderns by copies to be found in the ,vatican and other museums4 ,pausanias 7c4 #afj ,b4,c47 speaking of the coins of ,argos1 specifically describes ,hera as wearing a ,stephanos4 ,this was a head covering consisting only of a crown1 similar in shape to a modern ,turkish fez inverted1 of the same breadth and height all round1 and was made of various vegetable products4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,,stephanos1 ,,from ,,terra-,,cotta 7#gjj ,b4,c471 ,,british ,,museum ,in the ,british ,museum is to be seen a small terra-cotta figure seated wearing the above sketched ,stephanos in which the plaitting marks of coarse vegetable fibres are very distinct4 ,this is probably the earliest extant record1 in the plastic art1 of a straw hat4 8,wicker work 7poloi kalathoi7 was also used by the ancient ,greeks to make brim-less hats40 7,gerard4 ,antike ,bildwerke47 ,the ancient ,etruscans wore what was known as a ,tutulus1 a brimless hat with a high pointed centre to the crown2 and a broad brimmed hat similar to the ,petasus1 but with a pointed top like the ,tutulus4 ,etruria covered the district now occupied by the ,italian straw plait and hat makers1 but while there is an extreme likelihood1 from the shape of the hat in the accompanying sketch1 that the denizens of this fertile champaign1 producing as it does1 and probably did1 unlimited materials that could be plaitted1 made these hats of straw1 there is no definite information as to their being constructed of any vegetable fibres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,,etruscan ,,hat 7circ4 #ddj ,b4,c471 ,,head ,,of ,,peleus ,,from ,,painting ,,on ,,earthenware ,,dish ,,found ,,in ,a ,,tomb ,,at ,,vulci ,another very important link of classical interest with the remote past is shown in the two sketches of hats and bonnets as worn by the ancient inhabitants of ill-fated ,pompeii4 ,the mural decorations of this long-buried city illustrate in a far more cogent manner than any other known examples1 the probable actual appearance of the people who lived there before its catastrophe1 and the hat shown on the head of ,penelope is a model that has been imitated during the last thirty-five years4 ,the little knob on the top is1 however1 quite novel4 ,the other example from ,pompeii is from a comic fresco in which two men1 dressed as women1 are having an altercation1 and here the artist has not only shown the lines which indicate the ridges of a woven vegetable fibre hat1 but this painting provides the first known drawing of a ,bonnet4 ,note the tilt at which it is worn1 and the portion cut out at base to admit the neck1 and also the absolute resemblance to what is known as a 8,granny0 ,bonnet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,,hat ,,worn ,,by ,,penelope ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,,bonnet ,a very famous writer of antiquity 7perhaps the one best known1 except ,caesar1 to all scholars of ,latin71 ,virgil1 makes allusion in his ,pastorals to the 8plaitting of osiers and willows40 ,probably there is no race of men that has so closely maintained to the present time its ancient forms of clothing1 as have the ,arabs2 and they occasionally wear a hat made of twisted bands of straw similar to a beehive4 ,they are the only ,moslems that do1 and there is no trace of any other people of that religion wearing a similar head covering4 ,all this evidence from the ,graeco-,roman and other ancient sources proves that the making in some way of straw hats was fairly general even in the earliest times in the countries of ,asia ,minor and south-eastern ,europe1 but some writers on the subject favour the claims of the ,black ,forest of ,germany as having been the birthplace of the industry4 ,this1 of course1 may be so1 although no ,germanic or ,teutonic writers of equal antiquity have handed down such direct evidence as that of the ,graeco-,romans4 ,but it seems a little invidious for any special part of the world to make such a claim1 for doubtless the weaving of vegetable fibres was not confined to any particular area1 but that primeval man all over the world practised the operation for his own needs4 ,there are no ,british records of straw hats until ,a4,d4 #adei1 when it is narrated that ,sir ,john ,fastolfe died possessed of 8ij ,strawen hattes02 the 8,promtorium parvulorum0 of about that date renders the 8hatte of straw0 as capedulum4 ,spenser1 ,shakespeare and ,thynne1 brilliant luminaries of the ,elizabethan period1 all make allusions to the straw hat4 ,spenser1 the ,poet ,laureate of ,good ,queen ,bess 7who herself is said to have worn a straw hat that may still be seen at ,hatfield ,house71 quite early in the sixteenth century says-- 8,some plaid with straws10 etc43 while ,thynne1 about #aegj1 in his 8,debate between ,pride and ,lowliness0 writes of a man with 8,a strawen hatte upon his head 8,the which was fastened underneath40 ,shakespeare in ,the ,tempest 7,act ,,iv1 ,scene #a7 makes ,iris say-- 8,you sunburned sicklemen1 of ,august weary 8,come hither from the furrow1 and be merry2 8,make holyday3 your rye straw hats put on 8,and these fresh nymphs encounter every one 8,in country footing40 ,in ,a ,lover's ,complaint1 the immortal bard still further emphasizes the use1 which apparently was fairly general1 of the straw hat-- 8,upon her head a platted hive of straw 8,which fortified her visage from the sun40 ,this passage is interesting first on account of the use of the word hive4 ,this object1 as used for beekeeping1 was without doubt very familiar to ,shakespeare1 and therefore the maid's head covering1 as it existed in the imagination of the poet1 was probably similar to that worn by the ,arabs mentioned previously1 for she and they wore it as a protection against the sun's heat4 ,second1 ,shakespeare's spelling of the word 8platted0 was undoubtedly the method of spelling current at the time and was phonetic4 7,the author in the 8,foreword0 bases his reasons for using the double ,t in 8plaitting0 or 8plaitter0 in conjunction with the modern spelling of the word on this and other more recent well-known examples of literature co-eval with the birth of the trade in ,great ,britain47 ,ben ,jonson1 the ,poet ,laureate of ,james ,i1 about #afcj1 in an epigram to ,lady ,mary ,wroth1 writes-- 8,he that saw you wear the wheaten hat10 etc4 ,the inimitable diarist1 ,pepys1 describes an actress at the ,duke's ,theatre as 8dressed like a country maid with a straw hat on03 and mentions that while staying at ,hatfield1 8,the women 7of the party7 had pleasure in putting on some ,straw ,hats1 which are much worn in this country1 which did become them mightily1 but especially my wife660 ,it may be interesting at this point to mention a widely known subject1 of which interpretations have been greatly at fault4 ,one of ,peter ,paul ,rubens' best known paintings is entitled 8,la ,dame au ,chapeau de ,poil40 ,the subject is of a lady wearing a large brimmed and somewhat high crowned hat adorned with a sweeping plume of feathers1 and many writers on straw hats have endeavoured to show that the hat of the picture was made of straw1 arguing that the word 8,poil0 in the title was an ancient form of the ,french word for straw1 viz41 8,paille40 ,it is true that some old ,gaelic writers in mentioning the stalks of cereals have used various methods of spelling the equivalent for straw2 8,pail10 8,paile0 and 8,paill0 are to be found in sixteenth and seventeenth century books1 but in no case has the word 8,poil0 ever been used1 and quite rightly so1 because this word means an entirely different thing1 and is used to-day with the same spelling and for the same purpose as it was in the sixteenth century4 8,poil0 means 8nap10 a raised 8pile10 which can be obtained on various fabrics4 ,this consists of a sufficient number of the loose ends of the staple1 of which the material is woven or felted1 being left on the surface1 or afterwards raised by means of combs1 etc41 so as to form either a velvety richness on which the loose ends stand upright1 or a glossy finish1 like that obtained on a man's top hat1 where the loose ends are smoothed down4 ,the real translation of the picture's title is 8,the lady with a ,pile hat10 in this case undoubtedly of some felted nature and of which the actual modern equivalent would be either a beaver1 flamand or velour4 ,from this time onwards1 as printing became more general1 allusions to straw hats became frequent1 and1 with the advent of periodicals of fashions1 etc41 for ladies1 both letterpress and illustrations confirm their widespread use4 ,naturally detail began to be given1 and the poet ,gay 7cir4 #agad7 in his ,pastorals sings of 8,my new straw hat1 thus trimly lined with green40 ,in the ,ladies ,dictionary 7#afid7 under the heading of 8,apparel10 straw hats are mentioned as among the things 8necessary to feminine adornment40 ,miss ,constance ,isherwood says that 8,straw hats--became the rage among the reigning beauties of ,queen ,anne's court and the early ,georgian period40 ,the ,ladies' ,magazine of the eighteenth century has many plates showing various styles of what are certainly straw hats1 the design and manipulation of the straws in woven hats and the detail of the plait in sewn hats being very carefully and distinctly engraved4 ,these excerpts from ancient as well as more recent authorities all tend to show the widespread use of the straw hat1 and prove that the term 8straw0 was1 as it is now1 a most comprehensive one1 and one in no way entirely confined to the stalks of cereals4 ,but they also show that1 although straw hats were made all over the ,continent1 etc41 the work on them was purely individual and local4 ,there were no recognized centres of manufacture or distribution1 for1 excepting the fact that some localities were more productive of suitable materials for plaitting than others1 the making of straw hats was universal1 and it is not until the sixteenth century that any reliable information is obtainable of special centres for straw hat production4 ,according to ,cesare ,cantu1 a well-known ,italian historian1 the manufacture of hats of straw in the neighbourhood of ,florence1 for distribution outside the locality1 can be traced back to the fourteenth century4 ,this is probably quite true1 but unfortunately the statement is not corroborated by any contemporaneous evidence4 ,but in the year #aegd1 ,signa1 a village near ,florence1 was entitled 8the original seat of the industry40 7,from a consular report47 ,it is1 therefore1 almost safe to declare that the commercial life of the straw hat began in the district of ,florence1 and here1 probably1 for the first time in history1 were to be found gathered together in sufficiently large numbers to make their wares marketable1 persons both male and female engaged in weaving straws into hats1 or capelli1 or in plaitting straws into braids1 which were called paglia or plait4 ,from ,tuscany to ,piedmont is not a 8far cry10 and ,coryat in his ,crudities 7a work published in #afaa and consisting of a series of observations made in a journey through ,europe7 says1 8at many places in ,piemont ,i observed most delicate strawen hats1 which both men and women use in most places of that ,province40 ,again1 ,piedmont is not very distant from ,lorraine1 and it is from this latter district1 which was the country of the birthplace of her mother1 that ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots1 is said to have brought plaitters to ,scotland in #aeeb1 and thus to have introduced the art to the ,british ,isles4 ,some writers on this subject1 failing to discriminate between plait and hats1 adduce many adverse arguments 7see below7 when the claim is made that the unfortunate queen established the trade in the coasts of ,britain4 ,these point to the undoubted fact that straw hats were made both in ,scotland and ,england before her time4 ,that1 of course1 is quite true1 but what is not equally certain is whether the hats made in the ,british ,isles before #aeeb were hats woven in one piece1 or hats made of plaitted braid sewn afterwards in some manner to the required shape4 ,in the old account of the transaction one reads that in ,lorraine ,mary noticed the people 8profitably employed1 some in plaitting straws and others in working 7sic7 the straw plait into hats40 ,it is1 therefore1 evident that it was an established industry in ,lorraine and that both operations were being carried on4 ,one may also deduce that1 while the weaving of hats may have been common in ,scotland1 the making of plait and the subsequent making into hats was a novelty to ,mary1 and1 therefore1 in the interests of her ,scottish subjects1 she endeavoured to promote a similar industry in which they also might be 8profitably employed40 ,the late ,mr4 ,john ,waller1 of ,luton1 a member of one of the oldest families connected with the straw trade1 after a careful and apparently unbiased investigation1 says that the statement about ,mary being the founder of the industry 8can only be regarded as pleasing fiction02 and to support this quotes from ,oldmixon's ,history of ,england 7edition of #agbd7 8,that the manufacture of straw plait had thriven for about #ajj years in the neighbourhood of ,hemel ,hempstead and ,dunstable40 ,but from #aeeb to #afbd is a long period1 and one can easily imagine the natives of sunny ,lorraine feeling none too homelike in 8,caledonia1 stern and wild40 ,with the accession of ,james ,i 7,mary's son7 to the ,english throne1 what could be more natural than the migration of these workers to more genial southerly temperatures1 bringing with them their art8 ,as ,james became king in #afjc there would have been plenty of time for the industry of making plait for sewing into hats being established between then and #afbd1 which would be exactly #ajj years before ,oldmixon's account6 ,and speaking of the advent of the ,lorrainers into ,beds and ,herts1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,george ,austin1 in his book on the ,straw ,hat and ,bonnet trade of the ,luton ,district1 writes1 8,it is said to be the true history of the introduction of the handicraft into ,england40 ,one must1 therefore1 come to the conclusion that the system of making hats from plait1 as distinct from the weaving the hat in one piece1 was introduced by ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots1 to ,scotland1 and from thence the method came south1 and for reasons which will be set out hereafter1 settled itself in the regions of ,south ,bedfordshire1 ,north-east ,hertfordshire1 and ,east ,buckinghamshire4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,commercial ,,rise ,,and ,,growth ,the history of a straw hat has thus been traced down to the latter half of the eighteenth century4 ,prior to this period all kinds of straws1 grasses1 and fibres of vegetables had been utilized in the operation1 the only limit as to material being the growths peculiar to the locality in which hat-making was carried on1 so one may see that1 as each locality probably grew different kinds of fibres1 the result of the finished hats was different4 ,this difference early gave rise to local nomenclature1 perhaps the first collective term was 8,leghorn0 7circ4 #afej4 ,tomlinson's ,cyclopaedia1 #ahfg74 ,this now well-known variety of straw hat1 woven first in braids and then cunningly put together in spiral sequence to the required shape1 is not sewn overlapping1 but with the braids laid edge to edge1 and a fine tough straw or other fibre threaded through every other head on the impinging edges of the plait1 and then drawn tight1 so that the opposite heads fitting between and inside each other assumed the appearance of being woven in one piece1 except that where the join took place1 the thickness caused by the heads of the plait and the threading material1 produced a ridge which1 starting from the centre and running spirally to the edge of the brim1 is one of the prominent characteristics of a 8,leghorn40 ,this term1 therefore1 embodies1 first1 the place of origin2 second1 the material used2 third1 the method of using4 ,if other local terms were thus early applied to straw productions1 they have not1 as far as the ,continent of ,europe is concerned1 come down to modern times1 all other names now in use 7and they are legion7 are the products of the late eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries4 ,all the materials used for plaitting up to about #agde had been worked whole1 that is1 the fibre whether rush1 grass or straw1 was plaitted as it was grown1 and consequently the hats of coarse weaving largely predominated2 there being naturally a preponderance of the coarser parts of any vegetable growth4 ,further1 the manipulation of the bigger fibres was easier to fingers perhaps only infrequently devoted to the work1 and therefore up to this period the majority of straw hats were thick and weighty4 ,there were exceptions such as ,leghorns that were plaitted from a variety of bearded wheat or rye 7,triticum turgidum7 grown in ,tuscany4 ,this was light in weight1 comparatively tough1 and of a fine natural golden colour4 ,the upper part of the straw called ,punta 7or point7 was used for all ,leghorn hats1 and also for making plait which was called ,tuscan1 from the locality of growth4 ,when ,tuscan was the only straw plait exported from ,italy1 ,great ,britain was one of the purchasers1 and during the early part of the nineteenth century up to the repeal of the ,corn ,laws and the abolition of protective duties on other goods1 ,british importers of ,tuscan plait had to pay a duty of #hs4 per lb4 weight4 ,the desire to produce straw hats of less weight brought the bottom half of the straw column into use4 ,that portion generally has a sheath1 protecting it from the sun1 which being stripped disclosed the under part of pearly white colour1 this from being at the foot was called pedale1 and although not so tough as the punta1 was sufficiently so for plaitting purposes1 and was very much lighter in weight4 ,the first parcel of pedale plait arrived in ,great ,britain in #ahgh1 and is supposed to have been purchased by ,messrs4 ,carruthers ,co41 of ,luton4 ,but even then the quantity of fine pedale straws grown did not suffice for the increasing demands for straw hats4 ,the ,italian straw1 being so well established as the best material1 caused workers to endeavour to find similar straw in other countries which had adopted straw hat making as a commercial undertaking4 ,it is probable that the climate of ,scotland was not alone the cause for the migration of the ,lorrainers2 the search for fine white1 light1 straws1 impossible to obtain in the cold north1 may have drawn these operatives to the southern parts of ,england4 ,whatever the actual reason or reasons1 it is certain that by #afbd the neighbourhood of ,south ,bedfordshire 7,dunstable71 ,north-west ,hertfordshire 7,hemel ,hempstead71 and probably ,east ,buckinghamshire was producing higher grade straw hats than any hitherto obtainable in the ,british ,isles4 ,the district comprises practically the whole of the ,eastern ranges of the ,chiltern ,hills1 an area of chalky subsoil4 ,the discriminating ,lorrainers quickly discovered the extreme beauty of colour of the ,chiltern straws1 and it is almost certain that for this reason alone the art of making plait braid was introduced into the locality1 which from #afbd onwards has been undoubtedly the centre of the ,british straw hat industry4 ,later on the straw plait making spread to portions of ,essex and ,suffolk1 and although the plaits produced there were of much inferior quality and colour to those produced in the ,chilterns1 and1 generally speaking1 were not utilized for the highest class work1 they formed a very useful adjunct to the plait stocks required by hat manufacturers when large quantities were needed4 ,another ,english centre for straw plaitting was ,ripon in ,yorkshire1 the district around being the seat of quite a fair-sized industry4 ,it is interesting to note this1 for it seems to show that the ,lorrainers in their southerly migration1 had stopped en route1 and had sampled the straws grown on the ,yorkshire chalk4 ,but all this evidence tends to prove that the nature of the soil which produced the proper straw for plaitting caused the trade to localize around ,dunstable4 ,this ancient borough1 practically in the centre of the plaitting districts1 situated on the ,watling ,street1 along which passed all the traffic between ,london and the north-west of ,england and ,northern ,wales1 at the junction of the ,icknield way 7another ancient ,roman road crossing the ,watling ,street towards the east and west71 was in the middle of the fifteenth century alive all day with the hum of people and merchandise travelling to and fro4 ,sitting astride of the trunk roads leading everywhere in ,great ,britain1 it is small wonder that this little town1 of vast ecclesiastical importance in the ,middle ,ages1 but much decayed since the time of ,henry ,,viii1 became the place from whence all the products of the neighbourhood could be dispatched4 ,and1 therefore1 the name of 8,dunstable10 another of the now world-known local names1 was given to the plait1 hats and bonnets which emanated from the whole vicinity4 ,the great preponderance of coarse straws1 combined with the increasing demands for hats made of fine plaits1 caused straw workers to endeavour to make the straws smaller by splitting the 8pipes0 7as the whole straw is called7 into narrower portions called 8splints40 ,this was done at first with a knife1 but the result was generally unsatisfactory1 although some skilled workers managed to acquire really wonderful deftness in the operation4 ,it was plait called 8,patent ,dunstable0 made of these split straws that gave this plaitting area its first textile claim to distinction4 ,some one1 now unknown1 found out that two fine splints of straw laid together1 inside to inside1 produced when plaitted an effect equal to that of the whole straw1 and yet enabled plaitters to make the finest and narrowest widths of plait4 ,the clumsy method of cutting with a knife was apparently the only possible way of making splints until the time of the ,napoleonic ,wars4 ,the ,french prisoners at ,yaxley ,barracks1 near ,stilton1 produced 8pretty and useful articles such as baskets1 workboxes1 mats1 etc40 7,mr4 ,alfred ,tansley ,soc4 ,art41 #ahfj74 ,these were decorated with 8laid work10 a kind of mosaic pattern made of coloured straw splints1 cut to various sizes and pasted on suitable foundations4 8,for the purpose of making these splints1 they used a straw splitter made of bone1 about two inches long1 brought to a point behind which a set of cutters was arranged in a circle1 the point entered the straw pipe separating it into so many equal sized splints0 7,tansley74 ,this instrument was soon copied by a ,dunstable blacksmith named ,janes 7some authorities say ,norman7 who made some in iron and turned the cutting parts at right angles to an elongated stem1 which could be used as a handle4 ,these were subsequently also made in brass1 and in #ahae other varieties1 in the form of metal wheels set in wooden frames1 appeared4 ,mr4 ,tansley says1 8,to this invention may be attributed the success which in after times has attended the manufacture of straw plait in ,england40 ,the two methods of working straws1 either whole or split1 opened up a wide field for diversity of plaitting1 and quickly novelties began to appear4 ,from #ahae to the present day1 at intervals sometimes short and sometimes very long1 new designs of plait have been put on the market1 and now there is no style of shape that cannot be suitably fitted up with one or more plaits4 ,british plaitters have not been content to use only the straws grown in the five counties4 ,they have ransacked the world for materials1 wood cut into fine shavings or splints1 ,manila grasses or hemp1 manufactured splints of cotton1 silk1 or similar fibres1 stuck together in a flat ribbon called a 8lame10 horsehair1 bamboo1 raffia1 and many other articles have been used for the purpose4 ,at one time #cj1jjj persons were engaged in the plaitting industry1 but by #ahij the number had dwindled to under #c1jjj4 ,the reasons for this decline were manifold4 ,although the district had produced1 and was still producing1 straws better than any other continental centre1 yet about #ahee the demand for something different from the plaits made solely of straw induced foreign plaitting communities to plait fancy materials which before had been used for other purposes4 ,switzerland and ,france began to make pretty and delicate patterns of plait or braid1 woven both by hand and by machinery1 of all kinds of fancy fibres such as silk1 horsehair 7or crinoline as termed by milliners71 fine ribbons1 etc41 in various combinations of one or two or more of the above articles either with or without straws4 ,further attempts in the way of decoration were made by intermixtures of glass beads and bugles4 ,these very fanciful braids had a wonderful success1 for they were especially adaptable for bonnets1 which to about #ahfe were much more in demand for fashionable wear than hats4 ,this invasion of a large quantity of displacing material adversely affected the volume of plaitting in ,england1 and still further damage was done when ,italy began to send over plain and fancy plaits made of willow shavings1 as well as fine straw punta and pedale plaits similar to ,twist1 which was by then the mainstay of the fine plait trade4 7,twist was a #g end straw with a twisted beadhead made of fine splints1 two of which laid inside to inside formed one strand for plaitting47 ,in #ahfg the 8last nail in the coffin0 of ,british straw plaitting was driven by the first import of plait from ,china1 and in that same year the distress in and around ,dunstable was so great that the then ,mayor1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,gutteridge1 called a public meeting to discuss methods for its alleviation4 ,as the far eastern countries of ,china and ,japan now play such an important part in the world's straw hat trade1 it will be of interest to note how ,british traders first came in contact with their goods4 ,doubtless from time immemorial the deft 8,chinee0 had been accustomed to the weaving of grasses1 etc41 into hats and mats1 and it is stated that the attention of ,luton hat makers was first drawn to the possibility of getting plait from ,china1 by seeing some 8hats 7mats87 which had been used for lining chests of tea40 ,whatever the cause1 in #ahfg1 from plaitted samples sent to them1 the ,chinese were able to imitate1 in their native grown straws1 the products of ,england in such an excellent manner and at such a low price1 that the fiercest competition was at once created4 ,people engaged in the trade were so exasperated at the circumstance1 that they made an effigy of the importer and burned it in the ,luton ,market ,place4 ,the competition of the increasing bulk of ,china straw plait imports1 together with the ,italian imitation of ,dunstable twist 7called at first 8,milan10 and now generally known as 8#g ends ,pedal07 made the plaitting trade in the five counties to decrease rapidly4 8,the ,society of ,arts have at various times rewarded many individuals for successful attempts to introduce bonnets formed of grasses indigenous to ,britain10 says ,tomlinson1 in his ,cyclopaedia published in #ahfg1 but all these well meant efforts to revive the industry were unavailing4 ,neither for price nor quantity 7which latter was rapidly becoming almost the prime necessity7 could ,british plaitters successfully compete with the ,italians and the ,chinese for plaits of narrow grades1 although quantities of wider plaits both of plain and fancy designs continued to be made4 ,about #ahij plait began to arrive from ,japan1 and just as the ,british straw was better than the ,italian and ,chinese1 so the ,japanese was superior to the ,british4 ,it was of the most delicate pearly colour1 it was infinitely lighter in weight1 and it could be obtained in far bigger pipes than any ,european or ,chinese growths1 and its adaptability both for whole and split plaits was equal to all4 ,in straw plait1 therefore1 the ,japanese were able to compete successfully1 but in a short time they put on the market an article made of wood splints plaitted with three strands1 called 8,chip #c ends40 ,this plait1 of ,italian make originally1 from its extremely low price and colour possibility1 was the material backbone of the ladies' hat trade for some years4 ,in later times a braid made of hemp by machinery1 called ,tagal or ,tgal1 originated in ,switzerland and ,italy4 ,quickly adopted by the ,japanese1 they have been able to supplant the earlier producers1 and as with the ,chip #c ends1 to provide varieties which have almost monopolized the hat making markets for the million4 ,in #ahif the plaitting trade was in such a bad state that some of the principal hat makers in the district determined to attempt the rescue of the plaitters4 ,for that purpose the 8,british ,straw ,plaitting ,company0 was formed1 the writer of this book being appointed ,chairman of a very representative ,board of ,directors4 ,manufacturers were eager to assist1 and for the first twelve months the company showed great promise4 ,a revival of plaitting 7although with other materials than straw and of fresh designs7 ensued1 and better prices were paid so that wages were much advanced4 ,but the ,swiss and ,italians took fright1 and for the next two years so successfully competed by cutting prices1 that in #ahii the company was obliged to cease operations4 ,in fact1 not only could better materials for plaitting be found in other parts of the world1 but in those parts the natives1 who 7as the ,ency4 ,britt4 says about the ,chinese7 8could live where an ,englishman would starve10 were able to produce plait at prices which made it impossible for plaitters in ,england to earn a living4 ,but fortunately as the plaitting trade declined the hat and bonnet making of ,dunstable and ,luton was increasing as fast as its predecessor fell4 ,in #ahfe the first attempts to sew plait by machinery were made1 previously all had been sewn by hand1 a long and tedious process1 when fine plaits were involved4 ,this took the form of sewing several pieces of fine plait in a parallel form1 making strips of an increased width1 which were then sewn by hand to the desired shape4 ,a little later an ,american named ,bodsworth introduced a machine which was capable of sewing plait into hats and bonnets1 but unlike all subsequent models1 which start at the centre of the top of the crown1 this machine started sewing at the edge of the brim4 ,this materially lessened the field of shape variety1 and although great improvements were effected by skilfulness of working1 and although the machine was adopted by ,messrs4 ,vyse ,sons ,co41 it was not taken up generally by the trade4 ,the well-known firm of ,willcox ,gibbs1 makers of a domestic chainstitch sewing machine1 had an agent in ,luton named ,edward ,stratford1 and about #ahgj his wife1 in response to a friendly challenge1 sewed the first straw hat from centre to circumference4 ,the day following this epoch making occurrence ,mrs4 ,stratford sewed another hat out of a fine make of 8,english ,china ,purl0 7a fine fancy edged plait72 this hat is said to be still in existence4 ,from #ahgj the whole trade was revolutionized1 all fine plaits eventually were sewn by machine1 only the coarsest and broadest widths being sewn by hand4 ,in #ahgd ,mr4 ,henry ,bland1 a ,luton mechanic1 turned his attention to making alterations to the ,willcox ,gibbs' domestic machine1 in order to render it more suitable for sewing straw plait4 ,he took out patents to cover his improvements1 which were subsequently acquired by ,messrs4 ,willcox ,gibbs1 who issued the new machine to the ,trade under the title of 8,the #aj-;,guinea0 straw hat sewing machine4 ,but this visible stitch machine had a fault which made it unsuitable for the best work1 inasmuch as the stitch was prominent on the outside of the hat1 and the demand for handsewn invisible stitch continued unabated for goods of the best quality4 ,various machines were introduced to imitate handsewing1 most of them failures1 but ,m4 ,lgat1 a ,frenchman1 patented one in #ahge that even up to the present time has never been surpassed for close resemblance in its work to that done by hand1 but although the machine was taken up seriously by the best houses of ,great ,britain and ,france1 its large initial cost1 and heavy charges for maintenance1 allowed it only to retain its supremacy pending the advent of a less intricate1 delicate and costly model4 ,in #ahgh ,mr4 ,edmund ,wiseman 7who is still living71 of ,luton1 took out a patent for a machine to sew plaits with a 8concealed0 stitch4 ,in #ahhj some improvements were made1 and for some years the 8,wiseman ,concealed ,stitch0 machine sold at about half the price of the 8,lgat10 and by no means as intricate and delicate1 gradually displaced the ,french machine4 ,between #ahhj and #ahhf1 ,mr4 ,bland1 of ,luton1 and ,mr4 ,william ,walker of ,dunstable1 both patented concealed stitch machines1 but without much success4 ,in #ahhf ,mr4 ,wiseman entered into arrangements with the ,willcox ,gibbs ,co4 to produce an improved concealed stitch machine that from its shape and method of action was called the 8,box machine40 ,this1 although on the same lines as the first invention with regard to the method of stitch and sewing1 was capable of sewing all kinds of plait both fine and coarse1 whereas the earlier patent was only really successful on fine plaits4 ,this ,box machine has been greatly improved since #ahhf1 but taken on the whole1 its general characteristics are the same4 ,in #ahie ,messrs4 ,janes ,bros41 of ,luton1 took out a patent for a concealed stitch machine called the 8,lutonia10 which has met with a very distinct success4 ,meanwhile the demand for hats of certain plaits1 which were improved by the outside stitch sewing1 kept on increasing1 and indeed there are plaits on which even the so called 8visible0 stitches are invisible4 ,plaits of cotton1 silk1 ajour1 and crinoline are of such nature that the cotton used in the outside stitch machine sewing seems to lose or bury itself in the material of the braid1 and there is less likelihood of the needle catching in their tough fibres than there is in the working of the ,box machine1 where a hook is used2 and further for some years plaits of fine chip were the dominant demand1 and for these there was less tendency on the part of the fine single needle of the visible stitch machine to cut the narrow wood strands1 than if the double punctuation of the ,box machine needle and hook were used4 ,in #ahgi1 therefore1 the ,willcox ,gibbs ,co4 took out a patent for what is now known as the 8#ag ,guinea0 type of visible stitch sewing machines4 ,this model has been closely followed by the 8,dresdensia10 a ,german product of signal value2 and 8,the ,singer10 an ,american competitor1 both of which are in the main imitations or copies of the #ahgi patent4 ,it is a fact worthy of note that the first successful machine to sew a hat of straw plait from button to circumference of brim was a ,willcox ,gibbs1 and that the latest word in straw sewing is also1 by the arrangement with ,mr4 ,wiseman1 a product of the same firm4 ,other machinery used for making straw hats consists of a variety of 8,blocking0 machines4 ,as will be shown hereafter1 the most primitive means were adopted at first1 but when the hydraulic type made its appearance it soon left no room for any other method4 ,the appliances of ,messrs ,desbordes1 ,desireau1 ,lgat1 ,beresford1 ,keston1 ,brochier and ,stoffel 7described in ,chapter ,,xii7 have now rendered possible the blocking of all kinds of shapes and materials by machine4 ,the plait mill1 made of both wood and iron1 completes the list of mechanical appliances used in making a straw hat4 ,but at the present time all hat sewing machines1 which for at least twenty-five years were driven by the foot power of the operator1 are worked by mechanical power1 either from a gas or steam engine1 or by electrical dynamos4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,straw ,,plait--,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,the ,,straws ,the foregoing details1 mainly devoted to the classical and historical side of straw hat manufacture1 have demonstrated that the word 8straw0 is very elastic in its meaning when applied to its use for making hats4 ,all classes of vegetable fibres have been included at some time or other in its embrace1 and to-day the range of materials technically known as 8straws0 is larger than at any previous time4 ,but as the industry of straw hat making centred itself in the locality of ,south ,bedfordshire on account of the superior straw1 and because the process of splitting and subsequent manipulation effected a total revolution in straw hat working1 a description of the processes common in that district will1 with a few minor exceptions1 serve as an example for all plait making4 ,the straws used in ,england are principally those of wheat1 the exceptions are very small4 ,they are specially grown by careful methods of tillage1 and at the proper period are cut either with the sickle or with the scythe1 the mowing machine being likely to bruise the stalks4 ,they are tied into suitable bundles1 considerably smaller than the usual sheaf1 with the ears of corn as nearly level as possible2 these are then cut off and used for grain purposes4 ,the bundles of straw are carefully 8combed0 with a coarse wooden comb to rid the stalks of all the loose portions and thin blades4 ,they are then cut into the standard lengths1 about #aj ins4 long1 and are ready for sizing4 ,this is effected by working through a series of sieves1 with somewhat deep sides4 ,as the straws have been carefully gathered with ears uppermost1 it naturally follows that all the similar thicknesses of stalk are together1 and therefore the process of sorting becomes a fairly speedy one4 ,the cut lengths now become straw pipes1 and they are first placed on the largest end in the largest grade sieve1 the pipes smaller than the mesh fall through1 leaving only those of the coarsest dimensions4 ,this process is repeated until all the varying thicknesses of straw have been sorted into their respective sizes4 ,they are then tied up carefully into bundles of about #e ins4 in diameter1 and are ready for the plaitter4 ,in ,italy1 where the straw is grown solely for plaitting purposes1 the process before sorting is a little different4 ,the sowing of corn 7,triticum turgidum1 or ,triticum oestivum1 which is a species of rye7 is done very thickly1 so as to produce thin and short stalks4 ,it is gathered when the ear is in a soft1 milky state before the final stages of ripening4 ,it is then thinly spread over the ground in fine1 hot weather1 and afterwards tied in bundles and stacked1 so that the resultant heat may drive off all moisture4 ,after remaining stacked for about a month1 it is spread out and exposed to the action of dew1 sun and air1 in order to bleach it4 ,during the exposure1 which varies according to necessity1 the stalks are frequently turned4 ,when the bleaching process is sufficiently complete1 the lower joint of the straw stripped of its outside thin sheath is divided from the upper one1 which is still allowed to retain the ear4 ,this process provides the punta and the pedale4 ,the straw is then subjected to the action of steam and the fumes of sulphur4 ,when this bleaching process is complete the assortment into sizes by sieves takes place1 and the graded straws are then ready for use4 ,from this stage for making plaits of the whole or unsplit straw1 the processes adopted by both ,england and ,italy are in the main identical2 ,italy1 however1 has not generally adopted the splitting processes for plait making on account of the fineness of her straws4 ,but the ,british plaitter reserves the sulphur bleaching of the straws until the plait is actually made1 for1 with the excellent colour of the straw1 in many cases this can be dispensed with until the need for hat making arises4 ,the first processes of plaitting1 either of hats or of braid1 were undoubtedly of the unsplit stalks1 and all 8,english whole straw0 plaits were so made4 ,it has been shown how and why the splitting of straws arose4 ,the plaitter1 having determined on the variety of plait to be made1 acquired a sufficiency of suitable sized pipes4 ,with the splitter1 the point of which1 inserted in the end of the straw1 and pressed downwards1 the tube of straw coming against the radially set cutters1 the pipes were divided into splints of equal widths of a fineness according to the plaitter's requirements4 ,these were then wetted so as to render them a little tougher and more amenable for manipulation and bending4 ,the plaitter1 with a bundle of splints under the left arm1 and generally a few in the mouth1 through the lips of which they are drawn to keep moist1 commences operations4 ,any description of all the methods of plaitting would be tedious1 all the operations consisting of a constant under and over locking of the splints1 but in the split straw making of the 8,patent ,dunstable0 the plaitting1 instead of being of either one straw or splint1 is of two1 wetted and laid together1 and in the varieties known as 8,splits0 the splints are plaitted singly1 leaving alternately1 or in a spaced pattern1 according to the design required1 the inside and the outside of the straw2 the outside of silicate being shiny1 and the inside with its slight pith 7or rice as it is termed7 being dull4 ,the 8,whole ,straw ,dunstable10 the first plait made in the neighbourhood1 was of seven entire straws1 8,patent ,dunstable0 or 8,twist0 was of seven doubled strands1 or ends1 formed of fourteen splints4 ,rice similarly made1 but with the splints inside out1 making a plait of a dull white which was extensively used for bonnets for weddings4 8,split0 was formed of seven single split straws1 presenting the varied appearance mentioned above1 and was naturally the lightest of ,british fine plaits4 8,luton0 was made like 8,patent ,dunstable10 but without the 8,twist0 head1 making a flat plait similar to split but with both sides alike4 8,bedford10 made of eleven single or eleven double ends of twenty-two splints1 similar to and in imitation of the ,italian plait 8#aa-;end ,tuscan10 and 8,rustic10 a plait of four whole or split straws plaitted to show pointed serrations on both edges4 ,these plaits form the base from which all other straw plaits have developed2 their composition and methods are to be found in every variety whether made in ,great ,britain or abroad1 and although other hand-made plaits have larger or smaller numbers of 8ends0 7from three to almost any number upwards7 their basis of treatment remains the same4 ,the two primary homes of plaitting straws into braids1 ,italy and ,great ,britain1 had many features in common in the conditions and methods by which the plait was made4 ,in both countries the whole of the industry was carried on by peasants and their wives4 ,the males1 who were generally agricultural labourers or small traders in rural districts1 for the main part saw to the growing of the straws and their preparation and distribution for plaitting1 followed after the braids were made by the marketing of the work done by their female friends or relations4 ,in some districts1 such as the environs of ,florence and of the ,south ,beds and neighbouring counties1 these occupations were of such magnitude as to give constant employment to many4 ,in all the districts the main labour of plaitting was undertaken by the womenfolk1 although men at times took a hand1 and in the middle of the nineteenth century it was a real feature of village life in the plaitting centres1 to see the good wives and daughters1 after the household work was done1 standing at their cottage doors1 swiftly and dexterously plaitting and at the same time distributing that gentle and yet satisfying gossip that was so dear to rustic life4 ,in this manner by far the greater bulk of the plaits of ,italy and ,great ,britain were made1 although in the latter country since about #ahbe1 some extra means of production were employed4 ,instead of the art being taught from mother to daughter1 as was the earlier practice1 schools of plaitting were instituted4 ,these were generally arranged in the cottage home of one of the most expert plaitters1 who for a small fee taught the youthful aspirants all the intricacies of the trade1 while at the same time the instructor contrived to keep at work on her own particular plaitting4 ,the view of a portion of a plaitting village1 on a fine day1 with its generally picturesque surroundings framing an active rustic group of women engaged in plaitting1 was such as should have commended itself to many an artist1 yet strange to say the pictures extant of either ,italian or ,british plaitting scenes are very few and far between4 ,these pleasant1 pastoral occupations seem to have gone for ever from ,great ,britain1 although one may still see in ,italy the once familiar signs4 ,hand plaitting has migrated to the ,far ,east1 and there in ,china and ,japan one can to-day see1 with the changes consequent on the different setting of the scenes1 the sights which seventy-five years ago were common to the countryside around ,dunstable1 ,hemel ,hempstead1 and ,luton4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f ,,straw ,,plaitters ,,at ,,work--,a ,,bedfordshire ,,village ,,scene ,,in #ahgj ,machine-made straw plaits have never been produced in quantities in ,england1 although patents for plaitting have been taken out2 but in ,italy and ,switzerland machinery has been in use since #ahdj1 producing plaits of straw mixed with other fibres1 such as horsehair or silk4 ,fiesole1 a village near ,florence1 became a centre of machine-made plaits of ,tuscan straw woven in ,wattle fashion with strands of silk and cotton1 and gave its name to all similarly made plaits4 ,the other continental centres making straw plaits were ,switzerland and ,belgium4 ,by the former practically all the straws used were imported from ,italy1 only quite a small portion being home grown2 but ,belgium produced some beautiful straws1 and the 8,split0 and 8,piping0 made in that country have never been surpassed4 ,the 8#g end cord10 of same detail as 8,patent ,dunstable10 although excellent in make and colour1 missed the sharp twisted head 7from whence the name 8,twist07 peculiar to the ,british made article1 the straws being of too soft a nature to retain the desired effect throughout the hat-making processes4 ,the methods of gathering and preparing the straws in ,belgium closely followed the ,british4 ,china1 the first ,far ,eastern straw plait competitor1 is able to count on almost limitless quantities of straw1 and the plaits made there are1 as far as appearance is concerned1 second to none4 ,but while the ,british plaitter inserts only one or say two straws at a time1 the ,chinese frequently insert what is known as the whole sett2 this naturally causes a greater weakness at the junction than is found in ,british plait1 and for that reason many ,chinese patterns1 although beautiful to look at1 are very difficult to work1 and the probability of some of these setts coming undone and the consequent raggedness of the speels 7as the loose ends are called7 make these plaits undesirable for the highest class work4 ,but the ,chinese1 although not too adaptable1 are nothing if not deft1 and a few makes of plait are put on the market1 which from their altered 8setting0 are known as 8speelless40 8,speelless ,maslimpo10 an imitation in very fine whole straws of ,italian #g ends pedal is one of the most beautiful fine plaits made1 and although it seldom entirely justifies its adjective1 in the main it is the least difficult ,chinese plait to work up4 ,the methods employed by the celestials in preparing the straws are tantamount to those employed in ,britain1 and the methods of splitting them are identical4 ,japan occupies a unique position in the cultivation and production of straws for plaitting4 ,the soil is extremely fertile1 and the geological condition of the country is volcanic4 ,the straws when grown attain to a great size of tube1 even as much as #a_/c of an inch in diameter1 and plaits have been made of ,japanese straws1 split only in one place1 which when opened out form a splint an inch wide1 making braids of only #d or #e ends1 about #c ins4 in width4 ,the volcanic nature of the country seems to have permeated the soil with some bleaching agent4 ,sulphur is usually a product of volcanic eruption1 and although its fumes are deadly to the growth of cereals1 straws grown on volcanic soil acquire a colour which is unobtainable elsewhere4 ,and the colour of the ,japanese straw is entirely unlike1 and at the same time vastly better than1 any other known variety4 ,its rapid growth also engenders a special lightness of weight1 and although not tough as the ,italian or ,british1 it is sufficiently so for any plaitting purposes4 ,in this case the preparation of straws for working is simply the drying and sorting4 ,cereals only have as yet been described1 but two other vegetable products can almost claim by user to be classed as straws1 as the straw hat making industry has adopted them in a very whole-hearted manner4 ,one of the first vegetable plaits1 other than those of actual straw1 was made of fine splints of the wood of willow4 ,this was sufficiently seasoned in plank1 a finely planed surface obtained1 and a planing cutter1 with scoring knives set to the requisite width1 was made to take a very thin shaving4 ,this naturally produced the shaving in very narrow strips that were the media from which #c ends1 #e ends1 #g ends and #i ends 8,chip0 were plaitted by hand4 ,also wider splints of willow shavings were used to make fancy patterns of plait1 the number of which is legion4 ,this branch of the industry emanated from ,italy1 and ,saxony and the ,black ,forest subsequently did some business in chip plaits1 but their shavings were not equal to the ,italian1 being more woolly and less glossy1 and they enjoyed mainly a local success4 ,about #ahij the ,japanese began to make chip plaits1 their wood was equal to the ,italians1 and their prices vastly lower1 so that for some years1 while the plait known as 8#c ends ,chip0 monopolized the great bulk of the hat making requirements1 ,italy and ,japan were keen competitors4 ,as in the birthplace of chip plaits1 so in ,japan were subsequently made all kinds of fancy designs1 which for some time nearly extinguished the ,italian trade4 ,the other vegetable fibre is hemp4 ,this was first used by the ,swiss in the manufacture of a machine made braid similar in appearance to the hand plaitted #i or #g end chips4 ,the fibre from which the first braids were woven was derived from an aloe-like plant ,sansaviera ,zeylanica 7or bow string hemp7 which grew in the island of ,java in a district called ,tgal4 ,this particular hemp when prepared was exceedingly lustrous and tough1 and when put on the market in braids was called by the name of its native place4 ,the name has been corrupted into several forms1 ,tagal1 ,tagel1 ,tagle1 etc41 but the proper name is ,tgal1 and this is still retained by the ,french1 while in ,england the most popular form is ,tagal4 ,the method of weaving was to plait into braids1 strands formed of one1 two or three1 or even more fibres of the hemp1 and plaits were marketed conveying those features1 such as 8#ac_/b0 7which meant #ac strands of two fibres71 or 8#ac_/c0 7thirteen strands of #c fibres74 ,this shoelace like braid was soon followed by a design similar to ,italian #g end ,pedal1 and was at first known as 8,tgal ,picot10 but is now more generally called 8,pedal ,tagal40 ,when worked this plait has a very close resemblance to its model1 and like all the other hemp plaits1 will take a softly brilliant and regular coloured dye4 ,the ,japanese soon copied all these ,tagal braids and quickly made it almost impossible for any other competitor1 although at first their reproductions were extremely faulty4 ,while ,italy1 that also made hemp plaits1 and ,switzerland yet enjoy a small trade1 it is probable that at least #ie per cent of ,pedal ,tagal emanates from the 8,land of the ,rising ,sun10 which has found means to utilize other varieties of hemp1 and has also incorporated silk fibres into the plaitting1 and at the same time is now producing qualities that are not surpassed by either of the ,european varieties4 ,the only merit of continental ,tagal above the ,japanese is that the braids are somewhat firmer and squarer in make4 ,hemp fibres1 like almost all others1 have been extensively used1 either by themselves or in conjunction with other materials1 in making fancy braids of a thousand and one varieties4 ,one feature of all ,tagal plaits is that there is no other known medium which combines such toughness and wear-resisting qualities4 ,further1 plaits have been made from the naturally produced vegetable fibres1 ,raffia1 ,cuba ,bast1 ,yedda 7a particularly light stripping from an exotic plant71 ,sinnet or ,palm leaf1 ,rushes of all kinds1 and various similar growths4 ,mechanically prepared fibres from vegetable growths such as cotton1 jute1 etc41 have been pressed into the making of various braids of close and open designs1 while silk and imitation silks of cellulose nature have enjoyed great popularity as plaits for making fancy hats4 ,the only purely animal product used in making plaits is horsehair4 ,this material1 so extremely liked by the highest classes of wearers1 is now most difficult to obtain owing to the rise of the motor car and the subsequent decline of the horse1 but in spite of its origin it has been1 since at least sixty years1 included as one of the materials that can be classified as a 8straw hat40 ,all the plaits mentioned1 with very few exceptions1 such as the cellulose1 visca1 cotton or black horsehair varieties1 require bleaching or dyeing before being ready for sewing4 ,in a few cases these processes take place where the plait is made1 but generally speaking they are done at the places where plaits are made into hats4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,straw ,,hoods--,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,and ,,of ,,weaving ,,the ,,fibres ,the previous chapter has dealt with the materials used in plait and the incidental processes necessary to the preparation of the fibres1 because plait is undoubtedly at the present day the principal medium for the fashionable straw hat4 ,as the opening chapter proves1 the earliest periods of the use of vegetable fibres for head coverings were entirely devoted to the weaving of the hat in one piece1 as1 for example1 a basket is woven4 ,in fact1 the use of plait braid has been adopted only for about #djj years1 but1 although large quantities of woven hats still continue to be made1 plait has gradually taken the premier place4 ,but any description of the straw hat trade would be incomplete without a proper account of the woven hat or 8hood10 as it is termed in the trade1 the word 8hat0 implying the finished article4 ,in the first place the fibres that can be made into plait can also be made into hoods1 for any fibre capable of being manipulated in plaitting can be woven4 7,the term 8woven0 is used in want of a better1 because the action needed is really more what is generally known as 8weaving0 than 8plaitting10 although both processes are done by hand1 with one or two minor exceptions47 ,there are1 however1 several fibres that are woven into hoods that are not generally utilized for making plaits1 although quite suitable1 but their nature is such as to demand a different preparatory treatment to any of those essentially straw4 ,these are the 8,panama0 and the ,panama imitations or substitutes4 ,among the substitutes are 8,curaoas10 8,bowens10 8,jipi-,japas10 etc42 and the imitations are 8,javas10 8,bankoks10 8,brazilians10 8,manilas0 and 8,paper ,panamas0 made from strips of paper rolled to imitate1 and they do imitate very closely1 the natural fibre used in the real ,panama4 ,a description of the true 8,panama0 fibre will give an insight into the nature of all the substitutes1 the preparations for weaving being nearly identical in every case4 ,the origin of the ,panama hat is obscured in oblivion1 but the source of supply ranges round about ,central ,america1 and from ,ecuador claims are made that in the province of ,manavi1 a native named ,francisco ,delgado first made a ,panama hat about #cjj years ago4 ,this very ,spanish name for a native evokes a suspicion that the date given was the first ,spanish record of the matter1 for it is most probable that the making of grass fibre hats in the ,western ,hemisphere was1 like it has been shown to be in the ,eastern1 of the most remote antiquity4 ,but researches made by our ,consular ,office can only supply the above information4 ,the material used is derived from a kind of native palm or palm grass known as paja toquilla1 and resembles1 in its fan like shape1 the saw palmetto4 ,cultivation usually takes place in selected low-hung wet lands1 and the seed is planted in rows during the rainy season4 ,when the grass attains a height of #d-a_/b to #e ft41 it is cut just before ripening1 boiled in water1 and after being thoroughly dried in the sun1 is sorted through very carefully4 ,the actual selection of fibres for the best class hat is most thorough1 and all unlikely leaves are rejected4 ,those finally selected are in some districts1 such as ,manavi1 dampened with water to make them tough1 pliable1 and amenable to stripping into the required widths4 ,in ,columbia1 where the 8,palmicha0 is used1 the leaves are boiled for a certain time till they soften and turn a light yellow in colour4 ,this process of boiling is an art in itself1 and seems to present greater difficulties without corresponding advantages to the simple damping4 ,the leaves done by either method are then separated and hung to dry in a current of air1 but not in the sun4 ,before they are quite dry the splitting operation commences2 this is still done in some districts in the primitive method by the thumb-nail of the operator1 in others a ,y-shaped wooden tool is used4 ,the splints1 when being split are made to curl slightly at the edges1 causing the fibre to assume a roundness4 ,the subsequent drying causes this roundness to become permanent4 ,they are then made into suitable bundles1 and wrapped in clean damp cloths to protect them from the dry atmosphere as well as from the light4 ,the hood weavers commence at the apex of crown and continue the weaving in a circular and transverse manner1 until the edge of the brim is reached1 when a double 8return0 is made to give strength and form to the hat4 ,some centres use wooden blocks1 on which the hood is shaped during its progress of weaving1 others follow simply the primitive method of rule of thumb1 but during late years the demand for larger head entries to ,panama hats has caused a more general using of either the wooden block or a suitable template in order that the size of the crowns may be more uniform4 ,in some places the various parts of the hood are made by different operatives1 thus the crown or the top only may be woven by one1 the side of crown by another1 and the brim by a third2 generally there are two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,,panama ,,hood ,,making--,,typical ,,of ,,work ,,on ,,all ,,woven ,,straw ,,hats ,in order to achieve the best results the weaving has to be done in a very humid atmosphere1 and to take advantage of that condition1 and to ensure continuity1 the work is sometimes accomplished between midnight and #g a4m4 during the dry season4 ,some writers on this subject assert that ,panamas are woven under water1 the operator using a bowl2 some may have been1 but this was probably a freak experiment1 as in all the many districts where hats of this kind are made the only desideratum is full natural humidity4 ,when the hood is finished the ends or 8speels0 of the strands1 where the setts-in and the setts-out take place1 are carefully pared off with a sharp knife or scissors1 and the hat is battered all over with a small wooden mace in order to make it as smooth as possible4 ,it is then washed1 in some places with clean cold water only1 in others with soap and water1 and in some with soap and water combined with lime-juice2 drying in the sun completes the operations of making the hood4 ,what are here known as 8,jipi ,japas0 are so closely allied to the true ,panama that only an expert can differentiate between them4 ,the material used is almost always identical and is prepared in the same way4 ,there is1 however1 a slight difference in the method of weaving1 and the finish generally speaking1 is not of such a high standard4 ,they are made principally in the province of ,manavi1 in ,ecuador4 ,another variety1 very similar1 taking its name from the district in which it is made1 is called 8,suaza40 ,the really fine specimens of the ,panama hat appear to be produced in ,columbia1 and are made in the departments of ,santander1 ,antisquia1 ,cauca1 and ,tolima4 ,the local generic name for all these hoods is 8,jipi-,japa10 but the name 8,panama0 was applied to them because ,panama was the port from which they were shipped1 and this name for the best quality obtains generally throughout the world4 ,a really fine hood would take two or three months to make1 but the bulk probably do not exceed two or three weeks' work4 ,some districts look to the making as regular employment1 and the operatives work the whole available time in the day1 while others regard it as a side line1 and utilize only their spare time4 ,a very similar arrangement to this was common among the straw plaitters of ,england1 and in both cases the bulk of the workers were women4 ,latterly in the ,central ,american ,states men have been more employed in the industry4 ,the 8,curaoa0 7or as it should properly be spelt ,curaao7 comes from the island of the same name in the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,when made the hoods are of a light creamy fawn colour1 and are made out of fibres imported from the neighbouring mainland of ,venezuela4 ,the method of weaving is similar to that of ,panama hats1 but the strands are of a much coarser texture4 8,bowens0 or 8,pandans0 are made principally by ,chinese labour in the island of ,sumatra4 ,they are generally1 although some are of split fibres1 made of a whole natural raffia-like grass which is indigenous4 ,they are extremely low in price1 and although coarse looking are very serviceable hats4 ,when properly bleached1 after going through a variety of chemical colour changes1 they assume an excellent white4 ,another variety of hood1 of which only a limited quantity have been used1 owing to its many undesirable features1 is the 8,hinoki40 ,this is made of ,chinese raffia by native labour1 and is similar to the 8,bowen10 but the nature of the fibre is such as to make it decidedly inferior among the ,panama imitations4 8,javas0 are perhaps the most peculiar and wonderful in their working4 ,they are made of perfectly flat splints obtained from bamboo-like palms1 and are woven in all degrees of fineness1 but their great peculiarity lies in the fact that they are double1 the hoods when marketed having a finely woven exterior and an inside lining much coarser in texture attached only to the outer one at the edge of the brim4 ,at one time they commanded a large trade1 but demand for them has greatly diminished in ,europe4 8,bankoks0 are similarly flat splint hoods of one thickness1 but the fibre of which they are composed is an inner one1 the outer and harder portion being taken away4 ,they have the merit of extreme lightness of weight and can be successfully dyed in any colour but with little sheen4 8,brazilians0 are not unlike 8,javas10 but are of one thickness only1 and the fibre used is more stubborn than that of the 8,java40 8,manilas0 are also woven in like manner to a ,panama1 but they can be obtained both single and double like a 8,java40 ,the fibre used for them is hemp1 the 8splints0 of which are fine strips of two or more strands of hemp laid flat4 ,this variety of hood is capable of being dyed to any colour1 and unlike either of its confrres1 has a brilliant sheen when finished4 ,all these 8imitations0 derive their name in some way from their places or ports of origin4 8,paper ,panamas0 are the latest ,japanese production1 imitating some models first made in ,france4 ,by appearance alone they can hardly be selected from the real article except to experts1 it is only the difference in weight and greater regularity of colour1 that discloses their nature4 ,but they have not the same wearing capabilities1 for while a real ,panama can1 and often does1 last longer than its wearer's lifetime1 the sham one is nearly worthless after the first season's use4 ,other hoods are made of 8chip0 7generally of wider splints than those used for making plait72 of 8rush10 8yedda10 8raffia10 and other similar materials1 in fact each succeeding season generally sees some novelty of fibre introduced4 ,of rush hoods there are two varieties1 one of the fine1 rather hard1 but very tough rushes that usually grow in ,england by the wayside2 these are made in the greatest quantities in ,china1 and wonderful ingenuity is displayed in their finish4 ,the other variety is that of the pithy 8rush0 such as one may gather in the ,fens1 and which is to be found in quantities in the ,lombardy marshes2 these are used for making both plait and hoods which are very light in weight4 8,yedda0 is the inner cuticle of an exotic plant1 which has great toughness and is very light in weight1 but1 owing to the growth of the plant1 can only be obtained in very short lengths1 this of necessity making both plaitting and weaving more difficult4 8,raffia0 is the substance known to gardeners1 and makes an excellent medium for plait and hoods on account of its lightness1 its toughness and the great length of its staple4 ,there are other natural fibres that have been utilized for hood weaving by hand1 but the above-mentioned are the principal ones4 ,in addition there are some hoods made of machine woven plait of hemp1 cotton1 silk1 or imitation silk fibres4 ,although the first named is frequently worked alone1 the others are generally woven with other materials4 ,a hood of straws machine woven with the aid of a cotton1 hemp1 or silk fibre emanates from ,switzerland and ,italy1 and is extremely light in weight4 ,sometimes the straws are utilized whole in these hoods1 but more generally they are split4 ,in both cases the straws are dyed or bleached before weaving4 ,all these hoods are utilized for making men's or ladies' hats1 and except in a few cases they are imported in the natural colour1 requiring bleaching or dyeing before entering the actual hat making process4 ,it is perhaps necessary to add that hoods of splints cut from palm leaves imported from ,cuba1 were made during some years at ,st4 ,albans4 ,the result was similar to a 8,brazilian0 7in fact1 they went under that name71 being woven by hand in the villages round the city1 and blocked into proper shape and trimmed in the ,st4 ,albans factories4 ,the trade languished when ,french competition arose1 ,strasburg and ,nancy being the most successful ,european competitors4 8,panamas0 or hoods made from the fibre imported from the ,west ,indies have also been made in these last mentioned centres4 ,,chapter ,v ,,straw ,,plait ,,and ,,plaitting ,having briefly described the nature of1 and method of preparation of various plaits and hoods1 some detailed account of the method of working those which have largely contributed to the creation and augmentation of the ,straw ,hat ,trade will be necessary4 ,the first plaits made were1 as has already been said1 of whole pieces of rush or straw4 ,they were plainly plaitted without any attempt at producing what is termed a 8head10 i4e4 the straws or rushes were simply folded over flatly at the edge of the plait4 ,plaits were made of varying numbers of 8ends0 or pieces of straw1 from three to seven was probably the favourite scale4 ,the 8ends10 let us say three1 are fastened together by twisting in a fanlike manner1 the right-hand one is first bent under towards the left in a flat fold at a widish angle1 under the middle 8end10 this then becomes parallel to the left hand 8end0 which in its turn is folded under the now middle end towards the right1 becoming consequently parallel to the right-hand 8end02 this completes the operation1 which to make lengths of plait is repeated ad libitum4 ,the plait produced is now known as 8#c ends plain40 ,to make a 8head0 on one edge of the plait1 instead of folding flatly from the right1 a 8twist0 or half turn is given to the 8end0 at the extreme edge and point of turn1 before folding under the middle strand2 as this always to a certain extent buckles the round pipe of straw or rush1 a shell like effect is produced which greatly adds to the effectiveness of the plait1 and is called 8,twist0 or 8,picot0 edge4 ,to make 8five ends0 plait1 five strands are required2 these are also set out in a fan like shape1 but four of the ends lie parallel towards the right1 and one only towards the left2 the plaitting begins by turning with either the twisted or the flat fold1 the right hand 8end0 under the 8end0 nearest to it1 over the next one1 and under the third1 when the left hand 8end0 is turned under the one just brought from the right1 which then becomes the left hand 8end10 again beginning with the now right hand 8end0 and repeating the operation as before4 ,these two processes form the basis for all plaitting1 and although any number of 8ends0 may be used up to the holding capacity of the plaitter and although any change of making the 8head0 may be adopted1 the under and over method is common to all plaitting of braids and hoods4 ,the demand for novelty has caused many variations to be created2 the 8,twist0 head has been described1 in addition there are the 8one0 8two0 or 8three0 or even more 8,purl0 7or 8,pearl07 heads4 ,a 8,purl0 is a double kind of 8,twist0 which may occur at every other head or greater intervals4 ,this twist consists of two of the strands or split straws being turned spirally for a sufficient length to form a little half shell at the edge of the plait1 the further length of the strand being plaitted into the foot at the desired distance1 giving to the finished braid1 which is generally of a narrow width1 a very pretty effect4 ,another variety of head which has different applications of the same principle is known as 8,feather40 ,this1 although it can be made with whole straws1 is generally1 and is most effective1 made with split straws1 and its pattern is a loop or loops of a slightly curved nature formed on the edge of the plait by allowing the right hand 8end0 or 8ends0 to miss one or more turns of plaitting1 so that when at regular intervals it is1 or they are1 loosely brought into use1 they will form a kind of scalloped edge to the plait4 ,there are also heads which are known by the number of times plaitting is missed to create a fancy edge4 ,these vary from two to ten1 and are made from a sufficient number of 8ends0 to leave the head of 8,under-two0 or 8,under-ten0 or intermediate numbers1 as the case may be1 with a sufficient 8foot0 to keep the plait firm for working2 the resultant appearance of this method is a plain succession of parallel straws at the plaitting angle to the 8foot10 which gives1 when sewn1 the 8foot0 being covered1 according to the medium used1 an entirely 8matt0 or a brilliantly glossy surface4 ,these 8under0 plaits can be made with any reasonable number of 8ends10 but they are seldom found plaitted with more than sufficient to produce the 8under ten40 ,in order to preserve absolute regularity of length in these head straws1 which are actually 8in the air10 they are turned over a suitable template1 be it of bone1 metal1 or any thin hard wearing material2 this is withdrawn as the plaitting progresses to the further stages of development1 but in some cases1 especially with split straws1 which would not retain any regularity without some support1 the template used is a strand of split straw of sufficient width for the number of 8under heads10 and is left in the plait to form a permanent strengthener to the pattern4 ,it is completely hidden from sight by the heads folded over it1 and although in the wider plaits it is very undesirable1 being extremely difficult to turn in small circles1 in the narrow grades the objectionable features are more easily overcome4 ,in addition to these1 there is the 8saw0 edge1 a peculiarity of 8,rustics10 and of which1 as its name implies1 one edge1 or both edges1 present that angular serration which is common to saws4 ,there are also innumerable fancy edges1 having as their foundation one or the other of these generic patterns4 ,the 8,foot10 or other part of the braid as distinct from the head1 is made in so many ways that room forbids any detailed account3 some plaits have none1 and one of the most remarkable of this variety may be described4 ,in 8,english ,brilliant10 a widish plait made of a varying number of ends1 there is really no 8foot10 the plait1 of split straws1 being all head or pattern4 ,the individuality of 8,brilliant0 is that once the turn is effected the split straw instead of laying flat across the pattern is made to stand on its edge1 giving to the design a look similar to a honeycomb2 this is probably the lightest in weight of any straw made plait4 ,these few types form the basis on which nearly all plaits are made by hand4 ,there are1 of course1 many others in actual use1 one not yet mentioned which1 although plaitted in the same way as ordinary flat head #g end braid1 is made with single strands of split straw4 ,the result is a kind of chess board pattern1 which shows alternate squares of the outside and the inside of the straw4 ,this has a generic name of 8split10 and was one of the earliest developments of ,english plaitting4 ,naturally1 it is very light in weight1 and enjoyed a great sale for many years1 being most suitable for 8,granny0 bonnets4 ,other plaits have been made of what is called 8,cordinette40 ,this consists of two strands only1 and is plaitted one over the other in recurring fashion1 so as to make a kind of narrow concertina4 ,it was at one time used for making small bonnets1 but its general application has been for the embellishment of some of the wider grades of plait4 ,the straw plaits of ,china1 and especially ,japan1 are all made on the above lines1 their extra beauty and lightness1 combined with the width of straw possibilities1 rendering them the successful rivals to our insular produce4 ,in these ,far ,eastern lands many fancy digressions of plait making have been made1 some of them of beautiful design and effect1 but all of them embodying one or more of the methods already described as peculiar to hand plaitting1 and generally speaking have been copies of patterns sent out from ,europe4 ,the other branch of plait making that has now revolutionized the trade is that of machine made braids4 ,some few entirely straw plaits have been made by machine4 ,a ,luton inventor named ,barrett designed a mechanical plaitter1 which really did make fairly good whole straw plaits1 but the invention came at a time when lightness was considered most essential1 and the machine failed to do justice to either single or double split straws4 ,italy has for many years produced a straw plait woven with cotton or silk1 of which there are many patterns1 but which are all given the generic name of 8,fiesole10 from the original place of manufacture4 ,this ,italian plait of fine ,tuscan straws has been in use for many years1 #ahdj is supposed to have been the date1 and the plait was made on looms imported from ,switzerland4 ,both ,italy and ,switzerland have since produced innumerable patterns of plaits in which straw is combined with one or more suitable weaving media4 ,but all these machine-made patterns1 although legion in number1 and extending over more than three-quarters of a century1 cannot compare as a straw hat success with the machine woven braids of horsehair1 cotton1 silk1 viscose1 hemp and other similar fibres that have emanated from ,switzerland1 ,italy1 ,germany and ,japan4 ,probably the first machine-made braid 7soon adopted and classified as 8straw07 was that known as 8crinoline40 ,this has as its basis horsehair1 and is made both of hair alone and of hair mixed with many other fibres4 ,the plain braid can be composed of odd numbers of strands of horsehair from five upwards1 in series of numbers divisible by four1 plus one2 thus #ag ends1 #ba ends1 #be ends1 and so on2 the finest used in the trade is #ag ends1 which is about #a_/h of an inch in width1 but #ba and #be ends are the most in request for making the ,crinoline hat so well known in the most fashionable quarters4 ,bonnets were extensively made about fifty or sixty years ago of 8,crinoline ,fancy0 plaits that were a mixture of the hair with silk1 or straw1 or ,tuscan1 or any similar fibres4 ,they were also adorned with glass beads or bugles1 and with silken knots and small tassels4 ,this trade is now nearly extinct owing to the scarcity of hair1 but its place is fully filled with imitations made of various kinds of artificial silk1 cellulose1 viscose1 and the like4 ,a cheaper competitor to crinoline was brought out about #ahgj1 when imitations in cotton fibre braids were put on the market1 but these missed entirely the delicate open work of the real article4 ,similar effects were subsequently made in hemp4 ,but about #ahij the ,germans began to make cotton braids in an open1 or as it was termed ajour1 manner1 imitating very closely the true effect of crinoline4 ,this had a tremendous success1 for the cost was very small4 ,this was followed by the silk imitations mentioned above1 and they have now reached such a stage of perfection of make and colour as to entirely outvie their progenitor4 ,about #ahib the ,swiss people put on the market the first 8,tgal0 braids1 to be quickly followed by an ,italian copy4 ,this rapidly spread to ,japan1 and the product of that far eastern country soon took the premier place1 which at the time of writing it still holds4 ,another product1 largely used in the trade1 although strictly speaking neither a plait nor a woven hat1 is 8,sparterie40 ,this is wattle woven of fine willow-chip splints into various sized sheets for the different requirements of the trade2 it is mainly used as a foundation for making hats to be covered with some delicate plait that will not stand any method of wet stiffening4 ,it is extremely light in weight1 and can be moulded to almost any shape1 it will stand stiffening1 and may be made as firm as stiff buckram4 ,this emanated first from ,italy1 but now for some years the ,japanese have been competing for the trade4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,dyeing ,the dyeing and bleaching of the various plaits are the next important processes towards making a straw hat4 ,the dyeing of straw plait in ,england1 done individually for some time on a small scale1 commenced as a separate industry about #ahde1 when a ,mr4 ,randall opened some dyeing works at ,sundon1 a village about four miles from ,luton4 ,black1 and a very poor brown and dark blue1 were the only colours then dyed4 ,shortly after ,mr4 ,thomas ,lye1 who came from ,kirkby ,malzeard1 near ,ripon1 ,yorks1 which was a plait making centre1 started business as a dyer in ,luton4 ,his gamut of shades numbered only four or five1 and the standard of colour then demanded was very low4 ,mr4 ,lye's first signal success was a 8grey10 which at that time no other competitor had attempted4 ,in #aheg his business was transferred to its present site4 ,other colours quickly followed1 and the invention of aniline dyes revolutionized the old 8vegetable dye0 processes1 of which the ingredients were madder1 indigo1 logwood and fustic4 ,these wood dyes required a long and costly process1 and involved the use of mordants to prepare the straw for the different colours1 and their somewhat cumbersome methods rendered them at all times rather uncertain in their results4 ,with the advent of the more easily handled synthetic dyestuffs the operations of wood dyeing became less frequent1 and although to-day black is still produced from logwood chips1 practically all colours are dyed with one or the other extracts of coal tar1 etc4 ,the main considerations of dyeing are brilliance of shade with perfect evenness of colour1 and penetration of the dye right through the straw4 ,unlike some textile fabrics1 fastness either to light or even to water is not insisted on2 but absolute penetration is a necessity1 for should any part of the straw when plaitted become abraded1 if the colour were only on the surface1 the worn part would show a lighter tint2 and also if when the 8button0 or centre of the hat was made1 the turning of which being in such tiny circles1 the straws are disturbed to their utmost1 and the light coloured spaces which would result would impair the regularity of colour4 ,and the dyeing penetration of straws or straw plait1 composed as it is of such diversity of elements1 the hard flint like exterior and the soft pappy inside1 is a matter of considerable difficulty1 even if dyers had not to contend1 first1 with the extreme hardness of water which is common in the ,south ,bedfordshire district1 and second1 the constant cleansing necessary on changes in fashionable colours necessitating the use of coppers1 the chemical effects of which in some instances need counter action to achieve a good result4 ,the question of penetration of the straw is one that has keenly exercised the minds of straw dyers from the inception of the industry4 ,many are the opinions as to the best medium for rapid and regular penetration4 ,and many are the formulae given as being most suitable agents4 ,it is probable that straws1 grown on different geological formations and thus having different varieties of silicate exteriors1 require different baths of softening chemicals1 and that one bath1 excellent for the straw plaits of ,china1 would be inefficient for the straw plaits of ,italy4 ,generally speaking1 however1 these baths are formed of water with some neutral salt1 such as sodium acetate2 or of an alkaline solution of sodium carbonate with ammonia4 ,but the less that is done in the way of such softening before dyeing the better2 because the longer straw plait is boiled the more it is impoverished4 ,and as these preliminary processes involve boiling in every case1 impoverishment must take place1 and where alkaline solutions are used the results are especially poor4 ,another objection to the use of softeners is that they tend to loosen the straws of the plait1 and as each process involves manipulation1 the handling of the loosened plait tends to break it considerably4 ,yet another objection is that certain shades of colour are most adversely affected by the previous use of such agents1 in fact some tones cannot be produced at all on plaits thus treated4 ,while in a few cases it is perhaps necessary and advisable to employ a softener1 in by far the greater number the best results are those obtained from that formula which involves the fewest processes and the shortest time of boiling1 and this can best be obtained where dyestuffs are used that do not require any previous preparation of the plait4 ,the dyeing of straw is almost invariably done at the boil4 ,the dyeing matter1 with any necessary addition1 is put into the vat or copper and well mixed with the requisite amount of water4 ,the plait is then introduced and laid carefully and regularly so that when pressed down the solution may cover it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,,bleaching ,,and ,,dyeing ,,of ,,plaits ,,and ,,hoods ,the vats 7which are made of wood7 and the coppers are all furnished with a steam perforated copper coil at the bottom4 ,over this at a slight distance1 so that the heated pipes cannot come into contact with the plait1 is laid a perforated tray1 be it of wood or copper4 ,the plait is laid1 as described above1 on this tray1 and when sufficiently pressed down is covered with a perforated copper lid to prevent the plait from rising above the surface of the dyebath4 ,this is then brought to the boil and continued for sufficient time1 according to the nature of the material and colour required1 to ensure perfect penetration and regularity4 ,this time may vary from even less than twenty minutes to several hours4 ,when the desired shade is achieved1 which is proved by testing1 the plait is lifted carefully from the dye bath on to a crated topped carrier1 similar to a funeral bier4 ,formerly on arriving at the drying shed the plait was put on rods and thoroughly shaken to cast off as much moisture as possible1 and then hung in the air so that the drying might not be too rapid and thus render the plait brittle4 ,now the plan is to place the plait1 when taken from the copper1 in a centrifugal wringer or 8hydro-extractor10 which1 revolving at great speed1 throws off all free moisture and leaves the plait almost dry4 ,placed then in a chamber with large power-driven fans1 the drying process is most speedily completed4 ,before dyeing1 for easy handling1 all plait is 8strung40 ,every piece of plait is received either wound up in 8sticks10 as they are technically termed1 or in some looped formation which allows a fine string to be easily threaded through and tied in such a manner as to form a means of either carrying the piece or of hanging it on a wooden rod4 ,these rods are made of convenient thicknesses and length to carry the plait in the drying departments 7be it in the room1 or in the open air71 when suspended either in the former case on trestles mounted at suitable distances1 or in the latter on lines fixed to uprights and stretched across the drying area4 ,each lot of plait for dyeing carries a numbered wooden 8tally10 the number corresponding with the dye ticket left in the office or 8giving out0 room4 ,when dry by means of these tallies1 the plait is collected into its original lot1 and is carefully tied up in suitably sized bundles4 ,some plaits receive1 when dyed1 a 8finish0 of a glucose mixture which has two effects1 it gives better gloss to the material and it assists in preventing the colour coming off during the manufacturing processes4 ,these mixtures are all of a starchy or farinaceous nature1 in which some substance1 say 8farina0 itself1 is dissolved in water1 brought to a boil and rendered crystal in appearance before being used for the finishing process4 ,some plaits are of one colour throughout1 but are made with straws that have been previously dyed4 ,generally speaking1 especially for straws1 the effect is not so good as where the plait itself is dyed4 ,there are1 of course1 one or two exceptions where the fibre used is very delicately plaitted into some loose design which would not retain its crispness of outline under the weight of water in dyeing and the necessary handling4 ,other plaits known as 8,speckled10 must1 from their nature of mixed colours1 be plaitted from dyed straws4 ,of these there are coloured and natural1 coloured and white1 and mixtures of various colours4 ,the dyeing of straws follows in the main the dyeing of plait1 but the preparation is somewhat different4 ,the straws1 cut into equal lengths1 are tied up in bundles about #e ins4 in diameter1 and are carefully placed in the vat or copper in an upright position with as little pressure as possible1 and when dyed are dried still in the bundle4 ,at one time a new dyeing effect on straws was introduced1 which consisted of standing the bundles upright and allowing strong dye to run through the 8pipes40 ,this1 of course1 dyed the interior and some parts of the exterior1 which not touching another straw allowed the dye to do its work4 ,water was then passed through the 8pipes10 and the result when dry was a pretty mottled effect4 ,another fancy method of dyeing was the production of 8,ombr0 colours4 ,this novelty1 introduced by the ,french dyers1 consisted of two or more colours on the same plait4 ,it was done by means of a fine spraying machine1 which vaporized a powerful dye on to an already dyed piece of plait of some lighter tint4 ,messrs4 ,lye ,sons brought out a novelty on straw plait1 particularly effective on the ,japanese wide patterns1 which produced the same iridescent effect that is obtained on 8shot0 silk4 ,this1 however1 was bath-dyed and not sprayed4 ,these various bases of double tones were utilized to their undoing1 for it was no uncommon sight to see manufacturers of the lower grades of hats endeavouring to produce multicoloured effects on chip plaits by pouring the prepared dye over the plait from finely nozzled watering cans6 ,the resultant crudeness of such arrangements brought a beautiful thing into disfavour4 ,the shade requirements of to-day include many colours that are termed 8,pastel40 ,these are delicate1 pale shades1 and can be obtained only by submitting straw plait to a bleaching process previous to dyeing1 but the finished article is a thing of extreme beauty1 not only on the question of colour1 but in its intense purity and softness4 ,a method for dyeing plaits1 which obtained considerable magnitude in ,paris1 but has never been a favourite in ,great ,britain1 is that known as 8,cold ,dye40 ,it enjoyed only a small measure of success on straw1 but on chip and hemp braids very beautiful results have been achieved4 ,in #ahgg ,mme4 ,deuxbouts1 of ,paris1 was dyeing chip plaits in this manner1 which is that used for feathers1 and in #ahgh at the ,exposition ,universelle1 her exhibit in this direction was superior to that shown by any other house4 ,it is now used for dyeing crinoline and those silk plaits which would be spoiled by heated baths4 ,such are the main features of dyeing1 past and present1 on the various plaits utilized in hat making1 and in this art1 for it is no less1 ,england has shown the way to the rest of the world4 ,to-day other countries1 such as the ,united ,states1 ,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,italy and ,japan1 have achieved signal success in dyeing1 in fact on some fibres a few foreign dyers are more successful than those at home4 ,this is probably due to the careful skill of the dyer1 combined with the more favourable nature of the water used4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,bleaching ,the other section of preparatory work for plait is that of ,bleaching4 ,the early efforts in this direction were of necessity very crude1 and it is probable that imitation of the process used in some other industry1 rather than invention for the particular commodity1 provided the primary steps in straw bleaching4 ,naturally1 the first thing that would occur to anyone would be to wash with water1 and any grower of cereals1 knowing the bleaching power of the sun1 would probably combine these two elements in the endeavour to produce a better colour on the corn stalks4 ,then some attempts would be made with a cleanser such as soap1 still utilizing the sun's rays as bleacher after cleaning4 ,as ,italy is probably the home of bleaching operations1 it is not difficult to imagine that1 with the sulphur bleaching effects so easily seen round the ,bay of ,naples and in ,sicily1 it was not long before the fumes of sulphur were pressed into the service4 ,and crude as these elements are1 although the processes have radically changed1 they remain practically the fundamentals of bleaching to-day4 ,about seventy years ago1 ,mr4 ,welch1 of the firm of ,welch ,sons1 of ,luton 7one of the oldest established houses in the trade and still in existence71 patented a bleach which was called the 8,luton ,bleach40 ,this consisted of carefully washing the plait with soap and water in wooden vats2 after careful rinsing it was immersed in a bath of weak oxalic acid and water 7some bleachers subsequently added other chemicals71 and then while wet subjected to the fumes of sulphur in a hermetically closed wooden chest4 ,hanging out in the sunshine to dry1 and another sulphur fumigation before 8bunching0 7as the tying up of plait into bundles is termed71 completed the operation4 ,with chip plaits1 and fifty or more years ago these were very fashionable1 a similar process was usual1 but the bleaching bath contained1 as well as oxalic acid1 kali1 tartar1 and a good many other similar ingredients1 according to the requirements of the user4 ,in those days nearly all bleaching was done by the actual manufacturer of the hats1 it was only when the trade began to move by leaps and bounds that works entirely for bleaching purposes were established4 ,for many years these methods of bleaching were the only ones employed on plaits for hats1 and they produced excellent results on really good coloured straws2 but failed entirely to eliminate any faulty parts1 and further1 in order to get the finest colour1 two more sulphur fumigations were necessary2 one when the hat was wet from the gelatine employed to stiffen it1 and the other a dry 8steam0 7as the fumigation was called7 before putting the finished hats into the cases for dispatch4 ,this custom of bleaching1 in a patriarchal way in one's own tent1 brought out considerable inventiveness on the part of go-ahead manufacturers1 and it was no uncommon thing for some fresh development of bleaching1 on one or another plait1 to establish the reputation of a manufacturer1 who1 until his secret leaked out1 endeavoured to exploit to the full the value of his superior article4 ,but this kind of bleaching only cleaned and purified1 it did not materially alter the natural condition of the article bleached4 ,in the first place manufacturers were not laboratory chemists1 and it was the efforts of the ,italians1 the producers of the plait which was supplanting the ,british product1 that gave birth to a chemical bleach1 which for some time was unrivalled in ,england4 ,for some years the bleached ,italian ,pedal of ,messrs4 ,burgisser ,co41 of ,florence1 had no superior1 and was for a long period renowned for the purity and beauty of its colour process4 ,but the secret subsequently leaked out1 and bleaching establishments in this country soon acquired them1 and it was not long before the results obtained here compared favourably with the ,italian4 ,for some years this bleach1 which not only cleansed and purified the straw1 but also changed its actual tone by bringing more into colour line the straws of darker hue1 was accepted by the world as the best possible2 and one may say that1 although later developments have considerably widened the scope of operations1 the results of this period1 which may be called the intermediate cycle of straw bleaching1 were in their way quite equal to any now achieved4 ,the only drawback to this bleach was that really inferior coloured plait could not be made serviceable for white4 ,in the case of chip splints or in the case of cornstalks1 only the best and clearest of either of these had been used for plaits for bleaching4 ,this necessitated keeping two stocks of plait1 for although the best coloured plait could be dyed black or other shade if necessary1 the bad coloured straws could not be bleached1 and further1 one always had to pay more for the best coloured goods1 which although to some extent this is even now the case1 owing to the great possibilities opened up by the present bleaching processes1 there is not the wide difference in price there used to be4 ,but at last competitive chemists discovered that the quantity of straw plait required for bleaching was of such magnitude1 while the really good bleaching plait was comparatively so small in quantity1 that it would be worth their while to make researches in the direction of a bleach for inferior coloured straws4 ,between #ahhe and #ahij many experiments were made1 with naturally variable results4 ,it must not be overlooked1 that plaits were still required by the trade to be of a 8straw0 colour1 and the first efforts of the 8new bleacher0 were towards this end4 ,but the process that gave most promise being actually an oxydization was more in the nature of a dye than a bleach in one respect1 viz41 that it apparently changed the nature of the material1 in fact some of the bleachers to differentiate in the trade between the new process and the old called the later arrival a 8,white ,dye40 ,it was soon found that an extended application of the process would entirely eliminate the varying tones of mixed 8,punta0 and 8,pedale0 straws and would make the plait a perfectly dull white like paper1 but at the same time it tended to materially injure the fabric of the straw4 ,there was naturally no demand for any such results1 the 8paper white0 could easily be obtained on 8chip0 plaits1 and the only effect required was to reduce mottled coloured natural plaits to sufficient uniformity of good straw white colour4 ,moreover1 the absolute 8deadness0 of the white produced took away all the beautiful lustre of the straw which it was desirable to retain2 and the weakening of the fibre by the chemical process was entirely inimical to the subsequent proper sewing and finishing of the hat4 ,however1 a process was found that met all requirements as far as lustre and strength were concerned4 ,there was still a tendency to kill the straw colour1 but subsequent investigations have reduced that to a minimum1 and to-day the bleaches on straw plaits leave nothing to be desired4 ,as far as chip and ,tagal plaits were concerned there was not the occasion to preserve the natural colours of the fibre4 ,white chip was always required 8paper white10 and although some of the hemp fibres of ,tagal were of a flaxen colour1 most of that exported from ,japan was distinctly on the white side1 and1 therefore1 from the first1 this process of bleaching has been helpful to all plaits made of these two materials4 ,moreover1 the modern methods are especially adaptable for hood hats1 inasmuch as the process dispenses with scrubbing by hand4 ,to ,panamas1 although previously the colour had been fairly good1 the new bleach has been a great help1 and has enabled ,panamas of fine colour to be universal4 ,these remarks apply also to the other varieties of ,panamas of which1 although the method of making may be slightly different1 the fibre is almost identical2 but when one comes to the ,bowen or ,curaoa hoods1 their substitutive use has only been possible because of the searching effects of the new process4 ,before bleaching1 these articles are quite unfit to sell for white1 and their natural tint is not one that would command a fashionable sale4 ,since being dyed white1 the demand for them has been phenomenal1 and for a low priced1 coarse-looking hat of a ,panama nature1 there is at present nothing to take their place4 ,the natural colour of ,javas1 ,brazilians and ,bankoks is such that they are saleable as imported1 but although many are thus used1 the great majority of them required for white are bleached by the new process1 and with very excellently clear results4 ,javas1 being the darkest of the trio mentioned above1 can have their colour retained to some extent1 giving the finished article almost a perfect straw tint1 but ,brazilians and ,bankoks assume a whiter tone without any tinge of yellow4 ,they1 therefore1 are very similar to ,panamas in colour appearance1 but both of them1 being made of flat splints1 are lighter in weight4 ,yedda1 rush1 and raffia plaits and hoods are all very amenable to the bleach1 and while the two latter present1 when bleached1 little1 if any1 lustre1 the first named assumes a silky appearance which is most effective4 ,to sum up1 with the modern process1 of which there are several modifications1 any kind of fabric used for straw hats can be successfully bleached into one or the other tones from straw to paper white1 which are regarded as necessary for the highest grade finish4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,blockmaking ,a most important part of the industry is that which actually forms another trade in itself1 viz41 that of blockmaking4 ,every shape requires its individual block of wood1 iron or other material1 in order that repetitions of the shape may be identical in outline and form4 ,the earliest ,british 8block0 was that which undoubtedly gave the name to its successors4 ,it was simply a block of wood formed from the trunk of a suitable sized tree1 mounted on legs like a vaulting horse1 and with ends bluntly pointed to the desired form1 so that two operatives could be at work simultaneously4 ,that primitive method was quite inadequate when fashion began to ask for shape variations of such a character as to be impossible to produce on the tree trunk1 and an industry gradually grew up1 which has attained quite large proportions1 solely for the making of wooden and other blocks for the use of the straw worker4 ,the exact shape having been determined on1 models either of drawings to scale1 or of templates of suitable material1 or of the actual hat produced either by sewing the pattern in some adaptable plait1 or by buckram or sparterie duly shaped1 or by forms of wire bent to make outlines of the design sufficient for the blockmaker4 ,these are the methods adopted when some novelty evolves1 of which there is no previous pattern1 but the great bulk of models put into the hands of the blockmaker are the actual hats required1 that have been already made by some one else1 but which the manufacturer desires to copy4 ,as the ,patent or ,registration ,laws do not afford sufficient protection to the creator of the shape or design1 it will be understood that the finished hat is most often the model for the blockmaker4 ,the blockmaker works in a very similar way to the 8pattern-maker0 of the iron and engineering trades1 the main portion of his work being done by the spokeshave4 ,bow saws1 worked either by hand or machine1 cut out the ovals of the crown and the brim1 and subsequent operations are carried out by means1 in a few cases1 of a lathe1 but the major part is done by the spokeshave and chisel or gouge4 ,in many instances the intricacy of the work carries the industry almost into the art of wood sculpture1 but generally speaking the models are of a plainer nature4 ,mention has already been made of 8one piece0 and 8two piece0 hats4 ,the former may have blocks made 8all down10 that is with the crown fixed to the brim1 which will generally be of a flat or a drooping nature4 ,but the 8one piece0 in most models demands both the crown and the curler blocks1 so that although the hats may be of one the blocks must be of two pieces2 this obtains where the brim has an outline which rolls upwards in some place or places1 from the base of the crown4 8,two piece0 blocks are necessary where the trend of fashion demands that the outline of the crown1 especially at the base1 shall be larger than the head entry then fashionable4 ,for unlike men's hats1 the head entries of women's hats vary according to the prevailing style of coiffure1 or the outline which most appeals at the time to the public demand4 ,where in a 8one piece0 hat the top of the crown is larger than the head entry1 the crown block has to be made in such a manner as to allow the block to be inserted in the hat for blocking1 and to permit its easy withdrawal when the operation is completed4 ,this is attained by making the crown block in two or more sections1 the pieces being held together by means of grooves and tongues4 ,these are made slightly angled in every way1 the end of the grooves nearest the top of the crown being smaller than the end at the base1 so that while fitting up very tightly when the tongue is right home1 the slightest movement of the 8key0 piece affords an easy dislocation of the whole block4 ,the majority of these pieced blocks are built up with five sections including the key piece1 which is a tapering square and occupies the centre1 carrying on each side a tongue which fits into the groove of the corresponding piece of the outside contour of the block4 ,the top of the key piece forms the centre of the top of the crown1 and unlike the inner sides and base is made to conform to the required outline of the shape design4 ,the whole when properly made affords quite as solid a ground for working on as a block made from a single piece of wood4 ,if the hat with a crown needing a pieced block is in itself a 8one piece0 hat1 it is necessary to make the brim block in two parts1 with a hinge at one cut and a lock at the other2 so that the head entry may1 when the brim is closed1 fit closely up to the head line of the hat1 but in all 8two piece0 hat cases the brim blocks are made out of one piece4 ,as a rule1 the brims are made from wood sufficiently thick to allow a little over the width of the brim if there be any depth of roll1 or turn upwards1 and where the brim is flat or with a small roll an extra thickness is allowed to give sufficient strength to the block and prevent any warping which might be possible under the use of dry and damp heat4 ,the brim block has on its underside some 8feet0 which1 either of wood or metal1 raise the working contour a sufficient height above the wood base to which they are attached to allow the crown of the hat being blocked to work freely and to miss the top of the 8spindle40 ,every wood block1 whether crown or brim1 has a square hole in its base called the 8spindle hole0 to take the 8spindle40 ,this is of iron1 and has the upper portion square and tapered to quickly adjust itself to the fit of the spindle hole2 its lower part is circular1 so that it may revolve in the socket made for it in the 8spindle0 bracket1 an instrument fixed to the blocking bench by which any part of the block can be adjusted to suit the ironing needs of the operative4 ,wood blocks are made preferably of alder1 as that wood resists best the action of dry and damp heads1 and having a minimum of grain presents the best medium for cutting into curved or cornered shapes4 ,poplar1 chestnut and other hard woods are also used1 either of them having some special characteristic which renders it suitable for various kinds of blocks4 ,the base of a brim block is frequently made of elm1 but beech and any really hard wood can be utilized4 ,machine blocking necessitates the use of metal blocks1 which are cast either in iron1 aluminium1 or spelter from moulds made from the wooden blocks1 so that if only machine blocking is intended1 it is first necessary to make the wooden pattern4 ,the various workings of these blocks will be described in the 8,blocking0 chapter4 ,the wood block also affords the model for taking ,plaster of ,paris casts4 ,when orders are large and the wood blocks are required all the time by the stiffener or blocker1 plaster copies are made from it1 so that the sewers may have something definite to work to4 ,these are made in the usual plaster casting method1 and are only intended for temporary use1 their cheapness and quickness of completion as against the cost of wood being the reason for their adoption1 for they will not stand the stiffening and blocking processes4 ,a subsidiary kind of block1 constructed of wood and metal1 is used for such parts of a one-piece hat or bonnet that cannot be reproduced in wood alone4 ,the 8,pork ,pie0 turban1 in fashion during the '#fj's of the nineteenth century1 had a close curl or brim standing only about half an inch away from the crown4 7,see ,john ,leech's drawings in ,punch of that period47 ,no wood curler as thin in texture as the shape required would stand any prolonged stiffening and blocking1 so instruments called 8,tippers0 were used for blocking this style of shape4 ,they had a wooden spindle that could be put in the spindle socket1 to which a piece of metal1 iron1 brass1 or zinc was attached4 ,this was in the form of a widish1 short length scoop1 and with it a workman could iron a close brim in sections4 ,these 8tippers0 were made with varying curves1 so that any kind of oval could be reproduced4 ,the advent of two piece hats1 where the crown is attached to the brim after blocking1 has rendered these instruments nearly useless1 as by this new arrangement the wood brim for such a shape can be made quite solid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i 8,,tipper0 ,blockmaking is one of the most important sections contributing to the straw trade1 for the perfect reproduction of a model's outline depends entirely on the accuracy of finish given to the blocks4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,hand ,,and ,,machine ,,sewing ,the next stage in the evolution of a straw hat made from plait is the sewing together of the material to form the necessary shape4 ,the earliest methods were1 of course1 all by hand4 ,perhaps the first was that described in ,chapter ,,ii1 where the heads of the plait were tucked in one under the other and rendered secure by the passing of some fibre inside the loops of the heads1 so as to make an almost invisible joint1 as in the case of a 8,leghorn0 hat4 ,it may be said in passing that this method was carried out by the ,italian plaitters in the case of chip plaits made of #i ends1 but without the securing fibre4 ,the result was that there was enough 8hold0 given by the tucked in heads to ensure the edges holding together sufficiently to form a perfectly flat plate4 ,it was in this form that chip plaits were first used for the 8,granny0 bonnets in vogue a century ago2 for when stiffened with gelatine or glue the joins were sufficiently strong to enable the brim shape to be produced4 ,the 8,flats10 as they were called1 were made all of one diameter1 and it therefore followed that one made out of the finest plait would contain more rows than one made of a coarser grade4 ,the exact diameter was determined by the finest size plait1 and of that there would be #ajj rows1 hence the term 8,no4 #ajj0 represented to the trade the narrowest plait4 ,the qualities down to the coarse ones were graded in #e's1 thus the next coarse size was 8,no4 #ie10 and so on1 down even to 8,no4 #fe10 of which being very coarse only #fe rows were necessary to make the 8flat40 ,to use for working1 where dyeing was required1 the flat was 8stripped0 by taking the outside end and gently pulling the flat1 the centre of which was pivoted round and round until the whole was undone4 ,this in no way deteriorated the plait1 but it was soon found that to wind the plait into neat pieces saved considerable trouble for marketing and subsequent use4 ,this1 however1 is only a digression recording a method of joining plait in spiral rows1 of which head wear was made1 which after all is the plan on which all sewing is based4 ,the ,british sewers1 with only a very few exceptions1 have always joined plaits together by means of an overlap1 that is1 the head of one row covering the foot of another1 thus1 the needle passing through the plait just under the head1 to make the stitch as little visible as possible1 and through the foot close to the edge1 so as to lay the plait as thinly as firm sewing would permit4 ,the effect when sewn was of a tiny1 practically invisible stitch on the surface of the plait and a continuous stitch on the under side1 the stitches being about half an inch apart4 7,see opposite page47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj ,,section ,,of #d ,,rows ,,of ,,plait ,this backstitching formed a perfect 8lock10 and1 although for the purpose of explanation the five right hand stitches are shown in a graduated loose state1 in actual working each one was tightened at its completion before commencing the next4 ,this method was common to the sewing of all plaits1 the coarser1 harsher varieties necessitating the use of the coarsest thread4 ,for some plaits such as fine 8split10 to be used for 8compo0 finish1 and horsehair crinoline a 8running0 stitch was sometimes used in the early times1 but it has been discontinued except for broad silk or fancy plaits4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,as some of the plaits were only about #a_/hth of an inch in width1 it will readily be seen how deft and skilled an operative must have been1 to ensure the perfect spirals and equidistant rows that were the mark of the best handsewn bonnets and hats4 ,the nature of the stitch made by any of the machines used for hat making with straw plait is necessarily entirely different to that of the hand1 although the one made by the 8,lgat0 machine followed the handstitch very closely4 ,it consisted of two strands of cotton forming a tiny1 almost invisible stitch on the surface of the plait and one strand only underneath1 the length of each completed stitch being about half an inch4 ,it was made by a descending shaft carrying a hooked needle1 and the peculiar result was achieved by very intricate and delicate machinery in a circular box facing the operator4 ,the delicacy of the parts was so great and the machine being less rapid than the 8,willcox ,visible ,stitch10 or the first 8,wiseman ,hand ,stitch10 it was soon eclipsed by its competitors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab ,,sewing ,,straw ,,plait ,,into ,,hats ,,by ,,machine ,the 8,willcox ,visible ,stitch0 was produced first on what was afterwards known in the trade as the 8#aj-;,guinea0 machine4 ,this was simply the domestic chain stitch machine1 from which the table or platform around the needle had been taken away1 in order to allow free working of any part of the hat4 ,in a short time this machine underwent a great change for the straw hat purpose4 ,luton mechanics set themselves to work1 and appliances were affixed one of which rendered the ingress of the plait more easy2 another allowed for a minute and standardized gauging of the necessary widths for the proper row-laying of the plait1 still further another made it possible to alter the actual length of the stitch1 and at last the model known throughout the trade as the 8#ag-;,guinea0 was universally adopted as the best type of visible stitch machine for plait sewing4 ,the 8stitch0 consists of one strand of cotton on the surface of the plait and two strands underneath1 and from its chain-like nature can be easily undone if required4 ,this has been closely copied by other machine makers1 the one produced in ,germany known as the 8,dresdensia0 being almost an exact copy of the 8#ag-;,guinea40 ,both these machines vie with each other in the favour of manufacturers1 best work being possible from either4 ,the other model having survived the tests of time and the necessities of the industry is the 8,wiseman ,box0 ,hand ,stitch ,machine4 ,this derives its name from the inventor1 and from the box-like case1 with even a lifting lid1 that is its great characteristic4 ,mr4 ,wiseman in this machine1 as in his first model1 which was not box enclosed1 makes use both of the threaded needle similar to the 8,willcox10 and of the unthreaded hook-like needle peculiar to the 8,legat40 ,but contrary to the downward action of the others1 the 8,wiseman0 needles make an upward thrust4 ,they stand at about #a_/af of an inch apart1 the one with the eye 7which1 as in all machines1 is at the pointed end7 carrying the cotton1 and being placed in the same needle bar move simultaneously4 ,the upward thrust when working sends the pair of them through the two overlapping strands of plait which are kept at the proper place by special 8guides40 ,when they emerge on the surface of the plait1 a little finger1 called the 8looper10 takes one strand of the loop of cotton from the needle1 brings it across the intervening space where it is caught in the hooked needle and released from the looper4 ,then both descend1 and the result of this trio of movements is a stitch of the width that exists between the needles1 consisting of two strands of cotton4 ,the feeds then move the plait forward about half an inch1 and the operation is completed4 ,the under stitch consists of three strands1 but as the cotton used in this and all other straw machines is of the finest grades1 say from 8#hj0 to 8#ajj0 for the best work1 the stitch is hardly seen1 and the weight is not sufficient to be detrimental4 ,the centre of the top of the crown1 called in trade parlance the 8,button10 is produced by taking an extreme end between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand1 the left holding the length part of the plait4 ,the right hand makes a sharp turn of the portion held and with a slight cupping motion1 such as would be used by a grocer making a conical paper bag1 permits the plait in the left hand to come under the cupped portion1 through the lapping of which the first stitches are made4 ,the spirals of the 8button0 are extremely small1 and the beauty of this part is enhanced by the gradual and regular increase of the size of them4 ,this operation produces a spiral going from right to left1 as in ,fig4 #ac1 and is always the method adopted by hand sewers2 it was in this way that all the bonnets and hats were commenced prior to the adoption of machinery for sewing plait4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac ,the button finished1 recourse is then made to the 8block0 or shape of the crown to be produced1 for the subsequent sewing depends on its contour4 ,if this is circular the continual working around the button until the desired diameter is reached1 will achieve the required result2 but if the shape is oblong 7as they frequently are1 the trade name for which is 8oval071 it is necessary for the sewing to follow a slightly crowded course at the narrow width1 and a slightly extended course at the length1 for it is a desideratum that the edge of the top should synchronize exactly with the 8turn down row0 as it is called1 so that with the first row sewn down the side of the crown1 a clean cut and square edge will be produced4 ,this done1 sewing continues1 always to the 8block0 contours1 until sufficient depth is reached1 and this finishes the crown where the base is at equal distance all round from the edge of the top4 ,in some cases1 however1 it is necessary in order to produce the actual outline of the model1 to add in one place or another at the bottom of the crown short extra rows of 8gores0 or 8slopes0 7the local terms7 which will increase the depth of the crown at the place required2 in some bonnets many extra rows are necessary to give just the fit to any arch there may be in the head line of the brim4 ,in early times the bottom of the crown was always the same size in circumference as the head entry of the brim1 and in that case the brim was commenced by sewing the first row of it to the last row of the crown4 ,in some styles that still obtains1 and the hats thus made are designated 8one piece40 ,modern models1 however1 often have the base of the crown much larger than the necessary head entry4 ,in those cases the crown and the brim are made separate1 and are called 8two piece0 hats when finished1 the head fit being provided by the brim alone4 ,in such cases the brim is commenced by sewing to a band of some cheap material sufficiently stiff1 made to the necessary head size4 ,many shapes have brims which are of equal width all round4 ,it is then only necessary to sew directly off the last row of the crown1 and1 conforming to the style1 continue the sewing in the spiral manner4 ,where a brim is flat it is most important that it should be started at a proper angle to the side of the crown1 for that may or may not be exactly upright4 ,there are crowns1 such as boaters for men1 of which the sides are exactly at an angle of #ij to the brim1 there are others of which the top is smaller than the head fit1 of which the sides taper1 making an obtuse angle to the brim line2 and still further there are others1 where the top is larger than the head1 where the angle is sharpened4 ,so that in order to make the brim perfectly flat due regard must be made to the side crown incidence1 and in process of making great care has to be taken so as not to impart either fullness1 which would cause undulations1 or tightness1 which would make the brim either to turn up like a saucer1 or to turn down like a mushroom4 ,of course1 there are hats with brims of equal width all round that are designed to do one or the other of these things1 and in that case the operative gives the necessary fullness or tightness either all round or in part as the shape may require4 ,but the majority of fashionable models have brims of unequal widths2 thus the front may be wider or narrower than the sides or back2 or the back may be of the narrowest width2 or the sides may be wider than either front or back1 or each cardinal point of the brim compass may be of different dimensions4 ,in either of these cases the proper result can only be obtained by one of three ways3 #ast1 by the insertions of the proper width and length of gores at the part nearest to the crown and opposite1 but in relation to1 the edge of the widest part or parts of the brim2 #bnd1 by starting the brim at the crown line as if for an equal width1 and putting the gores at the edge of the brim at the place where the extra width is required2 #crd1 by sewing the brim as an all round one and then cutting the edge to the required shape4 ,the first method is that always followed where a circular or extra oval edge of the brim is necessary1 the gores counteracting the inequality of width will leave the circumference with a clean1 true sweep4 ,the second method is only adopted where the brim outline forms some abnormality1 which it would be impossible to achieve by sewing the gores to the crown1 and where this is done each end of the plait used is carefully crowded towards the part where it is joined to the brim and laid down in such a manner as to preserve as far as possible the original curves of the rows of plait nearest to the crown4 ,the third method is employed where the abnormal outline of the edge of the brim is of a too acute nature to allow even of gores being worked1 and every season brings up one or more models that require this kind of treatment4 ,the brim is sewn1 taking no notice of the inequalities1 to the width of the widest part 7providing always that the head line gores must be inserted where practicable72 either before or after stiffening or blocking1 as the case may demand1 the edge is cut with scissors to a template of the shape1 and is then bound with a row of the plait sewn all over those parts which have been cut across the rows1 so that any possibility of fraying is averted4 ,in the above cases1 which are all of more or less curved lines1 a row of plait is always sewn on the last row1 making a double thickness4 ,this is for two purposes1 to create an extra strength1 and to permit the attachment thereto of any wire or fabric desired1 without stitching through the brim proper4 ,but there have been brims of which the outside edge had a portion or portions that were quite sharply defined angles4 ,these are now done by the third method outlined above1 but in the old hand sewing days1 where the operatives' fingers1 instead of a machine1 had to do the work1 the angle was achieved by a process known as 8nipping40 ,this consisted of starting the angular portion with a piece of plait turned abruptly1 even to the extent of making the foot of the turned portion lap over the foot of the foundation4 ,this was sometimes done in working a very oblong top of a crown1 but then the two ends of the accentuated oval were turned in as circular a form as possible1 similar to part of the formation of a 8button10 but in the 8nipping0 case the turning point was quite sharp1 needing a small tuck of the plait to be sewn underneath to get the required acuteness2 the following rows were treated in the same manner until the desired width was obtained4 ,by this means any angular projection of the brim can be obtained1 but it is only possible in hand sewing4 ,before the advent of machinery any such process as ,no4 #c1 cutting the brim and binding1 was never utilized in the manufacture of best class goods1 except for those bonnets which1 largely in vogue at one time1 had very deep ears with round ends1 and even in these cases wherever possible the method ,no4 #b was adopted4 ,but when machinery became the prime factor in the sewing of plaits other methods were necessarily taken up1 for the capability of the machine was not always equalled by the capability of the operator1 and vice versa2 therefore1 the best means common to the skill of the greatest number became the general rule4 ,it is possible that1 with the delicate adjustments which can be obtained on either of the two styles of machines in use in the trade1 the last of the four methods could be sufficiently well done1 but only a very small percentage of operatives would be deft enough to achieve a good result1 and even in the cases of the first and second methods where gores are worked on the inside or outside edges of the brim1 the final crowding and laying down is invariably done by hand sewing4 ,the button also is another part that the hat sewer by machine still makes by hand4 ,in the machine finished hats this part is turned in the same manner1 but in the opposite direction1 thus the hand sewn hat spirals run from right to left1 whereas the machine made article rims from left to right1 taking the same orbit as that of the sun4 7,see ,fig4 #ad47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad ,as already mentioned1 one of the earliest machines made for plait sewing commenced the hat operations at the edge of the brim1 but this was a solitary instance1 all others started at the 8button0 and the two generic machines now in vogue1 the visible and the invisible stitch1 follow1 with the exception of the direction1 the method of hand sewing4 ,in order that a machinist of straw plait should be capable of producing the highest grade work1 a thorough tuition of hand sewing is most helpful1 and this was well demonstrated when machines were first used4 ,the early appliances or attachments to the machines were of quite a primitive nature1 in fact1 they were only those in use for domestic sewing1 and the subsequent machines made especially for straw work1 did not develop the niceties which now are part of the construction of the up-to-date machine1 and yet1 in spite of these drawbacks1 the machine work done by the erstwhile hand-sewers has never been surpassed1 although by aid of the possibilities of adjustment and the advent of mechanical power the present speed capacity has been at least doubled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae ,,section ,,of ,,rollers1 ,,showing ,,one ,,flat ,,section ,,for ,,headless ,,plaits1 ,,and ,,six ,,with ,,grooved ,,recesses ,,for ,,receiving ,,the ,,heads ,,in ,,the ,,various ,,sizes ,,necessary ,,for ,,different ,,widths ,,of ,,plait ,a process common to both hand and machine sewing is the 8milling0 of plait before using4 ,this obtains mainly1 if not wholly1 on plaits made of straw4 ,in hand sewing times it was an absolute necessity1 as it imparted a requisite pliability to the somewhat harsh fibres1 and permitted their easier adjustment in sewing to the requirements of the shape4 ,it also1 on those plaits which had 8heads10 accentuated the difference between the head and the foot1 giving a greater boldness of effect4 ,the mills used for this purpose were made with beech wood frames and with boxwood rollers4 ,generally these rollers were designed and cut to take all widths of plait1 and the 8trolls10 as the individual grooves were designated1 were made with a double recess1 the smaller one of which permitted the head of the plait to escape the pressure exerted on the foot4 7,see ,fig4 #ae47 ,when the extra demand for machine made hats arose it was found that the harsher plaits of ,china were too wearing on the wooden rollers1 and mills made of iron were produced1 but on the same active principles as shown above4 ,to-day the majority of plaits used in the trade are not milled1 only the coarser and harder straw varieties being occasionally done4 ,all ,tagal and soft pedal plaits can be machined without milling1 owing to the pressure mechanism which is now part of all the plait sewing machines4 ,,chapter ,x ,,stiffening ,the general description of the actual sewing of a straw hat1 whether by hand or machine1 must be followed by the statement that when sewn the hat is invariably in a limp condition1 that is it is quite unfit for general wear4 ,there are some few plaits1 when made into hats1 so firm in their consistency as to require little or even no assistance to keep them in shape4 ,these shapes are mainly of the 8floppy0 order1 and are designed either to wear as 8picture0 hats or to be manipulated in such a manner as to make a 8toque0 effect4 ,from the earliest period of making hats for fashionable wear1 and that certainly is not more than two centuries ago1 some process was necessary to keep the hat1 whether woven or sewn1 in the required shape4 ,the first methods were by the insertion of a kind of wicker foundation1 which allowed the shape to be moulded to it2 and by similar materials threaded through the rows of the plait1 or being attached thereto by sewing2 also by fine wires which were utilized in the same way as the wicker4 ,whalebone was also used as a support1 and in the construction of the huge hats common during the ,georgian period1 cardboard and buckram were used4 ,but all these articles1 effective though they might have been1 were of such great weight that means were sought to find a medium that would give the desired result without increasing the weight4 ,one must remember that with the use of whole straws a hat of large size would be very heavy without the addition of wicker1 wire1 or buckram1 and when1 during the craze for ,french fashions which followed the signing of the ,treaty of ,amiens1 smaller hats came into vogue1 such strengtheners made the hats look clumsy and distorted4 ,the genius1 whether ,briton or foreigner1 who discovered the use of glue or gelatine for the stiffening of straw hats1 is unknown1 although it is very probable he or she was ,french4 7,when the writer was apprenticed to a firm of hat makers in ,paris in #ahgg1 he was given to understand that the first gelatine process for hats was used in ,paris4 ,if the name of the inventor was given1 he has entirely forgotten it1 but to the best of his recollection no name was mentioned47 ,but other materials such as starch and isinglass had been tried1 but none found entirely satisfactory until the use of glue was adopted4 ,gelatine is a fine variety of glue1 and was developed first by the ,french glue makers2 among the foremost of whom were ,coignet ,frres1 of ,lyons1 founded in #ahah4 ,the manufacture of gelatine is now almost universal1 but ,messrs4 ,coignet still retain a very high credit for their wares4 ,it is quite probable that either some glue used for joinery or gelatine bought for cookery purposes was first tried on straw hats by the inventor1 and doubtless with such success that it was speedily taken up by all straw workers1 and to-day no other medium is used for the stiffening of actual straws4 ,that used for the purpose is specially made1 and is in varying qualities of strength and colour4 ,for white goods gelatine of the purest colour is necessary1 while for black or dark colours1 a gelatine of dark biscuit tint is generally used1 as its price is materially less than that of the better colour4 ,the main requirements in a gelatine are #ast1 colour2 #bnd1 no tendency when being used to froth2 #crd1 when dry an elastic and firm result4 ,the second condition is probably the most necessary1 as although gelatine is capable of being reduced with water to such a degree of fluidity1 that it affords the best medium for penetrating the straw and giving it the required strength1 if the quality is not good the mixture when used will froth like soapy water1 and thus have a tendency to leave a snaily appearance on the hat4 ,the method of preparation for 8stiffening10 as the process is termed in the trade1 is by soaking the gelatine in cold water for a sufficient term to enable it to become quite soft and flaccid1 and afterwards with heat to melt it down in its softening bath4 ,the weight of gelatine and quantity of water vary according to different formulae for the 8stock0 mixture1 and 8stiffenings0 of lesser strength are made by the addition of water to a certain quantity of the 8stock40 ,in almost any hat for ladies1 the crown is stiffened with a weaker solution than the brim1 and therefore two strengths are generally provided for this purpose4 ,two methods are adopted by the workers for stiffening straw hats1 8sponging0 and 8rolling40 ,the former consists1 when the hat is on the wooden block1 of sponging the hot gelatine on to the straw with a 8dabbing0 motion1 and when the plait is thoroughly saturated1 using a warm1 nearly dry sponge to clear all surplus from the surface4 ,the latter method is effected by rapidly dipping or 8rolling0 one or more hats into the gelatine bath1 and then allowing them to drain1 afterwards placing them singly on the block and sponging out the superfluity of gelatine4 ,the first way is generally used for the highest class work1 as when well done there is less tendency for the dried hat to crackle and a decided inclination towards a resilient finish4 ,but the second plan is very successful on some materials1 and being much quicker to effect is generally practised among manufacturers handling large quantities4 ,it has one advantage1 it can be done by less skilled or careful operatives than the 8sponging10 which needs careful attention4 ,the straw boater for men during its stiffening is often soaked in the 8stiffening0 bath for an appreciable time in order that the gelatine may thoroughly soak into all the fibres of the plait2 but that also1 when it emerges1 is sponged over to remove excess4 ,the general plan of stiffening a single piece hat 7ladies' hat7 with gelatine is for the operator to place the crown of the hat correctly on the wooden block4 ,the sponge having been dipped into the proper bath1 the crown is evenly and thoroughly saturated with the gelatine4 ,it is then 8dry sponged0 to clear the surface1 and the operator carefully arranges the rows to synchronize with the edges of the block and with each other4 ,withdrawing the crown block1 the hat is next put on the brim block1 and the sponging and arranging operations are repeated1 but in the case of a wide brim the 8stiffening0 used is from a stronger solution bath4 ,before the sewer hands over the hat to the 8stiffener10 the hat has to be 8strung10 i4e4 a fine thread is so attached to it as to afford a convenient means of hanging the hat up to dry1 and when the stiffener has finished his operation he suspends the hat on a wooden rod1 which is placed near him in a convenient position4 ,these rods are from #c ft4 to #d ft4 long1 according to individual needs1 and about #a in4 square3 on the longer ones from four to six hats can be hung1 and when full the rod is placed in a suitable rack with covering overhead1 but in a position freely open to the air4 ,the best results are obtained from natural air drying1 whether by wind or by a mechanically arranged draught from a centrifugal fan1 but in cases of time pressure1 where goods are wanted quickly1 recourse is made to a drying room1 which warmed either by fire or by steam heated coils is able to ensure a dry heat1 by which the moisture in the hats is soon evaporated and the gelatine allowed to set4 ,this plan is only useful in extremity1 for in the early stages while the moisture in the hats is at its greatest volume1 the gelatine has a tendency to run towards the lowest hanging portions of the hat1 with the result of uneven strengths2 and further1 when the moisture is driven off1 the gelatine retained is rendered more or less brittle1 losing entirely the much desired toughness and resiliency4 ,another point against drying by heat is that it requires a stronger1 and therefore more costly1 solution of gelatine to be used1 in order to counteract the wastage caused by running and the weakness consequent on the dried up gelatine4 ,the above methods are those in use for all straw1 tagal or hemp1 and for all chip plaits4 ,it is also used for real horsehair crinoline1 but the imitations of this article being of viscose1 cellulose1 or similar foundation fibres1 require special mixtures of gelatine with some acid1 such as acetic1 to harden the fibre and prevent it shrinking or dissolving1 and with some volatile fluid such as methylated spirit1 to encourage the rapid evaporation of the stiffening and thus reduce to a minimum the deteriorating effects of a liquid of any kind on the artificial fibres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af ,,stiffening ,,straw ,,hats ,another method of stiffening these susceptible plaits is by some mixture of a resinous nature1 preferably that of shellac dissolved in spirit4 ,this method has1 of course1 several variations which are jealously guarded by the inventors1 but the foundation of all of them is on the above lines4 ,in these cases the 8stiffening0 or really 8proofing0 7for it is1 of course1 waterproof7 is applied with a brush and care has to be used not to clog the interstices of the fabric4 ,there are many disadvantages to the use of this medium1 and its use is not general4 ,cotton fibre plaits are generally stiffened with a gelatine solution similar to the viscose method1 but another process was evolved for black cotton hats1 by which a resinous solution after application was burned off in a blocking machine1 combining at the one time the dual processes of stiffening and blocking4 ,this1 however1 can only be taken advantage of when the particular variety of machine1 with spelter male and female blocks1 was available4 7,this will be described under the head of ,blocking47 ,these1 in the main1 are the 8stiffening0 methods in use in the straw hat trade as it is to-day1 when the materials used for hats are prepared to their final appearance stage before being sewn1 but in the early days of the trade when the finished plait was quite crude as compared with that of this century1 some methods were utilized during stiffening to alter or improve the colour of the hat or bonnet4 ,the earliest attempt in this direction was the production of a white colour on straw4 ,it has been shown in previous chapters that the early bleachings simply improved the natural colour of the straw1 and did not remove its yellow tinting4 ,but it was found possible during the stiffening to carry the improvement a stage further4 ,this was done by the mixture of some acid1 such as oxalic1 sorrel and other similar chemicals1 in the gelatine bath4 ,these had a dual effect1 they kept the gelatine from returning gradually to its pristine browny-yellow tint1 and when the hat was stiffened the chemically treated 8stiffening0 was more easily affected in the bleaching by the fabrics of sulphur4 7,incidentally one may remark that the addition of a similar chemical action to that produced by the above-mentioned acids1 will materially improve the colour of even the darkest tinted gelatine47 ,but even under all these improvements1 plait could not be made as white as fashion demanded sixty or seventy years ago4 ,attempts were made to produce the required article by making plait similar to 8twist0 or 8,luton0 with the straws plaitted inside out1 that is the two splints used for each straw were laid with the outsides of the straws together1 leaving the inside of the straw1 or 8rice10 which is much paler in colour1 on the outside of the plait4 ,this1 when bleached1 was materially whiter than that with the silicate outside1 but it did not come up to the required standard4 ,a method was introduced called 8,enamelling0 or 8,compoing10 which consisted of a paste made of starch1 or isinglass1 or gelatine1 mixed with various white powders1 making when ready for use a thickish whitewash4 ,this provided both stiffening and colouring to the hat4 ,but this in itself was an additional weight1 and as all plaits with heads made the proper distribution of the enamel very difficult1 some smoother and lighter medium had to be found4 8#g ends ,split0 was the chosen plait1 and for several years enamelled split bonnets were a most fashionable feature4 ,the modus operandi was to spread the 8enamel0 or 8compo0 over the outside surface of the bonnet or hat1 in a perfectly even manner1 so that when dry it presented the appearance of being evenly whitewashed4 ,the final touch was given by ironing the hat very carefully on the block1 with a bare iron not too hot2 this imparted a slight glaze1 which1 if unscorched1 was really very fine4 ,various other media have been used at different times for stiffening straw hats1 such as dextrine and other farinaceous products1 and resinous and other gums1 soluble in spirit or in water4 ,machines have been utilized for stiffening1 but the little advantages therefrom were so overweighted by the disadvantages1 that they have never obtained any popular support and to-day it is probably not too much to say that every straw hat is stiffened actually by hand4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,blocking ,,by ,,hand ,the process of 8,blocking10 as the next operation in the making of a straw hat is termed1 consists of some method1 either by hand or machinery1 to place the somewhat uncouth looking article1 exhibited by the dried stiffened hat1 into its ultimate form4 ,naturally1 the thoroughly softened shape1 saturated with hot gelatine and hung to the rod by a thread1 assumes during drying an appearance totally at variance with the proper shape1 and in order to achieve the correct outline some means has to be employed that will at the same time render the gelatine amenable and also fix the contours4 ,ever since hats have been made1 whether in the oldest woven form1 or in the more recent plait sewn way1 this process has been a necessity4 ,in fact the smoothing for wear of the finished hat is a process considerably older than that of giving some extra firmness4 ,in the account of the making of the ,panama mention has been made of the use of wooden mallets to obliterate the ridges caused by the 8setts0 and to give a general outline of conformity to the hood1 and even so in the case of ,british made hats1 even before the stiffening methods of wicker1 wire or buckram1 hats were given a smoothening finish by means of some similar instrument4 ,it is probable that in the earlier times wooden tools were used here1 but of these there are no records clearly indicating their nature4 ,the earliest instrument used in the trade of which there are existing examples were termed 8,slicken ,stones40 ,of these there are two fine specimens in the ,luton ,free ,library1 and they are of different sizes1 one about #d ins4 diameter and one about #f ins4 ,they are circular1 but flattened with a rounded bevel edge something like the shape of a muffin1 but with very smooth surfaces4 ,their mission was to remove all inequalities from the hat after weaving or sewing1 contributing at the same time a smoothness which could not be obtained from wood4 ,they were probably used from the earliest hat making times1 and certainly played a part in the smoothing of hats made on wicker4 ,whether they were needed for the wire foundationed shapes is uncertain1 as this medium was so easily adjusted by the fingers1 but they undoubtedly were extensively employed in the shaping of the buckram supports1 as this article1 slightly damp1 could be easily moulded4 ,they were used cold1 and the probability is that in the wicker and the buckram methods1 a slight steaming over boiling water1 immediately followed by the application and use of these cold 8,slicken0 stones1 would result in the possibility of shaping and at the same time 8setting0 the material4 ,about the commencement of the nineteenth century they were in common use around the ,south ,bedfordshire hat making centres1 and there is no doubt they were successful in their operations on hats both woven and sewn that were sufficiently firm in their straw nature4 ,from what can be gleaned they were still in use when the first gelatine was used1 but as the necessary steaming or softening of the hat was another process1 the old established method was soon superseded by the use of irons1 for it was found that with a damp cloth over the hat1 the iron at one time could produce its own steam and soften the stiffened material1 and also make the hat conform to the shape of the block4 ,at the time of the gelatine introduction1 shapes were all of variations of the 8,poke10 8,coalscuttle10 or 8,granny0 bonnet styles1 and the smoothing or ironing of them was done on a 8block10#a something the shape of a vaulting horse1 and nearly as large1 for it had legs long enough to make it sufficiently high to work at without stooping4 ,the ends were made to take the crown1 or rather the portion which hung at the back of the head or nape of the neck of the wearer1 into which was set the voluminous 8poke0 or side brims of the 8petasus0 or coalscuttle type that completely obliterated the side views of the wearer's face4 ,the poke could be blocked on any part of the 8horse0 except the ends1 and its curves and outlines varied as occasion might require4 ,on the introduction of irons and the use of a damp cloth1 known in the trade as a 8strainer10 the wooden horse was the only apparatus for blocking until the advent of other shapes necessitated further and more complicated outlines4 ,when the 8iron0 in present use first made its appearance in the trade it has been impossible to find out4 ,it is what is now universally known as a 8box iron10 consisting of a wedge shaped shell of metal with flat top and bottom1 but with curved sides1 into which a red hot 8pad10 or block of iron to fit the interior1 could be put to impart to the 8box0 the necessary heat4 ,that this style of iron was known long before the beginning of the nineteenth century is certain4 ,quaint forms for ironing the ,elizabethan ruffs embodying the hot pad principle are still in existence1 but the early nineteenth century accounts of the instruments used in the straw trade are something like the ,history of ,england between ,a4,d4 #ejj and ,a4,d4 #hjj1 extremely hazy6 ,therefore1 it is impossible to fix the exact date of its introduction to the trade2 one may conjecture that1 like 8,topsy0 in ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin1 8it growed40 ,its trade birth was probably accidental1 but its existence has been phenomenal in duration1 for although machinery for blocking is now doing a lot of work formerly done by hand1 still in most factories hand ironing occupies a very prominent place1 and even where hats are blocked by machine in many cases they need roughly shaping first by hand4 ,hand blocking is done in the following manner3 the hat to be ironed is first put through some process to make the hardness of the gelatine sufficiently soft to fit the blocks4 ,in the early days of the trade this was always done by lightly passing the hot iron over a damp cloth in which the hat was enveloped1 thus producing enough steam to render the hat pliable1 the crown was then carefully adjusted on the block1 special attention being given to the spacing and direction of the rows of plait4 ,about #ahhj straw hat manufacturers1 having also started the making of felt hats1 for which a small steam jet in an enclosed box or vessel was necessary1 found that this same 8steam pot0 7trade term7 provided an easy means of softening the hat1 for placing on the wooden block1 and since that time the old method of softening has practically died out1 with the exception of such plaits as would be injured by steam action4 ,when the crown of the hat is in proper position on the block1 it is covered with the 8strainer40 ,this should be in a well wrung-out damp condition1 and is held in its place by the left hand of the 8blocker10 the ironing operative4 ,with the box iron in his right hand1 he evenly and with a slightly circular motion1 keeping the iron on the hat1 presses out any inequalities that may be left1 but with such discretion as not to injure the design of the plait4 ,this process continues until the 8strainer0 is dry1 which indicates that all superfluous moisture is evaporated and that the material will stay permanently in the required form4 ,some plaits with prominent heads or fancy embellishments require two or more 8strainers0 or even a thickness of flannel between the iron and the hat to prevent bruising1 but plaits such as these are generally 8blocked0 by being 8steamed0 7trade term71 that is the shaping on the block is entirely done by the hand of the operator after the material has been softened in the 8steampot40 ,when hats are1 as they always were till about #ahhe1 of 8one piece0 make1 the crown having been finished1 is taken off the wooden block and placed head downward in the 8curler0 or 8brimmer0 of wood4 ,either name sufficiently designates its form and use1 and the 8one piece0 hat is carefully adjusted in the head entry1 due regard being made to the contour of the base of the crown1 and the arrangement of the first gores of the brim1 so as to ensure a perfectly clean line of junction between the crown and the brim4 ,the brim is then adjusted to the exact outline of the edge1 and when true is 8blocked0 in a similar way to the crown4 ,the two piece hats are done in the same way with1 of course1 the exception that the crown and the brim are blocked apart4 ,it is1 of course1 obvious that only quite a small portion of some parts of the hats can be ironed at a time1 the surface of the iron can only1 at most1 impinge on that amount which is parallel1 and1 therefore1 the blocking of a crown with rounding top1 bevelled edges and perhaps almost 8,o4 ,g40 sides1 is an operation needing considerable skill1 for no lines must show1 nor must there be any bruise marks1 and yet at the same time there must be enough pressure to cause the material to assume and retain the required shape4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag ,,hand ,,blocking ,with ,iron ,heated by ,electricity ,the irons are made with various kinds of faces1 some are perfectly flat1 others with convex sweeps or curves1 these are called 8grecian0 irons1 and are intended to be used in recessed curves of crown or brim1 which curves are known as 8grecians10 but the skilful operative can adapt the curved sides of a flat-faced box iron to most of the concave places1 so that except for extreme undulations1 no recourse to the curved faced iron is necessary4 ,there are many modifications of these general rules and methods1 and it may be necessary in certain cases1 such as the ironing of braids stiffened with media other than gelatine or water soluble materials1 to employ other methods1 but they are generally peculiar to the plait used and of a purely ephemeral nature4 ,in some factories box irons are used1 heated by patent fuel1 others are warmed by gas and electricity1 but the general convenience of the fire-heated pad causes the old fashioned iron to retain an almost universal supremacy4 ,in work it is just as convenient as any other1 and in cost it must of necessity be lower1 for every factory must have fire for steam production and general warmth1 and the coke burning furnaces in use in the smaller factories are usually constructed to achieve these two objects1 and at the same time heat the blocker's pads4 ,in the larger establishments steam for heating and working is generally raised in separate adequately large boilers1 with a specially constructed and economical furnace for pad heating4 ,this is made with a shallow bed1 a broad iron lip1 on which pads can be changed1 and a guillotine-like construction in front1 with a 8blower0 which can be made to rise or fall1 as occasion may demand for the regulation of the draught4 ,,footnote3 #a ,this doubtless gave the name to the operation of shaping4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,blocking ,,by ,,machine ,the blocking of hats by machinery is a process much more recent in operation than hand work1 and although its origin is more or less inside the possibility of a living man's memory1 so confused are the data connected with it that little or no reliability can be placed on the greater number of the traditions4 ,one thing alone stands out clearly as a definite indication of first use1 and that is the certain seniority of the pressing of ,leghorn hats4 ,it is almost self-evident that neither machinery or blocks to stand machine pressures would be made for the manufacture of unlikely or transient materials and shapes1 and while the fashion of 8,granny0 bonnets1 etc41 was constant for nearly half a century1 the details of their shapes offered too many difficulties to the would-be maker of a machine to press them1 to induce any great inventive effort on his part4 ,it needed something simple in outline1 and something that could be done in large and recurring quantities1 to give to the inventor the necessary impetus to produce a machine to impart to the hats their final finish4 ,and #ajj years ago there was nothing in the straw market1 used either for hats or bonnets1 that fulfilled the above conditions except the ,leghorn hat4 ,the making of this has been described in a former chapter4 ,the early methods1 either by wood mallet or slickenstone did not adequately fill the requirements2 hand ironing was nearly as tedious and was rather dangerous1 as the ,tuscan straw of the ,leghorns was so easily scorched1 and as the demand increased the desire for a more expeditious1 safe and uniform method of pressing grew with it4 ,the earliest information1 given with some reserve1 is that an iron pan or dish was made1 moulded to the shape of the hat1 and that this was fixed over a metal cauldron in which water was kept at the boil1 or was warmed direct by charcoal fires4 ,these heated the pan sufficiently for the purpose2 in fact1 to-day1 with all the improvements1 and they are legion1 steam heating in this manner to blocking machines is still general4 ,the hat was damped and laid properly in the pan to its shape1 and was pressed on the inside by a convenient tool of hard wood or stone1 either of which was sufficient to squeeze the wet-softened straw into the crevices attendant on the edge of the crown and the corner made by the junction of the crown and the brim1 and to impart the necessary shape to all sections of the hat4 ,the next move towards the present models1 was to have the pan as above1 with a wooden1 or sometimes iron1 block which would1 when the hat was laid in position1 fit into it in such a manner as to convey an equal impingement on all parts4 ,this was adjusted by means of an over working screw1 by which some large pressures could be given4 ,but these simple methods had great disadvantages2 it was impossible to entirely synchronize the pressure on every hat1 and it was extremely lengthy and tedious4 ,a ,mr4 ,samuel ,howard1 of ,luton1 invented a press on similar lines1 but the action was horizontal instead of vertical1 this served a very good purpose for a period until ,,mm4 ,desbordes1#b of ,paris1 introduced their hydraulic press4 ,this consisted of a steam heated chamber in which was placed the metal 8pan0 or 8dish10 it being the 8female0 mould of the required shape4 ,the pressure was obtained by an overhead chamber to which an india-rubber bag was fastened4 ,this chamber was very strong and heavy1 and was1 as it were1 one end of a balance1 working on trunnions1 at the other end of which were two large metal balls as counterpoise4 ,to bring into operation1 the chamber was pulled down so that the centre of the india-rubber bag1 which was made with a teat1 came into the crown opening of the pan2 the chamber was securely fastened by means of screw lugs to the portion holding the pan1 and a hydraulic press was put into action which filled the rubber bag with a sufficient pressure of water to distribute the power all over the hat in the pan2 a gauge showed the pressure obtained and consequently an equal amount could be given to every hat4 ,the results1 therefore1 were all alike1 and as the press could be locked and unlocked in a fraction of the time required by the screw process1 the work was greatly accelerated4 ,many improvements have been made in blocking machines since then 7about #ahfj71 but all the later models embody the important feature of the hydraulic pressure through the rubber bag4 ,the next important step in the evolution of mechanical blocking was that introduced by ,mr4 ,henry ,keston1 of ,luton1 adapted from a model made by a ,mr4 ,beresford1 of ,stockport1 ,cheshire4 ,this improvement consisted of erecting round steel uprights on the bed of the steam heated chamber1 allowing the bag chamber1 attached to which were slides fitting the uprights1 to rise and fall vertically4 ,the counterpoise was effected by a chain1 attached to the top of the bag chamber1 passing over a wheel supported by a bracket at the back of the machine and loaded with sufficient weights to adjust the balance4 ,a hand or foot lever pressure was sufficient to raise or depress the bag chamber1 and water connection to it was obtained by means of a corded re-inforced india-rubber swan neck4 ,when the chamber had descended to its proper position it was locked by means of a stout steel three-armed part like the hub of a wheel1 with three spokes radiating from it at equal distances4 ,the hub was pivoted on the centre of the top of the bag chamber1 and a short lateral movement of this part brought all three spokes under very strong hook-like lugs1 and locked the bag chamber securely to the pan chamber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah ,,machine ,,blocking ,by ,press of ,beresford-,keston ,type ,water pressure above the supply pressure was effected by means of a hand worked hydraulic pump1 and the force was reckoned by a pressure gauge4 ,this method was so much simpler and easier to work1 and also was so much more rapid1 that it quickly superseded its predecessor2 and now1 after forty years' experience1 is still the favourite model1 although the machines of to-day contain many improvements not to be found in the original4 ,by all these descending bag chamber models the blocking of the hat is identical4 ,the only difference made is in the amount of pressure1 some straws taking more than others without injury4 ,the hat having been properly 8roughed out0 or 8sweated10 that is shaped to its exact size without pressure by hand or machine1 and still holding a little steam moisture1 is placed accurately in the pan1 the outside of the hat to the metal2 inside the hat is distributed as evenly as may be a thick felt dummy 7to prevent the straw from cutting the bag74 ,if the edge of the crown is very sharp1 such as one finds in a man's boater1 a ring of vulcanized rubber or similar material with angles corresponding to the crown edge is placed in position inside the crown before the felt dummy is introduced4 ,the bag chamber is then brought down1 securely locked1 and the water pressure applied4 ,different materials require different periods of time to properly set1 but while one is setting the operator 8roughs out0 another hat1 so that when the mechanical process on the one is complete1 its successor is ready for the operation4 ,a machine1 the principle of which was intended to apply to the making of buckram shapes1 was also adopted by the straw trade4 ,its first adoption was due to the introduction of the felt hat manufacture into the districts hitherto peculiar to the straw hat making1 but it was found to possess points of advantage in the blocking of certain materials4 ,this machine has a 8female0 pan of metal into which a properly fitted 8male0 block1 with the accurate amount of space for the material to be used1 may enter1 forming with the pan and the hat one solid piece4 ,this 8male0 block is also of metal4 ,they were first of iron and afterwards were generally of spelter or aluminium4 ,in the particular case for which they were most extensively used1 the hat was made of a cotton braid1 the stiffening of which was effected by a shellac and methylated spirit mixture1 as gelatine was not found entirely satisfactory4 ,both the 8male0 and the 8female0 blocks were heated by gas jets1 and when the hat was still wet with the highly inflammable stiffening it was placed in position on the lower block1 the other was adjusted to it1 and when in proper place the heat of the blocks1 or the light of the gas jets1 fired the stiffening1 which rapidly burned the spirit out1 leaving the shellac or other resinous material in the fibres of the braid in sufficient quantity to render the hat hard enough for its purpose1 and at the same time creating an almost waterproof fabric1 that enabled the cotton to withstand the softening influences of damp weather4 ,the operation was completed by releasing the movable block and taking out the hat4 ,an entire revolution in the system of blocking straw hats was introduced in #aiac-ad by a ,m4 ,stoffel1 of ,paris4 ,this method depends for pressure on air only1 and by its means shapes almost if not impossible by any other method can be beautifully blocked4 ,the apparatus consists mainly of a vacuum reservoir from which all air is extracted1 creating a suction pressure of about #ac lb4 to the square inch1 exhausted by means of a vacuum pumping engine and perforated blocks placed over copper tables that are also perforated and connected with the vacuum chamber4 ,the blocks are of wood or metal1 and both crowns and brims are made to the form of the outside of the hat1 and are in themselves quite independent of the copper table4 ,the modus operandi is as follows3 the block to be used is warmed by steam and is placed bottom uppermost on the copper table4 ,the hat1 slightly moistened by steam1 is adjusted carefully on or in the block1 covered with a large water and air proof cloth which can envelop the whole of the block and table1 and leave a sufficient quantity to fill up the cavity caused by the interior of the crown1 or the undulations of the brim4 ,the vacuum force is then brought into action1 and the suction created draws the cloth1 with a pressure of about #aj to #ab lb4 to the square inch1 into every crevice or corner formed by the shape of the hat and block2 the suction set up draws off as well any moisture evaporated by the heat of the block1 and in a few moments the hat is sufficiently dry to be removed4 ,by this method crowns of hats with concertina-like folds and creases can be perfectly 8ironed10 using a block made of only two sections1 whereas in any other form of blocking1 where similar blocks must be made in five sections1 the result obtained1 comparatively speaking1 is more or less imperfect4 ,moreover the process1 while being much more rapid1 does not require anything like the same amount of force expenditure on the part of the workman as do either hand or machine blocking4 ,another important benefit of this invention is that the actual working apparatus can be arranged in ordinary blocking benches1 the copper perforated table taking up no more room than that usually occupied by a hand blocker1 whereas1 while other blocking machines do not occupy in themselves a greater area1 the 8roughing out0 or 8sweating0 necessitates the ordinary hand blocking space which makes the actual amount nearly double4 ,it must not be forgotten that the preliminary1 as one may call it1 apparatus of the 8,stoffel0 system requires space for the vacuum engine and pump1 while the vacuum reservoir tank is1 of course1 of considerable magnitude1 according to the services required4 ,both these1 however1 can be placed in some basement1 etc41 quite away from the actual blocking room4 ,whereas the earlier models need no extra area than the actual working spaces1 with the exception of the steam generating plant1 which1 however1 is common to all systems1 and further is a necessity for other purposes such as heating the various work and drying rooms1 and also for melting and keeping warm the gelatine used for stiffening1 etc4 ,but compared with the ,desbordes and ,keston models1 this system is not so well adapted for men's boaters work4 ,up to about #aiaj1 the great bulk of rustic boaters was blocked on presses of the ,keston type1 and even to-day boater makers still make use of them4 ,the hard-natured straws that are generally utilized for boaters require heavy pressure in varying degrees according to the different varieties of plaits1 and in this respect the suction method is not sufficient for the high powers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai ,,machine ,,blocking ,by ,press of 8,brochier0 ,type ,about #aiaj another ,french engineer put a blocking machine on the market with special claims for boater work4 ,m4 ,j4 ,b4 ,brochier1 of ,lyons1 introduced the model now known wherever boaters are made by the name of 8,carre ,vive10 of which the free translation1 8sharp edge10 sufficiently indicates the peculiar claim of the inventor4 ,this machine in structure is a combination of some other blocking presses1 but with a special contrivance for creating the extra sharp edge1 and of extra lightness and simplicity in working4 ,it has the guillotine frame of the machine mentioned for blocking cotton braids stiffened with shellac stiffening1 the pan chamber heated by steam1 the india-rubber bag for hydraulic pressure1 and the bag-chamber moving vertically on uprights of the 8,keston0 or 8,beresford0 type4 ,but it differs from that machine in1 first1 the bag chamber is really a plate with a hole in the centre to carry the bag1 and is only of the most meagre dimensions of the least possible weight4 ,second1 this is caused to descend into the pan chamber by a lever actuated by the operator's foot1 the little weight of it is balanced at the end of a lever with a small counterweight1 obviating the overhead chain and pulley4 ,third1 the fixed contact with the pan chamber is made by means of a screw wheel1 a small turn of which when the hat and bag are in position1 firmly tightens and locks the two portions together4 ,fourth1 the special crown edging action is done by a rising and falling movement made by the bottom of the boater pan1 which is actuated by means of a lever working on a ratchet by which the pressure can be retained until the hat is ready for removal4 ,this model is now extensively used for boaters1 although at the moment of writing that extreme sharpness1 desirable in boaters a few years ago1 is not required in the season's models for the home trade1 the crown edges of which are an almost imperceptible bevel4 ,these practically exhaust the machines for blocking1 but there are in use throughout the trade blocking presses for the brims of boaters and of some varieties of hats with rolling brims4 ,these consist either of a flat metal plate1 or open pan conforming to the curves of the rolled brim1 heated either by gas or steam on1 or in1 which the brim of the hat is arranged1 and a wooden block placed over it4 ,affixed to the plate or pan are two uprights with a crossbeam1 in the centre of which is a long quick acting screw with a small plate at the bottom4 ,this descends on to the wooden block and creates sufficient pressure to put the brim of the hat in correct shape4 ,it is found very useful in 8touching up0 the shape of a brim that may have been bent or damaged in the trimming1 as to put the hat into either of the other machines would necessitate the taking away of all trimmings and linings4 ,the mention of these articles brings our history to its next stage--that of the actual 8,finishing10 as the trade calls all the operations done to the hat after blocking4 ,,footnote3 #b ,about this there is some uncertainty2 the writer1 from personal recollection1 believes it to be correct1 but some modern ,frenchmen claim the honour on behalf of ,m4 ,desireau1 while others assign priority to ,m4 ,lgat4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,finishing4 ,,polishing4 ,,trimming4 ,,lining4 ,the straw hat having now arrived at the stage where its actual manufacture ceases1 has still further to undergo the process of embellishment necessary for its proper appearance on the counters of the merchant1 or in the showroom of the milliner4 ,a great many hats of the 8,leghorn0 variety leave the factories without any finish of trimming or lining1 but after they leave the blocking room they have to undergo a process of polishing4 ,this is done in one or two ways4 ,the 8dry0 way is for the hat to be put through a severe brushing1 done by rapidly revolving brushes carrying powdered sulphur1 in an air shaft which takes away the residue of the powder4 ,this gives to the ,leghorn hat a velvety smoothness and incidentally imparts a richer colour1 owing to the sulphur that finds its way into the crevices of the straw fibres2 although the brushing is intended to leave the hat free from the powder1 in actual working that is found to be nearly impossible4 ,the other way is the 8wet10 and in this case the hat is covered all over with a thin paste1 of which sulphur is the principal ingredient4 ,when dry the blocking process is gone through1 and the hat subsequently receives a brushing similar to the 8dry0 method1 but in this case the object of the brushing is to remove every available particle of the dried paste4 ,the advantage of this method is great where the colour of the ,leghorn is none too fine4 ,the wet sulphur mixture has a bleaching effect on the straw1 and naturally tends to penetrate better into the fibres and crevices than the powder alone4 ,the result is that the tone of the hat is immeasurably beautified and with a longer lasting colour than is obtained by simply polishing with dry powder4 ,when properly brushed and ticketed ,leghorns are then completely ready for the market4 ,some few other kinds of hats go out without any trimming or lining1 but the processes they undergo will be set out in one or the other of the following descriptions4 ,every kind of straw needs some variety of treatment before the actual 8,finishing10 but generally speaking these treatments are confined to the darker coloured plaits4 ,thus for chip plaits black receives a coating of some oil such as olive or nut1 etc4 ,this levels up the colour of the plait and intensifies the black2 all other colours are simply cleared by steam1 and receive no further treatment4 ,for plaits of actual straw various things have been used during the course of time4 ,the first method1 when only black1 navy blue and brown colours were available1 was to smartly brush the dry finished hat with stiff hand-brushes4 ,this imparted a fairly good shiny surface to the straw1 but it had two drawbacks1 one was that the brushing did not in any way improve the colour of the sometimes faultily-dyed plaits1 and the other was a tendency during the brushing of roughing up the fibres of the straw4 ,in those early days when lowness of price was not the main consideration1 many hats have been glossed by brushing over with white of egg1 but the expense of that rendered it useless for the bulk of the goods4 ,the 8,japan ,black10 that in the time of our fathers was utilized every spring on the household grates1 was also tried on black straw hats1 but its viscous nature was quite unsuitable for the proper polishing of straw4 ,it was not until about #ahgj that a polish made of some resinous gums and methylated spirit was put on the straw hat market4 ,for black this 8polish0 was tinted with a suitable colouring matter1 and at first the finding of the proper ingredient that would remain in solution without precipitation was a long and tedious job2 however1 this was eventually effected1 and now for some years the various best brands of straw hat spirit polish leave nothing to be desired4 ,a ,german firm1 ,messrs4 ,conrad ,schmidt ,co41 was about the first to market in ,great ,britain a satisfactory spirit polish1 and with recurring improvements this brand of polish1 now made by the ,london ,varnish ,co41 still obtains a large share of straw hat makers' demands4 ,brown and blue spirit polishes were produced by dyeing the gum and spirit mixture with an aniline dye4 ,white spirit polish was of two varieties1 one nearly opaque white1 and the other a clear fluid with just a slight yellow tint4 ,these can be used on all coloured straws other than black1 brown and navy1 but many manufacturers omit to polish the very light tones such as champagne1 silver grey1 sky blue1 etc4 ,white1 of course1 is never polished4 ,when spirit polish was first introduced it was very costly1 and on the advent of the ,china plait to these markets1 it was found to be rather out of proportion expensive to the very cheap ,canton hats4 ,a polish made of ordinary glue mixed with lamp black or charcoal was current in ,luton about #ahgj1 and lasted in use for the lowest price goods until spirit polish became a reasonable price4 ,the glue polish often smelt very nasty1 and was always badly affected by a humid warm atmosphere4 ,during the past few years when so many varieties of fibre have been utilized for making plaits1 all kinds of polishing media have been experimented with1 even the household bees' wax and turpentine has not been left out in the cold1 but those that have made any lasting mark on the making of a straw hat are all of them in some way combinations of gums and spirit4 ,the rapid evaporation of any liquid put on a blocked hat is an absolute necessity1 it must also not be able in any way to soften the gelatine or other stiffening material1 and it must leave a desired gloss on the hat without being glassy or 8fatty0 looking4 ,further1 it must not materially harden the fibres4 ,some plaits are required quite bright2 for these ordinary straw hat polish is correct2 others are wanted with an 8egg shell0 shine1 these are provided for in one or the other of the 8,lustres0 and 8,silk ,finishes0 that are to be obtained4 ,in fact1 to-day there is no material of which hats are made that cannot be properly polished4 ,the last advantage of the spirit polish is that it gives a slight water proofing to the ladies' hat1 and the mention of that brings up the question of the waterproofing of men's boaters4 ,a boater is generally made of rustic plait of which the saw-like edges lapping over each other form a surface similar to a tiled roof1 and if it were possible to sew the plait with the serrations as regular as tiling1 the result would be showerproof1 but such regularity is impossible1 and in order to make this most useful hat still more serviceable1 one or two patents have been taken out in the direction of making it absolutely waterproof4 ,as far as one can gather in the trade1 the only method of rendering straw hats rainproof now extensively used is that known as the 8,cravenette40 ,after the 8shell0 of the boater is sewn and stiffened1 a special powder is applied carefully over the entire surface of the hat1 after which a spray of the patent liquid is made to evenly and thinly cover the powder causing it to dissolve and form the waterproofing medium4 ,after drying the hat is blocked in the usual manner1 and when done1 only an expert can tell from sight that the hat has been treated1 as the colour is in no way deteriorated1 nor are the fibres of the straw changed in any manner4 ,the straw hat1 whether boater for masculine wear or the ladies' fashionable hat1 is1 when the polish or finish is quite dry1 ready for the attentions of the 8,finisher0 or 8,trimmer40 ,in the early days of the ,british trade1 that is about a century ago1 the work of the finisher was very limited4 ,practically all that was done was to insert some kind of temporary lining to the head fit1 and affix a small tab or ticket for reference purposes4 ,gradually as more intricate shapes began to be in public favour1 it was found necessary to add to the above operations1 by inserting at the edge of the brim a metal wire covered with either cotton or silk4 ,this had in view two purposes1 the first that by skilful bending and shaping the desired outline of the brim could be produced1 and the other was that when the proper form was achieved1 the support of the wire assisted in its retention4 ,as plaits of lace-like appearance came on the market 7those of crinoline and fancy adornments1 for example7 the temporary linings were made from various colours of tissue paper4 ,these not only permitted a possible purchaser to see at a glance all the beauties of the plait1 but afforded means by which the bonnet could be tried on the head1 with the least chance of damage1 either to the shape or the wearer's hair4 ,and mentioning bonnets1 up to #ahfj so much predominant in public request1 and even to the present time1 the wholesale manufacturer of them has always used paper for the temporary lining for all made of chip or fancy plaits1 while for straws with their hard sharp heads1 likely to tear the tissue paper1 the probably equally short lived lining was made of fine white muslin4 ,a common reason for these temporary linings 7for they were always removed by the milliner when trimming7 was that as bonnets were kept on the show counter or dispatched to their destination1 in sausage like rows where one bonnet nested in another1 the lining prevented any protuberance of the plaits used from catching1 and thus any part of the row could be taken from the other with the greatest facility4 ,but by #ahej hats began to assume a considerable volume1 and for these in addition to paper1 which1 of course1 was intended to be temporary1 head-linings of sateen silk1 sarsenet1 and other similar materials1 gradually began to be used4 ,they were made with a draw cord at the edge intended to fall into the top of the crown1 where a 8tip0 of the same material was already in place4 ,the lining having been sewn1 as it were1 upside-down to the head entry inside the crown1 was turned over the stitches until the drawn cord edge met the tip2 this edge was then sewn to the circumference of the crown1 the draw-cord was tightened to make the lining sit exact to the oval1 and this operation was complete4 ,but at that time and until about #aijj every hat was wired at its edge with a silk or cotton mixture covered wire4 ,this was made especially for the millinery trade1 and consisted of a fine iron wire1 of which it was necessary to have the 8temper0 even and ductile1 so that when once bent there would be no resilience1 or 8springing10 as it was known to straw workers4 ,parallel to and all round the wire1 which thus formed a core1 were varying numbers1 according to the thickness ultimately required1 of strands of cotton4 ,around this was twisted the silk fibres1 which at the same time kept all in position1 and made a glossy exterior to the wire4 ,in some qualities the silk laid so thickly as to show no break1 while others according to value1 showed varying spaces between the silk spirals2 others of the cheapest qualities were entirely of cotton inside and outside4 ,the advantage of this cushion-like pad around the wire was that stitches could be taken through it1 and if affixed to the hat or bonnet with a 8slip-stitch10 no trace of the stitching could be seen4 ,the ladies' hat trade also uses another variety of wire known as 8miniature40 ,this is wire of similar gauge to the 8silk10 but it has no padding1 and consists solely of the metal and a silk or cotton yarn covering4 ,in putting this into or on any hat1 it is1 of course1 necessary to sew over and over as the closeness of the cover does not permit of any needle penetration4 ,in some kinds of hats of which the brims are required hard and straight edged1 steel wires of watch spring-like temper are used1 and in others strengthening and shaping are assisted by strands of cane1 cut into round strips1 of different gauges for various kinds of work4 ,when the wiring of hats for female wear became universal1 machinery was introduced to put the wires at the edges of the brims1 but this was done only to hats of the lower grades1 because the stitch was very visible4 ,mention has been made of the tab or ticket attached to the hat by the 8finisher40 ,this is primarily1 in fact absolutely1 for purposes of reference2 the shape number1 according to the manufacturer's registry1 is written on it before dispatch1 together with any other special markings required by the purchaser1 but almost every wholesale distributing house in ,paris1 ,london1 ,new ,york1 etc41 etc41 has some distinctive ticket4 ,this generally bears a trade mark1 crest1 or other sign peculiar to the house in question1 and may be of any colour2 even black1 with gold or silver printing1 has been used1 and as they vary in marks and colours1 so they vary in size1 from1 say1 #c_/d in4 wide and #b in4 long1 to even #b in4 wide to #d in4 long4 ,their shapes are very numerous1 rhomboids ellipses1 circles1 pentagons1 conic sections1 parallelograms1 half-moons1 stars1 and all other geometric-like forms may be found in ticket shapes1 but the major part of those used partake of a 8sweep0 that has some conformity with the outline of the hat or bonnet4 ,generally speaking1 trimming a lady's hat is the special province of the milliner1 and in this case1 of course1 hats are not confined to those made of straw or plait1 and1 in fact1 this is an industry of its own1 and is1 therefore outside the scope of the making of a straw hat4 ,but for many years both ladies and gentlemen have worn what have been at different epochs called 8sailors0 or 8boaters40 ,the making of these hats for men has nearly always been accompanied by the trimming2 and when1 about #ahhj1 women commenced to wear 8sailors10 many of them were dispatched from the ,st4 ,albans factories with some trimming4 ,about #ahij the makers of ladies' shaped hats of simple form began to add some little adornment to them1 and these were designated as 8semi-trimmed40 ,it is1 therefore1 quite inside the history of the straw hat to include some account of men's boaters1 ladies' sailors1 and 8semi-trimmed0 or ready-to-wear hats4 ,the first straw hats to be trimmed by the manufacturer were men's boaters4 ,their trimming has not very materially altered from the first output up to the present time4 ,there was a ribbon band and bow at left hand side on the outside of the crown1 and there was also some head lining4 ,anyone conversant with the boater of to-day will recognize that these salient features are still maintained1 the only differences from time to time being in their nature and detail4 ,for the head linings1 leather1 flannel1 cotton1 imitation leather1 satin1 and various other articles suitable for comfort to the head and moisture absorption have been and are still used4 ,the most material change has been effected in the imitation leathers1 which have now been brought up to such a high standard of excellence from what one might almost term 8the lowest depths10 that they are very formidable competitors of the real article4 ,at the same time they do not quite compare with good class leathers1 which are still always used for the best hats4 ,where boaters are lined with flannel1 cotton or satin1 they are generally made in the form of a thin pad1 and for certain markets are much esteemed4 ,the other part of the interior of a boater is sometimes left without any other adornment1 but generally the sides are decorated with a lining of white open work net1 and the top is covered by a tip of silk1 satin1 sateen1 or cotton1 which generally has the centre printed with the retailer's name and address4 ,for other markets the side crowns inside are covered with materials similar to the tips1 in all kinds of colours1 and arranged in both plain and fanciful manners4 ,the exact fitting of these head linings1 or 8sweatbands10 as some term them1 is an operation needing skill1 and the work has been rendered more easy by the invention of ,mr4 ,bracher1 of ,stockport4 ,this1 now known throughout the world as 8,brachering0 7pronounced ,brashering7 consists of a small strip of material around a fine strand of cane or other material1 which is sewn by a special stitch machine to the lining or leather1 making at the same time a neat1 untearable edge and a convenient means for attachment to the hat4 ,from time to time various inventions have been made for the ventilation of boaters1 these generally consisting of some open work straw being used at the base of the crown instead of the nearly impermeable rustic4 ,this1 when covered with a thin band of ribbon1 is not visible from the outside1 and affords some fair degree of air passage4 ,other methods have been adopted by having a punctured edge to the sweat band1 which permitted air to freely circulate close to and all around the head of the wearer4 ,to increase the resiliency of the leather or imitation leather lining1 patents have been taken out for pneumatic surrounds1 forming an air cushion all round the hat1 which incidentally allows in the easiest manner for any discrepancies1 and they are very common1 in the contour of the wearer's skull4 ,the various devices for increased comfort and utility in boater linings are very numerous1 and display great ingenuity4 ,the 8,autoform0 ,the 8,bon-,ton-,ivy0 and the 8,eesola0 pads1 each of them specialities of various makers of boater sweatbands1 present differing features creating resiliency around the head of the wearer4 ,these are produced by means of soft material insertions under the leather or other lining1 or of cellular impressions made in the leather1 or of a continuous roll all around the head fitting part1 or even of the insertion of a pneumatic tube1 all creating a cushion like addition to the flatness of the lining material4 ,each has its peculiar merits1 and for certain purposes are perfect in their utility4 ,some are very little more costly than the plain leather1 but others from the extra material and work involved are naturally more expensive1 but the efforts of their manufacturers to raise the standards of quality and of efficient comfort are such as to deserve special commendation4 ,the most recent development for ensuring the comfortable wear of the hardest boater is that of an ,american inventor4 ,although the making of straw hats from plait has been an established industry in the ,united ,states for at least half a century1 and the amazing increase of the trade has been phenomenal1 yet up to the present the name of an ,american has not been written very prominently on the pages of straw trade industry4 ,it is true that the first machine to sew plait was the product of an ,american firm1 but1 it was not really successful until it had been altered and adapted by a ,luton engineer2 it is also true that ,mr4 ,bodsworth1 an ,american1 introduced a straw sewing machine1 but as previously stated1 this was not a striking success1 and although at the present time the principal machine in the trade is made by an ,american firm1 it is the result of a ,briton's invention4 ,and1 therefore1 it is with pleasure that in this record of the trade a real invention1 which promises to be of the highest value to the boater trade1 can be laid to the credit of a citizen of the ,united ,states4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,l4 ,moses1 of ,baltimore1 has patented a device for attachment just inside the head entry of a boater which consists of a floating1 flexible band1 held in position about #a_/h of an inch from the hat by a series of stitches at about half an inch intervals all round the crown4 ,the principle is that the stitches of cotton take the place of the spokes of a wheel running inside another wheel1 where a thrust in one part is compensated for by a relaxation of the other parts4 ,over this is sewn the leather sweat-band1 or head lining of any other nature1 attached to the hat in the usual manner4 ,the necessary machinery for the insertion of this flexible conformateur1 for that is actually what it amounts to1 is provided by means of mechanical attachments to any suitable sewing machine4 ,these attachments form the subject of another patent by the same inventor1 who has assigned his rights to ,messrs4 ,m4 ,s4 ,levy ,sons1 of ,baltimore1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,the peculiar features of this patent are1 first1 the ease of fit conveyed to the wearer of the hat1 and1 second1 the great yield given by the device obviates to the utmost extent the need for small intermediate sizes of the hats1 for fitting the many-shaped heads of customers4 ,co-eval with the boater1 and perhaps even a little earlier1 was the 8,galatea0 or 8,jack ,tar0 for boys4 ,this hat was founded on the shape of the 8,sinnett0 rustic hat worn by sailors in the ,navy for so many years4 ,the model was in use at the end of the eighteenth century 7as pictures of ,lord ,nelson's sea fights clearly demonstrate7 made both in straw and in tarpaulin4 ,it was quickly adopted for boy's wear1 and for many years formed their summer hat4 ,no boy could go to the seaside without one4 ,a painting1 executed about #ahej1 illustrative of ,queen ,victoria1 ,prince ,albert1 with the then ,prince of ,wales1 afterward ,king ,edward ,,vii1 shows the ,prince wearing a straw ,galatea1 and any observer of the pictures of that time in the various periodicals such as ,the ,illustrated ,london ,news and ,punch1 cannot fail to notice how popular this 8,jack ,tar0 style was among the youthful males4 ,the other department of trimming in the straw trade1 that of the 8semi-trimmed0 hats for ladies1 is of comparatively recent origin compared with the boater1 for at most it can claim an existence of only thirty to thirty-five years1 but the trade has now grown to such large dimensions that any account of the straw hat would be incomplete without it4 ,it commenced1 as most things do1 in the trade that was done for some years in sailors for ladies4 ,those in the main were on the same lines as those for men1 that is they started with square edge crowns1 upright sides at right angle to a perfectly flat brim4 ,developments of a fanciful nature in the brim formation in the direction of what is known as a 8,breton0 sailor1 of which the characteristic is a slightly turned up edge1 were the first to be made1 and subsequently crowns of softer outline with overhanging tops attained for some time a great share of fashionable favour4 ,but to-day1 with the exception of straw sailors for girls and young ladies at school1 there is very little demand for hats of this description4 ,but the trimming1 which was nearly a necessity of these hats1 had established1 in many factories1 departments which on the decline of their sale1 required fresh openings1 and attempts were made on 8,alpine0 models1 then in great vogue for ladies1 which proved very successful4 ,this whetted the appetite of manufacturers1 and all kinds of 8ready to wear0 hats for sports were speedily on the market1 one thing led to another1 and now all manner of shapes1 toques1 medium size1 and picture hats are being trimmed in a manner that from its departure from the early extreme simplicity1 seems to trench considerably upon what has always been considered the proper domain of the milliner4 ,telephone3 ,,luton #caa ,telegrams3 ,,ingab1 ,,luton ,c4 ,,bagni ,r4 ,g4 ,,squires ,c4 ,,bagni ,,co4 ,,codes3 ,schofield's ,marconi's ,a4,b4,c4 ,private ,importers and ,exporters of ,,italian1 ,,chinese ,,japanese ,,straw ,,plaits ,,for ,,hat ,,manufacture #cf ,guildford ,street ,,luton ,,beds4 ,,index ,arab hats1 #e ,argos1 #c ,austin1 ,t4 ,g41 #ab ,bamboo1 #ah ,bast1 #c1 #ce ,black ,forest1 claims of1 #f ,bleaching1 history1 #fj ---- methods1 #fj1 #fb1 #fc ,blocking by hand1 history1 #ic ---- tools1 #ic1 #id1 #ih ---- methods1 #if1 #ajd ---- by machine1 history1 #ajj ---- ---- various machines1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajh ,blockmaking1 history1 #ff ---- method1 #fg ---- woods used1 #fi ---- of plaster1 #fi ,bonnet1 #e ,british straw plaits1 #aa1 #ae1 #ah ---- ---- hats1 #f1 #i ,cesare ,cantu1 #i ,chinese plaits1 #ai ,compo1 stiffening1 #ia ,cotton plaits1 #ah ,coryat's crudities1 #aj ,dyeing1 history1 #eb ---- methods1 #ec1 #eg1 #eh ---- plant1 #ed ,enamelling split1 #ia ,etruscans and ,etruria1 #c ,fastolfe1 ,sir ,john1 #f ,fiesole1 woven plait1 #cj ,finishing1 #aaa ,franks1 the1 #c ,gerard1 #c ,greeks1 the1 #c ,hemp for plaits1 #ah1 #cc ,hera1 hat of1 #c ,hood hats1 preparation1 #cg ---- ----1 method of making1 #ch ---- ----1 ,bankok1 #db ---- ----1 ,bowen1 #da ---- ----1 ,brazilian1 #db-dd ---- ----1 chip1 #db ---- ----1 ,curaoa1 #da ---- ----1 hemp1 #db ---- ----1 ,hinoki1 #da ---- ----1 ,java1 #da ---- ----1 ,leghorn1 #ad1 #ga ---- ----1 ,manila1 #db ---- ----1 ,panama1 #cf ---- ----1 paper1 #db ---- ----1 raffia1 #dc ---- ----1 rush1 #db ---- ----1 ,yedda1 #dc ,horsehair plaits1 #ah ,italian plaits1 #aj1 #ad ,japanese plaits1 #ai ,kausia1 #b ,la ,croix1 #c 8,la dame au chapeau de ,poil10 #h ,leathers for lining1 #aai ,leghorn1 #ac ,lining hats1 #aae ,machines1 sewing1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc ----1 blocking1 #bd ----1 plaiting1 #di ,machines1 milling1 #hb ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots1 #aj ,mercury1 hat of1 #c ,milan or ,pedale1 #ai ,oiling chip hats1 #aab ,oldmixon1 #aa ,pausanias1 #c ,penelope1 hat of1 #d ,pepys1 #g ,petasus1 #b ,plaits1 bamboo1 #ah ----1 bast1 #ce ----1 cotton1 #ah ----1 hemp1 #ah ----1 horsehair1 #ah ----1 raffia1 #ah ----1 rush1 #ce ----1 rye straw1 #g1 #ad ----1 silk1 #ah ----1 sinnet1 #ce1 #aab ----1 ,tuscan1 #ad ----1 wheat straw1 #ad ----1 wood shavings1 #ah ----1 yedda1 #ce ,plaitters1 #bh1 #bi ,plaitting centres3 ,belgium1 #cj ,china1 #ai ,dunstable1 #ae ,essex1 #ae ,hemel ,hempstead1 #ae ,japan1 #ai ,panama1 #cf ,ripon 7,yorks71 #ae ,saxony1 #cc ,switzerland1 #ah ---- machines1 #di ---- methods1 #bg1 #cj1 #cb1 #de ,poetical allusions3 ,ben ,jonson1 #g ,gay1 #i ,shakespeare1 #g ,spenser1 #f ,thynne1 #f ,virgil1 #e ,polishing1 #aab ,pompeii1 #d ,praxiteles1 #c ,preparation of straws1 #be ---- of chip1 #cc ,romans1 the early1 #c ,rubens1 ,peter ,paul1 #h ,rye straw1 #g1 #ad ,semi-trimmed hats1 #abb ,sewing1 hand method1 #gb1 #gf ----1 machine method1 #gc1 #ha ---- machines1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #gc ,signa1 #aj ,sparterie1 #ea ,speckled plaits1 #eg ,splitting of straws1 #bg ,stephanos1 #c ,stiffening1 history1 #hd ---- materials1 #he1 #hh1 #ij ---- method1 #hf1 #hh1 #ij ,straw1 #c ---- pipes1 #af ---- splints1 #af ---- splitters1 #ag ,swiss plaits1 #ah ,tagal1 #cd ,tansley1 #ag ,tgal1 #cd ,ticketing1 #aag ,tippers1 #gj ,tomlinson1 #ac ,trimming1 #aah ,tuscan plait1 #ad ,tutulus1 #d ,twist plait1 #ai ,vatican1 #c ,virgil1 pastorals1 #e ,waller1 ,john1 #aa ,waterproofing1 #aad ,wiring1 #aae ,printed in ,bath1 ,england1 by ,sir ,isaac ,pitman ,sons1 ,ltd4 and ,a ,barry ,hat ,,guaranteed surpasses all ,the production of ,,francois ,,barry1 #hc ,,great ,,portland ,,st41 ,,london1 ,w4#a ,,cable ,,address3 ,,immediate1 ,,luton ,,telephone ,,no4 #bj ,,luton ,,welch ,,sons1 ,ltd4 ,,luton ,,beds1 ,,england ,,importers ,,and ,,exporters ,,of ,,all ,,kinds ,,of ,,japanese1 ,,chinese1 ,,italian and ,,suisse ,,plaits ,for ,,hat ,,manufacture ,,bleaching ,a ,,speciality ,codes3 ,,abc #dth #eth ,editions ,,abc #eth ,improved ,,liebers ,,liebers ,,improved ,codes3 ,western ,union ,bentley's ,marconi ,vol4 ,i ,,private ,,manufacturers ,,of ,,ladies'1 ,,maids' and ,,children',s ,,hats ,,trimmed ,,and ,,untrimmed ,,allen ,,son1 ,,ltd4 ,,established #ahib ',,phone #abd ,,luton #ei-fa ,,bute ,,street ,,luton1 ,,beds ,,england ,telegrams3 ,,kershaw1 ,,luton ,telephone ,nos43 ,,luton1 #gdb1 #gdc 7,branch ,exchange74 ,j4 ,c4 ,kershaw ,co4 ,limited ,ladies' and ,men's ,straw and ,felt ,hat ,manufacturers and ,plait ,merchants ,codes3 ,a4,b4,c4 #e,,th ,,edition4 ,,bentleys4 ,,marconi4 ,george ,street1 ,luton ,use ,willcox ,gibbs 8,,handstitch0 for making the ,concealed ,stitch so essential in all first-class work4 ,,unapproached ,,on ,,any ,,plait4 ,all best grade hats are made with the world-famed 8,handstitch40 ,the ,w4 ,g4 ,,visible ,,stitch ,straw ,hat ,machines are ,fast-running1 ,economical1 ,adaptable and ,durable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,both types of machines are extensively used in all plait-sewing centres throughout the world4 ,willcox ,gibbs ,sewing ,machine ,co41 ,ltd4 ,chief ,office3 #bj ,fore ,street1 ,london1 ,e4,c4#b4 ,luton ,office3 ,silver ,street4 ,illustration ,,patent ,no4 #ahbjce ,,foreign ,,patents ,,pending ,,brown ,,green ,ltd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hatters' ,machinery ,manufacturers 99 99 99 99 99 ,windsor ,street1 ,castle ,street ,south ,road ,,luton1 ,,beds1 ,,england ,,established #ahdj 7,,the ,,oldest ,,established ,,house ,,in ,,the ,,trade7 ,telephone #ajd ,luton4 ,telegrams 8,gem ,luton40 --,this is our latest pattern ,,hat ,,blocking ,,machine ,,and ,,has ,,been ,,designed ,,to ,,supply ,a ,,long-,,felt ,,need1 ,,viz4-- ,a ,,machine ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,operator ,,has ,,complete ,,visibility ,,of ,,his ,,work1 ,,where ,,the ,,blocking ,,operation ,,is ,,continuous1 ,,where ,,heavy ,,lifting ,,is ,,eliminated1 ,,where ,,superfluous ,,steam ,,is ,,eliminated1 ,,where ,,you ,,get ,a ,,much ,,greater ,,output1 ,,where ,,two ,,chambers ,,are ,,working ,,continually ,,instead ,,of ,,one1 ,,where ,,blocking ,,is ,,almost ,,made ,,foolproof4 ,,all ,,castings ,,are ,,of ,,the ,,best ,,material3 ,,heavy ,,where ,,required ,,and ,,neat ,,in ,,appearance ,,and ,,are ,,standardized ,,throughout4 ,,this ,,machine ,,has ,,been ,,tested ,,under ,,working ,,conditions ,,with ,,every ,,success ,,and ,,we ,,claim ,,it ,,to ,,be ,,the ,,most ,,perfect ,,machine ,,in ,,use4 ,,all ,,machines ,,are ,,tested ,,to ,,heavy ,,hydraulic ,,pressure ,,before ,,leaving ,,our ,,works ,,and ,a ,,certificate ,,of ,,test ,,supplied ,,if ,,desired4 ,,practical ,,demonstrations ,,can ,,be ,,arranged ,,at ,,our ,,works ,,at ,,any ,,time4 ,,made ,,for ,,either ,,hand ,,or ,,power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,brown ,,green ,ltd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hatters' ,machinery ,manufacturers 99 99 99 99 99 ,windsor ,street1 ,castle ,street ,south ,road ,,luton1 ,,beds1 ,,england ,,established #ahdj 7,,the ,,oldest ,,established ,,house ,,in ,,the ,,trade7 ,telephone #ajd ,luton4 ,telegrams 8,gem ,luton40 ,telegraphic ,address3 8,,honorfides1 ,,luton0 ,telephone ,nos4 #ajah and #ajai 7,hats7 #ejj 7,plaits7 ,codes3 ,a ,b ,c 7#dth and #eth ,editions7 and ,bentley's ,a4 ,,hucklesby ,co4 ,,limited ,plait ,merchants ,hat ,manufacturers 99 99 99 99 99 ,,latest ,,styles in ,,hats ,,of ,,all ,,kinds ,straws1 ,felts1 ,velvets1 ,panamas1 etc4 ,agents and ,importers of ,straw ,plaits and ,braids ,,ribbons1 ,,gelatines1 ,,cottons1 ,,cane1 ,,paper1 ,,rubber ,,goods1 and all ,,hat ,,makers' ,,requisites ,,stocked 99 99 99 99 99 ,warehouses and ,showrooms3 #df #dh ,george ,st41 and #a1 #b #c ,bond ,st4 ,factories3 ,upper ,george ,street ,,for ,,ladies' ,,goods ,john ,street ,,for ,,men',s ,,and ,,boys' ,,hats ,,luton ,a ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,published ,,by ,sir ,isaac ,pitman ,sons1 ,ltd4 7,incorporating ,,whittaker ,,co47 ,,parker ,,street1 ,,kingsway1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4#b ,the prices given apply only to the ,british ,isles1 and are subject to alteration without notice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a complete ,catalogue giving full details of the following books will be sent post free on application4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,all ,,prices ,,are ,,net4 s4 d4 ,,accumulators1 ,,management ,,of4 ,sir ,d4 ,salomons #g #f ,,aerofoils ,,and ,,resistance ,,of ,,aerodynamic ,,bodies1 ,,properties 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,,lens ,,work ,,for ,,amateurs4 ,h4 ,orford #c #f ,,lightning ,,conductors ,,and ,,lightning ,,guards4 ,sir ,o4 ,lodge #ae #j ,,logarithms ,,for ,,beginners4 ,c4 ,n4 ,pickworth #a #f ,,machine ,,drawing1 ,,preparatory ,,course ,,to4 ,p4 ,w4 ,scott #b #j ,,magnetism ,,and ,,electricity1 ,,an ,,introductory ,,course ,,of ,,practical4 ,j4 ,r4 ,ashworth #c #j ,,magneto ,,and ,,electric ,,ignition4 ,w4 ,hibbert #c #f ,,manuring ,,land1 ,,tables ,,for ,,measuring ,,and4 ,j4 ,cullyer #c #j ,,marine ,,engineers1 ,,practical ,,advice for4 ,c4 ,w4 ,roberts #e #j ,,mathematical ,,tables4 ,w4 ,e4 ,dommett #d #f ,,mathematics1 ,,mining 7,,preliminary74 ,g4 ,w4 ,stringfellow #a #f ,with ,answers ,do4 #b #j ,,mechanical ,,engineering ,,detail ,,tables4 ,j4 ,p4 ,ross #g #f ,,mechanical ,,engineers' ,,pocket ,,book4 ,whittaker's #ab #f ,,mechanical ,,tables4 ,j4 ,foden #b #j ,,mechanics' ,,and ,,draughtsmen',s ,,pocket ,,book4 ,w4 ,e4 ,dommett #b #f ,,metal ,,turning4 ,j4 ,g4 ,horner #d #j ,,metal 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,,principles ,,of4 ,j4 ,g4 ,horner #d #j ,,pipes ,,and ,,tubes3 ,,their ,,construction ,,and ,,jointing4 ,p4 ,r4 ,bjrling #f #f ,,plywood ,,and ,,glue1 ,,manufacture ,,and ,,use ,,of1 ,,the4 ,b4 ,c4 ,boulton #g #f ,,polyphase ,,currents4 ,a4 ,still #g #f ,,power ,,wiring ,,diagrams4 ,a4 ,t4 ,dover #g #f ,,practical ,,electric ,,light ,,fitting4 ,f4 ,c4 ,allsop ,,practical ,,sheet ,,and ,,plate ,,metal ,,work4 ,e4 ,a4 ,atkins #aj #j ,,quantities ,,and ,,quantity ,,taking4 ,w4 ,e4 ,davis #f #j ,,radio-,,telegraphist',s ,,guide ,,and ,,log ,,book4 ,w4 ,h4 ,marchant #e #f ,,railway ,,technical ,,vocabulary4 ,l4 ,serraillier #g #f ,,reinforced ,,concrete4 ,w4 ,n4 ,twelvetrees #ba #f ,,reinforced ,,concrete ,,beams ,,and ,,columns1 ,,practical ,,design ,,of4 ,w4 ,n4 ,twelvetrees #g #f ,,reinforced ,,concrete ,,members1 ,,simplified ,,methods ,,of ,,calculating4 ,w4 ,n4 ,twelvetrees #e #j ,,reinforced ,,concrete1 ,,detail ,,design ,,in4 ,e4 ,s4 ,andrews #f #j ,,roses ,,and ,,rose ,,growing4 ,r4 ,g4 ,kingsley #g #f ,,russian ,,weights ,,and ,,measures1 ,,tables ,,of4 ,redvers ,elder #b #f ,,safe ,,loads ,,on ,,steel ,,pillars1 ,,tables ,,of4 ,e4 ,s4 ,andrews #f #j ,,slide ,,rule4 ,a4 ,l4 ,higgins #f ,,slide ,,rule4 ,c4 ,n4 ,pickworth #c #f ,,soil1 ,,science ,,of ,,the4 ,c4 ,warrell #c #f ,,starry ,,realms1 ,,in4 ,sir ,r4 ,ball #aj #f ,,steam ,,turbine ,,theory ,,and ,,practice4 ,w4 ,j4 ,kearton #ae #j ,,steam ,,turbo-,,alternator1 ,,the4 ,l4 ,c4 ,grant #ae #j ,,steel ,,works ,,analysis4 ,j4 ,o4 ,arnold and ,f4 ,ibbotson #ab #f ,,storage ,,battery ,,practice4 ,r4 ,rankin #g #f ,,stresses ,,in ,,hooks ,,and ,,other ,,curved ,,beams4 ,e4 ,s4 ,andrews #f #j ,,submarine ,,vessels1 ,,etc4 ,w4 ,e4 ,dommett #e #j ,,surveying ,,and ,,surveying ,,instruments4 ,g4 ,a4 ,t4 ,middleton #f #j ,,surveying1 ,,tutorial ,,land ,,and ,,mine4 ,t4 ,bryson #aj #f ,,technical ,,dictionary1 ,,international4 ,e4 ,webber #ae #j ,,telegraphy3 ,,an ,,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,telegraph ,,system ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,post ,,office4 ,t4 ,e4 ,herbert #ah #j ,,telegraphy1 ,,elementary4 ,h4 ,w4 ,pendry #g #f ,,telephone ,,handbook ,,and ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,telephonic ,,exchange1 ,,practical4 ,j4 ,poole #ae #j ,,textile ,,calculations4 ,g4 ,h4 ,whitwam #be #j ,,transformers ,,for ,,single ,,and ,,multiphase ,,currents4 ,g4 ,kapp #ab #f ,,trigonometry ,,for ,,engineers1 ,,primer ,,of4 ,w4 ,g4 ,dunkley #e #j ,,triplane ,,and ,,the ,,stable ,,biplane4 ,j4 ,c4 ,hunsaker #c #j ,,turret ,,lathe ,,tools1 ,,how ,,to ,,lay ,,out #f #j ,,union ,,textile ,,fabrication4 ,r4 ,beaumont #ba #j ,,ventilation1 ,,pumping1 ,,and ,,haulage1 ,,the ,,mathematics ,,of4 ,f4 ,birks #e #j ,,volumetric ,,analysis4 ,j4 ,b4 ,coppock #c #f ,,water ,,mains1 ,,the ,,lay-,,out ,,of ,,small4 ,h4 ,h4 ,hellins #g #f ,,waterworks ,,for ,,urban ,,and ,,rural ,,districts4 ,h4 ,c4 ,adams #ae #j ,,wireless ,,for ,,the ,,home4 ,n4 ,p4 ,hinton #b #j ,,wireless ,,pocket ,,book1 ,,marine4 ,w4 ,h4 ,marchant #f #j ,,wireless ,,telegraphy ,,and ,,hertzian ,,waves4 ,s4 ,r4 ,bottone #c #f ,,wireless ,,telegraphy3 ,a ,,practical ,,handbook ,,for ,,operators ,,and ,,students4 ,w4 ,h4 ,marchant #g #f ,,wood-,,block ,,printing4 ,f4 ,morley ,fletcher #h #f ,,woodcarving4 ,c4 ,g4 ,leland #g #f ,,woodwork1 ,,manual ,,instruction4 ,s4 ,barter #g #f ,,wool ,,substitutes4 ,r4 ,beaumont #aj #f ,catalogue of ,scientific and ,technical ,books post free4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,london3 ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd ,,parker ,,street4 ,,kingsway1 ,w4,c4#b ,,best ,,value ,,in ,,the ,,market ,,panama ,,hats ,merchants1 ,shippers ,wholesale ,houses ,,requiring ,,panama ,,hats ,should correspond with ,,gregory ,,sons #h #i1 ,,new ,,zealand ,,avenue1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4#a who are experts in the ,trade1 and are ,the ,largest ,importers in ,great ,britain 99 99 99 99 99 ,telegrams3 8,,gregorio1 ,,london40 ,codes3 ,,bentleys1 ,a ,b ,c 7#eth ,edition7 ,,lieber',s ,telephone ,no43 ,,city #agee ,,coignet',s ,,gelatines ,,coignet ,no4 #a ,,paris-,,lyon ,,brands ,,coignet ,no4 #b ,,paris-,,lyon ,established in #ahah ,were the first to be used for stiffening straw hats and are still 4 4 the best 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for ,samples and ,prices apply to ,socit des ,produits ,chimiques ,,coignet ,,paris3 #aad ,boulevard ,magenta 7,xe7 ,,london3 #ij ,fenchurch ,street 7,e4,c4#c7 ,,new ,,york3 #ag ,state ,street ,transcriber's ,notes ,minor punctuation errors have been corrected4 ,the following typos have been corrected4 p4 #ah4 8plaits similiar0 changed to 8plaits similar04 p4 #bd4 8,legat0 changed to 8,lgat04 p4 #gj4 8of a models'0 changed to 8of a model's04 p4 #gh4 8the headfit0 changed to 8the head fit04 p4 #abj4 8in the easist manner0 changed to 8in the easiest manner04 ,index 8,tegal0 changed to 8,tgal04