,transcriber's note3 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and bold text by equal signs4 ,italics have replaced underlined words4 ,small capital text has been replaced with all capitals4 ,minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected without note4 ,irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed4 ,mismatched quotes are not fixed if it's not sufficiently clear where the missing quote should be placed4 ,the cover for the e,book version of this book was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,elementary ,,composition ,,by ,,dorothea ,f4 ,,canfield ,,formerly ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,horace ,,mann ,,schools ,,and ,,george ,r4 ,,carpenter ,,professor ,,of ,,rhetoric ,,and ,,english ,,composition ,,in ,,columbia ,,university ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,london3 ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,ltd4 #aiah ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #aijf1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,august1 #aijf4 ,reprinted ,july1 #aijg2 ,february1 ,august1 #aiji2 ,september1 #aiaj2 ,february1 #aiaa2 ,march1 #aiac2 ,september1 #aiad2 ,june1 #aiae2 ,march1 twice1 ,november1 #aiaf4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,the authors have endeavored to provide an unusually rich collection of material for work in composition1--material well arranged1 well graded1 well adapted for use in the seventh and eighth grades1 and accompanied by a clear and suggestive statement of the grammatical and rhetorical principles involved4 ,for skilled advice and assistance in connection with ,chapters ,,ii-,,vi we are greatly indebted to ,miss ,jennie ,f4 ,owens1 of the ,jersey ,city ,training ,school4 ,d4 ,f4 ,c4 ,g4 ,r4 ,c4 ,,new ,,york ,,city1 ,july1 #aijf4 ,,contents ,,page ,,table ,,of ,,sections ix ,,table ,,of ,,exercises xiii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,sentence #d ,,iii4 ,,the ,,paragraph #bi ,,iv4 ,,words #di ,v4 ,,condensation1 ,,expansion1 ,,and ,,paraphrase #fi ,,vi4 ,,whole ,,compositions2 ,,outlines #hh ,,vii4 ,,oral ,,composition #ajb ,,viii4 ,,the ,,diary #ajf ,,ix4 ,,the ,,letter #aab ,x4 ,,narration #acg ,,xi4 ,,description #aee ,,xii4 ,,narration 7continued7 #ahh ,,xiii4 ,,exposition #aii ,,xiv4 ,,argument #bad ,,xv4 ,,secretarial ,,work #bbe ,,xvi4 ,,versification #bcd ,,xvii4 ,,punctuation #bdg ,,appendix3 ,a4 ,,rules ,,for ,,spelling #bfi ,b4 ,,model ,,of ,,constitution #bga ,,index #bgc ,,table ,,of ,,sections ,the roman numerals refer to chapters2 the arabic1 to sections4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,introduction #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,sentence3 #a4 ,phrases1 clauses1 and sentences4--#b4 ,simple1 complex1 and compound sentences4--#c4 ,variety in the use of sentences4--#d4 ,periodic sentences4--#e4 ,bad sentences4--#f4 ,the comma sentence4--#g4 ,sentences without unity4--#h4 ,the formless sentence #d ,,iii4 ,,the ,,paragraph3 #i4 ,the use of the paragraph4--#aj4 ,the beginning4--#aa4 ,unity in the paragraph4--#ab4 ,the body of the paragraph4--#ac4 ,too many paragraphs4--#ad4 ,the end of a paragraph4--#ae4 ,quotations #bi ,,iv4 ,,words3 #af4 ,how we learn words4--#ag4 ,the size and character of the ,english vocabulary4--#ah4 ,increasing one's vocabulary4--#ai4 ,synonyms4--#bj4 ,accuracy in the use of words4--#ba4 ,figures of speech4--#bb4 ,mistakes in the use of words4--#bc4 ,spelling4--#bd4 ,slang4--#be4 ,errors in the forms of words #di ,v4 ,,condensation1 ,,expansion1 ,,and ,,paraphrase3 #bf4 ,writing in which the ideas are already at hand4--#bg4 ,condensation4--#bh4 ,method in condensation4--#bi4 ,expansion4--#cj4 ,the purpose of expansion4--#ca4 ,paraphrase4--#cb4 ,paraphrase of complete compositions #fi ,,vi4 ,,whole ,,compositions2 ,,outlines3 #cc4 ,whole compositions4-- #cd4 ,outlines4--#ce4 ,essentials in a whole composition4--#cf4 ,how to plan an essay #hh ,,vii4 ,,oral ,,composition3 #cg4 ,the great essential4--#ch4 ,how to be heard4--#ci4 ,pronunciation4--#dj4 ,a plan necessary #ajb ,,viii4 ,,the ,,diary3 #da4 ,the value of a diary4--#db4 ,contents of a diary4--#dc4 ,imaginary diaries4--#dd4 ,the class diary #ajf ,,ix4 ,,the ,,letter3 #de4 ,various kinds of letters4--#df4 ,friendly letters4--#dg4 ,letters of social intercourse4--#dh4 ,formal invitations4--#di4 ,telegrams4--#ej4 ,business letters4--#ea4 ,notices4-- #eb4 ,appeals4--#ec4 ,petitions4--#ed4 ,advertisements #aab ,x4 ,,narration3 #ee4 ,the essentials of a good narrative4-- #ef4 ,autobiography4--#eg4 ,biography4--#eh4 ,history4--#ei4 ,plain reporting of facts4--#fj4 ,conversation #acg ,,xi4 ,,description3 #fa4 ,observation4--#fb4 ,general scientific description4--#fc4 ,specific scientific description4--#fd4 ,technical terms4--#fe4 ,literary description4--#ff4 ,description of people4--#fg4 ,longer description4--#fh4 ,description of conditions4--#fi4 ,description by contrast4--#gj4 ,description of events4--#ga4 ,picture making of scenes of action4--#gb4 ,travel4--#gc4 ,descriptions of an hour #aee ,,xii4 ,,narration 7,continued73 #gd4 ,historical stories4-- #ge4 ,fictitious stories4--#gf4 ,the beginning4-- #gg4 ,the ending4--#gh4 ,the body #ahh ,,xiii4 ,,exposition3 #gi4 ,general principles4--#hj4 ,explanation of a material process4--#ha4 ,explanation of games4--#hb4 ,exposition of abstract ideas4--#hc4 ,exposition by example4--#hd4 ,exposition by repetition4--#he4 ,exposition by contrast4--#hf4 ,exposition by a figure of speech #aii ,,xiv4 ,,argument3 #hg4 ,general principle4--#hh4 ,the introduction4--#hi4 ,the reasons4--#ij4 ,the outline4--#ia4 ,the plea4--#ib4 ,other forms #bad ,,xv4 ,,secretarial ,,work 7#ic7 #bbe ,,xvi4 ,,versification 7#id7 #bcd ,,xvii4 ,,punctuation3 #ie4 ,general theory of punctuation4-- #if4 ,the period4--#ig4 ,the question mark4--#ih4 ,the exclamation point4--#ii4 ,the semicolon4--#ajj4 ,the colon4--#aja4 ,the comma4--#ajb4 ,parentheses and brackets4--#ajc4 ,the dash4--#ajd4 ,the apostrophe4--#aje4 ,quotation marks4--#ajf4 ,italics4--#ajg4 ,the hyphen4--#ajh4 ,capitals4-- #aji4 ,list of common abbreviations #bdg ,,table ,,of ,,exercises ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,sentence ,,exercises ,,pages #a-c4 ,distinguishing and constructing phrases1 clauses1 and sentences #e1 #f #d-ac4 ,distinguishing and constructing simple1 complex1 and compound sentences #g-ac #ad1 #ae4 ,variety in the form and length of sentences #ae1 #af #af4 ,distinguishing the periodic sentence #ai #ag-ba4 ,constructing the periodic sentence #ai-ba #bb-bd4 ,distinguishing and correcting the comma sentence #bb1 #bc #be4 ,correcting sentences that are without unity #bd #bf1 #bg4 ,reconstructing formless sentences #bf-bh ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,paragraph #bh4 ,noting the force of topic sentences #cc #bi4 ,supplying topic sentences #cd #cj4 ,writing short paragraphs from topic sentences #ce #ca4 ,noting when and why paragraphs lack unity #cf #cb4 ,making notes for paragraphs suggested by topic sentences #dj #cc4 ,correcting bad division into paragraphs #da #cd4 ,making notes for paragraphs suggested by summary sentences #dc #ce4 ,making summary sentences for paragraphs indicated by notes #dd #cf-ch4 ,use of quotation marks #df-dh ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,words #ci-de4 ,increasing the vocabulary #ea1 #eb #df-eb4 ,synonyms #ec-eg #ec4 ,distinguishing between similar words #ei #ed-fj4 ,metaphors and similes #fj-fb #fa-fb4 ,slang #fd #fc-ff4 ,errors in the forms of words #fe-fg ,,chapter ,v4 ,,condensation1 ,,expansion1 ,,and ,,paraphrase #fg4 ,condensing paragraphs #gj #fh-fi4 ,condensing longer passages #ge-gg #gj4 ,expanding short and suggestive statements #gi #ga4 ,expanding for the sake of clearness #hj #gb-gc4 ,paraphrasing short passages #hb-hd #gd4 ,paraphrasing complete poems #hg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,whole ,,compositions2 ,,outlines #ge-gf4 ,preparing outlines #if1 #aja ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,oral ,,composition ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,diary #gg4 ,imaginary diaries #aji ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,letter #gh4 ,friendly letters #aah #gi4 ,letters of social intercourse #aba #hj4 ,formal invitations #abc #ha4 ,telegrams #abd #hb-hd4 ,business letters #abf1 #abh1 #abi #he-hg4 ,notices #aca1 #acb #hh4 ,appeals #acd #hi4 ,petitions #ace #ij-ia4 ,advertisements #ace1 #acf ,,chapter ,x4 ,,narration #ib4 ,fables #ach #ic4 ,autobiographical sketches #ada #id-if4 ,biographical sketches #adb1 #adc #ig4 ,historical sketches #aej #ih4 ,reporting facts #aeb #ii4 ,fables told by conversation #aec #ajj-aja4 ,imaginary conversations #aec1 #aed ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,description #ajb4 ,practice in accurate observation #aeg #ajc-ajd4 ,general scientific description #afb #aje-ajg4 ,specific scientific description #afc1 #afd #ajh-aji4 ,literary description #afh1 #afi #aaj-aaa4 ,description of people and animals #agj1 #aga #aab4 ,longer descriptions #agc #aac1 #aad4 ,description of conditions #age1 #agf #aae4 ,description by contrast #agg #aaf4 ,description of events #agi #aag1 #aah4 ,picture making of scenes of action #ahj1 #aha #aai4 ,sketches of travel #ahe #abj4 ,descriptions of an hour #ahg ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,narrative 7,continued7 #aba1 #abb4 ,historical stories #aij1 #aia #abc4 ,fictitious stories #aic #abd4 ,completing stories1 when the beginning is given #aid #abe4 ,completing stories1 when the ending is given #aif #abf4 ,completing stories1 when the plot is suggested #aih ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,exposition #abg-abi4 ,explanation of processes #bjc1 #bjd #acj-aca4 ,explanation of games1 sports1 etc4 #bjf #acb4 ,explanation by comparison and example #bji #acc4 ,explanation 7general7 #baa #acd4 ,explanation of proverbs and quotations #bab #ace4 ,explanations of national festivals #bac ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,argument #acf4 ,statement and definition of subject #baf #acg4 ,pleas #bba #ach4 ,argument 7general7 #bbb #aci4 ,giving reasons for personal preference #bbc ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,secretarial ,,work #adj-ada4 ,minutes1 official letters1 etc4 #bbh1 #bcj ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,versification #adb4 ,arranging verse in stanza form #bdj ,completing rhymes #bda #adc-add4 ,putting fables into verse #bdc #ade4 ,writing letters1 invitations1 and stories in verse #bde ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,punctuation #adf4 ,the semicolon #bea #adg4 ,the colon and the semicolon #beb #adh4 ,the comma #beg #adi4 ,punctuation of direct quotations #bfj #aej4 ,punctuation of partial quotations #bfb #aea4 ,punctuation of quotations within quotations #bfb #aeb4 ,capital letters #bfe #aec4 ,review of punctuation #bff ,,elementary ,,composition ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,for several years you have written1 from time to time1 short compositions4 ,these have been letters1 or stories1 or descriptions1 or explanations of ideas you had in mind1 or summaries of your lessons in history or geography4 ,you have now come to a point in your education where it will be well for you to take up composition as a separate subject1 studying it as you would geography or history4 ,let us begin by asking ourselves what it is4 ,what is composition8 ,what geography and history are1 it is easy to see4 ,geography is the subject that has to do with the world as a place4 ,we learn the names that men have given to the parts of the world1 large and small2 and1 with regard to each country1 what are its climate and the nature of its soil1 its products and manufactures1 its cities1 and mountains1 and rivers4 ,history is the subject that has to do with the actions of the inhabitants of the world4 ,we learn what were the chief nations that have existed or still exist1 what were the important events that took place in each nation1 as time went on1 and who were the great men that shaped its destinies4 ,any one who knew about all the main events in the life of all the great nations would be a very learned person indeed2 but you have already read or studied some very important things in the history of ,greece or ,rome1 or the ,united ,states1 and thus have a general idea of the history of one or more of these nations4 ,since the beginning of time men have been talking to one another1 and many thousand years ago they found a way of communicating with one another by written signs or letters2 and not so many hundred years ago they discovered printing1 which enables one person to communicate with many people in different places at the same time4 ,all over the world1 then1 people are speaking words or writing words1 and other people are hearing or reading these words and trying to understand the thoughts intended to be expressed by them4 ,we have various words to express combinations of spoken or written words1 such as talk or conversation1 speech1 oration1 address1 lecture1 sermon1 letter1 telegram1 essay1 novel1 poem1 and very many others4 ,now1 it is obvious that a person may wish to express his ideas and yet not be successful in doing so4 ,words may be combined so as to express thoughts well or to express them badly4 ,composition is the subject that has to do with the best expression of thought by language4 ,but how1 then1 does composition differ from grammar8 ,grammar is really a part--a small part--of composition4 ,each language has certain customs with regard to the forms which words have under various circumstances1 and to the order in which the parts of a sentence are placed1 as well as a system of names for different kinds of words and sentences and parts of sentences4 ,this body of customs or rules we call grammar4 ,but grammar takes into account mainly the form of a sentence1 and pays little or no attention to its meaning4 ,composition1 on the other hand1 deals mainly with words as expressions of thought4 ,in our study of composition1 then1 we are to learn how to combine or group our words so as best to express our ideas4 ,there are three ways of gaining skill in composition3-- #a4 ,by following a rule or theory4 #b4 ,by practice4 #c4 ,by imitation4 ,there are certain rules in composition which are based on the experience of many writers and speakers4 ,these you will learn as we go on4 ,these rules will not be of very much value to you1 however1 unless you put them into practice4 ,if you want to learn how to swim1 you can get the general idea from a friend or a teacher2 but that general idea will not enable you to swim4 ,you must learn to swim by swimming4 ,in the same way1 you must learn composition by composing4 ,keep trying to express your ideas2 let your teachers and friends tell you how clearly they understand you1 take their criticism to heart1 and try again4 ,the third way to learn composition is by imitation1 and that is a very good way indeed4 ,when you think that some one else writes well1 try to write like him or her4 ,imitation is the greatest possible help in learning how to do anything well4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,sentence #a4 ,phrases1 ,clauses1 and ,sentences4--,composition means putting together or combining or grouping4 ,the things that we combine are words4 ,there are three simple ways in which1 according to the customs or grammar of our language1 words are combined3-- #a4 ,into phrases4 #b4 ,into clauses4 #c4 ,into sentences4 ,a phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a predicate4 ,,examples4 ,on the way4 ,in the morning4 ,by the fire4 ,sailing over the sea4 ,a clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate4 ,a clause in which the words do not make complete sense is called a dependent or subordinate clause4 ,,examples4 ,if ,i could go4 ,when the sun rose4 ,while ,i was speaking4 ,which ,i saw4 ,a sentence is a group of words containing at least one subject and one predicate and making complete sense4 ,a sentence is thus a single clause or a group of clauses4 ,in a group of clauses1 a clause in which the sense is complete is called an independent or principal clause4 ,,examples4 ,he started at once4 ,if ,i could1 ,i should start at once4 ,when the sun rose1 the mist disappeared4 ,while ,i was speaking1 the rain fell heavily4 ,neither the phrase nor the dependent clause can be used by itself4 ,each is only a part of a sentence4 ,the first rule of ,english composition is that we must group our words in sentences4 ,,exception4 ,exclamatory words1 phrases1 or clauses1 such as1 ,fudge6 ,silence in the ranks6 ,if ,i could only go6 ,exercise #a4--,which are dependent clauses8 phrases8 sentences8 ,fill out the phrases and clauses so that they become sentences4 #a4 ,a little after noon4 #b4 ,i found the sea very calm4 #c4 ,if we had kept on board4 #d4 ,we should have been all safe4 #e4 ,taking off my outer clothes4 #f4 ,when ,i came to the ship4 #g4 ,how to get on board4 #h4 ,i spied a small piece of rope4 #i4 ,by the help of that rope4 #aj4 ,that all the ship's provisions were dry4 #aa4 ,when this was done4 #ab4 ,putting them together in the form of a raft4 #ac4 ,i filled the chests with provisions4 #ad4 ,toward the land4 #ae4 ,my raft went very well4 #af4 ,in the mouth of a little river4 #ag4 ,on the right shore of the creek4 #ah4 ,i made a tent with the sail4 #ai4 ,near the sea4 #bj4 ,protected from the heat of the sun4 ,exercise #b4--;,divide the following passages into sentences4 ,supply the omitted capitals and the periods or question marks4 #a4 ,how late the chimney-swifts are abroad ,i cannot determine long after ,i failed to detect any in the air ,i could hear them in my chimney it was the same rustling sound ,i heard by day when ,i could see them coming and going and ,i know that these birds were leaving and returning when the night was very dark ,i think they can be classed among the nocturnal species #b4 ,many years ago there was a cold rain-storm in ,june for comfort a fire was built on the open hearth instead of in the air-tight stove that stood before it all went well until the night was well advanced suddenly a struggle was heard and suppressed cries after a brief silence there was a shuffling of feet at the doorstep the men went out with a lantern but no one was to be seen the windows were then searched but there was nobody near them the matter was discussed in whispers again and again the noises were heard at last when everybody was roused to a high pitch of excitement the long stovepipe heated by the flames upon the hearth parted at a joint and out flew a sooty and bedraggled little owl no one was superstitious then but suppose the owl had made its way back to the chimney and by this way escaped would not every person present have had vague uncanny feelings would not the house from that time have been haunted ,exercise #c4--a4 ,write a short passage containing the phrases and clauses used in ,exercise #a4 #b4 ,write a short passage containing the following phrases and clauses3-- ,about noon--going toward my boat--on the sand--the print of a man's naked foot--as if ,i had seen a ghost--up to a rising ground--to look around--so frightened was ,i--behind me--every now and then--fancying every stump to be a man4 #b4 ,simple1 ,complex1 and ,compound ,sentences4--,according to the custom or grammar of our language1 we may group our words in sentences in three ways4 ,sentences are1 from the point of grammar1 of three kinds3 simple1 complex1 and compound4 ,a simple sentence consists of a single clause4 ,,examples4 ,the man fell4 ,the birds sing most sweetly at morning and at evening4 ,the subject or the predicate of a simple sentence1 or both1 may1 however1 consist of several parts4 ,,examples4 ,the man and the child fell4 ,the man slipped and fell4 ,the man and the child slipped and fell4 ,a complex sentence contains one independent or principal clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses4 ,,examples4 ,it was nearly night when we heard the glad news4 ,before help could reach the city1 it had been captured by the enemy4 ,a compound sentence contains two or more independent or principal clauses1 either with or without dependent or subordinate clauses4 ,,examples4 ,every minute seemed a day2 every hour was a year4 ,finally1 ,i dropped into an exhausted slumber1 but ,i was awakened by the sound of bells4 ,the sun1 which resembled a ball of fire1 touched the horizon and passed beneath it1 and the darkness of the tropical night came swiftly over us4 ,exercise #d4--,which sentences are simple8 complex8 compound8 ,in the complex sentences1 which clauses are dependent8 ,in the compound sentences1 separate the independent clauses from each other4 ,mention any dependent clauses which you find in the compound sentences4 #a4 ,it was now near the beginning of the month of ,june1 and we had twelve weeks of bad weather before us4 #b4 ,our rocky home was greatly improved by a wide porch1 which ,i made along the whole front of our rooms and entrances4 #c4 ,the weeks of imprisonment passed so rapidly that no one found time hanging heavy on his hands4 #d4 ,as the rainy season drew to a close1 the weather for a while became milder4 #e4 ,thunder roared1 lightning blazed1 torrents rushed toward the sea1 which came in raging billows to meet them4 #f4 ,nature resumed her smiling aspect of peaceful beauty2 and soon all traces of the ravages of floods and storms disappeared beneath the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics4 #g4 ,the recent storms had stirred the ocean to its depths4 #h4 ,we crossed the river for a walk along the coast1 and presently ,fritz observed on a small island something which was long and rounded1 resembling a boat bottom upward4 #i4 ,the island being steep and rocky1 it was necessary to be careful2 but we found a good landing place on the farther side4 #aj4 ,the boys hurried by the nearest way to the beach where lay the great object1 which proved to be a huge stranded whale4 #aa4 ,look at these glorious shells and coral branches6 #ab4 ,did you notice the extreme delicacy of the shells8 #ac4 ,we were soon ready to return to the boat1 but ,ernest had a fancy for remaining alone on the island till we came back4 #ad4 ,the more oil we could obtain the better1 for a great deal was used in the large lantern which burnt day and night in the recesses of the cave4 #ae4 ,it was unpleasant work to cut up blubber4 ,exercise #e4--;,expand the following simple sentences by substituting clauses for the italicized words or phrases4 ,,example4 ,i consider him a trustworthy man4 ,i consider him a man who can be trusted4 #a4 ,the early bird catches the worm4 #b4 ,we started before sunrise4 #c4 ,the faithful steward received a reward4 #d4 ,i do not doubt your prudence4 #e4 ,they lived in a rose-embowered cottage4 #f4 ,santa ,claus came at candle-lighting time4 #g4 ,we pity the friendless4 #h4 ,the prayer of a righteous man availeth much4 #i4 ,we should share the burdens of the heavy-laden4 #aj4 ,she carried a dainty lace-trimmed handkerchief4 #aa4 ,we lingered in the lilac-scented garden4 #ab4 ,a kind-hearted man delights in the happiness of others4 #ac4 ,the traveler wore a fur-lined coat4 #ad4 ,i enjoy driving a spirited horse4 #ae4 ,a solemn-looking servant opened the door4 ,exercise #f4--,use single words in place of the italicized phrases and clauses in the following sentences4 #a4 ,we were stepping toward the west4 #b4 ,a shout of joy rang through the woods4 #c4 ,the song of the bluebird sounds from the elm4 #d4 ,her wedding gown1 which was made of silk1 was very expensive4 #e4 ,words of kindness cheer those who are unhappy4 #f4 ,we listened to his tales1 which were often repeated4 #g4 ,his deeds of mercy made him beloved4 #h4 ,a look of sadness clouded the face of the leader4 #i4 ,the lawyer who is able secures many clients4 #aj4 ,he visited the country1 which had recently been discovered4 ,exercise #g4--,substitute1 for the italicized words1 phrases or clauses with the same meaning4 ,,example4 ,contented people are happy 7word74 ,people with contented minds are happy 7phrase74 ,people who are contented are happy 7clause74 #a4 ,an honest man is the noblest work of ,god4 #b4 ,a friendly man will have friends4 #c4 ,he is said to be a good-natured man4 #d4 ,a beautiful child opened the garden-gate4 #e4 ,she wore a simple muslin frock4 #f4 ,the king wore his golden crown4 #g4 ,he lived a noble life4 #h4 ,the garden is filled with fragrant blossoms4 #i4 ,old ,king ,cole was a merry old soul4 #aj4 ,the queen made some delicious tarts4 #aa4 ,he spoke hastily4 #ab4 ,you have a very comfortable home4 #ac4 ,he treated the boy harshly4 #ad4 ,take her up tenderly4 #ae4 ,beware the fury of a patient man4 ,exercise #h4--;,combine each set of simple sentences into one complex sentence by changing one of them into a dependent clause4 #a4 ,the sun is in the west4 ,man ceases from labor4 #b4 ,the dew is falling4 ,you must not walk in the garden4 #c4 ,the clock struck twelve4 ,the door opened to admit ,marley's ghost4 #d4 ,mary has not written to me4 ,she has been gone a month4 #e4 ,the bee is very industrious4 ,it is always gathering honey4 #f4 ,i saw a little red owl4 ,it lives in a hollow tree4 #g4 ,we pitched our tents on the shore4 ,then the sea winds blew4 #h4 ,we anchored in the bay4 ,the water was calm4 #i4 ,they lived in a village4 ,it was many miles from a railroad4 #aj4 ,the poor suffered4 ,the good man mourned4 ,exercise #i4--;,combine the simple sentences1 making compound sentences4 #a4 ,the wind blew freshly from the shore4 ,the uneasy billows tossed up and down4 #b4 ,eustace sat under a tree4 ,the children gathered round him4 #c4 ,cowards are cruel4 ,the brave love mercy4 #d4 ,charms strike the sight4 ,merit wins the soul4 #e4 ,he invited his guests to remain longer4 ,they wished to start before the heat of the day4 #f4 ,the heaven was above his head4 ,the sand was beneath his feet4 #g4 ,the water trickled among the rocks4 ,a pleasant breeze rustled in the dry branches4 #h4 ,the commander was badly wounded4 ,his men were scattered4 #i4 ,it was half-past eight in the evening4 ,the conflict had raged for an hour4 #aj4 ,the heavens declare the glory of ,god4 ,the firmament showeth his handiwork4 ,exercise #aj4--;,combine the following statements into simple sentences4 ,in each group express the idea of one statement by a modifying word or phrase4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,she lay down4 ,she was sorrowful4 ,sorrowfully she lay down4 #b4 ,she had no shoes4 ,she had to go barefoot4 ,having no shoes1 she had to go barefoot4 #a4 ,he looked back4 ,he saw a cloud of dust4 #b4 ,he sprang to his feet4 ,he ran after the messenger4 #c4 ,he donned the white cockade4 ,he fought for the exiled prince4 #d4 ,we climbed the mountain4 ,the day was cool4 #e4 ,we started for home4 ,the sun had set4 #f4 ,he lifted his eyes4 ,he looked toward heaven4 ,he thanked ,god4 #g4 ,it was early morning4 ,he rowed across the lake4 #h4 ,he left early4 ,he wished to catch the train4 #i4 ,he was very studious4 ,he won the scholarship4 #aj4 ,i went for a ramble4 ,i took little ,annie with me4 #aa4 ,john is a blacksmith4 ,he lives in the village4 #ab4 ,he shoes horses4 ,he does it skillfully4 #ac4 ,the bluebird sings4 ,he tells us spring is here4 #ad4 ,we feared to start4 ,the night was stormy4 #ae4 ,the watchman was weary4 ,he slept at his post4 ,exercise #aa4--;,combine the following statements by using relative pronouns4 ,,examples4 ,the flames lit the wreck4 ,they shone on the dead4 ,the flames that lit the wreck shone on the dead4 #a4 ,we heard the roll of ponderous wheels4 ,they roused us from our slumbers4 #b4 ,travelers are surprised at the beauty of the spot4 ,they occasionally come upon it by accident4 #c4 ,our throats are choked with the dust4 ,it lies thick along the road4 #d4 ,he drank a cup of cold water4 ,this refreshed him4 #e4 ,along came a flock of sheep4 ,they were being driven to market4 #f4 ,i went to live in a country village4 ,it was more than a hundred miles from home4 #g4 ,the water gushed from a little spring4 ,it sparkled in the sunshine4 #h4 ,the villagers were kindly people4 ,they welcomed strangers4 #i4 ,i watch the sunrise stealing down the steeple4 ,this stands opposite my chamber window4 #aj4 ,up came a gallant youth4 ,he wore a scarf of the rainbow pattern crosswise on his breast4 #aa4 ,he found under it a slender little boy4 ,the boy wailed bitterly4 #ab4 ,the ,puritan saw the boy's frightened gaze4 ,he endeavored to reassure him4 #ac4 ,here is a little outcast4 ,providence hath put him in our hands4 #ad4 ,a young man was on his way to ,morristown4 ,he was a peddler by trade4 #ae4 ,a little canary bird sings sweetly4 ,it hangs in its gilded cage at my window4 ,exercise #ab4--;,fill the blanks with conjunctions selected from the following list4 and1 also1 likewise1 moreover1 besides1 furthermore1 but1 yet1 however1 nevertheless1 or1 either1 nor1 neither1 therefore1 hence1 then1 accordingly4 #a4 ,they had been friends in youth1 ---- whispering tongues can poison truth4 #b4 ,the waves beside them danced1 ---- they outdid the sparkling waves in glee4 #c4 ,the sun sank to rest2 ---- we lingered4 #d4 ,i came1 ,i saw1 ---- ,i conquered4 #e4 ,he wanted to live1 ---- he wanted to work4 #f4 ,the owl has a backbone2 ---- it is a vertebrate4 #g4 ,our forest life was rough2 ---- dangers closed us round4 #h4 ,knowledge comes2 ---- wisdom lingers4 #i4 ',tis winter now1 ---- spring will blossom soon4 #aj4 ,we had guns2 ---- we had an abundance of ammunition4 #aa4 ,i go1 ---- ,i return4 #ab4 ,all the rivers run into the sea2 ---- the sea is not full4 #ac4 ,it is storming2 ---- we will not go4 #ad4 ,he forgave his enemy2 ---- he was merciful4 #ae4 ,he is not tired1 ---- he is lazy4 #af4 ,the day proved clear2 ---- we began our journey4 #ag4 ,they had ---- locks to their doors ---- bars to their windows4 #ah4 ,i assured him of my willingness2 ---- he hesitated4 #ai4 ,he proved himself honest2 ---- ,i trusted him4 #bj4 ,the storm raged2 ---- we pushed on4 ,exercise #ac4--,two ideas are sometimes stated as of equal importance 7compound sentence71 when one is really dependent upon the other 7complex sentence74 ,,example4 ,i was on my way to school yesterday morning1 and ,i met my cousin ,raymond4 ,to revise such a sentence as this1 decide which clause contains the main idea1 and make this the principal clause1 putting the subordinate idea in a subordinate clause4 ,e4g4 ,as ,i was on my way to school yesterday morning1 ,i met my cousin ,raymond4 ,reconstruct the following sentences1 making them complex instead of compound3-- #a4 ,the sun was hot1 and we rested in the shade4 #b4 ,we visited ,stratford1 and here ,shakspere lived4 #c4 ,the poor man was bent with age1 and he staggered under the heavy load4 #d4 ,the old woman lived in a little cottage1 and it stood on the edge of the woods4 #e4 ,i was walking along the country roads1 and ,i saw some wild strawberries4 #f4 ,the little boy carried a bundle1 and it seemed very heavy4 #g4 ,the night was chilly1 and we built a fire in the grate4 #h4 ,i wished to pass away the time1 and ,i read a newspaper4 #i4 ,he was very ambitious1 and he wished to become ,president4 #aj4 ,she struck a match1 and it burned with a feeble light4 #c4 ,variety in the ,use of ,sentences3--,all your sentences must be simple1 or complex1 or compound2 but there is no reason why you should use one of the three kinds in preference to another4 ,if you examine a passage which you think interesting1 you will be quite likely to find that some sentences are simple1 some complex1 and some compound4 ,the variety is pleasing4 ,if all the sentences had been of one kind1 the result would have been decidedly monotonous4 ,pupils sometimes ask whether they should use long sentences or short sentences4 ,this question is really answered in the preceding paragraph1 for a simple sentence is usually shorter than a complex or a compound sentence4 ,the fact is that what we like is variety4 ,until you are more experienced in composition1 it will be well for you1 in general1 to use comparatively short sentences1--that is1 sentences of not more than twenty-five or thirty words4 ,you should feel at liberty1 however1 to follow your own taste in such matters1 provided that your sentences are not regularly of about the same length and about the same form1 so that your writing is lacking in variety4 ,be particularly careful1 moreover1 to avoid the sentence which is so long as not to be easily understood1 such as the following3-- ,i rose softly1 slipped on my clothes1 opened the door suddenly1 and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine1 consisting of a boy and two girls1 the eldest not more than six1 and lovely as seraphs1 who were going the rounds of the house1 singing at every chamber door1 until my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness1 so that they remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers1 and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows1 until1 as if by one impulse1 they scampered away1 and as they turned an angle of the gallery1 ,i heard them laughing in triumph at their escape4 ,see how much this passage is improved when the long sentence is broken up into shorter sentences3-- ,i rose softly1 slipped on my clothes1 opened the door suddenly1 and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine4 ,it consisted of a boy and two girls1 the eldest not more than six1 and lovely as seraphs4 ,they were going the rounds of the house1 singing at every chamber door1 but my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness4 ,they remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers1 and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows1 until1 as if by one impulse1 they scampered away1 and as they turned an angle of the gallery1 ,i heard them laughing in triumph at their escape4 ,exercise #ad4--;,i4 ,improve the following passage by combining some of the sentences1 making larger complex or compound sentences3-- ,i explored an old cellar4 ,i noticed a slight break in the wall4 ,the neck of a bottle projected from it4 ,i drew it from its resting place4 ,it proved to be a quaint green glass bottle4 ,it bore a label4 ,the label read ,currant ,wine1 #ahjb4 ,i smacked my lips4 ,i handed the bottle to my companion to open4 ,he pulled the cork out with his teeth4 ,we filled two tumblers4 ,i thanked him4 ,i raised the glass to my lips4 ,i took a deep draught4 ,instantly ,i bounded to my feet4 ,my bound would have done credit to an athlete4 ,i made for the spring-house4 ,seems to me1 remarked the old tenant of the house1--seems to me that was horse liniment4 ,i know the smell4 ,,ii4 ,improve the following passage by using a greater number of sentences3-- ,once upon a time there were two princes who were twins and they lived in the pleasant vale of ,argos1 far away in ,hellas1 where they had fruitful meadows and vineyards1 sheep and oxen1 and great herds of horses and all that men could need to make them blest1 and yet they were wretched1 because they were jealous of each other1 and from the moment they were born began to quarrel4 ,exercise #ae4--;,improve the following by varying the length of your sentences1 making some long and some short3-- ,a sleep fell upon the whole castle4 ,the beautiful princess slept in her chamber4 ,the king and the queen were in the great hall4 ,they fell fast asleep4 ,the horses slept in their stalls4 ,the dogs slept in the yard4 ,the pigeons slept on the roof4 ,the very fire on the hearth slept like the rest4 ,the meat on the spit ceased roasting4 ,the wind ceased4 ,not a leaf fell from the trees about the castle4 ,around about that place grew a hedge of thorns4 ,at last the whole castle was hidden from view4 ,nothing could be seen but the vane on the roof4 ,years after a king's son came into that country4 ,he heard about the enchanted castle4 ,he came near the hedge of thorns4 ,it changed into a hedge of beautiful flowers4 ,he passed through into the castle yard4 ,he saw the horses and the hunting dogs lying asleep4 ,on the roof1 the pigeons were sitting with their heads under their wings4 ,he entered the kitchen4 ,the flies on the wall were asleep4 ,the cook had her hand uplifted to strike the scullion4 ,the kitchen maid had a fowl in her lap ready to pluck4 ,he mounted higher4 ,he saw the whole court asleep4 ,the king and the queen were asleep on their thrones4 ,at last he came to the tower4 ,he went up the winding stair4 ,he opened the door4 ,he entered the room of the princess4 ,he stooped and kissed the princess4 ,she opened her eyes and looked kindly at him4 ,she rose4 ,they went forth together4 ,then the king and queen and whole court waked up4 ,the horses rose and shook themselves4 ,the hounds sprang up and wagged their tails4 ,the pigeons flew into the field4 ,the kitchen fire leaped up and cooked the meat4 ,the cook gave the scullion a box on the ear4 ,he roared out4 ,the maid went on plucking the fowl4 ,the wedding of the prince and princess was celebrated with great splendor4 ,they lived happily ever after4 #d4 ,periodic ,sentences4--,we have now discussed sentences with regard to their grammatical structure and with regard to their length4 ,there is one more way in which they may be looked at2 that is1 the degree to which the sense is suspended4 ,this will require a little explanation4 ,in each of the following sentences two vertical lines are placed at the spot where the words first make complete sense4 #a4 ,whenever he comes1 he is warmly welcomed4 #b4 ,he is warmly welcomed whenever he comes4 #c4 ,when ,absalom died1 ,david mourned4 #d4 ,david mourned when ,absalom died4 #e4 ,as the ,president passed1 the soldiers saluted4 #f4 ,the soldiers saluted as the ,president passed4 #g4 ,while there is life1 there is hope4 #h4 ,the sun shines on the just and the unjust4 #i4 ,the steam tug had long since let slip her hawsers1 and gone panting away with a derisive scream4 #aj4 ,the ship seemed quite proud of being left to take care of itself1 and1 with its huge white sails bulged out1 strutted off like a vain turkey4 ,when the words in a sentence are so arranged that the sense is not immediately complete1 the sense is said to be suspended4 ,a sentence in which the sense is suspended until the end1 or near the end1 is called a periodic sentence4 ,a sentence in which the sense is not suspended until the end1 or near the end1 is called a loose sentence4 ,a periodic sentence1 unless it is long and clumsy1 often stimulates the attention4 ,you cannot understand it at all until you get near the close1 and this very fact keeps your interest alive and leads your mind on4 ,in the following passage the sentences are periodic3-- ,in the midst of a garden grew a rosebush covered with roses4 ,in one of them1 the most beautiful of all1 there dwelt an elf4 ,so tiny was he that no human eye could see him4 ,behind every leaf in the rose he had a bedroom4 ,oh1 what a fragrance there was in his rooms6 ,the walls1 which were made of the pale pink rose leaves1 were very clear and bright4 ,flying from flower to flower1 dancing on the wings of the butterflies1 rejoicing in the warm sunshine1 he led a peaceful and happy life4 ,here is the same paragraph1 so written that none of the sentences is periodic4 ,does not the paragraph seem a little flat8 ,a rosebush covered with roses grew in the midst of a garden4 ,an elf dwelt in one of them1 the most beautiful of all4 ,no human eye could see him1 he was so tiny4 ,he had a bedroom behind every leaf in the rose4 ,oh1 there was a great fragrance in his rooms6 ,the walls were very clear and bright1 and were made of the pale pink rose leaves4 ,he led a peaceful and happy life1 flying from flower to flower1 dancing on the wings of the butterflies and rejoicing in the warm sunshine4 ,the point here1 as in the other similar matters we have discussed1 is that the mind likes variety in expression4 ,you need not worry yourself by thinking much about the form of your sentences2 but you should1 if possible1 get into the habit of varying them from time to time4 ,let them be sometimes short and sometimes long2 sometimes simple1 and sometimes complex or compound4 ,and above all1 when you are revising what you have written1 try to make sure that in some cases the sense is sufficiently suspended to make your sentences interesting4 ,exercise #af4--;,in the passage quoted on page #jj1 mark the place where the sense is complete in each simple or complex sentence4 ,in compound sentences mark the place in each independent clause4 ,exercise #ag4--;,construct periodic sentences by placing phrases before the following statements4 ,,example4 ,we idly floated4 ,in among the lily pads we idly floated4 #a4 ,the child slept4 #b4 ,they eagerly searched4 #c4 ,the prisoner escaped4 #d4 ,we explored the creek4 #e4 ,the boys laughed4 #f4 ,the people rejoiced4 #g4 ,we despaired4 #h4 ,the girl fainted4 #i4 ,he blithely sang4 #aj4 ,she succeeded4 #aa4 ,he failed4 #ab4 ,he received his diploma4 #ac4 ,the soldiers retreated4 #ad4 ,mary turned4 ,exercise #ah4--;,construct periodic sentences by placing dependent clauses before the following statements4 ,,example4 ,they immediately started4 ,when they heard the signal-gun1 they immediately started4 #a4 ,they landed4 #b4 ,i am happy4 #c4 ,we watched4 #d4 ,the coward fled4 #e4 ,the raven croaked4 #f4 ,the flag will float4 #g4 ,the child died4 #h4 ,the poor suffered4 #i4 ,our president died4 #aj4 ,the slaves were free4 #aa4 ,we quietly left4 #ab4 ,they fled4 #ac4 ,she returned4 #ad4 ,we received the message4 #ae4 ,he encouraged us4 ,exercise #ai4--;,construct periodic sentences by filling the blanks in the following with phrases or clauses4 #a4 ---- the village smithy stands4 #b4 ---- he runs4 #c4 ---- lay the little village4 #d4 ---- to grandmother's house we go4 #e4 ,the moonlight ---- flooded the room4 #f4 ---- there was a honeysuckle arbor4 #g4 ---- he reached home4 #h4 ---- yet ,i trust him4 #i4 ---- ,i will help you4 #aj4 ---- ,washington ---- took command4 #aa4 ---- rode the six hundred4 #ab4 ---- a youth ---- passed by4 #ac4 ,a traveler ---- was found4 #ad4 ---- he still grasped a banner4 #ae4 ,the prisoner ---- made a confession4 ,exercise #bj4--;,construct periodic sentences by filling in the blanks with phrases or clauses4 #a4 ,far away in the forest ----4 #b4 ,out in the country ----4 #c4 ,a city that is set on a hill ----4 #d4 ,with a look of delighted surprise ----4 #e4 ,this young lad1 hard as the world had knocked him about1 ----4 #f4 ,yet1 through all his fun1 ----4 #g4 ,though they spake little ----4 #h4 ,without any discussion1 ----4 #i4 ,looking about her uneasily1 ----4 #aj4 ,late that night1 as ,i sat up pondering over all that had happened1 ----4 ,exercise #ba4--,rewrite the following sentences1 making them periodic4 #a4 ,the night wind swept by with a desolate moan4 #b4 ,the old shutters swung to and fro1 screaming upon their hinges4 #c4 ,the village preacher's modest mansion rose near yonder copse1 where once the garden smiled4 #d4 ,the noble six hundred rode into the jaws of death4 #e4 ,a sound came from the land between the fitful gusts of wind4 #f4 ,the silvery rain comes aslant like a long line of spears brightly burnished4 #g4 ,the snow arrives1 announced by all the trumpets of the sky4 #h4 ,great burdocks grew from the wall down to the water1 so high that little children could stand upright under the loftiest of them4 #i4 ,the loveliest children ran about on the roads1 playing with the gay butterflies4 #aj4 ,the clear sun shone warm on the first day of spring in a little court yard4 #aa4 ,an old castle looms over the narrow road4 #ab4 ,the ivy grows thickly over the crumbling red walls1 leaf by leaf1 up to the balcony1 and a beautiful girl stands there4 #ac4 ,she glances up the road as she bends over the balustrade4 #ad4 ,the lighthouse of ,inverkaldy stood on a little rocky island1 quite a distance from the mainland4 #ae4 ,he rowed across the water with a cheerful heart4 #e4 ,bad ,sentences4--,good sentences1 then1 are sentences that have some variety in form and in length1 and1 in particular1 that are frequently periodic4 ,you will soon learn to give to your writing the little touch of grace or beauty that comes in this way4 ,but what are bad sentences8 ,what sorts of sentences should you try not to make8 ,there are really only three kinds of sentences which are positively bad4 ,the first is the comma sentence4 #f4 ,the ,comma ,sentence4--,this name is sometimes given to sentences in which two or more independent clauses1 not connected by conjunctions1 are separated only by commas4 ,you should guard carefully against this fault4 ,if two independent clauses be placed in a single sentence1 they should be connected by a conjunction or separated by a semicolon4 ,when independent clauses in the same sentence are connected by a conjunction1 it is proper to use either a semicolon or comma4 ,when they are not connected by a conjunction1 only the semicolon can be used4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,it was late1 and the moon shone brightly4 #b4 ,it was late2 and the moon shone brightly4 #c4 ,it was late2 the moon shone brightly4 #d4 ,it was late1 the moon shone brightly4 ,wrong4 ,note for the ,teacher4--,occasionally1 in a compound sentence1 particularly when it consists of three or more short statements1 commas are used instead of semicolons4 ,but it seems best to encourage pupils to use the semicolon invariably4 ,insistence on this practice will greatly strengthen the pupil's grasp of the sentence and its structure4 ,exercise #bb4--;,correct the following sentences3-- #a4 ,everything has its time to flourish1 everything passes away4 #b4 ,it was late at night1 the moon shone through the windows4 #c4 ,we are in a rich1 a happy house1 all are cheerful and full of joy1 #d4 ,the door opened and the maid came in1 they all stood still1 not one stirred4 #e4 ,i was right1 we were not of the smallest importance to her4 #f4 ,i'm glad they are gone1 now we can be comfortable4 #g4 ,the frost had broken up1 a soft plentiful rain had melted the snowdrifts4 #h4 ,the window was a grand advantage1 out of it one could crawl on to the roof1 and from the roof was the finest view in all ,nortonbury4 #i4 ,it was one of my seasons of excessive pain1 ,i found it difficult to think of anything but pain4 #aj4 ,the stream lay so low as to be invisible from where we sat1 you could only trace the line of its course by the small white sails4 ,exercise #bc4--;,insert capitals and periods4 #a4 ,i left ,salem ,house upon the morrow afternoon1 ,i little thought then that ,i left it1 never to return1 we traveled very slowly all night1 and did not get into ,yarmouth before nine or ten o'clock in the morning1 ,i looked out for ,mr4 ,barkis1 but he was not there2 and instead of him a fat1 merry-looking little old man in black1 with rusty little bunches of ribbons at the knees of his breeches1 came puffing up to the coach window1 and said1 ,master ,copperfield8 #b4 ,the conflict had raged for an hour1 it grew more furious1 from deck to deck the combatants rushed madly1 fighting like demons1 the ,richard and her crew suffered terribly1 yet they fought on1 she had been pierced by several eighteen-pound balls below water1 she leaked badly1 but she would not surrender4 ,exercise #bd4--;,construct ten compound sentences in which no connectives are used1 and the clauses are separated by semicolons4 #g4 ,sentences without ,unity4--,we put into a sentence thoughts that belong together4 ,indeed1 a good sentence is a group of words representing thoughts that have a close relationship in the speaker's or writer's mind4 ,a sentence thus constructed is said to have unity2 that is1 one-ness4 ,a sentence in which the words represent facts or thoughts that do not have such a relationship is said to lack unity4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,the owl1 which is a nocturnal bird1 has round1 staring eyes1 and superstitious people dislike to hear it hoot4 ,two thoughts not closely related4 #b4 ,columbus was assisted by ,queen ,isabella of ,spain1 and sailing across the ,atlantic ,ocean with a fleet of three vessels1 he discovered a new world4 ,two thoughts not closely related4 #c4 ,columbus was assisted by ,queen ,isabella1 who pawned her jewels and used the money thus procured in fitting out for him a fleet of three vessels4 ,thoughts closely related4 #d4 ,william ,penn settled ,pennsylvania and made a treaty with the ,indians under a large elm1 which is one of the most graceful of our trees4 ,thoughts not closely related4 #e4 ,william ,penn1 who was himself a ,quaker1 founded ,pennsylvania as a place of refuge for the persecuted ,quakers4 ,thoughts closely related4 ,exercise #be4--,rewrite the following sentences3-- #a4 ,the wild strawberry has a delicious flavor1 and we enjoy picking the berries1 which belong to the rose family4 #b4 ,mary has a new beaver muff which her father bought for her in ,montreal1 the largest city in ,canada4 #c4 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh was a favorite of ,queen ,elizabeth1 called the ,virgin ,queen1 and he introduced tobacco into ,england4 #d4 ,we visited the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 where we saw the picture called ,the ,horse ,fair1 and met ,mary1 who is certainly the most discontented girl ,i know4 #e4 ,once1 a long time ago1 in a little cottage beside a dark wood1 lived a naughty little boy1 and his mother told him repeatedly that the old witch that lived in the wood would get him4 #h4 ,the ,formless ,sentence4--,there is still one other sort of sentence to be avoided2 that is the ugly1 shapeless sentence that results from placing together a number of complete statements loosely connected by and1 but1 or so4 ,sometimes this is called the and sentence or the so sentence1 because these two connectives are so frequently used by inexperienced writers4 ,let us call it the formless sentence1 meaning thereby a sentence which is deficient in form1 or the form of which is ugly or distasteful to the trained eye and ear4 ,you will have to acquire your sense or taste for form in sentences by practice and experience2 but you will be helped by studying the sentences given below4 ,those in the left-hand column are well-written2 those in the right-hand column are formless4 #a4 ,at half-past nine we #a4 ,at half-past nine we reached ,charles's house1 and reached ,charles's house and until half-past ten we were until half-past ten we were busy thinking what to do4 busy thinking what to do1 ,finally1 some one suggested until some one suggested a a climb up the ,palisades1 and climb up the ,palisades1 and we started off at eleven4 so we started off at eleven4 #b4 ,as it was getting very #b4 ,it was getting very cloudy1 we put on some of cloudy1 so we put on some of ,charles's old clothes4 ,charles's old clothes4 #c4 ,when ,i returned1 it #c4 ,when ,i returned1 it had stopped raining1 and the had stopped raining1 and the boys were receiving a lecture boys were receiving a lecture from the farmer's wife4 ,she from the farmer's wife1 told us that we had no right who told us that we had no on her property1 and a few right on her property1 and other things we didn't pay a few other things we didn't much attention to4 ,but pay much attention to1 but when she said that her husband one thing she told us was was a magistrate1 and that her husband was a magistrate1 that she could have us locked and that she could up1 we got away as quickly have us locked up1 and so we as we could4 got away from there as quickly as we could4 #d4 ,i had been traveling #d4 ,i had been traveling all day through the all day through the snow snow with one companion1 with one companion1 who who had now gone off to had now gone off to what what our compasses told us our compasses told us was was the south1 in search of the south1 in search of wood1 wood4 ,i was hungry and and ,i was thoroughly hungry thoroughly tired4 ,more than and tired1 for more than once during the day ,i once during the day ,i had had stepped on what seemed stepped on what seemed to be to be firmly packed snow1 firmly packed snow1 only to only to sink to my waist in sink to my waist in a soft a soft drift1 and it was always drift1 and it was always with with difficulty that difficulty that ,i had got out4 ,i had got out4 ,you will see1 then1 that there is certain knack which you must acquire of giving a sentence a pleasing form4 ,with a little patience1 you will soon learn it1 and you will gain it all the more easily by remembering that the ugly formless sentence1 which you are to avoid1 is simply a long loose sentence 7see #d74 ,exercise #bf4--,reconstruct the following sentences3-- #a4 ,there once reigned a queen1 and in her garden were found the most glorious flowers of all seasons and from all lands1 but she loved best the roses1 and so she had the most various kinds of this flower1 and they grew against the earth walls1 and wound themselves round pillars and window frames1 and all along the ceiling in all the halls1 and the roses were various in fragrance1 form1 and color4 #b4 ,many years ago there lived an emperor1 and he cared enormously for new clothes1 and he wanted to be very fine1 so he spent all his money for clothes1 and he did not care about his soldiers1 but only liked to drive out and show his new clothes1 and he had a coat for every hour of the day1 and just as they say of a king1 ,he is in council1 they said of him1 ,the emperor is in his wardrobe4 #c4 ,napoleon's marshals came to him once in the midst of a battle and said1 ,we have lost the day and are being cut to pieces1 but the great soldier drew out his watch1 unmoved1 and said1 ,it is only two o'clock in the afternoon1 and though you have lost the battle you have time to win another1 so they charged again and won a victory1 and we should enter our battle-fields of difficulty with the same unconquerable spirit4 #d4 ,the highest courage is sustained courage1 for the power of continuance adds to all other powers1 and to face danger1 appreciate the full demand and meet it to the end1 is the height of brave living1 for most young hearts can respond to a sudden demand for courage1 but the long stretch finds them lacking4 #e4 ,a ,new ,york woman called on ,emerson one morning and found the philosopher reading in his study1 while near him on a plate there lay a little heap of cherry stones1 and the visitor slipped one of these stones into her glove4 ,some months later she met ,emerson again at a reception in ,boston and recalled her visit to him and then she pointed to the brooch she wore1 a brooch of gold and brilliants with the cherry stone set in the center and she said1 ,i took this stone from the plate at your elbow on the morning of my call1 and ,emerson replied1 ,ah1 ,i'll tell my amanuensis of that and he will be so pleased1 for he loves cherries1 but ,i never touch them myself4 #f4 ,john was a boy who wanted to be a ventriloquist1 and one day he visited an old engineer in a factory and after a little conversation he imitated the squeak of badly oiled machinery1 and the old engineer trotted to a certain valve and oiled it1 so ,john let a few minutes pass and then emitted another series of squeaks and the engineer again oiled his machinery1 and the third time ,john squeaked the engineer saw through the joke and1 walking up quietly behind ,john1 squirted a half-pint of oil down the back of his neck1 saying1 ,there6 ,there'll be no more squeaking to-day4 ,exercise #bg4--,reconstruct the following sentences1 putting the underlined phrases in their proper places4 #a4 ,the musician was playing a sonata with long hair4 #b4 ,i saw at once that he was a villain with half an eye4 #c4 ,a woman desires a home for her dog going abroad for the summer4 #d4 ,the kind old gentleman lifted the trembling child with a gold-headed cane4 #e4 ,a wreath was made by a little girl of roses4 #f4 ,the house was painted brown with the tall flag-pole4 #g4 ,we saw a magnificent cedar tree entering the woods4 #h4 ,we found some golden-rod walking along the dusty road4 #i4 ,we saw the lakes climbing a tree4 #aj4 ,the old lady gave alms to a young beggar with the white hair4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,paragraph #i4 ,the ,use of the ,paragraph4--,composition is the combining or grouping of words4 ,we group our words in sentences4 ,we also group our sentences in paragraphs4 ,a paragraph is a group of sentences which together express an important thought4 ,in a way1 of course1 every sentence expresses a thought--a small thought1 so to speak4 ,but experience has shown that the educated mind can best understand written language if it can take in several of these smaller thoughts1 in as many sentences1 in rapid succession1 provided only that these smaller thoughts1 when taken together1 make up a larger thought4 ,a paragraph is1 then1 the expression of a large or important thought1 made up of several smaller or less important thoughts1 expressed in sentences4 ,note4--,sometimes1 but not often1 a single sentence represents such an important thought that it can best stand by itself4 ,a paragraph is indicated to the eye by the fact that the beginning of the first sentence is placed a little way to the right of the left-hand margin2 in other words1 it is indented4 ,on the printed page1 a paragraph is indented only the space which would be occupied by two or three letters4 ,in a written composition the paragraph is indented about an inch4 ,another fact that makes it easy for the eye to recognize a paragraph is that it frequently does not close with the end of a line4 ,when1 therefore1 you look at a piece of printed or written composition1 you see at once that you are to receive a certain number of thoughts or ideas1 each of which is placed in a section or paragraph by itself4 ,in listening to an address or oration you notice the separation between the thoughts by the fact that the speaker usually makes a pause of several seconds to indicate that he has finished the expression of one thought and is now ready to pass on to another4 ,note4--,in writing a long conversation1 it is usually customary to make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself1 even if it consists of only a few words4 ,this is because it is of the utmost importance1 in reading an account of a conversation1 to know just who is speaking4 #aj4 ,the ,beginning4--,we group our sentences4 ,but how shall we begin8 ,what sentences shall come first8 ,usually we shall express our thoughts most clearly if we begin with a sentence that shows in brief what the whole paragraph is about4 ,this is sometimes called the topic sentence1 because it is the sentence that states the topic or central idea of the paragraph4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,to the simple-hearted folk who dwelt in that island three thousand years ago1 there was never a sweeter spot than sea-girt ,ithaca4 ,rocky and rugged though it may have seemed1 yet it was indeed a smiling land embosomed in the laughing sea4 ,there the air was always mild and pure1 and balmy with the breath of blossoms2 the sun looked kindly down from a cloudless sky1 and the storms seldom broke the quiet ripple of the waters which bathed the shores of that island home4 ,on every side but one1 the land rose straight up out of the deep sea to meet the feet of craggy hills and mountains crowned with woods4 ,between the heights were many narrow dells green with orchards1 while the gentler slopes were covered with vineyards1 and the steeps above them gave pasturage to flocks of long-wooled sheep and mountain-climbing goats4--,,james ,,baldwin3 ,a ,story of the ,golden ,age4 ,here the first sentence shows that the paragraph is to be about the beauty of the island4 #b4 ,upon the ridge above our tent was a third tiny clearing1 where some trappers had once made their winter camp4 ,it was there that ,i watched the rabbits one moonlight night from my seat on an old log1 just within the shadow at the edge of the opening4 ,the first arrival came in with a rush4 ,there was a sudden scurry behind me1 and over the log he came with a flying leap that landed him on the smooth bit of ground in the middle1 where he whirled around and around with grotesque jumps1 like a kitten after its tail4 ,only ,br'er ,rabbit's tail was too short for him ever to catch it2 he seemed rather to be trying to get a good look at it4 ,then he went off helter-skelter in a headlong rush through the ferns4 ,before ,i knew what had become of him1 over the log he came again in a marvelous jump1 and went tearing around the clearing like a circus horse1 varying his performance now by a high leap1 now by two or three awkward hops on his hind legs1 like a dancing bear4 ,it was immensely entertaining4--,,william ,j4 ,,long3 ,ways of ,wood ,folk4 ,here the first two sentences show that the paragraph is to be about watching rabbits in a clearing by moonlight4 #c4 ,soon after he was raised to the dignity of postmaster another piece of good fortune came in his way4 ,sangamon ,county covered a territory some forty miles long by fifty wide1 and almost every citizen in it seemed intent on buying or selling land1 laying out new roads1 or locating some future city4 ,john ,calhoun1 the county surveyor1 therefore1 found himself with far more work than he could personally attend to1 and had to appoint deputies to assist him4 ,learning the high esteem in which ,lincoln was held by the people of ,new ,salem1 he wisely concluded to make him a deputy1 although they differed in politics4 ,it was a flattering offer1 and ,lincoln accepted gladly4 ,of course he knew almost nothing about surveying1 but he got a compass and chain1 and1 as he tells us1 studied ,flint and ,gibson a little1 and went at it4 ,the surveyor1 who was a man of talent and education1 not only gave ,lincoln the appointment1 but1 it is said1 lent him the book in which to study the art4 ,lincoln carried the book to his friend ,graham1 and went at it to such purpose that in six weeks he was ready to begin the practice of his new profession4 ,like ,washington1 who1 it will be remembered1 followed the same calling in his youth1 he became an excellent surveyor4--,,helen ,,nicolay3 ,the ,boys' ,life of ,abraham ,lincoln4 ,here the first sentence shows that the paragraph is to be about a new piece of good fortune in ,lincoln's life4 ,when you are writing a composition in a single paragraph1 you will find the topic sentence very useful4 ,in no other way can you so quickly give the reader a notion of what to expect4 ,but it is not necessary always to begin with a topic sentence4 ,what is important is that you begin with a hint that will turn the reader's thoughts in the right direction4 ,look at the beginnings of several paragraphs in your reader1 and you will see how the hint is given4 ,exercise #bh4--,what do the opening sentences in the following paragraphs show8 #a4 ,one cold morning early in ,december1 #ahjj1 a party of tourists was crossing the ,alps1--a pretty large party1 too1 for there were several thousands of them4 ,some were riding1 some walking1 and most of them had knapsacks on their shoulders like many ,alpine tourists nowadays4 ,but instead of walking sticks1 they carried muskets with bayonets1 and dragged along with them some fifty or sixty cannons4 #b4 ,there was one among them who seemed quite to enjoy the rough marching and tramping along through the deep snow and cold gray mist4 ,this was a little drummer boy ten years old1 whose fresh1 rosy face looked very bright and pretty among the grim1 scarred visages of the old soldiers4 ,when the cutting wind hurled a shower of snow in his face1 he dashed it away with a cheery laugh1 and awoke all the echoes with a lively rattle on his drum1 till it seemed as if the huge black rocks around were all singing in chorus4 #c4 ,ezekiel made the first plea4 ,his argument was a strong one against all wild and destructive animals in general1 and against this woodchuck in particular4 ,he called attention to the damage which had been done already to the growing vegetables1 and to the further mischief which might be done if the animal were set free4 #d4 ,between two cliffs lay a deep ravine1 with a full stream rolling heavily through it over bowlders and rough ground4 ,it was high and steep1 and one side was bare1 save at the foot1 where clustered a thick1 fresh wood1 so close to the stream that the mist from the water lay upon the foliage in spring and autumn4 ,the trees stood looking upwards and forwards1 unable to move either way4 ,exercise #bi4--,supply topic sentences for the following paragraphs3-- #a4 ,he ,george ,washington was very tall1 powerfully made1 with a strong1 handsome face4 ,he was remarkably muscular and powerful4 ,as a boy1 he was a leader in all outdoor sports4 ,no one could fling the bar farther than he1 and no one could ride more difficult horses4 #b4 ,it the old-fashioned school is a large1 dingy room1 with a sanded floor1 and is lighted by windows that turn on hinges1 and have little diamond-shaped panes of glass4 ,the scholars sit on long benches1 with desks before them4 ,at one end of the room is a great fireplace1 so spacious that there is room enough for three or four boys to stand in each of the chimney corners4 #c4 ,the hall of the ,imperial library is two hundred and forty-five feet long1 with a magnificent dome in the center4 ,the walls are of variegated marble1 richly ornamented with gold1 and the ceiling and dome are covered with brilliant fresco paintings4 ,the library numbers three hundred thousand volumes and sixteen thousand manuscripts1 which are kept in walnut cases1 adorned with medallions4 #d4 ,the ,country ,boy's ,vacation4 ,when school keeps he has only to do chores and go to school1 but between terms there are a thousand things on the farm that have been left for the boys to do4 ,picking up stones in the pastures and piling them in heaps used to be one of them4 #e4 ,recess in a ,country ,school4 ,he is like a deer2 he can nearly fly2 and he throws himself into play with entire self-forgetfulness1 and an energy that would overturn the world if his strength were proportioned to it4 ,for ten minutes the world is absolutely his2 the weights are taken off1 restraints are loosed1 and he is his own master4 ,exercise #cj4--,write short paragraphs to complete three of the following topic sentences3-- #a4 ,from the summit of the hill they saw the sun set4 #b4 ,when the flames were out1 we saw how great the damage was4 #c4 ,in a moment1 the storm was upon them4 #d4 ,at ten years old1 ,i was taken to help my father in his business4 #e4 ,it was a beautiful little craft4 #f4 ,there stood ,lincoln1 a remarkable figure4 #g4 ,it was market day4 #h4 ,close by the roadside stands a little schoolhouse4 #i4 ,in the year #aggf a remarkable event occurred4 #aj4 ,his attention was arrested by a dove1 pursued by a kingbird4 #aa4 ,unity in the ,paragraph4--,in your study of the sentence1 you learned that every good sentence must have unity2 that is1 that the thoughts included in a sentence must be very closely associated4 ,you are now to learn that every good paragraph must likewise have unity4 ,a paragraph1 whether it be long or short1 has unity when it treats of but a single topic4 ,the topic sentence will be a great help to you in giving your paragraphs unity4 ,you will not be so apt to jumble into one paragraph material that should be placed in two or three1 if you will1 before you begin to write1 decide upon the subject of your paragraph and make a topic sentence for it4 ,you can test the unity of your paragraph by asking with respect to each sentence that you construct1 ,does it relate to the subject of my paragraph8 ,exercise #ca4--,the following paragraphs lack unity4 ,how many topics are treated in each8 #a4 ,in the ,german land of ,wrtemberg lies the little town of ,marbach4 ,although this place can be ranked only among the smaller towns1 it is charmingly situated on the ,neckar stream1 that flows on and on1 hurrying past villages and old castles to pour its waters into the proud ,rhine4 ,it was late in autumn4 ,the leaves still clung to the grapevine1 but they were already tinged with red4 ,rainy gusts swept over the country1 and the cold autumn winds increased in violence4 #b4 ,cecelia's home was an old family mansion situated in the midst of a pleasant farm4 ,this was inclosed by willow hedges and a broad and gently murmuring river2 nearer the house were groves with rocky knolls and breezy bowers of beech4 ,cecelia's bosom friend at school was ,alice ,archer2 and after they left school1 the love between them rather increased than diminished4 #c4 ,alice ,archer was a delicate girl with a pale transparent complexion and large gray eyes that seemed to see visions4 ,her figure was slight1 almost fragile2 her hands white and slender4 ,the old house in which she lived with her mother1 with four sickly ,lombardy poplars in front1 suggested gloomy and mournful thoughts4 ,it was one of those places that depress you as you enter4 ,one other inmate the house had1 and only one4 ,this was ,sally ,manchester1 the cook4 ,she was an extraordinary woman of large frame and masculine features1--one of those who are born to work4 ,a treasure she was to this family4 #d4 ,far out in the sea the water is as blue as the petals of the most beautiful corn-flowers1 and as clear as the purest glass4 ,but it is very deep1 deeper than any cable will sound2 and down there live the sea people4 ,the ,sea ,king had been a widower for many years4 ,his old mother kept house for him and his daughters1 the little sea princesses4 #e4 ,shylock1 the ,jew1 lived at ,venice4 ,he was a usurer1 who had amassed an immense fortune by lending money at great interest to ,christian merchants4 ,being a hard-hearted man1 he was much disliked by all good men4 ,antonio was the kindest man that lived1 the best loved1 and had the most unwearied spirit in doing courtesies4 ,he was greatly beloved by all his fellow-citizens2 but the friend who was nearest to his heart was ,bassanio1 a noble young ,venetian4 ,one day1 ,bassanio came to ,antonio and told him that he wished to repair his fortune by a wealthy marriage with a lady whom he dearly loved4 #ab4 ,the ,body of the ,paragraph4--,we are to begin with a topic sentence1 or with a sentence that gives some hint of what is to follow4 ,and what next8 ,next comes the body of the paragraph1 the real paragraph1 the idea we had in mind to express4 ,the best plan to follow in the making of your paragraph is this3-- #a4 ,write brief notes of your material on the topic you have in mind1 and make sure that it all bears directly on the topic4 #b4 ,arrange these notes in the order that would be most natural and intelligible to the reader4 #c4 ,find a good topic sentence4 #d4 ,write the paragraph according to the plan arranged4 ,,example ,i4 ,subject of paragraph3 ,the ,long-spurred ,columbine4 ,a4 ,material3 #a4 ,native of the ,rocky ,mountains4 #b4 ,blooms abundantly4 #c4 ,grows on shady slopes4 #d4 ,color--blue1 white1 occasionally pink1 never red4 #e4 ,sepals--ovate with slender spurs1 spreading2 double length of the petals with which they alternate4 #f4 ,petals--round and lighter in color than sepals4 #g4 ,size--three inches broad4 #h4 ,beauty--so great that it has been introduced into gardens4 ,in this example1 the material has fallen of its own accord into a good order3 general statements1 #a1 #b1 #c2 color1 #d2 form1 #e1 #f2 size1 #g2 beauty1 #h4 ,in this case1 therefore1 it will not be necessary to rearrange the material4 ,b4 ,topic sentence3 ,the long-spurred columbine is an exquisite flower4 ,c4 ,whole paragraph3 ,the long-spurred columbine is an exquisite flower4 ,it is a native of the ,rocky ,mountains1 where it blooms abundantly on shady slopes4 ,it often wears a blue gown2 it also wears white and occasionally pink1 but never red4 ,the ovate sepals1 with their slender spurs1 are spreading1 and double the length of the round1 lighter-colored petals with which they alternate4 ,in size it is quite three inches across4 ,it is so beautiful that it has been introduced into many gardens4 ,,example ,,ii4 ,subject of paragraph3 ,emigration to ,california in #ahdi4 ,a4 ,material3 #a4 ,in '#di1 gold fever reaches ,eastern states4 #b4 ,rush for ,west4 #c4 ,eighty thousand men reach ,california before end of year4 #d4 ,a few gain riches4 #e4 ,the greater part barely make a living by exhaustive toil4 #f4 ,hardships of journey across ,isthmus of ,panama and across continent 7overland route74 #g4 ,san ,francisco1 from an insignificant settlement1 sprang into city of twenty thousand inhabitants4 ,b4 ,material rearranged3 #a4 ,in #ahdi--;gold fever reaches ,eastern states4 #b4 ,rush for ,west4 #c4 ,hardships of journey4 #d4 ,eighty thousand men reach ,california4 #e4 ,san ,francisco's rapid growth4 #f4 ,a few gain riches4 #g4 ,the greater number barely make a living by their exhausting toil4 ,notice that #f has been made #c4 ,the hardships of the journey should naturally be described before the facts about the arrival are given4 ,c4 ,topic sentence3 ,in #ahdi the gold fever reached the ,eastern states1 and a great rush of emigration began1 both by land and by sea4 ,d4 ,whole paragraph3 ,in #ahdi the gold fever reached the ,eastern states1 and a great rush of emigration began both by land and by sea4 ,many died of sickness contracted in crossing the ,isthmus of ,panama2 multitudes more perished on the overland route across the continent4 ,notwithstanding the hardships and loss of life1 over eighty thousand men succeeded in reaching ,california before the end of the year4 ,from an insignificant settlement ,san ,francisco suddenly sprang into a city of twenty thousand inhabitants4 ,a few of these emigrants gained the riches they so eagerly sought1 but the greater part barely made a living by the most exhausting toil4 ,,example ,,iii4 ,subject of paragraph3 ,president ,lincoln's ,call for ,volunteers4 ,a4 ,material3 #a4 ,lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand volunteers ,april #ae1 #ahfa4 #b4 ,wishes them to serve three months4 #c4 ,within thirty-six hours several companies from ,pennsylvania had reached ,washington4 #d4 ,men of all parties at the ,north forgot their political quarrels and hastened to the defense of the capital4 #e4 ,the ,sixth ,massachusetts ,regiment was the first full regiment to march4 #f4 ,few supposed the war would last longer than three months4 #g4 ,the ,sixth ,massachusetts speedily followed the ,pennsylvania regiments4 ,b4 ,material rearranged3 #a4 ,lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand volunteers ,april #ae1 #ahfa4 #b4 ,for three months' service4 #c4 ,few supposed the war would last longer4 #d4 ,men of all parties at ,north forgot their political quarrels and hastened to the defense of the capital4 #e4 ,within thirty-six hours several ,pennsylvania regiments had reached ,washington4 #f4 ,the ,sixth ,massachusetts was the first full regiment to march4 #g4 ,the ,sixth ,massachusetts speedily followed the ,pennsylvania regiments4 ,c4 ,topic sentence3 ,on ,april #ae1 #ahfa1 ,president ,lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers4 ,d4 ,whole paragraph3 ,on ,april #ae1 #ahfa1 ,president ,lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers4 ,they were to enlist for only three months1 for few then supposed the war would last longer than that4 ,in response to the ,president's call1 men of all parties at the ,north forgot their political quarrels1 and hastened to the defense of the capital4 ,within thirty-six hours several companies from ,pennsylvania had reached ,washington4 ,they were speedily followed by the ,sixth ,massachusetts ,regiment--the first full regiment to march4 ,exercise #cb4--,make notes for completing the paragraphs suggested by the following topic sentences4 ,in arranging your notes1 you should follow some simple plan4 ,if you are writing a story1 for instance1 you will naturally follow the order of time1 and put things down in the order in which they occurred4 ,if you are writing a description of scenery1 you may mention the various objects in the order in which you saw them1 or in the order of place1 or in the order of importance4 ,if you are explaining something1 you will present facts in the order of their importance1 and according to their connection with each other1 always keeping in mind that you wish to make your explanation simple and clear4 #a4 ,the journey had been long and tiresome4 #b4 ,at sunset ,i stood on a hill1 overlooking the town4 #c4 ,the dew had not disappeared1 when1 just after sunrise1 ,i started out1 fishing rod in hand4 #d4 ,golden-rod is one of the most common and the most beautiful of our wayside flowers4 #ac4 ,too ,many ,paragraphs4--,sometimes matter that might be properly included in one paragraph is spread over two or three paragraphs1 as in the following passages3-- ,i4 ,as the ,hurons1 to every appearance1 had abandoned the pursuit1 there was no apparent reason for this excess of caution4 ,the flight was1 however1 maintained for hours1 until they had reached a bay1 near the northern termination of the lake4 ,here the canoe was driven upon the beach1 and the whole party landed4 ,,ii4 ,the ,duke of ,normandy landed in ,sussex1 in the year #ajff4 ,he had an army of sixty thousand chosen men1 for accomplishing his bold enterprise4 ,many gallant knights who were not his subjects joined him1 in the hope of obtaining fame in arms and estates1 if his enterprise should prosper4 ,exercise #cc4--,write the following selection in three paragraphs4 ,state the subject of each paragraph4 ,burton ,holmes1 the lecturer1 says that the ,indians of ,alaska regard white men and canned goods as so closely associated that they are nearly synonymous4 ,wherever the white man is seen1 canned meats1 fruits1 and vegetables are found4 ,when ,mr4 ,holmes visited ,alaska recently1 he carried with him a phonograph4 ,this was exhibited to an old chief who had never seen a talking machine before4 ,when the machine was started1 and the sound of a human voice came from the trumpet1 the ,indian was much interested4 ,he listened gravely for a time1 then approached and peered into the trumpet4 ,when the machine finished its cylinder and stopped1 the ,indian pointed at it1 and smiling an expansive smile1 remarked1 ,huh6 ,him canned white man4 #ad4 ,the ,end of a ,paragraph4--,occasionally you will find that it is convenient to put at the end of a paragraph a sentence that will sum up your whole idea in a few words4 ,such a sentence is particularly useful when no topic sentence has been used4 ,,examples3-- #a4 ,the great error in ,rip's composition was a strong dislike of all kinds of profitable labor4 ,it could not be from the want of perseverance2 for he would sit on a wet rock1 with a rod as long and heavy as a lance1 and fish all day without a murmur1 even though he should not be encouraged by a single nibble4 ,he would carry a fowling piece on his shoulder for hours together1 trudging through woods and swamps1 and up hill and down dale1 to shoot a few squirrels or wild pigeons4 ,he would never refuse to assist a neighbor even in the roughest toil1 and was a foremost man at all country frolics for husking ,indian corn1 or building stone fences2 the women of the village1 too1 used to employ him to run their errands1 and to do such little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do for them4 ,in a word1 ,rip was ready to attend to anybody's business but his own2 but as to doing family duty1 and keeping his farm in order1 he found it impossible4--,,washington ,,irving3 ,rip ,van ,winkle4 #b4 ,i was fatigued with traveling1 rowing1 and want of rest2 ,i was very hungry1 and my whole stock of cash consisted of a ,dutch dollar and about a shilling in copper4 ,this latter ,i gave the people of the boat for my passage1 who at first refused it on account of my rowing2 but ,i insisted on their taking it4 ,a man is sometimes more generous when he has but a little money than when he has plenty1 perhaps through fear of being thought to have but little4--,,benjamin ,,franklin3 ,autobiography4 #c4 ,we are a part of the public1 and help to make its opinions and give it its power4 ,laws are practically useless unless the general sentiment of the community sanctions them4 ,the rules of great corporations prohibiting the use of liquor by employees are now enforced as they could not have been a few years ago4 ,they can be enforced now because of a growth of the belief that intoxicants are harmful1 and a growing demand that those intrusted with human lives and with great interests shall be clear of brain and reliable of hand4 ,public opinion is a power1 and it is one that we should help to form and help to use4 ,exercise #cd4--,make notes for paragraphs suggested by the following summary sentences3-- #a4 ,in a word1 it was a magnificent sight4 #b4 ,thus died a brave soldier4 #c4 ,it was a simple but a kindly act4 #d4 ,it was too late4 ,exercise #ce4--;,find summary sentences for the paragraphs suggested by the following notes3-- #a4 ,tom obliged to whitewash fence4--,holiday4--,other boys come for him4--,pretends to enjoy his task4--,refuses to let them help him4--,finally accepts bribe and lets the boys do his work4 ,summary sentence expressing an opinion of ,tom's cleverness4 #b4 ,autumn storm--rocky coast--high wind--big waves--dashing spray4 ,summary sentence expressing your pleasure or discomfort4 #c4 ,getting up early on a winter morning--unpleasant--dark--cold--sleepy4 ,summary sentence indicating your dislike4 #ae4 ,quotations4--,this is a convenient place to explain the punctuation of quotations4 ,quotations are direct when the exact words of the speaker or writer are repeated4 ,they are indirect when the thought is expressed without using the exact words4 #a4 ,direct4 ,good evening1 ,dance1 said the doctor1 with a nod4 ,and good evening to you1 ,jim4 ,what good wind brings you here8 #b4 ,indirect4 ,the doctor nodded1 said good evening to ,dance and ,jim1 and asked what good wind brought them there4 ,in writing down a conversation1 it is customary to make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself1 even if it consists of only a few words4 ,a direct quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks4 ,when a direct quotation is broken or separated by words which are not quoted1 each part of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks4 #a4 ,unbroken4 ,have you any money8 asked the baker4 #b4 ,broken4 ,run along1 said the woman1 kindly2 carry your bread home1 child4 ,the first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital letter4 ,if the quotation when unbroken is composed of two independent parts separated by a semicolon1 a semicolon 7not a comma7 should follow the author's words when the quotation is broken4 #a4 ,unbroken4 ,solomon said1 ,boast not thyself of to-morrow2 for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth4 #b4 ,broken4 ,boast not thyself of to-morrow1 said ,solomon2 for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth4 ,when a quotation is long or formally introduced1 it is usually preceded by a colon1 or by a colon and a dash4 #a4 ,nathan ,hale1 before he was executed1 spoke the following words3 ,i regret that ,i have only one life to give for my country4 #b4 ,in ,tennyson's ,bugle ,song we find the following beautiful lines3-- ,o love1 they die in yon rich sky1 ,they faint on hill1 or field1 or river2 ,our echoes roll from soul to soul ,and grow forever and forever4 ,exercise #cf4--,rewrite the following sentences1 putting in the quotation marks4 ,make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself4 #a4 ,the mother turned her head as ,alice entered1 and said1 ,who is it8 ,is it you1 ,alice8 ,yes1 it is ,i1 mother4 ,where have you been so long8 ,i have been nowhere1 dear mother4 ,i have come directly home from church4 ,how long it seems to me6 ,it is very late4 ,it is growing quite dark4 ,i was just going to call for the lights4 ,why1 mother6 exclaimed ,alice1 in a startled tone1 what do you mean8 ,the sun is shining directly into your face6 ,impossible1 my dear ,alice4 ,it is quite dark4 ,i cannot see you4 ,where are you8 ,alice leaned over her mother and kissed her4 ,both were silent1--both wept4 ,they knew that the hour1 so long looked forward to with dismay1 had suddenly come4 ,mrs4 ,archer was blind6 #b4 ,yonder comes ,moses4 ,as she spoke1 ,moses came in on foot1 sweating under the deal box1 which he had strapped round his shoulders like a peddler4 ,welcome1 welcome1 ,moses2 well1 my boy1 what have you brought us from the fair8 ,i have brought you myself1 cried ,moses1 with a sly look1 and resting the box on the dresser4 ,ah1 ,moses1 cried my wife1 that we know1 but where is the horse8 ,i have sold him1 cried ,moses1 for three pounds five shillings and twopence4 ,well done1 my good boy1 returned she4 ,between ourselves1 three pounds five shillings and twopence is no bad day's work4 ,come1 let us have it1 then4 ,i have brought back no money1 cried ,moses again4 ,i have laid it all out in a bargain1 and here it is1 pulling out a bundle from his breast2 here they are1 a gross of green spectacles1 with silver rims and shagreen cases4 ,a gross of green spectacles6 repeated my wife in a faint voice4 ,and you have parted with the colt1 and bought us back nothing but a gross of green paltry spectacles6 ,dear mother1 cried the boy1 why won't you listen to reason8 ,they were a dead bargain1 or ,i should not have bought them4 ,exercise #cg4--;,change the following indirect quotations to direct quotations3-- #a4 ,the fir tree wished it were tall enough to go to sea1 and asked the stork to tell it what the sea looked like2 but the stork replied that it would take too much time to explain4 #b4 ,the little boy asked his grandmother whether the swarm of white bees had a queen bee and she replied that they certainly had4 #c4 ,rip asked in despair whether nobody there knew ,rip ,van ,winkle1 and some one answered that he stood leaning against a tree yonder4 ,rip looked1 and beheld a precise counterpart of himself as he went up the mountain4 ,the poor fellow was now completely confounded and wondered whether he was himself or another man4 ,in the midst of his bewilderment1 the man in the cocked hat demanded who he was and what was his name4 ,rip replied that he was not himself but somebody else1 and that he could not tell who he was4 ,exercise #ch4--,write from dictation4 #a4 ,a little daughter of a clergyman was not feeling well1 and had to be put to bed early4 ,mother1 she said1 ,i want to see my dear father4 ,no1 dear1 said her mother1 father is not to be disturbed just now4 ,presently came the pleading voice1 ,i want to see my father4 ,no1 dear1 was the answer1 ,i cannot disturb him4 ,then the four-year-old parishioner rose to the question of privilege4 ,mother1 said she1 ,i am sick woman1 and ,i want to see my minister4 #b4 ,one night my friend put up at a small country hotel4 ,the next morning1 at breakfast1 the landlord said to him1 ,did you enjoy the cornet playing in the room next to yours last night8 ,enjoy it6 my friend replied1 ,i should think not4 ,why1 ,i spent half the night pounding on the wall to make the man stop4 ,it must have been a misunderstanding1 said the landlord4 ,the cornet player told me that the person in the next room applauded him so heartily that he went over every piece he knew three times4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,words #af4 ,how ,we ,learn ,words4--,we have now for some time been studying about combinations of words1 but we have said very little about words themselves4 ,this was the proper course to follow1 for in our native language we need to be told about combinations of words more than about words themselves2 about these we cannot help finding out much by ourselves4 ,indeed1 it is life that teaches us words1--life and association with our fellows4 ,we could scarcely avoid learning rapidly the names which the people who speak our language have given to the multitude of actual things which we see and touch1 and the common words which are customary to express our feelings and thoughts with regard to these objects4 ,as we grow older and wiser1 and particularly if we associate with persons of intelligence and information1 and read widely in books of all sorts1 we become rapidly acquainted also with a great mass of words that have grown up to express the most abstract thoughts and the most delicate shades of feeling4 ,life1 then1 and association with our fellows1 and reading will bring to our knowledge1 in due course of time1 all the words we shall ever need to use4 ,there are a few hints to be given1 however1 which will be of service to you in this process of learning the customary words which the people of our race and nation use to express their thoughts and feelings4 #ag4 ,the ,size and ,character of the ,english ,vocabulary4--,we use the word vocabulary to express the total number of words used by a person or group of persons4 ,the ,english vocabulary1 then1 is the total number of words used by the people who write and speak ,english4 ,there are more than three hundred thousand such words collected in our dictionaries1 and the number is being added to every year4 ,no single person would be acquainted with all these words1 for many of them have been used only rarely1 or only among little groups of people1 or in connection with sciences not understood by the people at large4 ,the number of words that an intelligent and educated person would understand when he saw or heard them is not often more than sixty thousand2 the number of words that such a person would himself use is very much less--probably not1 as a rule1 more than twenty thousand4 ,a great many of our words come from the ,latin language1 and you will be greatly aided in your study of ,english words if you can learn something of that language4 #ah4 ,increasing ,one's ,vocabulary4--,it is clear1 then1 that you will greatly increase your vocabulary as you grow older and wiser4 ,it is also true1 in general1 that as your vocabulary grows you will grow1 to some extent1 in knowledge of the world4 ,it will be worth while for you1 therefore1 to get into the habit of learning new words4 ,this could1 of course1 be done by reading the dictionary 7and the dictionary is by no means an uninteresting volume to pick up from time to time71 but the more natural way is to reach this result by cultivating the habit of attention to words4 ,you might begin the habit by noticing accurately the names of things you see or handle1--of tools and implements1 birds1 animals1 and flowers2 the names of different colors and shades2 the names applied to persons to describe their duties and occupations4 ,exercise #ci4--,write as many words as possible that name3-- #a4 ,various trades and professions4 #b4 ,vehicles used on land4 #c4 ,boats 7from a man-of-war to a flatboat74 #d4 ,buildings--7a7 churches1 7b7 public buildings1 7c7 educational buildings1 7d7 buildings used for amusements4 #e4 ,parts of a bicycle4 #f4 ,tools4 #g4 ,birds4 #h4 ,flowers4 #i4 ,colors4 #aj4 ,musical instruments4 ,exercise #dj4--;,after each of the following nouns place a verb that describes the sound made by the animal mentioned4 ,sheep1 owls1 sparrows1 goats1 oxen1 frogs1 hens1 bears1 horses1 robins1 roosters1 doves1 lions1 parrots1 ravens1 monkeys1 elephants1 snakes4 ,exercise #da4--,notice the following words which might be used in describing some one's appearance3-- ,eyes3 bright1 dull1 sparkling1 clear1 heavy1 close-set1 shifting1 narrow1 honest1 gentle1 penetrating1 keen1 kindly1 expressive1 lovely1 hard4 ,forehead3 noble1 high1 receding1 low1 broad1 narrow1 well-shaped4 ,figure3 muscular1 wiry1 broad-shouldered1 well-proportioned1 slender1 thick-set1 stout1 short1 tall4 #a4 ,make a similar list to describe a person's disposition1 ability1 conversation4 #b4 ,make a list of the descriptive words used by ,longfellow in ,the ,village ,blacksmith4 ,exercise #db4--;,find as many descriptions of winter as you can4 ,make lists of words used by the authors in describing it4 ,make lists of words that you might use in describing the following3 a picnic2 ,christmas night2 the weather2 the character of ,washington2 an old house2 a shell2 a feather2 a sunset2 ,mount ,washington2 a lily-of-the valley2 your favorite walk4 ,exercise #dc4--,the same scene may look very different to you at different times1--for instance1 a piece of woods which you visit in company with some merry boys and girls in search of spring flowers1 and the same woods in which you wander alone1 having lost your way4 ,select from the following list adjectives which you might use in writing the first description2 the second4 ,things described3 path1 leaves on the ground1 birds1 squirrels1 trees1 brook4 ,descriptive words3 lonely1 crisp1 solitary1 chattering1 moaning1 merry1 mournful1 timid1 scolding1 shady1 romantic1 charming1 singing1 sweet-voiced1 warning1 sobbing1 dismal1 gloomy4 ,exercise #dd4--;,compare the following3 #a4 ,new ,york ,harbor seen by a citizen of ,new ,york who is returning home after a long absence in some foreign country4 #b4 ,the same viewed by a homesick ,norwegian girl who has left all her friends in ,norway4 ,select some of your descriptive words from the following1 adding as many others as you feel that you need3 inhospitable1 gloomy1 cold1 hard1 welcome1 joyous1 sad1 bright1 glorious1 fearful1 lonely1 pathetic1 homesick4 ,exercise #de4--a4 ,the village bell is ringing4 ,describe the way it sounds to you on the following occasions3-- ,calling to church service on a clear1 sunny ,sabbath morning2 tolling for the death of a dear friend2 ringing in celebration of a victory 7suppose that we are at war with another country72 ringing to celebrate a wedding2 ringing the old year out1 and the new year in4 ,read ,the ,bells1 by ,edgar ,allan ,poe1 before writing4 #b4 ,write a paragraph telling how you felt when you heard that you were to have some unexpected pleasure4 #c4 ,imagine yourself living on the morning of ,april #ae1 #ahfe4 ,describe your feelings on learning of the death of ,lincoln4 #ai4 ,synonyms4--,synonyms are words which have the same or nearly the same meaning4 ,,examples3 ,liberal1 generous2 face1 countenance4 ,a knowledge of synonyms will be valuable to you in several ways4 ,first1 it will enable you to avoid the too frequent repetition of a word4 ,by using synonyms1 then1 you add variety to your writing4 ,when the walk is over there is abundance to think about2 and the ramble reviewed at night before the andirons is a repetition of the day's enjoyment4 ,if you will substitute walk for ramble in the preceding sentence1 you will see how much the sentence loses by not using the synonym4 ,exercise #df4--;,in each of the following fill each blank with an appropriate synonym of the italicized word in the same sentence3-- #a4 ,be astir at ----1 then1 and receive the greeting of that lover of the dawn1 the blackcap4 #b4 ,the ---- thickened1 so that now you waded through a condensation of gloom4 #c4 ,the thrush filled every lone pathway with its sweet music1 and ,i wondered that the world should hear so little of this woodside ----4 #d4 ,the sobering silence of the night was the subject of our conversation1 when suddenly a sad1 sweet song broke the ----4 #e4 ,in the city these conditions are not so well marked2 but beyond the ---- limits1 nature still rules4 #f4 ,it was just the day for a ramble1 and ,i was off early for an all-day ----4 #g4 ,the gale died away1 and he tried to go northward again2 but again came the ---- and swept him back into the waste4 #h4 ,and what became of the little ----1 the poor boy in the pretty town of ,marbach8 #i4 ,he comes up the stairs ---- and opens the door noiselessly4 #aj4 ,when the first week had passed1 the queen took little ,eliza into the country1 and but a short month had ---- when the king had entirely forgotten his little daughter4 ,exercise #dg4--;,in the following use a synonym in place of one of the underlined words3-- #a4 ,he has many wealthy friends1 although he is not a wealthy man himself4 #b4 ,at his first glimpse of the countenance1 ,ernest did fancy that there was a resemblance between it and the familiar countenance upon the mountain side4 #c4 ,celia considered that it would be unsafe for two young maids of rank to travel in their rich clothes2 she therefore proposed that they should dress like country maids4 #d4 ,when the servant of the house of ,montague met the servant of the house of ,capulet1 a quarrel ensued2 and frequent were the quarrels from such accidental meetings4 #e4 ,portia dressed herself and ,nerissa in men's apparel1 and putting on the apparel of a counselor1 she took ,nerissa with her as clerk and set out for ,venice4 #f4 ,portia now desired ,shylock to let her see the bond2 and when she had read it she desired him to be merciful4 #g4 ,the importance of the arduous task ,portia had engaged in gave her courage1 and she boldly proceeded to perform the task she had undertaken4 #h4 ,the lady expressed great sorrow at hearing this1 and said she wished to see the father of ,helena1 a young lady who was present4 #i4 ,the mourners sat in silence1 with only a smothered sob now and then to break the silence4 #aj4 ,she tried to comfort the sorrowful girl1 but could think of nothing that would comfort her4 ,exercise #dh4--a4 ,give one or more synonyms for each of the following words4 ,consult your dictionary4 ,dawn1 neglect1 perform1 astonish1 collect1 bestow1 appeal1 destroy1 attend1 grieve1 joy1 brilliance1 gloomy1 happy1 gentle1 calm1 excitable1 fond1 sweet1 simple1 just1 honorable1 gloaming1 bewilder4 #b4 ,rearrange the following list1 putting together all words that are synonyms3-- ,crime1 smite1 maid1 fault1 fervent1 labor1 reverence1 ardent1 instantly1 respect1 fraternal1 quickly1 work1 glowing1 entreat1 toil1 honor1 brotherly1 beg1 venerate1 beseech1 gloaming1 waste1 importune1 twilight1 squander1 glitter1 shine1 glisten1 sparkle1 offense1 girl1 strike1 lass1 sincere1 faithful1 transgression1 true1 desire1 wish4 ,a knowledge of synonyms1 then1 is valuable1 since it enriches your vocabulary and enables you to give variety to your writing4 ,there is still another way in which this knowledge may be useful to you1 ,there is generally some slight difference in meaning1 even in words classed as synonyms1 and a wise choice will enable you to express your thought with more exactness4 ,,example4 ,i frantically begged a knot of sailors not to let them perish before our eyes4 ,in the dictionary you will find the following synonyms for beg1 with an explanation of the different shades of meaning3 ask1 entreat1 beseech1 implore1 supplicate4 ,one asks what he feels he may fairly claim2 he begs for that to which he advances no claim but pity2 entreat implies a special earnestness of asking1 and beseech1 a still added and more humble intensity4 ,to implore is to ask with weeping and lamentation2 to supplicate is to ask1 as it were1 on bended knees4 7,standard ,dictionary47 ,it would be better1 then1 to write1-- ,i frantically implored a knot of sailors not to let them perish before our eyes4 ,exercise #di4--;,choose one of the synonyms given in each of the following sentences4 ,consult your dictionary to get the different shades of meaning4 #a4 ,they were making out to me1 in an agitated1 excited1 disturbed way that the lifeboat had been bravely manned an hour ago1 and could do nothing4 #b4 ,the thunder was loud and ceaseless1 incessant1 continuous4 #c4 ,i was perplexed1 confused1 distracted by the terrible sight4 #d4 ,the excited voice went calling1 crying1 clamoring along the staircase4 #e4 ,i was tired1 fatigued1 exhausted with traveling and want of rest4 #f4 ,i made a most awkward1 ridiculous1 absurd1 grotesque appearance4 #g4 ,a man is sometimes more generous1 liberal1 open-handed when he has but a little money than when he has plenty4 #h4 ,dost thou love life8 ,then do not squander1 waste1 spend time4 #i4 ,he continued1 admonished1 warned1 counseled1 advised me not to let so good an offer pass4 #aj4 ,the eagle listens to every sound1 looking1 gazing1 glancing now and then to the earth beneath4 ,exercise #ej4--;,fill the blanks below with words from the following groups of synonyms3-- ,i4 ,large1 colossal1 great1 big1 commodious1 huge1 vast1 capacious1 immense1 spacious1 huge4 #a4 ,joan of ,arc rode at the head of a ---- body of troops4 #b4 ,our world itself is a very ---- place4 #c4 ,if a ---- giant could travel all over the universe and gather worlds1 all as ---- as ours1 and were to make first a heap of merely ten such worlds1 how ---- it would be4 #d4 ,i pushed aside the heavy leathern curtain at the entrance1 and stood in the ---- nave4 ,the ---- cupola alone is sixty-five feet higher than the ,bunker ,hill ,monument1 and the four ---- pillars on which it rests are each one hundred and thirty-seven feet in circumference4 ,the awe ,i felt in looking up at the ---- arch of marble and gold did not humble me4 #e4 ,the old lady drew a package of peppermints from her ---- pocket4 #f4 ,he lived in a ---- mansion with ---- rooms4 ,,ii4 ,tiny1 little1 small1 diminutive1 minute4 #a4 ,the ,lilliputians were a very ---- people4 #b4 ,each ---- point was carefully explained4 #c4 ,i met a ---- cottage girl4 #d4 ,far away in the forest1 grew a pretty ---- fir tree4 #e4 ,the lame boy was so ---- that they called him ---- ,tim4 ,exercise #ea4--;,consult your dictionary to get the exact meaning of each word in the following two groups of synonyms4 ,insert words in the blanks1 using each word but once4 #a4 ,funny1 odd1 strange1 queer1 grotesque1 peculiar4 #b4 ,brave1 bold1 daring1 fearless1 courageous1 reckless4 #a4 ,he told us of many ---- happenings4 #b4 ,the bird has a ---- cry4 #c4 ,we laughed at the ---- story4 #d4 ,what an ---- stick he is1 to be sure4 #e4 ---- faces were carved over the door4 #f4 ,it is a ---- coincidence4 #g4 ,he was a ---- bad man4 #h4 ,the ---- soldier was foremost in the fray4 #i4 ,the ---- deed was applauded4 #aj4 ,he is a ---- man1 and never considers consequences4 #aa4 ,he seems to be perfectly ----4 #ab4 ,the fireman received a medal for his ---- act4 ,exercise #eb4--;,do you see any difference in meaning in the pairs of words given below8 ,write sentences using each correctly4 ,artist1 artisan2 healthy1 healthful2 bring1 fetch2 applause1 praise2 propose1 purpose2 in1 into2 distinct1 clear2 few1 little2 defend1 protect2 thankful1 grateful2 right1 privilege2 occasion1 opportunity2 custom1 habit2 brutal1 brutish2 temperance1 abstinence2 exile1 banish2 excuse1 apology2 duty1 obligation2 doubt1 suspense2 price1 worth2 interfere1 interpose2 surprised1 astonished2 flexible1 pliable4 #bj4 ,accuracy in the ,use of ,words4--,accuracy in the use of words comes from practice4 ,it is better to blunder by using a word without a complete knowledge of its meaning than to be afraid to use any but the commonest words4 ,some words sound very much alike and yet have very different meanings1 and some words are so nearly alike in meaning that it is almost or quite impossible to define the difference between them1 though we may perhaps feel it4 ,all that we can do1 then1 is simply to go on learning1 using new words as fast as we get fairly well acquainted with them1 and depending upon our teachers and older friends to point out to us when we are wrong4 ,what we must avoid is the stupid habit of using words thoughtlessly1 after the manner of the blundering ,mrs4 ,malaprop in ,sheridan's ,rivals1 who said3-- ,i would by no means wish a daughter of mine to be a progeny of learning2 ,i don't think so much learning becomes a young woman4444 ,as she grew up1 ,i would have her instructed in geometry that she might know something of the contagious countries2 but above all1 ,sir ,anthony1 she should be mistress of orthodoxy1 that she might not misspell and mispronounce words so shamefully as girls usually do2 and likewise that she might reprehend the true meaning of what she is saying4 ,this1 ,sir ,anthony1 is what ,i would have a woman know2 and ,i don't think there is a superstitious article in it4 ,exercise #ec4--;,distinguish between the meaning of the following words3 luxuriant and luxurious2 effect and affect2 disease and decease2 descent and dissent2 principal and principle2 suspect and expect2 sensuous and sensible2 allude and elude2 noted and notorious2 emigrant and immigrant2 ovation and innovation2 torpid and tepid4 #ba4 ,figures of ,speech4--,there is a strange way we all have of using words in a sense different from that of ordinary expression4 ,we say1 for example1 that a brave soldier was a lion4 ,of course1 he was not a lion actually2 he merely had certain qualities which we think lions have to a particularly great degree1 that is1 strength and courage4 ,in the same way1 especially in joke1 we may speak of a person as an ass1 a mule1 a fox1 a goose1 an elephant1 etc4 ,or1 instead of saying that a soldier fought bravely1 we may say that he fought like a lion1 and similarly1 that he was as stubborn as a mule1 as keen as a fox1 etc4 ,we thus say either what a thing is not1 or what it is like1 instead of what it is4 ,such expressions are called figures 7that is1 forms7 of speech4 ,in a metaphor1 one thing is called by the name of another4 ,in a simile1 one thing is said to be like another4 ,we use both the metaphor and the simile quite frequently and naturally in our ordinary speech and writing1 particularly when our feelings are aroused in any way4 #a4 ,bread is the staff of life4 7,metaphor47 #b4 ,the ground was an oven floor2 and the breeze that passed by1 the breath of a furnace4 7,metaphor47 #c4 ,his eye glowed like a fiery spark4 7,simile47 #d4 ,the carded wool1 like a snowdrift1 was piled at her knee4 7,simile47 ,exercise #ed4--,pick out the metaphors and similes in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,in this world a man must either be anvil or hammer4 #b4 ,he beheld the lights in the houses1 shining like stars in the dusk and mist of the evening4 #c4 ,hearty and hale was he1 an oak that is covered with snowflakes4 #d4 ,their lives glide on like rivers that water the woodland4 #e4 ,their hearts leaped like the roe1 when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman4 #f4 ,life is a sheet of paper white4 #g4 ,her eyes are stars2 her voice is music4 #h4 ,a fat little steamer rolled itself along like a sailor on shore4 #i4 ,he glared at us like a tiger out of a jungle4 #aj4 ,cornwallis1 speaking of ,washington1 said he would bag the old fox in the morning4 #aa4 ,he is a little chimney and heated hot in a moment4 #ab4 ,john is the black sheep of the family4 #ac4 ,she is like a gleam of sunlight on a dark day4 #ad4 ,pleasant words are as a honeycomb1 sweet to the soul and health to the bones4 #ae4 ,her heart is as pure as the lilies4 ,exercise #ee4--;,change the following similes and metaphors to plain language3-- #a4 ,he is a ,samson4 #b4 ,he is a wet blanket4 #c4 ,they are a pair of turtle doves4 #d4 ,never cross bridges until you come to them4 #e4 ,he is a tower of strength4 #f4 ,you are pure gold4 #g4 ,night's candles are burnt out4 #h4 ,he is unstable as water4 #i4 ,he carries the world on his shoulders4 #aj4 ,what a bear he is6 #aa4 ,that is a hard nut to crack4 #ab4 ,don't be a dog in the manger4 #ac4 ,mother nature laughs around4 #ad4 ,don't rub him the wrong way4 #ae4 ,the ,roman mother said of her children1 ,these are my jewels4 ,exercise #ef4--;,find similes or metaphors to express the following3-- #a4 ,time passes quickly4 #b4 ,her eyes are very bright4 #c4 ,the boat moved rapidly through the water4 #d4 ,she sings very sweetly4 #e4 ,the wind makes a sound in the tops of the pines4 #f4 ,he is very cross4 #g4 ,they are exceedingly poor4 #h4 ,do not find fault with a gift4 #i4 ,her hair is fine and soft4 #aj4 ,the night was very dark4 ,exercise #eg4--;,i4 ,compare the two following passages4 ,notice how the account of the beginning of the boat race loses in force by the changes from figurative language to plain language4 #a4 ,hark6 the first gun4 ,the report sent ,tom's heart into his mouth4 ,the crowds on the bank began to be agitated by the shadow of the coming excitement4 ,long before the sound of the starting-gun can roll up the river1 the pent-up life and energy which has been held in leash is let loose4 #b4 ,hark6 the first gun4 ,the report made ,tom nervous4 ,the crowds on the bank began to be agitated by the thought of the coming excitement4 ,long before the sound of the starting-gun can be heard up the river1 the life and energy which has been checked is released4 ,,ii4 ,rewrite the following1 changing the similes and metaphors to plain language4 ,notice how much the paragraph loses in force4 ,isn't he grand1 the captain1 as he comes forward like lightning1 stroke after stroke8 ,as the space narrows1 the fiery little cockswain's eyes flash with excitement4 ,exercise #eh4--,rewrite the following1 using two or more similes or metaphors3-- ,the first snow came4 ,it covered the brown fields and green meadows4 ,it protected the roots of the plants hidden under it4 ,it was very white and clean4 ,it covered the bushes and trees and fences with a soft white covering4 ,exercise #ei4--,write sentences comparing the descent of an eagle upon its prey to the fall of a thunderbolt2 the falling of rain to weeping2 a cheerful face to a sunbeam2 the loss of hope to the setting of the sun2 a modest little girl to a violet2 a sailing vessel to a bird2 dandelions to pieces of gold2 a good book to a friend2 a burst of anger to a storm2 old age to sunset4 ,exercise #fj4--,write a paragraph describing something you have seen in nature1--a brook1 a meadow where cattle are grazing1 a field of daisies1 a waterfall1 or anything else you may choose4 ,try to use at least one metaphor or simile4 #bb4 ,mistakes in the ,use of ,words4--,let us now consider the principal errors which we are likely to make with regard to words4 #bc4 ,spelling4--,if our letters corresponded exactly to our ,english sounds1 we could all spell fairly well1 because we could use the symbols that answered to our pronunciation4 ,but our letters do not agree well with our sounds2 and there are many oddities and inconsistencies which cause the young student a great deal of trouble4 ,many plans have been proposed for simplifying our spelling1 and it is to be hoped that eventually some wise scheme will be generally adopted1 but that is not likely to come to pass for many years1 and in the meantime we must follow the established custom4 ,if we do not learn to spell in this way1 we run the risk of being thought unintelligent and uneducated4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 students of your age are already over the worst of their troubles in this respect4 ,all they have to do is to pay careful attention to the form of words as they read1 and to keep a list of the words which they spell incorrectly in their own compositions1 making sure that they do not make the same mistake a second time4 ,a set of rules which will be of service to you will be found in the ,appendix4 #bd4 ,slang4--,by slang we mean strange words or expressions1 not employed in serious or dignified composition1 whether written or spoken4 ,they are sometimes used in conversation1 largely in jest1 by persons of intelligence and education1 but more generally by persons of defective education1 who are not really acquainted with the forms of the language used by the educated classes4 ,there can be no great objection to playing with words on occasions where play is appropriate1 particularly when the speakers are young or full of boisterous fun4 ,it is1 however1 unwise for young students to get the habit of thus playing with words so firmly established that they play when they should be serious1 or that they become unfamiliar with really good ,english4 ,particular care should be taken to avoid slang that is vulgar or coarse4 ,here is an extract which is intended to represent the natural and playful speech of a boy of high spirits3-- ,i say1 ,east1 can't we get something else besides potatoes8 ,i've got lots of money1 you know4 ,bless us1 yes1 ,i forgot1 said ,east1 you've only just come4 ,you see all my tin's been gone this twelve weeks4 ,i've got a tick at ,sally's1 of course2 but then ,i hate running it high1 you see1 toward the end of the half1 because one has to shell out for it all directly one comes back1 and that's a bore4 ,well1 what shall ,i buy8 said ,tom1 ,i'm hungry4 ,i say1 said ,east1 you're a trump1 ,brown4 ,i'll do the same by you next half4 ,let's have a pound of sausages1 then2 that's the best grub for tea ,i know of4--,,thomas ,,hughes3 ,tom ,brown's ,schooldays4 ,there is a certain vigor and picturesqueness of expression here1 and it would be absurd to expect boys1 on all occasions1 to speak like dictionaries4 ,on the other hand1 you will readily see that the italicized expressions in the following sentences would be wholly inappropriate in serious written composition4 #a4 ,john made a bad break4 #b4 ,your new hat is simply immense4 #c4 ,i think that's the limit4 #d4 ,children should take a back seat4 #e4 ,he passed in his checks4 #f4 ,that's only a bluff4 #g4 ,he's a big chump4 #h4 ,the people made a big kick4 #i4 ,that boy is a fresh kid4 #aj4 ,he chucked the tea overboard4 ,exercise #fa4--,rewrite the sentences given above1 substituting correct ,english for the slang words or expressions4 ,what slang expression do you use most frequently8 ,write a paragraph explaining exactly what you mean by it4 ,exercise #fb4--,point out the exaggeration in the use of the italicized words by giving the meaning of the word4 ,suggest words which might be substituted for them4 #a4 ,we had an awfully good time4 #b4 ,butter is frightfully dear4 #c4 ,i'm terribly tired4 #d4 ,we were horribly bored4 #e4 ,he is tremendously pleased4 #f4 ,this is a magnificent lead pencil4 #g4 ,you are fearfully late this morning4 #h4 ,i adore chocolate fudge4 #i4 ,this is beautiful jelly cake4 #aj4 ,what a splendid apple6 #be4 ,errors in the ,forms of ,words4--,the following exercises will give you practice in the forms of words in which young students most often make mistakes4 ,exercise #fc4--,write sentences containing the following3-- ,babies'1 women's1 boy's1 boys'1 girl's1 children's1 man's1 men's1 girls'1 baby's1 cats'1 cat's4 ,exercise #fd4--,write from dictation3-- #a4 ,the dog returns at ,john's call and rubs against his legs4 ,he waits while his master's horse is dozing at the post1 and his master talks within1 and gossips with the other dogs1 who are snapping at the flies4 ,nobody knows how many dogs' characters are destroyed in this gossip4 #b4 ,malcolm entered the ladies' cabin and looked for a seat4 ,a baby1 who was pulling impatiently at its mother's dress1 suddenly ran to him1 crying1 ,baby's papa1--to his great embarrassment4 #c4 ,it's now midnight4 #d4 ,olive's skates are with ,alice's4 #e4 ,yours is not so well prepared as ours4 #f4 ,read ,dickens's ,christmas ,carol4 ,exercise #fe4--;,i4 ,fill the blanks with ,i or me4 ,give reasons for your choice4 #a4 ,his lecture gave pleasure to ,frank and ----4 #b4 ,he is cleverer than ----4 #c4 ,this is for you and ----4 #d4 ,henry and ---- went driving4 #e4 ,is it you8 ,it is ----4 #f4 ,may ,ethel and ---- remain after school8 #g4 ,there is an agreement between you and ----4 #h4 ,this story was read by ----4 #i4 ,my sister and ---- were traveling through ,yellowstone ,park4 ,,ii4 ,fill the blanks with we or us3-- #a4 ---- girls have formed a society4 #b4 ,he gave ---- boys permission to leave early4 #c4 ,was it ---- whom you saw8 #d4 ,you know that as well as ----4 #e4 ,you are far nobler than ----4 #f4 ,you can do it better than ----4 #g4 ,he has promised to take our cousin and ---- to the circus4 #h4 ,he wishes to give ---- pleasure4 ,,iii4 ,fill the blanks with he or him3-- #a4 ,it was ----4 #b4 ,all except ---- came early4 #c4 ,i can do it as well as ----4 #d4 ,who saw it first1 you or ----8 #e4 ,i have no time for children like you and ----4 #f4 ,what are you and ---- doing8 #g4 ,it was either ---- or ,james that did it4 #h4 ---- who had promised failed to fulfill his promise4 #i4 ,i thought it was ----4 #aj4 ,i should not like to be ----4 ,,iv4 ,fill the blanks with she or her3-- #a4 ,we gave ---- one more chance4 #b4 ---- and ,i are going4 #c4 ,you read better than ----4 #d4 ,can it be ----8 #e4 ,i am sure it is ----4 #f4 ,i will keep you and ----4 #g4 ---- and her friends have gone4 #h4 ,if ,i were ---- ,i would do it4 #i4 ,the fault lies between you and ----4 #aj4 ,i am going with ----4 ,v4 ,fill the blanks with they or them3-- #a4 ,we are as good as ----4 #b4 ,could it have been ----8 #c4 ,it was ----4 #d4 ---- and their company have gone4 #e4 ,we are not as well educated as ----4 ,,vi4 ,fill the blanks with who or whom3-- #a4 ---- are you to believe8 #b4 ---- do you think it was8 #c4 ,i like to help those ---- deserve it4 #d4 ,do you remember ---- you saw8 #e4 ,can you tell ---- to believe8 #f4 ---- can this be from8 #g4 ---- do you think this is8 #h4 ,i heard from a boy ---- was a pupil4 #i4 ,he invited all ---- he believed to be his friends4 #aj4 ,he saw a man ---- he supposed to be the minister4 #aa4 ,i gave it to the one ---- seemed to need it most4 #ab4 ,i hardly know ---- to believe4 #ac4 ,i have appointed a clerk ---- ,i believe can be trusted4 #ad4 ,we know ---- you are4 #ae4 ,mary1 ---- is my friend1 will certainly support me4 #af4 ,lincoln was the man ---- liberated the slaves4 #ag4 ,if ,i cannot believe in her1 in ---- can ,i believe8 #ah4 ,i will give it to the one ---- gets here first4 #ai4 ,they left me in doubt as to ---- it was4 #bj4 ,i have found my child ---- was lost4 #ba4 ,a man ---- ,i expected to meet failed to arrive4 #bb4 ,he spoke to the boy ---- he pitied4 #bc4 ,he helped the boy1 ---- had been deserted by his parents4 #bd4 ,he was a man ---- was greatly beloved4 #be4 ,helen1 ----1 ,i am told1 is the winner of the medal1 is a very studious child4 ,exercise #ff4--;,i4 ,use some form of verb set or sit3-- #a4 ---- the plant on the window sill4 #b4 ,he ---- the table4 #c4 ,the hen is ----4 #d4 ,harold is ---- out tomato plants4 #e4 ,the shepherds ---- on the ground in a row4 #f4 ,they were ---- there at nightfall4 #g4 ,he ---- in the front seat4 #h4 ,she was ---- by the fire4 #i4 ,we ---- under the sycamore tree4 ,h4 ,use some form of lie or lay3-- ,i4 ---- still and rest4 #b4 ,he ---- under the lilac bush4 #c4 ,he was ---- there when ,i arrived4 #d4 ,we ---- her in the cold1 moist earth4 #e4 ,mary1 ---- on the couch4 #f4 ,the men are ---- a board walk4 #g4 ,we have ---- our plan4 #h4 ,the ship is ---- in the harbor4 #i4 ,she has ---- there since seven o'clock4 ,,iii4 ,use some form of do3-- #a4 ,my work is ----4 #b4 ,he ---- 7past tense7 his work well4 #c4 ,we ---- 7past tense7 our duty4 #d4 ,has he ---- it yet8 #e4 ,you---- 7past tense7 it4 ,,iv4 ,use some form of bring or take3-- #a4 ,horace ---- his teacher a rose4 #b4 ,miss ,klein ---- it home with her4 #c4 ,frank1 --- -me your book4 #d4 ,he ---- it to me4 #e4 ,he has ---- it to me4 #f4 ,he ---- his dog into the garden4 #g4 ,he has ---- it home4 ,v4 ,use some form of learn and teach3-- #a4 ---- me to sew4 #b4 ,mother has ---- me to knit4 #c4 ,i have ---- how to sew4 #d4 ,i am ---- how to cook4 #e4 ,she ---- her brother how to skate4 #f4 ,she is ---- him to be fearless4 ,,vi4 ,use some form of see3-- #a4 ,i ---- the sunset4 #b4 ,i have ---- the sunset4 #c4 ,he has ---- the procession4 #d4 ,he ---- it now4 ,,vii4 ,use correctly in sentences see1 saw1 seen4 ,,viii4 ,use in sentences all forms of the following verbs3-- ,go1 drive1 break1 do1 ring1 run1 bring1 lie1 lay1 sit1 set1 teach1 read1 know1 take4 ,,ix4 ,change the form of the verbs below from present to perfect or past perfect3-- #a4 ,the boy runs rapidly4 #b4 ,the old man rings the bell at sundown4 #c4 ,i saw the lights of the village4 #d4 ,tiny ,tim sings very sweetly4 #e4 ,we sit by the fire in the gloaming4 #f4 ,mr4 ,towne teaches drawing4 #g4 ,mary reads well4 #h4 ,he lays fresh flowers on her grave4 #i4 ,he sets a light in the window4 #aj4 ,mary plays the piano4 ,,chapter ,v ,,condensation1 ,,expansion1 ,,and ,,paraphrase #bf4 ,writing in which the ,ideas are already at ,hand4--,young people have an abundance of things to write about4 ,their lives are usually full of interesting incidents1 and their minds are fresh and eager4 ,before passing on1 however1 to the principal part of composition1 that in which the writer expresses his own ideas1 let us undertake a little practice in a form of composition in which the ideas are furnished us4 ,we shall thus not have to devote so much effort to thinking what we are going to write1 and can devote all the more attention to the pleasing form of what we write4 #bg4 ,condensation4--,here are two well-written and clear paragraphs on an interesting topic1 and beneath each are two or three pleasing sentences which give the same idea in a shorter or condensed form4 #a4 ,centuries ago1 in a remote village among some wild hills in ,france1 there lived a country maiden1 ,joan of ,arc1 who was at this time in her twentieth year4 ,she had been a solitary girl from her childhood2 she had often tended sheep and cattle for whole days where no human figure was seen or human voice was heard2 and she had often knelt1 for hours together1 in the gloomy empty little village chapel1 looking up at the altar and at the dim lamp burning before it1 until she fancied that she saw shadowy figures standing there1 and even that she heard them speak to her4--,,charles ,,dickens3 ,a ,child's ,history of ,england4 ,joan of ,arc lived centuries ago in a remote ,french village4 ,her childhood had been a solitary one4 ,often she was for days alone with her sheep1 and she knelt long alone in the gloomy village chapel1 where she fancied that she saw shadowy shapes that spoke to her4 #b4 ,i think it was ,hans1 our ,eskimo hunter1 who thought he saw a broad sledge track4 ,the drift had nearly effaced it1 and we were some of us doubtful at first whether it was not one of those accidental rifts which the gales make in the surface snow4 ,but1 as we traced it on to the deep snow among the hummocks1 we were led to footsteps2 and1 following these with religious care1 we at last came in sight of a small ,american flag fluttering from a hummock1 and lower down a little banner hanging from a tent pole hardly above the drift4 ,it was the camp of our disabled comrades2 we reached it after an unbroken march of twenty-one hours4--,e4 ,e4 ,,kane3 ,arctic ,explorations4 ,hans1 our ,eskimo hunter1 found what seemed to be the faint traces of a sledge1 and this led us to footsteps4 ,following these with great care1 we came at length to the camp of our disabled comrades4 ,exercise #fg4--;,condense the following paragraphs1 making your sentences pleasing to the ear3-- #a4 ,in order to begin at the beginning of the story1 let us suppose that we go into a country garden one fine morning in ,may1 when the sun is shining brightly overhead1 and that we see hanging from the bough of an old apple tree a black object which looks very much like a large plum pudding4 ,on approaching it1 however1 we see that it is a large cluster or swarm of bees clinging to each other by their legs2 each bee with its two fore legs clinging to the hinder legs of the one above it4 ,in this way as many as twenty thousand bees may be clinging together1 and yet they hang so freely that a bee1 even from quite the center of the swarm1 can disengage herself from her neighbors and pass through to the outside of the cluster whenever she wishes4--,,arabella ,,buckley3 ,fairyland of ,science4 #b4 ,this warning stopped all speech1 and the hardy mariners1 knowing that they had already done all in the power of man to insure their safety1 stood in breathless anxiety1 awaiting the result4 ,at a short distance ahead of them the whole ocean was white with foam1 and the waves1 instead of rolling on in regular succession1 appeared to be tossing madly about4 ,a single streak of dark billows1 not half a cable's length in width1 could be discerned running into this chaos of water2 but it was soon lost to the eye amid the confusion4 ,along this narrow path the vessel moved more heavily than before1 being brought so near the wind as to keep her sails touching4 ,the pilot silently proceeded to the wheel1 and with his own hands undertook the steering of the ship4 ,no noise proceeded from the frigate to interrupt the horrid tumult of the ocean2 and she entered the channel among the breakers in dead silence4--,,james ,,fenimore ,,cooper3 ,the ,pilot4 #bh4 ,method in ,condensation4--,the length of any piece of writing depends upon the purpose for which it is intended4 ,for instance1 the answer to the question1 ,who was ,abraham ,lincoln8 might1 according to the circumstances1 be given in a paragraph1 in a page1 or in a chapter2 or it might be expanded into a work of many volumes4 ,if you were required1 in preparation for a written lesson in history or geography1 to read several pages1 you would not be expected to write all you had read1 but to be able to condense2 that is1 to omit details and select the most important points4 ,the ability to decide which points are the important ones1 and which may be omitted with least loss to the passage1 will be of great value to you in all your serious reading and study4 ,the following suggestions will help you in condensing3-- #a4 ,read the whole passage through carefully4 #b4 ,pick out the things so important that they must be retained4 ,as a rule1 the more important the point1 the greater the space the author allots to it4 ,drop the minor points4 #c4 ,arrange the facts you decide to retain in order of importance1 and in condensing the passage give most space to the most important points4 ,read1 for example1 the following narrative1 and notice the condensation printed below it3-- ,in the reign of the great caliph1 there lived in the city of ,bagdad a celebrated barber1 of the name of ,ali4 ,he was famous for a steady hand1 and could shave a head1 or trim your beard or whiskers1 with his eyes blindfolded4 ,there was not a man of fashion at ,bagdad who did not employ him2 and such a run of business had he that at length he became very proud and insolent4 ,firewood was always scarce and dear at ,bagdad2 and it happened one day that a poor woodcutter1 ignorant of the character of ,ali1 stopped at his shop1 to sell him a load of wood1 which he had just brought from a distance on his donkey4 ,ali immediately offered him a certain sum for all the wood that was upon the donkey4 ,the woodcutter agreed1 unloaded his beast1 and asked for the money4 ,you have not given me all the wood yet1 said the barber4 ,i must have your wooden pack saddle into the bargain3 that was our agreement4 ,what6 said the other1 in great amazement2 who ever heard of such a bargain8 ,it is impossible4 ,but after many words the overbearing barber seized the pack saddle1 wood1 and all1 and sent away the poor peasant in great distress4 ,the woodcutter then ran to the judge and stated his griefs2 the judge was one of the barber's customers1 and refused to hear the case4 ,then he went to a higher judge2 he also patronized ,ali1 and made light of the complaint4 ,the poor woodcutter was not disheartened1 but forthwith got a scribe to write a petition to the caliph himself4 ,the caliph's punctuality in reading petitions is well known1 and it was not long before the woodcutter was called to his presence4 ,when he had approached the caliph1 he kneeled and kissed the ground2 and then1 folding his arms before him1 his hands covered with the sleeves of his cloak1 and his feet close together1 he awaited the decision of his case4 ,friend1 said the caliph1 the barber has words on his side3 you have equity on yours4 ,the law must be defined by words1 and agreements must be made by words4 ,the law must have its course1 or it is nothing2 and agreements must be kept1 or there would be no good faith between man and man4 ,therefore the barber must keep all his wood1 but-- ,then calling the woodcutter close to him1 the caliph whispered something in his ear1 and sent him away quite satisfied4 ,the woodcutter1 having made obeisance1 took his donkey by the halter1 and returned home4 ,a few days later he applied to the barber1 as if nothing had happened between them1 requesting that he1 and a companion of his from the country1 might enjoy the dexterity of his hand2 and the price for which both operations were to be performed was settled4 ,when the woodcutter's beard had been properly shaved1 ,ali asked where his companion was4 ,he is standing just outside1 said the woodcutter2 he shall come in at once4 ,accordingly he went out1 and led in his donkey by the halter4 ,this is my companion1 said he3 shave him4 ,shave him6 exclaimed the barber1 in a rage3 is it not enough that ,i should degrade myself by touching you1 but you must insult me by asking me to shave your donkey8 ,away with you6 ,the woodcutter immediately went to the caliph and related his case4 ,bring ,ali and his razors to me this instant1 exclaimed the caliph to one of his officers2 and in the course of ten minutes the barber stood before him4 ,why do you refuse to shave this man's companion8 said the caliph to the barber3 was not that your agreement8 ,ali1 kissing the ground1 answered1 ,it is true1 ,o caliph1 that such was our agreement2 but who ever made a companion of a donkey before8 ,true enough1 said the caliph2 but who ever thought of insisting upon a pack saddle's being included in a load of wood8 ,no1 no1 it is the woodcutter's turn now4 ,shave this donkey instantly6 ,so the barber was compelled to prepare a great quantity of soap1 to lather the beast from head to foot1 and to shave him in the presence of the caliph and of the whole court1 whilst he was jeered and mocked by the bystanders4 ,the poor woodcutter was then dismissed with a present of money2 and all ,bagdad resounded with the story1 and praised the justice of the caliph4 ,there was once in ,bagdad a barber who was so skillful that he was employed by all the men of fashion1 and who became so proud that he would seldom work for any but men of rank4 ,one day a poor woodcutter came to his shop to sell a load of wood4 ,ali offered him a sum of money for all the wood upon the donkey4 ,the woodcutter agreed1 whereupon ,ali seized the wooden pack saddle as well as the wood1 saying it was included in the bargain4 ,after in vain seeking redress from the judges1 the peasant went to the caliph1 who decided that1 according to the terms made1 the bargain must stand2 but1 calling the woodcutter to him1 he whispered something in his ear4 ,a few days afterward the woodcutter asked the barber to shave him and a companion from the country1 agreeing to pay the price asked by the barber4 ,after the woodcutter had been attended to1 the barber asked for the companion1 whereupon the woodcutter led in his donkey4 ,the barber in rage drove them from his shop1 but the woodcutter immediately went to the caliph and stated his case4 ,the tables were now turned1 for the caliph decided in favor of the woodcutter4 ,the barber was obliged to shave the beast in the presence of the caliph and the whole court1 who mocked at him2 and the woodcutter was dismissed with a rich present4 ,exercise #fh4 ,in a similar way condense this account of the battle of ,hastings into about two hundred words4 ,in the middle of the month of ,october1 in the year one thousand and sixty-six1 the ,normans and the ,english came front to front4 ,all night the armies lay encamped before each other in a part of the country then called ,senlac1 now called ,battle4 ,with the first dawn of day they arose4 ,there1 in the faint light1 were the ,english on a hill4 ,a wood lay behind them1 and in their midst was the royal banner1 representing a fighting warrior1 woven in gold thread1 adorned with precious stones4 ,beneath the banner1 as it rustled in the wind1 stood ,king ,harold on foot1 with two of his remaining brothers by his side2 around them1 still and silent as the dead1 clustered the whole ,english army--every soldier covered by his shield1 and bearing in his hand the dreaded ,english battle-ax4 ,on an opposite hill1 in three lines1--archers1 foot soldiers1 and horsemen1--was the ,norman force4 ,of a sudden1 a great battle cry1 ,god help us6 burst from the ,norman lines4 ,the ,english answered with their own battle cry1 ,god's ,rood6 ,holy ,rood6 ,the ,normans then came sweeping down the hill to attack the ,english4 ,there was one tall ,norman knight who rode before the ,norman army on a prancing horse1 throwing up his heavy sword and catching it1 and singing of the bravery of his countrymen4 ,an ,english knight1 who rode out from the ,english force to meet him1 fell by this knight's hand4 ,another ,english knight rode out1 and he also fell2 but then a third rode out and killed the ,norman4 ,the ,english1 keeping side by side in a great mass1 cared no more for the showers of ,norman arrows than if they had been showers of ,norman rain4 ,when the ,norman horsemen rode against them1 with their battle-axes they cut men and horses down4 ,the ,normans gave way4 ,the ,english pressed forward4 ,a cry went forth among the ,norman troops that ,duke ,william was killed4 ,duke ,william took off his helmet1 in order that his face might be distinctly seen1 and rode along the line before his men4 ,this gave them courage4 ,as they turned again to face the ,english1 some of their ,norman horse divided the pursuing body of the ,english from the rest1 and thus all that foremost portion of the ,english army fell1 fighting bravely4 ,the main body still remaining firm1 heedless of the ,norman arrows1 and with their battle-axes cutting down the crowds of horsemen when they rode up1 like forests of young trees1 ,duke ,william pretended to retreat4 ,the eager ,english followed4 ,the ,norman army closed again and fell upon them with great slaughter4 ,still1 said ,duke ,william1 there are thousands of the ,english firm as rocks around their king4 ,shoot upward1 ,norman archers1 that your arrows may fall down upon their faces4 ,the sun rose high1 and sank1 and the battle still raged4 ,through all the wild ,october day1 the clash and din resounded in the air4 ,in the red sunset1 and in the white moonlight1 heaps upon heaps of dead men lay strewn1 a dreadful spectacle1 all over the ground4 ,king ,harold1 wounded with an arrow in the eye1 was nearly blind4 ,his brothers were already killed4 ,twenty ,norman knights now dashed forward to seize the royal banner from the ,english knights and soldiers1 still faithfully collected round their blinded king4 ,the king received a mortal wound and dropped4 ,the ,english broke and fled4 ,the ,normans rallied1 and the day was lost4 ,oh1 what a sight beneath the moon and stars when lights were shining in the tent of the victorious ,duke ,william1 which was pitched near the spot where ,harold fell--and he and his knights were carousing within--and soldiers with torches1 going slowly to and fro without1 sought for the corpse of ,harold among piles of dead--and ,harold's banner1 worked in golden thread and precious stones1 lay low1 all torn and soiled with blood--and the ,duke's flag1 with three ,norman lions upon it1 kept watch over the field4--,,charles ,,dickens3 ,a ,child's ,history of ,england4 ,exercise #fi4--;,condense such of the passages suggested below as your teacher may indicate4 #a4 ,the passage quoted on pages #hh-ij4 #b4 ,the passage quoted on pages #add-adh 7or #ahb-ahe74 #c4 ,a passage from your text-book in history or geography4 #d4 ,an account 7of a fire1 for instance71 from a daily or weekly paper4 #bi4 ,expansion4--,an exercise just the opposite of the preceding is also highly profitable to young writers4 ,here1 for example1 are two sentences that will suggest a good deal to you4 ,you will see at once that it is easy to expand them into a larger piece of writing1 and just below is an entire paragraph which is based on these sentences4 #a4 ,lord ,fairfax asked ,george ,washington to survey his lands in ,virginia4 ,the boy was very glad to do so1 for he loved a wild and adventurous life4 #b4 ,lord ,fairfax wished very much to have his lands in the valley of ,virginia surveyed1 and he asked young ,george ,washington if he would undertake the work4 ,the boy was very glad to do so4 ,nothing could have pleased him better than work of this sort4 ,he loved the open air and horseback riding2 he would delight to explore that grand and beautiful country where ,indians and wild animals still roamed at will2 and he at once began to make ready for his journey4 ,here is another example of the same process3-- #a4 ,the ,mayflower sailed on the #afth of ,september4 ,after a long and stormy voyage the ,pilgrims sighted land4 #b4 ,on the #afth of ,september the sails were spread once more1 and the ,mayflower glided out upon the waters of the broad ,atlantic4 ,fierce storms arose1 and the vessel was tossed like an eggshell upon the waves4 ,the main beam was wrenched from its place1 and the ship was in danger of breaking in pieces4 ,one passenger fell overboard and was lost4 ,at length1 on the #aith of ,november1 the joyful cry of land rang through the ship4 ,all eyes were strained to see the welcome sight4 ,there it was--a long reach of sandy shore with dark forest trees in the background4 ,the hard1 dangerous voyage was almost at an end4 ,the ,pilgrims were nearly home4 ,exercise #gj4--,you will now be ready to try this form of writing for yourselves4 ,below are given a number of short and suggestive statements4 ,expand them1 using your own imagination to fill out the material1 and trying1 in each case1 to make your sentences pleasing to the ear4 #a4 ,rip ,van ,winkle was a great favorite among the good wives of the village4 ,the children1 too1 loved him1 and followed him about4 #b4 ,the ,catskill ,mountains lie to the west of the ,hudson ,river4 ,they are very beautiful4 #c4 ,the news of ,lexington and ,concord was sent to ,philadelphia4 ,here the ,continental ,congress was assembled4 ,the members agreed upon ,washington as commander-in-chief of the ,continental ,army4 #cj4 ,the ,purpose of ,expansion4--,we sometimes expand passages in order to make them clearer by explanation or illustration4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,in the ,old ,world there are various grades of society1 and it is almost impossible for a boy born in the lower to rise into the higher ranks4 ,in this country this is not so2 every man is as good as his neighbor4 #b4 ,in the aristocracies of the ,old ,world1 wealth and society are built up like the strata of rock which compose the crust of the earth4 ,if a boy be born in the lowest stratum of life1 it is almost impossible for him to rise through the hard crust into the higher ranks2 but in this country it is not so4 ,the strata of our society resemble rather the ocean1 where every drop1 even the lowest1 is free to mingle with all others1 and may shine at last on the crest of the highest wave4 ,this is the glory of our country1 and you need not fear that there are any obstacles which will prove too great for any brave heart4 ,exercise #ga4--;,expand into a paragraph such of the following statements as your teacher may indicate3-- #a4 ,the early bird catches the worm4 #b4 ,if you would be well served1 serve yourself4 #c4 ,for want of a nail1 the shoe was lost2 for want of a shoe1 the horse was lost2 for want of a horse1 the rider was lost2 for want of the rider1 the army was lost4 #d4 ,benedict ,arnold's last request1 it is said1 was that he might die in his old ,american uniform2 his last prayer1 that ,god would forgive him for ever having put on any other4 #e4 ,after ,washington's retreat from ,long ,island in ,september1 #aggf1 he needed information as to the ,british fortifications4 ,a young ,american officer1 ,nathan ,hale1 volunteered to get the information4 ,while inside of the enemy's lines he was taken prisoner and hanged as a spy4 ,with his latest breath he regretted that he had only one life to lose for his country4 #ca4 ,paraphrase4--,there is just one further kind of writing1 in which the ideas are given you1 that will be profitable to you as practice4 ,this is paraphrase4 ,to paraphrase a piece of writing is to restate it in your own words and in a simpler form4 ,you used one form of paraphrasing in the exercise on page #fj1 when you explained figurative expressions by changing them into simpler or plainer language4 ,in figurative language a resemblance between things otherwise unlike is pointed out or taken for granted1 and in order to understand the author's meaning you must be able to discover the resemblance4 ,by reducing the figure to plain language you make sure that you understand it2 and you are often led in this way to see much more clearly the beauty or the force of the figure4 ,in a similar manner paraphrasing will aid you in understanding difficult passages1 whether in verse or in prose1 which you may come on in your reading4 ,it is said of ,lincoln that whenever he read anything that seemed to him very difficult1 he would try to express it so simply that people who knew less than he could understand it4 ,perhaps this is one reason why ,lincoln's speeches and writings are so beautifully clear4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,the reports of the expedition demonstrated the practicability of establishing a line of communication across the continent1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the reports of the expedition proved that it would be possible to build a road across the continent1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean4 #b4 ,two leading objects of commercial gain have given birth to wide and daring enterprise in the early history of the ,americas1 the precious metals of the south and the rich peltries of the north4 ,while the ,spaniard1 inflamed with the mania for gold1 has extended his discoveries and conquests over those brilliant countries scorched by the ardent sun of the tropics1 the ,frenchman and ,englishman have pursued the no less lucrative traffic in furs amid the hyperborean regions of the ,canadas4--,,washington ,,irving3 ,astoria4 ,two important objects of commerce have given birth to daring undertakings in the early history of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,these are the gold and silver of the south and the rich furs of the north4 ,the ,spaniard1 mad for gold1 has explored and conquered the tropical countries4 ,meanwhile1 the ,frenchman and the ,englishman have followed the equally profitable traffic in furs in the far northern regions of ,canada4 #c4 ,meanwhile the choleric captain strode wrathful away to the council1 ,found it already assembled1 impatiently waiting his coming2 ,men in the middle of life1 austere and grave in deportment1 ,only one of them old1 the hill that was nearest to heaven1 ,covered with snow1 but erect1 the excellent ,elder of ,plymouth4 --,h4 ,w4 ,,longfellow3 ,the ,courtship of ,miles ,standish4 ,meanwhile the quick-tempered captain strode wrathfully away to the council1 which he found already assembled1 and impatiently waiting his coming4 ,they were middle-aged men1 stern and grave in bearing4 ,only one of them was old1 the excellent ,elder of ,plymouth1 but he still stood erect1 though his hair was white--like the snow cap on a tall mountain4 ,exercise #gb4--,paraphrase the following2 try to express the thought so simply that people who know less than you do can understand it4 #a4 ,it was not until the year #aggf that the fur trade regained its old channels2 but it was then pursued with much avidity and emulation by individual merchants1 and soon transcended its former bounds4--,,washington ,,irving3 ,astoria4 #b4 ,it is characteristic of such a people the ,aztecs to find a puerile pleasure in a dazzling and ostentatious pageantry2 to mistake show for substance2 vain pomp for power2 to hedge round the throne itself with barren and burdensome ceremonial1 the counterfeit of real majesty4--,w4 ,h4 ,,prescott3 ,the ,conquest of ,mexico4 #c4 ,the messenger found access to the benignant princess and delivered the epistle of the friar4 ,isabella had always been favorably disposed to the proposition of ,columbus4 ,she wrote in reply to ,juan ,perez1 thanking him for his timely service1 and requesting that he would repair immediately to the court1 leaving ,columbus in confident hope until he should hear further from her4--,,washington ,,irving3 ,life of ,columbus4 #d4 ,it cannot be disputed that the light toil requisite to cultivate a moderately sized garden imparts such zest to kitchen vegetables as is never found in those of the market gardener4 ,childless men1 if they would know something of the bliss of paternity1 should plant a seed with their own hands and nurse it from infancy to maturity altogether by their own care4--,,nathaniel ,,hawthorne3 ,mosses from an ,old ,manse4 #e4 ,dorcas nourished her apprehensions in silence till one afternoon when ,reuben awoke from an unquiet sleep and seemed to recognize her more perfectly than at any previous time4 ,she saw that his intellect had become composed1 and she could no longer restrain her filial anxiety4--,from the same4 ,exercise #gc4--,paraphrase the following passages3-- #a4 ,ah1 no longer wizard ,fancy ,builds her castles in the air1 ,luring me by necromancy ,up the never-ending stair4 ,but instead she builds me bridges ,over many a dark ravine1 ,where beneath the gusty ridges ,cataracts dash and roar unseen4 --,h4 ,w4 ,,longfellow3 ,the ,bridge of ,cloud4 #b4 ,for a cap and bells our lives we pay1 ,bubbles we buy with a whole soul's tasking2 ',tis heaven alone that is given away1 ',tis only ,god may be had for the asking2 ,no price is set on the lavish summer2 ,june may be had by the poorest comer4 --,j4 ,r4 ,,lowell3 ,the ,vision of ,sir ,launfal4 #c4 ,oh1 for festal dainties spread1 ,like my bowl of milk and bread2 ,pewter spoon and bowl of wood1 ,on the door stone1 gray and rude6 ,o'er me1 like a regal tent1 ,cloudy-ribbed1 the sunset bent1 ,purple-curtained1 fringed with gold1 ,looped in many a wind-swung fold2 ,while for music came the play ,of the pied frogs' orchestra2 ,and1 to light the noisy choir1 ,lit the fly his lamp of fire4 ,i was monarch3 pomp and joy ,waited on the barefoot boy4 --,j4 ,g4 ,,whittier3 ,the ,barefoot ,boy4 #cb4 ,paraphrase of ,complete ,compositions4--,it is also sometimes a helpful exercise to paraphrase1 not an extract1 but a complete poem or short piece of prose1 in order to make sure that you understand it thoroughly4 ,this often requires a good deal of study1 for details1 which you had not at first noticed1 but which are essential to the meaning1 need to be carefully thought out4 ,read1 for example1 ,longfellow's delightful poem1 ,walter ,von der ,vogelweid and then the paraphrase that follows4 ,vogelweid the ,minnesinger1 ,when he left this world of ours1 ,laid his body in the cloister1 ,under ,wrtzburg's minster towers4 ,and he gave the monks his treasures1 ,gave them all with his behest3 ,they should feed the birds at noontide ,daily on his place of rest2 ,saying1 ,from these wandering minstrels ,i have learned the art of song2 ,let me now repay the lessons ,they have taught so well and long4 ,thus the bard of love departed2 ,and1 fulfilling his desire1 ,on his tomb the birds were feasted ,by the children of the choir4 ,day by day1 o'er tower and turret1 ,in foul weather and in fair1 ,day by day1 in vaster numbers1 ,flocked the poets of the air4 ,on the tree1 whose heavy branches ,overshadowed all the place1 ,on the pavement1 on the tombstone1 ,on the poet's sculptured face1 ,on the crossbars of each window1 ,on the lintel of each door1 ,they renewed the ,war of ,wartburg1 ,which the bard had fought before4 ,there they sang their merry carols1 ,sang their lauds on every side2 ,and the name their voices uttered ,was the name of ,vogelweid4 ,till at length the portly abbot ,murmured1 ,why this waste of food8 ,be it changed to loaves henceforward ,for our fasting brotherhood4 ,then in vain o'er tower and turret1 ,from the walls and woodland nests1 ,when the minster bells rang noontide1 ,gathered the unwelcome guests4 ,then in vain1 with cries discordant1 ,clamorous round the ,gothic spire1 ,screamed the feathered ,minnesingers ,for the children of the choir4 ,time has long effaced the inscriptions ,on the cloister's funeral stones1 ,and tradition only tells us ,where repose the poet's bones4 ,but around the vast cathedral1 ,by sweet echoes multiplied1 ,still the birds repeat the legend1 ,and the name of ,vogelweid4 ,walter ,von der ,vogelweid was an old ,german ,minnesinger1 that is1 a poet who sang of love1 and his name means ,walter of the ,bird-meadow4 ,when he passed from this world1 his body was laid in the cloister under the towers of the cathedral of ,wrtzburg4 ,he gave all his property to the monks1 on condition that they should feed the birds that flew about his grave4 ,for1 said he1 ,i want to repay the birds1 who have taught me the art of song4 ,every noon1 as ,walter had desired1 the children of the choir fed the birds about his tomb4 ,day after day1 in larger and larger numbers1 these small wandering minstrels flocked to be fed1 in fair or stormy weather4 ,on the tree that overshadowed his grave1 on the pavement1 on the tombstone1 even on the face of the marble statue of the poet1 they would cluster1 singing in rivalry as he had once sung in competition with other poets at the castle of ,wartburg4 ,and in their carols was always the name of ,vogelweid4 ,at last the abbot determined that this waste of food should not continue1 but that loaves of bread should be bought instead for the fasting priests4 ,after this the birds clamored in vain for the children who had fed them4 ,time has long since worn away the inscription on the tombstone of the cloister1 and now there is nothing to tell us where the poet's bones rest2 but around the cathedral the sweet voices of the birds still repeat the story and the name of ,walter ,von der ,vogelweid4 ,exercise #gd4 ,paraphrase such complete poems or prose passages as your teacher may indicate4 ,suggested poems3--#a4 ,longfellow's ,the ,legend of the ,crossbill1 or ,the ,wreck of the ,hesperus4 #b4 ,tennyson's ,lady ,clare4 #c4 ,browning's ,an ,incident of the ,french ,camp4 #d4 ,scott's ,lochinvar4 #e4 ,campbell's ,lord ,ullin's ,daughter4 #f4 ,bayard ,taylor's ,a ,song of the ,camp4 #g4 ,whittier's ,telling the ,bees4 #h4 ,kingsley's ,the ,sands o' ,dee4 #i4 ,leigh ,hunt's ,abou ,ben ,adhem4 #aj4 ,lowell's ,the ,courtin'4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,whole ,,compositions2 ,,outlines #cc4 ,whole ,compositions4--,you have now studied the combination of words into sentences and the combination of sentences into paragraphs4 ,you must meanwhile have guessed that there is a still larger process of composition1--the combining of paragraphs into the essay or chapter or book4 ,this process we must now examine briefly4 ,read the following passage1 which1 to be sure1 is not exactly a whole composition in itself1 for it forms a part of a long essay on a visit to ,shakspere's birthplace4 ,it is sufficiently long1 however1 to show how paragraphs are combined4 ,i had come to ,stratford on a poetical pilgrimage4 ,my first visit was to the house where ,shakspere was born1 and where1 according to tradition1 he was brought up to his father's craft of wool-combing4 ,it is a small1 mean-looking edifice of wood and plaster1 a true nestling place of genius1 which seems to delight in hatching its offspring in by-corners4 ,the walls of its squalid chambers are covered with names and inscriptions in every language1 by pilgrims of all nations1 ranks1 and conditions1 from the prince to the peasant2 and present a simple1 but striking instance of the spontaneous and universal homage of mankind to the great poet of nature4 ,the house is shown by a garrulous old lady1 in a frosty red face1 lighted up by a cold blue anxious eye1 and garnished with artificial locks of flaxen hair1 curling from under an exceedingly dirty cap4 ,she was peculiarly assiduous in exhibiting the relics with which this1 like all other celebrated shrines1 abounds4 ,there was the shattered stock of the very matchlock with which ,shakspere shot the deer1 on his poaching exploits4 ,there1 too1 was his tobacco box2 which proves that he was a rival smoker of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh2 the sword also with which he played ,hamlet2 and the identical lantern with which ,friar ,laurence discovered ,romeo and ,juliet at the tomb6 ,the most favorite object of curiosity1 however1 is ,shakspere's chair4 ,it stands in the chimney nook of a small gloomy chamber1 just behind what was his father's shop4 ,here he may many a time have sat when a boy1 watching the slowing revolving spit with all the longing of an urchin2 or of an evening1 listening to the cronies and gossips of ,stratford1 dealing forth churchyard tales and legendary anecdotes of the troublesome times of ,england4 ,in this chair it is the custom of every one that visits the house to sit3 whether this be done with the hope of imbibing any of the inspiration of the bard ,i am at a loss to say--,i merely mention the fact2 and mine hostess privately assured me1 that1 though built of solid oak1 such was the fervent zeal of devotees1 that the chair had to be new bottomed at least once in three years4 ,it is worthy of notice also1 in the history of this extraordinary chair1 that it partakes something of the volatile nature of the ,santa ,casa of ,loretto1 or the flying chair of the ,arabian enchanter2 for though sold some few years since to a northern princess1 yet1 strange to tell1 it has found its way back again to the old chimney4 ,i am always of easy faith in such matters1 and am ever willing to be deceived1 where the deceit is pleasant and costs nothing4 ,i am therefore a ready believer in relics1 legends1 and local anecdotes of goblins and great men2 and would advise all travelers who travel for their gratification to be the same4 ,what is it to us1 whether these stories be true or false1 so long as we can persuade ourselves into the belief of them1 and enjoy all the charms of the reality8 ,there is nothing like resolute good-humored credulity in these matters2 and on this occasion ,i went even so far as willingly to believe the claims of mine hostess to a lineal descent from the poet1 when1 unluckily for my faith1 she put into my hands a play of her own composition1 which set all belief in her consanguinity at defiance4--,,washington ,,irving3 ,stratford-on-,avon4 ,you will notice that the opening sentences give you a hint of what is coming4 ,you will also notice that the author has a separate thought for each paragraph3-- #a4 ,the house in general4 #b4 ,the relics exhibited by the housekeeper4 #c4 ,the most interesting relic2 its history4 #d4 ,the author's good-humored credulity4 ,these thoughts1 when taken together1 build up in the reader's mind a larger thought1 just as the thoughts expressed in each sentence in a paragraph1 when taken together1 build up in the reader's mind a smaller idea4 ,furthermore1 you will notice how careful the writer has been to build up that idea in the reader's mind clearly and easily4 ,he began with a thought that was easy to grasp and that gave you a hint of what was coming4 ,here is another good instance of an author's skill in planning his work3-- ,let us consider briefly the structure of the earth1 studying first its crust1 second its interior1 third its atmosphere4 ,it has been found that what is called the earth's crust--that is1 the outside of the earth1 as the peel is the outside of an orange--is composed of various rocks of different kinds and ages1 all of them1 however1 belonging to two great classes3 stratified that is1 deposited in layers rocks and igneous made by fire rocks4 ,the stratified rocks have been deposited by water1 principally by the sea4 ,this is proved by two facts3 first1 in their formation they resemble the beds lying deposited by water at the present time2 secondly1 they nearly all contain remains of fishes and shell-fish4 ,such remains1 being dug out of the earth1 are called fossils1 from the ,latin fossilis1 dug4 ,the whole series of sedimentary rocks have been disturbed by eruptions of volcanic materials4 ,molten rock ejected from the interior of the earth and cooling form the igneous rocks we have spoken of4 ,they are easily distinguished from the sedimentary rock1 as they have no appearance of stratification and contain no fossils4 ,we have numerous proofs that the interior of the earth is at a high temperature at present1 although its surface has cooled4 ,our deepest mines are so hot that1 without a perpetual current of cold air it would be impossible for the miners to live in them4 ,the water brought up in artesian wells is found to increase in temperature one degree for from fifty to fifty-five feet of depth4 ,in the hot lava emitted from volcanoes we have further evidence of this internal heat4 ,it has been calculated that the temperature of the earth increases as we descend at the rate of one degree ,fahrenheit in a little over fifty feet4 ,we shall therefore have a temperature of two thousand seven hundred degrees at a depth of twenty-eight miles4 ,at this temperature everything which we are acquainted with would be in a state of fusion4 ,we now pass to the atmosphere1 which may be likened to a great ocean1 covering the earth to a height not yet exactly determined4 ,this height is generally supposed to be forty-five or fifty miles1 but there is evidence to show that we have an atmosphere of some kind at a height of four hundred or five hundred miles4 ,the chemical composition by weight of one hundred parts of the atmosphere at present is as follows3 nitrogen1 seventy-seven parts2 oxygen1 twenty-three parts4 ,besides these two main constituents1 we have carbonic acid1 whose quantity varies with the locality2 aqueous vapor1 variable with the temperature and humidity2 and a trace of ammonia4--,adapted from ,,lockyer',s ,astronomy4 ,here1 as before1 you will notice that the author has a separate idea for each paragraph1 as follows3-- #a4 ,the three parts of the earth4 #b4 ,the crust4 #c4 ,the interior4 #d4 ,the atmosphere4 ,he has also begun in this case with a paragraph that states precisely what plan he is going to follow2 namely1 that he will treat the subject under three heads4 #cd4 ,outlines4--,a full outline of the selection would be as follows3-- ,i4 ,introduction4 ,a4 ,announces whole topic4 ,b4 ,names subdivisions--crust1 interior1 atmosphere4 ,,ii4 ,crust4 ,a4 ,composed of two kinds of rocks3-- #a4 ,stratified4 #b4 ,igneous4 ,,iii4 ,interior4 ,a4 ,heat 7proofs74 ,b4 ,molten state4 ,,iv4 ,atmosphere4 ,a4 ,height4 ,b4 ,chemical composition4 ,now read the following composition3-- ,,the ,,cup ,,of ,,water ,no touch in the history of the minstrel-king ,david gives us a more warm and personal feeling toward him than his longing for the water at the well of ,bethlehem4 ,standing as the incident does in the summary of the characters of his mighty men1 it is apt to appear to us as if it had taken place in his latter days2 but such is not the case4 ,it befell while he was still under thirty1 in the time of his persecution by ,saul4 ,it was when the last attempt at reconciliation with the king had been made1 when the affectionate parting with the generous and faithful ,jonathan had taken place1 when ,saul was hunting him like a partridge on the mountains on the one side1 and the ,philistines had nearly taken his life on the other1 that ,david1 outlawed1 yet loyal at the heart1 sent his aged parents to the land of ,moab for refuge1 and himself took up his abode in the caves of the wild limestone hills that had become familiar to him when he was a shepherd4 ,brave captain and heaven-destined king as he was1 his name attracted round him a motley group of those that were in distress1 or in debt1 or discontented1 and among them were the mighty men whose brave deeds won them the foremost parts in that army with which ,david was to fulfill the ancient promises to his people4 ,there were his three nephews1 ,joab1 the ferocious and imperious1 the chivalrous ,abishai1 and ,asahel1 the fleet of foot2 there was the warlike ,levite ,benaiah1 who slew lions and lionlike men1 and others who1 like ,david himself1 had done battle with the gigantic sons of ,anak4 ,yet even these valiant men1 so wild and lawless1 could be kept in check by the voice of their young captain2 and outlaws as they were1 they spoiled no peaceful villages1 they lifted not their hands against the persecuting monarch1 and the neighboring farms lost not one lamb through their violence4 ,some at least listened to the song of their warlike minstrel3-- ,come1 ye children1 and hearken to me3 ,i will teach you the fear of the ,lord4 ,what man is he that lustest to live1 ,and would fain see good days8 ,let him refrain his tongue from evil ,and his lips that they speak no guile2 ,let him eschew evil and do good2 ,let him seek peace and ensue it4 ,with such strains as these1 sung to his harp1 the warrior gained the hearts of his men to enthusiastic love1 and gathered followers on all sides1 among them eleven fierce men of ,gad1 with faces like lions and feet swift as roes1 who swam the ,jordan in time of flood1 and fought their way to him1 putting all enemies in the valleys to flight4 ,but the ,eastern sun burnt on the bare rocks4 ,a huge fissure1 opening in the mountain ridge1 encumbered at the bottom with broken rocks1 with precipitous banks scarcely affording a footing for the wild goats1--such is the spot where1 upon a cleft on the steep precipice1 still remains the foundations of the hold1 or tower1 believed to have been ,david's retreat2 and near at hand is the low-browed entrance of the galleried cave1 alternating between narrow passages and spacious halls1 but all oppressively hot and close4 ,waste and wild1 without a bush or a tree1 in the feverish atmosphere of ,palestine1 it was a desolate region1 and at length the wanderer's heart fainted in him1 as he thought of his own home1 with its rich and lovely terraced slopes1 green with wheat1 trellised with vines1 and clouded with gray olive1 and of the cool cisterns of living waters by the gate of which he loved to sing1-- ,he shall feed me in a green pasture1 ,and lead me forth beside the waters of comfort4 ,his parched longing lips gave utterance to the sigh1 ,o that one would give me to drink of the water of the well of ,bethlehem that is by the gate6 ,three of his brave men1 apparently ,abishai1 ,benaiah1 and ,eleazar1 heard the wish4 ,between their mountain fastness and the dearly-loved spring lay the host of the ,philistines2 but their love for their leader feared no enemies4 ,it was not only water that he longed for1 but the water from the fountain which he had loved in his childhood4 ,they descended from their chasm1 broke through the midst of the enemy's army1 and drew the water from the favorite spring1 bearing it back1 once again through the foe1 to the tower upon the rock6 ,deeply moved was their chief at this act of self-devotion1--so much moved that the water seemed to him too sacred to be put to his own use4 ,may ,god forbid it me that ,i should do this thing4 ,shall ,i drink the blood of these men that have put their lives in jeopardy1 for with the jeopardy of their lives they brought it8 ,and as a hallowed and precious gift1 he poured out unto the ,lord the water obtained at the price of such peril to his followers4--,,charlotte ,,yonge3 ,a ,book of ,golden ,deeds4 ,notice the arrangement of the paragraphs in ,the ,cup of ,water1 and study the way in which they are connected4 ,thus1 in #a1 the persecution of ,david by ,saul is spoken of4 #b carries on the thought by speaking of ,david's attempt at reconciliation with ,saul and ends with a song of ,david4 #c opens with a reference to this song--with such strains as these1 etc4 #d is connected with #c by but and ends with the expression of ,david's longing4 #e opens with direct reference to the wish4 ,the following is an outline of the composition3-- ,i4 ,introduction4 ,a4 ,the incident gives us a warm feeling for him4 ,b4 ,it occurred when he was still a young man4 ,,ii4 ,situation4 ,a4 ,david in hiding4 ,b4 ,his valiant followers4 ,c4 ,david's influence over them4 ,,iii4 ,the devotion of his followers4 ,,iv4 ,what led ,david to wish for the water4 ,a4 ,the heat4 ,b4 ,the barren region4 ,c4 ,his memories of the cool spring at ,bethlehem4 ,v4 ,the wish fulfilled4 ,a4 ,expedition of the three valiant men4 ,b4 ,their return4 ,c4 ,david's noble deed4 ,exercise #ge4--,prepare outlines of passages indicated by the teacher4 #ce4 ,essentials in a ,whole ,composition4--,your study of the preceding models and your practice in making outlines must have shown you some of the things a long composition should have4 ,let us now gather up these points4 ,you have learned that both the sentence and the paragraph must have unity4 ,the longer composition must also have unity4 ,as in the paragraph everything must relate to one topic1 so in the long composition everything must relate to one larger topic4 ,suppose that your subject is ,benjamin ,franklin the ,statesman2 you would then omit facts about ,franklin's boyhood1 also those about his discoveries in science1 since1 important and interesting as these facts are1 they do not bear directly on the topic4 ,in a good composition1 one paragraph leads up to or suggests another4 ,look again at the passage on page #hh4 ,in #a the house itself is described4 ,in #b we are taken inside by the housekeeper1 who exhibits the relics4 #c gives a more detailed account of one relic in particular 7,shakspere's chair74 ,doubts of its authenticity naturally lead to the author's little talk on relics in general1 which you find in #d4 ,very often1 although not always1 you will find paragraphs joined by connecting words2 but there should always be connection in thought4 ,in the chapter on ,condensation you are directed to decide carefully as to the relative importance of the different points treated1 and to treat the most important points at the greatest length4 ,remember1 then1 that everything in your composition should treat of one theme2 that the paragraphs should follow each other in an orderly way1 each one carrying on the thought suggested by the preceding paragraph2 and that the most important points should be treated at the greatest length4 #cf4 ,how to ,plan an ,essay4--,let us suppose that you take as your subject for a composition ,the ,cotton ,gin4 ,read all you can find on the subject1 jotting down points of interest1 such as the following3-- ,boyhood of ,whitney4 ,his visit to the ,south4 ,he becomes interested in problem of cleaning seeds from cotton wool4 ,the method of removing seeds before the invention4 ,condition of cotton industry in the ,south4 ,description of cotton gin4 ,eli ,whitney's attempts to make a machine4 ,his success4 ,result of invention as to cotton raising4 ,whitney's character4 ,relation between slavery and the cotton gin4 ,effect of invention as to manufacturing at ,north4 ,amount of cotton exported after invention4 ,price of cotton before invention2 after invention4 ,from this mass of material you must choose the important facts4 ,keep only the facts that bear upon your topic4 ,reject everything else4 ,the result would be somewhat as follows3-- ,accepted3-- ,condition of cotton industry before invention of cotton gin4 ,method of removing seeds before invention of cotton gin4 ,price of cotton4 ,whitney becomes interested in problem4 ,his first attempt to make a machine4 ,his success4 ,price of cotton after invention of cotton gin4 ,description of ,whitney's cotton gin4 ,result of invention as to cotton raising4 ,relation between slavery and the cotton gin4 ,amount of cotton exported after the invention4 ,effect of invention on manufacturing at the ,north4 ,rejected3-- ,boyhood of ,whitney4 ,visit to ,south4 ,whitney's character4 ,these points are rejected because they do not bear directly upon the main theme1 although suggested by it4 ,close attention to the selection of material in this way will give your composition unity4 ,after selecting your facts1 the next point is to arrange them in an orderly way1 so that one paragraph will lead naturally to the next4 ,you would then have some such arrangement as this3-- ,i4 ,condition of cotton industry before invention of cotton gin4 ,a4 ,method of removing seeds before invention of cotton gin4 ,b4 ,price of cotton4 ,,ii4 ,whitney's solution of the problem4 ,a4 ,his first attempt to make a machine4 ,b4 ,his success4 ,c4 ,description of ,whitney's cotton gin4 ,,iii4 ,result of invention4 ,a4 ,price of cotton after invention of cotton gin4 ,b4 ,amount of cotton exported after the invention4 ,c4 ,effect of invention on manufacturing at the ,north4 ,d4 ,relation between slavery and the cotton gin4 ,here1 for further illustration1 is a similar outline for a composition on cotton4 ,i4 ,description of plant4 ,a4 ,root4 ,b4 ,stem4 ,c4 ,leaves4 ,d4 ,flowers4 ,e4 ,cotton boll4 ,f4 ,seeds4 ,,ii4 ,where grown4 ,a4 ,of what country a native4 ,b4 ,where grown most extensively4 ,,iii4 ,preparation4 ,a4 ,picking4 ,b4 ,ginning4 ,c4 ,packing4 ,,iv4 ,manufacturing4 ,a4 ,articles manufactured4 ,v4 ,history of ,plant4 ,a4 ,discovery4 ,b4 ,in ,america before invention of cotton gin4 ,c4 ,in ,america after invention of cotton gin4 ,d4 ,value to-day4 ,exercise #gf4--;,i4 ,make outlines for composition on such topics as the teacher indicates4 ,suggested topics3-- #a4 ,our ,fourth-of-,july ,celebration4 #b4 ,the ,lost ,child4 #c4 ,tobacco4 #d4 ,the ,battle of ,bull ,run4 ,,ii4 ,write compositions1 using the outlines you have made4 ,be sure you reject everything1 no matter how interesting1 that does not relate to your subject4 ,arrange your paragraphs carefully1 using connecting words when possible4 ,treat the most important facts at greatest length4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,oral ,,composition #cg4 ,the ,great ,essential4--,we have now discussed certain matters which will be of service to you if you write your thoughts for others to read4 ,will these principles still hold if you speak your thoughts for others to hear8 ,yes1 in the main2 but you must remember that in the one case the persons you address have simply to read2 if they do not understand1 they can simply look back and reread4 ,in the other case1 the persons you address are listening1 and they must understand each sentence as it comes to them1 for of course any one in an audience cannot stop a speaker because he fails to hear a word or a phrase4 ,a speaker must therefore1 first of all1 take pains that each person in his audience hears clearly every word he says4 #ch4 ,how to be ,heard4--,if you wish to speak so that every one in your audience can hear all that you say1 you must take pains about several things3-- #a4 ,proper ,position4--,speech is sound produced by a stream of air forced from the lungs 7as from a bellows7 and striking against certain cords in the throat4 ,by altering the tightness of these cords and by changing the position of the palate1 tongue1 and teeth1 we change the character of the sound4 ,if we are to speak to a considerable number of people1 then1 we must make sure that all this bodily machinery works with special ease and force1 and first of all1 that the lungs 7the bellows7 move freely4 ,this means that they must have space to work1 and this in turn means that we must stand erect1 with the shoulders thrown back1 the chest out1 and the stomach in4 ,the body should not be held stiffly or else the throat muscles are likely to become rigid also2 but we should stand naturally1 and firmly1 not as if we were about to tumble over or to jump1 but as if we were ready to speak quietly to our friends--which is just what we are to do4 #b4 ,proper ,breathing4--,we should breathe slowly1 regularly1 and deeply1 from the abdomen rather than from the top of the lungs4 ,if we breathe too fast or too irregularly1 we shall speak in a rapid1 jerky way1 and find it very difficult to make ourselves understood4 #c4 ,proper ,use of the ,muscles of the ,throat and ,mouth4--,we must be careful not to cramp the muscles of the throat1 but to let them move easily4 ,we can thus produce a loud clear tone without tiring ourselves unduly4 ,if the head does not hang down1 if the mouth is opened wide1 and the throat muscles are allowed to work freely1 without rigidity1 the voice will be clear and distinct4 #d4 ,proper ,pitch4--,we must be sure 7particularly the girls7 not to pitch the voice too high1 as if it were a siren whistle or a fife4 ,a clear1 rather low-pitched voice is the most pleasant to hear4 ,we must be careful1 too1 not to talk 7as so many of us do7 through our noses4 ,a nasal voice is almost always a disagreeable voice4 #e4 ,clear ,articulation4--,so much for the voice in general2 now1 last of all1 we must be careful to pronounce clearly1 to articulate distinctly1 that is1 to give each syllable its proper value4 ,of course we do not ordinarily like to listen to a very prim and precise speaker1 who pronounces every syllable with equal distinctness1 uttering sharply1 for instance1 the d in such an unimportant word as and4 ,it is the custom of our language to distinguish between the accented syllables1 which we pronounce distinctly1 and the unaccented syllables1 over which we pass lightly4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we do not like to listen to the slovenly speaker1 who drops entirely the d in and and the g in ing1 and who sounds all his vowels very much alike4 ,in this matter of articulation1 you will do well to take some older person1 a good speaker or reader1 as a model1 and to imitate him or her4 ,practice reading aloud to your friends1 standing sometimes at the very end of the room1 or at the end of a suite of rooms1 as far as possible from your hearers1 asking any one of them to interrupt you the moment that anything you say is not distinctly heard4 #ci4 ,pronunciation4--,as to pronunciation1 you must remember that often custom is not uniform4 ,there are sometimes two or even more ways of pronouncing a word1 both or all of which are given in the dictionaries2 and occasionally there is a thoroughly proper way of pronouncing a word which the men who make the dictionaries have unfortunately omitted1 but which is used by many educated and cultivated people4 ,in general1 you should use the pronunciation of the most intelligent and respected people you know1 and in particular that of your teacher and your school4 ,it is quite proper and desirable that every school or teacher should establish its own custom for words which are usually pronounced in one of several ways1 and the pupil should do his best to conform1 for the convenience of all1 to the custom of the class or the school in this respect4 #dj4 ,a ,plan ,necessary4--,there is no other important difference which you need now consider between oral composition and written composition4 ,in both it is better1 before you begin1 to think carefully over what you have to say4 ,in oral composition1 as in written1 it is wise to make a plan1 and you can make it in precisely the same way4 ,,note ,,for ,,the ,,teacher4--,it does not seem necessary to insert special exercises in oral composition4 ,almost any of the exercises from the following chapters may be used with advantage4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,diary #da4 ,the ,value of a ,diary4--,the diary is the simplest form of writing1 for you are writing for yourself1 making for yourself a record of your life4 ,what do you think should go in a diary8 ,if your parents had kept one when they were your age1 what would you have found most interesting now8 ,a great many things which they would have taken for granted would seem odd to you1 i4e4 no telephone1 big stoves in the class room1 different studies1 etc4 ,if a boy in ,china kept a diary1 what would you find most interesting8 ,some account of his games1 of his playmates1 of the look of the streets he passed through1 of how he felt towards his teacher1 etc4 ,bear these points in mind1 for when you grow older1 though you will not live in another land or another generation1 you will be very far from your school-days1 and your diary should make a picture of them for you4 ,if you had been able to keep a diary when you were six or seven1 what would you now read in it with most interest8 ,the ideal is to set down at the end of the day a reminder of it1 so that when you look at it you will remember what made that day different from every other4 ,this is not possible always1 but as a matter of fact every day has some special features1 if it is only the weather4 ,from a practical point of view1 the diary is a great aid to letter-writing1 since it really forms the notes for a narrative of your life4 ,it often settles disputes about the date on which something was done2 it furnishes data for calculations in planning2 i4e4 you wish to have an early spring picnic1 and1 consulting your diary1 find that on the #bjth of ,march of the year before you were in the woods without an overcoat and found arbutus2 or you wish to get up an entertainment1 and turn back in your diary for the description of one you saw during the summer4 ,it gives you material for writing exercises for your ,english work2 for instance1 the entry1 ,to-day we went to ,aunt ,julia's to help pick cherries2 ,i was almost bitten by their dog when we came down from the tree1 is really the outline for a short story1 if you make your note on it sufficient to bring the picture up before your mind4 #db4 ,contents of a ,diary4--,no two diaries should be alike1 but certain things should always be noted so as to make a continuous record1 even if they do not seem of special interest2 i4e4 the weather 7very briefly if it is nothing unusual71 the movements of the family 7if any one is away or just returned71 the health of the family 7this only if any one is ill71 what the general news of school is 7if any special event of school life has taken place71 and what you yourself have been doing4 ,you may sometimes think that you have done nothing worth putting down1 but anything that has made the day different from the day before is worth writing4 ,do not try to make entries for different days of same length4 ,try to cultivate the ability to pick out the details of an incident which will make you remember it most distinctly4 ,later on1 in letter writing and description1 you will have to select details which will bring a picture most clearly before the minds of other people1 but in your diary you are freer4 ,in your entry after an afternoon's sledding1 for instance1 it may be sufficient for you to say3 ,went sledding on ,holmes's hill4 ,weather very cold1 with a high wind1 that sent the snow flying4 ,broke my sled1 trying to make the corner curve too fast4 ,the whole crowd of us come home together1 taking turns in pulling each other and playing ,eskimos1 and ,i almost frosted my nose4 ,if those were the important events of the afternoon to you1 they should bring up the whole picture before you1 so that you could see it clearly enough to remember all the other details that would be necessary to give any one else an idea of what the expedition was like4 ,it is absolutely essential that the entry for each day should be made while it is fresh in your mind2 do not wait for several days1 and then write up your diary4 ,a short entry on the day of the occurrence is worth more than a page written a week later4 ,after the school news1 and what you yourself have done1 enter anything unusual which any one you know has done1 or any change of conditions at home2 i4e4 that it is preserving time and the house is full of odor of cooking fruit2 that it is near ,christmas1 and you worked with the others on making wreaths for the decorations of the church4 ,you will find that a brief record of your work at school1 how you succeeded and how you failed1 what you found hard and why1 is of real use to you4 #dc4 ,imaginary ,diaries4--,after you have formed the habit of making every day a picture of your own actual life1 try making a similar picture of the life of an imaginary person4 ,take any period you have studied in your history and try to make a diary of a boy or girl who lived in that time4 ,exercise #gg4--a4 ,a ,puritan boy in the first winter of the stay of the ,puritan fathers in ,new ,england2 choose a week when they first land1 and a week when spring begins to come4 ,bring out the difference in his feelings4 #b4 ,a girl in ,dutch ,manhattan4 ,tell the story of the taking of ,manhattan by the ,english as it would have appeared to her4 ,from your study of the customs and habits of the time1 write a week's entries of her holiday week1 ,christmas customs1 etc4 #c4 ,an ,indian boy3 a week's diary in the ,west1 on the plains1 etc41 and then later1 a week's entries after he arrives at the ,indian school and is being taught the customs of the white men4 #d4 ,diary of a week spent as you would like best to spend it4 ,diary of an imaginary week in the country2 in the city2 in ,south ,america2 on an ocean voyage2 during a week's illness4 #e4 ,diary of the inhabitant of any country you are studying in your geography lessons4 #dd4 ,the ,class ,diary4--,if there is not already such a custom in your class room1 it is a good thing for you to start a class diary1 or record of the year's school work and activities4 ,this aims to do the same thing for the class that your personal diary does for your own life1 and in it should be written all that makes the life of each school day or week distinctive4 ,this book is left in your class room1 to form one of a series of such records1 which will be of increasing interest as the years go on4 ,any large blank book may be used for this purpose1 and great care should be taken to keep the record very neatly written4 ,nothing should be entered until all corrections have been made1 so that a fair copy may be written4 ,sometimes1 when only the larger events are to be chronicled1 it is better that this record be set down by weeks1 rather than by days4 ,a good plan is to divide the class into committees of four or five each1 who take charge of noting down the happenings of the week4 ,they write the entry1 read it to the class for suggestions and criticisms1 and set it down in the class diary4 ,it is well to have fixed a certain number of items which are to be noted regularly1 and these may be divided among the members of the committee for the week4 ,for instance1 one may make it his business to note the weather1 the temperature1 the wind1 or any unusual conditions out of doors2 another1 the advance of the seasons1 the day when the first robin arrives1 or when the first definite signs of winter were seen1 whether this be the falling of the last leaves1 the first snowstorm1 or the fact that the street cars are heated2 another may take as his share the state of the studies of the class1 unusual lessons1 if any1 and the progress made in the regular ones2 another1 any items of general interest in other classes in the school4 ,a record of all manner of items may be kept here1--facts which the class is interested in keeping1 such as the attendance for each day1 or the average attendance for the week1 the average percentage of the class in any study1 etc4 ,for special events1--entertainments1 debates1 excursions1 etc41--there may be a member of the committee delegated to report1 or the accounts may be written as an exercise1 and the best one selected by the committee or teacher4 ,the entry for the week should be made up of these various reports1 entered neatly in the class diary1 and signed by the pupils composing the committee4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,letter #de4 ,various ,kinds of ,letters4--,you have seen that the diary or journal is the most informal and simple form of written expression1 since it is intended1 as a rule1 for the writer only4 ,the letter is less personal than the diary1 because it is addressed to one other person2 but it is more personal than general writing 7description1 stories1 etc471 which is addressed to a number of persons1 most of whom the writer does not know4 ,letters differ widely according to their purposes1 but the merit of any sort of a letter may be judged by putting yourself in the place of the person receiving it1 and trying to feel whether you would be satisfied by it4 ,letters may be classified as follows according to their purposes3-- #a4 ,to bridge over1 as far as possible1 a separation between people who know each other well1 and to take the place of a conversation between them4 ,friendly letters4 #b4 ,to arrange matters of social intercourse in the most correct and pleasing manner1 to extend and accept or refuse invitations1 etc4 ,social letters4 #c4 ,to give information or ask questions as clearly as possible4 ,business letters4 #d4 ,to give information or ask questions as briefly as is consistent with perfect clearness4 ,telegrams4 #e4 ,to take the place of going about and telling many people the same thing4 ,notices4 #f4 ,to present a request for a favor in the most persuasive manner4 ,petitions4 #df4 ,friendly ,letters4--,there are five main parts to every letter3 7#a7 the heading2 7#b7 the salutation2 7#c7 the body1 or what is written2 7#d7 the complimentary ending2 7#e7 the conclusion4 ,in a friendly letter the heading1 which consists of the post-office address of the writer and the date of writing1 is sometimes omitted1 although it is always best to write the date1 even in letters of the greatest intimacy4 ,some of the usual salutations in letters to near friends or relatives are3 ,my dear ,mother1 ,dear ,father1 ,dear ,mary1 ,my dear ,mrs4 ,smith1 ,my dear ,aunt ,martha4 ,according to the degree of intimacy the usual complimentary endings are3 ,sincerely yours1 ,very sincerely yours1 ,cordially yours1 ,heartily yours1 ,yours ever1 ,affectionately yours1 ,yours lovingly1 ,your loving daughter1 ,your affectionate son1 etc4 ,in letters to members of the family or close friends the first name only is sometimes signed4 ,the following are good typical forms for friendly letters3-- 7#a7 ,,dorset1 ,n4,h41 ,may #aj1 #aijf4 ,,my ,,dear ,,gilbert1-- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ------------------ ,faithfully yours1 ,,james ,,meyer4 7#b7 ,,butte1 ,april #af1 ,thursday4 ,,dear ,,mother1-- -------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- --------------------------- ,your affectionate son1 ,,henry4 ,the ideal in friendly letters is to write to your correspondent what you would say to him if you could see him1 and to answer the questions he would put to you4 ,if you are away on a visit1 for instance1 the questions he would probably ask are1 ,what sort of a place is it where you are8 ,are you having a good time8 ,what are you doing to amuse yourself8 ,try to think what sort of a letter you would like to have him write if he were away1 and write accordingly4 ,although you wish to write naturally and almost as though you were talking1 it is best to make out a list of the really important things you wish to say1 or you will find that you have come to the end of your letter without stating some vital facts you wished your friend to know4 ,it has been said that a friendly letter should be like a conversation1 but you must remember that it is a conversation limited in time4 ,if you were about to see your friend for only a half hour1 it would be well to think of a few main facts you wished to tell him1 or questions you wish him to answer1 and bear them in mind2 otherwise your time might come to an end before you had said the important things4 ,even for the most informal letter it is always best to make an outline1 although it may be a very brief one4 ,suppose you wish to describe the way in which you spent ,christmas away from home4 ,probably nothing very unusual happened1 and you may think an outline unnecessary2 but you will find1 even in relating the facts of one day1 that if you do not have some plan and keep in your mind the main events in their proper order1 you will be likely to write a confused and incomplete account of what you did4 ,some such outline as the following is needed3-- ,,introduction4 ,the place where ,i was1--city1 country1 or village2 the weather2 general conditions4 7,this information can be given as briefly as you please1 in a paragraph1 but it is essential to understanding what you say about ,christmas ,day itself47 ,,main ,,body ,,of ,,the ,,letter4 ,morning4 ,why we hung up our stockings1 and how we received our presents4 ,dinner4 ,how we helped prepare it1 and any special features of it4 ,afternoon4 ,coasting4 ,evening4 ,charades1 and the one we thought particularly good4 ,,ending4 ,inquiries about your friend's ,christmas1 friendly greetings1 and the close4 ,a letter written on the above outline follows3-- ,,newtonville1 ,,wis4 ,january #b1 #aijf4 ,,my ,,dear ,,harry1-- ,i promised you before the holidays began that ,i would let you know how ,i had spent my ,christmas1 but the last day of the vacation has come and ,i have not written you a line4 ,the truth is that ,i have been having such a good time every minute that ,i have not realized how fast the week has been going4 ,you remember my big cousin who goes to the ,state ,university1 don't you8 ,he came to visit our school once1 last winter4 ,his father1 my uncle1 invited our family to come out here and have a real country ,christmas on his farm1 and here we have been since the day after school closed4 ,he lives in a fine1 large farmhouse1 with room enough in it for his big family and ours1 too4 ,we are three miles from town1 but there are plenty of horses to drive1 and the air is so bracing and the weather so clear and cold that we don't mind the walk4 ,besides that1 there are such a lot of us that nobody ever has to go alone4 ,i never knew what fun it is to be in a big family4 ,there is always somebody ready for a tramp whenever you want to go out1 and in the evenings it is like being at a party all the time4 ,on ,christmas eve we hung up our stockings1 even the grown-ups4 ,that was for the little children1 who still think there is a ,santa ,claus4 ,there was hardly room enough along the mantelpiece for them all1 and the next morning1 when they were all full and knobby1 they actually overlapped4 ,christmas morning we were all up ever so early4 ,before it was really light1 my big cousin was around knocking at the doors1 calling us to breakfast and shouting1 ,merry ,christmas6 ,we scrambled into our clothes and raced downstairs to breakfast1 and then to the stockings4 ,we pretended we thought ,santa ,claus had just that minute gone1 and you ought to have seen the little girls look up the chimney after him4 ,by the time everybody had looked at all his own presents and the things other people had1 it was time to begin thinking about dinner4 ,we helped get it4 ,i shouldn't be surprised if we were more in the way than a help1 but it was lots of fun4 ,the girls worked around in the kitchen and helped set the table1 and we boys decorated the rooms with greens and turned the ice-cream crank4 ,there were eighteen of us at table1 and you couldn't hear yourself think for the talking and laughing4 ,the last thing we did was to pass around a big sheet of paper1 and everybody wrote his name on it and anything else he wanted to say4 ,we are going to try1 all of us1 to get together that way every ,christmas1 and make such a list each time for a remembrance4 ,my big cousin wrote1 ,united we cook1 united we eat1 united we die6 ,i said it was the best ,christmas ,i had ever had4 ,we had eaten so much that after dinner we just sat around and talked for a while1 and then a crowd of boys went out to coast and try our new sleds4 ,there is a fine hill right near the house1 and the snow was exactly right4 ,you can coast as much as ten city blocks without slowing up at all1 and then you run along on a level for four or five more4 ,in the evening some of the neighbors came in and we played charades4 ,i never knew you could have so much fun at that4 ,we thought of a number of good words1 but our side had the best1 ,russian4 ,we played the first syllable like a football rush1 and that was exciting4 ,my cousin is on the university team1 and he told us just what to do to have it like real football4 ,we acted the last syllable as shun1 and none of us would look at one of the girls1--shunned her1 you know4 ,for the whole word we put on all the furs we could find1 and paraded around with banners1 and pretended to throw bombs4 ,the other side couldn't guess for a long time what we were acting4 ,we were pretty tired when we went to bed1 but ,i thought again it was about the nicest ,christmas ,i had ever known4 ,i hope you had a good time1 too1 and ,i wish you would write me about it4 ,it must have been very different from mine1 since you were in the city4 ,did you get the new skates you wanted8 ,my father gave me a pair4 ,i hope ,i shall hear soon from you that your ,christmas was as great a success as mine4 ,sincerely yours1 ,,george ,,allen4 ,exercise #gh4--,make a similar outline and write a letter on any one of the following topics3-- 7#a7 ,your ,christmas holidays in the city4 7#b7 ,a trip in a boat4 7#c7 ,the use of a new camera4 7#d7 ,the beginning of a new study in school4 7#e7 ,the beginning of new lessons out of school4 7#f7 ,the last game of baseball1 basket-ball1 etc41 you have seen4 7#g7 ,a railway journey4 7#h7 ,your friend is away on a visit4 ,write him all that has gone on in the neighborhood and school since he left4 7#i7 ,your parents are away4 ,write them the news of your home4 7#aj7 ,you have found a certain book interesting4 ,write your friend about it and recommend it to him4 7#aa7 ,describe an interesting address or play you have heard4 7#ab7 ,an accident which you saw or one in which you were4 7#ac7 ,an expedition in the woods4 7#ad7 ,an entertainment you have recently seen or one which you helped to give4 7#ae7 ,a new pet4 7#af7 ,a carpenter shop you have arranged for yourself in an unused room4 7#ag7 ,a picnic4 7#ah7 ,a new society which has been started in your school4 7#ai7 ,you have your parents' permission to undertake a walking trip or bicycling tour of several days through the country4 ,write to a friend1 stating your plans and asking him to join you4 7#bj7 ,a similar letter proposing a week's camping-out in the woods4 ,note4--,a longer list of subjects for friendly letters is not given because almost any of the subjects for other forms of composition can be treated in a letter4 ,moreover1 it is highly desirable that pupils should write letters to real people1--relatives1 friends1 or pupils in other schools with whom an exchange has been arranged4 ,a real correspondence1 where the pupil feels he is attempting to interest and please an actual person1 arouses much more spirit than purely imaginary letters4 #dg4 ,letters of ,social ,intercourse4--,in form1 letters of social intercourse stand between the purely friendly letter and the business letter4 ,the address of the writer and the date of the letter often stand at the foot of the letter1 beginning opposite the signature in the more informal notes1 as in the following form3-- ,,my ,,dear ,,mrs4 ,,blackmar1-- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ----------------------------- ,very sincerely yours1 ,,mary ,,holden4 #bb ,,high ,,street1 ,,columbus1 ,o4 ,april #ab1 #aijf4 ,in the most formal letter of social intercourse1 the address of the writer and the date stand at the beginning1 and the complete name and address of the person addressed stand at the foot1 thus3-- #dbh ,,bolton ,,place1 ,,pittsburgh1 ,,pa41 ,september #bf1 #aijf4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir1-- ----------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ----------------------------------- ,very sincerely yours1 ,,richard ,,white4 ,,mr4 ,,elbert ,,peters1 ,,ross ,,center1 ,n4,y4 ,sometimes1 instead of writing ,mr4 before a name1 ,esq4 is written after it1 but the two are never used at the same time4 ,in style1 the letter of social intercourse should be as graceful as it is possible to make it1 although it should always be simple and not too long4 ,many invitations and answers to them have a form fixed by tradition 7see ,formal ,invitations1 #dh71 but the informal social letter is almost entirely a matter of taste4 ,there are1 however1 a few courteous phrases which are so much used as to be almost fixed forms4 ,such are3 ,i hope that we may have the pleasure of your company1 ,i hope that you can be with us1 ,i regret most sincerely that it is impossible for me to accept your kind invitation1 ,i shall be very happy to be with you1 ,it is with great pleasure that ,i accept your kind invitation1 ,i regret that a previous engagement prevents me from accepting your invitation1 etc4 ,the following is a typical informal invitation3-- ,,my ,,dear ,,mrs4 ,,wilson1-- ,my mother wishes me to write you that we are planning to take a drive to ,chester on next ,tuesday1 and should be very glad to have you with us4 ,we are to leave at nine o'clock1 so that we may be at the ,chester ,hotel in time for dinner4 ,i hope that is not too early an hour for you1 and that we may have the pleasure of your company on that day4 ,very sincerely yours1 ,,margaret ,,hunt4 ,,hilltop ,,lodge1 ,,wis41 ,january #ad1 #aijf4 ,exercise #gi4--,the following letters should be written on note paper or on paper ruled to that size3-- #a4 ,write an acceptance to the above invitation4 #b4 ,write a note to a friend of your mother's1 saying that your mother is slightly indisposed and cannot keep an engagement4 ,write a suitable answer4 #c4 ,write a note to a friend of your father's1 asking him in your father's name to join a fishing party2 a whist club2 a hunting expedition2 to be one of a theater party4 #d4 ,write a note to a friend1 boy or girl1 asking him or her to go to the theater with you1 to come and spend the day with you1 to come to a party you are giving1 to attend some athletic contest with you1 to go for a day's tramp with a party of friends1 to play at a concert1 to take part in a debate or entertainment1 to lend you a book1 to give you the address of a friend1 to join with you in forming a club among your friends4 #e4 ,write a note to a friend1 thanking him for having helped you in an entertainment1 for having lent you a book1 for having done a service to a friend1 for any favor shown you4 #f4 ,write a note to your teacher1 explaining your absence from school1 asking her to send word to you about the lessons done in your absence2 asking her to excuse you early from school1 giving some specific reason2 asking her for the date of the first day of school following a vacation2 asking if you may be a few days late in returning to school2 asking her to be present at a meeting of one of your societies2 inviting her to your house for dinner4 #g4 ,write a note to the principal of your school1 asking him to be present at an entertainment given by your grade1 at a spelling match1 at a debate1 or any special event in your class room2 asking him to excuse you from drawing1 on account of weak eyes1 or from any other study1 giving reasons2 asking him to give you a letter of introduction to the principal of the new school to which you are about to go2 asking him to be a judge in some contest in your class room2 thanking him for having acted as judge4 #dh4 ,formal ,invitations4--,these are written and answered according to certain fixed forms and in the third person4 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,henry ,miller request the pleasure of ,mr4 ,albert ,knight's company at dinner on ,wednesday evening1 the tenth of ,march1 at half past seven o'clock4 #bba ,west ,long ,street1 ,friday morning4 ,mr4 ,albert ,knight accepts with pleasure ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,miller's kind invitation to dinner on ,wednesday evening at half past seven o'clock4 #dd ,park ,place1 ,saturday morning4 ,mrs4 ,william ,morris ,miss ,morris ,at ,home ,on ,wednesday1 ,march tenth1 from four until six o'clock4 #bc ,grant ,avenue4 ,extremely formal invitations1 especially to public and semi-public functions1 are often impersonal in form1 as in the following3-- ,the ,annual ,concert of the ,elementary ,schools of ,st4 ,joseph1 ,michigan1 will be held in the ,assembly ,room of the ,high ,school1 ,tuesday evening1 ,may twentieth1 at eight o'clock4 ,you are cordially invited to be present4 ,the ,president and ,members of the ,school ,board request the honor of your company at the formal dedication of the ,new ,high ,school1 on ,wednesday1 ,november third1 at half past three o'clock4 ,exercise #hj4--;,i4 ,study these forms and copy them accurately on note paper4 ,write a formal invitation from ,captain and ,mrs4 ,arthur ,elliott to ,mrs4 ,alice ,johnson for dinner2 from ,mrs4 ,henry ,white to ,mr4 and ,miss ,kellogg for an evening at home4 ,write acceptance and regret for each4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,prepare a card for a semi-public reception given by your school1 by your church1 by a club or society4 #b4 ,prepare a card for a school concert1 exhibition of school work1 exhibition of work in ,physical ,culture2 for a play given by the school ,dramatic ,society2 for a ,may ,festival given by the ,eighth ,grade2 for the laying of a corner stone of a new schoolhouse1 of a church1 of a public building of any kind4 #di4 ,telegrams4--,in a telegram clearness is the first quality to be sought4 ,because of the cost of sending1 the telegram is usually limited to ten words1 excluding the address and signature1 and this brevity renders it difficult to state all that you wish clearly1 and makes it an exercise in ingenuity to condense the information you wish to give without making it hard to understand4 ,for instance1 you wish your brother1 who is visiting in another town1 to meet you at a certain train on ,monday and spend the day hunting with you1 if the weather is good4 ,you would word your telegram in some such way as this3-- ,september #i1 #aijf4 ,,mr4 ,,peter ,,whiting1 ,,danfield1 ,,md4 ,meet me eight thirty1 ready for hunting1 if weather favorable4 ,,john ,,whiting4 ,although you have used incomplete sentences1 you have said enough so that your brother will understand what you mean4 ,exercise #ha4--;,condense as much as possible and write as telegrams1 thinking before you write what are the essential parts of the message1 and leaving out all else3-- #a4 ,mother has gone to spend the day with ,aunt ,mary1 and wishes you to call there for her in the evening and bring her home4 #b4 ,before you come home1 be sure to call on the lady who is to be teacher of the seventh grade here next year4 ,she lives on ,horning ,street4 #c4 ,we are all to be away from home on a picnic the day you speak of coming to see us4 ,we should like to have you join us4 #d4 ,there is to be a very interesting entertainment here the day ,i was to go home4 ,may ,i stay over another day to see it8 #e4 ,the river is too swollen for the canoe trip we planned for ,saturday4 ,bring your tools along when you come1 and we will try to make a raft4 #f4 ,henry has just passed his examinations for ,dartmouth ,college4 ,he will stop in ,farmington to see you1 on his way home1 ,tuesday4 #g4 ,can your basket-ball team put off the match we were to play on ,monday until ,wednesday8 ,the field we hoped to have is engaged for ,monday4 #h4 ,will your debating society be willing to meet ours1 on the #bgth of this month1 in our class room8 #i4 ,we have just heard of the burning of your schoolhouse and wish to extend our sympathy4 ,will you telegraph us if there is anything we can do to help you8 #aj4 ,the hour of the train on which we were to leave has been changed1 and we shall not reach home until six o'clock4 #aa4 ,on unpacking my trunk ,i cannot find my volume of ,tennyson's poems4 ,did you put it in the trunk or was it left behind8 #ab4 ,i have spilled ink on my best dress4 ,may ,aunt ,jane buy a new one for me to wear at my cousin's party8 #ac4 ,we cannot find the key to the back door4 ,if you took it with you by mistake1 please return it to father's business address4 #ad4 ,will the seventh grade of your school join ours in a nature-study excursion to the river next ,saturday8 #ae4 ,your mother is away from home on her birthday4 ,send her an appropriate telegram of congratulation and greeting4 #af4 ,you are to pass through the town where a friend lives and will have a half hour wait at the station4 ,telegraph him1 asking him to come there to see you4 #ej4 ,business ,letters4--,in a business letter the five main parts are very full and complete4 ,the heading contains1 as in other letters1 the post office address of the writer and the date4 ,above the salutation is written the full name and address of the person to whom the letter is sent4 ,there are slightly varied forms for the salutation3-- ,dear ,sir2 ,my dear ,sir2 ,dear ,sirs2 ,dear ,madam2 ,dear ,mesdames2 ,sir2 ,gentlemen2 ,madam2 ,mesdames4 ,the complimentary ending is usually one of the following3-- ,truly yours2 ,very truly yours2 ,faithfully yours2 ,respectfully yours4 ,sometimes1 in letters slightly more formal1 these endings are written thus3-- ,i am1 ,very truly yours1 ,,andrew ,d4 ,,jordan4 ,i remain1 ,respectfully yours1 ,,andrew ,d4 ,,jordan4 ,under the signature of the writer is frequently put his title2 and if a clerk has written the signature1 per followed by his initials is placed below4 ,very truly yours1 ,,andrew ,d4 ,,jordan1 ,secretary4 ,truly yours1 ,,matthew ,,bennett1 per ,d4 ,c4 ,the following is a correct and usual form for a business letter3-- #eja ,,south ,,lincoln ,,street1 ,,cleveland1 ,o4 ,september #bj1 #aijf4 ,,messrs4 ,,charles ,,wright ,,and ,,sons1 #db ,,hilton ,,street1 ,,norwood1 ,,pa4 ,,dear ,,sirs1-- ,please send me the latest catalogue of your goods1 and state whether you pay cost of transportation for large orders4 ,very truly yours1 ,,henry ,l4 ,,perkins4 ,exercise #hb4--,study the forms given above1 and write the beginning and end of each of the following letters3-- #a4 ,mr4 ,henry ,smith1 #dd ,bolton ,place1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 writes on ,november #aj1 #aijf1 to ,messrs4 ,john ,murray ,brothers1 #cb ,canal ,street1 ,new ,york4 #b4 ,miss ,helen ,reed1 ,principal of the ,woodlawn ,school1 ,saylesville1 ,n4,j41 writes on ,october #aj1 #aijf1 to ,mr4 ,percy ,painter1 #fjg ,west #adth ,street1 ,trenton1 ,n4,j4 #c4 ,the ,landsdowne ,manufacturing ,company1 #bda ,greenwich ,place1 ,san ,francisco1 writes on ,may #g1 #aijf1 to the ,san ,francisco agent of the ,northern ,pacific ,r4 ,r41 #bb ,newton ,street1 ,san ,francisco4 ,the writing of business letters should be taken up after the exercise in writing telegrams1 for brevity is almost as essential in the one as in the other4 ,there is1 of course1 no need to write incomplete sentences as in the telegram1 but the same general process should be followed2 that is1 to see what are the really important points you wish to state1 to express these with unmistakable clearness1 and to say no more4 ,it is proper to add that a person of education and cultivation is recognized at once as such by the letters he writes4 ,even in a matter-of-fact letter1 too1 you may often reveal1 without realizing it1 your courtesy and kindliness as well as your intelligence4 ,we constantly judge people by their letters4 ,note4--,a good exercise is to have the pupils assume characters in the business world and answer each other's letters4 ,an incomplete letter can often be detected thus1 by being put to a practical test4 ,do not begin to write your letter until you have made a brief outline of what you wish to say1 in the order in which it should be said4 ,for instance1 you wish to apply for the position of errand boy4 ,to write a complete letter1 you need some such outline as the following1 even though it be only in your head and not written down3-- ,give the reason for applying for the position by stating how you have heard of the need for errand boys 7through advertisement1 personally1 etc472 state your own qualifications for the work as simply and plainly as possible1 mentioning your age1 education1 health1 experience1 recommendations1 and any other facts that may bear on your capacity to give satisfaction2 and when you have given these essential points1 close your letter4 ,a letter written on such lines follows3-- #ee ,,henly ,,street1 ,,baltimore1 ,,md4 ,january #ag1 #aijf4 ,,messrs4 ,,john ,,hampton ,,and ,,sons1 #bbe ,,fulton ,,st41 ,,new ,,york4 ,,dear ,,sirs1-- ,i have heard through your agent here that you are looking for boys as messengers and errand boys4 ,my family is about to move to ,new ,york and ,i wish to make application for one of those positions with your firm4 ,i am fifteen years old1 in good health1 and have just graduated from the public schools in this city4 ,for the last three summers ,i have acted as errand boy for the firm of ,clancy ,brothers here1 which work ,i am told by your agent is similar to what you wish4 ,i inclose letters of recommendation from the head of that firm and from the principal of my school4 ,hoping to hear from you favorably1 ,very truly yours1 ,,peter ,,miller4 ,exercise #hc4--;,i4 ,write the answer to the above4 ,,ii4 ,write1 in the same manner1 letter and answer1 making a short outline first in each case3-- #a4 ,a letter to a bicycle firm1 asking to be given the agency for your town or locality4 ,state why you think their bicycles would sell well1 and what your qualifications for the position are4 #b4 ,letter to a large grocery store1 offering to sell them homemade preserves1 nuts1 maple sugar1 candy1 popcorn-balls1 or anything you can make or gather in the country4 #c4 ,letter to a florist1 offering to supply him with autumn leaves1 ferns1 country flowers of any kind1 moss1 birchbark1 etc4 #d4 ,letter to a country newspaper1 offering to write a weekly news letter4 #e4 ,letter to a country church1 offering to repeat for them an entertainment which has been successful in your own church or school ,note4--,make the letters above complete in all details1 as to distance from the city or country1 cost of transportation1 etc42 and in the answer give full terms and conditions4 #f4 ,letter to a livery stable1 asking their price for a sleigh ride for a party of twelve4 #g4 ,letter to the owner of an athletic field1 asking his price for the use of the field every ,tuesday afternoon during ,april and ,may4 #h4 ,letter to a firm of dealers in athletic goods1 asking for a reduced rate for an outfit for basket-ball1 baseball1 etc41 and giving reasons why you think you should have a reduction4 #i4 ,to a piano manufacturer1 asking lowest prices for a piano for the school and easiest methods of payment1 installments1 etc4 ,explain that the pupils are attempting to raise the money by entertainments4 #aj4 ,to a bank1 inclosing check and asking them to deposit it to your brother's credit1 and to send acknowledgment to his address4 ,exercise #hd4--,write the following3 #a4 ,to a carpenter1 asking price of shelf for your class room4 ,give all necessary information about length1 width1 etc4 #b4 ,to a dressmaker1 asking price for making a dress4 ,give all particulars4 #c4 ,to a department store1 asking to open an account4 ,give references4 #d4 ,to the ,gas ,company1 saying that you are about to leave town for a month and wish the gas turned off the house during that time4 #e4 ,to a theater1 asking what reduction will be made if a number of pupils from your school buy tickets together4 #f4 ,to a railroad1 asking what reduction in price will be made for a school excursion4 #g4 ,to a grocer1 milkman1 butcher1 making arrangements for daily delivery of goods at your house4 #h4 ,to a caterer1 asking prices for a large reception4 #i4 ,to the leader of a musical organization1 asking his prices for playing at a school entertainment4 #aj4 ,to a person who is to speak at your school1 stating exactly what the occasion is1 who will form his audience1 how long he is expected to speak1 etc4 #ea4 ,notices4--,in olden times1 when any one wished to announce a meeting or give some information of common interest1 he hired the town crier4 ,this was a man who went about the town with a horn or bell1 attracting as many people as possible to him1 and then crying out in a loud voice the news he had to tell4 ,the notice you put up on the blackboard in your class room1 the slip of paper you post on the walls of your schoolhouse1 to announce an entertainment1 an examination1 or a meeting of one of your clubs1 is the modern town crier4 ,the notices which you see in the newspapers1 telling people the time and date of a public meeting1 or announcing church services1 also take the place of a town crier4 ,there is this difference4 ,if the crier forgot to tell the people listening to him any important detail of his news1 they could at once call out and ask him2 but if a notice is incomplete1 there is no way for the people interested to get the information needed4 ,if you will study notices of various kinds1 you will see that good ones1 that is1 notices which are brief1 clear1 complete1 and not clumsy1 are not common2 and1 when you try to write them1 you will probably find it more difficult than you thought to be a good town crier4 ,a meeting for the purpose of forming a club for the study of birds will be held on ,thursday afternoon at half past three1 in the ,seventh ,grade room4 ,any pupils in grades higher than the ,fourth1 who are interested in bird study1 are eligible for membership1 and are cordially invited to attend the meeting4 ,if a sufficient number appear before four o'clock1 an expedition to the ,wright ,woods will be made1 under the leadership of the teachers of the ,seventh ,grade4 ,in studying this notice you will see that a great deal is contained in it4 ,place1 date1 hour1 and purpose of the meeting are contained in the first sentence4 ,in the next is definitely stated the condition for membership in the club1 and in the last is placed an inducement to make the meeting a large one4 ,another example follows3-- ,a ,christmas entertainment will be given by the pupils of the ,eighth ,grade on ,friday afternoon at three o'clock1 in the ,seventh ,grade room4 ,a short play will be presented1 and the ,glee ,club of the school will sing twice4 ,admission1 ten cents4 ,it is hoped that there will be a large number present1 as the proceeds go to the piano fund4 ,exercise #he4--a4 ,the ,bird ,club is formed1 and you wish to announce a field expedition1 on a ,saturday1 when every one is to bring his lunch4 ,state place and time and date of meeting2 probable length of the expedition2 cost1 if any2 special equipment1 such as rubbers2 and what will be done in case of bad weather4 #b4 ,write a notice for a regular meeting of the ,bird ,club1 giving topic to be discussed4 #c4 ,you wish to announce a competition for a prize for the best story about a bird1 for the best drawing of a bird1 for the best plan of work for the club1 for the best description of one of its excursions4 ,state conditions of contest1 time when contributions must be handed in1 maximum and minimum length of article or size of drawing1 what the prize is1 etc4 #d4 ,similar notice for prize competition for best ,christmas story1 ,fourth of ,july article1 ,thanksgiving poem1 etc42 for the best amateur photograph of the school1 for the best drawing4 #e4 ,write notice for the formation of a ,kodak ,club2 of a football team2 of a walking club2 of a dramatic society2 of a literary society2 of a glee club2 of a general athletic association2 of a school library2 of a chess club4 #f4 ,write notices for a regular meeting of these societies4 ,in writing notices for an address or entertainment it is often desirable to give a little space to a brief description or characterization of the speaker1 as in the following3-- ,dr4 ,william ,t4 ,harris1 the former ,national ,commissioner of ,education at ,washington1 will speak on ,education and ,philosophy at the morning session on ,tuesday1 at half-past nine o'clock1 in the large ,assembly ,hall4 ,dr4 ,harris is one of the most distinguished of living educators4 ,a general discussion will follow the address4 ,exercise #hf4--,write a notice for an address by the ,president of the ,united ,states1 by a senator1 by one of the clergymen of your town1 by the superintendent of city schools1 by the mayor of your town1 by any public person whom you would like to hear4 ,exercise #hg4--a4 ,write a notice of a spelling match between two grades in your school1 of an athletic contest of any kind1 of a concert1 of a play1 of a school expedition to visit an historical monument1 of the dates of a holiday1 of a picnic1 of a celebration of ,washington's birthday1 of a debate1 of a celebration of ,hallowe'en4 #b4 ,write a notice stating that the skating is good on a pond near the school2 that the pond is declared unsafe2 that pupils are asked not to pass near a building that is being erected on the same street as the school on account of danger from falling timber2 that pupils are requested to be very quiet in passing a house where some one lies seriously ill2 that the city or village authorities have forbidden coasting down a certain street2 that baseball is allowed on certain days in the park2 that bonfires will be allowed in the streets in honor of some celebration2 that the pupils of your school are expected to take part in the parade on ,decoration ,day1 in any town celebration2 that song birds are not to be killed2 that a bridge near the school is unsafe2 that all pupils must be vaccinated before a certain date4 #eb4 ,appeals4--,when brief1 these are in the nature of notices2 when longer1 they are like open letters4 ,they aim to move people to take action benefiting some good cause1 and should be as brief as is possible while giving a sufficiently full explanation of the necessity for action4 ,always state plainly and definitely how the action desired may be taken1 to whom contributions may be sent1 etc4 ,the following is an example of a brief appeal4 ,like any such communication1 it may be lengthened as much as is desirable1 by dwelling on the good that a library would do under the conditions mentioned1 by citing examples of successful school libraries elsewhere1 etc4 ,such expansion is only necessary when the people to whom you make your appeal know little or nothing of the matter4 ,the public school which has just been completed near the iron foundries has no library of its own and there is no public library near it4 ,good reading matter is much needed there1 and the pupils of other public schools in the city are earnestly requested to contribute books and magazines toward the formation of a school library4 ,anything in the way of interesting reading will be welcomed1 in ,german as well as ,english1 for there are a great many ,germans among the pupils4 ,old magazines and old books will be of as much value in the beginning as new ones4 ,contributions may be left in the office of the principal of any public school4 ,exercise #hh4--,write an appeal3 7#a7 for old magazines to send to hospitals2 7#b7 for pictures for your class room or for those of another school2 7#c7 for books for your own library in your grade room2 7#d7 for money for the fresh-air fund2 7#e7 for pupils to join the ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals2 7#f7 for volunteers to aid in a benefit entertainment of some sort1 drill1 play1 fair1 etc42 7#g7 for old clothes and shoes for the very poor of the city who are suffering from the cold2 7#h7 for examples of map making1 penmanship1 drawing1 or some other school work to send away as models to a new school2 7#i7 for pupils to hand in more material for the school paper4 #ec4 ,petitions4--,a petition is a form of open letter1 asking a favor1 and addressed by a number of people to an authority who can grant the request4 ,there is a form fixed by tradition for the opening of a petition1 but the content is varied according to the conditions1 and the wording of a petition needs the greatest care4 ,as in any literary exercise1 the first thought should be of the essential points you wish to cover1 and a brief outline should be made1 comprising an exact statement of the concession you wish granted and the best reasons you can give for the granting of it4 ,to the ,mayor and ,common ,council of the city of ,wakefield1 ,indiana1 we1 the undersigned1 members of the ,eighth ,grade of ,public ,school ,no4 #ab1 respectfully petition that the west end of ,elliott ,park1 above the driveway1 be set apart for a school picnic on the afternoon of ,tuesday1 ,may the fourteenth1 between two and six o'clock4 ,there is no other place suitable for a picnic within walking distance of the school and all the members of the ,eighth are not able to pay carfare4 ,if our petition is granted1 we guarantee that no damage will be done to the trees or shrubs1 that the park will be vacated promptly at six o'clock1 and left in good condition4 ,exercise #hi4--a4 ,write a petition to the authorities of your city or town1 asking for permission to use a certain street for coasting1 for shinney1 for baseball1 etc4 #b4 ,write a petition to the principal of your school1 asking that a new study may be introduced into the school curriculum2 that the weekly holiday be on another day2 that school open later and close later1 or vice versa2 that punishment by staying after school be abolished2 that the hours of schools be shorter and more work be done at home2 that school be closed an hour earlier in order that the pupils may be present at a meeting or celebration of some kind2 that your grade be allowed to use the assembly room for a debate2 that you be permitted to flood a part of the playground to make a skating pond2 that one of your studies be omitted from the course of study2 that pupils be not marked tardy until ten minutes after the opening of school4 #ed4 ,advertisements4--,the advertisement is an outgrowth of the notice1 and in its simplest form is still a notice1 as when the expense of printing causes the advertisement to be as brief as possible4 ,it is then written on the same principle as the telegram1 that is1 using the fewest words possible to express clearly a given amount of information4 ,exercise #ij4--,write1 after studying similar advertisements in the newspapers1 advertisements for help of all kinds1--janitor1 sewing girls1 errand boys1 maids1 nurses1 coachmen1 farm hands1 apple-pickers1 telephone girls1 stenographers1 etc4 ,also advertisements for rented furnished rooms1 for houses to rent1 etc41 giving all essential details in as few words as possible4 ,the above are virtually notices without having the real characteristic of the advertisement1 which differs from the notice in that it not only gives information but seeks to do this in so attractive and pleasing a manner that people will be induced to buy the wares offered4 ,exercise #ia4--;,as a class exercise1 take any one of the following topics1 limit the number of words used to two or three hundred1 and see who can write the most practical and attractive advertisement4 ,your aim is to state as forcibly as possible all the favorable aspects of your topic1 so that they will appeal most surely to the people you wish to reach4 ,study the advertisements you like best and see their method4 ,note that you are attracted by those that seem honest and moderate1 and that you are repelled by extravagant overstatements4 #a4 ,write an advertisement for an amusement park which has been opened near your town4 #b4 ,for a country school for boys2 for girls4 #c4 ,for a city school for boys2 for girls4 #d4 ,for an excursion on a railroad or on a line of steamers4 #e4 ,for a summer resort in the ,north2 for a winter resort in the ,south4 #f4 ,for a sanatorium in your town2 for a skating rink2 for a new hotel4 #g4 ,for an academy making a specialty of nature study2 of modern languages2 of athletics4 ,,chapter ,x ,,narration #ee4 ,the ,essentials of a ,good ,narrative4--,in a diary you set down things that happen1 for your own information4 ,in letters you try to report events so that they will be understood by the person to whom you are writing and1 more than this1 so that they will be interesting4 ,in a good narration you write an account of a series of connected events1 so that it can be understood by any one at all1 and will interest and please the greater number of your readers4 ,it is of course much harder to address an audience whom you do not know than to try to interest people with whose peculiarities you are well acquainted2 but1 after all1 people are very much the same in general likes and dislikes1 and there are several broad1 simple rules for constructing narrations1 or stories1 which apply to all readers4 ,the first thing that everybody wishes to have in a story is perfect clearness and good order4 ,a story is a report of things as they happened1 and every one wishes to learn the main events in the order in which they actually occurred4 ,you have probably been annoyed by some one1 who1 in telling you a story1 left out certain important steps1 so that you could hardly understand how things came to happen as he related4 ,notice1 for example1 what has been left out in the following paragraph3-- ,as the soldiers were crossing the bridge1 they noticed a man running down from a hill shouting to them and waving his arms4 ,they could not hear what he was saying1 because a strong wind was blowing away from them4 ,as they were struggling in the water1 one soldier noticed a large tree trunk floating down toward them and called to his fellows to try and save themselves by holding on to that4 ,of course1 so great an omission is rare2 but in writing of one event following another1 you must take care that your reader is never forced to stop and ask some such question as1 ,but you haven't told me how the soldiers came to be in the water1 as he would on reading the paragraph above4 ,a well-told fable is often a model for clear and connected simple narration4 ,a crow sat on a tree1 holding in his beak a large lump of cheese4 ,a wily fox1 attracted by the delicious smell1 came to the foot of the tree and said to the crow1 ,how splendid you look up there1 with your fine black feathers glistening in the sun6 ,i wish ,i had feathers instead of fur4 ,it is really not fair that you should have all the gifts1 beauty and skill1 and perhaps even talent4 ,do you sing as wonderfully as you fly8 ,the crow was so pleased by this that he opened his beak wide to show off his voice4 ,the cheese fell to the ground2 the fox snapped it up and ate it1 saying1 ,i never tasted such a delicious morsel6 ,he then ran off1 laughing at the crow's vanity and calling over his shoulder1 ,learn from this that a flatterer lives at the expense of those who listen to him4 ,exercise #ib4--,write simply and briefly some of the following fables1 using as model the fable just given4 ,try to keep clear in your mind the exact order of events by imagining the whole story from beginning to end4 ,there are in most of these subjects three or four separate little scenes1 which you should try to bring visibly before your mind4 ,it is a good plan to have an outline of the sequence of events1 either written or in your head1 and then develop each scene clearly and make it lifelike by conversation such as would naturally be used4 ,the following is such an outline1 by paragraphs1 of a well-known fable3-- ,i4 ,the old man has many sons who disturb him by quarreling among themselves4 ,,ii4 ,on his death bed he calls them about him and gives them some small sticks1 asking them if they can break them4 ,the sons readily break them4 ,,iii4 ,the old man ties them together tightly and asks his sons again to break them4 ,,iv4 ,they all try in every possible way1 but cannot4 ,v4 ,the old man says that if they will agree among themselves1 they will be like the sticks bound together2 but if they separate in quarrels1 any one can injure them4 #a4 ,an ass laden with salt falls down in a stream2 before he can rise the salt is dissolved away and his load is much lighter4 ,the next time he crosses the stream he stumbles purposely and falls1 but this time he is laden with sponges4 #b4 ,two thieves who had stolen a horse fall to quarreling over who shall have the animal4 ,while they are rolling in the dust fighting1 a third thief comes along1 jumps on the horse1 and makes off with it4 #c4 ,an oak speaks contemptuously to a reed of its small size and yielding weakness1 and boasts of its own strength and firmness4 ,after a terrible storm the oak is blown down and the reed straightens itself unhurt4 #d4 ,a bat is caught by a weasel1 who is about to devour it because it is so much like a mouse4 ,the bat says1 ,i am not a mouse--you are mistaken--,i am a bird4 ,see my wings4 ,later the bat is caught again by a boy who wants to put it in a bird cage4 ,i am no bird--see my mouse's body4 ,thus the bat twice saves its life4 #e4 ,a cat was changed by magic to a woman4 ,all went well until she saw a mouse run across the floor1 when she ran after it and caught it4 #f4 ,a wolf in eating rapidly had swallowed a bone1 which stuck in his throat4 ,he went to the stork1 who pulled it out with her beak1 and then asked for pay for the service4 ,the wolf said the stork could consider herself lucky that she had not had her head bitten off4 #g4 ,a weasel slipped into a barn through a small hole4 ,there he ate so much grain that he was too fat to go out at the same hole1 and was caught by the farmer4 #h4 ,the ass1 seeing how much petting a little dog gets1 tries to imitate its ways1 prances about1 and attempts to lie down at the feet of his mistress4 ,he is driven back to the stable4 #i4 ,a sheep1 going away for the day1 cautions her little lambs not to open the door to any one1 except to her1 and she will say ,mariati1 so that they will recognize her4 ,a wolf1 hidden near1 overhears the password1 knocks on the door1 and gives the right word2 but the lambs1 to be doubly sure1 ask to see what color feet he has4 ,they are black and betray him1 so that the door is not opened4 #ef4 ,autobiography4--,there is one form of narration where it is almost impossible to get the events of your story in the wrong order1 and that is autobiography1 for in this you are telling the facts of your own life as they occurred1 from month to month or year to year4 ,in this form1 as in narration1 however1 there is an important principle to bear in mind4 ,your material must be well chosen2 that is1 you must select only the important events in your life4 ,trivial and uninteresting details must be left out4 ,to do this you must use your judgment1 and try to put yourself in the place of your reader1 and think what he would like to know4 7,if your great-grandfather had written his autobiography when he was your age1 what would you have liked to know of his life8 ,if ,pocohontas had written her autobiography1 what would most interest you87 ,exercise #ic4--;,i4 ,write your own autobiography up to the present date1 and then continue in the same style1 telling the story of your life as you would like best to have it4 ,,ii4 ,write an imaginary autobiography of3-- #a4 ,the starch-box after it was empty2 a boy made a doll's wagon of it for his little sister4 ,forgotten in the street1 it was picked up by two poor children1 and taken home1 where an invalid brother made it into a window box for flowers4 #b4 ,a gold dollar4 ,stamped in the mint1 sent to the bank1 given to a child for a birthday present1 sent by her to the missionaries in ,africa1 lost there1 and hung around the neck of a little black child4 #c4 ,a drop of rain--all its life from the cloud to the earth1 to the brook1 to the river1 to the sea1 back to the cloud again4 #d4 ,a knife4 ,made by ,indian hunters1 bought by white trappers1 used on the plains1 slipped into a package of furs sent to ,paris to be made up into coats1 and then used as a paper-cutter4 #e4 ,similarly1 invent stories for a handkerchief1 a diamond1 a doll1 a knapsack1 a book1 a street car1 a lamp1 a sword1 a tea kettle1 a wagon1 an old house1 a dollar bill1 a pencil1 a mirror1 an old apple tree1 a thimble1 a high tortoise-shell comb1 a saddle1 a suit of armor1 a chair4 ,,iii4 ,write autobiographies of a cat1 a dog1 a horse1 an elephant1 a polar bear1 a fox1 a rabbit1 a canary bird1 a hen1 a trained pig1 a poodle1 a mouse1 a woodchuck1 a squirrel4 ,,iv4 ,write the account of the course of a river as told by itself1 from the time it rises from a spring till it flows into the ocean4 ,v4 ,write the autobiography of any statue that you know1 from the block of marble to its present place4 #eg4 ,biography4--,in writing a biography it is not enough to select your facts with good judgment1 and to arrange them in the order of their occurrence4 ,a still more careful arrangement is needed1 and this is usually provided for by grouping the facts of a life into several main divisions4 ,for instance1 in writing your mother's biography1 you might make some such general division or outline as the following3-- ,i4 ,childhood in ,new ,england--village school2 on a farm4 ,,ii4 ,boarding-school life4 ,studies--beginning of interest in history4 ,visits to school friends in the vacation4 ,the old home is destroyed by fire4 ,,iii4 ,life in ,new ,york1 as teacher of history in a private school4 ,summer abroad with several of the pupils4 ,,iv4 ,early married life in ,new ,york2 boarding-house1 later a small apartment4 ,v4 ,removal to suburban town4 ,children of the family4 ,general character of family life4 ,under these various headings you can group all the stories you can induce your mother to tell you of her past life4 ,without such broad divisions into periods it is impossible to write all the varied facts of a biography in such a manner that your reader gets a clear and connected idea of the course of events4 ,exercise #id4--;,group into natural divisions the following facts3-- ,henry ,allen was married in #ahge4 ,his father was a lumber merchant4 ,when he retired from business1 he wrote an account of his life4 ,as a boy he was fond of out-of-door life4 ,he had three children4 ,when he was a young man1 he was sent up into ,canada to look after some timber lands of his father's4 ,he stayed there in the woods with the ,indians for two years4 ,he was born in #ahdj4 ,he lived in ,portland1 ,maine1 until he was sixteen4 ,when his father died in #ahfg1 he carried on the lumber business4 ,he went two years to ,bowdoin ,college4 ,he was once mayor of ,hartford4 ,he lived in ,boston from #ahef to #ahge4 ,he died in #aijj in ,hartford4 ,he brought up his children to know the woods and fields better than schools4 ,he was one of the first people to advocate nature study4 ,he was a very successful business man4 ,he founded a school of forestry4 ,he married a ,canadian girl whom he met on a second visit to the forest in #ahgj4 ,exercise #ie4--;,find out all you can about the life of any older member of your family4 ,see if you can pick out the natural divisions into which these facts fall1 and write a brief biography4 ,do not divide in a conventional way1 as into childhood1 youth1 maturity1 and old age1 but try to select periods which are separated from each other by some feature peculiar to the individual life you are relating4 ,sometimes divisions are naturally made by change in residence1 sometimes by change in occupation1 and sometimes simply by the general character of a life between certain dates4 ,your own judgment must tell you how best to arrange the facts of the story you wish to tell4 ,exercise #if4--;,i4 ,write in the same way1 the biography 7#a7 of the mayor of your own town1 7#b7 of the ,president of the ,united ,states1 7#c7 of a schoolmate 7continuing this in an imaginary account of what you fancy his life may be71 7#d7 of your cook1 7#e7 of your minister1 or of any person whom you know well enough to ask the facts of his life1 or about whom you can learn through other people4 ,,ii4 ,see how complete a biography you can write of either your grandfather or grandmother1 or of any of your ancestors about whom you have heard stories1 or of any of the early settlers of your town4 ,,iii4 ,then1 using the same method of collecting your facts first1 and arranging those that naturally fall together in three or four groups1 write the story of the life of 7#a7 ,joan of ,arc1 7#b7 ,julius ,csar1 7#c7 ,hannibal1 7#d7 ,alfred the ,great1 7#e7 ,washington1 7#f7 ,lee1 7#g7 ,lincoln1 7#h7 ,thorwaldsen1 7#i7 ,giotto1 7#aj7 ,christopher ,columbus1 7#aa7 ,pocahontas1 7#ab7 ,whittier1 7#ac7 ,longfellow1 7#ad7 ,miles ,standish4 #eh4 ,history4--,read the following account of how the ,pilgrims came to ,plymouth3-- ,for nearly twelve years brave little ,holland had given shelter to the true men and women who1 in #afjg-afjh1 were driven out of ,england by persecution of the bishops because they would worship ,god in their own way4 ,after many trials and dangers they came together at ,amsterdam in #afjh1 and formed a little ,independent church1 with ,richard ,clifton1 their old pastor among the ,nottingham hills1 for their minister1 and ,john ,robinson1 their teacher1 as his assistant4 ,governor ,bradford tells us1 in his ,historie1 that when they had lived at ,amsterdam about a year they removed to ,leyden1 a fair and beautiful city and of a sweet situation1 on the ,old ,rhine4 ,clifton was growing old and did not go with them1 and ,robinson became their pastor4 ,for eleven years--nearly the whole time of the famous truce which came between the bloody wars of ,holland and ,spain--they lived here1 married1 children were born to them1 and here some of them died4 ,most of them had been farmers in ,england1 but here they fell to such trades imployments as they best could1 valewing peace their spirituall comforte above any other riches whatsoever1 and at length they came to raise a competente and comfortable living1 but with hard and continuall labor4 ,but about #afag these good1 brave people of ,pastor ,robinson's flock became very anxious as to their circumstances and future1--especially for their children1--and at length came sadly to realize that they must again seek a new home4 ,their numbers had been much increased2 they could not hope to work so hard as they grew older1 while war with the ,spaniard was coming1 and would surely make matters harder for them4 ,but the chief reasons which made them anxious to find another and better home were the hardships which their children had to bear and the temptations to which they were exposed4 ,besides this1 they were patriotic and full of love of their ,god1 their simple worship1 and their religious liberty4 ,as ,englishmen1 though their king and his bishops had treated them cruelly1 they still loved the laws1 customs1 speech1 and flag of their native land4 ,as they could not enjoy these in their own country1 or longer endure their hard conditions in ,holland1 they determined to find a home--even though in a wild country beyond the wild ocean--where they might worship ,god as they chose1 plant religion1 live as ,englishmen1 and reap a fair reward for their labors4 ,it was very hard to decide where to go1 but at last they made up their minds in favor of the northern parts of ,virginia in the ,new ,world1 across the ,atlantic4 ,they found friends to help them both in ,england and in ,holland1 and they helped themselves2 but even then1 owing to enemies1 false friends1 and many difficulties1 it was far from easy to get away1 and they had sore trials and disappointments4 ,and now the younger and stronger part of ,pastor ,robinson's flock1 with ,captain ,miles ,standish and his wife ,rose and a few others1 were to go from ,leyden1 in charge of ,elder ,brewster and ,deacon ,carver1 and some were to join them in ,england1 leaving the pastor and the rest to come afterward4 ,it was a busy time in the ,klock ,steeg1 or ,bell ,alley1 where most of the ,pilgrims lived1 all the spring and early summer of #afbj1 when they were getting ready for ,america4 ,deacon ,carver and ,robert ,cushman1 two of their chief men1 were in ,england1 fitting out a hired ship--the ,mayflower4 ,but the ,leyden leaders had bought in ,holland a smaller ship1 the ,speedwell1 and were refitting her for the voyage1 an ,english pilot1 or ship's mate 7,master ,reynolds71 having come over to take charge4 7,bradford spells the word pilott4 ,he was in reality a mate1 or master's mate1 as ,bradford also calls him--the executive navigating officer next in rank to the master4 ,the term pilott had not to the same extent the meaning it has now of an expert guide into harbors and along coasts4 ,it meant1 rather1 a deck or watch officer1 capable of steering and navigating a ship4 ,he was on board the ,mayflower practically what the mate of a sailing ship would be to-day47 ,thirty-six men1 fifteen women1 sixteen boys1 four girls1 and a baby boy--seventy-two1 in all1 besides sailors--made up the ,leyden part of the ,pilgrim company4 ,of these six went no farther than ,plymouth1 ,old ,england1 though three of them afterward joined the others in ,new ,england4 ,of the fifteen women1 fourteen were wives of colonists and one was a lady's-maid4 ,the thirty-six men of ,leyden included all who became ,pilgrim leaders1 except three4 ,at last they were off1 and on ,friday1 ,july #ba 7#ca71a they said good-by to the grand old city that had been so long their home4 ,going aboard the canal boats near the pastor's house1 they floated down to ,delfshaven1 where their own little vessel1 the ,speedwell1 lay waiting for them4 ,at ,delfshaven they made their last sad partings from their friends1 and ,saturday1 ,july #bb 7or ,august #a1 as we should call it71 hoisted the flag of their native land1 sailed down the river ,maas1 and ,sunday morning were out upon the ,german ,ocean1 under way1 with a fair wind1 for the ,english port of ,southampton1 where they were to join the other colonists4 #a owing to a difference in the methods of reckoning time used by england and other nations between the years #aehb and #ageb1--when all became practically alike1--it was common to make use of double-dating4 in so doing1 the terms1 old style and new style were used1 and to make the dates of the former and the latter correspond1 ten days are added to all dates of the period between #aehb and #agjj4 december #aa1 #afbj1 old style1 would be1 in our present reckoning1 december #ba1 #afbj 7forefathers' day74 ,for three fine days they sailed down the ,north ,sea1 through ,dover ,straits1 into the ,english ,channel1 and the fourth morning found them anchored in ,southampton port4 ,here they found the ,mayflower from ,london lying at anchor1 with some of their own people--the ,cushmans and ,deacon ,carver--and some forty other ,pilgrim colonists1 who were going with them4 ,among these our ,leyden young people were no doubt very glad to find eight more boys and six girls of all ages1 two of them being ,henry ,sampson and ,humility ,cooper1 little cousins of their own ,edward ,tilley1 who was to take them with him4 ,for ten days the two ships lay in this port4 ,trying days for the elders indeed they were4 ,mr4 ,weston1 their former friend 7who had arranged with the merchants to help them1 but was now turned traitor71 came to see them1 was very harsh1 and went away angry4 ,the passengers and cargoes had to be divided anew between the ships1 thirty persons going to the ,speedwell and ninety to the ,mayflower4 ,then the pinnace sprung a leak and had to be reladen4 ,to pay their port charges they were forced to sell most of their butter4 ,and there were many sad and anxious hearts4 ,but great times those ten days were for the larger boys and girls1 who were allowed to go ashore on the ,west ,quay 7at which the ships lay71 and for whom every day was full of new sights both aboard the vessels and ashore4 ,governors were chosen for the ships2 a young cooper--,john ,alden--was found1 to go over1 do their work1 and come back1 if he wished1 on the ,mayflower2 and all was at last ready4 ,they said what they thought were their last farewells to ,england1 and down the ,solent1 out by the lovely ,isle of ,wight1 into the broad ,channel1 both ships sailed slowly1 outward bound4 ,but twice more the leaky ,speedwell and her cowardly master made both ships seek harbor--first at ,dartmouth1 where they lay ten days while the pinnace was overhauled and repaired1 and again at ,plymouth1 after they had sailed above #ajj leagues beyond ,land's ,end4 ,at ,plymouth it was decided that the ,speedwell should give up the voyage and transfer most of her passengers and lading to the ,mayflower1 which would then make her belated way over the ocean alone4 ,some twenty passengers--the ,cushmans1 the ,blossoms1 and others--went back to ,london in the pinnace1 and after a weary stay of nine days1 on ,wednesday1 ,september #f 7#af71 the lone ,pilgrim ship at last shook off the land and1 with a fair wind1 laid her course for the northern coasts of ,virginia4--,,azel ,,ames3 ,how the ,pilgrims came to ,plymouth4 ,this extract is an example of a narration that is more difficult to write than anything you have yet tried4 ,in writing biographies you write about one person only4 ,in history you write about a great number of persons1 and you must hold together in one story a great number of different facts4 ,an outline is1 therefore1 even more necessary here than in biography4 ,in making your outline you will be helped by the same principle of keeping your occurrences in their natural order that governed you in your biography outlines4 ,put down a note of the main facts you wish to report1 according to the date of their happening4 ,afterward arrange them in groups according to the connection they may have with each other1 but always begin by making sure that they are set down in an orderly fashion4 ,have the outline before you as you write1 and treat the different subjects as they come up4 ,an outline for the extract given above might be the following3-- ,i4 ,introduction3-- ,a4 ,explanation of the state of the ,puritans in ,holland4 ,b4 ,driven from ,england4 ,c4 ,settled in ,amsterdam4 ,d4 ,removed to ,leyden4 ,e4 ,general conditions4 ,,ii4 ,reasons for leaving ,holland4 ,a4 ,they could make no provision for the future4 ,b4 ,their children could not be trained as they wished4 ,c4 ,they loved ,english ways4 ,,iii4 ,beginning of preparations4 ,a4 ,who were to go4 ,b4 ,fitting out the boat--conditions of navigation4 ,c4 ,number of those embarking4 ,,iv4 ,departure from ,holland4 ,v4 ,arrival in ,england4 ,a4 ,they join the ,mayflower4 ,b4 ,delays1 at ,london1 at ,dartmouth1 at ,plymouth4 ,,vi4 ,final departure of the ,mayflower alone from ,england4 ,read again the selection with the outline before you and notice how each division is developed4 ,when you have made a good outline1 the hardest part of a piece of historical writing is completed4 ,exercise #ig4--;,i4 ,let every one find out all he can about the founding or settling of the town where he lives4 ,talk over the facts in class1 every one contributing what he has been able to learn2 then see who can make the best outline and best story or history4 7,notice how the two words are really alike47 ,,ii4 ,go on1 investigating the subsequent history of the town1 and write that briefly in the same way1 bringing in all the stories and interesting incidents you can hear4 ,,iii4 ,write similarly the history of any other town1 village1 or farming community you know1 treating particularly the way in which any conditions general throughout the country affected your subject4 ,for instance1 if it is an old town1 how it was affected by the ,mexican ,war1 the ,civil ,war1 any great panic1 etc4 ,mention not only great events in the history of the town1--fires1 floods1 building of factories1 etc41--but try to give some idea of the general character of the life1 whether the interests are chiefly manufacturing1 farming1 marine1 railroad1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,write a brief history of 7#a7 ,detroit1 7#b7 ,st4 ,louis1 7#c7 ,new ,orleans1 7#d7 ,new ,york1 7#e7 ,san ,francisco1 7#f7 ,boston1 7#g7 ,charlestown1 7#h7 ,lawrence1 ,kansas1 7#i7 ,deerfield1 ,mass41 7#aj7 ,quebec1 7#aa7 ,st4 ,augustine1 7#ab7 ,monterey1 ,california 7early ,spanish mission71 7#ac7 ,havana4 ,v4 ,using the extract given above as a model1 write an account of 7#a7 ,penn's treaty with the ,indians1 7#b7 ,the first year of the settlers in ,virginia1 7#c7 ,the taking of ,old ,manhattan by the ,english1 7#d7 ,how ,la ,salle happened to come to this country1 7#e7 ,how ,grant came to be a soldier1 7#f7 ,the invention and first expedition of the first steamboat1 7#g7 ,the first railroad1 7#h7 ,the founding and first journey of the ,mormons4 #ei4 ,plain ,reporting of ,facts4--,a history gives an account of things that happened some time ago4 ,a newspaper gives an account of things that happened yesterday4 ,the two are different in degree1 but not in essential qualities4 ,to give an account of an incident that lasted half an hour and make it clear1 connected1 and orderly1 requires the same principles as to write a report of events that lasted through several years4 ,you must arrange your narrative in the true order1 in a story of how a barn was burned1 just as in a story of how a town was settled4 ,in the first case1 however1 this is not quite so easy to do1 since many of the events occur almost at the same time4 ,but this very circumstance gives you the clew to an easy grouping of your facts1 since you can put those that happen together in the same division4 ,an outline for an account of the burning of a barn is given below3-- ,i4 ,discovery of fire4 ,a4 ,fire shows through one of the windows4 ,b4 ,the man of the house runs down the walk toward the barn4 ,c4 ,the neighbors come running and calling4 ,d4 ,one man is sent to call the fire department4 ,all these facts occur almost simultaneously1 and the sentences stating them must be connected or explained by some such phrase as at the same time1 seeing this1 while this was being done1 at that moment1 meanwhile1 etc4 ,,ii4 ,fighting the fire4 ,a4 ,the neighbors bring buckets--a line is formed4 ,b4 ,the owner goes in and brings out the horse and cow4 ,c4 ,the fire department arrives1 connects the hose4 ,d4 ,the firemen climb on the roof to direct the water2 the fire is extinguished4 ,,iii4 ,final condition4 ,a4 ,half the hay burned1 and two wagons ruined4 ,b4 ,horse and cow safe4 ,c4 ,the barn can be rebuilt without tearing it completely down4 ,d4 ,there was no insurance4 ,exercise #ih4--;,i4 ,make outlines1 following this model1 and write a newspaper account of any of the following events4 ,do not try to describe the occurrence particularly2 simply put down as clearly as possible the facts1 given in their proper order4 7#a7 ,a burglary in the daytime4 7#b7 ,a rescue of a drowning boy by two playmates4 7#c7 ,a flood which washes away part of a street-car track--how long cars were delayed1 what passengers did1 how track was repaired1 etc4 7#d7 ,how a dog1 supposed to be mad1 frightened an entire neighborhood4 7#e7 ,the burning of a department store4 7#f7 ,the dedication of a church1 a hospital1 an asylum of any kind4 7#g7 ,a lost child and how he was returned to his parents4 7#h7 ,an accident to a street car4 7#i7 ,a runaway4 7#aj7 ,a steeple climber faints away halfway up a steeple1 where he hangs suspended by the rope attached to his belt4 ,tell how he was saved4 7#aa7 ,a bear belonging to a circus escapes1 and after roaming about for a day or so is captured by the circus men4 7#ab7 ,a high wind blows down telegraph poles1 unroofs barns1 and throws trees across the roads4 ,write an account of the amount of damage done4 ,,ii4 ,write a newspaper account of any event at your school3 7#a7 ,a commencement day4 7#b7 ,a reception day4 7#c7 ,a play or entertainment4 7#d7 ,a panic over a supposed fire4 7#e7 ,a boy is locked in and has great difficulty in getting out4 7#f7 ,a water pipe is broken and stopped by the presence of mind of one of the teachers4 #fj4 ,conversation4--,in the narratives which you have been writing there has been little if any occasion for conversation4 ,in writing stories or anecdotes in which certain people come into contact with other persons1 there is often no better way to give a vivid and interesting account of what happens than to tell what was said4 ,this is equally true of real and of invented stories4 ,people not only show their characters when they speak1 but they indicate the course of events4 ,the fact that one favorite form of writing consists entirely of conversation 7for that is all that any play is7 shows how truthfully and vividly facts can be presented in this way4 ,exercise #ii4--,try telling in conversational form some of the fables mentioned on page #aci1 or write in this form the fable of 7#a7 ,death and the ,woodchopper2 7#b7 ,the ,wolf and the ,lamb2 7#c7 ,the ,grasshopper and the ,ant2 7#d7 ,the ,town ,mouse and the ,country ,mouse2 7#e7 ,the ,council of the ,rats 7,who'll bell the cat872 7#f7 ,the ,fox and the ,grapes 7this as a monologue1 or what the fox says to himself1 from the moment he sees the grapes until he gives up trying to secure them74 ,exercise #ajj4--;,give a conversation which you think is characteristic and lifelike1 such as might have occurred between any two of the following persons4 ,try to bring out something of the story which naturally comes to your mind in connection with these people4 #a4 ,joan of ,arc to her mother the day before she leaves her home to go to the court of the king4 ,suggestions3 ,her mother laments over the dangers of the road2 ,joan reassures her--she is to wear armor and be escorted by twenty soldiers4 ,her mother asks again why ,joan wishes to set out4 ,joan answers by explaining about her ,voices and her certainty that she is sent by heaven to rescue ,france4 ,read the story of ,joan of ,arc and of the other persons to be treated in this lesson before you begin to write the dialogue4 #b4 ,two boys of ,puritan families about to embark for ,america on the ,mayflower4 #c4 ,christopher ,columbus explaining to a friend what his hopes are in seeking out ,queen ,isabella4 #d4 ,a boy and girl in ,old ,manhattan on ,christmas ,day1 bringing out1 if possible1 some of the customs of the times4 #e4 ,william ,tell to his little son before he shoots the apple from his head4 #f4 ,the conversation at the christening of the ,princess who was afterward to be the ,sleeping ,beauty1 bringing in the arrival and curse of the wicked fairy4 #g4 ,conversation of ,hop o' my ,thumb's father and mother1 when they decide that the children must be left in the woods because they cannot earn enough to feed them4 #h4 ,conversations between the ,grecian warriors who fell at ,thermopyl1 the evening before the battle4 #i4 ,robinson ,crusoe and his man ,friday4 ,robinson is trying to explain 7a7 city life1 7b7 how and why food is cooked1 7c7 about his own children in ,england1 7d7 what winter is like when there is snow and ice4 ,exercise #aja4--,try in the same way to bring out character by inventing a dialogue between the persons mentioned below3-- #a4 ,a gentle elder sister and a little boy1 very irritable and cross from a long illness4 ,he wishes to go outdoors to play and is only persuaded to stay in by the promise of a new game4 #b4 ,two little girls playing at dolls4 ,one is very much given to ordering the other about1 but finally encounters rebellion4 #c4 ,one boy is urging another to go swimming with him4 ,the second boy is afraid and makes all kinds of excuses4 #d4 ,a very bright pupil trying to explain a lesson in arithmetic to another who has no head for mathematics4 #e4 ,two little boys playing ,indians2 one is teaching another how to play4 #f4 ,a father1 tired and sleepy1 and a little child asking questions4 #g4 ,imaginary conversation between a lion and a polar bear1 whose cages are side by side in a circus4 ,each tells the other about his home life when he was free4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,description #fa4 ,observation4--,the first recommendation given in beginning any new form of composition is always to arrange what you wish to say in a logical and orderly manner1 by means of an outline1 either mental or written4 ,in description1 however1 the first thing to do is to observe the subject of your composition1 carefully1 completely1 and accurately4 ,you will be surprised to see how very carelessly you observe1 as a rule1 even things with which you are very familiar4 ,try1 offhand1 without further examination1 to write a description of a piece of money 7copper1 nickel1 silver1 gold1 or paper71 giving the dimensions and the color1 and stating what some of the printing on it is2 and try in the same way to describe the face of a watch1 telling the size and length of the hands1 how they run1 and what the printing is2 to give an accurate and detailed account of the appearance of the front of your school building or church1 your next door neighbor's house1 the mechanism of a lamp1 the exact disposition of the furniture in your parlor at home1 a cornstalk 7size of leaves1 shape1 how they are set on the stalk1 where the ears grow1 how many wrappings of husk inclose them1 etc471 a violet1 a silk hat 7height1 width1 shape1 lining1 width of brim1 etc471 a cat's forefeet 7number of toes1 sheath for the nail1 how they curve in1 why they do not penetrate the cushioned foot in walking1 etc471 a common fly1 a robin redbreast1 the arrangement of panels in the front door of your house1 an ,english sparrow1 a postage stamp4 ,tell how a cow lies down2 a horse2 a dog4 ,by such experiments you will find that you are hampered not by difficulty in expressing what you know1 but by the great gaps in your knowledge of even such very familiar objects4 ,you will discover that you have never really looked at them1 although you may have seemed to do so every day since you can remember4 ,some people seem to have opened more eyes than others1 they see with such force and distinctness2 their vision penetrates the tangle and obscurity where that of others fails like a spent or impotent bullet4 ,how many eyes did ,gilbert ,white open8 ,how many did ,henry ,thoreau8 ,how many did ,audubon8 ,how many does the hunter1 matching his sight against the keen and alert senses of a deer or a moose or a fox or a wolf4 ,not outward eyes but inward4 ,we open another eye whenever we see beyond the first general features or outlines of things--whenever we grasp the special details and characteristic markings that this mask covers4 ,science confers new powers of vision4 ,wherever you have learned to discriminate the birds1 or the plants1 or the geological features of a country1 it is as if new and keener eyes were added4444 ,we think we have looked at a thing sharply until we are asked for its specific features4 ,i thought ,i knew exactly the form of the leaf of the tulip tree1 until one day a lady asked me to draw the outlines of one4444 ,the habit of observation is the habit of clear and decisive gazing2 not by a first1 casual glance1 but by a steady1 deliberate aim of the eye are the rare and characteristic things discovered4 ,you must look intently and hold your eye firmly to the spot1 to see more than do the rank and file of mankind4--,,john ,,burroughs3 ,locusts and ,wild ,honey4 ,description by means of writing is often compared to the work of an artist1 since the aim of both artist and writer is to present a visual image of their subject4 ,but the writer of a description is more like a ,japanese artist than one of his own race4 ,the artists of ,japan look long and fixedly at an object or scene or person1 and then produce the picture from memory4 ,in general1 it is not often easy to write your description while you are actually in presence of the thing you wish to picture1 so that after quick1 keen1 and accurate observation you should try to cultivate a retentive memory for details4 ,try cultivating both of these qualities by some of the following class exercises4 ,exercise #ajb4--a4 ,look for one minute by the clock at your teacher's desk1 and then without another glance see who can describe it with the most accuracy and completeness4 #b4 ,turn to the title-page of this book1 look at it for a moment1 and then try to reproduce it4 #c4 ,examine your own shoe for a moment and see how clearly you can describe it4 #d4 ,the stove or steam radiator in your room4 #e4 ,what you see from the window nearest you after a moment's gaze4 #f4 ,just how the inside of your desk looks now--exact place of books1 pencils1 note books1 etc4 #g4 ,just how the pupil next you is dressed1 with as many details as a two-minute gaze will show you4 #h4 ,the exact arrangement of maps1 pictures1 reports1 plants1 etc41 about the wall of your class room4 ,as you go about your house or school1 in the streets1 or in the woods1 try this exercise1 either in competition with a companion1 or simply for your own satisfaction4 ,in passing a shop window1 see how many of the objects displayed you can remember1 or in passing a brook1 try to observe rapidly but accurately the exact nature of the banks at the place you crossed4 ,see how definitely you can impress on your mind the appearance of any house you pass1 or of a vehicle which passes you4 ,after a moment's steady look at your mother's work-basket see how completely you can describe it1--or the dining table set for dinner1 or the front hall1 with wraps and rubbers in it1 or the parlor with several people in it1 or the minister preaching in church4 ,you will be surprised to find how much you have overlooked before1 even in scenes which have been constantly before you4 ,you will see that ,mr4 ,burroughs does not exaggerate when he says that when we observe carefully and accurately1 it is as though we had opened a new pair of eyes1 not outward but inward4 #fb4 ,general ,scientific ,description4--,notice the difference between these two descriptions3-- #a4 ,gentina crinita1 ,froel4 ,fringed ,gentian4 ,leaves lanceolate or broader1 with rounded or heart-shaped base2 flowers solitary on long peduncles terminating the stem or simple branches2 calyx with #d unequal lobes2 corolla sky blue1 showy1 #b' long1 funnel form1 the #d wedge-obovate lobes with margins cut into a long and delicate fringe4 ,n4 ,eng41 ,w4 and ,s4--,,leavitt',s ,outlines of ,botany4 #b4 ,thou blossom bright with autumn dew1 ,and colored with the heaven's own blue1 ,that openest when the quiet light ,succeeds the keen and frosty night4 ,thou comest not when violets lean ,o'er wandering brooks and springs unseen1 ,or columbines1 in purple dressed1 ,nod o'er the ground-bird's hidden nest4 ,thou waitest late and com'st alone1 ,when woods are bare and birds are flown1 ,and frosts and shortening days portend ,the aged year is near his end4 ,then doth thy sweet and quiet eye ,look through its fringes to the sky1 ,blue--blue--as if that sky let fall ,a flower from its cerulean wall4 ,i would that thus1 when ,i shall see ,the hour of death draw near to me1 ,hope1 blossoming within my heart1 ,may look to heaven as ,i depart4 --,,bryant3 ,to the ,fringed ,gentian4 ,you will see at once how extremely varied different forms of description may be when you reflect that these two extracts are both descriptions of the same thing4 ,the prose extract presents a plain and accurate account of facts4 ,the poetry aims to give a description of the object which will interest1 please1 and move the reader1 and which will bring a picture vividly before his eyes4 ,between two examples contrasting so completely as these1 there lies a long series of gradations from one variety of description to another4 ,there are1 however1 two main divisions of this form of writing3 the plain statement1 whose only purpose is to present a picture of the object described and to interest the reader in doing so2 and scientific description1 which bears about the same relation to literary description as a business letter to a friendly one4 ,they both present facts1 but in one case for the sake of the facts and in the other in order to interest the reader4 ,when analyzed1 scientific description is found to be simply a list of all the facts about a given subject4 ,these facts1 however1 must not be gathered together and thrown into a paragraph without order4 ,in the plainest sort of description there must be a regular plan4 ,begin by stating definitely what it is you are about to treat1 or give a definition of it as it stands in its broad relations to other things1 so that your reader may have a general notion of your subject4 ,this is called the introduction1 and should vary in length and explicitness according to the familiarity of your theme4 ,if you are about to describe the common house fly1 a simple statement to that effect is enough2 but if you are beginning a description of a rare dragon fly1 you will need not only to give the name1 but where it is found1 its general relation to other families of flies more familiar1 and perhaps to tell how you happened to see it1 where it may be observed1 etc4 ,in general1 however1 the introduction should always be brief and very much to the point1 since it is a common fault for inexperienced writers to delay too long over the beginning4 ,after this1 take up1 one by one1 in the order of their importance1 the main qualities of your subject4 ,for this purpose you should have brief outlines prepared1 so that you will not state small and non-essential details before essentials4 ,the following description of the group of birds known as warblers will aid you as a model3-- ,when you begin to study the warblers1 you will probably conclude that you know nothing about birds and can never learn4 ,but if you begin by recognizing their common traits1 and study a few of the easiest and those that nest in your locality1 you will be less discouraged2 and when the flocks come back at the next migrations1 you will be able to master the oddities of a large number4 ,most of them are very small--much less than half the size of a robin--and are not only short1 but slender4 ,active as the chickadee or kinglet1 they flit about the trees and undergrowth after insects1 without charity for the observer who is trying to make out their markings4 ,unlike the waxwing1 whose quiet ways are matched by its subdued tints1 the warblers are dashed with all the glories of the rainbow1 a flock of them looking as if a painter's palette had been thrown at them4 ,why they should be called warblers is a puzzle1 as a large percentage of them have not as much song as a chippy1 nothing but a thin chatter1 or a shrill piping trill4 ,if you wish a negative conception of them1 think of the coloring and habits of the cuckoo4 ,no contrast could be more complete4 ,the best places to look for them during migration are in young trees1 orchards1 and sunny slopes4 ,i find them in old orchards1 swamps1 the raspberry patch1 and the edge of the woods4--,,florence ,a4 ,,merriam3 ,birds through an ,opera ,glass4 ,study this description1 and you will discover the plan on which it is built4 ,first comes the introduction1 giving general directions for recognizing the subject4 ,then the most noticeable characteristics are stated1 the size and shape4 ,habits of great activity are next mentioned1 and a general notion of coloring is given4 ,the song of the warblers is then taken up1 and the description is summed up in a sentence by contrasting them with the cuckoo4 ,the statement of where they are found could well have been placed at the beginning1 directly after the introduction4 ,exercise #ajc4--,using this as a model1 describe any variety of bird or animal with which you are familiar1 such as ,english sparrows1 hens1 parrots1 ducks1 dogs1 cats1 horses1 goats1 rabbits1 squirrels1 pigeons1 geese1 sheep4 ,exercise #ajd4--;,describe tomatoes1 peaches1 apricots1 grapes1 potatoes1 carrots1 watermelons1 rice1 blackberries1 huckleberries1 corn1 wheat1 oats1 rye4 ,use the following as a model3-- ,the apple is one of the most widely cultivated1 and best known and appreciated of fruits belonging to temperate climates4 ,in its wild state it is known as the crabapple1 and is found generally distributed through ,europe and ,western ,asia4 ,the apple tree1 as cultivated1 is a moderate-sized tree with spreading branches1 ovate1 acutely serrated or crenated leaves1 and flowers in corymbs4 ,it is successfully cultivated in higher latitudes than any other fruit tree1 growing up to #fe ,n42 but1 notwithstanding this1 its blossoms are more susceptible of injury from frost than the flowers of the peach or apricot4 ,it comes into flower much later than these trees1 and so avoids the night frost1 which would be fatal to its fruit bearing4 ,the apples which are grown in northern regions are1 however1 small1 hard1 and crabbed1 the best fruit being produced in hot summer climates1 such as ,canada and the ,united ,states4--,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,try sometimes to make these descriptions so complete that your classmates can recognize what you are describing without knowing your subject beforehand4 ,an almost infinite list of subjects suitable for scientific description could be given1 but enough titles have been suggested to show you that you have only to look about you to find themes for the exercise4 #fc4 ,specific ,scientific ,description4--,compare with the treatment of the warblers in general this description of one particular variety of that species1 by the same author1 a little later in the same book4 ,the ,blackburnian is one of the handsomest and most easily recognized of the warblers4 ,his throat is a rich orange or flame color1 so brilliant that it is enough in itself to distinguish him from any of the others4 ,his back is black with yellow markings4 ,his crown is black1 but has an orange spot in the center1 and the rest of his head1 except near his eye1 is the same flaming orange as his throat4 ,his wings have white patches1 and his breast is whitish tinged with yellow4 ,his sides are streaked with black4 ,the female and young are duller1 the black of their backs being mingled with olive2 while their throats are yellow instead of orange4 ,in this case1 the author1 having stated the general characteristics and habits of the family of warblers1 needs only to describe minutely the appearance of one variety4 ,exercise #aje4--,take up in this way a special variety of the general topics you described in the last exercise3 ,buff ,cochin hens2 parrots from ,central ,america2 ,royal ,pekin ducks2 ,newfoundland or ,st4 ,bernard dogs1 terriers1 bull dogs1 or greyhounds2 ,shetland ponies1 race horses1 or heavy draught horses2 white rabbits or ,belgian hares2 gray squirrels1 chipmunks1 red squirrels or flying squirrels2 pouter pigeons or homing pigeons4 #fd4 ,technical ,terms4--,in describing some objects you will find that careful and accurate observation and logical arrangement of your information are not enough4 ,you will discover that you do not know the names for all the various parts of your subject4 ,in attempting to write a complete description of even as well known an object as a flower or fruit1 you will probably need to consult a dictionary or a scientific work1 to learn the botanical names4 ,minute scientific description is1 therefore1 an excellent exercise for enlarging your vocabulary1 for giving you control over more words4 ,in using very technical terms1 which may be as unfamiliar to your reader as they were to you before you made a study of your subject1 add a brief explanation of the meaning4 ,exercise #ajf4--;,give a plain1 scientific description of one or more of the illustrations given in your dictionary1 remembering to start from some point and to proceed regularly from there in your description4 ,for instance1 in describing a ship under sail1 begin at the water line and go up to the top of the masts1 or else in the opposite direction2 but do not begin at the stern1 jump to the bow1 and then back again to the masts4 ,do not attempt to explain the different qualities1 the workings1 or the interior parts of these objects4 ,you will have this to do in exposition4 ,simply describe as accurately as possible their aspect1 on the model of the description of the ,blackburnian warbler4 ,exercise #ajg4--;,describe scientifically and specifically1 using correct botanical terms1 an individual example of one of the list of topics given you for general treatment on page #afb1 taking up 7#a7 the general habit of growth1 7#b7 usual location1 7#c7 usual dimensions of whole plant1 7#d7 body of the plant1 7#e7 leaves1 7#f7 flowers1 7#g7 fruit and seeds1 7#h7 any general remarks as to its usefulness in the world1 etc4 ,in addition1 treat similarly the sunflower1 seaweed1 pansies1 the peanut vine1 the hazel nut1 witch-hazel1 the forget-me-not1 the golden-rod1 the willow1 the sumac4 #fe4 ,literary ,description4--,an example of literary description1 very far removed from the scientific variety1 is the following extract3-- ,we had a remarkable sunset one day last ,november4 ,i was walking in a meadow1 the source of a small brook1 when the sun at last1 just before setting after a cold gray day1 reached a clear stratum in the horizon2 and the softest1 brightest morning sunlight fell on the dry grass1 and on the stems of the trees in the opposite horizon1 and on the leaves of the scrub oaks on the hillside1 while our shadows stretched long over the meadows eastward as if we were only motes in its beams4 ,it was such a light as we could not have imagined a moment before1 and the air also was so warm and serene that nothing was wanting to make a paradise of that meadow4 ,when we reflected that this was not a solitary phenomenon1 never to happen again1 but that it would happen forever and ever an infinite number of evenings1 and cheer and reassure the latest child that walked then1 it was more glorious still4--,h4 ,d4 ,,thoreau3 ,excursions4 ,the real point of difference between such a description and the account of the ,blackburnian warbler is that the aim in the one case is to present facts and in the other to present a picture4 ,observation1 however accurate1 and order1 however logical1 are not enough for this sort of description4 ,you must interest and please1 or you have failed of your purpose4 ,you must observe keenly and arrange your material carefully1 but you must do more than this4 ,you must remember all the time that you are trying to make a picture1 and in many regards you need to follow the same rule as the artist does in painting4 ,for instance1 he establishes himself in one place and draws the object1 scene1 or person as it looks to him from there4 ,you would laugh at a painter who1 in drawing a solid oak door1 put in a person standing on the other side of it1 but one of the first things to remember in making your written picture is not to put in details which you could not see from the point where you have placed yourself to make your sketch4 ,in describing the view from a high hill1 you must not write1 ,the woods back of our house looked like a green carpet and the house like the tiniest sort of a child's plaything4 ,the sun shining in the windows of the front parlor made the room look as though it were smiling4 ,the last sentence may be perfectly true1 and in an account of the front parlor would be a good piece of description1 but since you could not possibly see that detail from the top of a distant hill1 it is absurd to use it4 ,more even than this1 you must learn to remove too much detail from your descriptions4 ,not only should you refrain from using anything you cannot see from the point where you have placed yourself1 but you should not use all the things you can see4 ,in the exercises on scientific description you have been observing1 as completely as you possibly could1 a given subject1 and putting into your composition all the facts you could see or learn about4 ,in literary description the process is quite different4 ,you must train yourself to leave out a great many details1 and to select those you use with great care for their value in aiding you to give your reader a lifelike picture4 ,in describing a house scientifically1 it is of just as much value to say that there are eight windows on the north side as that it stands on a high hill1 for what you wish to do is to convey all the information you can about the house4 ,but in a literary description you should not mention the windows at all1 unless there is something unusual about them1 and you should pick out for mention only the features that make that house different from other houses2 so that one of the first things you would say is some presentation of the fact that it is on a hill4 ,at length we stopped before a very old house bulging out over the road2 a house with long low lattice-windows bulging out still further1 and beams with carved heads on the ends bulging out too1 so that ,i fancied the whole house was leaning forward1 trying to see who was passing on the narrow pavement below4 ,it was quite spotless in its cleanliness4 ,the old-fashioned brass knocker on the low arched door1 ornamented with carved garlands of fruit and flowers1 twinkled like a star4 ,the two stone steps descending to the door were as white as if they had been covered with fair linen2 and all the angles and corners1 and carvings and moldings1 and quaint little panes of glass1 and quainter little windows1 though as old as the hills1 were as pure as any snow that ever fell from the hills4--,,charles ,,dickens3 ,david ,copperfield4 ,in this sketch of a house nothing is mentioned that could not be seen both from the position of a person who has just stepped in front of it and in the time which would naturally elapse between his ringing the doorbell and the arrival of some one to answer it4 ,notice also that a general impression of the whole house is given in the first sentence4 ,just as an artist making a sketch draws first a general rough outline of the whole object1 blocking in 7as it is called7 the proportions and general aspect before going on to details2 so a good beginning for a description is some general summing up of the first impression made upon you by the scene1 or of the impression you desire to make upon your reader4 ,this corresponds to the topic sentence of a paragraph4 ,exercise #ajh4--,write a description from a fixed point1 and as if after only a few moments' look1 of the general impression made upon the observer by any of the following subjects1 trying to catch some characteristic trait or quality1 which you can state in one metaphor or comparison1 as the predominating effect4 ,for instance3-- #a4 ,i fancied that the whole house was leaning forward1 trying to see who was passing on the narrow pavement below4 #b4 ,the deep projection of the second story gave the house such a meditative look that you could not pass it without the idea that it had secrets to keep1 and an eventful history to moralize upon4 #c4 ,the nest looks as if it barely touched the twigs from which it hung2 but when you examine it1 you may find that the gray fibers have woven the wood in so securely that the nest would have to be torn in pieces before it could be loosened from the twigs4 ,make your descriptions brief and try to convey vividly the first impression4 ,the front of your school building1 your home1 an old barn1 the handsomest house in your neighborhood1 a country church1 the kitchen of your home1 your own room1 a hen house with the hens just going to roost1 a dovecot1 any public monument you may know1 the inside of a public library1 the post office1 a drug store1 a carpenter's shop1 a blacksmith's1 an iron foundry1 a milliner's shop1 a beehive1 a crow's nest1 an ant-hill1 a spider's web1 an aquarium1 a farmhouse1 a tall office building1 an ocean steamer1 a sailboat1 any curious house you may have seen4 ,one good exercise for forcing yourself to express quickly the aspect of a given object at a given time is to try to describe something in very rapid motion1 of which you can get only a momentary glimpse4 ,for instance3-- #a4 ,the squirrel would shoot up the tree1 making only a brown streak from the bottom to the top4 #b4 ,away across the endless dead level of the prairie a black speck appears against the sky1 and it is plain that it moves4 ,well1 ,i should think so6 ,in a second or two it becomes a horse and rider1 rising and falling1 rising and falling1 sweeping toward us nearer and nearer1 growing more and more distinct1 more and more sharply defined1 nearer and still nearer1 and the flutter of the hoofs comes faintly to the ear4 ,another instant1 a whoop and hurrah from all of us1 a wave of the rider's hand1 but no reply1 and man and horse burst past our excited faces1 and go winging away like a belated fragment of a storm6 ,exercise #aji4--a4 ,try to give a brief1 vivid impression of an express train passing at full speed1 an automobile1 a steamer1 a race horse1 a man running1 a dog chasing a cat4 #b4 ,describe how you are impressed by the passage through a short tunnel of a train you are on1 by a village you pass on an express1 by a bit of forest your train darts through4 #ff4 ,description of ,people4--,read these two passages1 the second of which is a description by the historian ,motley of ,thackeray1 the great ,english novelist4 #a4 ,mr4 ,creakle's face was fiery1 and his eyes were small and deep in his head4 ,he had thick veins in his forehead1 a little nose1 and a large chin4 ,he was bald on the top of his head1 and had some thin1 wet-looking hair that was just turning gray1 brushed across each temple1 so that the two sides interlaced on his forehead4 ,but the circumstance about him which most impressed me was that he had no voice1 but spoke in a whisper4--,,charles ,,dickens3 ,david ,copperfield4 #b4 ,he has the appearance of a colossal infant1 smooth1 white1 shiny1 ringlety hair1--flaxen alas6 with advancing years1 a roundish face1 with a little dab of a nose1 upon which it is a perpetual wonder how he keeps his spectacles1 a sweet but rather piping voice with something of a childish treble about it1 and a very tall1 slightly stooping figure4 ,in writing this sort of quick sketch1 notice what impresses you first about your subject1 that is1 what is the most characteristic feature4 ,in ,dickens's description of the house1 it was the fact that the whole building seemed to be leaning forward2 in ,motley's picture of ,thackeray1 it was the fact that the great novelist looked curiously like a little child2 in ,dickens's ,mr4 ,creakle1 it was the fact that the school-teacher had no voice4 ,exercise #aaj4--;,i4 ,write in the same way as in the preceding lesson a picture1 in a paragraph or two1 suggested by any of the following subjects1 trying to catch the most characteristic points1 such as would impress you after a moment's observation1 and to state them vividly and briefly1 so that the description may be recognizable4 ,the iceman2 the policeman2 the washerwoman2 the janitor2 a street-car conductor2 a postman2 an organ grinder2 a newsboy2 a farmer2 a classmate2 a messenger boy2 a butcher2 any one of unusual appearance who has passed you in the street1 or whom you have seen in the cars4 ,,ii4 ,or1 give in the same brief1 picturesque manner the impression made by a first sight of your dog as differing from other dogs of the same breed1 trying to express the way in which his character shows itself through his appearance--kind and slow1 or nervous and active1 or affectionate and playful1 etc42 of any dog you have seen who has a marked individuality2 of your cat1 canary1 or any of your pets4 ,in describing a person you will find very often that you are most impressed by the eyes1 and that they give the characteristic expression to the face4 ,these following extracts1 taken from one novel1 the work of a skillful writer1 show how much attention is paid to the eyes of the persons described3-- #a4 ,she was tall and pale1 thin and a little awkward2 her hair was fair and perfectly straight2 her eyes were dark and they had the singularity of seeming at once dull and restless4 #b4 ,the second young lady was also thin and pale2 but she was older than the other2 she was shorter2 she had dark1 smooth hair4 ,her eyes1 unlike the other's1 were quick and bright2 but they were not at all restless4 #c4 ,this latter personage was a man of rather less than the usual stature and the usual weight1 with a quick1 observant1 agreeable dark eye4 #d4 ,she was a fair1 plump person1 of medium stature1 with a round face1 a small mouth1 a delicate complexion1 a bunch of light brown curls at the back of her head1 and a peculiarly open1 surprised-looking eye4 ,exercise #aaa4--;,i4 ,look at a portrait or bust of ,julius ,csar and see if you think his appearance as a young man was well described by the historian ,froude in the following extract3-- ,a tall1 slight1 handsome youth1 with dark piercing eyes1 a sallow complexion1 large nose1 lips full1 features refined and intellectual1 neck sinewy and thick1 beyond what might have been expected from the generally slender figure4 ,,ii4 ,write a paragraph or two describing the personal appearance of any noted man or woman with whose portrait you are familiar4 ,try to reproduce the most striking traits1 describing them as if you were speaking of a living person4 7a7 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 ,george ,eliot1 ,hawthorne1 ,longfellow1 ,james ,russell ,lowell1 ,whittier1 ,bryant1 ,dickens1 ,tennyson1 ,louisa ,m4 ,alcott4 7b7 ,george ,washington1 ,daniel ,webster1 ,abraham ,lincoln1 ,general ,grant1 ,alexander ,hamilton1 ,bismarck1 ,napoleon1 ,julius ,csar1 ,queen ,victoria1 ,queen ,wilhelmina4 ,,iii4 ,think over some of the fictitious characters given below2 try to imagine how they would look1 and write a brief description as of a living person4 ,do not begin writing until you have a complete picture in your mind4 ,cinderella and her two wicked sisters1 ,robin ,hood1 ,ali ,baba1 ,robinson ,crusoe1 ,sindbad the ,sailor1 ,uncle ,remus1 ,the ,sleeping ,beauty1 ,shylock1 ,king ,lear1 ,st4 ,george1 ,santa ,claus1 ,bluebeard1 ,ruth1 ,samuel1 ,david and ,goliath4 #fg4 ,longer ,description4--,you are now ready to try descriptions on a little larger scale4 ,be careful1 however1 to bear in mind the following hints3-- #a4 ,plan your whole description before you write any part of it1 and see that you are following some natural order1 such as from left to right1 or right to left1 from the top down1 from the bottom up1 from head to foot1 etc4 ,in describing a landscape1 for instance1 from a fixed point1 after the introduction 7usually only a single sentence7 you begin with what is nearest to you--the foreground--and proceed to more distant points of the scene4 ,or you begin with what is far away--the background--and come closer and closer1 finishing with the things immediately about you4 #b4 ,use no details which will not add to the vividness and force of your picture4 ,in describing a library1 for instance1 you can very well leave out any mention of the number of chairs there are in the room1 or of the fact that the front door is of oak1 since those details might be true of any large public room4 ,but you must not fail to notice and to remark on the stillness of the place1--people walking about very quietly and talking in whispers1 standing close to each other1--for that is one of the things which distinguishes a library from other places4 ,so1 in writing of both a handsome street and an alleyway1 you would be telling the truth if you said that they were both paved and had a gutter on each side1 but you would not be making a picture1 as you would if you spoke of battered ash barrels and hungry cats in the alley1 and of beautiful lawns and pretty romping children in the handsome street4 ,in observing the scene you wish to describe1 you should notice everything1 looking at a sight long familiar to you with the steady gaze you had to give in order to see what is really on a postage stamp or a dollar bill4 ,you will find that you have looked at the view from your window with the same careless1 vacant1 absent gaze1 lacking real attention1 and that you need to fix your mind on observing a landscape or a scene1 before you take in a great many details that are essential4 ,but when you come to writing1 you should think of each detail before you use it1 to see if it brings the picture out more clearly4 #c4 ,use some device for expressing the relation between the different parts of your picture4 ,this is usually done by employing complex sentences made up by means of connecting links1 such as near which1 above which1 around which1 etc41 and by using such phrases as farther off1 nearer by1 close at hand1 far away1 in the distance1 high up1 directly below1 on the other side1 beyond1 etc4 ,exercise #aab4--;,describe such of the following as your teacher may indicate3-- #a4 ,what ,i see from my window at home1 at school4 #b4 ,view from the highest place to which ,i ever climbed4 #c4 ,view from the top of our house4 #d4 ,the most beautiful view ,i ever saw4 #e4 ,how our street looks from our front steps4 #f4 ,across the meadow4 #g4 ,how my room looks from the door4 #h4 ,the views in the park ,i like best4 #i4 ,view along a country road4 #aj4 ,trees along a village street4 #aa4 ,view along a street in a large city4 #ab4 ,the inside of our church from where ,i sit4 #ac4 ,my class room from my seat4 #ad4 ,our kitchen4 #ae4 ,the inside of a barn4 #af4 ,what ,i can see from the door of a barn4 #ag4 ,an alleyway in a city4 #ah4 ,view along the most beautiful street ,i know4 #ai4 ,view from the back of a river or lake4 #bj4 ,imaginary description of the view ,i should like best to be able to see from my window4 #ba4 ,how my room would look if ,i could have it exactly as ,i wished4 #bb4 ,the prettiest parlor ,i ever saw4 #bc4 ,how the inside of a public library looks from the door4 #bd4 ,a view in the woods in the winter4 #be4 ,an orchard in bloom4 #bf4 ,beside the brook4 #bg4 ,in the market4 #bh4 ,scene in a department store2 in a hospital2 in a restaurant4 #bi4 ,a soda-water fountain4 #cj4 ,a sand pile where children have been playing keep-house4 #ca4 ,any scene at a county fair4 #fh4 ,description of ,conditions4--,read the following description3-- ,a cornfield in ,july is a hot place4 ,the soil is hot and dry2 the wind comes across the lazily murmuring leaves laden with a warm1 sickening smell drawn from the rapidly growing1 broad-flung banners of the corn4 ,the sun1 nearly vertical1 drops a flood of dazzling light and heat upon the field1 over which the cool shadows run1 only to make the heat seem the more intense4--,,hamlin ,,garland3 ,main-traveled ,roads4 ,the first sentence of this paragraph states the fact that the author wished to convey to you4 ,all the rest is added to make the conditions seem vivid to you1 to make you feel the heat1 smell the rank odor of the corn1 and hear the murmur of the leaves4 ,you will notice that this is different from the description in the last lesson1 where you have been trying to tell merely how a scene or object looked to you1 to make a picture such as an artist might paint4 ,here you are made to notice odors1 motion1 noises1 and heat1--things that a painter would find it difficult to suggest in any picture4 ,think how different would be the effect of intense cold on a street in a big city or in the heart of the forest1 and you will see that in the effect of given conditions on all kinds of objects you have one of the best methods of portraying a scene4 ,for instance1 in both the country and the city the rapid approach of a thundershower is preceded by black clouds and a high wind4 ,the difference lies in what effect these things have4 ,in the country1 the wind tosses the trees wildly about1 roars among the branches1 scatters the dry leaves in volleys4 ,in the city the arrival of a storm is heralded by a flapping of awnings1 little whirlwinds of dust1 crowds of people hurrying to shelter or looking up at the sky1 and a hasty removal indoors of everything that would be spoiled by the rain4 ,exercise #aac4--;,in treating such of the following subjects as your teacher may indicate1 try to notice odor1 noise1 and movement as well as form1 color1 and position3-- #a4 ,a very cold day in a city street1 in a barnyard full of animals1 in our class room1 on the playground1 in the woods1 beside a river or brook1 on a street car1 in a railway train1 at the station4 #b4 ,a very rainy day in our garden1 in summer1 in spring1 in autumn1 inside a barn1 in an attic1 in a henyard1 in a crowded business street1 on a boat1 at the door of a department store1 or church1 or theater1 at a country fair1 at a picnic4 #c4 ,a snowstorm in the country1 in the city4 #d4 ,muddy walking on a country road1 in a plowed field1 in a city street1 on the playground1 at the door of our school4 #e4 ,a hot night on our piazza1 indoors1 in a public square1 in the woods1 in a theater1 in a flower garden1 in the street in front of our house1 at a pleasure resort4 #f4 ,a high wind in the country1 in the city1 in summer1 in autumn1 in winter1 on the harbor or river1 at sea1 in a tall tower1 an attic 7this mainly for sounds71 in a pasture full of horses1 in a group of pine trees1 in a cornfield1 in a city park1 in a city court on wash day4 ,exercise #aad4--;,as a class exercise1 try writing on some one subject and comparing the results4 ,see who has been able to produce the clearest impression and why his description is successful4 ,the subjects should be only those of which the whole class has an equal knowledge1 e4g4 description of some public person who has addressed the school2 of the walk to school on a snowy1 rainy1 or hot day1 of the playground at recess time1 of the aspect of the halls directly after school is dismissed1 of the schoolroom1 of any incident which all the pupils saw1 a fire in the neighborhood1 etc4 #fi4 ,description by ,contrast4--,another excellent device in description is contrast4 ,for instance1 if you wish to describe the effect made by a day in the woods when rain has frozen in falling and has coated everything with ice1 you might begin by making a brief picture of such a day in the city1--every one slipping uncomfortably1 horses straining painfully to keep their footing1 the wheels of street cars revolving uselessly on an ice-coated track2 and then suddenly transfer your description to the woods1 where the trees are as though made of glass1 every little twig a prism to reflect light1 and where the bits of ice falling from the trees tinkle like broken glass on the frozen snow4 ,exercise #aae4--;,describe1 by contrasting with each other3-- #a4 ,a heavy draught horse and a race horse4 #b4 ,a canoe and a raft4 #c4 ,a ,newfoundland dog and a pug dog4 #d4 ,your class room when every one is busy and quietly studying1 when every one is just going away1 and when it is deserted after school hours4 #e4 ,the kitchen of your house on different occasions1--washing1 ironing1 just before dinner1 just after a candy pull1 after the work is all done1 on a ,sunday afternoon4 #f4 ,a theater full of people and bright with lights1 afterward darkened and deserted except for cleaning women4 #g4 ,our garden at different times of year1--in spring1 when planting is being done2 when ,i am weeding it on a hot day in summer2 when everything is ripe in autumn2 in winter1 snow-covered4 #h4 ,a grocer's shop in early morning with a sleepy boy sweeping out1 and later when full of customers and clerks4 #i4 ,an apple tree in blossom2 in autumn with ripe fruit2 in winter4 #aj4 ,a brook or river frozen over with skaters on it1 and in midsummer with swimmers1 etc4 #aa4 ,the route ,i generally take to and from school1--in the morning 7other pupils going to school2 business men going to their offices2 butcher's carts and grocery and ice wagons72 in the afternoon 7nurses out with babies1 ladies calling1 children at play1 etc474 #ab4 ,a public square in its ordinary aspect1 and on the ,fourth of ,july1 or ,decoration ,day1 or ,election ,night4 #ac4 ,a department store full of shoppers just before ,christmas1 and early in the morning on a hot summer day1 with only the clerks and a few customers4 #ad4 ,a railway station1 quiet and deserted1 with only a few travelers waiting silently1 and when an important train arrives1 bringing a crowd of passengers4 #gj4 ,description of ,events4--,in the extract given below there is a certain amount of definite information conveyed1 in addition to the pictures presented4 ,slowly and mournfully they carried his embalmed body in a procession of great state to ,paris1 and thence to ,rouen1 where his queen was1 from whom the sad intelligence of his death was concealed until he had been dead some days4 ,thence1 lying on a bed of crimson and gold1 with a golden crown upon his head and a golden ball and scepter lying in the nerveless hands1 they carried him to ,calais1 with such a great retinue as seemed to dye the road black4 ,the ,king of ,scotland acted as chief mourner1 all the ,royal ,household followed2 the knights wore black armor and black plumes of feathers1 crowds of men bore torches1 making the night as light as day2 and the widowed ,princess followed last of all4 ,at ,calais there was a fleet of ships to bring the funeral host to ,dover2 and so1 by way of ,london ,bridge1 where the service for the dead was chanted as it passed along1 they brought the body to ,westminster ,abbey1 and there buried it with great respect4--,,charles ,,dickens3 ,a ,child's ,history of ,england4 ,an account of almost any happening1 custom1 or festival must be told in this way1 with an eye both to stating facts clearly and at the same time to making them seem lifelike4 ,this sort of exercise is harder than anything you have yet tried1 for you must be at once complete and full in your account and yet must continue to go on in the sort of picture making you have been practicing4 ,in a way1 this is almost a return to some of the exercises in narrative which you have had1 since a description of several happenings in order of time is really a narrative4 ,at any rate1 in trying this sort of description you are like a person who has been learning to play the piano1 first with the right hand and then with the left1 and finally with both together in a simple but complete melody4 ,you are to keep in mind that you have two aims in view3 to be as full as is necessary to give an accurate idea of the facts1 and to attempt to present a picture4 ,exercise #aaf4--;,describe accurately1 as though for a newspaper or magazine1 but trying to reproduce some of the essential characters of the event3-- ,a fire drill in your school2 how you celebrate ,fourth of ,july1 ,thanksgiving1 ,hallowe'en1 ,new ,year's ,day2 laying the corner stone of a new building2 the procession of the veterans on ,decoration ,day2 a political parade or meeting2 a wedding2 a funeral2 the parade of the ,fire ,department2 a play or entertainment given by your school4 #ga4 ,picture ,making of ,scenes of ,action4--,here1 instead of describing something stationary1 like a house or landscape1 the writer has taken one moment of a scene of action1 and has attempted to make1 as it were1 a snapshot photograph of it4 ,to-day the large side doors were thrown open toward the sun to admit a beautiful light to the immediate spot of the shearers' operations1 which was the wood threshing floor in the center1 formed of thick oak1 black with age4 ,here the shearers knelt1 the sun slanting in on their bleached shirts1 tanned arms1 and the polished shears they flourished1 causing them to bristle with a thousand rays strong enough to blind a weak-eyed man4 ,beneath them a captive sheep lay panting1 increasing the rapidity of its pants as misgiving merged in terror1 till it quivered like the hot landscape outside4--,,thomas ,,hardy3 ,far from the ,madding ,crowd4 ,all the painters of historical pictures try in the same way to paint one moment of a well-known incident1 and they select some significant moment2 that is1 one where the action tells something of the story involved4 ,exercise #aag4--;,i4 ,imagine that you are about to paint a picture of any one of the following scenes1 and describe what comes into your mind when you think of the incident4 ,do not tell the story--simply describe the scene at a given moment4 #a4 ,columbus sighting land4 #b4 ,columbus landing4 #c4 ,the burial of ,de ,soto4 #d4 ,pocohontas saving the life of ,john ,smith4 #e4 ,penn making a treaty with the ,indians4 #f4 ,a scene in the attack on ,braddock by ,indian skirmishers4 #g4 ,an night attack by ,indians on a colonial settlement4 #h4 ,the discovery of ,major ,andr4 #i4 ,king ,alfred and the cakes4 #aj4 ,the rain of manna on the ,children of ,israel4 ,,ii4 ,try in the following subjects to make a picture which would serve as illustration to a story4 ,see if you can make the picture recognizable1 so that your classmates can tell what the story is from the one scene from it which you present them4 #a4 ,horatius at the bridge4 #b4 ,the ,sleeping ,beauty4 #c4 ,william ,tell and the apple4 #d4 ,cinderella trying on the slipper4 #e4 ,ivanhoe and ,rebecca during the progress of the battle which ,rebecca is describing4 #f4 ,ulysses1 returned to ,ithaca1 is recognized by his old dog ,argus4 #g4 ,uncle ,remus telling stories to the little boy4 #h4 ,barbara ,frietchie4 #i4 ,robinson ,crusoe and the footprints4 ,here is a description1 by ,parkman1 of the robbing of a train of pack horses carrying valuable goods4 ,advancing deeper among the mountains1 they began to descend the valley at the foot of ,sidling ,hill4 ,the laden horses plodded knee-deep in snow4 ,the mountains towered above the wayfarers in gray desolation1 and the leafless forest howled dreary music to the wind of ,march4 ,suddenly1 from behind snow-beplastered trunks and shaggy bushes of evergreen1 uncouth apparitions started into view4 ,wild visages protruded1 grotesquely horrible with vermilion and ocher1 white lead and soot2 stalwart limbs appeared1 encased in buckskin2 and rusty rifles thrust out their long muzzles4 ,in front and flank and all around them white puffs of smoke and sharp reports assailed the bewildered senses of the travelers4--,,francis ,,parkman3 ,the ,conspiracy of ,pontiac4 ,with this description you are again almost back to narration4 ,the extract presents two pictures1 and in so doing1 relates a story4 ,this way of telling a story by a succession of pictures is a favorite one with comic illustrators1 but it is also used very often in writing1 although in a real narration explanatory matter is added between the scenes4 ,exercise #aah4--,the following topics are given as subjects for description only1 and you are to try to give as vivid a picture of the two scenes as you can1 letting the story tell itself by inference4 #a4 ,boys skating at top speed along a river with a pack of wolves in the distance4 ,a camp of wood choppers beside the river1 a fire burning1 the boys fallen exhausted1 and men starting up with guns in their hands4 #b4 ,people on a raft waving coats and handkerchiefs wildly4 ,on board a big ocean steamer1 with passengers gathered around the group of rescued castaways4 #c4 ,a ,christmas tree inside a richly furnished room with well-dressed children gathered around it4 ,outside in the snow a group of poor children looking in at the window4 #d4 ,a boy with a swollen jaw in the dentist's chair4 ,a group of smaller children to whom the boy proudly holds up a tooth4 #e4 ,a hen calling wildly to her chickens and trying to cover them with her wings1 and a farmer running up with a gun4 ,the farmer has his gun in one hand1 and with the other holds up a big hen-hawk for a group of people to see4 #f4 ,a street with everybody running in one direction1 pointing ahead4 ,a house on fire with firemen climbing up on ladders4 #g4 ,a family assembled at the dinner table in the evening quietly talking together4 ,a man taps on the window pane outside2 every one starts up in surprise and great pleasure1 as if he were a relative returned from travels4 #h4 ,a group of women gathered at the end of a pier on a stormy night1 straining their eyes anxiously out to sea4 ,a fisherman returning up the beach1 at early dawn1 with a net full of fish on his back4 ,in the background a small house with children running out to meet him4 #gb4 ,travel4--,it is hard to draw a definite line between descriptive writing and narrative writing1 since description is very often needed to make a narration interesting1 and sometimes to make it complete4 ,there is one kind of composition where the two methods of writing are needed in almost equal quantities1 and that is in stories of travel4 ,in writing an account of a journey1 you have a distinct story to tell1 since you are narrating a series of events that took place one after the other2 but without description of what you saw the account is scarcely worth writing at all4 ,your aim is to give your reader a clear idea of the course of your journey1 and you can only do this by a combination of narration and description1 by telling what happened and then by trying to make a picture of the event4 ,so that there are two main things to remember in writing of travel3 first1 to make your journey clear and intelligible by following the time-order in your narration1 and by recollecting all the important stages of the trip2 and1 second1 to select for description the most interesting incidents or places which you saw1 and to write of them as vividly and picturesquely as possible4 ,the roads were gay early next morning when we started1 for it was market day1 and the country people were flocking into town1 some driving their pigs1 some riding donkeys with calfskin saddles adorned with little red tassels2 the women wearing high-crowned hats with bright handkerchiefs tied on underneath1 and bright cotton shawls2 the men with brown-and-white-striped blankets gracefully thrown over the shoulder1 and in their hands long1 brass-tipped staves4 ,most of the women had large gold earrings1 and some of them1 in addition1 gold chains and crosses and filigree heart-shaped pendants4 ,we met presently a troop of fishwomen running at full speed to catch the market1 their baskets balanced on their heads4 ,their earrings were hoop-shaped1 and their skirts short and tucked up1 and they had embroidered purses hanging at the side4 ,the fishermen we overtook a little later1 going back toward the sea with their nets4 ,all had time to touch their caps and say ,good day1 for civility to strangers is the rule in ,portugal4 ,here and there were children minding goats under the shade of the olives4 ,no idlers1 no beggars were to be seen4 ,at noon we came to ,alcobaa1 and walked through the town to the great abbey church of the ,cistercians4 ,the market was going on outside it4 ,gayly dressed women presided over heaps of maize and oranges and eggs4 ,strings of donkeys were tied up by the wall4 ,a scarlet-robed acolyte walked amongst the people collecting alms4 ,a broad flight of steps led up to the great door4 ,inside all is very simple and grand--a vaulted roof1 rows of slender columns1 no pictures or tawdry decorations to be seen4 ,now and then1 not very often1 a woman would come in from the busy market place and kneel to say a silent prayer4444 ,we visited the convent where ,beckford had lived1 and saw its great tiled kitchen and its beautiful cloisters1 and then went back to the inn to lunch1 where we enjoyed above all a liberal dish of green peas--green still in our memories4 ,we drove on through pleasant fields and vineyards1 catching sight now and then of the distant sea1 and1 suddenly coming to an open space through the trees1 we saw before us the great memorial church of ,batalha1 the ,battle ,abbey of ,portugal1 its pinnacles and the delicate lace work of its roof standing out against the clear blue sky4 ,it stands quite alone1 except for the handful of red-tiled houses that form the village1 and from its roof you look down1 not on the smoke and turmoil of human habitations1 but on green fields and slopes and olive trees2 and under its walls no troops of beggars1 or pleasure seekers1 or chattering merchants disturb the stillness4 ,one only ,i saw there1 sitting near the door under the shade of a bright-colored umbrella1 a heap of pottery at her feet for sale1 and a donkey tied up close by2 but her child had fallen asleep in her arms1 and she did not move or speak4 ,inside1 also1 all was quiet1 and we could enjoy its beauty--the long aisles1 the endless columns1 the exquisite cloisters1 where the fantastic and varied stone traceries contrast with the quaint formal garden with its box-edged beds1 in which are set roses1 and peonies1 and columbines4444 ,we learned that the church was founded in #achg by the great ,king ,joao soon after the fighting of the decisive victory which it commemorates1 and that there is a doubt as to the architect employed1 whether he was an ,irishman named ,hackett1 or another4 ,i am all for the ,irishman1 but hope he was not also responsible for the idea of laying the foundations in this hollow1 where the water lies when the winter floods begin4 ,we tried to find out1 through ,antonio1 how high the water actually rises1 but he would only wave his hands deferentially and say1 as though he had been one of ,canute's courtiers1 ,as high as you please1 sir4 ,that night we slept at ,leiria4 ,the inn is over a stable1 and one room looks out on a piggery and another on a fowl yard4 ,we said farewell to our mules1 and took the train again at ,pombal1 interesting chiefly from its association with the great eighteenth-century statesman of the same name4 ,we look out from the railway carriage on level meadows1 purple with vipers' bugloss1 bordering the ,mondego1 and then across a bend of the river where it is broadest we see ,coimbra1 the ,oxford of ,portugal1 an ancient and beautiful city1 beautifully set on a hillside4 ,bare-headed1 black-robed students fill the streets1 and swarm in and out of the doors of the university4 ,the streets are steep and narrow1 and here and there are unexpected gardens and blossoming ,judas trees4--,,lady ,,gregory3 ,through ,portugal4 ,exercise #aai4--,write1 either in letter form or as a composition1 an account of any journey you have taken4 ,it is better to select a small part of a trip1 and describe that quite completely1 than to try to cover a long journey4 ,a day's excursion1 if it is interesting1 is enough as a rule for one exercise1 although this is by no means an invariable rule4 ,the following subjects are given as suitable for travel compositions1 or as suggesting others3-- #a4 ,our trip to the county fair4 #b4 ,the journey ,i took the first time ,i saw the ocean4 #c4 ,how we go away for the summer3 packing up1 leaving the house1 the journey with pet animals1 etc41 arrival4 #d4 ,a trip that should have been very short1 but was made long by an accident4 #e4 ,how we go fishing1 hunting1 studying birds4 #f4 ,the trip to the greatest natural curiosity ,i ever saw2 a cave2 hanging cliff2 waterfall1 etc4 #gc4 ,descriptions of an ,hour4--,when you write an account of a journey1 you are telling all the interesting events that occurred in your life on a certain day or days1 or in a certain number of hours4 ,now you do not need to travel to have interesting things happen to you1 and a lively and picturesque account of your doings for an afternoon or a morning may be extremely readable1 although perhaps you did not stir from one room4 ,you will be quite surprised to see how many things you do1 or any one else does1 in a short space of time4 ,the following passage from ,david ,copperfield is an account of how an underdone leg of mutton was made palatable after it had come to the table4 ,no subject could be simpler1 and yet it is treated in so lively a way that it is very entertaining4 ,there was a gridiron in the pantry1 on which my morning rasher of bacon was cooked4 ,we had it in1 in a twinkling1 and immediately applied ourselves to carrying ,mr4 ,micawber's idea into effect4 ,the division of labor to which he had referred was this3 ,traddles cut the mutton into slices2 ,mr4 ,micawber 7who could do anything of this sort to perfection7 covered them with pepper1 mustard1 salt1 and cayenne2 ,i put them on the gridiron1 turned them with a fork1 and took them off1 under ,mr4 ,micawber's direction2 and ,mrs4 ,micawber heated1 and continually stirred1 some mushroom ketchup in a little saucepan4 ,when we had slices enough to begin upon1 we fell to1 with our sleeves still tucked up at the wrists1 more slices sputtering and blazing on the fire1 and our attention divided between the mutton on our plates1 and the mutton then preparing4 ,what with the novelty of this cookery1 the excellence of it1 the bustle of it1 the frequent starting up to look after it1 the frequent sitting down to dispose of it as the crisp slices came off the gridiron hot and hot1 the being so busy1 so flushed with the fire1 so amused1 and in the midst of such a tempting noise and savor1 we reduced the leg of mutton to the bone4 ,my own appetite came back miraculously4 ,i am ashamed to record it1 but ,i really believe ,i forgot ,dora for a little while4 ,traddles laughed heartily almost the whole time1 as he ate and worked4 ,indeed we all did1 all at once2 and ,i dare say there never was a greater success4 ,we were at the height of our enjoyment1 and were all busily engaged1 in our several departments1 endeavoring to bring the last batch of slices to a state of perfection that should crown the feast1 when ,i was aware of a strange presence in the room1 and my eyes encountered those of the staid ,littimer1 standing hat in hand before me4--,,charles ,,dickens3 ,david ,copperfield4 ,exercise #abj4--;,i4 ,take a piece of paper and try to note down everything a baby of six or eight months does for a half an hour when he is wide awake and active4 ,or take similar notes of all that a two-year-old child does in an hour's play2 or watch a kitten amuse itself1 and try to write an account of it that will give your reader some idea of the gay frolics of the little animal4 ,if you can find a colony of ants1 their movements will give you good material for this sort of composition2 or a pair of birds building a nest1 or a crowd of little children playing4 ,,ii4 ,in the same way1 write on any of the following subjects3-- #a4 ,the story of a convalescent's afternoon4 #b4 ,the story of one day in house-cleaning time4 #c4 ,what we do on ,sunday afternoon4 #d4 ,the first day at school after a vacation4 #e4 ,our school picnic4 #f4 ,two hours spent at a junction1 waiting for a delayed train--how we amused ourselves4 #g4 ,the first time ,i ever rode horseback or tried to sail a boat4 #h4 ,the cook's last fifteen minutes before dinner is served4 #i4 ,an hour in a department store4 #aj4 ,a visit to a flour mill1 blacksmith shop1 large bakery1 candy factory1 or any manufactory4 #aa4 ,an afternoon spent just as ,i should like it best4 #ab4 ,what a country boy does to amuse himself in two leisure hours2 a city boy4 #ac4 ,the hardest hour's work ,i ever did4 #ad4 ,the hour on a farm spent in feeding the animals4 #ae4 ,how we hurried to catch the morning train4 #af4 ,the half hour when ,i tried to amuse the baby4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,narration 7,continued7 #gd4 ,historical ,stories4--,in writing on the subjects given below1 you are to try to make a complete story1 including the dialogue between the principal characters1 what descriptions of scenery or people or houses you think are needed to make your picture vivid and your persons real1 and what explanation of conditions or surroundings are necessary to make the action intelligible4 ,once upon a time a worthy merchant of ,london1 named ,gilbert ,becket1 made a pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land1 and was taken prisoner by a ,saracen lord4 ,this lord1 who treated him kindly and not like a slave1 had one fair daughter1 who fell in love with the merchant2 and who told him that she wanted to become a ,christian1 and was willing to marry him if they could fly to a ,christian country4 ,the merchant returned her love1 until he found an opportunity to escape1 when he did not trouble himself about the ,saracen lady1 but escaped with his servant ,richard1 who had been taken prisoner along with him1 and arrived in ,england and forgot her4 ,the ,saracen lady1 who was more loving than the merchant1 left her father's house in disguise to follow him1 and made her way1 under many hardships1 to the seashore4 ,the merchant had taught her only two ,english words 7for ,i suppose he must have learnt the ,saracen tongue himself1 and made love in that language71 of which ,london was one1 and his own name1 ,gilbert1 the other4 ,she went among the ships saying1 ,london6 ,london6 over and over again1 until the sailors understood that she wanted to find an ,english vessel that would carry her there2 so they showed her such a ship1 and she paid for her passage with some of her jewels1 and sailed away4 ,well6 ,the merchant was sitting in his counting house in ,london one day1 when he heard a great noise in the street2 and presently ,richard came running in from the warehouse with his eyes wide open and his breath almost gone1 saying1 ,master1 master1 here is the ,saracen lady6 ,the merchant thought ,richard was mad2 but ,richard said1 ,no1 master6 ,as ,i live1 the ,saracen lady is going up and down the city1 calling ',gilbert6 ,gilbert6' ,then he took the merchant by the sleeve and pointed out a window2 and there they saw her among the gables and waterspouts of the dark1 dirty streets1 in her foreign dress1 so forlorn1 surrounded by a wondering crowd1 and passing slowly along1 calling ,gilbert6 ,gilbert6 ,when the merchant saw her and thought of the tenderness she had shown him in his captivity1 and of her constancy1 his heart was moved1 and he ran down into the street2 and she saw him coming1 and with a great cry fainted in his arms4 ,they were married without loss of time1 and ,richard 7who was an excellent man7 danced with joy the whole day of the wedding2 and they all lived happily ever afterward4 ,this merchant and the ,saracen lady had one son1 ,thomas ,becket4 ,he it was who became the favorite of ,king ,henry the ,second4--,,charles ,,dickens3 ,a ,child's ,history of ,england4 ,read this over very carefully and note the construction of it4 ,the first half is plain narration1 such as you have employed in historical writing1 in fables1 etc41 but the second half is embellished narration1 or a report of facts that at the same time gives you a lifelike picture of how they took place4 ,after telling you the first half of his story without description1 or any attempt to make you see the scenes1 ,dickens gives you a complete and striking picture of the last part of the action4 ,it is by no means always best to adopt this method in story telling1 but in re-telling historical stories it is often a good plan1 since frequently your reader needs a brief explanation of what the general conditions are before he can really understand the tale you wish to tell him4 ,for instance1 in writing the story of ,robin ,hood for a little boy1 you would need to explain some of the conditions of ,england at that time1 so that your reader would not think of him as a common thief and poacher4 ,exercise #aba4--,look up the facts about any of the following subjects1 think them over1 make the persons and scenes real to your own mind1 and write as though trying to make the story clear1 intelligible1 interesting1 and vivid to a boy or girl eight years old4 #a4 ,robin ,hood4 #b4 ,william ,tell and his little son4 #c4 ,king ,alfred and the cakes4 #d4 ,john ,smith and ,pocohontas4 #e4 ,the youth of ,hannibal and his vow of revenge on the ,romans4 #f4 ,leonidas and the ,spartans at ,thermopyl4 #g4 ,nathan ,hale's capture and death4 #h4 ,the ,spanish ,armada4 #i4 ,guy ,fawkes and his conspiracy4 #aj4 ,the story of ,marcus ,curtius4 #aa4 ,dick ,whittington4 ,all these subjects have been selected because they naturally suggest to your mind one vivid and dramatic picture toward the end1 so that you can take as a model the story of ,gilbert ,becket4 ,after you have studied the facts of each story1 see if a picture does not rise before you of the most exciting or characteristic moment of the action4 ,then try to make this picture real to your reader by the best and most spirited description you can write4 ,put yourself in the place of the persons of the incident you are relating1 and try to see the scene and feel what naturally would move you4 ,exercise #abb4--,re-tell the following well-known stories1 selecting two or three incidents for particularly detailed and careful treatment4 ,choose those that appeal to you as affording a good chance either for animated dialogue1 which is an excellent means of making a scene lifelike1 or for description which shall make the persons and action seem more real4 ,never put in any description for its own sake1--only so much as will help to interest your reader and make him feel and see the incidents of your story4 ,in these stories1 taken from well-known poems1 be careful not to let yourself be influenced by the words of the poem4 ,think of the story as apart from its poetic expression1 and write it in your own language4 #a4 ,ulysses and the ,cyclops4 #b4 ,ulysses and the ,sirens4 #c4 ,ulysses's arrival at home4 #d4 ,iphigenia4 #e4 ,the ,pied ,piper of ,hamlin4 #f4 ,the story of the wooden horse in the siege of ,troy4 #g4 ,jason and the ,golden ,fleece4 #h4 ,the story of ,pegasus and ,bellerophon4 #i4 ,the ,one-,hoss ,shay4 #aj4 ,the ,falcon4 #aa4 ,john ,gilpin's ,ride4 #ab4 ,paul ,revere's ,ride4 #ac4 ,yussouf 7,james ,russell ,lowell74 #ad4 ,herv ,riel 7,browning74 #ae4 ,a story from the ,bible1 such as that of ,david and ,goliath4 #ge4 ,fictitious ,stories4--,in writing on the subjects of the preceding lesson you have been using material furnished you by history or by poetry4 ,the final step in story writing is often considered to be the invention of the material from which you weave your tale2 but1 as a matter of fact1 few writers actually invent their material4 ,what is usually meant by invention in story telling is power to see the story which lies in the events of every day4 ,a small incident1 if you interest yourself in it1 will be of interest to a reader4 ,once when ,john ,burroughs was fishing on a lake1 a mouse ran up his oar into the boat1 sat there for a few moments1 and then swam back to shore4 ,you could scarcely imagine a less exciting adventure1 and yet see what a charming little narrative he has made of it1 making you almost feel that you have held the gentle little creature in your hand1 and arousing so much sympathy for it in your mind that you are genuinely glad to think it was able to return safely to land3-- ,i met one of these mice in my travels one day under peculiar conditions4 ,he was on his travels also1 and we met in the middle of a mountain lake4 ,i was casting my fly there1 when ,i saw1 just sketched or etched upon the glassy surface1 a delicate ,v-shaped figure1 the point of which reached about to the middle of the lake1 while the two sides1 as they diverged1 faded out toward the shore4 ,i saw the point of this ,v was being slowly pushed across the lake4 ,i drew near in my boat1 and beheld a little mouse swimming vigorously for the opposite shore4 ,his little legs appeared like swiftly revolving wheels beneath him4 ,as ,i came near1 he dived under the water to escape me1 but came up again like a cork and just as quickly4 ,it was laughable to see him repeatedly duck beneath the surface and pop back again in a twinkling4 ,he could not keep under water more than a second or two4 ,presently ,i reached him my oar1 when he ran up it and into the palm of my hand1 where he sat for some time and arranged his fur and warmed himself4 ,he did not show the slightest fear4 ,it was probably the first time he had ever shaken hands with a human being4 ,he had doubtless lived all his life in the woods1 and was strangely unsophisticated4 ,how his little round eyes did shine1 and how he sniffed me to find out if ,i was more dangerous than ,i appeared to his sight6 ,after a while ,i put him down in the bottom of the boat and resumed my fishing4 ,but it was not long before he became very restless1 and evidently wanted to go about his business4 ,he would climb up to the edge of the boat and peer down into the water4 ,finally he could brook the delay no longer and plunged boldly overboard2 but he had either changed his mind or lost his reckoning1 for he started back in the direction from which he had come1 and the last ,i saw of him was a mere speck vanishing in the shadows near the shore4--,,john ,,burroughs3 ,squirrels and ,other ,fur-,bearing ,animals4 ,exercise #abc4--;,following this model1 tell any incident1 either real or invented1 suggested by the following subjects3-- #a4 ,our cat and the dry leaves4 #b4 ,our canary bird and the thunderstorm4 #c4 ,the butcher and the sick dog4 #d4 ,the tired street-car conductor and the lame man4 #e4 ,the mother and child and the little beggar4 #f4 ,how a horse got rid of his halter4 #g4 ,the hen and the duck eggs4 #h4 ,the elevator boy1 the irritable man1 and the soft answer4 #i4 ,the teacher's watch left in the class room and the janitor's little boy4 #aj4 ,how ,i lost my belief in ,santa ,claus1 in fairies4 #aa4 ,a queer idea ,i had when ,i was younger1--e4g4 that the ,north ,pole is an actual pole sticking out from the ground1 etc4 #gf4 ,the ,beginning4--,the beginning of a story is a very important part of it1 for the average reader will not go on with a story which does not interest him at once4 ,it is therefore better1 as a rule1 to begin1 not with an introduction1 as in historical stories1 but with some phrase or sentence that belongs in the action4 ,then1 after you have caught your reader's attention1 you can1 in a later paragraph1 give briefly what explanation is needed4 ,the beginnings of several excellent stories are given here to show you how they commence without any sort of introduction4 ,edgar ,allan ,poe's ,descent into the ,maelstrom4 ,we had now reached the summit of the loftiest crag4 ,for some minutes the old man seemed too much exhausted to speak4 ,octave ,thanet's ,the ,sheriff4 ,sheriff ,wickliff leaned out of his office window1 the better to watch the boy soldiers march down the street4 ,louisa ,m4 ,alcott's ,jack and ,jill4 ',clear the track' was the general cry on a bright ,december afternoon1 when all the boys and girls of ,harmony ,village were out enjoying the first good snow of the season4 ,exercise #abd4--,sometimes the beginning is so full of meaning that you can almost construct the whole story from it4 ,see if you can finish the stories begun below3-- #a4 ,waking up with a start1 he was very much amazed to find himself under the counter and not at home in bed4 ,a little moonlight coming in the grocery window showed him where he was1 and he remembered that he had lain down for a moment's nap1 just as the clerks were closing the doors4 ,probably no one had noticed the little errand boy1 tired out with his long day's work and with a long evening before spent over his books4 ,suddenly he noticed that the room was growing lighter1 and saw a little tongue of flame shoot up from the floor near him4 #b4 ,jack pulled his hand out of his pocket with a cry of alarm4 ,why ,i've lost my purse and my railway ticket home6 he said1 and ,i don't know a soul in the city4 ,what shall ,i do6 ,as he spoke1 he noticed a man step out of a store and try to put up the awning over the door4 ,the rope caught on a nail1 and without seeing what was the trouble the man jerked impatiently but uselessly4 ,jack had been brought up to help people out if he could4 ,i think ,i can do that1 he said pleasantly1 stepping forward4 ,the man stopped and looked at him curiously4 #c4 ,the mast broke with a loud report and the sail blew overboard in a breath4 ,the two boys looked at each other with pale faces4 ,if this wind keeps up1 it looks as though we never should get back to shore1 said ,george1 looking about him despairingly4 #d4 ,when ,oliver ,whiting realized that he had lived with the ,indians for five years1 it always surprised him4 ,the time had slipped by very rapidly since that exciting night of the raid on the ,puritan settlement1 when he had been carried off from his master's house4 ,he had really been happier in the lazy ,indian life than in the busy1 active1 hard-working household of the ,puritan farmer4 ,as he lay on the grass one summer evening1 listening to the river and watching the stars shine1 he reflected that if he could1 he would not choose to go away from his kindly ,indian captors4 ,a low call made him turn his head1 and there1 within a few feet of him1 stood his old master1 ,fear-,god ,elliott4 #e4 ,run ,johnnie1 or the tree will strike you1 shouted ,mr4 ,edwards to his ten-year-old son1 pushing him out of the way4 ,the great tree came crashing down4 ,the child was safe1 but the man lay groaning with pain1 both legs pinned down by the terrible1 crushing weight4 ,johnnie1 do you suppose you can find your way five miles to ,neighbor ,ashley's clearing8 said the man1 compressing his pale lips to keep back a shriek of pain4 ,if you lose yourself1 you'll starve to death and so shall ,i1 but there's no other way to save us both4 #f4 ,mary ,ellen was thinking of nothing more exciting than her arithmetic lesson1 as she looked absently through the open door into the long empty hall of the school building4 ,what she saw there made her catch her breath in horror1 but her presence of mind came instantly to her rescue4 ,if she screamed ,fire6 ,fire6 there would be a panic4 ,what could she do8 ,all at once a bright idea struck her4 ,in beginning a story of your own1 you should take any one of these beginnings as model4 ,you will notice that each of them lets you know at once three main points--the principal character1 the place of the action1 and the general conditions4 ,it is very important to do this1 and1 as you notice1 these facts can be brought in without stating them definitely and tediously4 ,for instance1 the first story given might have begun1 ,harry was an errand boy in a grocer's shop4 ,he was poor and had to work hard all day1 but he was ambitious1 and kept up his studies in the evening4 ,one night he went to sleep under the counter4 ,when he woke up1 he saw a tongue of flame darting up from the floor4 ,do you see how much better the first way of telling you all this about ,harry is than the second8 #gg4 ,the ,ending4--,the end of a story is also very important4 ,it should contain the point4 ,this is sometimes the explanation of the action1 sometimes the summing up of the spirit of the tale1 but in any case it is brief and lively4 ,exercise #abe--,see if you can write the stories that go before the endings given below3-- #a4 ,i was trembling with terror as the apparition drew nearer1 and little ,pollie was shaking so she could hardly stand4 ,all at once she burst out in a loud fit of laughter1 pointing through the dusk at the white spirit of our fears4 ,why1 aren't we silly6 she cried4 ,it's no ghost at all1--only our own old white cow4 #b4 ,pauline had just given up trying to control the maddened horse1 when out of a house ahead of them dashed a man with a long rope4 ,coiling this1 he threw it deftly around the horse's neck as it plunged by1 and1 instantly dropping it about a fence post1 he brought the animal to a dead stop so quickly that ,pauline was thrown out of the wagon4 ,she was unhurt1 however1 and the man1 who ran to pick her up1 exclaimed when he saw who she was4 ,well1 perhaps you'll take my advice about horses the next time1 he said laughingly4 #c4 ,i splashed wildly1 ,i kicked up a tremendous foam with my feet1 ,i panted and spluttered like a porpoise2 but1 looking over my shoulder1 ,i saw ,i had passed the line of the old oak tree4 ,the deed was done1--very badly it might be1 but none the less actually the accomplishment was mine4 ,i had learned to swim at last6 #gh4 ,the ,body4--,you have now studied the beginning and the end of a story4 ,the middle part is the easiest of all4 ,you may have learned enough geometry to know that a straight line is the shortest distance between two points4 ,a good story is the shortest distance between a good beginning and a good ending4 ,by that you are not to understand actually the shortest statement you can make of the facts involved1 but the shortest treatment of your theme which still slights none of the features necessary to make your ending most effective4 ,fix your mental eye on your ending1 and write your story to make that most full of meaning4 ,for instance1 the first of the three endings given above would lose most of its value if you did not1 in writing the story1 describe the lonely house at twilight1 the two dreadfully frightened children1 and the shapeless white mass looming up through the dusk4 ,their relief at finding it to be only a cow is neither amusing nor even interesting unless you have shown by a lively description how terribly alarmed they were4 ,in the same way the last ending must be preceded by a humorous account of the great difficulty a boy had in learning to swim4 ,his joy at finding he could make a little headway is only of interest because it comes as a contrast to former discouragement4 ,exercise #abf4--,write a story suggested by any of the following titles or phrases3-- #a4 ,the first time ,i was badly frightened4 #b4 ,the thing ,i am proudest of having done4 #c4 ,my runaway4 #d4 ,how the bird's nest was saved from the snake4 #e4 ,when the elephant broke loose from the circus4 #f4 ,how the fox got the honeycomb away from the bear by saying it was bad for his health4 #g4 ,what ,i did when our house caught on fire4 #h4 ,how our cat got out of the barn when she was shut in4 #i4 ,why ,i got to the train late4 #aj4 ,how the children lost in the woods kept house in the cave4 #aa4 ,what would happen if the statues in our school building could come to life4 #ab4 ,if the pictures could come to life4 #ac4 ,christopher ,columbus revisits ,america4 #ad4 ,an interesting dream ,i once had4 #ae4 ,at this1 the ,queen of the ,fairies touched ,hans with her wand4 ,oh1 he cried1 ,i'll never put off doing anything again4 #af4 ,the old sailor gave a little shiver of recollection4 ,well1 ,i hope you'll never be in such a place1 sonny1 he said to the little boy4 #ag4 ,the poor old man looked at the kind young lady very intently4 ,weren't you in ,archester one summer8 he asked4 ,why1 you must be old ,farmer ,norton1 to whom ,i owe such a lot of money1 she cried4 ,i never could find you to pay it back4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,exposition #gi4 ,general ,principles4--,there is perhaps no other form of composition which is so generally in use as exposition or explanation4 ,if you observe your own conversation and that of the people about you1 you will find that a great deal of it is explanation4 ,every time you say in answer to some question about a remark you have just made1 ,why1 ,i mean that--1 you are explaining the first remark4 ,in almost all the recitations you make in school you are explaining something--a principle in arithmetic1 or in physics1 the construction of something in manual training1 the meaning of a word1 etc4 ,the object of your explanation is to make the person whom you address understand the nature of your subject4 ,there are a number of devices for doing this1 which will be treated in this chapter1 but you are never to forget that your aim is simply to make some one clearly understand what was not plain to him before4 ,in description you were told that knowledge of your subject was the most necessary element4 ,this is so true of exposition that only the briefest mention of that necessity is enough to show you its great importance4 ,it might be possible to describe something and give a fair notion of it1 without knowing it thoroughly yourself2 but this is out of the question in explanation4 ,if you do not entirely and completely understand what you are talking about1 you certainly cannot explain it to any one else4 ,one of the great advantages of writing explanations is that you are forced to think accurately as well as to express yourself clearly4 ,the next thing in explanation is a consideration of the people for whom you are writing4 ,in the diary you write to yourself2 in a letter you address one person1 whom you usually know well2 in narration and description1 you write for persons about whom you can know very little4 ,in exposition you come back again to a set of readers about whom you have some definite information4 ,they may be different from each other in a great many ways1 but in one respect they are alike--they do not understand the thing you are explaining1 or at least they do not understand it as clearly as you do1 for if they did1 they would not be reading your exposition4 ,this may appear self-evident1 but it is a very important matter4 ,you are apt to forget what should be constantly in your mind1 that the entire value of your explanation lies in making something clear to a person who has not before understood it4 ,in literary description your aim was to make your reader see the picture you saw4 ,in exposition your aim is always and forever to make him understand1 and no matter how well written1 your explanation is a failure if he does not understand4 ,you will often find it difficult to realize that some people know nothing whatever of some process or principle with which you are very familiar1 and a good device is to imagine that you are addressing your explanation to a foreigner ignorant of our life1 or to some one younger than you4 ,put yourself in the place of such a person1 and see if your remarks are sufficiently clear and full to be a complete explanation4 ,there are two great divisions of exposition--the explanation of a material process or thing1 and the explanation of an abstract idea4 ,the first is very much easier and will be taken up first4 #hj4 ,explanation of a ,material ,process4--,there is a strange resemblance between the explanation of a material process and telling a story4 ,this will be made more clear by an example4 ,a well-written cookbook1 or manual of handwork1 employs constantly this simplest1 plainest form of exposition4 ,to broil a steak4 ,light the oven burners at least five minutes before the time for broiling4 ,allow twelve to fifteen minutes for a steak an inch and a half thick4 ,when the rack and the pan are hot1 place the steak on the rack and put it as near the flames as possible without having it touch4 ,as soon as it is seared and brown on one side1 turn1 and sear and brown on the other4 ,now turn again4 ,remove the rack three or four slides down1 but do not reduce the heat4 ,cook for five minutes4 ,turn the steak and broil for five minutes longer1 and it is ready to season and serve4 ,you may not see any connection between these straightforward and plain instructions for broiling a steak and a story2 but if you examine them1 you will see that they are the story of the process1 and that the explanation relates from first to last all the things that were done by some one who cooked a steak in exactly the right way4 ,this resemblance is mentioned because it shows you that clear statement of events in their right order is as necessary in this sort of exposition as in story telling4 ,every one who writes good instructions for going through some process1 either consciously or unconsciously imagines himself doing what he explains4 ,in the above example1 the writer has imagined herself broiling a steak1 and has set down1 step by step1 everything she does4 ,this is a very good plan to follow4 ,you will find that it simplifies any difficulty in your mind1 when you are a little confused as to what comes next1 if you will ask yourself1 ,if ,i were actually doing this1 what would be the very next thing ,i should do8 ,remember that your reader is ignorant of the process1 and do not forget any details that must be cared for1 or there will be a gap in your directions over which he cannot cross4 ,use the simplest1 plainest terms possible1 and do not fear to be too minute4 ,you will have a tendency to forget some necessary instruction rather than to add one that is not needed4 ,it is often well to make a broad statement of general conditions first1 before going on to detailed instructions4 ,for instance1 suppose you are writing to a boy who has always until now lived in the ,south1 in order to tell him how to make a snow man4 ,before you begin to tell him about starting with a small ball and rolling it about till it grows large1 you should say that he should try to make a snow man only when the snow is somewhat damp1 for no matter how clear your instructions are1 he can accomplish nothing by following them if the snow be dry and powdery4 ,exercise #abg4--,write an explanation of the following processes1 as if to a person wholly ignorant of them3-- #a4 ,how to make a dam in a brook2 to make a snow man2 a snow fort 7with blocks pressed into shape in boxes72 to set up a tent2 to irrigate a garden2 to hang wall paper2 to teach a pet animal tricks2 to build a fire out of doors4 #b4 ,how to make cocoa1 soup1 bread1 butter1 cheese1 cake1 custard4 #c4 ,how to grow flowers indoors2 in a hot bed4 ,how to plant and grow lettuce1 tomatoes1 tobacco1 corn1 mushrooms1 celery1 nasturtiums1 crocuses1 potatoes4 #d4 ,how to harness a horse4 ,how to get a trunk from your house to your cousin's in another town4 ,how to develop an exposed photographic plate4 ,probably you have been able to treat the subjects above directly from your own experience or observation4 ,in the following subjects you will probably need to consult some books1 but be careful not simply to repeat their language4 ,look up the subject1 inform yourself of all necessary details of manufacture or use1 and then write an exposition 7as if to some one younger than yourself71 explaining any terms that would be new to him and stating the facts in the simplest1 plainest way4 ,exercise #abh4--,write as if in answer to any one of the following questions from a child3-- #a4 ,how are bricks made8 paper8 glass8 ink8 iron8 steel8 gold leaf8 shingles8 baseballs8 hairbrushes8 mirrors8 #b4 ,why are fishhooks made in the form they are8 saws8 wheels8 #c4 ,why does an ice house keep the ice from melting8 #d4 ,how does a water wheel work8 a windmill8 a well sweep8 scissors8 ,why does a chimney draw8 ,what makes popcorn pop8 ,exercise #abi4--;,i4 ,explain1 with a diagram or drawing1 the mechanism of the following objects4 ,letter or number the different parts of your diagram1 and refer to them in that way4 ,plan your exposition as if trying to make the matter clear to a younger brother or sister4 ,a pump1 lamp1 candle1 stove1 furnace1 cistern1 switches on a railroad track1 city waterworks1 refrigerator1 ice-cream freezer1 silo1 limekiln4 ,,ii4 ,explain how a book is bound2 how a horse is harnessed2 how windows are hung2 what makes a window shade go up when you pull the string2 how thread is spun and cloth woven2 how grain is ground into flour2 how salt is obtained4 ,,iii4 ,give instructions 7using1 if necessary1 a lettered diagram73 for making a snare for rabbits2 a mouse trap2 a bear trap2 a mole trap2 a box2 a basket2 a bow and arrow2 a needlebook2 a cover for a book2 a kite2 a baseball diamond2 a tennis court2 a doll's hat2 a springboard2 a picture frame2 a toboggan slide2 a hasty shelter of boughs for camping2 a doll's dress 7with pattern74 #ha4 ,explanation of ,games4--,one form of exposition which you have often used is the explanation of games and contests2 and you have probably suffered from having other people give you imperfect and confused directions for playing a game unfamiliar to you1 finding at some critical time in the contest that a detail or rule has been forgotten4 ,the following is an exposition of a game which will almost certainly be unfamiliar to you1 but which is a great favorite in ,spain3-- ,pelota is an old ,basque game1 resembling hand ball1 which of late years has come greatly into fashion in ,spain4 ,it is given over to professionals1 and it is said that none can continue it more than three or four years1 so severely does it tax the constitution4 ,pelota is played in large glass-roofed buildings1 one side of which is devoted in all its breadth to the asphalt court4 ,the side wall of the court at ,madrid is #age feet long and the end walls are #ej feet broad and #dj feet high4 ,the wall fencing the players has a rib of metal along it1 about a yard from the pavement1 and another near the top1 which limit of height is carried along the longitudinal wall opposite the spectators4 ,a ball is only in play when it hits the first wall between these lines or the long wall below the prescribed limit4 ,the court is marked off by lines at regular distances of about four yards4 ,the spaces from four to seven are important1 for the ball when first played must drop from the wall between these two spaces4 ,the ball1 which weighs about four ounces1 is thrown from a basket-work gauntlet or cesta1 with a leather glove attached for fastening to the hand1 and during a game ,i have seen the ball sent with such terrific force that it has rebounded from the wall at one end of the court against that at the other4 ,there are usually four players1 two on each side1 and the aim of the players is to cause the ball to rebound from the wall into so remote or unexpected a place in the court that it will be impossible for their opponents to reach it in time to return it again to the wall4 ,the time that the ball is in play1 that is1 the time that both sides are successful in keeping the ball in motion1 is called a rally4 ,there are frequently1 between good players1 rallies of sixteen strokes or more4 ,during a match game of fifty up1 the players will wear their shoes right through4 ,pelota is popular in most ,spanish towns and villages1 and one frequently sees notices on church walls to the effect that it is forbidden to play pelota against them4--,e4 ,,main3 ,cities and ,sights of ,spain4 ,are there any questions that you would like to ask about pelota after reading this explanation8 ,do you feel that you would need to know more about it before trying to play8 ,if so1 remember to make your own treatment of the following subjects complete enough to satisfy a child in the ,philippines1 who knows no more about marbles than you do about pelota4 ,exercise #acj4--,tell how to play baseball2 football2 checkers2 dominoes2 basket ball2 marbles2 tag2 hide-and-seek2 drop the handkerchief2 any game peculiar to your neighborhood4 ,explain how a field-day is conducted4 ,what is a handicap8 ,how do little girls play keep house8 ,what do you mean by playing ,indians8 ,exercise #aca4--;,i4 ,following the model below1 give good instructions for learning how to swim1 to sail a boat1 to ride a bicycle1 to drive1 to shoot a rifle1 a revolver1 to fish1 to run a sewing machine1 to paddle a canoe1 to ride horseback1 to go on snowshoes4 ,use a diagram1 if necessary1 and give all the information you yourself would like to have in beginning a new process1 mentioning mistakes usually made by beginners and telling how to avoid them4 ,,ii4 ,tell as well as you can how to bandage a cut1 how to treat a burn1 how to make a road1 how to lay asphalt1 brick1 or macadam pavements1 how to shoe a horse4 ,the first thing in learning to skate is to be sure that your skates are properly attached to your foot4 ,if you fasten them on with straps1 do not pull the buckle too tight1 as this stops the circulation of the blood and may end in frozen toes2 if by clamps1 see that they are very firmly fastened1 or the skate may be wrenched off in some sudden movement1 giving you a fall4 ,also be sure that the blades are sharp1 as it is very hard to skate with dull blades4 ,after you have attended to these matters1 one of the best ways to begin is to skate with some one who is strong enough to hold you up1 or if you cannot arrange this1 to push a chair in front of you1 until you have confidence enough to go alone4 ,the feet are placed at right angles to each other with the toes turned out and the body bent slightly forward4 ,each foot is then raised alternately and set down slightly on the inside edge4 ,it slides forward of its own accord and this motion is increased by pushing on the other foot1 which is at right angles to your forward movement and so does not slide4 ,you should keep your feet perfectly level when raised and set down1 turning the forward foot a little on the outer edge as it slides1 and keeping the other foot turned to the inside edge4 ,a great help in keeping your balance is to swing your arms across your chest1 with each forward slide1 to the opposite side from the foot which is advancing4 ,never look at your feet1 as it is almost impossible to keep your balance when doing so4 ,look straight in front of you at a spot about level with your eyes4 ,there are various ways of stopping yourself4 ,one is to dig the heel of your skate in the ice and turn the other foot sidewise4 ,another is to direct your course around a circle and to stop your forward pushing2 but perhaps the best way is to turn your toes in1 thus putting the line of your skate across the direction of your forward movement4 ,try to take as long strokes as possible and not to use the right leg more than the left1 keeping your stroke steady and even4 ,always lean a little forward in ordinary skating and far forward if you wish to go fast4 ,it is a good thing for beginners to force themselves to turn the advancing foot on the outer edge of the skate4 ,it is a little more difficult to keep your balance in this way1 but if once you become fixed in the habit of using the inner edge only1 you will never be able to do any fancy or figure skating4 #hb4 ,exposition of ,abstract ,ideas4--,all the exercises in explanation you have had thus far have been with regard to simple1 material things1 that is1 things you can touch or see4 ,there are1 however1 very many subjects which need clear and accurate explanation1 but which deal with abstract ideas1 with principles1 or with emotions4 ,these are much harder to write of than material things1 largely because it is harder to think of them quite clearly in your own mind4 ,this is not because you do not have all the information you need1 but because you have never tried to think out clearly and analyze the knowledge that you have4 ,for instance1 if some one should ask you1 ,what is cheerfulness8 although you would feel that you knew perfectly well what that quality is1 you might have some difficulty in expressing it4 #hc4 ,exposition by ,example4--,there are many ways to bring out the meaning of an abstract term4 ,one good device is the use of examples4 ,if it is someone in your family who asks you the question1 you can give at once a good idea of what cheerfulness is by saying1 ,aunt ,kate is a cheerful person4 ,but if you are speaking to some one who does not know your ,aunt ,kate1 you must then proceed to describe the quality in her which you call cheerfulness4 ,you will find this use of example a very convenient method of exposition4 ,another device is comparison with something that is similar but not quite the same4 ,in explaining the exact difference between the two you define the subject of your exposition4 ,for instance1 suppose you are asked by a child to explain the meaning of parsimony4 ,you can take a word which he knows1 like saving or economy1 and by showing the difference between the two1 you can give him a clear notion of the meaning1 explaining that economy is wise and reasonable saving of expense1 and parsimony is foolish and exaggerated saving4 ,the following paragraph shows the use of this method1 the author comparing cheerfulness to mirth4 ,i have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth4 ,the latter ,i consider as an act1 the former as a habit of the mind4 ,mirth is short and transient1 cheerfulness fixed and permanent4 ,those are often raised into the greatest transports of mirth who are subject to the greatest depressions of melancholy4 ,on the contrary1 cheerfulness1 though it does not give the mind such an exquisite gladness1 prevents us from falling into any depths of sorrow4 ,mirth is like a flash of lightning that breaks through a gloom of clouds and glitters for a moment4 ,cheerfulness keeps up a kind of daylight in the mind and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity4--,,joseph ,,addison3 ,the ,spectator4 ,exercise #acb4--,using this device of comparison1 and adding to it examples1 try to explain the following subjects3-- #a4 ,courage4 ,compare with rashness or foolhardiness1 using as example the character of ,hobson as compared with that of a man who goes over the ,niagara ,falls in a barrel4 #b4 ,joy4 ,compare with contentment1 using as example a mother perfectly contented with her home and children1 who is suddenly overjoyed by a heroic deed of a son4 #c4 ,perseverance4 ,compare with obstinacy1 using as examples a hen sitting patiently till her chicks are hatched out2 and another sitting week after week on china eggs4 #d4 ,extravagance4 ,compare with liberality1 using as example a man who gives away so much to strangers that he has not enough left to care for his family4 #e4 ,industry4 ,compare with drudgery1 using as examples a man who carries stone for road-mending1 and the military punishment of making an offender carry stones from one side of the road to another4 #hd4 ,exposition by ,repetition4--,another good method of explaining an abstract idea is to repeat in several different ways your first statement or definition4 ,first1 you define your subject as accurately as possible1 by telling to what kind or order of thing it belongs1 and then by pointing out differences between this individual example and others of the same kind4 ,for instance1 you are asked by a child to define a snob4 ,first1 you give some general idea of the meaning of the term by saying1 ,a snob is a vulgar person with bad manners4 ,but there are vulgar persons with bad manners who who are not in the least snobs1 so that after stating the general order of the persons to which a snob belongs1 you must separate him from all other varieties of that class4 ,you go on1 therefore1 ,he pays a foolish and exaggerated respect to social position and money1 and cannot understand that a noble character has any value in a poor or uncultivated person4 ,you have now given a general definition of your subject1 and one good way to proceed with your explanation is1 as stated above1 by means of repetition in other words of your first statement1 thus3-- ,a real snob values the opinion of an ignorant rich person more than that of an intelligent poor one4 ,he is fawning and meanly polite to influential men1 and rude and overbearing to those who have no recognized position4 ,a snob will run hat in hand to open a door for a wealthy woman of rank1 and will not give a helping hand to a poor woman who has fallen down4 ,this sort of repetition serves to make perfectly clear the idea involved in your first statement4 #he4 ,exposition by ,contrast4--,a further device in explanation is contrast1 showing the ways in which the subject of your exposition differs from its opposite4 ,the explanation of the snob might be continued by contrasting him with a perfect gentleman1 thus bringing out more clearly the offensive qualities4 ,or1 you might go back to the sort of comparison you used in explaining courage1 perseverance1 etc41 and compare the snob to a person thoroughly rude1 a boor1 showing how he differs3 the snob is rude only to people who1 he thinks1 have no means of punishing him for it2 whereas a boor is rude to every one4 ,exercise #acc4--a4 ,bearing in mind these two new methods for explanation 7repetition and contrast71 as well as the methods previously explained 7comparison and examples71 explain the use and value of the study of geography1 arithmetic1 history1 manual training1 music1 drawing1 gymnasium work1 military drill1 sewing1 reading aloud1 spelling1 a foreign language4 #b4 ,explain 7as if to a boy or girl younger than you1 who asks1 ,what is it for87 the purpose and value of the following3-- ,a debating society2 a literary club2 a nature study club2 a ,do as you would be done by association2 amateur theatricals2 athletic contests2 an aquarium2 zoological gardens2 city parks2 public libraries2 foreign travel2 picture galleries4 #hf4 ,exposition by a ,figure of ,speech4--,one of the most forcible and graceful means of exposition is by the development of a figure of speech1--a simile or metaphor4 ,i consider the human soul without education like marble in the quarry1 which shows none of its inherent beauties until the skill of the polisher fetches out the colors1 makes the surface shine1 and discovers every ornamental cloud1 spot1 and vein that runs through the body of it4 ,education1 after the same manner1 when it works upon a noble mind1 draws out to view every latent virtue and perfection1 which without such helps are never able to make their appearance4444 ,aristotle tells us that a statue lies hid in a block of marble1 and that the art of the statuary only clears away superfluous matter and removes the rubbish4 ,the figure is in the stone2 the sculptor only finds it4 ,what sculpture is to a block of marble1 education is to a human soul4 ,the philosopher1 the saint1 the hero1 the wise1 the good1 or the great man1 very often lie hid and concealed in a plebeian1 which a proper education might have disinterred and brought to light4--,,joseph ,,addison3 ,the ,spectator4 ,exercise #acd4--;,i4 ,proverbs are really only figures of speech1 and explanation of these should be based to some degree on the model above4 ,try to explain fully1 as if to your younger brother or sister1 the true meaning of any of the following expressions1 using all the devices for exposition which you have been studying4 ,think carefully before you begin to write and make sure that you fully grasp the real meaning4 ,you will find examples and anecdotes illustrating your point particularly useful in this sort of explanation4 #a4 ,a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush4 #b4 ,don't count your chickens before they are hatched4 #c4 ,a rolling stone gathers no moss4 #d4 ,the more haste the less speed4 #e4 ,birds of a feather flock together4 #f4 ,better an empty house than a bad tenant4 #g4 ,make hay while the sun shines4 #h4 ,enough is as good as a feast4 #i4 ,a burned child dreads the fire4 #aj4 ,strike while the iron is hot4 #aa4 ,he laughs best who laughs last4 #ab4 ,he that lives in a glass house should not throw stones4 #ac4 ,necessity is the mother of invention4 ,,ii4 ,expound in the same way the following quotations1 as if you were trying to give a full realization of all that they mean to some one who sees them for the first time and does not quite understand them3-- #a4 ,sweet are the uses of adversity4--,,shakspere4 #b4 ,he who loses wealth loses much2 he who loses a friend loses more2 but he who loses his courage loses all4--,,cervantes4 #c4 ,he who knows most1 grieves most for wasted time4--,,dante4 #d4 ,the wicked flee when no man pursueth4 #e4 ,a soft answer turneth away wrath4 #f4 ,a good name is rather to be chosen than great riches4 #g4 ,books are the best things well used2 abused1 among the worst4--,,emerson4 #h4 ,charity is a virtue of the heart1 not of the hands4 ,exercise #ace4--;,i4 ,try to explain what ,washington's ,birthday means to us2 ,st4 ,valentine's ,day2 ,april ,fool's ,day2 ,commencement ,day at a school2 ,arbor ,day2 ,thanksgiving ,day2 ,christmas2 ,new ,year's2 ,labor ,day2 ,fourth of ,july2 ,decoration ,day4 ,an exposition of this sort may be very straightforward and simple1 only a paragraph long1 or it may be as elaborate a composition as you can make it2 but in either case you should try to express sincerely the deep feeling which underlies most of these festivals4 ,choose some favorite of yours in the above list and try to express why you are fond of it and impressed by it4 ,,ii4 ,following the same method1 look up the facts in regard to some foreign customs1 and write an explanation of what you imagine to be the feeling underlying ,all ,souls' ,day in ,paris2 the pilgrimage to ,mecca of the ,mohammedans2 the pilgrimage in ,india to the ,ganges2 cherry-blossoming time in ,japan2 ,primrose ,day in ,england2 the ,fourteenth of ,july in ,france2 and other festivals of which you can learn4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,argument #hg4 ,general ,principle4--,there is probably no form of expression with which you are more practically acquainted than argumentation1 both from using it yourself and from having it employed on you4 ,if you go to college1 you will study the theory of it in connection with logic and you will have a great many hard names to learn and a complicated system to understand2 but1 as a matter of fact1 you find now that if you greatly care to have something done or not done1 you will instinctively find reasons for supporting your views4 ,you did this even as a little child1 when you wished to do something your parents did not think advisable1 or to be excused from doing something they desired you to do4 ,although this may be the first time you have consciously thought of argument as a form of composition1 you must have had a great deal of practical experience in it4 ,it has been pointed out several times in this book that the very first thing to consider in any form of expression is the reader to whom you address yourself4 ,owing to the frequent practical use you have made of argument in conversation1 this will be easy for you to remember when you now come to write it4 ,that is1 you are so used to making your arguments suit the persons you are trying to persuade1 that you do it instinctively4 ,even a little child puts forth different reasons for action when trying to persuade his mother from those which he would put forth when trying to persuade a playfellow2 and you feel1 without the necessity of stopping to think at all1 that you should use different arguments with your mother from those which would be likely to convince your teacher4 ,but the next step in composing1 which has been mentioned throughout the book1 is more necessary in argumentation than in any other form of expression4 ,you must not only have an outline in mind for what you are about to say1 but that outline should be written1 and almost as much time and thought should be given to it as to the composition itself2 for clear thought is the great essential in argumentation1 and a carefully prepared outline is the greatest help to clear thought4 #hh4 ,the ,introduction4--,there are three parts to every outline for a discussion or argument4 ,first comes the introduction1 or statement of the subject4 ,to write this clearly1 you need to remember the principles of exposition1 because often the introduction to an argument is merely a clear exposition of the subject4 ,it is very necessary to be perfectly clear in this introduction1 so that your reader may have a definite idea of what it is you are about to discuss4 ,sometimes people discuss at great length1 only to find that from neglect to state the subject clearly they have been arguing about quite different questions4 ,for instance1 suppose that the following subject is selected for a discussion3 ,pupils under fifteen years of age should not be taken out of school to earn money for their families4 ,the statement and full exposition of the subject in the introduction to the argument should exclude cases where there is no other possible source of income for the family2 otherwise you and your opponent may be discussing a question about which you really agree4 ,in your introduction1 therefore1 give first a perfectly plain statement of your subject1--what are the generally admitted facts about it 7facts which even your opponent must admit71 and what it is you wish to prove4 ,exercise #acf4--;,in the following subjects for discussion1 see if you can pick out the place where the statement is indefinite and might lead to misunderstanding4 ,write one paragraph on each1 defining1 limiting1 and making clear the subject as you see it1 and another on the generally admitted facts in the case as distinct from the points which are debatable4 #a4 ,animals in captivity are better off than in their natural state4 ,what kind of captivity8 ,what kind of animals8 ,what do you mean by being better off--merely healthier or happier or more secure8 #b4 ,a boy's club should not study history4 ,what kind of boys8 ,what kind of history8 ,is history taught in the schools8 ,do these boys go to school8 #c4 ,all girls should learn to be housekeepers4 ,what do you mean by housekeeper8 ,do you mean that they should learn nothing else8 #d4 ,it is not harmful for children to read fairy tales4 ,how about nervous1 excitable children who cannot sleep after a fairy story8 ,how about dreadful tales of witches and hobgoblins that make the healthiest child afraid of the dark8 #e4 ,it is wrong to kill animals4 ,do you include noxious and dangerous ones8 ,or animals used for food8 #hi4 ,the ,reasons4--,the second part of your argument consists of the statement of the various proofs and reasons you advance to make people think and feel as you do about your subject4 ,it is well to divide your subject into several main divisions or points1 and take these up one by one2 also to set down separately your main arguments4 ,these should be arranged in what is called climactic order1--that is1 the more unimportant reasons first and the better and stronger ones after1 leading up to the argument which you think is your strongest one4 ,there are two main divisions of argument as reasons in favor of something4 ,first1 there are the proofs directly for your side of the question1 and then there are the proofs against your opponent's argument4 ,the first is called direct proof2 the second is called refutation4 ,suppose now that you wish to persuade the principal of your school to grant a holiday on ,washington's ,birthday4 ,your introduction states the subject very briefly1 since in the nature of things there can be almost no possibility of misunderstanding4 ,it might be well to mention here that nobody doubts the value of vacations in school life if wisely selected1 and that what you wish to prove is that it would be a wise selection to give the school a holiday on the twenty-second of ,february4 ,the body of your argument comes next1 and you might begin by stating that a holiday would be beneficial to school work4 ,support the statement by pointing out1 first1 that the twenty-second of ,february comes in the midst of a long stretch of uninterrupted school1 just at the time when both pupils and teachers are tired and would do better work after a rest2 second1 that the weather is apt to be brisk and bracing1 and such as would tempt every one to be out of doors4 ,your next general argument might be a statement of the value of honoring in every way possible the great men of the nation1 and of not allowing them to be forgotten4 ,three good reasons as proofs of this statement are1 first1 that we owe them great gratitude for what they have done for us2 second1 that they furnish the best examples for our own action2 third1 that they make us patriotic by making us proud of our country4 ,having established the desirability of honoring our great men1 your next need is to show that granting a holiday to school children does honor them4 ,to prove this1 you might make a word picture of the great importance which a holiday has in a school2 how every one looks forward to it1 plans for it1 enjoys it1 and remembers it1--so that it is felt that the occasion of a holiday must be a very notable man4 ,show how even the little children are impressed with the greatness of ,washington's name 7because of the holiday7 before they know much about him1 so that they are all prepared to realize instinctively how prominent he was in our history when they come to study about him4 ,see if you cannot show how much more valuable is an instinctive feeling like this than any amount of mere knowledge of what we owe to him1 illustrating by the affection a child feels for a relative--a cousin or an aunt--whom he has always known1 compared with his affection for a relative whom he learns to know after he has grown up4 ,a second reason to prove the advisability of granting a holiday to honor the memory of a great man is based on one of the most universally acceptable of proofs4 ,it is good to do a thing when other people do it and always have done it4 ,this is usually one of the first proofs which come into your mind1 as is shown by the fact that the average child1 on being refused something1 says immediately1 ,why1 all the other boys have it6 ,so your second reason is that in our own country and abroad no better way has been found to celebrate an anniversary than to grant a holiday on that date4 ,cite ,christmas1 the ,fourth of ,july1 the ,fourteenth of ,july in ,france1 etc41 collecting as many instances as you can1 from all sources4 ,this is a very important form of proof1 although it should rarely be placed first in your argument4 ,now1 having shown that great men should be honored1 and that holidays are a good form of honoring them1 you need to prove that ,washington should be specially selected from among our great men for such honors4 ,there are various reasons you might cite here1 a few of which are that he was the greatest of the founders of our nation2 that his private character was noble and dignified2 that he was the first ,american to receive world-wide recognition2 that we might not be a nation without him2 that1 at the present day1 we need more than ever to look back to his integrity and devotion to the patriotic cause1 etc4 ,you have now given enough proofs to make up the main body of your discussion4 ,the end of an argument is called the conclusion1 and sums up in a brief way1 but as forcibly as possible1 the main proofs1 and the way in which they lead to the conclusion you desire4 #ij4 ,the ,outline4--,the outline of the argument which has just been sketched for you would be set down in a form something like this4 ,a holiday should be granted to this school on ,washington's ,birthday4 ,a4 ,introduction4 ,it is taken for granted that holidays are desirable at times2 we are to prove in this case that the twenty-second of ,february is a good time for a holiday4 ,b4 ,proof4 ,i4 ,it would be beneficial to school work1 #a4 because the day comes at a time when a break in the routine is needed2 #b4 because it comes usually in good winter weather1 when outdoor life is possible4 ,,ii4 ,it is desirable to honor the great men of a nation1 #a4 because of our gratitude to them2 #b4 because they set a good example to us2 #c4 because they help us to be patriotic4 ,,iii4 ,a holiday is a suitable means for honoring the memory of a great man1 #a4 because it is an important occasion for all pupils1 and fixes their attention on the reason for granting it2 #b4 because all over the world holidays are given and always have been given as the best way of making a day memorable4 ,,iv4 ,washington should be selected for this honor1 #a4 because he was the founder of the nation2 #b4 because he was the first well-known ,american2 #c4 because he was the first president1 etc4 ,c4 ,conclusion4 ,i4 ,summing up of the arguments4 ,,ii4 ,statement of the conclusion4 #ia4 ,the ,plea4--,this is an outline of that form of argument which is sometimes called a plea2 an argument1 that is1 which aims to induce somebody to take action4 ,exercise #acg4--,make out similar outlines1 and write pleas1 addressed to the school authorities1 on the following subjects4 ,take the side that appeals to you4 #a4 ,the weekly holiday should be on ,monday instead of ,saturday4 7,or should not be1 according to your convictions47 #b4 ,the summer vacation should be shorter1 in order that the winter vacation might be longer4 #c4 ,gymnasium work1 or participation in outdoor sports1 should be compulsory for boys and girls alike4 #d4 ,music should not be taught in the schools4 #e4 ,one foreign language should be compulsory in ,american public schools4 #f4 ,all pupils1 even those who have no natural taste for it1 should be made to study good literature4 #g4 ,every one in the class should be forced to join a debating society4 #h4 ,there should be a common school library1 rather than a collection of books in each class room4 #i4 ,it is better to have one long school session with a short recess than two shorter sessions with an hour or more for lunch4 #ib4 ,other ,forms4--,there are a number of arguments which can scarcely be treated like pleas1 since their object is not to induce somebody else to take some action1 but to support the truth or justice of some statement4 ,exercise #ach4--;,in treating the subjects given below1 write as though you were defending the statement against an opponent4 ,or the subjects may be taken as topics for debate by the class1 one half taking one side1 and the other half attacking their position4 #a4 ,tennis is a better game than golf4 7,define what you mean by better4 ,better for whom2 or for what results87 #b4 ,city life is better than country life4 #c4 ,summer 7autumn1 winter1 spring7 is the best time of the year4 #d4 ,the best method to prepare for a hard examination is to study hard up to the last minute before you take it4 #e4 ,children of foreigners in this country should learn only ,english and not their parent language4 #f4 ,it is better to live near the sea than in the mountains4 #g4 ,it is easier to do school work at home than in the class room4 #h4 ,swimming is the best form of exercise4 #i4 ,little children should not be taught to believe in ,santa ,claus1 in fairies1 or in giants4 #aj4 ,novel reading has a bad influence4 #aa4 ,every one should be forced to learn to dance1 to swim1 to sail a boat1 to skate1 to ride1 to learn a trade1 etc4 #ab4 ,bonfires should be allowed in the street on the evenings of festival days of various kinds4 #ac4 ,pupils should report the wrong-doings of others to the teacher4 #ad4 ,books should be furnished free by public schools4 #ae4 ,composition is a more important study than arithmetic4 #af4 ,alms should never be given to beggars4 #ag4 ,no examination should be over an hour in length4 #ah4 ,a city library is as important as city schools4 #ai4 ,the climate of our part of the country is more conducive to good health than the climate of the tropics4 ,another form of argument or persuasion consists in finding reasons and stating them eloquently1 in support of a personal taste or opinion4 ,the same general outline is used as in the plea1 but the argument is apt to be less impersonal4 ,exercise #aci4--;,arrange your reasons in their logical order and write most at length upon those which are most important4 ,construct your argument as though in answer to the remark1 ,why do you feel that way8 ,i don't agree with you at all4 #a4 ,i had rather be a doctor 7lawyer1 merchant1 cook1 teacher1 musician1 farmer1 etc47 than anything else4 #b4 ,i had rather be a sailor than a soldier4 #c4 ,if ,i were not an ,american1 ,i had rather be ,english 7,french1 ,german1 ,italian1 ,norwegian1 ,cuban1 etc47 than anything else4 #d4 ,if ,i did not live here1 ,i had rather live in ---- than in any other state2 in ---- than in any other city4 #e4 ,if ,i could always remain a certain age1 ,i should prefer to be ---- years old4 #f4 ,of all my studies ,i think ---- is the most valuable4 #g4 ,if ,i were not myself1 ,i should prefer to be ----4 #h4 ,of all the historical characters ,i have studied ,i should prefer to be ----4 #i4 ,the best book ,i ever read is ----4 #aj4 ,i like poetry better than prose4 #aa4 ,unlike most people1 ,i like a rainy day 7a windy day1 foggy weather7 better than a fair day4 #ab4 ,i had rather have a cat 7a dog1 a horse1 a rabbit1 etc47 than any other pet4 ,many of the above subjects can be treated in letter forms as pleas4 ,this is a very good exercise in writing easily and familiarly upon a careful and well-constructed outline4 ,for instance1 you might take the abstract subject that every one should learn to swim4 ,make it personal and write a letter to your parents1 asking to be allowed to learn to swim4 ,draw up your outline with no less care for a familiar letter than for a formal argument4 ,take pains to try to imagine the arguments which would be used on the other side and bring to bear all the counterproof you can think of4 ,your parents would naturally be anxious about the danger involved in your learning to swim4 ,oppose to this the ability to save yourself in the water all the rest of your life after you have learned4 ,they may maintain that you will never have any occasion to swim1 since you do not live near the water4 ,you can oppose to this the great frequency of journeys taken on or partly on water4 ,they might think it would take too much time and strength from your studies4 ,oppose to this the fact that you must have exercise of some sort1 that you work better after you have been in the water1 and that your general health will be better1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,secretarial ,,work #ic4 ,in nearly all schools there are several organizations--a debating club1 a current events club1 an athletic association1 a branch society for the prevention of cruelty to animals1 etc41--and in all these organizations there is need of a special form of composition1 called secretarial writing1 because the secretary does most 7although not all7 of it4 ,while it may seem complicated and unnatural at first sight because of the number of forms fixed by tradition for every occasion1 it is really easier than any other writing you have been studying1 since the very fact that the forms are fixed makes invention1 charm1 or force of style on your part unnecessary4 ,perfect and unmistakable clearness1 accuracy1 completeness1 and an observance of certain quite rigidly fixed formul are the essentials of good secretarial work4 ,in the formation of an organization1 the first writing to be done is the composition of notices 7see page #acj71 sent or posted1 announcing a meeting to be held for the purpose of forming a club4 ,this first notice and all others announcing later meetings are to be written according to the general plan described on pages #acj-acb4 ,at the first meeting1 a chairman or president and a secretary are usually elected1 and a committee chosen to draw up a constitution which shall be presented to the club at the next meeting4 ,all constitutions are written along the same general lines4 ,a good general model for a simple constitution will be found in the ,appendix4 ,the committee precedes the proposed constitution with a paragraph something like the following3-- ,to the ,members of the ---- ,club3 ,your committee1 appointed at a meeting for the organization of the ---- ,club1 respectfully submit the following articles and by-laws1 with the recommendation that they be adopted by this ,club4 ,during a meeting the secretary should take accurate and careful notes on what occurs1 and as soon as possible afterward should write his report of the proceedings of the meeting4 ,this report or record is called the minutes of the meeting1 and the reading aloud of the minutes is always the first business of each meeting4 ,there should be no attempt made in writing the minutes to make them original or interesting4 ,they should be perfectly accurate and complete4 ,the content of speeches made is not reported 7in ordinary minutes71 nor are any comments made on the spirit or events of the meeting4 ,a plain statement of what took place officially is all that is desirable4 ,the place1 date1 and time of the meeting are set down first1 and the name of the presiding officer4 ,then it is stated that the minutes were read and approved4 ,after this the official events of the meeting are set down in the order of their occurrence4 ,at the end the hour of adjournment is noted and the date fixed for the next meeting4 ,,west ,,newton1 ,,ill41 ,,public ,,school ,,no4 #c4 ,the ,literary ,society of this school held its regular monthly meeting in the general assembly hall1 on ,february #c1 #aijf1 at #b ,p4,m41 the president1 ,robert ,wheeler1 in the chair 7or presiding74 ,after the meeting was called to order the minutes of the last meeting were read by the secretary and were approved4 ,the president then addressed the ,society briefly upon the need of new books for the school library1 representing to the members the suitability of the ,literary ,society's taking some action in the matter4 ,it was moved by ,miss ,mary ,smith that the ,literary ,society give an entertainment in order to raise money for this purpose4 ,the motion was carried by unanimous vote of the ,society4 ,the president appointed a committee1 consisting of ,miss ,mary ,smith1 ,chairman1 ,mr4 ,clark ,sturgis1 and ,miss ,helen ,brown1 to decide on the nature of the entertainment1 and to report to the ,society at its next regular meeting4 ,on the motion of ,mr4 ,john ,peters1 it was voted that the ,principal of the school1 ,miss ,wheeler1 should be made an honorary member of the ,society4 ,the literary programme was then carried out4 ,mr4 ,robert ,peters and ,miss ,ellen ,camp recited a dialogue1 entitled ,after the ,runaway4 ,miss ,edith ,randing read an original short story called ,the ,white ,blackbird4 ,mr4 ,elbert ,huntington delivered an argument in favor of shorter school hours and more home study4 ,at #d ,p4,m4 the meeting adjourned to meet at #b ,p4,m4 on ,march #d1 #aijf4 ,,peter ,,hackett1 ,secretary4 ,after the writing of the minutes1 the next duty of the secretary is to see that the members of committees appointed are notified of that fact and are told who is their chairman4 ,some such form as the following is generally used3-- ,,public ,,school ,,no4 #c1 ,,west ,,newton1 ,,ill41 ,february #d1 #aijf4 ,,mr4 ,,clark ,,sturgis1 ,,dear ,,sir1-- ,at the last regular meeting of the ,literary ,society of this school1 held ,february #c1 #aijf1 you were appointed a member of the ,entertainment ,committee1 of which ,miss ,mary ,smith is chairman4 ,yours respectfully1 ,,peter ,,hackett1 ,secretary4 ,exercise #adj4--a4 ,make out a constitution and by-laws for a debating society1 an athletic association1 a nature study club1 a reading club1 a literary society1 a walking club1 a sewing society1 a chess club4 #b4 ,write minutes for the regular meeting of any one of these organizations4 #c4 ,write letters of notifications to committees appointed at these meetings4 ,there are usually several permanent committees to whom are regularly referred matters falling in their provinces4 ,some of these committees are the financial committee1 the entertainment committee1 the membership committee1 the programme committee1 etc4 ,when the club votes that some question be referred to one of these committees1 it is the duty of the secretary to write a notice of reference in some such form as this3-- ,,the ,,musical ,,club ,,of ,,the ,,caxton ,,school4 ,,office ,,of ,,the ,,secretary1 ,,chicago1 ,,ill41 ,may #bc1 #aijf4 ,,mr4 ,,elmer ,,henderson1 ,chairman of ,membership ,committee1 ,musical ,club of the ,caxton ,school4 ,,dear ,,sir1-- ,at the last meeting of the ,musical ,club1 the question of the admission to the ,club of three pupils from the lower grades was referred to your committee4 ,they are ,henry ,appleton1 in the ,fifth ,grade1 ,mary ,monkhouse1 in the ,sixth ,grade1 and ,parsons ,latham1 in the ,fourth ,grade4 ,the respective teachers of the above-mentioned pupils represent them as being sufficiently advanced in the study of music to become useful members of our ,club4 ,your committee is requested to look into the matter and report at the next regular meeting4 ,yours very truly1 ,,helen ,,irving1 ,secretary4 ,the answer of the committee would be as follows3-- ,,chicago1 ,,ill41 ,may #bh1 #aijf4 ,to the ,musical ,club of the ,caxton ,school3 ,the ,membership ,committee1 to whom on the #bc;d day of the present month was referred the question of the admission to the ,musical ,club of three pupils from the lower grades1 with instructions to ascertain their proficiency in music1 respectfully report that they have given due attention to the matter referred to them and find3-- ,that ,henry ,appleton plays the violin well enough to play a second part in the quartet4 ,that ,mary ,monkhouse has a good voice and reads music at sight fluently4 ,that ,parsons ,latham is as yet too uncertain in his mastery of the flute to take a part in our orchestra4 ,your committee therefore recommends that the first two be admitted to membership1 but not the last4 ,respectfully submitted1 ,for the ,committee1 ,,elmer ,,henderson1 ,chairman4 ,exercise #ada4--a4 ,write a notice of reference to a committee on entertainment1 asking them to decide on a programme for the annual meeting4 ,answer as from the committee4 #b4 ,write a notice of reference to a committee on finance1 asking them to look into the cost of renting a hall for the meeting of a dramatic society4 ,answer4 #c4 ,write a notice of reference to a committee on finance1 asking them to report upon the probable cost of a set of ,dickens for the school library4 ,answer4 ,a club sometimes wishes to send a member as delegate to an assembly or convention of similar clubs4 ,when he arrives at the convention1 he needs something to show that he has been regularly elected a delegate1 and this is furnished him by the secretary in the following form3-- ,,columbus1 ,,ohio1 ,march #cj1 #aijf4 ,to the ,thirteenth ,annual ,convention of the ,school ,branches of the ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,a43 ,this certifies that ,james ,harrow has been duly elected a delegate from the ,columbus ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 ,a4 to the ,thirteenth ,annual ,convention of the ,school ,branches of the ,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty to ,animals4 ,,henry ,,swift1 ,secretary4 ,such a letter is called the delegate's credentials4 ,all the usual duties of a secretary1 so far as his writing goes1 have now been stated1 but there are other occasions for secretarial writing and for the use of set and customary forms1 which arise in connection with the duties of other officers4 ,the president's report is usually annual1 and is presented to the club when he retires to make way for the new president4 ,this report is less formal than other secretarial writing4 ,it is supposed to present in a clear and condensed form a picture of the activities of the ,club during the year4 ,the treasurer should keep the club informed frequently and in detail of the state of its finances4 ,a customary form for the beginning of his report is3-- ,the undersigned1 ,treasurer of the ,musical ,club1 respectfully submits the following report for the month ending ,may #ae1 #aijf3-- ,the balance on hand at the beginning of the month was three dollars and forty cents4 ,there has been received from all sources during the month two dollars and sixty cents4 ,during the month the expenses amounted to four dollars1 leaving a balance in the treasury of two dollars4 ,the annexed statement will show in detail the receipts and expenditures4 ,,robert ,,harris1 ,treasurer4 ,the most difficult form of secretarial writing is the drafting of preambles and resolutions4 ,these are used for many purposes3 to convey the thanks of the club to a person who has done something for it1 to express condolence with the family of a member who has died1 to send good wishes to a member leaving the club on account of change of residence1 to voice the sentiments of the club on some matter of public interest4 ,the preamble or first part 7which is not always used7 follows in general a fixed form1 but to the composing of resolutions applies all that was said of the writing of petitions4 ,they call for a graceful style1 a good and melodious choice of words1 and they aim to produce a favorable effect on the reader4 ,following is an example of a preamble and resolutions3-- ,,whereas the ,reverend ,george ,s4 ,stirling has honored this ,club by appearing before us and delivering an address1 and whereas this club feels deeply the profit and pleasure it gained from his speech1 therefore1 be it ,,resolved1 ,that we place on record our deep appreciation of the honor which ,mr4 ,stirling did us1 and our conviction that he has profoundly influenced for the better all who heard him4 ,,resolved1 ,that we tender to him our warmest thanks for consenting to address us4 ,,resolved1 ,that a copy of these resolutions be sent to ,mr4 ,stirling4 ,the resolutions would be sent to ,mr4 ,stirling in a letter like the following3-- ,,reverend ,,george ,s4 ,,stirling1 ,,dear ,,sir1-- ,at a meeting of the ,club1 held 1 the following resolutions were unanimously adopted3-- ,whereas1 the ,reverend ,george ,s4 ,stirling1 etc4 ,,george ,,oldham1 ,,henry ,,miller1 ,secretary4 ,president4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,versification #id4 ,poetry is the most beautiful and attractive form of writing1 and in the highest sense is by far the most difficult1 since it is not only complicated in form1 but is highly emotional and stirs deeply the feelings of the reader4 ,to write real poetry is1 therefore1 out of the reach of most of us1 but to write verse is not so difficult as it is usually thought1 and it is an excellent exercise in learning control of words4 ,verse making gives skill in manipulating language and1 because of the need for ingenuity and flexibility in sentence construction and for variety in the choice of words1 it helps in writing prose4 ,more than this1 you will find that some practice in managing verse-forms yourself will enable you to understand and admire more intelligently the poetry you read4 ,i wander'd lonely as a cloud ,that floats on high o'er vales and hills2 ,when all at once ,i saw a crowd1 ,a host of golden daffodils1 ,beside the lake1 beneath the trees1 ,fluttering and dancing in the breeze4 ,what is the difference between the sentences in this extract and ordinary prose sentences8 ,if you read them over aloud1 you will see that they are constructed on a definite plan4 ,you notice that1 as in pronouncing aloud every word of more than one syllable1 you accent one of them more than the others 7pragraph1 assming71 just so you accent some syllables in each line of the verse4 ,your voice naturally falls four times1 thus1 ,i wnder'd lnely s a clod and in every line it falls the same number of times4 ,the fact that there is a fixed and regular number of accents in each line makes it verse and not prose1 and to write correct verse you must keep to a regular recurrence of accents in your lines4 ,a line to which you naturally give three accents is said to have three feet2 four accents1 four feet1 etc4 ,a foot or pattern of syllables which is repeated to make up the line consists of an accented syllable and one or more unaccented ones4 ,the foot is named according to the arrangement of syllables in it1 but it is not necessary for you now to know the names1 which come from the ,greek and are hard to remember4 ,four of the best-known feet are mentioned here1 with examples4 ,the accented syllable is marked and the unaccented 74 7,i wnde7r'd lnel7y s 7a clod4 ,iambic 74 ,tll m7e nt 7in mornf7ul nmb7ers4 ,trochaic 74 ,b7ut 7we stedf7astl7y gzed 7on t7he fce th7at w7as dad4 ,anapestic 7 7 4 ,brd 7of t7he wld7ern7ess1 blthes7ome a7nd cmb7erl7ess4 ,dactylic 7 74 ,these names refer to the arrangement of syllables in the foot4 ,there are other names that refer to the number of times the foot is repeated in the line4 ,these also come from the ,greek and are long and difficult1 but are no more necessary for you to learn now than the names of feet4 ,if you can pick out the arrangement of syllables which make up a foot1 and the number of feet in a line1 you can make a pattern for yourself out of any piece of poetry4 ,the names and examples of the most common meters are here given for reference1 however4 #a4 ,three feet to the line1 three-accent line or trimeter4 ,h7is voce 7no mre 7is herd4 #b4 ,four feet to the line1 four-accent line or tetrameter4 ,buld 7me straght1 7,o wrth7y ,mst7er4 #c4 ,five feet to the line1 five-accent line or pentameter4 7,at lst1 w7ith had 7erect1 th7us cred 7alod4 #d4 ,six feet to the line1 six-accent line or hexameter4 ,t7he ,ny'mphs 7in tngl7ed shdes of t'wilig7ht thck7ets mou'rn4 ,turn to any collection of poetry1 and see how many of the feet and meters you can recognize4 ,you will find1 although the accent gradually recurs after a regular number of syllables1 that it does not invariably do so2 but you will also notice that this does not affect the accenting of the line4 ,for instance1 you give three accents to the line1 ,and ,i would that my tongue could utter1 where there are ten syllables1 but you also give three to the line1 ,break1 break1 break4 ,you must learn1 therefore1 to distinguish one variety of meter from another by the number of times your voice naturally makes an accent in reading it aloud2 but for your own verse making it is a simpler and better rule to arrange your line so that there is the same number of syllables between each accent4 ,you will find this a very general rule in all poetry1 and it is a good guide for beginners4 ,you can take1 then1 any piece of poetry which you admire and make from it a pattern for yourself4 ,suppose you wish to write a verse describing a rainy day4 ,you turn to ,whittier's ,snow-,bound as a suitable model3-- ,the sun that brief ,december day ,rose cheerless over hills of gray1 ,and1 darkly circled1 gave at noon ,a sadder light than waning moon4 ,reading the lines aloud1 you see that they have four accents or feet1 and each foot has two syllables1 the second of which is regularly accented4 ,marking the accented and unaccented syllables as shown above1 and then taking away the words1 you have left a pattern by which you can test your own lines1 namely u -- u -- u -- u --4 ,now1 if you wish to write in metrical or verse form the statement that the rain resounding on the roof sounded as though a great many little drums were being beaten1 you might write1-- ,the rain drummed loud as though the elves ,were playing soldier4 ,your idea is now completely stated1 and if you were writing prose you could stop there2 but on consulting your pattern you see that you need one accented syllable to finish the last foot you have written1 and one more foot to finish your last line4 ,in your effort to add these three syllables1 arranged in words which will complete the picture your lines suggest1 you will readily hit upon some such phrase as overhead1 on the roof1 in a crowd1 or noisily4 ,you will then have written two lines of correct verse2 but in comparing them with the first two lines of ,snow-,bound1 your model1 you will notice one difference4 ,of the last words in each pair of lines from ,snow-,bound all but the first consonants are the same and have the same sound4 ,these are called rhyming words4 ,nearly all verse rhymes4 ,words are considered to rhyme when they have the same accented vowel sound1 different consonants preceding the accented vowel sound1 and the same sounds following the accented vowel sound4 ,one stumbling-block in the way of beginners in verse making is the fact that ,english words are spelled so differently from the way they are pronounced4 ,do not be misled by this4 ,remember that it is the accented vowel sound that must be the same in both words1 and test your rhymes by saying them aloud4 ,thus vessel and wrestle1 despair and bare1 gaze and bays1 bird and heard1 rhyme perfectly1 although they look so very different1 but door and boor are not good rhymes1 although they look just alike1 nor are trough and bough1 and through and plough4 ,rhymes usually occur at the end of lines1 but not always1 as in ,snow-,bound1 at the end of each pair of lines4 ,just as syllables are arranged in feet and feet are arranged in lines1 so lines are arranged in stanzas4 ,the shortest stanza is two lines rhymed4 ,this is called a couplet4 ,poets themselves must fall1 like those they sung1 ,deaf the praised ear1 and mute the tuneful tongue4 ,somewhat more rarely1 there are stanzas of three lines1 called triplets1 with all the lines rhyming4 ,dark1 deep1 and cold the current flows ,unto the sea where no wind blows1 ,seeking the land which no one knows4 ,the most common form of ,english verse is written in stanzas of four lines each4 ,the rhymes may be arranged in all the combinations possible4 ,the first and third and the second and fourth may rhyme1 as in ballads3-- ,o ,brignal banks are wild and fair1 ,and ,greta woods are green2 ,and you may gather garlands there ,would grace a summer queen4 ,or the first and fourth lines and the second and third may rhyme3-- ,now rings the woodland loud and long1 ,the distance takes a lovelier hue2 ,and drowned in yonder living blue ,the lark becomes a sightless sound4 ,or the second and fourth lines may be the only ones to rhyme3-- ,he prayeth best who loveth best ,all things both great and small1 ,for the dear ,god who loveth us ,he made and loveth all4 ,in longer stanzas the rhymes may be arranged in almost any way1 provided that they follow some regular plan4 ,notice1 for instance1 the arrangement of rhymes in ,browning's well-known song3-- ,the year's at the spring ,and day's at the morn2 ,morning's at seven2 ,the hillside's dew-pearled2 ,the lark's on the wing2 ,the snail's on the thorn3 ,god's in his heaven-- ,all's right with the world4 ,a convenient way of indicating briefly how the rhymes in a stanza are arranged is by the use of the letters of the alphabet3 thus1 a couplet would be said to have its rhymes arranged a a2 a quatrain like the ,brignal banks1 a b a b2 the stanza ,now rings1 a b b a4 ,there are1 of course1 many other combinations of syllables in feet1 of feet in lines1 and of lines in stanzas than have been given here1 but these are the most common forms and those that you will be most likely to see in your reading and to use in your verse making4 ,exercise #adb4--;,i4 ,arrange the following in stanza form1 letting yourself be guided by the recurrence of a regular number of feet in each line and by the rhyme4 #a4 ,tiger1 tiger1 burning bright in the forests of the night1 what immortal hand or eye could frame thy fearful symmetry8 #b4 ,the ship was cheer'd1 the harbor clear'd1 merrily did we drop below the kirk1 below the hill1 below the light-house top4 ,the sun came up upon the left1 out of the sea came he1 and he shone bright and on the right went down into the sea4 #c4 ,we watched her breathing through the night1 her breathing soft and low1 as in her breast the wave of life kept heaving to and fro4 ,our very hopes belied our fears1 our fears our hopes belied--we thought her dying when she slept and sleeping when she died4 #d4 ,where the bee sucks1 there suck ,i2 in a cowslip's bell ,i lie2 there ,i crouch when owls do cry4 ,on the bat's wing ,i do fly after summer merrily4 ,merrily1 merrily1 shall ,i live now under the blossom that hangs on the bough4 #e4 ,i loved the brimming wave that swam through quiet meadows round the mill1 the sleeping pool above the dam1 the pools beneath it never still1 the meal sacks on the whiten'd floor1 the dark round of the dripping wheel1 the very air around the door made misty with the floating meal4 ,,ii4 ,complete the rhymes in the following3-- ,when ,i was sick and lay a-bed ,i had two pillows at my ---- ,and all my toys beside me lay ,to keep me happy all the ---- ,how do you like to go up in a swing ,up in the air so blue6 ,oh1 ,i do think it's the pleasantest ---- ,ever a child can ---- ,through all the pleasant meadow-side ,the grass grew shoulder high ,till the shining scythes went far and ---- ,and cut it down to ----4 ,the fight did last from break of day ,till setting of the ---- ,for when they rang the evening bell ,the battle was scarce ---- ,in summer time in ,breton ,the bells they sound so clear4 ,round both the shires they ring them ,in steeples far and ---- ,a happy noise to ---- ,an excellent exercise for training your ear is to have some one read verse aloud to you1 leaving you to complete the rhymed lines4 ,you have now learned a few simple rules about the construction of two or three of the most common forms of verse1 and you may ask yourself what use you can make of them4 ,one way in which you can employ verse is in writing a short story or incident4 ,the simplest anecdote is often so set off by telling it in verse that its interest is doubled2 and you will find this sort of familiar1 conversational verse unexpectedly easy to write4 ,one very good variety of story to tell in verse is the fable3-- ,miss ,grasshopper having sung ,all through summer1 ,found herself in sorry plight ,when the wind began to bite2 ,not a bit of grub or fly ,met the little wanton's eye2 ,so she wept for hunger sore ,at the ,ant1 her neighbor's door1 ,begging her just once to bend1 ,and a little grain to lend ,till warm weather came again4 ,i will pay you1 cried she1 then1 ,ere next harvest1 on my soul1 ,interest and principal4 ,now the ,ant is not a lender4 ,from that charge who needs defend her8 ,tell me what you did last summer8 ,said she to the beggar maid4 ,day and night to every comer ,i was singing1 ,i'm afraid4 ,sing6 ,do tell6 ,how entrancing6 ,well then1 vagrant1 off6 be dancing6 ,exercise #adc4--,see if you can complete ,the ,hare and the ,tortoise from the beginning and the skeleton given below4 ,how everybody laughed to hear ,the hare had planned a race ,against the tortoise1 patient1 dull1 ,and very slow of ----4 ,the hare assured them one and all1 ,it's but that ,i may show ,that ,i can sleep till near the dusk ,and beat the -- u -- -- u -- ran like the wind ,and almost reached the goal1 u -- u -- amid the hay ,and slept1 the lazy ----6 u -- u -- the hare still slept u -- u passed him by1 u -- u -- u -- again ,it was too late to try ,to reach the goal1 or win u -- ,the tortoise by my troth u -- u -- u steadiness u -- u -- u sloth4 ,exercise #add4--,try to put into verse1 on this model1 ,the ,fox and the ,grapes1 ,the ,city ,mouse and the ,country ,mouse1 ,the ,wolf and the ,lamb1 ,the ,frog and the ,stork1 ,the ,woodchopper and ,death1 ,the ,goose that laid the ,golden ,eggs1--or any other fable you have known in prose4 ,sometimes it may be interesting to you to try to write a letter or to send an invitation in verse4 ,some of the greatest writers have amused themselves by making such playful use of verse in letters4 ,here is part of a letter written from ,india by ,bishop ,phillips ,brooks to his little niece4 ,little ,mistress ,josephine1 ,tell me1 have you ever seen ,children half as queer as these ,babies from across the seas8 ,see their funny little fists1 ,see the rings upon their wrists4 ,one has very little clothes1 ,one has jewels in her nose2 ,and they all have silver bangles ,on their little heathen ankles4 ,in their ears are curious things1 ,round their necks are beads and strings1 ,and they jingle as they walk1 ,and they talk outlandish talk3 ,do you want to know their names8 ,one is called ,jee ,fingee ,hames2 ,one ,buddhanda ,arrich ,bas1 ,one ,teehundee ,hanki ,sas4 ,aren't you glad then1 little ,queen1 ,that your name is ,josephine8 ,that you live in ,springfield1 or ,not at least in old ,jeypore8 ,that your ,christian parents are ,john and ,hattie1 ,pa and ,ma8 ,that you've an entire nose ,and no rings upon your toes8 ,in a word1 that ,hat and you ,do not have to be ,hindu8 ,exercise #ade4--a4 ,try writing a rhymed letter1 describing an expedition in which you have taken part1--a railway journey1 a picnic1 a ride4 ,or write an invitation1 from your class to the class below1 to a spelling match1 or entertainment you are giving4 #b4 ,read ,the ,one-,hoss ,shay1 ,john ,gilpin's ,ride1 ,lochinvar1 ,the ,legend of ,bishop ,hatto1 ,the ,falcon--or any poem you know which tells a story1 and try your own hand at turning into verse one of the stories you wrote in your study of narration4 ,the uses of verse which have been pointed out as possible to you are not out of the question for any one who can write at all4 ,this is verse making and not poetry4 ,but there may be times when you find that you can say what you mean better in a few words of verse than in many of ordinary prose1 that you can express some aspect of out of doors1 or some sensation1 more vividly in verse than in any other way4 ,you will notice that words seem often to have a greater force and life in poetry than in prose1 and if you make use of this quality1 you will be writing real poetry4 ,for instance1 one day a third-grade class was asked to write a description of the conditions that morning in the woods near the school4 ,it had rained and snowed the night before and everything was coated in ice4 ,the wind was high and1 shaking the branches violently1 sent down a continuous shower of tiny pieces of ice1 glistening in the sun and tinkling on the ice-covered snow4 ,many long compositions were written in the attempt to describe the effect such a day made on the observer2 every one agreed that a little boy1 eight years old1 who wrote the following lines1 had best expressed the singular spirit of the morning3-- ,the trees are all so silvery ,and the fairies dance around2 ,they make a pretty tinkle ,as they step upon the ground4 ,they dance upon the tree tops ,and dance upon the ground4 ,of course1 that is not perfect verse1 but it has a quality of real poetry in it4 ,you cannot expect great results from your verse making1 but you will certainly profit by some practice in managing meters4 ,you will have a greater interest in the construction of the poetry you read1 you will have greater ease in writing prose1 and you may perhaps succeed in expressing some feeling of your own in a simple stanza which will be worth writing for its own sake4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,punctuation #ie4 ,general ,theory of ,punctuation4--,punctuation is a way of showing by various signs 7or points7 which words in a written composition bear a close relation to one another4 ,read1 for example1 the following passage3-- ,as ,pandora raised the lid1 the cottage grew very dark and dismal2 a black cloud had swept over the sun1 and seemed to have buried it alive4 ,but ,pandora1 heeding nothing of all this1 lifted the lid nearly upright1 and looked inside4 ,it seemed as if suddenly a swarm of winged insects brushed past her1 taking flight out of the box1 while at the same instant she heard a voice4 ,it was that of ,epimetheus1 as if he were in pain4 ,oh1 ,i am stung6 cried he4 ,i am stung6 ,naughty ,pandora6 ,why have you opened this wicked box8 ,the period at the end of the first sentence shows that all the words preceding it are to be taken together4 ,notice the similar use of the other periods4 ,notice the semicolon which is used to separate the two clauses of the first sentence4 ,each clause is complete in itself and might be taken separately2 yet they are sufficiently related to be included in one sentence4 ,the semicolon is therefore used to show a slighter separation between the thoughts than would be indicated by the use of the period4 ,the commas show a still slighter separation1 being used to divide the lesser groups of words4 ,notice this use of the two commas in the first sentence4 ,in the second sentence the commas before and after heeding nothing of all this show that these words belong together1 and that ,but ,pandora belongs to lifted the lid1 etc4 ,notice the use of the interrogation point and the exclamation point in the last paragraph4 ,these various marks1 then1 are used to help the reader4 ,they show the grammatical structure or grouping4 ,let us now study these marks in detail1 beginning with those that indicate the close of the larger groups1--the period1 the exclamation point1 the interrogation point4 #if4 ,the ,period4--,the period marks the end of a declarative or imperative sentence4 ,the period is also used after an abbreviation4 7,for a list of common abbreviations1 see p4 #bfg47 #ig4 ,the ,question ,mark4--,the question mark is placed at the end of every direct question4 ,it is not used with an indirect question4 ,shall ,i go8 ,i ask you1 ,shall ,i go8 ,i asked whether ,i should go4 #ih4 ,the ,exclamation ,point4--,the exclamation point is used after exclamatory words1 phrases1 and sentences4 ,when an exclamatory sentence begins with an interjection1 it is usually sufficient to place a comma after the interjection and to reserve the exclamation point until the end of the sentence4 ,when an unemphatic interjection begins a declarative sentence1 it is frequently possible to omit the exclamation point entirely4 ,as a rule ,o is used only in direct address4 ,help6 ,you rascal6 ,be off with you6 ,ah1 you are back again6 ,oh1 what a mess ,i have made of it6 ,oh1 ,i didn't see you4 ,hear me1 ,o ,king6 ,oh6 ,i am wounded6 #ii4 ,the ,semicolon4--,semicolons have two uses3-- #a4 ,to separate the principal clauses in a compound sentence4 ,to our left we beheld the towers of the ,alhambra beetling above us2 to our right we were dominated by equal towers on a rocky eminence4 ,some suppose them to have been built by the ,romans2 others1 by the ,phoenicians4 ,he received only ten guineas for this stately1 vigorous poem2 but the sale was rapid and the success complete4 ,there was now a sound behind me like a rushing blast2 ,i heard the clatter of a thousand hoofs2 and countless throngs overtook me4 ,when his men had thus indemnified themselves1 in some degree1 for their late reverses1 ,cortes called them again under their banners2 and1 after offering up a grateful acknowledgment to the ,lord of ,hosts for their miraculous preservation1 they renewed their march across the now deserted valley4 ,the principal clauses in a compound sentence may also be separated by a comma1 provided that a cordinate conjunction is present4 ,it was a moonlight night1 and the fresh north wind rustled solemnly in the palm trees4 ,we examined their sculptures by the aid of torches1 and our ,arab attendants kindled large fires of dry corn-stalks1 which cast a strong red light on the walls4 ,the forehead and nose approach the ,greek standard1 but the mouth is more roundly and delicately carved1 and the chin and cheeks are fuller4 ,when a cordinate conjunction is not present1 it is incorrect to separate such clauses by a comma4 ,see #f4 ,when a cordinate conjunction is present1 and the choice lies between a comma and a semicolon1 the semicolon is to be used3-- 7a7 ,when the writer wishes the break or separation between the principal clauses to be emphatic4 7b7 ,when the principal clauses are long and already divided into their parts by commas4 #b4 ,to separate clauses or phrases from each other in a series of similar phrases or subordinate clauses1 when commas would not be sufficient to indicate clearly where each clause or phrase began and ended4 ,we hold these truths to be self-evident3 that all men are created equal2 that they are endowed by their ,creator with inherent and inalienable rights2 that among these are life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness2 that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men1 deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed2 that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends1 it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it1 and to institute new government1 laying its foundations on such principles and organizing its power in such form1 as to them shall seem most likely to effect their happiness4 ,exercise #adf4--7a7 ,find three sentences in which the principal clauses are separated by the semicolon4 7#b7 ,write three such sentences of your own composition4 7#c7 ,write three sentences in which the semicolon is used to separate similar phrases or subordinate clauses in a series4 ,let the sentences be of your own composition4 #ajj4 ,the ,colon4--,the colon indicates that what follows it is an explanation or specification of what precedes it4 ,it is used3-- #a4 ,to introduce a list1 a quotation1 or an explanatory proposition4 ,when the explanation begins a new paragraph1 a dash is usually placed after the colon1 as in the second sentence of this section4 ,he provided himself with the following books3 ,worcester's dictionary1 a ,latin grammar1 an atlas1 and a ,bible4 ,we hold these truths to be self-evident3 that1 etc4 ,see example under #ii1 #b above4 ,he read1 on a marble tablet in the chapel wall opposite1 this singular inscription3 ,look not mournfully into the past4 #b4 ,in a compound sentence in which the principal clauses are not connected by a conjunction1 to show that the following clause explains or illustrates the preceding clause4 ,i am no traveler3 it is ten years since ,i have left my village4 ,the general refused to believe him3 the risk was too great4 #c4 ,after such phrases of address as ,dear ,sir1#b ,ladies and ,gentlemen1 etc4 #b ,at the beginning of a letter1 ,dear ,sir may be followed by 7#a7 a comma1 7#b7 a comma and a dash1 or 7#c7 a colon4 ,it should never be followed by a semicolon4 7#c7 is more formal than 7#b7 and 7#a74 ,exercise #adg4--;,i4 ,write five examples of your own composition of 7#a72 five of 7#b72 and three of 7#c74 ,,ii4 ,explain the use of the semicolons and colons in the following3-- #a4 ,sin has many tools2 but a lie is the handle which fits them all4 #b4 ,in ,bryant's ,to a ,waterfowl1 we find the following lines3-- ,he who1 from zone to one1 ,guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight1 ,in the long way that ,i must tread alone1 ,will lead my steps aright4 #c4 ,speech is silver2 silence is gold4 #d4 ,there are three great virtues3 faith1 hope1 and charity4 #aja4 ,the ,comma4--,as we have seen1 the period is used to close a declarative sentence1 and the semicolon and colon are used to mark off the greater divisions of a sentence4 ,the office of the comma is to point off the smaller divisions of a sentence4 ,it is used in the following ways3-- #a4 ,in a compound sentence1 to separate the different clauses1 when there is not a sufficient break in the thought to make the semicolon necessary4 ,see above1 #ii1 #a4 ,he rested himself in the ,chancellor's room till the debate commenced1 and then1 leaning on his two relatives1 he limped to his seat4 ,his exertions redeemed his own fame1 but they effected little for his country4 #b4 ,to separate the different parts of a compound predicate1 unless the connection between them is very close4 ,the slightest particulars of that day were remembered1 and have been carefully recorded4 ,he lost the thread of his discourse1 hesitated1 repeated the same words several times1 and was so confused that1 in speaking of the ,act of ,settlement1 he could not recall the name of the ,electress ,sophia4 ,i see and hear you4 #c4 ,in a complex sentence in which the dependent clause precedes1 to separate the dependent clause from the principal clause4 ,when the dependent clause follows1 the comma is1 as a rule1 not needed4 ,if you are wise1 you will trust him implicitly4 ,although ,i saw him1 ,i could not wait4 ,i would not stop until he called out to me4 #d4 ,to mark off an explanatory relative clause4 ,note4--,relative clauses may be roughly divided into explanatory clauses and restrictive clauses4 ,an explanatory relative clause describes or gives information about its antecedents4 ,a restrictive relative clause narrows the meaning of its antecedent4 ,an explanatory clause might usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause4 ,a restrictive clause cannot usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause4 ,no comma is used before a restrictive clause4 ,,examples4 7a7 ,explanatory ,clauses4--#a4 ,the twenty-four columns1 each of which is sixty feet in height1 are oppressive in their grandeur4 #b4 ,beyond lay various other apartments1 which receive no light from without4 #c4 ,this churchman rode upon a well-fed1 ambling mule1 whose bridle was ornamented with silver bells4 #d4 ,his companion1 who was a man past forty1 was tall and muscular4 7b7 ,restrictive ,clauses4--#a4 ,the two who rode foremost were persons of importance4 #b4 ,this is not the book that ,i ordered4 #c4 ,there is no reason which can be urged in favor of such a bill4 #d4 ,such was the appearance of the man who was about to receive into his hand the destinies of half the world4 #e4 ,we walked through the inner halls under the spell of a fascination which we had hardly power to break4 #e4 ,in general1 to indicate the beginning and the end of a group of words1 whether a phrase or a clause1 which must be regarded as a unit1 particularly if it occurs parenthetically4 ,let us go together through the low gateway1 with its battlemented top and small window in the center1 into the inner road4 ,and now ,i wish that the reader1 before ,i bring him into ,st4 ,mark's ,place1 would imagine himself in a little ,english town4 #f4 ,to separate similar words or phrases used1 in a series1 in the same construction1 and not joined by conjunctions4 ,it was done quickly1 neatly1 artistically4 ,it was done quickly and neatly4 ,he was a big1 hearty1 happy fellow4 ,the horse was a quiet1 sensible old beast4 ,here quiet and sensible limit old beast1 not beast alone4 ,he was gay and jovial1 gloomy and despondent1 as the weather indicated4 ,if the members of the series are joined by conjunctions1 commas are unnecessary4 ,when1 however1 a conjunction joins the last two members of the series1 the comma is employed4#c #c ,the usage of many writers and publishers1 however1 is to omit commas in such cases2 that is1 they prefer a1 b and c1 to a1 b1 and c4 ,the latter usage1 as described above1 is followed in this book4 ,bread and butter4 ,she was good and true and beautiful4 ,they visited ,rome1 ,florence1 and ,venice4 #g4 ,to indicate the omission of words logically necessary to the construction4 ,one was tall2 the other1 short4 ,admission1 twenty-five cents4 #h4 ,to mark off phrases when they open a sentence or are not closely connected with the context4 ,phrases occurring in their usual places and closely connected with the context are1 however1 not marked off by commas4 ,following the dim path1 we proceeded slowly4 ,on his arrival in ,england1 he found himself an object of general interest and admiration4 ,with rare delicacy1 he refused to receive this token of gratitude4 ,the case was heard1 according to the usage of the time1 before a committee of the whole house4 ,from a child he hated the ,english4 ,he refused with emphasis this token of gratitude4 #i4 ,to mark off adverbs and adverb phrases which have a connective force4 ,notice the difference between 7a7 you will see1 then1 that you have been misled1 and 7b7 you will then see that you have been misled4 ,this1 on the other hand1 was his purpose4 ,my mission1 too1 is one of peace4 ,he recalled1 however1 his motive4 #aj4 ,to mark off words or phrases 7a7 in direct address or 7b7 in apposition4 ,notice1 however1 that in expressions like the ,emperor ,william1 ,william is rather a noun limited by ,emperor than a noun in apposition with ,emperor4 7a7 ,i do not understand you1 sir4 ,i apologize1 ladies and gentlemen1 for my apparent discourtesy4 7b7 ,his romantic novel1 the ,castle of ,otranto1 is now unread4 ,he is like me in this1 that he cannot resist entreaty4 #aa4 ,before a direct quotation4 ,see the more formal use of the colon1 #ajj1 #a4 ,he kept crying1 ,on6 on6 ,as he fell1 he heard some one say1 ,there goes another4 #ab4 ,in dates1 addresses1 as in the following examples3-- ,jan4 #a1 #ahii4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,smith1 ,salem1 ,essex ,county1 ,mass4#d #d ,on an envelope it is becoming customary to omit all punctuation at the end of lines1 except periods after abbreviations4 #ac4 ,to prevent ambiguity or to make a sentence more easily understood4 ,exercise #adh4--;,i4 ,write two sentences 7of your own composition7 illustrating each of the uses described in the preceding section4 ,,ii4 ,give reasons for the marks of punctuation used in the following3-- ,one day1 when he was looking for wild flowers1 of which he was very fond1 he heard a rustling in some thick bushes near by1 and saw that some animal was moving among them4 ,he took his gun and fired1 and1 going to the place1 found that he had shot a lion's cub4 ,when his colored gun-bearer saw this1 he screamed with terror1 and ran away shouting1 ,run1 ,benana6 run6 ,almost at the same instant1 ,bishop ,hannington heard a fearful roar2 turning1 he saw a huge lion and a lioness rushing furiously towards him4 ,,iii4 ,supply commas where needed1 giving reasons4 ,in ,holland children have very few playthings4 ,the shoes are shaped very much like the canal-boats of the country4 ,the children recognize this fact and have a custom of sailing them on the water4 ,this is fine sport except when the little craft is loaded with too many stones causing it to sink and insuring them punishment from their parents4 ,i was told of a small lad who going out one morning to sail his wooden shoe put into it his knife a small brass cannon a top and some marbles that had been given him on the previous ,christmas4 ,his tiny vessel which had a paper sail ran firmly until an old man came down to the canal to dip up a pail of water4 ,this made such waves that the heavily laden shoe was overwhelmed and sank suddenly before the knife or cannon or marbles could be rescued4 #ajb4 ,parentheses and ,brackets4--,parentheses are to inclose explanatory matter which is independent of the grammatical construction of the sentence4 ,brackets have the same general office1 but are generally used only to inclose corrections1 explanations1 or similar matter1 introduced by the author into the statement of some one else4 ,prescott 7#agif-ahei7 was a brilliant historian4 ,it is said 7and ,i can believe that it is true7 that many still believe in witches4 ,it was at that moment #aj ,a4,m41 the colonel goes on to say1 that his superior officer ,general ,smith met him4 #ajc4 ,the ,dash4--,the dash is used to indicate a sudden change in thought or construction4 ,two dashes have the general effect of parentheses4 ,yes--no--,i scarcely know what to say4 ,you were saying that-- ,i suppose--but why should ,i tell you8 ,his father1 his mother1 his brothers1 his sisters1--all are dead4 ,at last he succeeded in opening the box and found in it--nothing4 ,he had two constant motives--love of man and love of ,god4 ,the two motives--love of man and love of ,god--were constant4 #ajd4 ,the ,apostrophe4--,the apostrophe is used 7#a7 to indicate the omission of a letter or letters1 7#b7 in forming the possessive case1 and 7#c7 in forming the plurals of letters and figures4 ,don't1 shan't1 o'er1 ,john's1 horses'1 his abc's4 #aje4 ,quotation ,marks4--,double inverted commas indicate that the inclosed matter is a quotation4 ,single inverted commas indicate a quotation within a quotation4 ,double quotation marks are also sometimes used to indicate the title of a book1 magazine1 or newspaper1 or the name of a ship4 ,see also #ajf4 ,a direct quotation is one in which the exact words of a speaker or writer are repeated4 ,when a direct quotation is broken by words of the author1 each part of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks4 ,a short informal quotation1 if it constitutes a sentence1 is preceded by a comma or a comma and a dash4 ,if a quotation is long1 or if it is desired to give it with a little more formality1 it may be preceded by a colon4 ,if the quotation begins a paragraph1 it is preceded by a colon and a dash4 ,see #ajj1 #a4 ,to be or not to be4 ,the word coward has never been applied to me4 ,sir1 said ,i1 you insult me4 ,i said to him1 ,sir1 you insult me4 ,this was his reply3 ,i tell you that he said only last night1 ',you will never see me again4' ,this ,history of ,english ,literature is worth reading4 ,the wreck of the ,polar ,star4 ,an indirect quotation repeats the thought of some speaker or writer without giving his exact words4 ,quotation marks are not used to indicate indirect quotations4 ,direct quotation ,well1 my boys1 said ,mr4 ,webster1 ,i will be the judge4 ,indirect quotation ,mr4 ,webster told his boys that he would be the judge4 ,exercise #adi4--,rewrite the following story1 ,daniel ,webster's ,first ,case1 changing the direct quotations to indirect and the indirect quotations to direct3-- ,the father of ,daniel ,webster was a farmer4 ,his garden had suffered somewhat from the visits of a woodchuck that lived in a hole close by4 ,one day ,daniel and his brother ,ezekiel set a steel trap for the trespasser1 and caught him alive4 ,and now the great question was1 ,what shall be done with the rogue8 ,kill him1 said ,ezekiel4 ,let him go1 said ,daniel1 looking with pity into the eyes of the dumb captive4 ,no1 no6 replied ,ezekiel1 he'll be at his old tricks again4 ,the boys could not agree2 so they appealed to their father to decide the case4 ,well1 my boys1 said ,mr4 ,webster1 ,i will be judge4 ,there is the prisoner1 and you shall be counsel1 ,daniel for him and ,ezekiel against him4 ,it rests with you whether the woodchuck shall live or die4 ,ezekiel opened the case4 ,the woodchuck1 he said1 was a thief by nature4 ,he had already done much harm1 and would do more1 if he were set free4 ,it had cost a great deal of labor to catch him4 ,it would be harder to catch him a second time2 for he would have gained in cunning4 ,it was better on every account to put him to death4 ,his skin would be worth something1 although it would not half repay the damage he had done4 ,the father looked with pride upon his son1 little dreaming1 however1 that he was then showing signs of that power that made him so sound a jurist in his manhood4 ,now1 ,daniel1 it is your turn4 ,i'll hear what you have to say4 ,daniel saw that the argument of his brother had sensibly moved his father the judge4 ,the boy's large1 black eyes looked upon the timid woodchuck1 and1 as he saw the poor thing trembling with fear1 his heart swelled with pity4 ,god1 he said1 had made the woodchuck4 ,he made him to live1 to enjoy the air and sunshine1 the free fields and woods4 ,the woodchuck had as much right to live as any other thing that breathes4 ,god did not make him or anything in vain4 ,he was not a destructive animal like the wolf or the fox4 ,he ate a few common things1 to be sure2 but they had plenty of them1 and could well spare a part4 ,and he destroyed nothing except the little food needed to sustain his humble life4 ,that little food was as sweet to him1 and as necessary to his existence1 as was the food on their mother's table to them4 ,god gave them their food4 ,would they not spare a little for the dumb creature that really had as much right to his small share of ,god's bounty as they themselves to theirs8 ,yea1 more2 the animal had never broken the laws of his nature or the laws of ,god1 as man often did1 but had strictly lived up to the simple instincts that had been given him by the good ,creator of all things4 ,created by ,god's hands1 he had a right from ,god to his life and his liberty1 and they had no right to deprive him of either4 ,the young orator then alluded to the mute but earnest entreaties of the animal for his life1 as sweet1 as dear to him1 as their own was to them2 and to the just penalty they might expect1 if1 in selfish cruelty1 they took the life they could not restore1--the life that ,god ,himself had given4 ,during this appeal for mercy tears had started to the father's eyes1 and were fast running down his sunburnt cheeks4 ,every feeling of his manly heart was stirred within him1--gratitude for the gift of so eloquent and noble a boy1 pity for the helpless and anxious prisoner at the bar4 ,the strain was more than he could bear4 ,while ,daniel was yet speaking1 without thinking that he had won his case1 his father sprang from his chair1 and1 in entire forgetfulness of his character as judge1 exclaimed to his elder son1 ,zeke6 ,zeke6 let that woodchuck go6 ,sometimes you may wish to quote1 not a whole sentence1 but a word or two4 ,such a partial quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks1 but you should not begin it with a capital or place a comma before it1 unless the comma is needed there for some other reason4 ,she was born to blush unseen4 ,we listened with pity to this tale of man's inhumanity to man4 ,exercise #aej4--;,construct sentences using the following partial quotations3-- ,waste her sweetness on the desert air1 simple and heart-felt lay1 of night's candles1 lowly thatched cottage1 sweet bells out of tune4 ,exercise #aea4--,rewrite the following so that you will have in each instance a quotation within a quotation4 ,you will be obliged to make introductions using the name of the author4 #a4 ,had it not been the season when no spirit dares stir abroad1 ,i should have been half tempted to steal from my room at midnight4--,,washington ,,irving4 #b4 ,the story-teller paused for a moment and said1 ,there is no situation in life but has its advantages and pleasures4 --,,diedrich ,,knickerbocker4 #c4 ,we are in that part of the year which ,i like best--the ,rainy or ,hurricane ,season4 ,when it is good1 it is very1 very good2 and when it is bad1 it is horrid4 --,,robert ,,louis ,,stevenson4 #ajf4 ,italics4--,the term italics refers to a special kind of type used in printing2 thus1 italics4 ,ordinary type is referred to as roman4 ,in writing1 a single line drawn underneath a word is understood to be the equivalent of italics4 ,italics are used for 7#a7 words especially emphasized1 for 7#b7 words from a foreign language1 and1 sometimes1 as in this volume1 for 7#c7 names of books1 newspapers1 magazines1 and ships4 ,see #aje1 #a4 ,to his amazement1 he saw footprints4 ,the carriage rolled away from the porte-cochre4 ,his ,history of ,english ,literature4 ,the wreck of the ,polar ,star4 #ajg4 ,the ,hyphen4--,the hyphen is used as follows3-- #a4 ,between the parts of some compound words1 son-in-law1 simple-hearted1 vice-president4 ,with regard to many words1 usage varies4 ,the tendency is to omit the hyphen and write the words as one1 e4g4 football1 horsecar4 ,according to some authorities1 compound numerals and fractions retain the hyphen1 e4g4 twenty-nine1 one hundred and thirty-first1 two-thirds4 #b4 ,to separate two vowels which are not pronounced together1 e4g4 pre-eminent1 co-operation4 ,the diresis is frequently used for the same purpose1 e4g4 preminent4 #c4 ,to mark the division of a word at the end of a line4 ,usage varies as to the way in which many words shall be divided4 ,the subject can be best studied by noticing the practice of good printers4 ,the pupil may bear in mind1 however1 7a7 that he should not divide words of only one syllable2 7b7 that he should be guided by pronunciation2 7c7 that syllables should begin1 if possible1 with a consonant4 ,for example1 photog-raphy1 ,napo-leon1 litera-ture4 ,exercise #aeb4--,make up three illustrations each of proper uses of the question mark1 the exclamation point1 parentheses1 brackets1 the dash1 the apostrophe1 double quotation marks1 single quotation marks1 italics1 the hyphen4 #ajh4 ,capitals4--,the pronoun ,i and the interjection ,o are written with capital letters4 ,capital letters are used at the beginning of words as follows3-- #a4 ,the first word of a sentence1 a line of poetry1 and a direct quotation4 ,making his rustic reed of song ,a weapon in the war with wrong4 ,his last words were3 ,mother is coming4 ,run1 he said1 there is still time4 #b4 ,names and titles of the ,deity and personal pronouns referring to ,him1 e4g4 the ,almighty1 the ,holy ,spirit1 ,i pray that ,he will aid me4 #c4 ,proper nouns and adjectives1 including names of streets1 the months1 the days1 races1 sects1 parties1 nations1 and parts of the country4 ,for example1 ,john ,smith1 ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,february1 ,sunday1 ,christmas1 ,indian1 ,episcopalian1 ,democrat1 ,english1 the ,south4 ,notice that negro and gypsy are not begun with capital letters4 ,personal titles1 whenever they are equivalent to proper nouns4 ,in compound titles1 each part begins with a capital4 ,the ,president and the ,governor of ,rhode ,island are here4 ,the ,attorney-,general of the ,united ,states4 #d4 ,the first word in the title of a book1 article1 or composition and every noun and adjective in the title1 but not other words4 ,when a verb or adverb is an important or prominent word in the title1 it may also be begun with a capital4 ,the ,spy2 a ,tale of the ,neutral ,ground4 ,under the ,red ,robe4 ,sketches1 ,new and ,old4 ,teaching ,requires ,knowledge and ,skill4 #e4 ,personified nouns1 and names of great events or bodies of men4 ,while sallow ,autumn fills thy lap with leaves4 ,it was a cold day in autumn4#e ,at the beginning of the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,while the ,legislature is sitting4 #e ,notice that the names of the seasons do not begin with capitals unless they are personified4 ,exercise #aec4--;,i4 ,construct sentences containing in all twenty words that should begin with capital letters4 ,,ii4 ,which words in the following sentences should begin with capitals8 ,why8 #a4 ,he added1 with a look of curiosity1 you must be a stranger4 #b4 ,i like1 said he1 to lie down upon the grass4 #c4 ,in #ahbg he entered the senate1 serving there until the president appointed him secretary of state4 #d4 ,at length ,i reached fourth street4 #e4 ,it was easter morning4 #f4 ,he has always voted the republican ticket4 #g4 ,there are more negroes in the south than in the west4 #h4 ,no one imagined that he would make a good emperor4 #i4 ,the king died on tuesday4 #aj4 ,i shall see you this summer4 ,exercise #aed4 7,review74--,insert in the following sentences the proper marks of punctuation3-- #a4 ,it was a dull dark gloomy day4 #b4 ,he was a rosy faced smiling and cheerful young gentleman4 #c4 ,some of us were disappointed others overjoyed4 #d4 ,a pretty little white dog came running up to me4 #e4 ,samuel the youngest of the three was by far the tallest4 #f4 ,my letters have brought no response consequently ,i have ceased writing4 #g4 ,well ,philip ,i am glad to see you again4 #h4 ,with hearty thanks for your kindness to me a stranger ,i am my dear sir your obedient servant ,john ,smith4 #i4 ,now ,wegg said ,mr4 ,boffin hugging his stick closer ,i want to make an offer to you4 #aj4 ,the champion moving onward ascended the platform4 #aa4 ,at the flourish of clarions and trumpets they started out at full galop4 #ab4 ,the lake greatly to my surprise seemed as far off as before4 #ac4 ,terrible as was his anger he still spoke calmly4 #ad4 ,to make a long story short ,i could never find a trace of him again4 #ae4 ,his expressions too were frequently incorrect4 #af4 ,after the fourth encounter however there was a considerable pause4 #ag4 ,however strong you may be you must not waste your strength4 #ah4 ,my friend who is called ,sir ,roger came at once to see me4 #ai4 ,the person who comes last must start first4 #bj4 ,he that read loudest was to have a half-penny4 #ba4 ,none was so dissatisfied as ,cedric who regarded the whole scene with scorn4 #bb4 ,the message which ,i wished to send is simply this4 #bc4 ,i will never do not interrupt me ,i will never consent to such a plan4 #bd4 ,as often as he came and he came very often he stood long at the gate before entering4 #be4 ,though they dwelt in such a solitude these people were not lonely4 #bf4 ,if you insist ,i will speak frankly4 #bg4 ,at ten o'clock the great war chief with his treacherous followers reached the fort and the gateway was thronged with their savage faces4 #bh4 ,some were crested with hawk eagle or raven plumes others had shaved their heads leaving only the fluttering scalp-lock on the crown while others again wore their long black hair flowing loosely at their backs or wildly hanging about their brows like a lion's mane4 #bi4 ,their bold yet crafty features their cheeks besmeared with ocher and vermilion white lead and soot their keen deep-set eyes gleaming in their sockets like those of rattlesnakes gave them an aspect grim uncouth and horrible4 #cj4 ,for the most part they were tall strong men and all had a gait and bearing of peculiar stateliness4 #aji4 ,list of ,common ,abbreviations4--,the following is a list of common abbreviations1 particularly those of foreign words or phrases4 ,abbreviations of names of states and other very familiar abbreviations are omitted4 ,a4,b4 or ,b4,a4 7,latin1 ,artium ,baccalaureus71 ,bachelor of ,arts4 ,a4,d4 7,latin1 anno domini71 in the year of our ,lord4 ,a4,m4 or ,m4,a4 7,latin1 ,artium ,magister71 ,master of ,arts4 a4m4 7,latin1 ante meridiem71 before noon4 anon41 anonymous4 ,b4,c41 before ,christ4 ,bp41 ,bishop4 ,capt41 ,captain4 cf4 7,latin1 confer71 compare4 ,c4,o4,d41 collect on delivery4 ,col41 ,colonel4 cor4 sec41 corresponding secretary4 ,d4,d41 ,doctor of ,divinity4 e4g4 7,latin1 exempli gratia71 for example4 ,esq41 ,esquire4 etc4 7,latin1 et cetera71 and so forth4 ,f4 or ,fahr41 ,fahrenheit 7thermometer74 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,gov41 ,governor4 ,h4,r4,h41 ,his ,royal ,highness4 ,hon41 ,honorable4 ibid4 7,latin1 ibidem1 in the same place71 a term used in footnotes1 in reference to a book just mentioned4 i4e4 7,latin1 id est71 that is4 inst4 7,latin1 mense instante71 the present month4 jr4 or jun41 junior4 ,lieut41 ,lieutenant4 ,,ll4,d41 ,doctor of ,laws4 ,m4 7,latin1 meridies71 noon4 ,m4 7,french1 ,monsieur71 ,mr4 ,maj41 ,major4 ,m4,c41 ,member of ,congress4 ,m4,d4 7,latin1 ,medicin ,doctor71 ,doctor of ,medicine4 ,mlle4 7,french1 ,mademoiselle71 ,miss4 ,,mm4 7,french1 ,messieurs71 used as the plural of ,m4 ,mme4 7,french1 ,madame71 ,mrs4 ,,ms41 manuscript4 ,,mss41 manuscripts4 ,n4,b4 7,latin1 nota bene71 mark well4 p41 page4 per cent4 7,latin1 per centum71 by the hundred4 p4m4 7,latin1 post meridiem71 after noon4 pp41 pages4 ,prof41 ,professor4 pro tem4 7,latin1 pro tempore71 for the time being4 prox4 7,latin1 proximo71 next month4 ,p4,s4 7,latin1 post scriptum71 postscript4 ,q4,e4,d4 7,latin1 quod erat demonstrandum71 which was to be proved4 ,rev41 ,reverend4 ,r4,r41 ,railroad4 ,rt4 ,rev41 ,right ,reverend4 sr4 or sen41 senior4 ,supt41 ,superintendent4 ult4 7,latin1 ultimo71 last month4 ,u4,s4,a41 ,united ,states army4 ,u4,s4,m41 ,united ,states mail4 ,u4,s4,n41 ,united ,states navy4 vid4 7,latin1 vide71 see4 viz4 7,latin1 videlicet71 to wit1 namely4 ,,appendix ,a4 ,,rules ,,for ,,spelling ,i4 ,for dropping or retaining the final e4 #a4 ,words ending in e1 preceded by a consonant1 usually drop e on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel4 move moving believe believing conceive conceiving receive receiving achieve achieving #b4 ,words ending in ue drop e on taking a suffix4 argue arguing fatigue fatiguing ,exception3 vague1 vaguely1 vagueness4 #c4 ,words ending in e retain e on taking a suffix beginning with a consonant4 move movement large largely hoarse hoarseness peace peaceful sense senseless whole wholesome remorse remorseless advertise advertisement #d4 ,words ending in ce or ge retain e on adding able1 ably1 or ous4 change changeable courage courageous notice noticeable outrage outrageous ,,ii4 ,for doubling the final consonant4 #a4 ,words of one syllable 7and words of more than one syllable if accented on the last syllable71 ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel1 double the first consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel4 thin thinner forgot forgotten slap slapping trot trotting acquit acquitting begin beginner #b4 ,when the accent is thrown back upon another syllable1 after the derivative is formed1 the final consonant is not doubled4 refer reference prefer preference #c4 ,when preceded by two vowels1 the final consonant is not doubled4 toil toiling keep keeper ,,iii4 ,for final y4 #a4 ,words ending in y1 preceded by a consonant1 retain y before a suffix beginning with i2 on taking a suffix beginning with any other letter1 y is in most cases changed to i4 cry crying lazy laziness fly flying duty dutiable try trying happy happiness #b4 ,words ending in y1 preceded by a vowel1 retain y before a suffix4 buy buying gray grayness play playing stay staying joy joyful obey obeying ,b4 ,,model ,,of ,,constitution ,,article ,i4 ,name4--,this club shall be known as the 444444 ,,article ,,ii4 ,object4--,its object shall be the 444444 ,,article ,,iii4 ,officers4--,its officers shall be a president1 a vice-president1 a secretary1 and a treasurer4 ,there shall also be 444444 committees of 444444 each4 ,these officers and committees shall be elected by the club at each annual meeting1 as provided for in the by-laws4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,meetings4--,the club shall hold an annual business meeting on 4444441 and a regular meeting every 444444 ,none but members shall be present1 except as provided in the by-laws4 444444 members shall constitute a quorum4 ,special meetings may be called by the president upon the written application of 444444 members4 ,,article ,v4 ,membership4--444444 ,,article ,,vi4 ,dues4--,the annual dues shall be 444444 payable on 444444 ,,by-,,laws ,,article ,i4 ,duties of ,officers4--,,section #a4 ,president and vice-president4--,the ,president shall preside at meetings of the club and shall 444444 ,the vice-president shall preside at meetings in the absence of the president and shall 444444 ,,sect4 #b4 ,the ,secretary4--,the secretary shall keep a correct record of all meetings and shall 444444 ,,sect4 #c4 ,the ,treasurer4--,the treasurer shall receive and pay out all money1 subject to the order of the club1 and shall keep a correct account in detail of all receipts and expenditures1 and shall render a report in writing at the annual meeting4 ,,sect4 #d4 ,standing ,committees4--,the duties of the committees shall be as specified below 444444 ,,article ,,ii4 ,election of ,members4--444444 ,,article ,,iii4 ,visitors4--444444 ,,article ,,iv4 ,programme of ,meetings4--444444 ,,article ,v4 ,amendments4--,this constitution may be amended at any regular meeting of the club by a two-thirds vote of the members present1 provided that written notice of the intended change has been given at the previous meeting4 ,,index 7,,the ,,numerals ,,refer ,,to ,,pages47 ,i4 ,,subjects ,,treated ,advertisements1 #ace4 ,appeals1 #acc4 ,argument1 general principle of1 #bad2 the introduction1 #bae2 the reasons1 #bag2 the outline1 #bbj2 the plea1 #bba2 other forms of1 #bba4 ,autobiography1 #adj4 ,biography1 #adb4 ,clause1 defined1 #d2 dependent or subordinate1 #d2 independent or principal1 #e4 ,condensation1 #fg2 method in1 #ga4 ,description1 observation necessary in1 #aee2 general scientific description1 #aeh2 specific scientific1 #afb2 use of technical terms in1 #afc2 literary description1 #afd2 of people1 #afi2 longer description1 #agb2 description of conditions1 #agd2 by contrast1 #agf2 of events1 #agg2 picture making of scenes of action1 #agi2 description of travel1 #ahb2 descriptions of an hour1 #ahe4 ,diary1 value of1 #ajf2 contents of1 #ajg2 imaginary diaries1 #aji2 class diaries1 #aji4 ,expansion1 #gh2 purpose of1 #gi4 ,exposition1 general principles of1 #aii2 explanation of a material process1 #bja2 of games1 #bjd2 of abstract ideas1 #bjh2 by example and comparison1 #bjh2 by repetition1 #baj2 by contrast1 #baa2 by a figure of speech1 #baa4 ,figures of speech1 #ei4 ,history1 #add4 ,invitations1 formal1 #abb4 ,letters1 various kinds of1 #aab2 friendly1 #aac2 of social intercourse1 #aai2 formal invitations1 #abb2 telegrams1 #abc2 business letters1 #abe4 ,metaphor1 #ei4 ,narration1 essentials of a good narrative1 #acg2 autobiography1 #adj2 biography1 #adb2 history1 #add2 plain reporting of facts1 #aej2 conversation1 #aeb2 travel1 #ahb2 historical stories1 #ahh2 fictitious stories1 #aia2 the beginning of a narrative1 #aic2 the ending1 #aif2 the body1 #aig4 ,notices1 #acj4 ,oral composition1 #ajb4 ,outlines1 #ib1 #ih1 #bbj4 ,paragraph1 defined and described1 #bi2 beginning of or topic sentence1 #cj2 unity in1 #ce2 body of1 #cg2 too many paragraphs1 #da2 end of paragraph or summary sentence1 #db2 arrangement in a whole composition1 #if4 ,paraphrase1 #hj1 #hd4 ,petitions1 #acd4 ,phrase1 defined1 #d4 ,pronunciation1 #ajd4 ,punctuation1 #bdf4 ,quotations1 how punctuated1 #dd1 #bei4 ,secretarial work1 #bbe4 ,sentence1 distinguished from phrase and clause1 #d2 simple1 complex1 and compound1 #g2 variety in the use of sentences1 #ad1 #ai2 length of1 #ad2 periodic1 #ag2 loose1 #ah2 bad1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #be2 comma sentence1 #bb2 with and without unity1 #bc2 formless1 #be4 ,simile1 #ei4 ,slang1 #fc4 ,spelling1 #fb4 ,synonyms1 #ec4 ,telegrams1 #abc4 ,travel1 #ahb4 ,unity1 in sentences1 #bc2 in paragraphs1 #ce2 in whole compositions1 #ig4 ,versification1 #bcd4 ,vocabulary1 size and character of ,english1 #ej2 increasing one's vocabulary1 #ej4 ,whole composition1 #hh2 outline of1 #ib1 #ih1 #bbj2 arrangement of paragraphs in1 #if2 essentials of1 #ig2 how to plan a1 #ih4 ,words1 #di2 vocabulary1 #ej2 synonyms1 #ec2 choice of words1 #ee2 accuracy in the use of1 #eh2 errors in the use of1 #fb4 ,,ii4 ,,illustrative ,,extracts ,addison1 ,joseph1 ,the ,spectator1 #bji1 #bab4 ,ames1 ,azel1 ,how the ,pilgrims ,came to ,plymouth1 #add4 ,baldwin1 ,james1 ,a ,story of the ,golden ,age1 #cj4 ,bryant1 ,william ,c41 ,to the ,fringed ,gentian1 #aeh4 ,buckley1 ,arabella1 ,fairyland of ,science1 #gj4 ,burroughs1 ,john1 ,locusts and ,wild ,honey1 #aef2 ,squirrels and ,other ,fur-bearing ,animals1 #aib4 ,cooper1 ,james ,fenimore1 ,the ,pilot1 #ga4 ,dickens1 ,charles1 ,a ,child's ,history of ,england1 #fi1 #ge1 #agg1 #ahh2 ,david ,copperfield1 #afg1 #afi1 #ahf4 ,franklin1 ,benjamin1 ,autobiography1 #dc4 ,garland1 ,hamlin1 ,main-traveled ,roads1 #agd4 ,gregory1 ,lady1 ,through ,portugal1 #ahb4 ,hardy1 ,thomas1 ,far from the ,madding ,crowd1 #agi4 ,hawthorne1 ,nathaniel1 ,mosses from an ,old ,manse1 #hc4 ,hughes1 ,thomas1 ,tom ,brown's ,schooldays1 #fc4 ,irving1 ,washington1 ,rip ,van ,winkle1 #dc2 ,astoria1 #ha1 #hb2 ,life of ,columbus1 #hc2 ,stratford-on-,avon 7,the ,sketch-,book71 #hh4 ,kane1 ,elisha ,e41 ,arctic ,explorations1 #gj4 ,leavitt1 ,r4 ,g41 ,outlines of ,botany1 #aeh4 ,lockyer1 ,j4 ,n41 ,astronomy1 #ib4 ,long1 ,william ,j41 ,ways of ,wood ,folk1 #ca4 ,longfellow1 ,henry ,w41 ,the ,courtship of ,miles ,standish1 #hb2 ,the ,bridge of ,cloud1 #hc2 ,walter ,von der ,vogelweid1 #he4 ,lowell1 ,james ,r41 ,the ,vision of ,sir ,launfal1 #hd4 ,main1 ,e41 ,cities and ,sights of ,spain1 #bjd4 ,merriam1 ,florence ,a41 ,birds through an ,opera ,glass1 #afj1 #afb4 ,motley1 ,j4 ,l41 ,correspondence1 #agj4 ,nicolay1 ,helen1 ,the ,boys' ,life of ,abraham ,lincoln1 #cb4 ,parkman1 ,francis1 ,the ,conspiracy of ,pontiac1 #ahj4 ,prescott1 ,william ,h41 ,the ,conquest of ,mexico1 #hb4 ,sheridan1 ,richard ,b41 ,the ,rivals1 #eh4 ,thoreau1 ,henry ,d41 ,excursions1 #afe4 ,whittier1 ,john ,g41 ,the ,barefoot ,boy1 #hd4 ,yonge1 ,charlotte ,m41 ,a ,book of ,golden ,deeds1 #ic4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the following pages contain advertisements of a few of the ,macmillan books on kindred subjects4 ,tarr and ,mc,murry's ,geographies ,a ,new ,series of ,geographies in ,two1 ,three1 or ,five ,volumes ,by ,,ralph ,s4 ,,tarr1 ,b4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4,a4 ,,cornell ,,university ,,and ,,frank ,m4 ,mc,m,u,r,r,y1 ,ph4,d ,,teachers ,,college1 ,,columbia ,,university ,,two ,,book ,,series ,introductory ,geography #fj cents ,complete ,geography #a4jj ,,the ,,three ,,book ,,series ,,first ,,book 7#dth and #eth years7 ,home ,geography and the ,earth as a ,whole #fj cents ,,second ,,book 7#fth year7 ,north ,america #ge cents ,,third ,,book 7#gth year7 ,europe and ,other ,continents #ge cents ,,the ,,five ,,book ,,series ,,first ,,part 7#dth year7 ,home ,geography #dj cents ,,second ,,part 7#eth year7 ,the ,earth as a ,whole #dj cents ,,third ,,part 7#fth year7 ,north ,america #ge cents ,,fourth ,,part 7#gth year7 ,europe1 ,south ,america1 etc4 #ej cents ,,fifth ,,part 7#hth year7 ,asia and ,africa1 with ,review of ,north ,america 7with ,state ,supplement7 #ej cents ,without ,supplement #dj cents ,home ,geography1 ,greater ,new ,york ,edition #ej cents ,teachers' ,manual of ,method in ,geography4 ,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,mcmurry #dj cents ,to meet the requirements of some courses of study1 the section from the ,third ,book1 treating of ,south ,america1 is bound up with the ,second ,book1 thus bringing ,north ,america and ,south ,america together in one volume4 ,the following ,supplementary ,volumes have also been prepared1 and may be had separately or bound together with the ,third ,book of the ,three ,book ,series1 or the ,fifth ,part of the ,five ,book ,series3 ,,supplementary ,,volumes ,new ,york ,state #cj cents ,the ,new ,england ,states #cj cents ,utah #dj cents ,california #cj cents ,ohio #cj cents ,illinois #cj cents ,new ,jersey #cj cents ,kansas #cj cents ,virginia #cj cents ,pennsylvania #cj cents ,tennessee #cj cents ,louisiana #cj cents ,texas #ce cents ,when ordering1 be careful to specify the ,book or ,part and the ,series desired and whether with or without the ,state ,supplement4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,tarr and ,mc,murry's ,geographies ,,comments ,north ,plainfield1 ,n4,j4--,i think it the best ,geography that ,i have seen4--,h4 ,j4 ,,wightman1 ,superintendent4 ,boston1 ,mass4--,i have been teaching the subject in the ,boston ,normal ,school for over twenty years1 and ,book ,i is the book ,i have been looking for for the last ten years4 ,it comes nearer to what ,i have been working for than anything in the geography line that ,i have yet seen4 ,i congratulate you on the good work4 --,,miss ,l4 ,t4 ,,moses1 ,normal ,school4 ,detroit1 ,mich4--,i am much pleased with it and have had enthusiastic praise for it from all the teachers to whom ,i have shown it4 ,it seems to me to be scientific1 artistic1 and convenient to a marked degree4 ,the maps are a perfect joy to any teacher who has been using the complicated affairs given in most books of the kind4 --,,agnes ,,mcrae ,de ,kalb1 ,ill4--,i have just finished examining the first book of ,tarr and ,mc,murry's ,geographies4 ,i have read the book with care from cover to cover4 ,to say that ,i am pleased with it is expressing it mildly4 ,it seems to me just what a geography should be4 ,it is correctly conceived and admirably executed4 ,the subject is approached from the right direction and is developed in the right proportions4 ,and those maps--how could they be any better8 ,surely authors and publishers have achieved a triumph in text-book making4 ,i shall watch with interest for the appearance of the other two volumes4--,professor ,,edward ,c4 ,,page1 ,northern ,illinois ,state ,normal ,school4 ,asbury ,park1 ,n4,j4--,i do not hesitate at all to say that ,i think the ,tarr and ,mc,murry's ,geography the best in the market4--,f4 ,s4 ,,shepard1 ,superintendent of ,schools4 ,ithaca1 ,n4,y4--,i am immensely pleased with ,tarr and ,mc,murry's ,geography4--,,charles ,,de ,,garmo1 ,professor of ,pedagogy1 ,cornell ,university4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco