,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,this text uses ,,utf-#h 7unicode7 file encoding4 ,if the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage1 you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable fonts4 ,first1 make sure that your browser's 8character set0 or 8file encoding0 is set to ,unicode 7,,utf-#h74 ,e4g41 with ,mozilla ,firefox1 set it to ,view-,character ,encoding-,unicode 7,,utf-#h74 ,e4g41 with ,internet ,explorer1 set it to ,view-,encoding-,unicode 7,,utf-#h74 ,you may also need to change the default font4 ,,smithsonian ,,institution--,,bureau ,,of ,,ethnology4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,siouan ,,cults4 ,,by ,,james ,,owen ,,dorsey4 ,,contents4 ,page4 ,,chapter ,i4--,introduction #cfa ,definitions of 8,cult0 and 8,siouan0 #cfa ,siouan ,family #cfa ,authorities #cfa ,alphabet #cfc ,abbreviations #cfd ,,chapter ,,ii4--,definitions #cfe ,alleged belief in a ,great ,spirit #cfe ,phenomena divided into human and superhuman #cfe ,terms for 8mysterious10 8lightning10 etc4 #cff ,other ,omaha and ,ponka terms #cfg ,significance of personal names and kinship terms #cfh ,myth and legend distinguished from the superhuman #cfh ,,chapter ,,iii4--,cults of the ,omaha1 ,ponka1 ,kansa1 and ,osage #cga ,beliefs and practices not found #cga ,omaha1 ,ponka1 and ,kansa belief in a wakanda #cgb ,seven great wakandas #cgb ,invocation of warmth and streams #cgb ,prayer to wakanda #cgc ,accessories of prayer #cgc ,omaha and ,kansa expressions about wakanda #cgd ,ponka belief about malevolent spirits #cgd ,an old ,omaha custom #cge ,the sun a wakanda #cgf ,invocations #cgf ,the offering of tobacco #cgg ,the ,ponka sun dance of #ahgc #cgh ,the moon a wakanda #cgh ,berdaches #cgh ,stars as wakandas #cgi ,the winds as wakandas #chj ,invocation #chj ,kansa sacrifice to the winds #chj ,osage consecration of mystic fireplaces #chj ,the thunder-being a wakanda #cha ,omaha and ,ponka invocation of the thunder-being #cha ,thunder-being invoked by warriors #chb ,ictasanda custom #chc ,kansa worship of the thunder-being #che ,subterranean and subaquatic wakandas #chf ,the indaiga #chf ,other ,kansa wakandas #chg ,omaha invocations of the trap1 etc4 #chg ,fasting #cij ,mystic trees and plants #cij ,ia#8e #cib ,personal mystery decorations #cid ,order of thunder shamans #cie ,generic forms of decoration #cig ,specific forms of decoration #cih ,corn and the buffalo #djc ,other ,omaha mystery decorations #djc ,kansa mystery decorations #dje ,omaha nikie decorations #djg ,omaha nikie customs #daj ,governmental instrumentalities #daa ,omaha and ,ponka taboos #daa ,fetichism #dab ,fetiches of the tribe and gens #dac ,omaha tribal fetiches #dac ,osage tribal fetiches #dad ,kansa tribal fetiches #dae ,personal fetiches #dae ,sorcery #daf ,jugglery #dag ,omaha and ,ponka belief as to a future life #dai ,kansa beliefs respecting death and a future life #dba ,,chapter ,,iv4--ciwere and ,winnebago cults #dbc ,authorities #dbc ,term 8,great ,spirit0 never heard among the ,iowa #dbc ,the sun a wakanta #dbc ,the winds as wakantas #dbc ,the thunder-being a wakanta #dbd ,subterranean powers #dbd ,subaquatic powers #dbd ,animals as wakantas #dbe ,apotheoses #dbe ,dwellings of gods #dbe ,worship #dbe ,taboos #dbf ,public or tribal fetiches #dbg ,symbolic earth formations of the ,winnebago #dbg ,personal fetiches #dbh ,dancing societies #dbh ,the ,otter dancing society #dbi ,the ,red ,medicine dancing society #dbi ,the ,green ,corn dance #dbi ,the ,buffalo dancing society #dbi iwere traditions #dcj ,belief in a future life #dcj ,,chapter ,v4--,dakota and ,assiniboin cults #dca ,alleged ,dakota belief in a ,great ,spirit #dca ,riggs on the ,taku wakan #dcb ,meaning of wakan #dcc ,daimonism #dcc ,animism #dcc ,principal ,dakota gods #dcd ,miss ,fletcher on ,indian religion #dcd ,prayer #dce ,sacrifice #dce ,use of paint in worship #dch ,the unktei1 or subaquatic and subterranean powers #dch ,character of the unktei #dch ,power of the unktei #dci ,subordinates of the unktei #dci ,the mystery dance #ddj ,the miniwatu #ddj ,the ,wakiya1 or thunder-beings #dda ,the armor gods #ddc ,the war prophet #ddd ,the spirits of the mystery sacks #dde ,takukaka1 the ,moving deity #dde ,tunkan or ,inyan1 the ,stone god or ,lingam #ddg ,iya a #ddh ,mato tipi #ddh ,the sun and moon #ddi ,nature of concepts #ddi ,the sun dance #dej ,a ,dakota's account of the sun dance #dej ,object of the sun dance #dea ,rules observed by households #dea ,the 8u-ma-ne0 #dea ,rules observed by the devotee #deb ,tribes invited to the sun dance #deb ,discipline maintained #deb ,camping circle formed #dec ,men selected to seek the mystery tree #dec ,tent of preparation #ded ,expedition to the mystery tree #dee ,felling the tree #def ,tree taken to camp #deg ,raising the sun pole #deg ,building of dancing lodge #deh ,the ,uuita #deh ,decoration of candidates or devotees #deh ,offerings of candidates #dei ,ceremonies at the dancing lodge #dfj ,the dance #dfj ,candidates scarified #dfj ,pieces of flesh offered #dfb ,torture of owner of horse #dfb ,end of the dance #dfb ,intrusive dances #dfc ,captain ,bourke on the sun dance #dfd ,berdaches #dfg ,astronomical lore #dfg ,day and night #dfg ,the dawn #dfh ,weather spirit #dfh ,heyoka #dfh ,the concepts of ,heyoka #dfh ,heyoka feast #dfi ,story of a ,heyoka man #dfi ,heyoka women #dga ,iya1 the god of gluttony #dga ,ikto1 ,iktomi1 or ,unktomi #dga aotida and ,honoia #dgc ,anug-ite #dgc ,penates #dge ,guardian spirits #dge ,beliefs about the buffalo #dge ,prevalence of the beliefs #dge ,origin of the buffalo #dgf ,the ,tatagnakiya1 or ,mythic buffalo #dgg ,the bear #dgg ,the wolf #dgg ,horses #dgi ,spiders #dgi ,snake lore #dgi ,the double woman #dhj ,deer women #dhj ,dwarfs or elves #dha ,bogs #dha ,trees #dhb ,customs relating to childhood #dhb ,puberty #dhc ,ghost lore and the future life #dhd ,meaning of wanai #dhd ,assiniboin beliefs about the dead #dhe ,ghosts not always visible #dhe ,death and burial lore #dhe ,why the ,teton stopped burying in the ground #dhf ,importance of tattooing #dhf ,ceremonies at the ghost lodge #dhg ,good and bad ghosts #dhi ,intercourse with ghosts #dhi ,ghost stories #dhi ,the ghost husband #dhi ,the solitary traveler #dhi ,the ghost on the hill #dhi ,the ,indian who wrestled with a ghost #dhi ,the man who shot a ghost #dib ,assiniboin beliefs about ghosts #dib ,prayers to the dead1 including ancestors #dic ,metamorphoses and transmigration of souls #dic ,exhortations to absent warriors #dic ,mysterious men and women #dic ,gopher lore #dif ,causes of boils and sores #dif ,results of lying1 stealing1 etc4 #dig ,secret societies #dig ,fetichism #dih ,public or tribal fetiches #dih ,private or personal fetiches #dih ,ordeals1 or modes of swearing #dii ,sorcery and jugglery #dii ,omens #ejj ,bodily omens #ejj ,animal omens #ejj ,omens from dreams #ejj ,,chapter ,,vi4--,cults of the ,mandan1 ,hidatsa1 and ,sapona #eja ,authorities #eja ,alleged belief in a ,great ,spirit #eja ,the great mystery a modern deity #eja ,polytheism #ejb ,worship #ejb ,fasting #ejb ,sacrifice #ejb ,the ,okipa #ejb ,the ,dapike #ejc ,cult of the ,yoni #eje ,absaroka fear of a white buffalo cow #eje ,mandan cults #ejf ,mandan divinities #ejf ,guardian spirits #ejg ,mandan belief about serpents and giants #ejg ,thunder lore of the ,mandan #ejh ,astronomical lore #ejh ,mystery objects and places of the ,mandan and ,hidatsa #ejh ,the mystery rock #ejh ,dreams #eaj ,oracles #eaj ,fetiches #eaj ,folklore #eaa ,sorcery #eaa ,jugglery #eab ,ghost lore #eab ,the future life #eab ,four as a mystic number among the ,mandan #eac ,hidatsa cults #eac ,hidatsa divinities #eac ,animism #ead ,worship of the elements1 etc4 #ead ,serpent worship #ead ,fetiches #eae ,tribal fetiches #eae ,personal fetiches #eae ,oracles #eaf ,dreams #eaf ,berdaches #eaf ,astronomical lore #eag ,food lore #eag ,four souls in each human being #eag ,sorcery #eag ,disposal of the dead #eah ,hidatsa belief as to future existence #eah ,sapona cults #eah ,,chapter ,,vii4--,concluding remarks #ebj ,peet on ,indian religions #ebj ,the author's reply #eba ,cults of the elements #ebb ,the four quarters #ebd ,symbolic colors #ebg ,colors in personal names #ecc ,the earth powers #ecd ,earth gentes #ecd ,the fire powers #ecd ,fire gentes #ecf ,the wind-makers #ecf ,wind gentes #ecg ,each quarter reckoned as three #ecg ,names referring to other worlds #ecg ,the water powers #ecg ,water people #ech ,cautions and queries #ech ,composite names #eci ,personal names from horned beings #eda ,names derived from several homogeneous objects or beings #edb ,return of the spirit to the eponym #edb ,functions of gentes and subgentes #edb ,the 8,messiah craze0 #edd ,epilogue #edd ,,illustrations4 ,,plate ,,xliv4 ,siouan tents 7,a1 tent of ejequta2 ,b1 tent of ,mazi-jiga 7man in the sun72 ,c1 tent of ,heqaga2 ,d1 tent of ,kaxe-aba's father2 ,e1 tent of ,hupea1 ,sr41 and ,agaha-wacuce7 #cfa ,,xlv4 ,camping circle at the time of the sun dance #ded ,,xlvi4 ,the dancing lodge #deh ,,xlvii4 ,scarification of candidates 7#a1 ,okska nain2 #b1 ,ptepa kin wai7 #dfj ,,xlviii4 ,the sun dance #dfb ,,xlix4 ,a suspended devotee #dfd ,l4 ,the double woman #dhj ,,fig4 #aef4 ,george ,miller's personal mystery decoration #cid #aeg4 ,a variant of ,fig4 #aef #cid #aeh4 ,robe of ,wanukige #cie #aei4 ,tent of ,wanukige #cif #afj4 ,robe of aqube #cif #afa4 ,robe of ahe-ap#8 #cig #afb4 ,generic decoration referring to night1 etc4 #cig #afc4 ,tent of ,apa-ska1 ,sr4 #cih #afd4 ,robe of ,apa-ska1 ,sr4 #cii #afe4 ,tent of ,mazi-jiga 7ghost vision7 #cii #aff4 ,a tent of ,nikuiba #cii #afg4 ,another tent of ,nikuiba #cii #afh4 ,blanket of ,cua mai #djj #afi4 ,tent of esa2 vision of a cedar #dja #agj4 ,tent of esa2 sun and rainbow vision #dja #aga4 ,cornstalk decoration of the tents of ,fire ,chief and ,waqaga #djb #agb4 ,robe of ,ni-actage #djc #agc4 ,duba-mai's father's tent #djc #agd4 ,matcu-naba's tent #djc #age4 ,wackahi's tent #djd #agf4 ,tent of an unknown ,omaha #djd #agg4 ,tent of ebi#8a #dje #agh4 ,tent of a ,kansa who had an eagle vision #dje #agi4 ,kansa decorated tent #djf #ahj4 ,kansa decorated tent #djf #aha4 ,maze-guhe's robe #djf #ahb4 ,maze-guhe's tent #djg #ahc4 ,duba-mai's father's blanket #djg #ahd4 ,ike-sab tent decoration #djh #ahe4 ,ike-sab tent decoration #dji #ahf4 ,waqaga's robe #dji #ahg4 ,sacred tent in which the pole was kept #dac #ahh4 ,bear ,butte1 ,south ,dakota #ddi #ahi4 ,the 8u-ma-ne0 symbol #dea #aij4 ,eagle-wing flute #dee #aia4 ,the tent of preparation and the dancing lodge #dei #aib4 ,the ghost lodge #dhg #aic4 ,the atada gentile circle #ebc #aid4 ,the four elements1 etc4 #ebc #aie4 ,kansa order of invoking winds1 etc4 #ebe #aif4 ,tsiu 7,osage7 order of placing the four sticks1 etc4 #ebe #aig4 ,paka 7,osage7 order of placing the four sticks1 etc4 #ebf #aih4 ,kase 7,osage7 order of circumambulation #ebf #aii4 ,showing how the ,osage prepared the scalp for the dance #ebf #bjj4 ,omaha lightnings and the four quarters #ebg ,illustration3 ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,eleventh ,annual ,report4 ,plate ,,xliv image ,,gast ,,lith4 ,,co4 ,,siouan ,,tents4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,siouan ,,cults4 ,,by ,,james ,,owen ,,dorsey4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,,definitions ,,of 8,,cult0 ,,and 8,,siouan40 #a4 ,cult1 as used in this article1 means a system of religious belief and worship1 especially the rites and ceremonies employed in such worship4 ,the present article treats of the cults of a few of the ,siouan tribes--that is1 with two exceptions1 of such tribes as have been visited by the author4 8,siouan0 is a term originated by the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,it is derived from 8,sioux10 the popular name for those ,indians who call themselves 8,dakota0 or 8,lakota10 the latter being the ,teton appellation4 8,siouan0 is used as an adjective1 but1 unlike its primitive1 it refers not only to the ,dakota tribes1 but also to the entire linguistic stock or family4 ,,siouan ,,family4 ,the ,siouan family includes the ,dakota1 ,assiniboin1 ,omaha1 ,ponka1 ,osage1 ,kansa1 ,kwapa1 ,iowa1 ,oto1 ,missouri1 ,winnebago1 ,mandan1 ,hidatsa1 ,crow1 ,tutelo1 ,biloxi1 ,catawba1 and other ,indians4 ,the ,sapona1 who are now extinct1 probably belonged to this family4 ,the author was missionary to the ,ponka ,indians1 in what is now part of ,nebraska1 from #ahga to #ahgc4 ,since #ahgh he has acquired native texts and other information from the ,omaha1 ,ponka1 ,osage1 ,kansa1 ,winnebago1 ,iowa1 ,oto1 ,missouri1 and ,dakota4 ,in seeking information respecting the ancient beliefs of the ,indians the author has always found it expedient to question the ,indian when no interpreter was present4 ,,authorities4 #b4 ,this study is based for the most part upon statements made by ,indians1 though several publications were consulted during the preparation of the fifth and sixth chapters4 ,the following ,indians had become ,christians before the author met them3 ,joseph ,la ,flche1 ,frank ,la ,flche1 ,john ,big ,elk1 and ,george ,miller1 all ,omaha4 ,joseph ,la ,flche1 who died in #ahhh1 was the leader of the civilization party in the ,omaha tribe after #ahee4 ,he was at one time a head chief4 ,he spoke several ,indian languages1 having spent years among other tribes1 including the ,pawnee1 when he was in the service of the fur company4 ,his son1 ,frank1 has been in the ,indian ,bureau at ,washington since #ahha4 ,the author has obtained considerable linguistic material from the father and son4 ,the father1 with ,two ,crows1 aided the author in the summer of #ahhb in revising his sociologic notes1 resulting in the preparation of 8,omaha ,sociology10 which was published in the third annual report of the director of the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,john ,big ,elk1 a full ,omaha1 of the ,elk gens1 furnished an article on 8,sacred ,traditions and ,customs10 and several historical papers1 published in 8,contributions to ,north ,american ,ethnology1 ,vol4 ,,vi40 ,george ,miller1 of the ,ictasanda or ,thunder gens1 is a full ,omaha1 from whom was obtained nearly half of ,chapter ,,iii1 including most of the ,omaha illustrations4 ,the following ,indians were not ,christians3 ,gahige1 ,two ,crows1 ai-napaj1 and ,samuel ,fremont1 all ,omaha2 ,nuda-axa1 a ,ponka2 and the ,kansa1 ,osage1 ,missouri1 ,iowa1 and ,winnebago informants4 ,two ,crows has been connected in several ways with the ancient organizations of his people4 ,he has been a head man1 or nikagahi1 being thus an ex-officio member of the class which exercised the civil and religious functions of the state4 ,he has been a policeman during the buffalo hunt4 ,he has acted as captain1 or war chief1 and he is the leading doctor in the order of ,buffalo shamans1 being the keeper of the 8sweet medicine40 ai-napaj1 or ,he-who-fears-not-the-sight-of-a-,pawnee 1 is a member of the ,black ,bear subgens1 and he is also one of the servants of the ,elk gens1 it being his duty to be present at the sacred tent of that gens1 and to assist in the ceremonies pertaining to the invocation of the ,thunder ,beings4 ,gahige was the chief of the ,ike-sab1 a ,buffalo gens1 and at the time of his death he was the keeper of the two sacred pipes4 ,samuel ,fremont is a member of the ,eagle subgens4 ,he came to ,washington in the autumn of #ahhh and assisted the author till ,february1 #ahhi4 ,nuda-axa is a chief of a part of the ,thunder-,being gens of the ,ponka4 ,the author has known him since #ahga4 ,the other ,indian authorities need not be named1 as they are in substantial agreement4 ,the following authorities were consulted in the preparation of the ,dakota and ,assiniboin chapter3 ,,bruyier 7,,john71 a ,dakota1 ,,ms4 ,teton texts4 #ahhh4 ,translated by himself4 ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,,bushotter 7,,george71 a ,dakota1 ,,ms4 ,teton texts4 #ahhg-'hh4 ,translated by ,j4 ,owen ,dorsey4 ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,,fletcher 7,miss ,,alice ,c471 ,the ,sun-dance of the ,ogalalla ,sioux4 ,in ,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,montreal meeting1 #ahhb1 pp4 #ehj-ehd4 ,,fletcher 7,miss ,,alice ,c471 several articles in ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 #c1 #ahhd1 pp4 #bfj-ccc4 ,,hovey 7,rev4 ,h4 ,c471 8,eyay ,shah10 in ,am4 ,antiquarian1 ,jan41 #ahhg1 pp4 #ce1 #cf4 ,,long 7,maj4 ,s4 ,h471 ,skiff ,voyage to ,falls of ,st4 ,anthony4 ,in ,minn4 ,histor4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #ah1 #ai1 #ee4 ,,lynd 7,j4 ,w471 ,religion of the ,dakotas4 ,in ,minn4 ,histor4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #eg-hd4 ,,pond 7,g4 ,h471 ,dakota ,superstitions4 ,in ,minn4 ,histor4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #c1 pp4 #cb-fb4 ,,riggs 7,s4 ,r471 ,theogony of the ,sioux4 ,in ,am4 ,antiquarian1 vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #bfe-bgj4 ----4 ,in ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,v1 #ahhc1 p4 #adi4 ----4 ,in ,am4 ,philolog4 ,assoc4 ,proc41 #c;d ,an4 ,sess41 #ahgb1 pp4 #e1 #f4 ----4 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 or1 ,the ,gospel ,among the ,dakotas1 #ahfi4 ,,say 7,,thos471 in ,james 7,e471 ,account of ,long's ,exped4 ,rocky ,mts41 vol4 ,i1 ,phil41 #ahbc4 ,,shea 7,j4 ,,gilmary71 ,am4 ,cath4 ,missions1 ,n4 ,y4 7after #ahed74 ,,smet 7,rev4 ,p4 ,j4 ,,de71 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 ,n4 ,y4 7n4 d474 ,,woodburn 7,dr4 ,j4 ,m41 ,jr471 ,,ms4 ,letter and ,teton ,vocabulary1 #ahij4 ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,,alphabet4 #c4 ,with the exception of seven letters taken from ,riggs's ,dakota ,dictionary1 and which are used only in the ,dakota words1 the characters used in recording the ,indian words occurring in this paper belong to the alphabet adopted by the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note3 many of the letters in the original book cannot be represented faithfully in the character set available4 ,the following table explains the conventions used to represent such characters4 ,in the table1 #8x' and #8y' are used to mean 8any letter04 ,symbol ,symbol in book #8 ,inverted comma1 to the left of a letter and raised above the baseline1 like a single opening quotation mark4 ' ,comma1 to the right of a letter and raised above the baseline1 like a single closing quotation mark4 8,accent mark0--a diagonal slash indicating a stressed syllable4 x ,the letter upside-down4 ,this is used for upside-down lower-case #8p'1 because an upside-down lower-case p looks too much like a #8d'2 and for upside-down #8s'1 which looks too much like a right-side-up #8s'2 and for an upside-down upper-case ,k1 because ,i don't think that character exists in ,unicode4 ,a lowercase #8c' with an acute accent and a mark below4 ,an uppercase #8c' with an acute accent and a mark below4 ,,end ,,of ,,transcriber',s ,,note4 a1 as in father4 #8a1 an initially exploded a4 1 as in what1 or as o in not4 #81 an initially exploded 4 1 as in hat4 c1 as sh in she4 ,see 4 1 a medial sh1 a sonant-surd4 7,dakota letter71 as ch in church4 1 as th in thin4 1 a medial 1 sonant-surd4 1 as th in the4 e1 as in they4 #8e1 an initially exploded e4 1 as in get4 #8 an initially exploded 4 g1 as in go4 7in ,dakota71 gh4 ,see x4 7in ,osage71 an h after a pure or nasalized vowel1 expelled through the mouth with the lips wide apart4 7in ,dakota71 kh1 etc4 ,see q4 i1 as in machine4 #8i1 an initially exploded i4 1 as in pin4 j1 as z in azure1 or as j in the ,french ,jacques4 a medial k1 a sonant-surd4 k'1 an exploded k4 ,see next letter4 7in ,dakota71 an exploded k4 7in ,dakota71 after a vowel has the sound of n in the ,french bon4 ,see 4 7in ,kansa71 a medial m1 a sound between m and b4 1 as ng in sing4 hn1 its initial sound is expelled from the nostrils and is scarcely heard4 o1 as in no4 #8o1 an initially exploded o4 p1 a medial b or p1 a sonant-surd4 p'1 an exploded p4 q1 as ,german ch in ach4 ,see 4 s1 a medial z or s1 a sonant-surd4 7in ,dakota71 as sh in she4 ,see c4 1 a medial d or t1 a sonant-surd4 t'1 an exploded t4 u1 as oo in tool4 #8u1 an initially exploded u4 1 as oo in foot4 1 a sound between o and u4 1 as in ,german khl1 sss4 x1 gh1 or nearly the ,arabic ghain4 ,see 4 7in ,dakota71 as z in azure4 ,see j4 dj1 as j in judge4 tc1 as ch in church4 ,see 4 tc'1 an exploded tc4 1 a medial tc1 a sonant-surd4 ts'1 an exploded ts4 s1 a medial ts1 a sonant-surd4 ai1 as in aisle4 au1 as ow in how4 yu1 as u in tune1 or ew in few4 ,the following have the ordinary ,english sounds3 b1 d1 h1 k1 l1 m1 n1 p1 r1 s1 t1 w1 y1 and z4 ,a superior n 77 after a vowel 7compare the ,dakota 7 has the sound of the ,french n in bon1 vin1 etc4 ,a plus sign 77 after any letter prolongs it4 ,the vowels #8a1 #8e1 #8i1 #8o1 #8u1 and their modifications are styled initially exploded vowels for want of a better appellation1 there being in each case an initial explosion4 ,these vowels can not be called 8breaths10 as no aspiration is used with any of them2 nor can they be spoken of as 8guttural breaths10 as they are approximately or partially pectoral sounds4 ,they have been found by the author not only in the ,siouan languages1 but also in some of the languages of western ,oregon4 ,in #ahhj a brother of the late ,gen4 ,armstrong1 of ,hampton1 ,va41 who was born on one of the ,hawaiian islands1 informed the author that this class of vowel sounds occurred in the language of his native land4 ,,abbreviations4 ,the abbreviations in the interlinear translations are as follows3 sub4--subject4 ob4--object4 st4--sitting4 std4--standing4 recl4--reclining4 mv4--moving4 col4--collective4 lg4--long4 cv4--curvilinear4 pl4--plural4 sing4--singular4 an4--animate4 in4--inanimate4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,definitions4 ,,alleged ,,belief ,,in ,a ,,great ,,spirit4 #d4 ,it has been asserted for several hundred years that the ,north ,american ,indian was a believer in one ,great ,spirit prior to the coming of the white race to this continent1 and that1 as he was a monotheist1 it was an easy matter to convert him to ,christianity4 ,indians have been represented as speaking of 8,the ,great ,spirit10 8,the ,master of ,life10 etc41 as if the idea of the one and only ,god was familiar to our aborigines during the pre-,columbian period4 ,while the author is unwilling to commit himself to a general denial of this assertion1 he has been forced to conclude that it needs considerable modification1 at least so far as it refers to the tribes of the ,siouan stock4 7,see #g1 #ae1 #ba-dc1 #gb-gi1 #ib-ii1 #caa1 #cab1 #cbb-cbf1 #cda-cdf47 ,on close investigation it will be found that in many cases ,indians have been quick to adopt the phrases of civilization in communicating with white people1 but in speaking to one another they use their own terms4 ,the student of the uncivilized races must ever be on his guard against leading questions and their answers4 ,the author has learned by experience that it is safer to let the ,indian tell his own story in his own words than to endeavor to question him in such a manner as to reveal what answers are desired or expected4 #e4 ,in #ahhc the author published an article on 8,the ,religion of the ,omahas and ,ponkas10 in ,the ,american ,antiquarian of ,chicago4 ,since then he has obtained additional data1 furnishing him with many undesigned coincidences1 which lead him to a broader view of the subject4 ,,phenomena ,,divided ,,into ,,human ,,and ,,superhuman4 #f4 ,in considering the subject from an ,indian's point of view1 one must avoid speaking of the supernatural as distinguished from the natural4 ,it is safer to divide phenomena as they appear to the ,indian mind into the human and the superhuman1 as many1 if not most natural phenomena are mysterious to the ,indian4 ,nay1 even man himself may become mysterious by fasting1 prayer1 and vision4 ,one fruitful source of error has been a misunderstanding of ,indian terms and phrases4 ,it is very important to attempt to settle the exact meanings of certain native words and phrases ere we proceed further with the consideration of the subject4 ,,terms ,,for 8,,mysterious10 8,,lightning10 ,,etc4 #g4 ,the attention of the author having been called to the article on 8,serpent ,symbolism0 of the ,iroquoian languages1 by ,mr4 ,hewitt#a of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 a similar investigation of the ,siouan terms was made1 the results of which are now presented4 ,in connection with the terms for 8serpent10 ,mr4 ,hewitt showed how they are related in the languages with which he was familiar with other terms1 such as 8demon10 8devil10 8wizard10 8witch10 8subtile10 8occult10 8mysterious10 and 8supernatural40 ,in ,dakota we find the following3 ,waka1 mysterious1 wonderful1 incomprehensible1 often rendered 8holy0 by the missionaries2 waka-hdi 7in ,santee71 waka-kdi 7in ,yankton71 lightning1 perhaps containing a reference to a zigzag line or forked lightning2 waka etco1 to practice sleight of hand2 and wamducka1 serpent4 ,there are many derivatives of waka1 among which are1 ,taku ,waka1 literally 8something mysterious10 rendered 8some one mysterious10 or 8holy being10 and ,waka-taka1 literally1 8,great mysterious 7one710 both of which terms are now applied to ,god by the missionaries and their converts1 though ,waka-taka is a name for the ,thunder-being4 ,in ,riggs's alphabet 7,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 ,vol4 ,,vii71 these words are thus written3 ,waka1 wakahdi1 wakakdi1 waka eo1 wamduka1 ,taku ,waka1 and ,wakataka4 ,one of the ,dakota words for 8aged0 is ka 7ka in ,riggs's alphabet72 but though this refers to persons we can not tell whether it is related to waka 7or waka74 ,in the egiha1 the language spoken by the ,ponka and ,omaha1 ,wakanda means 8the mysterious0 or 8powerful one10 and it is applied in several senses4 ,it is now used to denote the ,god of monotheism4 ,some of the old people say that their ancestors always believed in a supreme ,wakanda or ,mysterious ,power4 ,it sometimes refers to the ,thunder-being4 ,on one occasion1 a ,ponka shaman1 ,cramped ,hand1 said to the author3 8,i am a ,wakanda40 ,wakandagi1 as a noun1 means a subterranean or water monster1 a large horned reptile mentioned in the myths1 and still supposed to dwell beneath the bluffs along the ,missouri ,river4 ,with this term compare the ,dakota ,ukteqi 7,uktei1 of ,riggs7 and the ,winnebago ,waktceqi1 the latter having given a name to the ,water ,monster gens 7,waktceqi ikikaratcada74 ,wakandagi is sometimes used adverbially1 as1 si wakandagi1 he is wonderfully stingy6 ,e wakandagi1 he 7a small child7 speaks surprisingly well 7for one so young76 ai wakandagi1 he runs very well 7for one so young76 ,mai wakandagi1 he 7a small child7 walks very well6 ,wakandie1 to be in great haste1 perhaps contains the idea of putting forth a great effort in order to accomplish something speedily4 ,ws#81 a serpent1 is not related to the others just given4 ,nor can the word for 8wizard0 or 8conjurer0 be found related to them4 ,in ,kansa1 ,wakanda is used of superhuman beings or powers1 as in ,omaha and ,ponka1 but the author never heard a shaman apply the term to himself4 ,wakandagi has another meaning1 mysterious1 wonderful1 incomprehensible1 as1 nika wakandagi1 mysterious man1 shaman1 juggler1 doctor2 nanba wakandagi1 mysterious or sacred pipe2 wakandagi wagaxe1 the sleight-of-hand tricks of the mysterious men and women4 ,wakanda qudje1 the gray mysterious one1 the elephant4 ,waka does not mean serpent1 but pumpkin1 answering to the ,omaha and ,ponka1 wata1 and to the ,osage1 wakqa and watqa4 ,myets#8a 7almost1 ,byets#8a7 is the ,kansa word for a serpent4 ,in ,osage1 ,wakaa answers to the ,kansa ,wakanda1 and ,waka-a-i is the same as the ,kansa1 ,wakandagi4 ,wets#8a is a serpent4 ,in ,kwapa1 ,wakaai seems to answer to the ,kansa ,wakandagi4 ,in iwere 7,iowa1 ,oto1 ,missouri71 ,wakaa is the same as the ,kansa ,wakanda4 ,waka means a serpent4 ,waka kirae1 the ,serpent gens4 ,wa-hu-pri1 mysterious1 as a person or animal2 but wa-qo-nyi-ta1 mysterious1 as an inanimate object4 ,in the ,winnebago1 three names for superhuman beings have been found4 ,one is ,wause or ,waguze1 which can not be translated2 another is ,ma#8u-na1 ,earth-maker1 the third being ,qo-pi-ne qe-te-r1 ,great ,mysterious ,one4 ,qopine seems related to waqopini 7with which compare the iwere1 wahupri71 a term used to distinguish people of other races from ,indians1 just as in ,dakota wacitcu 7in ,riggs's alphabet1 waiu71 now used for 8white man10 8black man10 etc41 retains in the ,teton dialect its ancient meaning of superhuman being or guardian spirit4 ,wakawax1 in ,winnebago1 denotes a witch or wizard4 ,waka-na is a serpent1 and waka ikikaratca-da1 the ,serpent gens2 ,wakatca1 or ,wakatca-ra1 thunder1 the ,thunder-,being2 ,wakatcaka-ra1 a shaman or mysterious man4 ,,other ,,omaha ,,and ,,ponka ,,terms4 #h4 ,other terms are given as being pertinent to the subject4 ,they occur in the language of the ,omaha and ,ponka4 ,qube1 mysterious as a person or animal 7all animals were persons in ancient times72 but a mysterious inanimate object is spoken of as being 8waqube40 ,uqube means the mysteriousness of a human being or animal4 ,uqubeaaica1 pertaining to such mysteriousness4 ,wakandaaica1 pertaining or referring to ,wakanda4 ,nikie is a term that refers to a mythical ancestor1 to some part of his body1 to some of his acts1 or to some ancient rite ascribed to him4 ,a 8nikie name0 is a personal name of such a character4 ,ia#8e1 literally1 8to pity him on account of it1 granting him certain power40 ,its primary reference is to the mysterious animal1 but it is transferred to the person having the vision1 hence1 it means 8to receive mysterious things from an animal1 as in a vision after fasting2 to see as in a vision1 face to face 7not in a dream72 to see when awake1 and in a mysterious manner having a conversation with the animal about mysterious things40 #i4 ,the names for grandfather1 grandmother1 and old man are terms of veneration1 superhuman beings having these names applied to them in invocations4 7,see #ae1 #ii47 ,,significance ,,of ,,personal ,,names ,,and ,,kinship ,,terms4 ,in a note upon 8,the ,religious ,ceremony of the ,four ,winds or ,quarters1 as ,observed by the ,santee ,sioux10 ,miss ,fletcher#b remarks3 8,a name implies relationship1 and consequently protection2 favor and influence are claimed from the source of the name1 whether this be the gens or the vision4 ,a name1 therefore1 shows the affiliation of the individual2 it grades him1 so to speak1 and he is apt to lean upon its implied power4 99 99 99 ,the sacred import of a name in the mind of the ,indian is indicated in that part of the ceremony where the 8,something that moves0 seems to overshadow and inclose the child1 and addresses the wakan man as father4 ,the wakan man replies1 calling the god1 child1 at the same time invoking the supernatural protection and care for the boy1 as he lays at the feet of the messenger of ,unseen ,power the offerings of gifts and the honor of the feast4 ,the personal name#c among ,indians1 therefore1 indicates the protecting presence of a deity1 and must1 therefore1 partake of the ceremonial character of the ,indian's religion40 ,in this ceremony the superhuman being is addressed by the term implying juniority1 and the human being1 the wakan man1 by that associated with seniority1 an apparent reversal of the usual custom2 but1 doubtless1 there can be found some explanation for this seeming exception to the rule4 ,,myth ,,and ,,legend ,,distinguished ,,from ,,the ,,superhuman4 #aj4 ,the ,omaha1 ,ponka1 and cognate tribes distinguish at the present day between the myth 7higa1 higu7 and the legend or story 7iua1 etc47 on the one hand2 and what on the other hand is called 8,wakandaaica10 8uqubeaaica10 and 8ia#8eaaica40 ,the former are told only for amusement and are called1 8iusicta iua10 lying tales4 ,they are regarded as 8iqawaaaica10 pertaining to the ludicrous4 ,with this may be compared the statements of ,lang3#d 8,among the lowest and most backward1 as among the most advanced races1 there coexist the mythical and the religious elements in belief4 ,the rational factor 7or what approves itself to us as the rational factor7 is visible in religion2 the irrational is prominent in myth40 99 99 99 8,the rational and irrational aspects of mythology and religion may be of coeval antiquity for all that is certainly known1 or either of them1 in the dark backward of mortal experience1 may have preceded the other40 ,the author has found certain ,indian myths which abound in what to the civilized mind is the grossest obscenity1 and that too without the slightest reference to the origin of any natural phenomena4 ,myths of this class appear to have been told from a love of the obscene4 ,nothing of a mysterious or religious character can be found in them4 ,perhaps such myths are of modern origin2 but this must remain an enigma4 #aa4 ,the ,omaha and ,ponka are in a transition state1 hence many of their old customs and beliefs are disappearing4 ,some have been lost within the past fifty years1 others within the last decade1 according to unimpeachable testimony4 ,the ,ponka are more conservative than the ,omaha1 and the ,kansa and ,osage are more so than the ,ponka1 in the estimation of the author4 #ab4 ,though it has been said that the ,indians feared to tell myths except on winter nights 7and some ,indians have told this to the author71 the author has had no trouble in obtaining myths during the day at various seasons of the year4 #ac4 ,james ,alexander1 a full ,winnebago of the ,wolf gens and a non-,christian1 told the author that the myths of the ,winnebago1 called wai-ka-na by them1 have undergone material change in the course of transmission1 and that it is very probable that many of them are entirely different from what they were several generations ago4 ,even in the same tribe at the present day1 the author has found no less than three versions of the same myth1 and there may be others4 ,the myth of the ,big ,turtle is a case in point4#e ,the narrator acknowledged that he had made some additions to it himself4 #ad4 ,no fasting or prayer is required before one can tell a myth4 ,far different is it with those things which are 8,wakandaaica10 or are connected with visions or the secret societies4 ,this agrees in the main with what ,mr4 ,james ,mooney1 of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 has learned from the ,cherokee of ,north ,carolina4 ,mr4 ,frank ,h4 ,cushing has found that the ,zui ,indians distinguish between their folk-lore and their cult-lore1 i4e41 between their legends and mythic tales on the one hand1 and their dramatized stories of creation and their religious observances on the other1 a special name being given to each class of knowledge4 ,to them the mythic tales and folk-lore in general are but the fringe of the garment1 not the garment itself4 ,when they enact the creation story1 etc41 they believe that they are repeating the circumstances represented1 and that they are then surrounded by the very beings referred to in the sacred stories4 ,similar beliefs were found by ,dr4 ,washington ,matthews1 as shown in his article entitled 8,the ,prayer of a ,navajo ,shaman10 published in the ,american ,anthropologist of ,washington1 ,d4,c41 for ,april1 #ahhh4 #ae4 ,at the same time there seems to be some connection between certain myths and the personal names called1 8nikie names40 ,this will be considered in detail in a future monograph on 8,indian ,personal ,names10 now in course of preparation4 ,one example must suffice for the present4 ,in the ,kaze gens of the ,omaha there is a nikie name1 asi duba1 ,four ,peaks4 ,the author did not understand its derivation until he studied the myth of ,haxige and observed the prayers made in gathering the stones for the sweat-bath4 ,each stone was invoked as a venerable man 7see #i71 the ,four ,peaks were mentioned several times1 and the two superior deities or chief mysterious ones 7,wakanda aga agaaha hnakace7 were invoked4#f ,this last refers to the ,wakanda residing above and the one in the ground4 ,it is therefore possible that in past ages the ,siouan tribes did not differentiate between the myth and what is 8,wakandaaica40 ,but we have no means of proving this4 #af4 ,most of the ,omaha governmental instrumentalities 78wewaspe07 were 8,wakandaaica10 but there were things that were 8,wakandaaica10 which were not 8wewaspe10 such as the law of catamenial seclusion4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,april1 #ahhi1 pp4 #agi1 #ahj4 ,footnote #b3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bie4 ,footnote #c3 ,and also the kinship term in some cases4 ,footnote #d3 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 pp4 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,footnote #e3 ,see ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn4 ,vol4 ,,vi1 #bga-bgg4 ,footnote #f3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #bcd1 #bdb ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,cults ,,of ,,the ,,omaha1 ,,ponka1 ,,kansa1 ,,and ,,osage4 ,,beliefs ,,and ,,practices ,,not ,,found4 #ag4 ,there are certain beliefs and practices which have not been found among the four tribes whose cults are treated of in this chapter4 ,ancestors were not worshiped4 ,they were addressed reverently when alive1 and when they died it was not contrary to custom to refer to them by name1 nor did their deaths involve the change of name for a single object or phenomenon4 ,it was a very common occurrence for the name of the deceased to be assumed by a surviving kinsman4 ,this is shown by genealogical tables of a few ,siouan tribes1 the material for which was collected by the author1 and which will form part of his monograph on 8,indian ,personal ,names10 now in course of preparation for publication by the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 #ah4 ,they never heard of ,satan or the devil until they learned of him from the white people4 ,now they have adopted the terms1 8,wanxe pij10 8,igaxe pij10 and 8,wakanda pij40 ,the first is used by the ,omaha and ,ponka1 the others were heard only among the ,ponka4 ,they have a certain saying1 applicable to a young man who is a liar1 or who is bad in some other way3 8,wanxe pij ga ha10 i4e4 8,he is like the bad spirit60 ,this becomes1 when addressed to the bad person1 8,wanxe pij ikiga-qti ja10 i4e4 8,you act just like the 7or a7 bad spirit40 #ai4 ,though it has been said that hero worship was unknown among the ,omaha and ,ponka1 it has been learned that ,omaha mothers used to scare their unruly children by telling them that ,icibaj 7a hero of the e-snde gens7 or his friend exuja 7a hero of the ,kaze gens7 would catch them if they did not behave4 ,there was no worship of demigods1 as demigods were unknown4 ,two ,crows and ,joseph ,la ,flche said that phallic worship was unknown1 and they were surprised to hear that it had been practiced by any tribe4 7,see #acb1 #afd47 ,as the ,ponka obtained the sun-dance from their ,dakota neighbors1 it is probable that they practiced the phallic cult4 #bj4 ,totems and shamans were not worshiped1 though they are still reverenced4 ,altars or altar-stones were unknown4 ,incense was not used1 unless by this name we refer to the odor of tobacco smoke as it ascended to the ,thunder-being1 or to the use of cedar fronds in the sweat lodge4 ,there were no human sacrifices1 and cannibalism was not practiced4 ,,omaha1 ,,ponka1 ,,and ,,kansa ,,belief ,,in ,a ,,wakanda4 #ba4 ,according to ,two ,crows and ,joseph ,la ,flche1 the ancestors of the ,omaha and ,ponka believed that there was a ,supreme ,being1 whom they called ,wakanda4 8,wakanda t#8ai t eegai1 they believed that ,wakanda existed40 ,they did not know where ,he was1 nor did they undertake to say how ,he existed4 ,there was no public gathering at which some of the people told others that there was a ,wakauda1 nor was there any general assembly for the purpose of offering ,him worship and prayer4 ,each person thought in his heart that ,wakanda existed4 ,some addressed the sun as ,wakanda1 though many did not so regard him4 ,many addressed ,wakanda1 as it were1 blindly or at random4 ,some worshiped the ,thunder-being under this name4 ,this was especially the case when men undertook to go on the war path4 #g ,mr4 ,say recorded of the ,kansa3 8,they say that they have never seen ,wakanda1 so they cannot pretend to personify ,him2 but they have often heard ,him speak in the thunder4 ,they often wear a shell which is in honor or in representation of ,him1 but they do not pretend that it resembles ,him1 or has anything in common with his form1 organization1 or size40 ,,seven ,,great ,,wakandas4 #bb4 ai-na-paj said that there were seven great ,wakandas1 as follows3 8,ugahanapaze or ,darkness1 ,maxe or the ,upper ,world1 ande or the ,ground1 ,iga or the ,thunder-being1 ,mi or the ,sun1 ,niaba or the ,moon1 and the ,morning ,star4 ,the principal ,wakanda is in the upper world1 above everything40 7,this was denied by ,joseph ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows2 see #ic47 ,the author thought at first that these were the powers worshiped by ai-napaj and the members of his gens or subgens2 but subsequent inquiries and statements occurring in the course of texts furnish cumulative evidence favoring the view that some or all these powers had many believers among the ,omaha and the cognate tribes4 ,,invocation ,,of ,,warmth ,,and ,,streams4 #bc4 ai-napaj said that ,macte or ,warmth was a good ,wakanda4 ,ni i1 the flowing ,stream1 according to him1 was thus addressed by a man who wished to ford it3 8,you are a person and a ,wakanda4 ,i1 too1 am a person4 ,i desire to pass through you and reach the other side40 ,two ,crows denied this1 saying that his people never prayed to a stream2 but ,george ,miller said that it was true1 for his father1 ,little ,soldier1 prayed to a stream when he was on the war path1 and that such invocations were made only in time of war4 ,,prayer ,,to ,,wakanda4 #bd4 ,prayer to ,wakanda1 said ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows1 was not made for small matters1 such as going fishing1 but only for great and important undertakings1 such as going to war or starting on a journey4 ,when a man wished to travel he first went alone to a bluff1 where he prayed to ,wakanda to help him and his family by protecting them during his absence and by granting him a successful journey4 ,at a time when the ,ponka were without food1 ,horse-with-yellow-hair1 or ,cage-hi-zi1 prayed to ,wakanda on the hill beyond the ,stony ,butte4 ,the latter is a prominent landmark in northern ,nebraska 7in what was ,todd county1 ,dakota1 in #ahga-'gc71 about #g miles from the ,missouri ,river and the ,ponka ,agency 7of #ahgj-'gg7h4 ,several ,omaha said that the places for prayer were rocks1 high bluffs1 and mountains4 8,all ,omaha went to such places to pray1 but they did not pray to the visible object1 though they called it ,grandfather40--7,frank ,la ,flche47 ,they smoked towards the invoked object and placed gifts of killickinnick1 etc41 upon it4 ,compare with this the ,dakota custom of invoking a bowlder on the prairie2 calling it ,tkacida 7,tukaida71 or ,grandfather1 symbolizing the ,earth-being4#i ,though it has been said that a high bluff was merely a place for praying to ,wakanda1 and that it was not itself addressed as ,wakanda1 the author has learned from members of the ,omaha and ,pouka tribes that when they went on the warpath for the first time1 their names were then changed and one of the old men was sent to the bluffs to tell the news to the various ,wakandas1 including the bluffs1 trees1 birds1 insects1 reptiles1 etc4#aj ,,accessories ,,of ,,prayer4 ,among the accessories of prayer were the following3 7a7 ,the action called istube by the ,omaha and ,ponka1 ritowe by the three iwere tribes1 and yuwitapi 7yuwitapi7 by the ,dakota1 consisting of the elevation of the suppliant's arms with the palms toward the object or the face of the being invoked1 followed by a passage of the hand downward toward the ground1 without touching the object or person 7see #bh1 #ce1 #cf74 7b7 ,the presentation of the pipe with the mouthpiece toward the power invoked 7see #bi1 #ce1 #dj74 7c7 ,the use of smoke from the pipe 7,see #bg1 #cf71 or of the odor of burning cedar needles1 as in the sweat lodge4 7d7 ,the application of the kinship term1 8grandfather10 or its alternative1 8venerable man10 to a male power1 and 8grandmother0 to a female power 7see #cj1 #ca1 #ce1 #ci1 #ei1 #fj1 etc474 7e7 ,ceremonial wailing or crying 7,xage1 to wail or cry--,dakota eya4 ,see #ajj74aa 7f7 ,sacrifice or offering of goods1 animals1 pieces of the suppliant's flesh1 etc4 ,in modern times the ,kansa have substituted the lives of animals1 as deer1 grouse1 etc41 for those of human enemies 7see #bh1 #cc1 etc474 ,,omaha ,,and ,,kansa ,,expressions ,,about ,,wakanda4 #be4 ,samuel ,fremont said that before the advent of the white race the ,omaha had certain expressions which they used in speaking of ,wakanda4 ,when an ,indian met with unexpected good fortune of any sort the people used to say1 8,wakanda has given him some assistance40#ab ,or they might say1 8,wakanda knows him40#ac ,sometimes they said1 8,wakanda has planned for his own 7i4 e41 for his friend1 relation1 or subject740#ad ,if a ,kansa prospers1 he says1 8,wakanda ak amayxdje aka eya10 i4 e41 8,wakanda has indeed been looking at me60 ,and in speaking of the success of another1 he says1 8,wakanda ak nka yik uyxdje ak eya10 i4 e41 8,wakanda has indeed been looking at the man40 ,samuel ,fremont said that when an animal detected the approach of the hunter and consequently fled from him1 the man prayed thus3 ,hau ,wakanda1 wanita wi a#8i ite c igize ,ho1 ,wakanda1 quadruped one you gave perhaps again you take to me yours back from me ga4 ,c wi wanaakie kabga1 somewhat again one you cause to appear ,i hope to me i4 e41 8,ho1 ,wakanda1 you may have given me an animal1 but now it seems that you have taken it from me4 ,i hope that you will cause another to appear to me40 ,but if the hunter shot at an animal and missed it1 he said nothing4 ,,ponka ,,belief ,,about ,,malevolent ,,spirits4 #bf4 ,about eighteen years ago1 the author was told by the ,ponka1 whose reservation was then in southern ,dakota1 that they believed death to be caused by certain malevolent spirits1 whom they feared4 ,in order to prevent future visits of such spirits1 the survivors gave away all their property1 hoping that as they were in such a wretched plight the spirits would not think it worth while to make them more unhappy4 ,at the burial of ,mazi-kide1 an ,omaha1 the author observed that some one approached the corpse and addressed it4 ,in referring to this in #ahhh1 ,samuel ,fremont said that the speaker said1 8,wakanda has caused your death40 ,in telling this1 ,fremont used the singular4 8,wakanda aka40 ,on repeating this to ,george ,miller1 the latter said that it should have been 8,wakanda ama10 in the plural1 8the ,mysterious ,powers10 as the ,omaha believed in more than one ,wakanda before they learned about the one ,god of monotheism4 ,this agrees with what was learned about the ,dakota by the late missionaries1 ,messrs4 ,s4 ,r4 ,riggs and ,g4 ,h4 ,pond1 and by the late ,james ,w4 ,lynd1 as stated in chapter ,v4 ,,an ,,old ,,omaha ,,custom4 #bg4 8,abicude10 said ,samuel ,fremont1 8is a word which refers to an old ,omaha and ,ponka custom1 i4e41 that of blowing the smoke downward to the ground while praying4 ,the ,omaha and ,ponka used to hold the pipe in six directions while smoking3 toward the four winds1 the ground1 and the upper world40 ,the exact order has been forgotten by ,fremont1 but ,lewis and ,clarke have recorded the corresponding ,shoshoni custom4 ,capt4 ,lewis tells how the ,shoshoni chief1 after lighting his pipe of transparent greenstone 7instead of catlinite71 made a speech1 after which he pointed the stem of the pipe toward the four points of the heavens1 beginning with the east and concluding with the north4 ,after extending the stem thrice toward ,capt4 ,lewis1 he pointed it first toward the heavens and then toward the center of the little circle of guests1 probably toward the ground1 symbolizing the subterranean power4#ae ,in addressing the four winds1 a peculiar expression is employed by the ,omaha3 ap dba ha ic1 i wiai-g1 ,thou who causest ,wind four you cause you 7sing47 help ye me4 it to reach who move there the four winds to reach a place1 help ye me6 ,instead of the singular classifier1 aice1 the regular plural1 nakc1 ye who sit1 stand1 or move1 might have been expected4 7,see #cc47 ,in smoking toward the ground and upper world1 the suppliant had to say1 8,i petition to you who are one of the two1 you who are reclining on your back1 and to you who are the other one1 sitting directly above us4 ,both of you help me60 8,here10 said ,fremont1 8the ground itself was addressed as a person40 ,two ,crows said that some ,omaha appealed to a subterranean ,wakanda when their word was doubted1 saying1 8,ic#8ge hdeaa ak an#8ai10 8,the venerable man at the bottom hears me40 ,the author is unable to say whether this was ande or ,wakandagi4 7,see #cg47 ,the following was recorded of the ,omaha1 and refers to a custom relating to the buffalo hunt4#af ,on coming in sight of the herd1 the hunters talk kindly to their horses1 applying to them the endearing names of father1 brother1 uncle1 etc4 ,they petition them not to fear the bisons1 but to run well and keep close to them1 but at the same time to avoid being gored4 ,the party having approached as near to the herd as they suppose the animals will permit without taking alarm1 they halt to give the pipe bearer an opportunity to perform the ceremony of smoking1 which is considered necessary to their success4 ,he lights his pipe1 and remains a short time with his head inclined1 and the stem of the pipe extended toward the herd4 ,he then smokes1 and puffs the smoke toward the bisons1 and the earth1 and finally to the cardinal points successively4 ,,the ,,sun ,a ,,wakanda4 #bh4 ,in the ,osage traditions the 8mysterious one of day0 is invoked as 8grandfather40#ag ,he replies that he is not the only ,wakana4 ,that the ,kansa worshiped the sun as a ,wakanda appears from the following3 8,on one occasion1 when the ,kansa went against the ,pawnees1 the stick was set up for the mystic attack or #8waqpele gaxe4' ,the war captain addressed the rising sun thus3 8,pyi qli kbla eya4 ,cge wbli al kbla ,pawnee ,i stun by ,i wish indeed4 ,horse ,i have ,i have ,i wish hitting them come back eya4 ,wayqpe ck kbla eya4 ,halje ublage4 indeed4 ,pulling down too ,i wish indeed4 ,calico 7shirt7 ,i tell you 7a foe7 about it4 ,haqi ublage4 ,hask cki ,pyi qli-da mk' ,robe ,i tell you ,blanket too ,pawnee ,i stun when ,i give to about it4 by hitting you t mike1 ,wkanda-1 gayakiy-da4 8,i wish to kill will ,i who ,o ,wakanda6 that you cause me to when4 7sit7 be returning ,transcriber's note3 the hyphen in 8gayakiy-da0 was at the end of a line2 the word may have been 8gayakiyda0 or 8gayakiy-da04 a ,pawnee6 ,i desire to bring horses when ,i return4 ,i long to pull down an enemy6 ,i promise you a calico shirt and a robe4 ,i will give you a blanket also1 ,o ,wakanda1 if you allow me to return in safety after killing a ,pawnee60 ,when warriors performed the 8waqpele gaxe0 or the attack on the stick representing the foe1 no member of the ,l or ,thunder gens could participate4 ,on such an occasion the warrior turned to the east and said3 8,amapye kbla a4 ,hask ,to follow me787 ,i wish 4 ,blanket or ,we follow it787 ublage a1 ,wkanda-10 i4e41 ,i wish my party to pass along ,i tell you of it 4 ,o ,wakanda the road to the foe7874 ,i promise you a blanket1 ,o ,wakanda 7if ,i succeed8740 ,on turning to the west he said3 8,uh ,boiling ublage a1 ,wkanda-10 i4e41 8,i promise you a feast1 ,o ,i tell you of it 4 ,o ,wakanda ,wakanda 7if ,i succeed8740 ,when it was decided to perform the 8waqpele gaxe10 the dudahaga or war captain made one of the lieutenants carry the sacred bag1 and two of the kettle tenders took bundles of sticks1 which they laid down in the road4 ,the four remaining kettle tenders remained at the camping place4 ,the next morning all the warriors but those of the ,l gens went to the place where the sticks had been laid1 drew a circle around the bundles1 set up one of the sticks1 and attacked it1 as if it were a ,pawnee4 ,this ceremony often caused the death of real enemies4 ,among the ,osage and ,kansa prayer was made toward the rising sun in the morning and towards the setting sun in the afternoon and evening4 ,among the ,omaha and ,kansa the head of a corpse is laid towards the east4 ,for this reason no ,omaha will consent to recline with his head towards that point4 ,the ,kansa lodges also are orientated1 and so were those of the ,omaha 7see #ei74 ,the east appears to symbolize life or the source thereof1 but#ah the west refers to death2 so among the ,osage the course of a war party was towards the mythic or symbolic west1 towards which point the entrances of the lodges were turned#ai 7see #hc and #chd74 ,gahige1 the late ,omaha chief1 said that when he was young all the ,omaha prayed to the sun1 holding up their hands with the palms towards the sun and saying1 8,wakanda1 #8eaa-g10 etc41 i4 e41 8,o ,wakanda1 pity me60 ,they abstained from eating1 drinking1 and 7ordinary7 smoking from sunrise to sunset2 but after sunset the restrictions were removed4#bj ,for four nights the men who thus prayed did not sleep at home4 ,at the end of that period the task was finished4 8wacka gxai10 i4 e41 they made or gained superhuman power4 ,they could thus pray at any time from the appearance of grass in the spring until the ground became frozen4 ,,the ,,offering ,,of ,,tobacco4 #bi4 ,in #ahhi ,george ,miller gave an account of what he called 8,nin baha t10 i4 e4 the offering or presentation of tobacco4 ,whether this phrase was ever used except in a religious or superhuman connection is more than the author is able to say4 ,whenever the ,indians traveled they used all the words which follow as they extended the pipe with the mouthpiece toward the sun3 8,ha1 nin gak ,wakanda1 ,mi ,ho tobacco that ,wakanda ,sun this lg4 ob4 nikc6 ,ujage ia k gaqti uha t 4 you who sit ,road your the just so ,i follow will 6 lg4 ob4 its course ,igxa-g6 ,edda ctcte daqti kipakia-g6 ,edda ,make it for me ,what soever very good cause me to meet it ,what jaj wi dedte betaaki-g6 i-na inferior one it is there if cause me to pass ,only thou around it musta wana agi1 n-uanda a aska dega1 directly in sight you sit island this this large but above 7us7 place edda wanta ande uckacka a bgaqti nkaciga what quadruped ground mv4 on it here the all person and there a ctwa wi aba ata aniga 1 ga-na4 the soever one day how you decide for when always so4 long him da wia-na ma h1 ,wakanda0 ,this may be rendered ,therefore ,i ask a favor alone 4 ,wakanda of you freely thus3 8,ho1 ,mysterious ,power1 you who are the ,sun6 ,here is tobacco6 ,i wish to follow your course4 ,grant that it may be so6 ,cause me to meet whatever is good 7i4 e41 for my advantage7 and to give a wide berth to anything that may be to my injury or disadvantage4 ,throughout this island 7the world7 you regulate everything that moves1 including human beings1 when you decide for one that his last day on earth has come1 it is so4 ,it can not be delayed4 ,therefore1 ,o ,mysterious ,power1 ,i ask a favor of you40 ,,the ,,ponka ,,sun ,,dance ,,of #ahgc4 ,in the summer of #ahgc1 when the author was missionary to the ,ponka in what was ,todd ,county1 ,dakota1 that tribe had a sun dance on the prairie near the mission house4 ,the scarifications and subsequent tortures and dancing lasted but three hours instead of a longer period1 owing to the remonstrances of ,bishop ,hare1 the agent1 and the missionary4 ,the head chief1 ,white ,eagle1 was tied to his pony1 after he had been scarified and fastened to the sun pole4 ,some of his policemen1 armed with whips1 lashed the pony until it leaped aside1 tearing out the lariat that fastened the chief to the sun pole1 and terminating his participation in the ceremony4 7,see ,pl4 ,,xlvi and #ahg47 ,for obvious reasons the author did not view the sun dance1 but he was told about it by some of the spectators4 ,as the chief1 ,standing ,buffalo1 had said to ,bishop ,hare in the council previous to the sun dance1 8,you white people pray to ,wakanda in your way1 and we ,indians pray to ,wakanda in the sun dance4 ,should you chance to lose your way on the prairie you would perish1 but if we got lost we would pray to ,wakanda in the sun dance1 and find our way again40 ,,the ,,moon ,a ,,wakanda4 #cj4 ,no examples of invocations of the moon have yet been found among the ,omaha and ,ponka4 ,but that the moon is 8qube0 appears from the decorations of robes and tents4 7,see #de-dg47 ,the moon is addressed as a 8grandfather0 and is described as the 8,wakana of night0 in 8,osage ,traditions10 lines #ee-ei4ba ,,berdaches4 ,the ,omaha believe that the unfortunate beings1 called 8,mi-qu-ga10 are mysterious or sacred because they have been affected by the ,moon ,being4 ,when a young ,omaha fasted for the first time on reaching puberty1 it was thought that the ,moon ,being appeared to him1 holding in one hand a bow and arrows and in the other a pack strap1 such as the ,indian women use4 ,when the youth tried to grasp the bow and arrows the ,moon ,being crossed his hands very quickly1 and if the youth was not very careful he seized the pack strap instead of the bow and arrows1 thereby fixing his lot in after life4 ,in such a case he could not help acting the woman1 speaking1 dressing1 and working just as ,indian women used to do4 ,louis ,sanssouci said that the mi-quga took other men as their husbands4 ,frank ,la ,flche knew one such man1 who had had several men as his husbands4 ,a ,ponka child once said to the author1 8,mijiga-ma nujiga ama i-gaxe-nandi1 miquga1 ai10 i4e41 8,if boys make a practice of playing with the girls they become 7or are called7 miquga40 ,this term may be rendered 8hermaphrodite0 when it refers to animals1 as 8e miquga10 a hermaphrodite buffalo4 ,it must have been of this class of persons1 called 8,mi-quge0 by the ,kansa that ,say wrote when he said3 ,many of the subjects of it 7i4e41 sodomy among the ,kansa7 are publicly known1 and do not appear to be despised or to excite disgust4 ,one was pointed out to us4 ,he had submitted himself to it in consequence of a vow he had made to his mystic medicine1 which obliged him to change his dress for that of a woman1 to do their work1 and to permit his hair to grow4#bb ,after giving an account of the ,miquga which agrees with what has been written above1 ,miss ,fletcher#bc tells of 8a man who had the misfortune to be forced to this life and tried to resist4 ,his father gave him a bow and some arrows1 but the penalty of his vision so wrought upon his mind that1 unable to endure the abnormal life1 he committed suicide40 7,see #bab1 #cec47 ,,stars ,,as ,,wakandas4 #ca4 ,that the ,omaha and ,ponka regarded the stars as ,wakandas seems probable from the existence of nikie names and the personal mystery decorations4 7,see #de1 #dg1 and #eb47 ,there are star names in the ,night gens of the ,kansa1 and they point to the mythical origin of the gens4 ,the ,kansa made offerings to the morning star4 ,among the ,osage the traditions of the ,tsiu ,wactae and ,bald ,eagle people mention several ,wakanas among the stars4 ,these are as follows3 ,watse ua1 a 8grandfather20 ,watse mia1 a 8grandmother20 ,mikak'e pepa1 the ,seven ,stars 7,pleiades871 a 8grandfather20 the constellation ,ta api or the ,three ,deer1 a 8grandfather20 the morning star1 ,mikak'e taa 7literally1 large star71 a 8grandfather20 the small star1 a 8grandfather20 the bowl of the ,dipper1 called 8,wapaha ikce2 the ,funeral ,bier10 a 8grandfather10 and the ,female ,red ,bird1 a 8grandmother10 the eponym of the ,tsiu ,wactae or 8,red ,eagle0 gens4 ,she1 too1 was probably a star4#bd #cb ,ga edda i ctwa aha-nai niaciga ama1 pahe ,and what the soever usually ,indian the hill col4 prayed 7to7 pl4 ob4 sub4 aga i1 ctwa4 8,wakanda bugaqti wiai 10 e-nai4 large the soever ,wakanda all ,i ask a 6 they said col4 favor of usually ob4 8,hau1 ande nik c1 aci jiga ega awita te 10 ,ho ,ground you who sit some little so ,i tread will 6 time on you ai nikaciga ama4 ade ui dubaha t ct say ,indians the ,whence the wind in four the too pl4 sub4 is sent hither787 places aha-nai4 8ade ui dubaha nakac1 iwiai-g40 they usually ,whence the wind in four ye who are help ye me pray 7to7 is sent hither787 places ,ga gagegiai niaciga ukei ama1 ,wakanda and they speak in that ,indian ordinary the pl4 ,wakanda manner to 7one7 sub4 waahai tdi4 8,the ,indians used to invoke various objects1 they pray to when them including the mountains1 saying1 #8,o1 all ye mysterious powers1 ,i ask a favor of you6' ,they prayed to the ground1 saying1 #8,o1 you who are the ground6 ,may ,i tread you a little while longer6' i4 e41 #8,may my life on earth be prolonged6' ,when one prayed to the four winds1 he would say1 #8,ho1 ye four winds1 help me6' ,thus did speak when they prayed to the ,wakandas40--7,george ,miller47 ,,the ,,winds ,,as ,,wakandas4 #cc4 ,the ,omaka and ,ponka invoked the winds1 as has been stated in part of the preceding section4 ,see also the statement of ,samuel ,fremont 7 #bg74be ,in preparing for the pipe dance the tobacco pouch1 two gourd rattles1 and the ear of corn have a figure drawn on each of them with green paint2 it is the cross1 indicating the four quarters of the heavens or the four winds4#bf ,,kansa ,,sacrifice ,,to ,,the ,,winds4 8,in former days the ,kansa used to remove the hearts of slain foes and put them in the fire as a sacrifice to the four winds4 ,even now 7#ahhb7 offerings are made to every ,wakanda by the ,kansa1 to the power or powers above1 to those under the hills1 to the winds1 the thunder-being1 the morning star1 etc4 ,as ,alikawahu and ,pahalegaqli are ,yata men 7i4 e41 members of gentes camping on the left side of the tribal circle71 they elevate their left hands and begin at the left with the east wind1 then they turn to the south wind1 then to the west wind1 and finally to the north wind1 saying to each1 #8,g-tc1 ,wakanda1 mik' eyau1' i4 e41 #8,o ,wakanda1 ,i really give that to you4' ,in former days they used to pierce themselves with knives and splinters of wood1 and offer small pieces of their flesh to the ,wakandas40#bg ,,osage ,,consecration ,,of ,,mystic ,,fireplaces4 ,the author considers that the following statement of the ,osage chief1 ,kahie-waayia 7of the ,tsiu ,wactae gens71 refers to the invocation of the four winds4 ,it appears to have been associated with fire or hearth worship4 ,whenever a permanent village of earth lodges was established among the ,osage and ,kansa1 there was a consecration of a certain number of fireplaces before the ordinary fireplaces could be made by the common people4 ,the consecrated fireplaces were made in two parallel rows1 beginning at the west and ending at the east4 ,among the ,kansa there were seven on one side and six on the other1 but among the ,osage there seem to have been seven on each side4 ,among the ,osage1 the ,tsiu ,wactae and ,paka gentes were the #8roadmakers1' i4 e41 those who consecrated the two rows of fireplaces4 ,kahie-waayia said1 8,when the old ,tsiu man made his speech1 he went into details about every part of a lodge1 the fireplace1 building materials1 implements1 etc4 ,four sticks were placed in the fireplace1 the first one pointing to the west 7see #dj1 #hd74 ,when the first stick was laid down1 the ,tsiu leader spoke about the west wind1 and also about a young buffalo bull 7,tse-ia71 repeating the name1 ,wanie-sk 7meaning not gained74 ,when the stick pointing to the north was laid down he spoke of ,tsehe-qse 7gray buffalo horns71 or a buffalo bull4 ,when the stick at the east was laid down1 he spoke of ,tse-a-taa 7a large buffalo bull74 ,on laying down the fourth stick1 pointing to the south1 he spoke of ,tse mia 7a buffalo cow74 ,at the same time a similar ceremony was performed by the aged ,paka man for the gentes on the right side of the tribal circle4 ,in placing the stick to the east1 he mentioned ,tase ,kaqpa ts 7the east wind7 and ,tahe cape 7dark horned deer74 ,in placing that to the north1 ,tase asa ts 7the north wind1 literally1 #8the pine wind'7 and ,tahe qse 7the deer with gray horns7 were mentioned4 ,in placing that pointing to the west1 ,tase ,maha ts 7the west wind7 and an animal which makes a lodge and is with the ,tahe pasie 7probably a deer name7 were mentioned4 ,in placing the stick pointing to the south1 he spoke of ,tase ,ak'a ts 7the south wind7 and ,ta waka he aai skutaa 7probable meaning1 a large white female deer without any horns74 #cd4 ,in time of war1 prayers were made about the fire 7 #bhg71 when a warrior painted his face red1 using the 8fire paint10 a custom of the left or ,tsiu side of the tribe4 ,those on the right or ,haa side used 8the young buffalo bull decoration10 and probably offered prayer in connection therewith1 in order to be filled with the spirit of their 8little grandfather0 7the young buffalo bull71 as they rushed on the enemy4 ,this will be seen from the words employed by the warrior3 8,my little grandfather is always dangerous as he makes an attempt4 ,very close do ,i stand1 ready to go to the attack60#bh ,,the ,,thunder-,,being ,a ,,wakanda4 ,,omaha ,,and ,,ponka ,,invocation ,,of ,,the ,,thunder-,,being4 #ce4 ,among the ,omaha and ,ponka1 when the first thunder was heard in the spring of the year1 the ,black bear people went to the sacred tent of the ,elk gens1 and there they assisted the ,elk people in the invocation of the ,thunder-being4 ,at a similar gathering of the ,ponka1 the ,ponka ,black bear people said1 8,hau1 ic#8ge1 icpa u aga-ta ganxiwaai4 ,maciah maig10 i4 e41 8,ho1 venerable man6 by your striking 7with your club7 you are frightening us1 your grandchildren1 who are here4 ,depart on high40#bi ,transcriber's note3 ,the hyphen in 8aga-ta0 was at the end of a line2 the word may have been 8agata0 or 8aga-ta04 ,,thunder-,,being ,,invoked ,,by ,,warriors4 ,the ,thunder-being is invoked by all present during the feast preparatory to starting on the warpath1 when there is a small party of warriors4 ,each one addresses the ,thunder-being as 8,nudahaga10 leader in war1 or war captain4#cj ,when a large war party is desired1 the ,thunder-being is invoked 7,see history of ,wabaskaha1 in ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #cid74 ,wabaskaha himself prayed1 saying1 8,oh1 ,wakanda1 though foreigners have injured me1 ,i hope that you may help me40 ,all who heard him knew that he desired to lead a large war party4 ,when the four captains were chosen1 they had to cry incessantly at night as well as by day1 saying1 8,oh1 ,wakanda6 pity me6 help me in that about which ,i am in a bad humor40 ,during the day they abstained from food and drink2 but they could satisfy their thirst and hunger when night came4 ,at the feast preparatory to starting off as a large war party1 the keepers of the sacred bags sing thunder songs as well as other sacred songs4 ,one of the thunder songs used on such an occasion begins thus3 8,wi--ga na-pe-w- -ga1 ,wi--ga na-pe-w- -ga1 ,w-ti k gi-ha-ha 1 ,na-pe-w- ----40 8,as my grandfather is dangerous1 ,as my grandfather is dangerous1 ,dangerous when he brandishes his club1 ,dangerous ----40 ,when he had proceeded thus far1 ai-napaj stopped and refused to tell the rest1 as it was very 8waqube40 ,he said that the principal captains of a large war party tied pieces of twisted grass around their wrists and ankles1 and wore similar pieces around their heads4 ,but ,two ,crows1 who has been a captain1 says that he never did this4 7,see1 however1 the ,iowa custom in #ge47 ,,ictasanda ,,custom4 ,the following 8nikie0 or ancient custom of the ,ictasanda gens was related by ,george ,miller3 ,naji dacta 1 napai 1 ga ,wakanda-ma ,rain perhaps if they fear if so the ,wakandas 7pl4 ob47 seen danger nini uji wa#8ii t4 ,ga nini uji wa#8ii tobacco put in they the 7past and tobacco put in they gave gave to act7 to them them tdi egiai t3 u waqpai-qti aihe1 when they said to the ,here very poor ,i who move 7one7 7past act7 ,transcriber's note3 the hyphen in 8waqpai-qti0 was at the end of a line2 the word may have been 8waqpaiqti0 or 8waqpai-qti04 awawaaica ctectewa ide tige gxai-g1 in what direction soever to become abandoned make ye 7suddenly7 igaha4 dedi aic 77 jami4 ,o grandfather4 ,you are mv4 there ,i suspect4 igze-mai1 ded ic 77 jami4 ,walking ,forked-lightning1 you are mv4 there ,i suspect4 iaba-tige1 ded aic4 77 jami4 ,sheet-lightning flashes you are mv4 there ,i suspect4 suddenly iaba-g-na1 dedi ic 77 jami4 ,sheet-lightning is often you are mv4 there ,i suspect4 returning hither4 ,gagigda ded ic 77 jami4 ,ga 7a name referring you are mv4 there ,i suspect4 ,and to passing thunder7 gatga gxa-bj ct naciga ciiqde ga in that manner he does not if man 7,see ,note47 thus najii1 maqpi kica xag najii4 ,ga ,wakanda stands1 cloud toward the lg ob4 crying stands4 ,and ,wakanda am wgipaha-bi1 a4 ,nkaciga the pl4 sub4 that they know about they say4 ,person them1 their own tawaga wdaj am ai napai1 gens elsewhere the pl4 sub4 to have it they fear seen danger1 ijje g ctwa4 gudict nkaciga am name the pl4 in4 ob4 even4 ,in some places person the pl4 sub4 7not specified47 ia#8e am ,ictasanda cka eai t ega those who have visions1 etc4 ,ictasanda custom their the ob4 so gaxai4 ,waa qti gaxai dact gia they do4 song they themselves they make perhaps singing their own najii4 ,niniba k uji aii ega maqpi they stand4 ,pipe the lg4 ob4 filled they have as cloud kica gaqe baha najii4 ,nikaciga towards the lg4 ob4 facing holdingoutto they stand4 ,person ama aji ct gaxe-nai4 ,atact niniba the pl4 sub4 different too they often do4 ,sometimes pipe ai-baj ga waa siae dact naji-nai4 ,k they do not have so singing alone perhaps they stand often4 ,and nikaciga ama e ia#8e ama cka edada da person the pl4 sub4 this those who have deed what good visions1 etc4 uha #8i tai ct ibahai1 c cka to follow the course promise will even they know1 again deed jaj akipa tai ct ibahai4 ,ga nikaciga i unsuitable they will meet even they know4 ,and person the mv4 one awawaa gaqa mai ctwa nini uji in what direction large hunting walks soever tobacco puts in expedition #8ii ega waigakiai4 ,e#8a ujage uha tai gives to as causes him to prophesy4 ,how road he will follow its him course ct ibaha gigaai ega waakiai4 ,k even to know wishes for him as causes him to sing4 ,and atact nikaciga ama egai1 aade-nai1 sometimes person the pl4 sub4 just so1 they often pronounce1 wanita dact ubesni 1 wanita d#8uba a#8ii h1 e quadruped perhaps they find if quadruped some they have 4 he out given to me says dactai4 perhaps4 ,notes4 #chc1 #d1 et passim4 aice ejami1 contracted in rapid pronunciation to1 aicejami4 #chc1 #d-f4 igize-mai1 iaba-tige1 iaba-gna1 and ,gaagigeda are 8nikie names0 of the ,ictasanda or ,thunder gens of the ,omaha4 ,they may refer to four ,thunder beings1 one at each point of the compass1 or one dwelling in the direction of each of the four winds4 #chc1 #h4 ,ciiqade1 with the arms elevated and the hands stretched out1 palms down1 towards the clouds4 #chc1 #i-aj4 ,nikaciga wedaj ama1 etc4 ,other gentes of ,omaha fear to mention these ,ictasanda names1 or to bestow them on members of their gentes4 #chc1 #aa4 ,agudict 444 ia#8e ama1 etc4 ,refers to the ,iga ia#8e ama1 or the ,thunder shamans1 of the other ,omaha gentes4 ,translation4 ,when the ,ictasanda people become fearful during a shower1 they fill a pipe with tobacco and offer it to the ,thunder-beings4 ,and when they offer the tobacco1 they speak thus3 8,o grandfather6 ,i am very poor here4 ,in some direction or other cause a place to be abandoned by those 7who would injure me874 ,i think that you are there ,o igize-mai6 ,i think that you are there4 ,o iaba-tige6 ,i think that you are there4 ,o iaba-gi na6 ,i think that you are there4 ,o ,gaagigeda6 ,i think that you are there40 ,and when they do not offer the tobacco1 they stand with the arms elevated and the hands stretched out1 palms down1 as they cry towards the clouds4 ,and they say that the ,thunder-beings know about them1 their worshippers4 ,the ,omaha of the other gentes fear to mention these ,ictasanda nikie names1 or to bestow them on members of their gentes1 as well as to invoke the ,thunder-being or beings1 unless they belong to the order of ,thunder shamans4 ,in that case1 they can do as the ,ictasanda people do4 ,they make songs about the ,thunder-beings1 and stand singing their own songs4 ,they fill the pipe with tobacco1 and stand1 holding it with the mouth-piece toward the clouds1 as they gaze towards them4 ,these shamans often act otherwise4 ,sometimes they do not fill the pipe1 and then they stand singing the ,thunder songs1 without offering anything to the ,thunder-beings4 ,and these shamans know when anything promises to result in good or evil to the person undertaking it4 ,so when a person wishes to join a large hunting party1 he fills a pipe with tobacco1 and offers it to a shaman1 thus causing him to prophesy4 ,as he wishes him to know the result of following a certain course1 7i4 e41 of traveling in a certain direction71 he induces the shaman to sing 7sacred songs74 ,and sometimes the shaman predicts the very occurrence which comes to pass2 if1 for instance1 he foretells that the inquiring man will kill game1 he may say1 #8,the ,thunder-beings 787 have given me some quadrupeds4' ,,kansa ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,thunder-,,being4 #cf4 ,the following was a custom of the ,l or ,thunder-being gens4 ,at the time of the first thunder-storm in the spring of the year1 the ,l people put a quantity of green cedar on a fire1 making a great smoke4 ,the storm ceased after the members of the other gentes offered prayers4 ,the ,buffalo or ,tcedga gens aided the ,l gens in the worship of the ,thunder-being1 by sending one of their men to open the sacred bag of gray hawk skin and remove the mystery pipe4 ,these objects were kept by a ,l man1 ,kinuyige1 who was not allowed to open the bag4 ,pahale-gaqli1 of the ,large ,haga gens1 and ,alikawahu1 of the ,small ,haga1 are the leaders in everything pertaining to war4 ,pahale-gaqli furnished the author with a copy of his war chart1 on which are represented symbols of the mystery songs4 ,in the middle of the chart there should be a representation of fire1 but ,pahale-gaqli said that he was afraid to draw it there1 unless he fasted and took other necessary precautions4 ,the songs used in connection with the chart are very 8wakandagi10 or mysterious4 ,they are never sung on common occasions1 or in a profane manner1 lest the offender should be killed by the ,thunder-being4 ,one of the three songs about the sacred pipe1 sung when the wrappings are taken from the pipe 7,see #he7 by ,alikawahu is as follows3 8,ha-h6 tc-ga-n ha-h6 ,ha-h6 tc-ga-n ha-h6 ,ha-h6 tc-ga-n ha-h6 ,h-h60 7,unintelligible to the author4 ,said when ,alikawahu presses down on the covers or wrappings of the pipe47 8,yu6 yu6 y6 ,h-h6 ,h-h60 7,chorus sung by all the ,large and ,small ,haga men47 ,this last line is an invocation of the ,thunder-being4 ,the arms1 which are kept apart and parallel1 are held up toward the sky1 with the palms of the hands out4 ,each arm is then rubbed from the wrist to the shoulder by the other hand4#ca ,after the singing of these three songs1 ,pahale-gaqli carries the sacred clam shell on his back4 ,the second figure on the chart is that of the venerable man or ,wakanda1 who was the first singer of all the ,haga songs4 ,when ,alikawahu and ,pahale-gaqli are singing them1 they think that this ,wakanda walks behind them1 holding up his hands toward the ,thunder-being1 to whom he prays for them4 ,when the war pipe is smoked by any ,haga man1 he holds the pipe in his right hand1 and blows the smoke into the sacred clam shell1 in his left4 ,the smoke ascends from the clam shell to the ,thunder-being1 to whom it is pleasant4 ,the ,kansa used to 8cry to0 the ,thunder-being before going on the warpath4 ,when the captain 7the head of the ,large ,haga gens7 smoked his pipe1 he used to say1 ,ha1 ,wkanda-1 ,pyi-mha mi ts'e kbla ,ho8 ,o ,wakanda6 ,skidi one to die ,i wish eyau10 i4 e4 8,ho1 ,wakanda6 ,i really wish a ,skidi0 7or1 ,pawnee ,loup7 indeed 8to die60 ,the men of the two ,haga gentes unite in singing songs to stop rain1 when fair weather is needed1 and songs to cause rain when there has been a drought4 7,see #dc47 ,,subterranean ,,and ,,subaquatic ,,wakandas4 #cg4 ,the ,omaha and ,ponka believe in the ,wakandagi1 monsters that dwell beneath the bluffs and in the ,missouri river4 ,these monsters have very long bodies1 with horns on their heads4 ,one myth relates how an orphan killed a ,wakandagi with seven heads4#cb ,the ,omaha have a tradition that a ,wakandagi was seen in the lake into which ,blackbird creek empties1 near the ,omaha agency4 ,it is impossible to say whether the ,wakandagi and the ande or ,ground were differentiated 7,see #bg74 ,the ,kansa ,mi--l-cka were somewhat like the ,wakandagi1 though in one respect they resembled the mythical -snu-ta of the ,omaha1 i4 e41 in having enormous heads4 ,the ,kansa speak of the ,mialcka as a race of dreadful beings with large heads and long hair4#cc ,they dwelt in remote places1 to which they were supposed to entice any unwary ,indian who traveled alone4 ,the victim became crazy and subsequently lived as a miquga or catamite4 ,some of the ,mialcka dwelt underground or in the water1 sitting close to the bank of the stream4 ,the ancient ,mialcka was a benefactor to the ,indians1 for he took some wet clay and made first a buffalo calf and then three buffalo bulls1 which he ordered the ,indians to shoot1 after teaching them how to make bows and arrows and to use them4 ,,the ,,inda,i,,ga4 #ch4 ,the ,ponka1 in #ahga1 told the author of a being whom they called the ndiga4 ,this being was a superhuman character1 who dwelt in the forests4 ,he hooted like an owl1 and he was so powerful that he could uproot a tree or overturn a lodge4 ,the ,ponka had a song about him1 and mothers used to scare their children by saying1 8,behave1 else the ndaiga will catch you60 ,joseph ,la ,flche had heard it spoken of as a monster in human shape1 covered with thick hair4 ,as the ,ponka for wearing a mask is 8ndiga gxe10 or 8to act the ndiga10 it may be that this character was an aboriginal bogy4 ,compare the ,dakota aotida1 ,honoia1 ,ugnaiala1 etc4 7 #bcb47 ,omaha mothers used to scare their children by telling them that if they did not behave1 ,icibaj 7a hero of the e-snde gens7 or exuja 7a hero of the ,kaze gens7 would catch them4#cd ,another fearful being was nde-naba1 or ,two ,faces1 the very sight of whom killed a woman who was enceinte4#ce ,this being resembled1 in some respects1 ,ictinike1 the deceiver1#cf though ,ictinike was usually the counterpart of the ,dakota ,ikto1 ,iktomi1 or ,uktomi4 7,see #bbh-bca47 ,as a worker of evil ,ictinike may be compared with the ,dakota ,ang-ite or ,two ,faces1 and the latter in turn resembled the ndiga of the ,ponka4 7,see #bcc1 #bcd47 ,,other ,,kansa ,,wakandas4 #ci4 ,the third figure on the ,kansa war chart is#cg that of the ,wakanda or aged man who gives success to the hunter4 ,he is thus addressed by ,alikawahu and ,pahale-gaqli3 ,ts#8ge-jiga ha6 ,dble ,venerable man ,ho6 ,to hunt large quadrupeds mayi-a6 ,dda wadjta nkaciga ckda wyakpa-bpa walk thou ,what quadruped person soever you meet them and 7pl47 ,transcriber's note3 the hyphen in 8mayi-a0 was at the end of a line2 the word may have been 8mayia0 or 8mayi-a04 ts'ya-bna-hau6 kill ye 6 ,transcriber's note3 the last hyphen in 8ts'ya-bna-hau0 was at the end of a line2 the word may have been 8ts'ya-bnahau0 or 8ts'ya-bna-hau04 i4e41 8,venerable man1 go hunting6 ,kill whatever persons or quadrupeds meet you60 ,they think that this being drives the game towards the hunter4 ,in the war chart there are seven songs of the ,wakanda who makes night songs4 ,fig4 #af of that chart refers to a song of another ,wakanda who is not described4 ,fig4 #ah refers to two shade songs4 ,shade is made by a ,wakanda4 ,fig4 #ai is a dream song4 ,there is a ,wakanda who makes people sleepy1 an ,indian ,somnus4 #dj4 ,,omaha ,,invocations ,,of ,,the ,,trap1 ,,etc4 ,jbe dact ji 1 maka gaxe maii 1 ,beaver for instance he if1 medicine making he walks if1 that traps for that it purpose nin bah e t 4 7,the invisible being who first made tobacco showing his the it4 the medicine was thus addressed37 ,nkaciga pahaga maka ,person first medicine cpaha nikc1 pjehde ckaz nikc1 nin gak6 u you knew you who medicine you you who tobacco that ,here 7sit71 taught 7sit71 lg4 ob4 edda ckaz g ipaha-maj-qti wi igaaih what you taught the ,i do not know at all one ,i am carrying on pl4 my arm and in my in4 ob4 hand as ,i move aja1 caedda ctcte wamaka t 4 ,nin though1 yet what soever ,i get it easily by will 6 ,tobacco means of gak1 a naciga am4 7,he then prays to the beaver37 ,ha1 ,jbe6 that1 says person the mv4 ,ho1 ,beaver6 lg4 ob41 sub4 ,nin gak6 bahi e#8a ckxai g bgaqti uggacai-g6 ,tobacco that6 ,feeding how you made the all travel ye in your place them pl4 own6 in ob4 ,nin gak6 7,next1 to the medicine37 ,ha1 jehde1 nin gak6 ,tobacco that6 ,ho1 ,medicine1 tobacco that6 lg4 ob4 lg4 ob4 #8,aqti ctcte wanta wi uh ea tat1 ega ,no matter how it quadruped one pass me on the shall1 thinking it is 7or ,at any road 7to the rate7 trap7 naji-g4 #8,aqti ctcte pquge aask tat1 stand thou4 ,at any rate nostrils large enough shall1 for me 7i4 e41 to smell me47 ega naji-g4 ,nin gak6 7,invocation of the trap37 ,ha1 thinking it stand thou4 ,tobacco that6 ,ho1 lg ob4 ,maz nakc6 nin gak6 #8,aqti ctcte wi wat'a ,iron ye who 7sit7 tobacco that6 ,at any rate one ,i kill it lg4 ob4 t mike1 ega gii-g4 7,invocation of the pack-strap37 will ,i who1 thinking it sit ye4 ,ha1 ,w#8i nikc6 nin gak6 ,aqti ctcte w ,ho1 ,packstrap you who 7sit76 tobacco that6 ,at any rate ,i lg4 ob4 wanta higi wet#81 ega-g4 ,ha1 ijbe nuga quadruped many ,i touch think thou4 ,ho1 ,entrance at the right them1 side tac6 nin gak6 #8,aqti ctcte w wanta aabaknde you who tobacco that6 ,at any rate ,i quadruped brushing by me stand6 lg4 ob4 anji t mike1 ega-g4 ,ha1 e-snde ugcke ,i stand will ,i who think thou4 ,ho1 ,buffalo-tail tied to it 7sit71 tac6 nin gak6 #8,aqti ctcte w wanta ap#8 you who tobacco that6 ,at any rate ,i quadruped near to me stand6 lg4 ob4 anji t mike1 ega-g4 ,ha1 ,un nikc6 nin ,i stand will ,i who think thou4 ,ho1 ,fireplace you who tobacco 7sit71 7sit76 gak6 #8,aqti ctcte wi wanta anaa agi t mike1 that6 ,at any rate ,i quadruped drops over ,i sit will ,i who lg4 ob4 on me 7from 7sit7 the kettle7 ega-g4 think thou4 ,notes4 ,told by ,george ,miller4 ,in the last invocation1 he began to dictate thus3 8,ha1 ,nwixe dba kipasande nakc60 i4 e41 8,ho1 ye ,ho1 ,firebrand four meet at a common ye who point four firebrands that meet at a common point 7i4 e41 in the middle of the fireplace760 ,he subsequently changed it to an invocation of the fireplace itself4 ,but it is very probable that there was an invocation of the four firebrands1 resembling the ceremonies of the ,kansa and ,osage 7see #cc74 ,george has given all that he remembers of the invocations1 but he does not recollect the exact order4 #chg1 #c4 peje-hide1 8lower part10 or 8roots of grass10 an archaic name for 8maka01 medicine4 ,nini gak--the classifier k shows that a long object1 the pipe1 is referred to1 the tobacco being in the pipe when it is offered to the powers4 #chh1 #a4 aiagaaihe1 contr4 from igaa ih1 used here in the sense of 8abi10 ,i have4 #chh1 #ab4 aabaknde1 eq4 to aabista wa1 to send them 7through7 when they are so close that they touch me4 ,translation4 ,the invisible being who first made the beaver medicine and taught its use to mankind1 was thus addressed3 8,oh1 ,thou who didst teach how to make the medicine1 here is tobacco6 ,though ,i have your medicine1 the nature of which ,i do not understand at all1 grant that ,i may easily acquire something or other by means of it6 ,here is tobacco60 ,when he addressed the beavers1 he said1 8,ho1 ye ,beavers6 ,here is tobacco6 ,let all of you travel in your feeding places which you have made4 ,here is tobacco60 ,to the beaver medicine itself1 he said1 8,ho1 ,medicine6 ,here is tobacco6 ,stand thinking thus1 #8,at any rate an animal shall surely pass me and be caught in the trap1 and its nostrils shall be large enough to smell me4'0 ,the trap itself was thus addressed3 8,ho1 ye pieces of iron6 ,here is tobacco6 ,sit ye and think thus3 #8,at any rate ,i will kill one6'0 ,to the pack-strap was said1 8,ho1 pack-strap6 ,here is tobacco6 ,think thou1 #8,at any rate ,i shall press against many quadrupeds4'0 ,the right side of the entrance to the tent 787 was thus addressed3 8,ho1 ,thou who standest at the right side of the entrance to the tent6 7 #bcb7 ,here is tobacco6 ,think thou1 #8,at any rate ,i shall continue to have some one bring dead animals on his back and send through me suddenly1 rubbing against me as they pass through4'0 ,to the principal tent pole these words were said1 8,ho1 ,thou who standest with the buffalo tail tied to thee6 ,here is tobacco6 ,think thou1 #8,at any rate1 ,i shall have a quadruped to come near me4'0 ,when the man invoked the fireplace1 he said1 8,ho1 ,fireplace6 ,here is tobacco6 ,think thou1 #8,at any rate ,i shall sit and have the water fall on me in drops as it boils over from the kettle containing the quadruped4'0 ,these invocations may be compared with what the prophet ,habakkuk tells us about the ,chaldeans1 in the first chapter of his prophecy4 ,in his prayer to ,god1 he says1 8,these plunderers pull out all men with the hook1 draw them in with their casting net1 and gather them with their draw net1 and rejoice and are glad in it4 ,therefore they make offerings to their casting net1 and burn incense to their draw net1 for through them their catch is rich and their food dainty40#ch ,,fasting4 #da4 ,this topic naturally precedes that of visions or dreams about mystery1 animals1 and objects4 ,two ,crows and ,joseph ,la ,flche heard the following spoken of as an ancient custom4 ,it was told them in their youth by some of the old men of that day1 who had received it from their elders as having been practiced by the tribe for unnumbered generations4 ,when old men had sons1 sisters' sons1 or grandsons1 who approached manhood1 they used to direct those youths to abstain from food and drink1 and to put clay on their faces1 saying3 8,qaxaa ,far away xage maii-g4 ,aba abi duba ja 1 wata-baji-g1 crying walk ye4 ,day three four sleep if1 do not eat 7pl471 k n ata-baji-g4 iqubaj ctectwa1 ca ,wakanda and water do not drink 7pl47 ,you are not even if1 still ,wakanda 8qube0 ak uia t aka4 ,waawaqpni manii 1 the sub4 he will aid you4 ,you act as if poor you walk if1 wanha-de axxage 1 uia ta aka10 i4 e41 8,walk ye in remote you pray when you cry if he will aid you4 places1 crying to ,wakanda4 ,neither eat nor drink for three or four days4 ,even though you do not acquire personal mysterious power1 ,wakanda will aid you4 ,if you act as poor men1 and pray as you cry1 he will help you40 ,when their throats became dry1 their voices gave out4 ,when they had completed their fasts1 they went home1 being exceedingly emaciated4 ,at that time they could not swallow solid food1 so they were obliged to subsist on mush mixed with much water1 till by degrees they became able to eat what they pleased4 ,many thought that this fasting enabled them to have superhuman communications with ,wakanda4 ,fasting was practiced at other times1 but always in order to obtain superhuman assistance or to acquire a transfer of superhuman power4 ,a ,ponka war captain exhorted each of his followers thus3 8,aha6 ,wacka ega-g6 ,qubekia-bi ihe60 i4e41 8,oho6 ,do exert yourself6 ,be sure to make yourself the possessor of superhuman power by the aid of the animal that you have seen in your vision after fasting60#ci ,members of a small war party had to fast four days1 counting from the time that they started on the warpath4#dj ,before the large war party was formed to avenge the wrongs of ,wabaskaha1 the four prospective captains fasted4#da ,when the ,kansa captain fasted1 he could not visit his family1 but a small fasting lodge was erected for him at some distance from his own house4#db ,,mystic ,,trees ,,and ,,plants4 #db4 ,the ,omaha have two sacred trees1 the ash and the cedar4 ,the ash is connected with the beneficent natural powers4 ,part of the sacred pole of the ,omaha and ,ponka is made of ash1 the other part being of cottonwood4 ,the stems of the niniba weawa1 or 8sacred pipes of friendship10 are made of ash4 ,but the cedar is linked with the destructive agencies1 thunder1 lightning1 wars4#dc ,when the seven old men took the pipes around the ,omaha tribal circle1 the bad ,maika-gaxe people wore plumes in their hair and wrapped branches of cedar around their heads1 being awful to behold4 ,so the old man passed them by and gave the pipe to the other ,maika-gaxe1 who were good4 ,in the ,osage traditions1 cedar symbolizes the tree of life4 ,when a woman is initiated into the secret society of the ,osage1 the officiating man of her gens gives her four sips of water1 symbolizing1 so they say1 the river flowing by the tree of life1 and then he rubs her from head to foot with cedar needles three times in front1 three times at her back1 and three times on each side1 twelve times in all1 pronouncing a sacred name of ,wakana as he makes each pass4 ,part of the ,paka gens of the ,osage tribe#dd are ,red ,cedar people4 ,the ,paka gens of the ,kansa tribe is called 8,qndjala10 i4e41 8wearers of cedar 7branches7 on the head40 ,cedar is used by the ,santee ,dakota in their ceremony of the four winds4 7,see #abh47 ,the ,teton ,dakota believe in the efficacy of the smell of cedar wood or of the smoke from cedar in scaring away ghosts4 7,see #bgb47 ,in the ,athapascan creation myth of ,oregon1 obtained by the author in #ahhd1 the smoke of cedar took the place of food for the two gods who made the world1 and the red cedar is held sacred as well as the ash1 because these two trees were the first to be discovered by the gods4#de ,that the ,hidatsa have a similar notion about the red cedar is shown by their name for it1 8midahopa10 mysterious or sacred tree4 ,compare what ,matthews tells about the ,hidatsa reverence for the cottonwood with what is recorded above about the ,omaha sacred pole4#df 7 #cdd47 ,the cottonwood tree also seems to have been regarded as a mystic tree by the ,omaha and ,ponka1 just as it is by the ,hidatsa4 ,the sacred pole of the two tribes was made from a tall cottonwood4#dg ,when the lower part of the sacred pole became worn away1 about #h feet remained1 and to this was fastened a piece of ash wood about #ah inches long4 ,in preparing for the dance called the ,hede watci1 the ,ike-sab people sought a cottonwood tree1 which they rushed on1 felled1 and bore to the center of the tribal circle1 where they planted it in the 8ujei40 ,mystic names taken from the cottonwood are found in the ixida and ,nikapana1 the two war gentes of the ,ponka tribe1 and in the atada and ,kaze gentes of the ,omaha4#dh ,that there were other mystic trees and plants1 appears from an examination of the personal names of the ,omaha1 ,ponka1 and cognate tribes4 ,for instance1 ackahiga1 a nikie name of the apa1 or ,deer gens of the ,omaha1 conveys some reference to a white oak tree1 ackahi2 and in the ,nuqe1 a ,buffalo gens of the ,ponka tribe1 we find the name abehi1 from a plant1 bush1 or tree found in ,nebraska1 the leaves of which1 resembling those of red cherry trees1 are used by the ,omaha for making a tea4 ,further study may show that the ,winnebago1 who have the name ,wazia1 ,pine ,person1 reverence a pine tree4 7,query3 ,may not this name be ,cedar ,person1 rather than ,pine ,person87 ,among the ,iowa1 ,oto1 and ,missouri1 we find several cedar1 corn1 and pumpkin names4 ,several corn and pumpkin names occur in the name list of the ,kansa tribe4 ,corn1 elm1 and black hawthorn names are found in the ,osage name list1 as well as cedar names2 and their traditions tell of the cedar1 red oak1 and sycamore1 as well as of the corn and pumpkin4#di 7,see #di47 ,i,a#8,e4 #dc4 ,this term has been defined in ,chapter ,,ii 7 #h74 ,it is very probable that fasting for several days tended to produce the condition of mind and body requisite for the supposed superhuman communications4 ,according to ai-napaj and other ,omaha1 some persons thought that they saw or heard ghosts or various animals4 ,sometimes men were roused from sleep1 imagining that they heard mysterious voices4 ,they claimed to have interviews with ,u-ga-ha-na-pa-ze1 or the ,ancient of ,darkness2 ,ma-qpi1 or the ,ancient of ,clouds2 ande1 or the ,ground ,being2 ,iga1 or the ,thunder-being2 the ,sun1 the ,moon1 the ,morning ,star1 the ,ancient of ,rattlesnakes1 the ,ancient of ,grizzly ,bears1 the ,ancient of ,black ,bears1 the ,ancient of ,buffaloes1 the ,ancient of ,big ,wolves1 and the ,ancient of ,prairie ,wolves4 ,each being or animal thus seen in a dream or vision seems to have been regarded as the special guardian spirit of the person claiming to have had interviews with him4 ,the ,iga ia#8e-ma1 or ,those who had interviews with the ,thunder-being1 never danced at the meetings of their society4 ,they invited one another to feast1 and they sang as they remained seated4 ,the songs referred to the ,thunder-being4 ,when they finished eating and singing the ceremonies ended4 ,this order of ,thunder shamans claimed the power to make rain 7see #cf74 ,according to ai-napaj and ,little ,village ,maker1 these shamans could also make circles of seven colors around the sun and moon1 and the two men just named said that they had seen this done4 ,joseph ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows gave the following explanation3 8,when there are clouds that obscure the moon1 a circle is seen around the moon1 and it sometimes resembles a rainbow40 ,though ,two ,crows belongs to the ,buffalo society 7e ia#8e-ma1 or ,order of ,buffalo shamans--see #hi71 he said that he had never had an interview with a mysterious buffalo1 but that his work in the order was confined to the practice of surgery1 he being the keeper of the 8maka ski10 or sweet medicine4 ,notwithstanding this1 there are certain buffalo songs1 the property of the order1 and which they claim to be powerful charms capable of working cures1 when used by the surgeons of their order4 ,said ,two ,crows to the author1 8,if they had sent for the doctors of our order we could have cured ,president ,garfield40 ,the author obtained two of these ,buffalo songs from an ,omaha1 but they are recorded only in singing notation4#ej ,among the ,omaha societies are the ,cage ia#8e-ma1 the ,horse shamans1#ea the ,caaga ia#8e-ma1 the ,big ,wolf shamans1#eb and the ,matcu ia#8e-ma1 the ,grizzly ,bear shamans4#ec ,according to ,francis ,la ,flche1#ed 8,there are three degrees of powers which come to men through visions3 ,first1 when the vision takes the form of an animal which addresses the man1 he will then have acquired a power which will stead him in danger1 and give him success in life4 ,second1 if the vision assumes the appearance of a cloud1 or a human shape having wings like an eagle1 and a voice addresses the man1 he will have the additional power of being able to foretell events4 ,third1 when the vision comes without any semblance and only a voice is heard1 the man is given not only the power to achieve success and foretell events1 but he can foresee the coming of death4 ,should a man endowed with the third degree so elect1 he can in due form join the ,ghost ,society2 or1 if he prefers1 he can practice his powers individually40 ,his father1 the late ,joseph ,la ,flche1 told the author in #ahhb that the ,ghost ,dance formerly belonged to the ,ponka tribe1 from whom the ,omaha took it2 though it has not been used by the ,omaha since about ,a4 ,d4 #ahej4ee ,the only inference which the author can draw from this statement of the father is that if the ,omaha obtained the ,ghost ,dance from the ,ponka1 the ,ghost ,society or order of ,ghost shamans is not an original ,omaha society4 ,that the two are closely connected is proved by the names1 ,wanaxe ia#8e-ma1 the 7order of7 ,ghost shamans 7or1 ,the ,ghost ,society71 and ,wanaxe ia#8e watcigaxe1 ,the dance of those who have visions of ghosts1 or1 ,the ,ghost ,dance4 ,the ,kansa have the ,tce wactce1 or ,buffalo shaman1 and an order of such shamans4 ,when a ,kansa had a vision or dream 7i-ya-k'e-ye7 of an animal1 etc41 he painted the mystery object on his shield4 ,an old woman used to 8iyak'eye0 of a flying serpent1 the ,myets#8a tji lcka4 ,the remains of such enormous serpents are found in the ,black ,hills1 8and if one finds such a reptile1 he must die40 ,for an account of the ,kansa 8wakandagi0 see #ff4 ,the ,kwapa or ,ukaqpa ,indians speak a dialect more closely allied to that of the ,omaha and ,ponka than to those of the ,kansa and ,osage4 ,with them1 to have superhuman communications is called da-q#8-d2 shamans and doctors are nka qw1 mysterious men1 and among their societies of such men are the following3 ,te dq#8ed1 ,those having superhuman communications with the ,buffalo2 the ,mat daq#8d1 ,those having interviews with the ,grizzly ,bear2 the ,itada taa daq#8d1 ,those having interviews with the ,panther2 and the ,jaw daq#8d1 ,those having interviews with the ,beaver4 ,there were doubtless other orders1 but they are unknown to the author's ,kwapa informant1 ,alphonsus ,valliere1 of the ,wajia or ,bird gens4#ef ,,personal ,,mystery ,,decorations4 #dd4 ,the ,omaha and ,ponka have certain personal mystery decorations1 some of which are worn on garments1 and others appear on the tents of their owners4 ,the makers and wearers of such decorations must be members of one of the orders of shamans4 ,george ,miller's father1 ,little ,soldier1 used to wear a buffalo robe decorated in the style shown in ,figs4 #aef and #aeg4 ,it was his personal mystery decoration1 which no one else could use4 ,even members of his gens 7the ,ictasanda1 a ,thunder and ,reptile gens7 feared to imitate it4 ,the father promised to paint this decoration on four white blankets for his son ,george1 but he died before he could paint the fourth one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--;,george ,miller's personal mystery decoration4 ,george received the first one when he was about seventeen years of age4 ,before he married he had worn out three4 ,he still has the right to decorate and wear the fourth blanket1 according to his father's intention4 ,he could decorate other white blankets in this style1 and wear them1 if he wished1 but he could not transmit to any one of his children 7the grandchildren of ,little ,soldier7 the right to make and wear such a decoration1 unless ,george himself should hereafter see the objects in a dream or vision4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--;,a variant of ,fig4 #aef4 ,the right to use such designs on a buffalo robe1 blanket1 tent1 etc41 must originate with one who has had a vision or dream in which the mystery objects are manifested4 ,those who could use the class of designs represented in the accompanying illustrations 7,figs4 #aef-afa7 were members of the order of ,thunder shamans 7,iga ia#8e-ma74 ,,order ,,of ,,thunder ,,shamans4 #de4 ,this order is composed of those who have had dreams or visions1 in which they have seen the ,thunder-being1 the ,sun1 the ,moon1 or some her superterrestrial objects or phenomena4 ,when a person saw the ,thunder-being or some other mystery object1 he kept the matter a secret for some time4 ,he took care to join the first war party that went from his camp or village4 ,when the party reached the land of the enemy or got into some trouble the man told of his dream or vision4 ,should the dreamer or seer kill or grasp a foe while a member of the expedition he made a ,thunder song4 ,he who brought back one of the enemy's horses also had the right to make a ,thunder song4 ,some time having elapsed after the return of the warriors1 the seer painted the mystery objects on a robe or blanket1 and prepared a feast1 to which he invited all the members of the order of ,thunder shamans4 ,when the guests had assembled the robe was hung up and shown to them4 ,then all who were present rejoiced4 ,from that time onward the host was a member of the order1 and he could wear the robe with safety4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--,robe of ,wanukige4 ,he could give his son the right to wear such a robe1 but unless that son had a similar vision he could not transmit the right to one of the next generation4 ,little ,soldier painted a buffalo robe with his personal mystery decoration1 and gave it to ,two ,crows1 whose father had been one of the leaders of the order of ,thunder shamans4 ,so ,two ,crows wore the robe1 and he can make another like it2 but he can not transmit the right to his son1 ,ga#8i-baj4 ,two ,crows would have been afraid to wear the robe or to copy the decoration on it had he not been a member of the order by direct inheritance from his father4 ,a father can clothe his son in such a robe when that son is large enough to go courting4 ,the man can not give such a robe to his daughter1 but he can give one to his son's son1 or to his daughter's son1 should that grandson be a large youth1 who has neared or reached the age of puberty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--,tent of ,wanukige4 ,if a man who became eligible by his vision to membership in the order of ,thunder shamans ventured to wear the decorated robe without inviting the members of the order to a feast1 he incurred the anger of the members and misfortune was sure to follow4 ,should a man wear such a decorated robe without having had a vision of the mystery object1 he was in danger 7if the object was connected with the ,thunder-being1 etc47 of being killed by lightning4 ,every ,omaha feared to decorate his robe1 tent1 or blanket with an object seen by another person in a dream or vision4 ,for instance1 ,george ,miller would not dare to have bears' claws1 horses' hoofs1 etc41 on his robe1 because neither he nor his father ever saw a bear or horse mysteriously4 ,there are penalties attached to violations of the prohibitions of the other orders1 but ,george ,miller did not know about them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--,robe of aqube4 ,besides the personal mystery decoration of the robe or blanket1 is that of the tent4 ,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,e is a sketch of a tent1 furnished to the author by ,dried ,buffalo ,skull1 an old man of the atada gens of the ,omaha4 ,the decoration of this tent was the personal mystery or 8qube0 of ,hupea1 ,sr41 father of ,hupea1 ,jr4 7now known as enugaaga71 of the ,wasabe-hit#8aj or ,black ,bear sub-gens of the atada4 ,after the death of ,hupea1 ,sr41 the decoration became the property of his kinsman1 ,agaha-wacuce1 of the same sub-gens1 and father of ainapaj4 ,the circle at the top1 representing a bear's cave1 is sometimes painted blue1 though ,agaha-wacuce had it reddened4 ,below the four zigzag lines 7representing the lightnings of different colors7 are the prints of bears' paws4 ,the lower part of the tent was blackened with ashes or charcoal4 ,among the four zigzag lines1 red1 according to ,mr4 ,francis ,la ,flche1 symbolizes the east4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,robe of ahe-ap#84 ,wanukige1 a chief of the ,ictasanda gens1 had a vision of the aurora borealis1 so he depicted this on his robes and tent1 as shown in ,figs4 #aeh and #aei4 ,on the tent were seven stripes1 three on each side of the entrance and one in the rear4 ,each robe that he wore had seven stripes4 ,fig4 #afj represents the personal mystery decoration of aqube of the ,kaze gens4 ,george ,miller's father could wear this decoration1 but the right to it could not be transmitted by him to any one else4 ahe-ap#81 of the ,ke-#8i subgens of the atada gens1 once had a vision of two stars and the new moon4 ,consequently he decorated his buffalo robe1 as shown in ,fig4 #afa1 and joined the order of ,thunder shamans4 ,he died when the author was at the ,omaha agency 7between #ahgh and #ahhj74 ,,generic ,,forms ,,of ,,decoration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--;,generic decoration referring to night1 etc4 #df4 ,there are examples of generic forms of decoration1 as well as those of specific forms4 ,for instance1 when a person had a vision of the night1 or of the ,thunder-being1 or one of some other superterrestrial object1 he blackened the upper part of his tent and a small portion on each side of the entrance1 as shown in ,fig4 #afb4 ,it was given thus by ,george ,miller3 ,naciga am gudi ct ha dact a#8e am ,people the where ever night for example they have the tent pl4 visions sub4 of it ugii 1 widta sbea1 k ci gud ct they if one-half the they blacken and again where ever dwell length in nkaciga am iga a#8e am c ga people the pl4 thunder they have the pl4 again so sub4 being visions sub4 of it4 ugi-biam4 they dwell in1 they say4 ,,specific ,,forms ,,of ,,decoration4 ,a specific form related to the generic one just described is shown in ,fig4 #afc4 ,the blackened part of the tent represents the night1 and the star denotes the morning star4 ,there was a star on the left hand at the back of the tent1 and another star on the right side4 ,black and blue are occasionally interchangeable in ,omaha symbolism2 hence we find that the night is represented by a blue band on a coyote skin worn by the elder ,apa-sk1 and subsequently by his son and namesake1 when the latter was a small boy4 ,the blue band was worn next the shoulders of the owner 7,fig4 #afd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--,tent of ,apa-sk1 ,sr4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--,robe of ,apa-sk1 ,sr4 ,the decoration refers to his 8qube0 or 8sacred vision40 ,little ,cedar1 of the ,maika-gaxe 7,omaha7 gens1 belonged1 we are told1 to the ,mi ia#8e-ma1 or order of ,sun and ,moon shamans1 probably identical with the order of ,thunder shamans4 ,fig4 #afe represents a vision which ,little ,cedar once had1 described thus by ,george ,miller3 ,ga naciga ak a#8e-bi ega etga i ug t ,and man the having had a vision1 like this tent painted the sub4 they say std4 ob4 ugi-biam4 ,mzi-jiga ijje ai-biam4 ,sbe t ha he dwelt in1 ,cedar ,little his name had1 they ,black the night they say1 say k gxai2 niaba a abe t gxai4 ,niaba the that made moon the cv4 emerging the made4 ,moon lg4 ob4 ob4 uanda andi nkaciga ugi gxai1 ga a#8ea ik in the in the person sitting made and one seen in the one midst of part in a vision who t4 ,niaba abe at-nandi nqi that the ,moon emerging comes regularly1 blazes when 7sends up light7 ga-nai4 ,the black band refers to the night2 the circle1 to somewhat usually4 the moon2 the circumscribed figure is a ghost that he saw in the moon2 and the dots above the moon refer to the 8white which stands above the rising sun or moon40 ,pl4 ,,xliv ,b shows another tent decoration of the same man4 ,the red circle represents the sun1 in which stands a man holding the a-c-ge1 or deer rattles1 made of the hard or callous knobs found near the hoofs of the deer4 ,these knobs are split1 hollowed out1 and strung on sticks4 ,the tent being very large1 the figure of the man was almost life size1 and a real feather was tied to his head4 ,the blue band at the bottom may represent night1 but there is no certainty about it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,tent of ,mazi-jiga--ghost vision4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--;,a tent of ,nikuiba4 #dg4 ,fig4 #aff is the decoration of one of the tents of ,ni-ku-i-ba1 father of the present ,wacka-mai 7,hard ,walker71 an ex-chief of the ,omaha4 ,nikuiba was one of the two leaders of the order of ,thunder shamans1 and was regarded as being very 8qube0 or mysterious4 ,the black band at the bottom refers to the night1 and above it are seen the moon and a star4 ,the old man named one of his grandchildren ,haakipa 7,meets the ,night71 after the vision to which the tent decoration refers4 ,george ,miller furnished the description of ,nikuiba's tent1 obtained from an old woman1 who is his widow3 8,ga wqti aba-mj aja1 ua ga ana#8a h4 ,ga ,and ,i ,i did not though they have as ,i have ,and myself see him told about heard it4 him iga a#8e-biam1 da unige gxai t ,thunder he had a vision of therefore rainbow made it the ,being him1 they say 7past act7 gt4 hua a bagjai t1 ua h that ob4 ,smoke-hole at the painted in the that told it 4 part spots 7past act7 wa#8jiga igqa ak4 ,macia ai aki1 -biam4 old woman his wife the sub4 ,on high having had he said1 him reached they say4 there again ,e ct maja ga1 -biam4 ,qubqti gxai ,there too land this like he said1 they ,very mysterious they say4 made him naciga1 da ug t watga gxe gaai man therefore tent painted the how to make he wished it 1 ga ga gxai4 ,bagjai t msi waka when at any so he made it4 ,made spotted he hail that it meant rate by painting t40 the 7past act74 ,that is1 8,i myself did not see him1 but ,i have heard what was told4 ,they say that he had a vision of the ,thunder-being1 so he made that rainbow which appears in the figure 7,fig4 #afg74 ,the old woman1 his widow1 has told that he painted the top of the tent1 near the smoke-hole1 in spots4 ,they say that he said that the ,thunder-being had carried him up on high1 and that the place there resembled this world4 ,the man was regarded as very mysterious2 therefore he decorated his tent according to the pattern that he wished to make4 ,the painted spots represent hail40 ,many years ago1 ,nikuiba said that he had been carried up into the world above this one1 and that he found it resembled the world in which we live4 ,the rainbow and hail depicted on the tent formed part of the vision1 but their exact significance has not been explained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,another tent of ,nikuiba4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,blanket of ,cua-mai4 ,cu-a ma-i1 an ,omaha1 had a vision which gave him the right to use the decoration given in ,fig4 #afh4 ,the meanings of the different marks have not been learned4 ,cua mai bequeathed the blanket to his son1 ,kaxe-gia 7,flying ,crow71 now known as ,gilbert ,morris4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--,tent of e-sa2 vision of a cedar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--,tent of e-sa2 sun and rainbow vision4 #dh4 ,the old chief e-sa 7,ta sone of ,maj4 ,long71 ,distant-white ,buffalo1 father of the chiefs ,standing ,hawk and ,fire ,chief1 had a vision of a cedar tree1 which he painted on each side of his tent1 as seen in ,fig4 #afi4 ,the next sketch 7,fig4 #agj7 shows the back part of another tent of e-sa4 ,the blue band near the top is called 8sabe0 7black72 below this is the sun and a blue rainbow2 near the bottom are two horsetails4 ,the only decorations on the front of the tent are two horsetails1 one on each side of the entrance4 ,this tent was used by ,standing ,hawk after the death of his father4 ,this decoration may have been made after a vision of horses1 as ,standing ,hawk was a member of the order of ,horse ,shamans 7,cage ia#8e-ma74 ,george ,miller speaks thus about it3 ,ga naciga ak nkagah tai ega a#8 daetai ,and man the sub4 chief he was as he had a perhaps beyond vision t1 mi a uga1 i4 ,c cag snde the 7past sun the he painted he painted the ,again horse tail act7 cv4 ob4 tent with it4 ct gxai1 hid kdi4 hua pas a too he made bottom at the ,smoke hole tip end the part sbai4 ,that is1 8,as the man was a head chief1 he may have had a he blackened4 vision1 for he occupied a tent on which he painted the sun1 and he also decorated it with horse-tails at the lower part4 ,he painted the border of the smoke-hole a dark blue 7u sab1 which is some-times called1 sab740 8,idi am dact ga gxai tdi1 ijige am ,his father the pl4 sub4 perhaps so did when his son the pl4 sub4 a#8a-bj ctwa ga gxe-na-biam1 da ga they did not have even so usually did1 they therefore so visions of it say gxai40 ,that is1 8,when the fathers decorate their tents in consequence he did of their respective visions1 their sons 7who succeed them7 usually imitate them 7or dwell in the decorated tents71 even when they themselves have not had visions of the objects4 ,therefore he 7i4e41 ,standing ,hawk7 did so40 ,george ,miller told the following about ede-gahi or ,fire ,chief1 another son of e-sa3 ,c ga de-ghi ak ugii waabe4 ,watazihi i ,again so ,fire ,chief the he sat in ,i saw ,corn-stalk painted sub it on the tent waabe aja1 watga ipaha-mj aja1 nkaghi ga ,i saw though of what sort ,i knew not though chief like ga ugii t4 ,watazi i ct waqube gxai4 ,k so he sat in the ,corn the col4 too mysterious he made and 7past ob4 it act7 c de-ghi ak tawaga e am ,wajiga-atj am again ,fire ,chief the gens his the pl4 ,bird eat not the pl4 sub4 sub4 sub4 wahba pahaga jut#8a tdi at-baj wahba ear of corn first matures when they do not ear of corn eat i1 nkaciga am nawape at tai t4 ata 1 the col4 people the pl4 fear them they will the ,they if ob4 sub4 eat 7act7 eat wahba i1 wajiga asni weuba4 ,ik-sab ear of corn the col4 bird devour they fear ,shoulder black ob4 them kad ct ga gxe-na-biam ug4 ,haga among too so make usually they say tent painting4 ,foremost the the kad ct ga gxe-na-biam ug4 among too so make usually they say tent painting4 ,this refers to ,fig4 #aga1 and may be thus rendered3 8,and ,i have likewise seen the tent of ,fire ,chief4 ,it was decorated with cornstalks1 but ,i do not know the reason for it4 ,he dwelt in such a tent because he was a chief4 ,corn was regarded as 8waqube10 mysterious4 ,in the sub-gens of ,fire ,chief1 the ,wajiga-ataj1 or1 those who eat no small birds1 the people feared to eat the first ears of corn that matured1 lest the small birds 7particularly blackbirds7 should come and devour the rest of the crop4 ,there was a similar tent decoration in the ,ike-sab and ,haga gentes40 ,in the former1 it was used by ,waqaga 7see #ec74 ,the cornstalks and ears were green1 the tips of the ears were black4 ,there were two similar cornstalks on the back of the tent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4--;,cornstalk decoration of the tents of ,fire ,chief and ,waqaga4 ,,corn ,,and ,,the ,,buffalo4 #di4 ,corn is regarded as a 8mother0 and the buffalo as a 8grandfather0 among the ,omaha and other tribes4#eg ,in the ,osage tradition1 corn was bestowed upon the people by four buffalo bulls or 8grandfathers40#eh ,dr4 ,washington ,matthews tells of a similar ,arikara belief about an ear of corn4#ei 7,see #db47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4--,robe of ,ni-actage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--;,duba-mai's father's tent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--,matcu-naba's tent4 ,,other ,,omaha ,,mystery ,,decorations4 #ej4 ,among the members of the order of ,buffalo 7e ia#8e-ma7 was ,niactage1 whose robe is shown in ,fig4 #agb4 ,the red band is at the top4 ,the black spots represent the places where the buffaloes play 8buffalo wallows40 ,buffalo hoofs are in blue4 ,duba-mai's father had a vision of horses1 hence he wished to depict horse-tails and tracks on his tent1 as found in ,fig4 #agc2 but he died before he finished it4 ,the father of ,matcu-naba had a vision of horses1 and bequeathed to his son ,matcu-naba the right to decorate his tent in the style shown in ,fig4 #agd4 ,the yellow was connected with the vision4 ,when the owner dwelt in an earth-lodge1 the horse-tail was tied to a long pole1 which was thrust through the opening at the top of the lodge4 ,so when he used his skin tent1 the horse-tail hung from the top of a long pole above the smoke-hole4 ,when the ,omaha dwelt near the present town of ,homer1 ,nebr41 and ,wackahi was a young child1 he went out to play1 and fell asleep4 ,he said that he was aroused by the sounds made by many chickens crowing and cackling4 ,in those days 7fide ,george ,miller7 there were no white people in that neighborhood2 but now in that very place where ,wackahi had the vision1 there is a wealthy family living1 and besides large herds they have a great many chickens4 ,in remembrance of that occurrence1 ,wackahi painted his tent with his personal decoration as given in ,fig4 #age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4--,wackahi's tent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4--,tent of unknown ,omaha4 ,an unknown ,omaha had a vision of deer1 so he decorated his tent accordingly4 7,see ,fig4 #agf47 ,george ,miller could not furnish the man's name4 #ea4 ,among the members of the order of ,grizzly ,bear shamans was an ,omaha named ebi#8a 7,frog74 ,the top of his tent was painted yellow1 as shown in ,fig4 #agg4 ,there was no other decoration2 but this yellow evidently was connected with a grizzly bear vision1 as it appears in the decoration adopted by the father of ,two ,crows1 who was not only one of the two leaders of the order of ,thunder shamans 7,iga ia#8e-ma7 but also a member of the orders of ,buffalo and ,grizzly ,bear shamans 7e ia#8e-ma and ,matcu ia#8e-ma74 7,see ,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,d1 in which a grizzly bear is depicted as emerging from his den4 ,the blue part represents the ground47 ,this decoration 7of the tent of ,two ,crows' father7 is thus described by ,george ,miller3 ,matc ia#8ea ega t ga gxai4 ,grizzly bear they have as tent the so they visions of it std4 ob4 make it ,matc wadabai tdi ande k mataa abe t ,grizzly bear they see them when ground the within emerging come lg4 ob4 wadabai1 ga ga gxai t4 ande k -nai1 they see them and so they tent the ,ground the they usually make it std4 lg4 ob4 paint blue ob4 hbe k z-nai40 ,that is1 8,when they have had visions tent part the they usually lg ob4 paint yellow4 of grizzly bears1 they decorate their tents accordingly4 ,when they see grizzly bears1 they behold them coming out of the ground1 and so they paint the tents4 ,they always 7or usually7 paint the ground blue1 and part of the tent they paint in a yellow band40 ,this shows the conventional use of colors4 ,see ,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,e1 for the sketch of another tent representing the vision of a grizzly bear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4--,tent of ebi#8a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4--,tent of a ,kansa who had an eagle vision4 ,,kansa ,,mystery ,,decorations4 #eb4 ,three ,kansa decorations follow4 ,they are taken from an original sketch made by a ,kansa man1 known to the white people as ,stephen ,stubbs4 ,the first tent 7,fig4 #agh7 is that of a man who had fasted and held mysterious communication with an eagle which gave him some feathers4 ,he had danced the pipe dance once for some one4 ,at the base of this tent are seen two peace pipes on each side of the entrance4 ,at the back are a black bear and a large turtle4 ,the second tent 7,fig4 #agi7 is that of a man who had danced the pipe dance three times4 ,buffalo tails are fastened to the tops of the triangular pieces forming the shelter of the smoke-hole1 feathers hang from the two shields1 and the stars are above and on the base of the tent skins4 ,feathers1 shields1 and stars are also on the back of this tent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--,kansa decorated tent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4--,kansa decorated tent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4--,maze-guhe's robe4 ,fig4 #ahj is the tent of a man who has danced the pipe dance four times4 ,it is very probable1 judging from the stars on the tents1 that the owners of the second and third ,kansa tents had had visions4 ,the ,kansa say that when a man has danced the pipe dance twice1 his tent can be decorated with two cornstalks at the front 7one on each side of the entrance71 and two more at the back4 ,the pipes used in the calumet or pipe dance are regarded as 8,wakandaaica0 by the ,omaha and ,ponka1 and the inference is that the ,kansa and ,osage had a similar belief about these pipes and the accompanying dance4 ,perhaps there was a time when no man could undertake the pipe dance unless he had a vision of some kind4 ,,omaha ,,nikie ,,decorations4 #ec4 ,as the gentes of the ,omaha and ,ponka are regarded as being 8,wakandaaica10 the 8nikie0 and 8nikie names0 have a religious significance4 ,george ,miller has furnished the author with a few nikie decorations1 which are now given4 ,maze-guhe1 an ,omaha1 belonged to the ,waigije sub-gens of the ,ike-sab gens4 ,the decoration of his robe 7,fig4 #aha7 marks the nikie of the sub-gens1 as it consisted of spiral forms known as 8waigije40 ,that of the tent 7,fig4 #ahb7 refers to the nikie of the entire gens4 ,in the latter case1 the buffalo head was painted on the back of the tent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,maze-guhe's tent4 ,duba-mai1 who has a nikie name referring to the buffalo1 belongs to the ,waigije sub-gens4 ,his father wore a black blanket embroidered with beadwork in two rows of spirals1 between which was a star4 ,all these figures were made of white beads4 7,see ,fig4 #ahc47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4--;,duba-mai's father's blanket4 ,in the ,pipe sub-gens of the ,ike-sab there were several tent decorations4 ,of the first1 ,george ,miller speaks thus3 ,nkaciga-ma tawaga-ma ninba t#8a am ,ik-sab ,the people those in the gentes pipe have the pl4 ,black shoulder sub4 akdi uga1 ninba i4 ,k wdaj-ma among tent they pipe painted the ,and those elsewhere the paint tent with wdaha-mj1 aka-bj ebga4 ,ik-sab akdi ,i do not know them they are not so ,i think4 ,black shoulder among the nkaghi ak ga gxai ebga1 actwa gxa-bj chief the sub4 so made ,i think of any pattern he did not make ebga4 ,ninba waqbe gxai 1 ninba ja k bska gxai1 ,i think4 ,pipe mysterious made when pipe wood the flat made thing lg4 ob4 uskai1 wajigad jii t1 hi jde put porcupine bird heads put many the 8deer fur0 red work around it on it past act katai40 tied to it4 ,that is1 8,those persons who belong to the ,ike-sab sub-gens known as ,keepers of the ,pipes1 paint their tent7s7 with the pipe decoration4 ,i do not know of any other persons1 members of other gentes1 using this decoration2 ,i think that no others use it4 ,i think that the ,ikesab chief decorates his tent in this manner1 and that he did not decorate it in any way he pleased4 ,when the sacred pipes were made 7on the tent7 the pipestem was made flat1 porcupine work was put around it1 several heads of birds were fastened on it1 and tufts of reddened horses' hair were tied to it at intervals40 7,see ,fig4 #ahd and ,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,c47 ,this ,ike-sab tent had only two pipes on it--one on each side of the entrance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--;,ike-sab tent decoration4 ,the second ,ike-sab tent decoration is thus described by the same authority3 ,ajiga tdi i-ugi waabe 1 ekga ,the small when tent dwelt in ,i saw them when like this lg4 ob4 ugii4 ,ninba mca ug i waabe ,ninba t#8a they dwelt ,pipe quill attached painted ,i saw ,pipe had in feather to at the tent right with angles akdi1 ,waqga ga i waabe4 ,ninba waqbe k among ,burrs so painted ,i saw them ,pipe sacred the lg4 the the tent ob4 with kigaqti aja1 e mca ug gxai1 ninba just like it though that quill attached to made pipe feather at right angles wawa ak h4 aja ninba k nikaghi calumet that is it 4 ,though pipe the lg4 that chief by ob4 aforesaid means of it ixai1 naciga am taqti gxai ninba waqbe4 they make people the pl4 exceedingly make it pipe sacred themselves sub4 ,naciga am pjqti ctctwa1 ukt#8 kikiqti ,people the pl4 very bad notwithstanding foreign contending sub4 nation fiercely together maii ctctwa1 kikdqti maii ctctwa1 they walk notwithstanding shooting often they walk notwithstanding and fiercely ninba k abe ai ahi 1 uci k uh pipe the lg4 coming they take it when in the the following ob4 forth thither middle lg4 its course line ai aai 1 mkicta tai4 ,tqi gxai naciga they when they stop will ,precious they people take it shooting at make it one another am4 the pl4 sub4 ,that is1 8,when1 in my childhood1 ,i saw the tents in which the people dwelt1 they were of this sort4 7,see ,fig4 #ahe47 ,i saw the tent decorated with the pipes having feathers attached to each pipe at right angles4 ,i saw a tent of this sort when it was occupied by ,waqaga of the ,pipe sub-gens4 7,see another tent decoration of this man1 #dh47 ,though these pipes closely resemble the peace pipes 7niniba waqube71 they are made with the feathers attached to the stems at right angles4 ,these are the pipes used in the pipe dance4 ,by means of the pipes the people made for themselves that which was equivalent to 7or1 lead to7 the chieftainship4 ,so they regarded the sacred pipes as of the greatest importance4 ,even when the people were very bad1 even when different tribes continued to struggle with one another2 even when they shot often at one another1 when some persons came forth with the peace pipes1 and bore them to a place between the opposing forces1 carrying them all along the lines1 they stopped shooting at one another4 ,the ,indians regarded the pipes as precious40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--;,ike-sab tent decoration4 ,a apa nikie tent decoration is shown in the tent of ,heqaga4 7,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,c47 ,this tent had two pipes on each side of the tent1 double the number on the ,ike-sab tent 7,fig4 #ahd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--,waqaga's robe4 ,fig4 #ahf is given as the nikie decoration of a robe belonging to ,waqaga4 ,the bird on the robe is an eagle4 ,members of the ,pipe sub-gens of the ,ike-sab have eagle birth names4 ,and we know that ,waqaga belonged to that sub-gens4 ,the author understood ,joseph ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows to say1 in #ahhb1 that while nikie names possessed a sacredness1 it was only the sacredness of antiquity1 and that they were not 8,wakandaaica40 ,but the author now thinks that such a statement needs modification2 for1 besides what appears at the beginning of this section1 we know that among the ,osage and ,kansa the nikie names are associated with the traditions preserved in the secret society of seven degrees1 and that this applies not only to names of gentes and sub-gentes1 but also to personal nikie names4 ,the author frightened an ,osage in ,january1 #ahhc1 by mentioning in public some of this class of names4 ,,omaha ,,nikie ,,customs4 #ed4 ,among the nikie of the ,omaha1 the following may be mentioned3 ,the ,wajiga-ataj1 or 8,blackbird people10 had a curious custom during the harvest season4 ,at that time the birds used to devour the corn1 so the men of this sub-gens undertook to prevent them1 by chewing some grains of corn which they spit around over the field4#fj ,during a fog1 the ,ke-#8i men would draw the figure of a turtle on the ground1 with its head to the south4 ,on the head1 tail1 middle of the back1 and each leg1 were placed small pieces of a 7red7 breechcloth with some tobacco4 ,they imagined that this would make the fog disappear very soon4#fa ,the ,kaze gens1 being ,wind people1 flap their blankets to start a breeze when mosquitoes abound4#fb ,the a-pa gens have a form for the naming of a child on the fifth morning after its birth1 according to ,lion1 one of the chiefs of that gens4#fc ,in the feast on the hearts and tongues1#fd the ,haga men who belong to the sub-gens keeping the sacred pole1 eat the buffalo tongues1 though the buffalo is their 8grandfather0 and the eponym of their gens2 but they can not eat the 8a0 or buffalo sides4 ,however1 the other ,haga men1 who can not eat the tongues1 are allowed to eat the consecrated buffalo sides1 after the ceremonies connected with the thanksgiving and anointing of the sacred pole4#fe ,no ,omaha child had its hair cut until it had been taken to an old man of the ,ictasanda gens1 to have the first locks cut1 the first moccasins put on the child's feet1 and prayers to be said over it4 ,sometimes the old man said 8ucpha1 ,wakanda ,o grandchild1 ,wakanda a#8i-de ci maika s ag tate10 i4e41 ,o pity you when a long time soil foot you set it shall1 erect on grandchild1 may ,wakanda pity you1 and may your feet rest a long time on the ground60 ,another form was sometimes used--8,wakanda a#8eie tate4 ,maika si aage tate4 ,gudihega ne tate10 i4e41 8,may ,wakanda pity you6 ,may your feet tread the ground6 ,may you go ahead 7or1 live hereafter760#ff #ee4 ,when there is a 8blizzard10 the other ,kansa beg the members of the ,tcihaci or ,kaze gens to interpose1 as they are ,wind people4 8,mitcigu-e1 haba yali kbla eyau4 ,cigajiga yita ,o grandfather1 day good ,i desire indeed4 ,child your be decorated 7or painted7 kik'yakiye tce au#fd1 abe au40 i4e41 8,they say1 #8,o you cause him to will 4 they 4 be decorated 7or say painted7 grandfather 7said to one of the ,kaze gens71 ,i wish good weather4 ,please cause one of your children to be decorated6'0 ,then the youngest son of one of the ,kaze men1 say one over #d feet high1 is chosen for the purpose1 and painted with red paint 7,igama jdje ikik'kiyabe au74 ,the youth rolls over and over in the snow and reddens it for some distance all around him4 ,this is supposed to stop the storm4 ,,governmental ,,instrumentalities4 #ef4 ,among the ,omaha governmental instrumentalities which are 8,wakandaaica0 are the chiefs1 the keepers of the three sacred tents1 the keepers of the sacred pipes1 the gentes1 sub-gentes1 and taboos1 none of which can be regarded as fetiches1 and the following which appear to be fetiches3 ,the sacred pipes 7including the war pipes of the ,elk gens1 the two peace pipes kept by the ,ike-sab gens1 the mysterious objects kept by the 8keepers of the pipes0 in the atada1 ,kaze1 ,maika-gaxe1 e-snde1 a-pa1 and ,ictasanda gentes1 and the weawa or pipes used in the calumet dance71 the sacred pole1 the sacred hide of a white buffalo1 the sacred arrows of divination1 and the sacred clam shell of the ,elk gens4#fg #eg4 ,,omaha ,,and ,,ponka ,,taboos4 ,buffalo skull not touched by-- #a4 e-pa it#8aj sub-gens of atada 7,omaha74 #b4 ,waigije sub-gens of ,ike-sab 7,om474 #c4 e-snde gens 7,om474 #d4 ,part of the ,wacabe gens 7,ponka74 #e4 ,part of ,necta gens 7,p474 ,buffalo tongue not eaten by-- #a4 ,waigije sub-gens of ,ike-sab 7,om474 #b4 ,hagaqti or ,wacabe sub-gens of ,haga 7,om474 #c4 ,part of ,nikapana gens 7,p474 #d4 ,part of ,wacabe gens 7,p474 #e4 ,part of ,necta gens 7,p474 ,buffalo 7black7 horns not touched by part of ,ike-sab gens 7,om474 ,buffalo sides 7when consecrated71 not eaten by a waqube ataj sub-gens of ,haga gens 7,om474 ,buffalo rib 7lowest one1 ei-ucage71 not eaten by e-snde gens 7,om474 ,buffalo and domestic calf not eaten when the hair is red1 but can be eaten when the hair turns black1 by e-snde gens 7,om474 ,buffalo calf can not be touched1 when its hair is 8zi0 7yellow or red71 by a sub-gens of the ,necta gens 7,p474 ,buffalo calf can not be eaten at any time by-- #a4 ,ige-jide gens 7,om474 #b4 ,part of ,wacabe gens 7,p474 #c4 ,part of ,necta gens 7,p474 ,deer not eaten by-- #a4 ,part of ,hisada gens 7,p474 #b4 ,part of ,nikapana gens 7,p474 ,male deer not eaten by ,elk gens 7,om472 but ,deer gens can eat venison4 ,skin of any animal of the deer family can not be touched by ada gens 7,om474 ,flesh of male elk not eaten by ,elk gens 7,om474 ,bladder and sinew of male elk not touched by ,elk gens 7,om474 ,elk not eaten by part of ,nikapana gens 7,p474 ,turtles not eaten by ,turtle sub-gens 7,om474 ,black bear skin not touched by-- #a4 ,black bear sub-gens 7,om474 #b4 ,black bear sub-gens 7,p474 ,wild-cat skin1 not touched by pipe sub-gens of ,deer gens 7,om474 ,cranes and swans not eaten by part of ,haga gens 7,om474 ,swans not touched 7formerly87 by ,mixasa wet#8aj sub-gens of ,ma-ika-gaxe gens 7,om474 ,small birds not eaten by ,wajiga-ataj 7,blackbird or ,small bird7 sub-gens of the atada gens 7,om474 ,they can eat wild turkeys1 ducks1 geese1 swans1 cranes4 ,when members of this sub-gens are sick they can eat grouse4 7,small birds7 blackbirds1 7black ones71 swallows1 and grouse not eaten by part of ,hisada gens 7,p474 ,reptiles neither touched nor eaten by-- #a4 ,ictasanda gens 7,om474 #b4 ,wajaje gens 7,p474 ,blood not touched by part of the ixida gens 7,p471 hence their name1 ,wami it#8aj4 ,red corn not eaten by a sub-gens of the ,ike-sab gens 7,om474 ,charcoal not touched by-- #a4 ,a sub-gens of the ,ike-sab gens 7,om474 #b4 ,the ,pipe sub-gens of the ,deer gens 7,om474 #c4 ,a sub-gens of the ixida gens 7,p474 #d4 ,the ,pipe sub-gens of the ,wajaje gens 7,p474 ,verdigris not touched by-- #a4 ,kaze gens 7,om474 #b4 ,pipe sub-gens of ,deer gens 7,om474 #c4 ,part of the ixida gens 7,p474 #d4 ,pipe sub-gens of the ,wajaje gens 7,p474 ,,fetichism4 #eh4 ,according to ,dr4 ,tylor1 8,fetichism is the doctrine of spirits embodied in1 or attached to1 or conveying influence through1 certain material objects40#fh ,fetiches may be regarded as of two kinds--those pertaining to the tribe or gens1 and those belonging to individual members of the social organization4 ,some fetiches are amulets1 others are charms4 ,,fetiches ,,of ,,the ,,tribe ,,and ,,gens4 #ei4 ,omaha tribal fetiches4--,the sacred pole and white buffalo hide1 in the keeping of the ,haga gens until a few years ago1 but now in the ,peabody ,museum of ,archology and ,ethnology at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 were regarded by the ,omaha as 8wakanda ega10 i4e41 8like ,wakandas10 or 8partaking of the nature of deities40 ,during the public thanksgiving after the buffalo hunt1 prayer was made towards the sacred pole4#fi ,the sacred tent in which the sacred pole of the two tribes was kept was never painted4 ,when the people remained in their permanent villages of earth lodges1 the entrance of the sacred tent faced the sunrise2 but when the tribe migrated1 the entrance of the tent faced the direction in which they traveled4 ,the pole was never exposed to dew1 rain1 or snow1 but was kept within the lodge1 during any kind of bad weather4 ,it was never laid down1 but was tied to a tent pole4 ,in good weather it was exposed to view4 ,sometimes it was tied to one of the tent poles near the entrance1 as shown in ,fig4 #ahg4 ,when not tied thus1 it rested on a forked post set in the ground1 either in the rear of the tent or in front of it4 ,the top of the pole1 to which the scalp was fastened1 projected beyond the forked post4 ,when this post was in the rear of the tent1 the top of the pole pointed towards the tent2 but when the post was set up in front1 the pole pointed in the direction to be traveled4 ,the place for the pole in good weather was determined by its keeper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--,sacred tent in which the pole was kept4 ,the people feared the pole1 and they would not dare to tread on the tent or its tent-poles4 ,should a horse tread on a tent-pole of this tent1 its legs were sure to be broken subsequently4 ,george ,miller knew of two horses that did this1 and their legs were broken when the people were surrounding a herd of buffalo4 ,frank ,la ,flche has told the author about some sacred stone arrows which were used for purposes of divination4 ,hence1 the nikie name1 ,ma pj1 ,bad ,arrow1 i4e4 ,good ,arrow1 a personal name of the ,haga gens4 ,other objects1 which may have been fetiches1 have been named in #ef4 ,in addition to all which have been mentioned must be named the waixabe or mysterious bags4 ,while these are not governmental instrumentalities1 they are 8waqube0 mysterious things1 and on certain occasions they are addressed as 8grandfathers40 ,there used to be five of these bags among the ,omaha1 but only three are now in existence4 ,those which could be carried in time of war were made of the skins and feathers of the geda or pigeon hawk1 the ibe-jaka or fork-tailed hawk1 and the nickucku or swallow4#gj ade ue1 according to ,big ,elk 7but denied by ,joseph ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows7 is the mystic rite performed by the principal captain when near the camp of the enemy4 ,it is thus described by ,big ,elk 7,see #fb73 8,four times he untied the bag which he had made sacred4 ,he caused the wind to waft the odor of the medicine toward the lodges4 ,when the medicine arrived there1 it made the ,pawnees forget their warlike temper2 it made them forget their weapons40#ga ,that there was some foundation for this statement1 compare what is said in ,omaha ,sociology1 p4 #cba3 8,when the principal captains wish to open their sacred bags1 they assemble their followers in a circle1 making them sit down4 ,any of the followers or servants may be ordered to make an 8ujei0 in the center of the circle by pulling up the grass1 then making a hole in the ground 7the 8,u-ma-ne0 of ,miss ,fletcher#gb74 ,then the sacred bags are laid at the feet of the principal captains1 each one of whom opens his own bag 7i4e4 the one borrowed by him from its keeper71 holding the mouth of the bird toward the foe1 even when some of the warriors are going to steal horses40 ,during the ordeal of the 8wastegistu10 as the ,omaha call it1 the successful warriors were called up1 one by one1 and as each man stood over one of the sacred bags1 he addressed the bag itself thus3 8,hau1 ic#8age-ha1 edada uwiba t mike aja1 ,ho6 old man 6 what ,i will tell you though iusicta-maj uwiba ta mike10 i4e41 8,ho1 venerable man6 ,i tell a ,i not ,i will tell you lie though ,i will tell you something1 ,i will not lie when ,i tell it to you40 ,as he spoke he let a small stick drop on the bag4 ,it was supposed that if the stick rested on the bag instead of rolling off1 the man had told the truth 7,om4 ,soc41 p4 #cbh74 #fj4 ,osage tribal fetiches4--,the corresponding ,osage custom has been described by the author3#gc ,the old men assembled at the war tent4 ,the sacred bags were brought into the tent to test the warriors1 who were watched very closely by the old men4 ,all the old men who had been distinguished in war were painted with the decorations of their respective gentes4 99 99 99 ,each warrior had four sticks about #f inches long1 and he was required to lay them in succession on the sacred bag4 ,the warriors were taken in the following order3 ,first1 the captain1 next the lieutenants1 then the heralds1 after whom came the man who had struck the first blow1 then he who gave the second blow1 and so on4 ,as each captain laid his first stick on the bag he said1 8,ho1 ,o grandfather6 ,i lay this down on you because ,i am the one who has killed a man40 ,on laying down the second stick1 he said1 8,ho1 ,o grandfather6 ,i wish to be fortunate in stealing horses6 ,i wish our children1 too1 to be as fortunate as we have been60 ,when he put down the third1 he said1 8,ho1 ,o grandfather6 ,i wish to raise a domestic animal4 ,i wish to succeed in bringing it to maturity40 ,by this he meant a son4 ,the prayer made when the last stick was laid down was as follows3 8,ho1 ,o grandfather6 ,may we continue a people without sustaining any injuries60 ,similar petitions were made by the lieutenants and heralds4 ,he who gave the first blow said1 as he laid down the first stick1 8,ho1 ,o grandfather6 ,i lay this down on you as one who has caused another to stun a foe60 ,the rest of his petitions were those made by the captains4 ,he who struck the second blow said as follows1 on laying down the first stick3 8,ho1 ,o grandfather6 ,i place this on you because ,i was the next one to strike and stun a man60 ,the other petitions follow1 as given above4 ,the first petition of each of the remaining warriors is as follows3 8,ho1 ,o grandfather6 ,i lay this on you as a token that ,i have aided in overcoming the enemy40 #fa4 ,kansa tribal fetiches4--,among the ,kansa1 the following fetiches belong to the two ,haga gentes3 ,the war pipe and the war clam shell4 ,the war pipe was kept in #ahhb by ,pahale-wak'1 the son of ,alikawahu1 for the two ,haga gentes4 ,this pipe has an eye on each side1 so that it may see the enemy6 ,there is no pipestem1 but there is one hole to which the mouth is applied1 and in the bowl is another hole in which the tobacco is placed4 ,the pipe1 which is all in one piece1 is of catlinite1 about as thick as two hands4 ,it is never taken from the wrappings1 except when all the men of the two ,haga gentes assemble at the lodge of the chief ,alikawahu4 ,the sacred clam shell was kept in #ahhb by ,pahale-gaqli1 the chief of the other ,haga gens4 ,it is wrapped in five coverings1 similar to those around the war pipe4 ,they are as follows3 7#a7 ,the innermost covering1 the bladder of a buffalo bull2 7#b7 next covering1 made of the spotted fur of a fawn2 7#c7 made of braided rushes or 8sa20 7#d7 a very broad piece of deerskin2 7#e7 the outermost covering1 made of braided hair from the head of a buffalo bull4 ,,personal ,,fetiches4 #fb4 ai-napaj said that there were some ,omaha who considered as 8waqube0 the skins of animals and the skins and feathers of birds used in making their 8waixabe0 or mystery bags4 ,among these birds and animals he named the eagle1 sparrow hawk1 yellow-backed hawk1 green-necked duck1 great owl1 swallow1 otter1 flying squirrel1 mink1 mia sk 78white raccoon0 sic71 and mazahe4 ,the last is an animal resembling an otter4 ,it is covered with thick black and reddish-yellow hair1 and its tail is bushy4 ,samuel ,fremont said 7in #ahhi7 that this animal was not found in that part of ,nebraska where the ,omaha dwelt1 but that he had heard of its being found among the ,dakota4 ,two ,crows and ,joseph ,la ,flche never heard of the mia sk and mazahe among their own people2 but they said that when the ,omaha traveled1 some used to take with them their respective 8maka0 or medicines1 evidently their personal fetiches1 for they used to say1 8,our medicines are wise2 they can talk like men1 and they tell us how many horses we are to receive from the people to whom we are going40 ,when the ,omaha went against the ,pawnee during the boyhood of the present ,big ,elk1 one of the captains1 named ,gi#8ahabi1 had a war club of the kind called 8weaqade40 ,he made this club 8waqube10 in order to use it mysteriously4 ,when near the camp of the enemy he brandished the club four times toward the ,pawnees4 ,this was followed by the use of the sacred bag1 as related in #ei4 ,it is probable that the medicines of the ,watci ,waupi1 ,wase-jide ai-ma1 and the ai-wasab watcigaxe ikageki1 of the ,omaha1#gd the ,red ,medicine of the ,kansa1 and the ,red ,medicine of the ,osage ,maka se watsi or ,red ,medicine ,dance1 were used as fetiches1 as they conferred wonderful powers on those who used them4 ,when the author was at the ,omaha ,agency1 in #ahgh1 he obtained the following3 ,rocky ,mountain beans1 which are scarlet1 and are called 8,maka jide0 or ,red ,medicine1 confer good luck on their owners4 ,if the beans like their owners1 they will never be lost2 even if dropped accidentally1 they will return to the possession of their owners4 ,ni-k'-mi1 an aged ,oto woman1 told one of her granddaughters 7then ,susette ,la ,flche1 known as ,bright ,eyes after #ahgi1 and now the wife of ,t4 ,h4 ,tibbles7 of her own experience with one of these beans4 ,she had dropped it in the grass1 but she found it on retracing her steps4 ,it is impossible to say whether this scarlet bean was identical with the ,red ,medicine of the ,iowa 7 #hg71 ,kansa1 and ,osage2 but it certainly differed from that of the ,wase-jide aima of the ,omaha4 ,there are sacred or mystery rites practiced by the dancing societies1 including those to which the waze or doctors belong4 ,two ,crows said that he did not know those of his society1 the e ia#8e-ma4 ,as initiation into one of these societies is very expensive1 it is unreasonable to suppose that ,two ,crows would communicate the secrets of his order for a small sum1 such as #a a day4 ,,sorcery4 #fc4 ,there have been sorcerers1 i4e41 such as prepared love potions for those who bought them1 and who were thought to cause the death of those persons who had incurred their displeasure4 ,the author has been told that the sorcerers give a high price for a small quantity of the catamenial discharge of a virgin4 ,it is mixed with a love potion1 and when the compound is administered to a man he can not help courting the woman1 even when he knows that he does not love her4 ,,jugglery4 #fd4 ,ickade or sleight of hand exists not only in the secret societies but also along with the practice of medicine1 government1 and religion4 ,some of the ,omaha and ,ponka doctors of the first class 7the waze1 not the maka ai-ma or root doctors7 pretend to draw sticks from the bodies of their patients1 or worms from aching teeth1 saying that those things are the causes of the diseases4 ,every disease is a 8nie0 or 8pain10 and there must be a cause for that pain4 #fe4 ,in #ahgb ,big ,grizzly ,bear1 a subordinate ,ponka chief1 told the following to the author3 8,one day ,whip1 a head chief1 said1 #8,i am going to make the sun blue4' ,and he did so4 ,then he said1 #8,i am going to pull out some of the hair of the man in the moon4' ,he held up his hands to show that they had no hair in them4 ,then he began to sing4 ,suddenly he had some bloody hair in each hand4 ,ga-i-de ma-i and a great many others were witnesses4 ,once1 when the ,ponka were destitute of food1 ,buffalo ,bull1 the father of ,grizzly ,bear's ,ear1 said1 #8,i will use magic4' ,his wife replied1 #8,please do so4' ,so he made a pile of earth about #b feet high and shot four arrows into it4 ,a large deer was slain1 furnishing them with plenty to eat40 ,in #ahga the author saw an exhibition of the skill of ,cramped ,hand and ,bent ,horn1 two ,ponka shamans4 ,one afternoon1 near sunset1 about two hundred persons1 mostly ,indians1 stood in a large circle around a tent in which sat the shamans and their assistants4 ,presently the shamans and the aged chief1 ,antoine ,primeau1 came out of the tent and stood within the circle4 ,one of the shamans1 ,cramped ,hand1 danced along the inner side of the circle1 exhibiting a revolver 7,allen's patent71 one chamber of which he seemed to load as the people looked on4 ,after he had put on the cap1 he handed the weapon to the chief1 who fired at the shaman4 ,cramped ,hand fell immediately1 as if badly wounded4 ,bent ,horn rushed to his relief and began to manipulate him4 ,it was not long before ,cramped ,hand was able to crawl around on his hands and knees1 though the bullet had apparently hit him in the mouth4 ,he groaned and coughed incessantly1 and after a tin basin was put down before him he coughed up a bullet which fell in the basin1 and was shown in triumph to the crowd4 ,this is told merely to show how the ,indian juggler has adopted some of the tricks of his white brother4 ,in a few moments ,bent ,horn danced around1 showing to each of us an object which appeared to be a stone as large as a man's fist1 and too large to be forced into the mouth of the average man4 ,cramped ,hand stood about #aj or #ae feet away and threw this stone toward ,bent ,horn1 hitting the latter in the mouth and disappearing4 ,bent ,horn fell and appeared in great pain1 groaning and foaming at the mouth4 ,when the basin was put down before him1 there fell into it1 not one large stone1 but at least four small ones4 ,we were told that the chief1 ,antoine1 had to give a horse for the privilege of shooting at the shaman4 ,it is probable that some of the ,omaha shamans performed similar tricks1 though the author has been unable to obtain any accounts of them4 #ff4 ,he was fortunate1 however1 in making the acquaintance of the chief 8wakandagi10 or shaman of the ,kansa1 when at ,kaw ,agency1 in the winter of #ahhb4 ,this man1 ,nixdje-yige1 was very communicative4 ,he said that there used to be ten shamans in the tribe1 and all had round pebbles which they blew from their mouths against the persons whom they 8ilxe0 or 8shot in a mysterious manner40 ,the arrow of the shamans was called 8,mi-pa-ha10 which is a name of the ,buffalo gens4 ,this missile was made of part of the red-breasted turtle4 ,a woman named ,sa-si-le had two 8maka0 7medicines1 fetiches87 which she used for 8ickade0 or 8wakandagi wagaxe0 7magic1 shamanistic legerdemain74 ,she could swallow a knife2 and when she swallowed a certain kind of grass she drew a green snake from her mouth4 ,john ,kickapoo's father had a red medicine1 which was used for women who desired to become enciente1 for horses1 and for causing good dreams4 ,nixdje-yige's mother1 who was a shaman1 has a small pebble and a clam shell1 which she used in her mystery acts4 ,pagani had a 8sika-hyuka0 or 8needle0 7so represented by ,nixdje-yige1 but it may not have been a steel needle71 which he swallowed and voided through the urethra4 ,gahige-wadayiga used to stab himself with a 8mahis0 or arrow-point1 about #f inches long1 causing the blood to spurt from his left shoulder as he danced4 ,the other shamans used to spurt water on his back from their mouths1 while he held his arms horizontally from his body1 with the forearms pointing upward4 ,when they finished no wound could be found4 ,one shaman had a fish called 8hu blaska0 or flat fish1 to which he talked4 ,he made a necklace of the skin1 and he used it for 8ilxe40 ,wakanda-zi had the skin of a small black bear as his sacred bag4 ,as he danced he held it by the tail and shook the skin4 ,after shooting the round pebble from his mouth at a person he thrust the bear skin at the wounded man1 drawing it back very quickly4 ,the round pebble was drawn into the mouth of the bear and dropped on the ground when the skin bag was held with the tail up4 ,he who wished to be shot at handed a gun to some one1 who shot him in the side1 much blood escaping4 ,he seemed to be dead2 but the shamans assembled and manipulated him4 ,one put the mouth of the otter 7of the otterskin sacred bag7 to the mouth of the patient in order to perform the act called 8lpayi0 7to raise up or resuscitate his own74 ,then1 8,zbe ak eya tuhnage ak10 i4e41 when the bag was drawn away rapidly1 the otter made the sound 8zbe10 as when one draws in the breath1 and the bullet was in its mouth4 ,on the patient's recovery he gave a horse to the man who shot at him4 ,mage-zi had a clam shell and a snake that he used in his sleight-of-hand acts4 ,he also swallowed 8mahi-tu10 a kind of green grass about a foot long and as thick as a pencil4 ,before swallowing this1 he warmed it at a fire4 ,he rubbed himself on his chest after swallowing it1 saying1 8,let all look at me60 ,then he called to him a man to act as his assistant4 ,he coughed and in the assistant's hand there was a snake1 which he took around the circle of spectators1 showing it to every one1 though no one handled it4 ,on his returning the snake to ,mage-zi1 the latter swallowed it and coughed up the long grass4 ,nixdje-yige said that there were eight objects used by the shamans for 8shooting10 the needle2 flint 787 arrow head2 beaver teeth2 the half of a knife blade1 i4e41 that part next to the point2 the fish-fan1 made of 8huqtci0 or 8real fish20 the red medicine2 the hiydadxe or medicine bag that was caused to fly2 and the tuhnage1 or otter skin bag4 7,see #bib-bie1 #cjg47 ,,omaha ,,and ,,ponka ,,belief ,,as ,,to ,a ,,future ,,life4 #fg4 ,they have a very crude belief4 ,each person is taught to have a wanaxe or spirit1 which does not perish at death4 ,according to ,joseph ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows1 the old men used to say to the people1 8iuda 1 wanaxe uda-maa ci tate4 ipij 1 wanaxe pij-maa ci tate10 i4e41 8,if you are good1 you will go to the good ghosts4 ,if you are bad1 you will go to the bad ghosts40 ,nothing was ever said of going to dwell with ,wakanda1 or with demons4#ge ,rev4 ,william ,hamilton found a belief that retribution is in this life1 and he says1 8,their notions are exceedingly crude40 #fh4 ,frank ,la ,flche told the author before #ahhb that he had heard some old men relate a tradition that years ago a man came back to life and told about the spirit land4 ,he said that for four nights after death the ghost had to travel a very dark road1 but that after he reached the ,milky ,way there was plenty of light4 ,for this reason1 said he1 the people ought to aid their deceased friends by lighting fires at the graves1 and by keeping them burning for four nights in each case4 ,after going along the ,milky ,way1 the ghost came at last to a place where the road forked2 and there sat an aged man1 clothed in a buffalo robe with the hair outside4 7,see #cei47 ,he said nothing1 but pointed to each inquirer the road for which he asked4 ,one road was a very short one1 and he who followed it soon came to the place where the good ghosts dwelt4 ,the other road was an endless one1 along which the ghosts went crying4 ,the spirits of suicides could not travel either road2 but they hovered over their graves4 ,but ,joseph ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows 7in #ahhb7 said that the road of the ghosts was not the ,milky ,way1 and they regarded the account of the endless road as a modern addition1 which is very probable4 ,the latest statements of ,frank ,la ,flche are given in the ,jour4 ,amer4 ,folk-,lore1 vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #aj1 #aa3 ,there are a variety of beliefs concerning the immediate action of the spirit upon its withdrawal from the body4 ,some think that the soul at once starts upon its journey to the spirit land2 others1 that it hovers about the grave as if reluctant to depart4 ,because of this latter belief1 food and water are placed at the head of the grave for several days after the burial4 ,the spirit is supposed to partake of this food4 ,no ,indian would touch any article of food thus exposed2 if he did1 the ghost would snatch away the food and paralyze the mouth of the thief1 and twist his face out of shape for the rest of his life2 or else he would be pursued by the ghost1 and food would lose its taste1 and hunger ever after haunt the offender4 ,there is a belief in the tribe that before the spirits finally depart from men who died of wounds or their results1 they float toward a cliff overhanging the ,missouri1 not far from the present ,santee ,agency1 in ,nebraska1 and cut upon the rocks a picture showing forth their manner of death4 ,a line in the picture indicates the spot where the disease or wound was located which caused the death4 ,after this record is complete1 the spirit flies off to the land of the hereafter4 ,it is said that these pictures are easily recognized by the relatives and friends of the deceased4 ,this place is known as ,i-ga-xe i--xai a1#gf or1 ,where the spirits make pictures of themselves4 ,a suicide ceases to exist2 for him there is no hereafter4 ,a man struck by lightning is buried where he fell1 and in the position in which he died4 ,his grave is filled with earth1 and no mound is raised over one who is thus taken from life4 ,in #ahgc some of the ,ponka said they had the following beliefs concerning a murderer3 7#a7 ,the ghosts surround him and keep up a constant whistling2 7#b7 he can never satisfy his hunger1 though he eat much food2 7#c7 he must not be allowed to roam at large lest high winds arise4 ,it is important to compare this whole section with the ,dakota beliefs found in #bff-bgh4 ,the author was told by the ,omaha that when a man was killed by lightning1 he ought to be buried face downwards1 and the soles of his feet had to be slit4 ,when this was done1 the spirit went at once to the spirit land1 without giving further trouble to the living4 ,in one case 7that of a ,wejicte man1 ,jadegi1 according to ,george ,miller and ,frank ,le ,flche7#gg this was not done1 so it was said that the ghost walked1 and he did not rest in peace till another person 7his brother7 was slain by lightning and laid beside him4 ,when ,joseph ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows heard what ,frank had told about the ,milky ,way1 etc41 they remarked1 8,we have never been to the spirit land1 so we can not tell what is done there4 ,no one has ever come back and told us40 ,all that they had ever heard was the old story about the forked road4 #fi4 ,gahige1 the late chief of the ,ike-sab 7a buffalo gens71 told the author about the address made to a member of his gens1 when dying4 ,according to him1 the person was addressed thus3 8,you are going to the animals 7the buffalos74 ,you are going to your ancestors4 nita dbaha hn 7which may be rendered1 ,you are going to the four living ones1 if not1 the four winds74 ,wacka-g 7,be strong740 ,gahige was understood to speak of four spirits or souls to each person1 but ,joseph ,la ,flche and ,two ,crows said that the ,omaha did not believe that a person had more than one spirit4 ,two ,crows gave the following as the address to a dying member of his gens1 the ,haga1 another buffalo gens3 8,wana eta ,quadruped from at4 ,ga a ag tat h4 ,ga dduagaqaj te h4 you ,and thither you go shall 4 ,and you do not face will 4 have this way 7please7 come ,hn ta caca mai-g h10 i4e41 8,you came hither from the you go to the always walk thou 6 animals4 ,and you are going back thither4 ,do not face this way again4 ,when you go1 continue walking40 ,the last sentence is a petition to the departing spirit not to return to this earth to worry or injure the survivors4 ,that the dead are referred to as still existing1 and as having some knowledge of what is happening here1 may be seen from the address to a ,ponka chief at his installation3 8idi ghi1 iji ghi1 iga ghi1 mustqti idabe mai tai20 i4e41 8,your father was a chief1 your elder brother 7i4e41 his potential elder brother1 ,ubisk1 a former head chief of the ,ponka7 was a chief1 and your grandfather was a chief2 may they continue to look directly down on you60#gh #gj4 ,those who boil sacred food1 as for the warpath1 pour some of the soup outside the lodge1 as an offering to the ghosts4 7,omaha custom47 ,there has been no belief in the resurrection of the body1 but simply one in the continued existence of the ghost or spirit4 ,while some of the ,iowas expressed to ,mr4 ,hamilton a belief in the transmigration of spirits1 that doctrine has not been found among the ,omaha and ,ponka1 nor has the author heard of it among other ,siouan tribes4 ,not all ghosts are visible to the living4 ,they may be heard without being seen4 ,one ,omaha woman1 the mother of ,two ,crows1 told how she had been in a lodge with many persons1 who were invisible from the knees upward4#gi ,,kansa ,,beliefs ,,respecting ,,death ,,and ,a ,,future ,,life4 #ga4 ,when the author was at ,kaw ,agency1 ,indian ,territory1 in the winter of #ahhb-'hc1 a man named ,ho-sa-sa-ge died4 ,after the representatives of all the gentes had assembled at the house1 ,wakanda 7named after the ,thunder-being71 the father-in-law of the deceased1 removed the lock of hair called the 8ghost10 and took it to his own house1 weeping as he departed4 ,when ,mr4 ,say was among the ,kansa#hj he obtained the following information about their beliefs concerning death and the future life3 ,when a man is killed in battle the thunder is supposed to take him up1 they do not know whither4 ,in going to battle each warrior traces an imaginary figure of the thunder on the soil2 he who represents it incorrectly is killed by the thunder4 ,a person saw this thunder one day on the ground1 with a beautiful moccasin on each side of it4 ,having need of a pair1 he took them and went his way2 but on his return to the same spot the thunder took him off1 and he has not since been heard of4 ,they seem to have vague notions about the future state4 ,they think that a brave man or a good hunter will walk in a good path2 but a bad man and a coward will find a bad path4 ,thinking that the deceased has far to travel1 they bury with his body moccasins1 some articles of food1 etc41 to support him on the journey4 ,many persons1 they believe1 who have revived have been1 during their apparent death1 to strange villages1 where they were not treated well by the people1 so they returned to life4 ,the author1 when among the ,kansa1 in the winter of #ahhb-'hc1 learned the following1 which differs from anything he has ever obtained elsewhere3 8,the ,kansa believe that when there is a death the ghost returns to the spirit village nearest the present habitat of the living4 ,that is to say1 all ,indians do not go to one spirit village or #8happy hunting ground1' but to different ones1 as there is a series of spirit villages for the ,kansa1 beginning with the one at ,council ,grove1 where the tribe dwelt before they removed to their present reservation in ,indian ,territory1 and extending along both sides of the ,kansas ,river to its mouth1 thence up the ,missouri ,river1 as far as the tribe wandered before meeting the ,cheyennes 7near the ,state line71 thence down the river to the mouth of ,osage ,river1 and so on1 down to the mouths of the ,missouri and ,ohio rivers10 etc4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #g3 ,see ,james1 ,account ,exped4 to ,rocky ,mountains1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #h3 ,see ,jour4 ,amer4 ,folk-lore1 vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #i3 ,see #acb-acf1 and ,tukaila1 in ,riggs's ,dakota-,english ,dictionary1 ,contr4 ,n4,a4 ,ethnology1 vol4 ,,vii4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see ,contr4 ,n4,a4 ,ethn41 vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cgf1 and ,omaha ,sociology1 in #c;d ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethnology1 pp4 #cbd1 #cbe4 ,footnote #aa3 ,contr4 ,n4,a4 ,ethn41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #cid1 lines #aj-ai2 p4 #cie1 lines #ad-af4 ,footnote #ab3 ,wakanda aka uiai ega4 ,footnote #ac3 ,wakanda aka ibahai4 ,footnote #ad3 ,wakanda aka igiigai4 ,footnote #ae3 ,lewis and ,clarke1 ,expedition1 ed4 ,allen1 ,dublin1 vol4 ,i1 #ahag1 pp4 #deg1 #deh2 also ,m',vickar's abridgment of the same1 ,harpers1 ,n4 ,y4 vol4 ,i1 #ahdb1 p4 #cjc4 ,footnote #af3 ,james's ,account of ,long's ,exped41 ,phila41 vol1 ,i1 #ahbc1 p4 #bjh4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ha1 witsiue4 #fth ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #che1 line #ej2 p4 #chi1 line #ej2 p4 #cia1 line #d1 etc4 ,footnote #ah3 ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,feb4 #ahhd1 p4 #abf2 ,ibid41 ,july1 #ahhe1 p4 #fgj4 ,footnote #ai3 ,ibid41 ,feb4 #ahhd1 pp4 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abj1 #abc1 #abe4 ,footnote #bj3 ,a similar rule about fasting obtained among the ,kansa when mourning for the dead4 ,see ,amer4 ,naturalist1 ,july1 #ahhe1 pp4 #fgj1 #fgb1 #fgi4 ,footnote #ba3 ,see #fth ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #che1 #chi4 ,footnote #bb3 ,james' ,account ,long's ,exped41 ,phil41 vol4 ,i1 #ahbc1 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #bc3 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bha1 note4 ,footnote #bd3 ,see 8,osage ,traditions10 pp4 #chd-cie1 in #fth ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 ,footnote #be3 ,for an account of the offering of meat to the four winds1 see ,om4 ,soc41 #c;d ,ann4 ,rept41 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #bhd4 ,footnote #bf3 ,see ,miss ,a4 ,c4 ,fletcher on the 8,wawan or ,pipe ,dance of the ,omahas10 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #caa1 note #aa1 and the author's paper1 ,om4 ,soc41 pp4 #bgh1 #bgi4 ,footnote #bg3 ,pahale-gaqli and ,waqube-k'i gave this information in the winter of #ahhb-'hc4 ,compare the self-inflicted tortures of the ,dakota and ,ponka in the sun dance 7 #bi1 #aha-c1 #ahe1 #ahg74 ,footnote #bh3 ,account of the war customs of the ,osages3 in ,amer4 ,naturalist1 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #b1 ,february1 #ahhd1 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #bi3 ,see ,omaha ,sociology1 #bd1 #c;d4 ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #cj3 ,omaha ,sociology1 in #c;d4 ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #ca3 ,this song and the invocation of the ,thunder-being are used by the ,ponka as well as by the ,kansa4 ,according to ,miss ,fletcher1 the 8sign of giving thanks0 among the ,hunkpapa ,dakota is made by moving the hands in the opposite direction1 i4 e41 8from the shoulder to the wrist40 ,see 8,the ,white ,buffalo ,festival of the ,uncpapas10 in ,peabody ,museum ,rept41 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bfh4 ,footnote #cb3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #ajh-aca4 ,footnote #cc3 ,compare the hair of the ,thunder-men1 in ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,footnote #cd3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn1 vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #cij4 ,see also #ai4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid41 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ibid41 pp4 #dj1 #acd1 etc4 ,footnote #cg3 ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,july1 #ahhe1 vol4 #ai1 ,pl4 ,,xx1 p4 #fgf4 ,footnote #ch3 ,geikie's paraphrase1 in 8,hours with the ,bible10 vol4 ,v1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #ci3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #cgj1 #cga4 ,footnote #dj3 ,om4 ,sociology1 in #c;d4 ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #cag4 ,footnote #da3 ,ibid1 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #db3 8,kansas ,mourning and ,war ,customs10 in ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,july #ahhf1 p4 #fgb4 ,footnote #dc3 ,miss ,fletcher1 in ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,proc41 vol4 ,,xxxiii1 pt4 #b1 #ahhe1 pp4 #faf1 #fag4 ,francis ,la ,flche1 ibid41 p4 #fad4 ,footnote #dd3 ,osage ,traditions1 in #fth ,ann4 ,rept4 of the ,director ,bur4 ,ethn41 #ahhh1 p4 #cgg4 ,footnote #de3 ,am4 ,anthropologist1 vol4 ,,ii41 ,no4 #a1 #ahhh1 p4 #ei4 78,january1 #ahhi407 ,footnote #df3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,survey1 ,hayden2 ,miscel4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg2 ,matthews' ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,hidatsa1 #ahgg1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #dg3 ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #bcd4 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 vol4 ,,vi1 #dfh1 line #c4 ,footnote #dh3 ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #big4 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 vol4 ,,vi1 #dga1 lines #c-e4 ,footnote #di3 ,osage ,traditions1 in #fth ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #cgg1 #cgi1 #cij4 ,footnote #ej3 ,see ,jour4 ,am4 ,folk-lore1 vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #c1 p4 #bji2 and ,om4 ,sociology1 in #c;d ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #cdg-h4 ,footnote #ea3 ,om4 ,sociology1 p4 #cdh4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ibid1 pp4 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ibid1 p4 #cdi4 ,footnote #ed3 8,death and ,funeral ,customs among the ,omahas10 in ,jour4 ,amer4 ,folk-lore1 vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #c4 ,footnote #ee3 ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #cec4 ,footnote #ef3 ,this ,kwapa information was obtained in ,january1 #ahia1 some time after the preparation of the greater part of this paper4 ,in such a combination as d the is scarcely heard4 ,footnote #eg3 ,see ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 #abc1 #afc1 and several myths in ,contr4 to ,n4 ,a4 ,ethnology1 vol4 ,,vi4 ,footnote #eh3 ,see ,osage ,traditions1 in #fth ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #cgi4 ,footnote #ei3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg2 ,ethnography and ,philology of ,hidatsa ,indians1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #fj3 ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #bch4 ,footnote #fa3 ,ibid41 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #fb3 ,ibid41 p4 #bda4 ,footnote #fc3 ,ibid41 pp4 #bde1 #bdf4 ,footnote #fd3 ,ibid41 pp4 #bij1 #bia4 ,footnote #fe3 ,ibid41 p4 #bie4 ,footnote #ff3 ,for detailed accounts1 see 8,glimpses of ,child-life among the ,omaha ,indians10 by ,miss ,a4 ,c4 ,fletcher1 in ,jour4 ,am4 ,folk-lore1 vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #aae-aah2 and ,omaha ,sociology1 in #c;d ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #bdi1 #bej4 ,footnote #fg3 ,see pp4 #bba-bea and ,chap4 ,,xi of ,omaha ,sociology1 in #c;d ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 ,footnote #fh3 ,prim4 ,culture1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acb4 ,footnote #fi3 ,see ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d4 ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #bie4 ,footnote #gj3 ,see ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #cbj4 ,footnote #ga3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #djd4 ,footnote #gb3 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bfc1 note #h4 ,footnote #gc3 ,in the ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,feb41 #ahhd1 pp4 #abh1 #abi4 ,footnote #gd3 ,see ,om4 ,soc41 pp4 #cdi-cea4 ,footnote #ge3 ,compare the ,oregon story3 ,no ,indians go after death to the upper world to dwell with ,qawaneca4 ,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,jan41 #ahhi1 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #gf3 ,this name is given in the notation of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 not as published by ,mr4 ,la ,flche4 ,footnote #gg3 ,see ,jour4 ,am4 ,folklore1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #f1 p4 #aij4 ,footnote #gh3 ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #cfj4 ,footnote #gi3 ,see 8,death and ,funeral ,customs of the ,omahas10 by ,francis ,la ,flesche1 in ,jour4 ,am4 ,folk-lore1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #d1 #e4 ,footnote #hj3 ,see ,james's ,account ,exped4 to ,rocky ,mountains1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #abe4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,c,,iwere ,,and ,,winnebago ,,cults4 #gb4 ,the ,rev4 ,william ,hamilton1 who was a missionary to the ,iowa and ,sac ,indians of ,nebraska1 from #ahcg to #ahec1 is the authority for most of the ,iowa material in this chapter4 ,about the year #ahdh1 he published a series of letters about the ,iowa ,indians in a ,presbyterian weekly newspaper1 and with his permission the present writer transcribed these letters in #ahgi1 for his own future use4 ,other information about the three iwere tribes 7,iowa1 ,oto and ,missouri7 was obtained by the author from ,ke-ree1 an ,oto2 ,ckainye1 a ,missouri2 and the delegation of ,iowa chiefs that visited ,washington in #ahhb4 ,the principal ,winnebago authority was ,james ,alexander1 a full-blood and a member of the ,wolf gens4 ,,term 8,,great ,,spirit0 ,,never ,,heard ,,among ,,the ,,iowa4 ,mr4 ,hamilton wrote thus in one of his letters3 ,it is often said that the ,indians are not idolaters1 and that they believe in one ,supreme ,being1 whom they call the ,great ,spirit4 ,i do not now recollect that ,i ever heard the ,iowas use the term ,great ,spirit since ,i have been among them4 ,they speak of ,god 7,wakanta71 and sometimes of the ,great ,god or ,bad ,god4 ,but of the true character of ,god they are entirely ignorant4 ,many of them speak of ,god as the creator of all things1 and use a term that signifies 8,creator of the earth40 ,sometimes they call him 8,grandfather0 7hituka74 ,but they imagine him to be possessed of like passions with themselves1 and pleased with their war parties1 scalp dances1 thefts1 and such like sin4 99 99 99 ,they sometimes speak of the sun as a god1 because it gives light and heat4 ,the moon they sometimes speak of as a god1 because it seems to be to the night what the sun is to the day4 ,i asked an ,indian the other day how many gods the ,iowas had1 and he promptly replied1 #8,seven4' ,,the ,,sun ,a ,,wakanta4 #gc4 ,an ,iowa told ,mr4 ,hamilton that he had once killed a bear1 which he offered to the sun1 allowing the animal to lie where he had killed it4 ,,the ,,winds ,,as ,,wakantas4 #gd4 ,an ,iowa told ,mr4 ,hamilton that ,tatce1 or ,wind1 was one of the seven great gods of his tribe4 ,another told him that he had made offerings to the ,south ,wind1 who was considered a beneficent ,wakanta4 ,but the ,north-east ,wind was a maleficent one4 ,judging from some of the ,winnebago personal names1 it is probable that the winds were regarded as powers by that people4 ,,the ,,thunder-,,being ,a ,,wakanta4 #ge4 ,among the ,iowa and ,oto1 the ,tcexita is the eagle and thunderbird gens1 and ,mr4 ,hamilton was told by the ,iowa that the ,thunder-being was called ,tcexita1 and ,wakanta1 the latter being its peculiar title4 8,they supposed the ,thunder-being to be a large bird4 ,when they first hear the thunder in the spring of the year1 they have a sacred feast in honor of this god40 ,the ,winnebago called the ,thunder-being 8,wakatca-ra10 and one division of the ,bird gens is the ,wakatca ikikaratca-da1 or ,thunder-being sub-gens4 ,the ,thunder-beings are the enemies of the ,waktceqi or ,submarine ,wakantas4 ,one person in the ,thunder-being sub-gens is named ,five-horned ,male1 probably referring to a ,thunder-being with five horns6 ,other personal names are as follows3 ,green ,thunder-being1 ,black ,thunder-being1 ,white ,thunder-being1 and ,yellow ,thunder-being2 but ,james ,alexander1 a full-blood ,winnebago of the ,wolf gens1 says that these colors have no connection with the four winds or quarters of the earth 7,see #cha74 ,the ,iowa told ,mr4 ,hamilton of a ,winnebago who saw a ,thunder-being fighting a subaquatic power4 ,sometimes the former bore the latter up into the air1 and at other times the subaquatic power took his adversary beneath the water4 ,the ,winnebago watched them all day1 and each ,power asked his assistance in overcoming the other1 promising him a great reward4 ,the man did not know which one to help2 but at last he shot an arrow at the subaquatic power1 who was carried up into the air by the ,thunder-being1 but the wounded one said to the man1 8,you may become a great man yourself1 but your relations must die40 ,and so they say it happened4 ,he became very great1 but his relatives died4 ,when the warriors returned home from an expedition against their enemies1 they plaited grass and tied the pieces around their arms1 necks1 and ankles4 ,sometimes to each ankle there was a trailing piece of plaited grass a yard long4 ,this was probably associated1 as were all war customs1 with the worship of the ,thunder-being 7,see ,chap4 ,,iii1 #ce74 ,,subterranean ,,powers4 #gf4 ,an ,indian became deranged from the use of whisky1 and ran wild for several days4 ,the ,iowa supposed that his madness was caused by a subterranean power1 whom he had seen1 and whose picture he had drawn on the ground1 representing it with large horns4 ,,subaquatic ,,powers4 #gg4 ,some ,iowa claim to have seen them4 ,no ,heart 7,natce-nie7 told ,mr4 ,hamilton that he had seen a 8water god in the ,missouri river1 when a man was drowned4 ,when a person is drowned they sometimes say that the god who lives in the water has taken him for a servant4 ,not a year since1 some ,iowa went over the river for meat4 ,a young girl sat down in the canoe with her load on her back4 ,when near the shore the canoe was upset accidentally1 and the girl was drowned4 ,the men thought that they heard a god halloo in the water1 and that he had taken her4 ,one told me that the gods of the air 7i4 e4 the ,thunder-beings7 fought the gods of the water1 and when the latter came out of the water1 the former stole upon them and killed them40 ,the subterranean and subaquatic powers are called 8waktceqi0 by the ,winnebago1 and this tribe has a gens called ,waktceqi ikikaratcada4 ,the ,winnebago say that the waktceqi dwell under the ground and the high bluffs1 and in subterranean water1 that they are caused to uphold the earth1 trees1 rivers1 etc41 and that they are the enemies of the ,thunder-beings 7 #chf74 ,in the ,winnebago ,waktceqi gens are the following personal names3 ,black ,waktceqi1 ,white ,waktceqi1 ,green ,waktceqi1 8,waktceqi that is sa0 7which may be gray or brown71 ,four ,horned ,male1 ,two ,horned ,male1 and ,lives in the ,hill4 ,,animals ,,as ,,wakantas4 #gh4 ,mr4 ,hamilton wrote that the ,iowa often spoke about the buffaloes1 whom they regarded as gods1 addressing them as 8,grandfathers40 ,he also told of a doctor whom he met one day2 the doctor seized a joint-snake that was handed him by another doctor1 calling it his 8god10 spoke of it as being good medicine1 and after putting its head into his mouth1 he bit it twice4 ,,apotheoses4 #gi4 8,they also seem to think that human beings may become gods1 and in this respect they are like the ,mormons40 ,,dwellings ,,of ,,gods4 #hj4 8,high rocks are supposed by the ,iowa to be the dwellings of gods40 8,there is a ,winnebago tradition that a woman carrying her child was running from her enemies1 so she jumped down a steep place and was turned into a rock4 ,and now when they pass that place they make offerings to her40 ,,worship4 #ha4 8,one of their most common acts of worship1 and apparently one of daily occurrence1 is observed when a person is about to smoke his pipe4 ,he looks to the sky and says1 #8,wakanta1 here is tobacco6' 7,see #bi1 #dj1 #8,nini bahai t4'7 ,then he puffs a mouthful of smoke up towards the sky1 after which he smokes as he pleases40 8,they also make offerings of tobacco by throwing a small quantity into the fire40 8,they frequently offer a small portion of food at their feasts1 before they begin eating40 ,mr4 ,hamilton saw dogs hung by their necks to trees or to sticks planted in the ground1 and he was told that these dogs were offerings4 8,no ,heart told me that when the smallpox raged among them about fifty years ago0 7i4 e4 about #agih71 8and swept off so many1 that they made a great many offerings40 ,said he1 8,we threw away a great many garments1 blankets1 etc41 and offered many dogs to ,god4 ,my father threw away a flag which the ,british had given him4 ,when we had thrown away these things1 the smallpox left us40 ,these offerings to ,god 7literally1 to ,wakanta7 were the means of checking it4 8,to throw away10 in ,iowa1 is the same as 8to offer in sacrifice40 ,,taboos4 #hb4 ,mr4 ,hamilton was told by the ,iowa that no member of any gens could eat the flesh of the eponymic animal4 ,the author gained the following taboos from a ,missouri1 ,ckae-yie or ,ckainye1 who visited the ,omaha in #ahgi3 ,the members of the ,tunap'i1 a ,black ,bear gens in the ,oto and ,nyut'atci 7or ,missouri7 tribes can not touch a clam shell4 ,the ,momi people1 now a subgens of the ,missouri ,bird gens1 abstain from small birds which have been killed by large birds1 and they can not touch the feathers of such small birds4 ,,public ,,or ,,tribal ,,fetiches4#ha #hc4 ,among these are the sacred pipes1 the sacred bags1 or waruxawe1 and the sacred stone or iron4 ,the sacred pipes are used only on solemn occasions1 and they are kept enveloped in the skin wrappers4 ,the sacred bags1 or waruxawe1 are made from the skins of animals4 ,they are esteemed as mysterious1 and they are reverenced as much as ,wakanta4 ,among the ,winnebago 7and presumably among the iwere tribes7 no woman is allowed to touch the waruxawe4 ,there used to be seven waruxawe among the ,iowa1 8related to one another as brothers and sisters10 and used by war parties4 ,on the return from war the seven bags were opened and used in the scalp dance4 ,they contained the skins of animals and birds with medicine in them1 also wild tobacco and other war medicine1 also the war club4 ,there used to be seven war clubs1 one for each waruxawe1 but during the last expedition of the ,iowa1 prior to the date of ,mr4 ,hamilton's letters1 the war club and pipes or whistles were lost from the principal bag4 ,the next kind of sacred bags1 the ,waci waruxawe1 numbered seven4 ,they were the bad-medicine bags1 by means of which they professed to deprive their enemies of power1 when they had discouraged them by blowing the whistles4 ,owing to this enchantment1 they said1 their enemies could neither shoot nor run1 and were soon killed4 ,the next kind were the ,tce waruxawe1 or buffalo medicine bags4 ,they were not used in war1 but in healing the wounded4 ,these bags contain medicine and the sticks with the deer hoofs attached which they shake while treating the sick2 also a piece of buffalo tail1 and perhaps a piece from the skin covering the throat of an elk4 ,the ,ta waruxawe1 or deer medicine bags1 contain the sacred otter skins used in the ,otter dance4 7,see #hf47 ,in some of the sacred bags are round stones1 which the warriors rub over themselves before going to war1 to prevent their being killed or wounded4 ,the waruxawe is always carried with the same end foremost1 the heads of the animals or birds being placed in the same direction1 and care is taken to keep them so4 7,see #bh47 ,on one occasion a leader broke up a war party by turning the bag around4 ,the ,iowa claim to have a mysterious object by which they try men1 or make them swear to speak the truth4 ,this mysterious iron or stone had not been gazed upon within the recollection of any of the ,iowa living in #ahdh4 ,it was wrapped in seven skins4 ,no woman was allowed to see even the outer covering1 and ,mr4 ,hamilton was told that he would die if he looked at it4 ,ckainye1 the ,missouri1 told the author that there were four ,tu-nap'i men who kept sacred pipes 7raqnowe waqonyita71 their names being ,weqa-nayi1 ,c-iqowe1 ,nararae1 and ,nae-yie4 ,it is probable that two of these men belong to the ,tunap'i gens of the ,oto tribe and two to the ,tunap'i gens of the ,nyut'atci tribe1 as these two tribes have been consolidated for years4 ,in the ,aruqwa or ,buffalo gens of the ,oto1 e-o-nayi and e-waeihi are the keepers of the sacred pipes of that gens4 ,,symbolic ,,earth ,,formations ,,of ,,the ,,winnebago4#hb #hd4 ,the ,winnebago tent used for sacred dances is long and narrow2 not more than #bj feet wide and varying from #ej to #ajj feet long4 ,in the ,buffalo dance1 which is given four times in the month of ,may and early ,june1 the dancers are four men and a large number of women4 ,as the dancers enter each woman brings in a handful of fine earth and in this way two mounds are raised in the center at the east--that is1 between the eastern entrance and the fire1 which is about #ae feet from the eastern entrance4 ,the mounds thus formed are truncated cones4 ,an old man said to me1 8,that is the way all mounds were built2 that is why we build so for the buffalo40 ,the mounds were about #d inches high and not far from #ah inches in diameter4 ,on top of the mounds were placed the head-gear worn by the men1 the claws1 tails1 and other articles used by the four leaders or male dancers4 ,the men imitate the buffalo in his wild tramping and roaring1 and dance with great vigor4 ,they are followed by a long line of gaily decked women in single file4 ,each woman as she dances keeps her feet nearly straight and heels close together1 and the body is propelled forward by a series of jerks which jars the whole frame1 but the general effect on the long1 closely packed line is that of the undulating appearance of a vast herd moving4 ,the women dance with their eyes turned toward the ground and with their hands hanging closely in front1 palms next to the person4 ,the track left by their feet is very pretty1 being like a close-leaved vine4 ,it is astonishing to notice how each woman can leap into her predecessor's track4 ,water is partaken of and the entire dance is clearly indicative of the prayer for increase and plenty of buffalo4 ,the two mounds remind one of larger structures and suggest many speculations1 particularly when taken in connection with the manner of their building4 ,in the great mystery lodge1 whence so many of the sacred societies among other tribes professedly take their rise and inspiration1 the fire is at the east1 and is made by placing four sticks meeting in the center and the other ends pointing to the four points of the compass4#hc ,just at that part of the initiation of the candidate when he is to fall dead to the old life1 be covered as with a pall1 and then be raised to the new life1 the remains of the four sticks are taken away and the ashes raised in a sharp conical mound1 again suggesting hints of a peculiar past4 ,upon the bluffs of the ,missouri1 on a promontory 99 99 99 is a little depression cut in the ground1 circular in form1 with an elongated end at the east4 ,the depression is #a foot in diameter and about #f inches deep4 ,placing my compass in the center1 the long end or entrance was found to be exactly to the east4 ,to the south of this sacred spot1 for it is cleared and cleaned 99 99 99 every year1 stood a large cedar tree1 now partly blown down4 ,this was the sacred tree on which miraculous impersonation of visions lit2 and here the spirits tarried as they passed from one resting place to another going over the country4 ,about every #ej miles there is one of these strange1 supernatural resting places4 ,,personal ,,fetiches4 #he4 ,all medicines were regarded as mysterious or sacred4 ,the heart of a slain enemy was sometimes dried and put in the medicine bag to be pulverized and mixed with the other medicines4 8,one or two days before a war party started from the village of the ,iowa1 the man who was to carry the sacred bag hid it while the others busied themselves with preparing sacred articles0 7probably their personal fetiches74 8,the hunters often brought in deer1 after eating which1 the warriors painted themselves as they would do if they expected to see an enemy4 ,next1 one of their number measured a certain number of steps in front1 when each man took his place1 and knelt down4 ,as soon as the word was given1 each one pulled away the grass and sticks1 moving backwards till he came to the poles1 when he arose4 ,then each placed his own sacred objects 7personal fetiches87 before him1 and began his own song4 ,while singing1 they opened their sacred objects1 asking for good luck4 ,they sang one song on opening them 7as among the ,kansa1 see #cf71 and another while putting them back into their places1 a song being supposed necessary for every ceremony in which they engaged4 ,in the conversations which ensued1 they were at liberty to jest1 provided they avoided common or vulgar terms40 ,,dancing ,,societies4 ,there is very probably some connection between these societies and the cults of the tribes now under consideration4 7,see #dc1 #fb1 #aaa1 #aac1 #abj1 et passim47 ,,the ,,otter ,,dancing ,,society4 #hf4 ,the members of this order shot at one another with their otterskin bags1 as has been the custom in the ,wacicka dancing society of the ,omaha 7,om4 ,soc41 pp4 #cde1 #cdf74 ,some have said that they waved their otter-skin bags around in order to infuse the spirit of the otter into a bead in its mouth1 and that it was by the spirit of the otter that they knocked one another down4 ,each one who practiced this dance professed to keep some small round object in his breast to cough it up before or during the dance1 and to use it for shooting one of his companions in the neck4 ,he who was thus shot did in turn cough up the mysterious object1 and at the end of the dance each member swallowed his own shell or pebble4 ,,the ,,red ,,medicine ,,dancing ,,society4 #hg4 ,the ,indians used to obtain in the prairies1 towards the ,rocky ,mountains1 an object about the size of a bean or small hazelnut and of a red color4 ,mr4 ,hamilton was told that it grew on bushes1 and that it was considered to be alive1 and they looked on it as a mysterious animal4 ,in the red medicine dance the person who makes the medicine kills the animals by crushing the beans and boiling them in a large kettle filled with water4 ,this drink is designed for or appropriated by a few members1 and they drink the liquid when it is quite hot4 ,the more that they drink the more they desire1 and they seem able to drink almost any quantity4 ,it produces a kind of intoxication1 making them full of life1 as they say1 and enabling them to dance a long time4 7,see #fb47 ,,green ,,corn ,,dance4 #hh4 ,this dance did not originate with the ,iowa4 ,it is said that the ,sac tribe obtained it from the ,shawnee4 ,it is held after night4 ,men and women dance together1 and if any women or men wish to leave their consorts they do it at this dance and mate anew1 nothing being urged against it4 ,,buffalo ,,dancing ,,society4 #hi4 ,the ,iowa have the buffalo dance1 and by a comparison of ,mr4 ,hamilton's description of it1 and his account of the buffalo doctors1 and of the medicine or mystery bag of buffalo hide1 with what has been learned about the ,omaha order of buffalo shamans 7see #dc71 it seems probable that among the ,iowa this dance was not participated in by any but those who had had visions of the buffalo1 and that there was also some connection between all three--the dancing society1 the buffalo doctors1 and the mysterious bag of buffalo hide4 ,as among the ,omaha1 the buffalo doctors of the ,iowa are the only surgeons4 ,c,,iwere ,,traditions4 #ij4 ,the iwere tribes have traditions of their origin similar to those found among the ,osage1 ,kansa1 and ,ponka1 and these traditions are considered as 8waqonyita10 or mysterious things1 not to be spoken of lightly or told on ordinary occasions4 ,as among the ,osage and ,kansa1 the traditions tell of a period when the ancestors of the present gentes dwelt1 some in the upper world1 and others in the ground 7or in the world beneath this one74 ,mr4 ,hamilton's informant said1 8,these are sacred things1 and ,i do not like to speak about them1 as it is not our custom to do so except when we make a feast and collect the people and use the sacred pipe40 ,these traditions were preserved in the secret societies of the tribes4 ,they explain the origin of the gentes and subgentes1 of fire1 corn1 the pipes1 bows and arrows1 etc4 ,it is probable that similar secret societies exist among the ,winnebago4 ,james ,alexander1 a ,winnebago of the ,wolf gens1 told a part of the secret tradition of his gens1 in which appear some resemblances to the iwere traditions1 such as the creation of four kinds of wolves1 and their dwelling underground1 or in the world beneath this one4 7,see #cha1 #chc47 ,,belief ,,in ,,future ,,life4 ,that the iwere believed in the existence of the ghost or spirit after death is evident from what ,mr4 ,hamilton observed3 ,they often put provisions1 a pitcher of water1 and some cooking utensils on the grave for the use of the spirit for some time after burial4 99 99 99 ,at the time of burial1 they often put new clothing and ornaments on the corpse1 if they are able1 and place by its side such things as they think necessary4 ,i once saw a little child with some of its playthings which its mother had placed by it1 in her ignorance1 thinking that they would be pleasing to it4 99 99 99 ,they are generally careful for a year or so1 to keep down all the weeds and grass about the grave1 perhaps for #aj feet around4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ha3 ,see #eh4 ,footnote #hb3 ,miss ,fletcher in ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,proc4 ,minneapolis meeting1 #ahhc4 ,salem1 #ahhd4 pp4 #cif1 #cig4 ,footnote #hc3 ,see #cc and #dj4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,dakota ,,and ,,assiniboin ,,cults4 ,,alleged ,,dakota ,,belief ,,in ,a ,,great ,,spirit4 #ib4 ,that the ,dakota tribes1 before the advent of the white race1 believed in one ,great ,spirit1 has been asserted by several writers2 but it can not be proved4 ,on the contrary1 even those writers who are quoted in this study as stating the ,dakota belief in a ,great ,spirit1 also tell us of beliefs in many spirits of evil4 ,among the earlier writers of this class is ,say1 who observes3 ,their ,wahconda seems to be a protean god2 he is supposed to appear to different persons under different forms4 ,all who are favored with his presence become medicine men and magicians in consequence of their having seen and conversed with ,wahconda1 and of having received from him some particular medicine of wondrous efficacy4 ,the same writer records that 8,wahconda0 appeared sometimes as a grizzly bear1 sometimes as a bison1 at others as a beaver1 or an owl1 or some other bird or animal4#hd ,it is plain that ,say mistook the generic term1 8,wahconda10 for a specific one4 7,see #f1 #ba-bd47 ,shea says3 ,although polytheism did not exist1 although they all recognized one ,supreme ,being1 the creator of all1 99 99 99 they nowhere adored the ,god whom they knew4 99 99 99 ,the demons with which they peopled nature1 these alone1 in their fear they sought to appease4 99 99 99 ,pure unmixed devil-worship prevailed throughout the length and breadth of the land4#he #ic4 ,lynd made some very pertinent remarks3 ,a stranger coming among the ,dakotas for the first time1 and observing the endless variety of objects upon which they bestow their devotion1 and the manifold forms which that worship assumes1 at once pronounces them pantheists4 ,a further acquaintance with them convinces him that they are pantheists of no ordinary kind--that their pantheism is negative as well as positive1 and that the engraftments of religion are even more numerous than the true branches4 ,upon a superficial glance he sees naught but an inextricable maze of gods1 demons1 spirits1 beliefs and counter-beliefs1 earnest devotion and reckless skepticism1 prayers1 sacrifices1 and sneers1 winding and intermingling with one another1 until a labyrinth of pantheism and skepticism results1 and the ,dakota1 with all his infinity of deities appears a creature of irreligion4 ,one speaks of the medicine dance with respect1 while another smiles at the name--one makes a religion of the raw fish feast1 while another stands by and laughs at his performance--and others1 listening to the supposed revelations of the circle dance1 with reverent attention1 are sneered at by a class who deny in toto the wakan nature of that ceremony4#hf ,in common with all nations of the earth the ,dakotas believe in a ,wakantanka or ,great ,spirit4 ,but this ,being is not alone in the universe4 ,numbers of minor deities are scattered throughout space1 some of whom are placed high in the scale of power4 ,their ideas of the ,great ,spirit appear to be that ,he is the creator of the world and has existed from all time2 but after creating the world and all that is in it ,he sank into silence and since then has failed to take any interest in the affairs of this planet4 ,they never pray to ,him1 for they deem ,him too far away to hear them1 or as not being concerned in their affairs4 ,no sacrifices are made to ,him1 nor dances in ,his honor4 ,of all the spirits ,he is the ,great ,spirit2 but ,his power is only latent or negative4 ,they swear by ,him at all times1 but more commonly by other divinities4#hg ,yet ,lynd is not always consistent1 for he says on another page 7#ga7 of the same work3 8,no one deity is held by them all as a superior object of worship40 #id4 ,pond writes3 ,evidence is also wanting to show that the ,dakotas embraced in their religious tenents the idea of one supreme existence1 whose existence is expressed by the term ,great ,spirit4 ,if some clans at the present time entertain this idea it seems highly probable that it has been imparted to them by individuals of ,european extraction4 ,no reference to such a being is found in their feasts1 fasts1 or sacrifices4 ,or if there is such a reference at the present time it is clear that it is of recent origin and does not belong to their system4 ,it is indeed true that the ,dakotas do sometimes appeal to the ,great ,spirit when in council with white men1 but it is because they themselves have embraced the ,christian doctrines4 ,still1 it is generally the interpreter who makes the appeal to the ,great ,spirit1 when the ,indian speaker really appealed to the ,taku ,wakan1 and not to the ,wakantanka4 ,it is true that 99 99 99 all the ,dakota gods 99 99 99 are mortal4 ,they are not thought of as being eternal1 except it may be by succession4#hh ,the author agrees with ,pond in what he says about the average ,indian interpreter of early days1 who seldom gave a correct rendering of what was spoken in council4 ,but at the present time great improvement has doubtless been observed4 ,it should be remembered that ,messrs4 ,riggs and ,pond were missionaries to the ,dakotas1 while ,messrs4 ,say1 ,shea1 and ,lynd must be classed among the laity4 ,yet the missionaries1 not the laymen1 are the ones who make the positive statements about the absence of a belief in one ,great ,spirit4 ,,riggs ,,on ,,the ,,taku ,,wakan4 #ie4 ,riggs remarks3 ,the religious faith of the ,dakota is not in his gods as such4 ,it is an intangible1 mysterious something of which they are only the embodiment1 and that in such a measure and degree as may accord with the individual fancy of the worshiper4 ,each one will worship some of these divinities and neglect and despise others2 but the great object of all their worship1 whatever its chosen medium1 is the ,,ta-,,koo ,,wah-,,kon1 which is the supernatural and mysterious4 ,no one term can express the full meaning of the ,dakota's ,wakan4 ,it comprehends all mystery1 secret power1 and divinity4 99 99 99 ,all life is ,wakan4 ,so also is everything which exhibits power1 whether in action1 as the winds and drifting clouds1 or in passive endurance1 as the bowlder by the wayside4#hi ,,meaning ,,of 8,,wakan40 ,in the mind of a ,dakota 99 99 99 this word ,wah-kon 7we write1 wa-kan7 covers the whole field of their fear and worship4 ,many things also that are neither feared nor worshiped1 but are simply wonderful1 come under this designation4 ,it is related of ,hennepin that when he and his two companions were taken captive by a ,sioux war party1 as they ascended the upper ,mississippi one of the men took up his gun and shot a deer on the bank4 ,the ,indians said1 8,wah-kon chi80--,is not this mysterious8 ,and from that day 99 99 99 the gun has been called ,mah-za wah-kon1 mysterious iron4 ,this is shortened into ,mah-za-kon4 ,the same thing we may believe is true when1 probably less than two centuries ago1 they first saw a horse4 ,they said 8,shoon-ka wah-kon10 wonderful dog4 ,and from that day the horse has been called by the ,sioux wonderful dog1 except when it has been called big dog1 ,shoon-ka tonka4 ,these historical facts have satisfied us that the idea of the ,great ,spirit ascribed to the ,indians of ,north ,america does not belong to the original theogony of the ,sioux1 but has come from without1 like that 7sic7 of the horse and gun1 and probably dates back only to their first hearing of the white man's ,god4#ij ,taku ,wakan4--,this is a general term1 including all that is wonderful1 incomprehensible1 supernatural--what is wakan2 but especially covering the objects of their worship4 ,until used in reference to our ,god1 it is believed that the phrase was not applied to any individual object of worship1 but was equivalent to 8the gods40#ia ,as tuwe1 who1 refers to persons1 and taku1 what1 to things1 the correctness of ,riggs's conclusion can hardly be questioned1 provided we add that the ,dakota term1 ,taku ,wakan1 could not have conveyed to the ,dakota mind the idea of a personal ,god1 using the term person as it is commonly employed by civilized peoples4 ,,daimonism4 #if4 ,lynd says3 ,the divinities of evil among the ,dakotas may be called legion4 ,their special delight is to make man miserable or to destroy him4 ,demons wander through the earth1 causing sickness and death4 ,spirits of evil are ever ready to pounce upon and destroy the unwary4 ,spirits of earth1 air1 fire1 and water 7see #cf7 surround him upon every side1 and with but one great governing object in view--the misery and destruction of the human race4#ib ,,animism4 #ig4 ,their religious system gives to everything a soul or spirit4 ,even the commonest sticks and clays have a spiritual essence attached to them which must needs be reverenced2 for these spirits1 too1 vent their wrath upon mankind4 ,indeed1 there is no object1 however trivial1 but has its spirit4#ic ,in his article on the ,mythology of the ,dakotas1#id ,riggs says of the ,dakota3 ,they pray to the sun1 earth1 moon1 lakes1 rivers1 trees1 plants1 snakes1 and all kinds of animals and vegetables--many of them say1 to everything1 for they pray to their guns and arrows--to any object1 artificial as well as natural1 for they suppose that every object1 artificial as well as natural1 has a spirit which may hurt or help1 and so is a proper object of worship4 ,lynd says3 ,the essentially physical cast of the ,indian mind 7if ,i may be allowed the expression7 requires some outward and tangible representation of things spiritual before he can comprehend them4 ,the god must be present1 by image or in person1 ere he can offer up his devotions4 99 99 99 ,similar to this 8belief in a spiritual essence0 is the general ,dakota belief that each class of animals or objects of a like kind possesses a peculiar guardian divinity1 which is the mother archetype4 99 99 99 ,sexuality is a prominent feature in the religion of the ,dakotas4 ,of every species of divinity1 with the exception of the ,wakantanka1 there is a plurality1 part male and part female4 ,even the spirits1 which are supposed to dwell in the earth1 twigs1 and other inanimate substances1 are invested with distinctions of sex4#ie #ih4 ,pond asserts that 8evidence is wanting to show that these people divide their ,taku-wakan into classes of good and evil4 ,they are all simply wakan40#if ,,principal ,,dakota ,,gods4 ,the gods of the ,dakotas are of course innumerable2 but of the superior gods these are the chief3 ,the ,unktei1 or god of the water2 the ,wakinyan1 or thunder god2 the ,takukankan1 or moving god2 the ,tunkan1 ,inyan1 or stone god2 the ,heyoka god2 the ,sun2 the ,moon2 the ,armor god2 the ,spirit of the ,medicine ,sack2 and the ,wakantanka1 who is probably an intrusive deity4#ig ,,miss ,,fletcher ,,on ,,indian ,,religion4 #ii4 ,the following remarks are those of a later writer1 ,miss ,fletcher3 ,the ,indian's religion is generally spoken of as a nature and animal worship4 ,the term seems too broadcast and indiscriminate4 ,careful inquiry and observation fail to show that the ,indian actually worships the objects which are set up or mentioned by him in his ceremonies4 ,the earth1 four winds1 the sun1 moon1 and stars1 the stones1 the water1 the various animals1 are all exponents of a mysterious life and power encompassing the ,indian and filling him with vague apprehension and desire to propitiate and induce friendly relations4 ,the latter is attempted not so much through the ideas of sacrifice as through more or less ceremonial appeals4 ,more faith is put in ritual and a careful observance of forms than in any act of self-denial in its moral sense1 as we understand it4 ,the claim of relationship is used to strengthen the appeal1 since the tie of kindred among the ,indians is one which can not be ignored or disregarded1 the terms grandfather and grandmother being most general and implying dependence1 respect1 and the recognition of authority4 7,see #i1 #ajj47 ,one of the simplest and most picturesque explanations of the use of the varied forms of life in the ,indian worship was given to me by a thoughtful ,indian chief4 ,he said3 8,everything as it moves1 now and then1 here and there1 makes stops4 ,the bird as it flies stops in one place to make its nest1 and in another to rest in its flight4 ,a man when he goes forth stops when he wills4 ,so the god has stopped4 ,the sun1 which is so bright and beautiful1 is one place where he has stopped4 ,the moon1 the stars1 the winds1 he has been with4 ,the trees1 the animals1 are all where he has stopped1 and the ,indian thinks of these places and sends his prayers there to reach the place where the god has stopped and win help and a blessing40 ,the vague feeling after unity is here discernible1 but it is like the cry of a child rather than the articulate speech of a man4 ,to the ,indian mind the life of the universe has not been analyzed1 classified1 and a great synthesis formed of the parts4 ,to him the varied forms are equally important and noble4 ,a devout old ,indian said3 8,the tree is like a human being1 for it has life and grows2 so we pray to it and put our offerings on it that the god may help us40 ,in the same spirit the apology is offered over a slaughtered animal1 for the life of the one is taken to supplement the life of the other1 8that it may cause us to live10 one formula expresses it4 ,these manifestations of life1 stopping places of the god1 can not therefore be accurately called objects of worship or symbols2 they appear to be more like media of communication with the permeating occult force which is vaguely and fearfully apprehended4 ,as a consequence1 the ,indian stands abreast of nature4 ,he does not face it1 and hence can not master or coerce it1 or view it scientifically and apart from his own mental and emotional life4 ,he appeals to it1 but does not worship it4#ih ,,prayer4 #ajj4 ,every power is prayed to by some of the ,dakota and ,assiniboin4 ,among the accessories of prayer the ,dakota reckons the following3 7a7 ,ceremonial wailing or crying 7ya1 to weep1 wail2 whence1 kiya1 to cry1 to pray1 and wokiye1 prayer71 sometimes accompanied by articulate speech 7 #agg1 #bjh72 7b7 the action called yuwitapi 7yuwitapi7 described in #bd2 7c7 holding the pipe with the mouthpiece toward the power invoked1 as the ,heyoka devotees sometimes do 7 #bbc1 #bbd72 7d7 the use of smoke from the pipe or the odor of burning cedar needles 7 #aei1 #afh72 7e7 the application of the kinship terms1 8grandfather0 7or its alternative1 8venerable man07 to a male power1 and 8grandmother0 to a female one 7 #ii1 #ajg1 #bci72 7f7 sacrifice1 or offering of goods1 animals1 or pieces of one's own flesh1 etc4 7see #ahe74 ,,sacrifice4 #aja4 ,the radical forms of worship among the ,dakota1 according to ,lynd1 are few and simple4 ,one of the most primitive is that of ,wocnapi 7,wonapi7 or ,sacrifice4 ,to every divinity that they worship they make sacrifices4 ,even upon the most trivial occasions the gods are either thanked or supplicated by sacrifice4 ,the religious idea it carries with it is at the foundation of the every-day life of the ,dakota4 ,the wohduze or taboo has its origin there2 the wiwayag waipi or sundance 7 #ada-baa7 carries with it the same idea2 the waka wohapi or sacred feast 7feast of the first-fruits7 is a practical embodiment of it2 and hamdepi or god-seeking of the extreme western tribes is but a form of self-sacrifice4 ,no ,dakota in his worship neglects this ceremony4 ,it enters into his religious thoughts at all times1 even at the hour of death4 ,the sacrifices made upon recovery from sickness are never composed of anything very valuable1 for the poverty of the ,indian will not permit this4 ,usually a small strip of muslin1 or a piece of red cloth1 a few skins of some animals1 or other things of no great use or value are employed4 ,sometimes a pan or kettle is laid up for a sacrifice4 ,but after a short time1 the end for which the sacrifice was made is attained1 and it is removed4 ,those in need of such things as they see offered in sacrifice may take them for their own use1 being careful to substitute some other articles4 ,perhaps the most common forms of sacrifice are those which are made in the hunt4 ,particular portions of each animal killed are held sacred to the god of the chase or some other deities4 ,if a deer is killed1 the head1 heart1 or some other part of it is sacrificed by the person who has slain it4 ,the part sacrificed differs with different individuals4 ,in ducks and fowls the most common sacrifice is of the wing1 though many sacrifice the heart1 and a few the head4 ,this custom is called wohduze1 and is always constant with individuals1 i4 e41 the same part is always sacrificed4 ,the other wohduze or taboo is connected with the wotawe or armor1#ii and will be described hereafter 7 #abe74 #ajb4 ,hamdepi or god-seeking4--,hamdepi or god-seeking is a form of religion among the ,dakotas that points back to a remote antiquity4 ,the meaning of the word1 in its common acceptation1 appears to be greatly misunderstood by some4 ,literally1 it means only to dream1 and is but another form of hama2 but in its use it is applied almost wholly to the custom of seeking for a dream or revelation1 practiced by the ,sisitonwan1 ,ihanktonwanna1 and ,titonwan 7,sioux71 and by the ,crow1 ,minnetaree1 ,assiniboin1 and other western ,dakota4 ,in this respect it has no reference whatever to the common dreams of sleep1 but means simply the form of religion practiced4 ,if a ,dakota wishes to be particularly successful in any 7to him7 important undertaking1 he first purifies himself by the ,inipi or steam bath1 and by fasting for a term of three days4 ,during the whole of this time he avoids women and society1 is secluded in his habits1 and endeavors in every way to be pure enough to receive a revelation from the deity whom he invokes4 ,when the period of fasting is passed he is ready for the sacrifice1 which is made in various ways4 ,some1 passing a knife through the breast and arms1 attach thongs thereto1 which are fastened at the other end to the top of a tall pole raised for that purpose2 and thus they hang1 suspended only by these thongs1 for two1 three1 or even four days1 gazing upon vacancy1 their minds being intently fixed upon the object in which they desire to be assisted by the deity1 and waiting for a vision from above4 ,once a day an assistant is sent to look upon the person thus sacrificing himself4 ,if the deities have vouchsafed him a vision or revelation1 he signifies the same by motions1 and is released at once2 if he be silent1 his silence is understood1 and he is left alone to his reverie4 ,others attach a buffalo hair rope to the head of a buffalo just as it is severed from the animal1 and to the other end affix a hook1 which is then passed through the large muscles in the small of the back1 and thus fastened they drag the head all over the camp1 their minds meanwhile being fixed intently1 as in the first instance1 upon the object in which they are beseeching the deity to assist them4 ,a third class pass knives through the flesh in various parts of the body1 and wait in silence1 though with fixed mind1 for a dream or revelation4 ,a few1 either not blessed with the powers of endurance or else lacking the courage of the class first named1 will plant a pole upon the steep bank of a stream1 and attaching ropes to the muscles of the arm and breast1 as in the first instance1 will stand1 but not hang1 gazing into space1 without food or drink1 for days4 ,still another class practice the hamdepi without such horrid self-sacrifice4 ,for weeks1 nay1 for months1 they will fix their minds intently upon any desired object1 to the exclusion of all others1 frequently crying about the camp1 occasionally taking a little food1 but fasting for the most part1 and earnestly seeking a revelation from their god4#ajj #ajc4 ,similar testimony has been given respecting the ,mandan1 ,hidatsa1 and ,arikara1 though this last tribe belongs to the ,caddoan stock4 ,smet wrote thus about them3 ,they cut off their fingers and make deep incisions in the fleshy parts of the body before starting for war1 in order to obtain the favors of their false gods4 ,on my last visit to these ,ricaries1 ,minataries1 and ,mandans ,i could not discern a single man at all advanced in years whose body had not been mutilated1 or who possessed his full number of fingers4#aja ,in treating of the religious opinion of the ,assiniboin1 ,smet says3 ,some burn tobacco1 and present to the ,great ,spirit the most exquisite pieces of buffalo meat by casting them into the fire2 while others make deep incisions in the fleshy parts of their bodies1 and even cut off the first joints of their fingers to offer them in sacrifice4#ajb ,lynd says3 #ajd4 ,frequently the devout ,dakota will make images of bark or stone1 and1 after painting them in various ways and putting sacred down upon them1 will fall down in worship before them1 praying that all danger may be averted from him and his4 ,it must not be understood1 however1 that the ,dakota is an idolater4 ,it is not the image that he worships1 99 99 99 but the spiritual essence which is represented by that image1 and which is supposed to be ever near it4#ajc ,this plausible distinction has been made by persons of different nations at various periods in the world's history1 but it seems to be of doubtful value4 ,,use ,,of ,,paint ,,in ,,worship4 #aje4 ,in the worship of their deities paint forms an important feature4 ,scarlet or red is the religious color for sacrifices1 while blue is used by the women in many of the ceremonies in which they participate 7 #cgd1 #cge74 ,this1 however1 is not a constant distinction of sex1 for the women frequently use red or scarlet4 ,the use of paints the ,dakotas aver was taught them by the gods4#ajd ,for accounts of the ,sun-dance and a sacrifice to the ,dawn1 see #ada1 #baa1 #bae4 ,,the ,,unkte,i1 ,,or ,,subaquatic ,,and ,,subterranean ,,powers4 #ajf4 ,the gods of this name1 for there are many1 are the most powerful of all4 ,in their external form they are said to resemble the ox1 only they are of immense proportions4 ,they can extend their horns and tails so as to reach the skies4 ,these are the organs of their power4 ,according to one account the ,unktei inhabit all deep waters1 and especially all great waterfalls4 ,two hundred and eleven years ago1 when ,hennepin and ,du ,luth saw the ,falls of ,st4 ,anthony together1 there were some buffalo robes hanging there as sacrifices to the ,unktei of the place4#aje #ajg4 ,another account written by the same author informs us that the male ,unktei dwell in the water1 and the spirits of the females animate the earth4 ,hence1 when the ,dakota seems to be offering sacrifices to the water or the earth1 it is to this family of gods that the worship is rendered4 ,they address the males as 8grandfathers10 and the females as 8grandmothers40 ,it is believed that one of these gods dwells under the ,falls of ,st4 ,anthony1 in a den of great dimensions1 which is constructed of iron4#ajf #ajh4 8,the word ,unktei defies analysis1 only the latter part giving us the idea of difficult sic1 and so nothing can be gathered from the name itself of the functions of these gods4 ,but ,indian legend generally describes the genesis of the earth as from the water4 ,some animal1 as the beaver compare the ,iowa and ,oto ,beaver gentes1 ,paa and ,paqa4--,j4 ,o4 ,d4 living in the waters1 brought up1 from a great depth1 mud to build dry land40#ajg ,according to the ,dakota cosmogony1 this was done by the ,unktei1 called in the ,teton dialect ktcexila or ,ukeila4 7,compare the ,winnebago1 ,waktceqi ikikaratcada or water-monster gens1 and the ,wakandagi of the ,omaha and ,ponka1 see #g1 #gg74 #aji4 ,the ,iowa and ,oto tribes have among their nikie names1 ,niwacike1 ,water ,person1 and ,niwacikemi1 ,water ,person ,female4 ,if these do not refer to the beaver1 they may have some connection with the water monsters or deities4 ,an ,omaha told the author a ,yankton legend about these gods of the waters4 ,the wife of the special ,unktei coveted an ,indian child and drew it beneath the surface of the river4 ,the father of the child had to offer a white dog to the deity in order to recover his son2 but the latter died on emerging from the water1 as he had eaten some of the food of the ,unktei during his stay with the deity4 ,after awhile the parents lost a daughter in like manner1 but as she did not eat any of the food of the ,unktei1 she was recovered after an offering of four white dogs4#ajh ,smet tells of offerings made by the ,assiniboin to 8the water0 and 8the land10 but it is probable that they were made to the ,unktei4#aji #aaj4 ,the ,dakota pray to lakes and rivers1 according to ,riggs1#aaj but he does not say whether the visible objects were worshiped or whether the worship was intended for the ,unktei supposed to dwell in those lakes and rivers4 ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,unkte,i4 #aaa4 ,these gods have power to send from their bodies a wakan influence which is irresistible even by the superior gods4 ,this influence is termed 8tonwan40 ,this power is common to all the ,taku ,wakan4 ,and it is claimed that this tonwan is infused into each mystery sack which is used in the mystery dance4 ,a little to the left of the road leading from ,fort ,snelling to ,minnehaha1 in sight of the fort1 is a hill which is used at present as a burial place4 ,this hill is known to the ,dakota as 8,taku ,wakan tipi10 the dwelling place of the gods4 ,it is believed that one of the ,unktei dwells there4 #aab4 ,the ,unktei are thought to feed on the spirits of human beings1 and references to this occur in the mystic songs4 ,the mystery feast and the mystery dance have been received from these gods4 ,the sacrifices required by them are the soft down of the swan reddened with vermilion1 deer skins1 dog1 mystery feast and mystery dances4 ,in ,miss ,fletcher's article on 8,the ,shadow or ,ghost ,lodge3 ,a ceremony of the ,ogallala ,sioux10 we read that #b yards of red cloth are 8carried out beyond the camp1 to an elevation if possible1 and buried in a hole about #c feet deep4 ,this is an offering to the earth1 and the chanted prayer asks that the life1 or power in earth1 will help the father0 of the dead child 8in keeping successfully all the requirements of the ghost lodge40#aaa 7,see #adf47 ,,subordinates ,,of ,,the ,,unkte,i4 ,the subordinates of the ,unktei are serpents1 lizards1 frogs1 ghosts1 owls1 and eagles4 ,the ,unktei made the earth and men1 and gave the ,dakota the mystery sack1 and also prescribed the manner in which some of those pigments must be applied which are rubbed over the bodies of their votaries in the mystery dance1 and on the warrior as he goes into action4 ,,the ,,mystery ,,dance4 #aac4 ,immediately after the production of the earth and men1 the ,unktei gave the ,indians the mystery sack and instituted the ,wakan waipi or mystery dance4 ,they ordained that the sack should consist of the skin of the otter1 raccoon1 weasel1 squirrel1 loon1 one variety of fish1 and of serpents4 ,it was also ordained that the sack should contain four species of medicines of wakan qualities1 which should represent fowls1 medicinal herbs1 medicinal trees1 and quadrupeds4 ,the down of the female swan represents the first1 and may be seen at the time of the dance inserted in the nose of the sack4 ,grass roots represent the second1 bark from the roots of the trees the third1 and hair from the back or head of a buffalo the fourth4 ,these are carefully preserved in the sack4 ,from this combination proceeds a wakan influence so powerful that no human being1 unassisted1 can resist it4 ,those who violated their obligations as members of the ,mystery dance1 were sure of punishment4 ,if they went into forests1 the black owl was there1 as a servant of the ,unktei2 if they descended into the earth1 they encountered the serpent2 if they ascended into the air1 the eagle would pursue and overtake them2 and if they ventured into the water1 there were the ,unktei themselves4#aab ,an account of the mystery or medicine dance is given by ,pond1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cg-da4 8,those ,dakotas10 said ,lynd1 8who belong to the medicine dance esteem the ,unktei as the greatest divinity4 ,among the eastern ,dakotas the medicine dance appears to have taken the place of these more barbarous ceremonies 7i4 e41 the self-tortures of the hanmdepi1 piercing of the flesh1 etc47--among the ,winnebagoes entirely40 ,the ,omaha do not have the sun dance1 but the wacicka ai1 answering to the ,dakota mystery dance1 is said to be of ancient use among them4 8,indeed1 the medicine dance1 though an intrusive religious form1 may be considered as an elevating and enlightening religion in comparison with the hanmdepi40#aac ,,the ,,miniwatu4 #aad4 ,the ,teton ,dakota tell of the ,miniwatu1 ,wamnitu1#aad and ,mini waiu1 all of which are probably names for the same class of monsters1 the last meaning 8,water ,god or ,guardian ,spirit40 ,these powers are said to be horned water monsters with four legs each4 8,they make waves by pushing the water toward the lowlands2 therefore1 the ,indians prefer to encamp on or near the bluffs4 ,they fear to swim the ,missouri ,river on account of the water monsters1 who can draw people into their mouths40 ,can these be the ,unktei1 whom the ,teton call ,ukeila8 #aae4 8,long ago10 according to ,bushotter1 8the people saw a strange thing in the ,missouri ,river4 ,at night there was some red object1 shining like fire1 making the water roar as it passed upstream4 ,should any one see the monster by daylight he became crazy soon after1 writhing as with pain1 and dying4 ,one man who said that he saw the monster described it thus3 #8,it has red hair all over1 and one eye4 ,a horn is in the middle of its forehead1 and its body resembles that of a buffalo4'#aae ,its backbone is like a cross-cut saw1 being flat and notched like a saw or cog wheel4 ,when one sees it he gets bewildered1 and his eyes close at once4 ,he is crazy for a day1 and then he dies4 ,the ,teton think that this matter is still in the river1 and they call it the ,miniwatu or water monster4 ,they think that it causes the ice on the river to break up in the spring of the year40#aaf ,the ,teton say that the bones of the ,ukeila are now found in the bluffs of ,nebraska and ,dakota4 ,,the ,,waki,,ya 7,,waki,,ya71 ,,or ,,thunder-,,beings4 #aaf4 ,the name signifies the flying ones1 from kinyan1 to fly4 ,the thunder is the sound of their voices4 ,the lightning is the missile or tonwan of the winged monsters1 who live and fly through the heavens shielded from mortal vision by thick clouds4 ,by some of the wakan men it is said that there are four varieties of the form of their external manifestation4 ,in essence1 however they are but one4 ,one of the varieties is black1 with a long beak1 and has four joints in his wing4 ,another is yellow1 without any beak at all2 with wings like the first1 except that he has six quills in each wing4 ,the third is scarlet1 and remarkable chiefly for having eight joints in each of its enormous pinions4 ,the fourth is blue and globular in form1 and it is destitute of both eyes and ears4 ,immediately over the places where the eyes should be there is a semicircular line of lightning resembling an inverted half moon from beneath which project downward two chains of lightning diverging from each other in zigzag lines as they descend4 ,two plumes like soft down1 coming out near the roots of the descending chains of lightning1 serve for wings4#aag ,these thunderers1 of course1 are of terrific proportions4 ,they created the wild rice and a variety of prairie grass1 the seed of which bears some resemblance to that of the rice4 ,at the western extremity of the earth1 which is supposed to be a circular plain surrounded by water1 is a high mountain1 on the summit of which is a beautiful mound4 ,on this mound is the dwelling of the ,wakinyan gods4 ,the dwelling opens toward each of the four quarters of the earth1 and at each doorway is stationed a sentinel4 ,a butterfly stands at the east entrance1 a bear at the west1 a reindeer sic1 probably intended for a deer4--,j4 ,o4 ,d4 at the north1 and a beaver at the south the beaver seems out of place here as a servant of the ,wakinyan gods1 for1 judging from analogy1 he ought to be the servant of the ,unktei 7see #ajh7--;,j4 ,o4 ,d44 ,except the head1 each of these wakan sentinels is enveloped in scarlet down of the most extraordinary beauty4#aah #aag4 ,the ,teton texts of ,bushotter state the belief that 8some of these ancient people still dwell in the clouds4 ,they have large curved beaks resembling bison humps1 their voices are loud1 they do not open their eyes except when they make lightning1 hence the archaic ,teton name for the lightning1 ,wakinyan tunwanpi1 8,the thunder-beings open their eyes40 ,they are armed with arrows and 8maza wakan0 or 8mysterious irons0 7not 8guns071 the latter being of different kinds4 ,kaitame1 stones resembling coal1 are found in the ,bad ,lands1 and they are said to be the missiles of the ,thunderers4 ,when these gods so desire they kill various mysterious beings and objects1 as well as human beings that are mysterious4 ,their ancient foes were the giant rattlesnakes and the prehistoric water monsters 7,ukeila3 see #ajh1 #aad1 #aae74 #aah4 ,long ago the ,teton encamped by a deep lake whose shore was inclosed by very high cliffs4 ,they noticed that at night1 even when there was no breeze1 the water in the middle of the lake was constantly roaring4 ,when one gazed in that direction1 he saw a huge eye as bright as the sun1 which caused him to vomit something resembling black earth moistened with water1 and death soon followed4 ,that very night the ,thunderers came1 and the crashing sounds were so terrible that many people fainted4 ,the next morning the shore was covered with the bodies of all kinds of fish1 some of which were larger than men1 and there were also some huge serpents4 ,the water monster which the ,thunderers had fought resembled a rattlesnake1 but he had short legs and rusty-yellow fur4 #aai4 ,the ,thunderers are represented as cruel and destructive in disposition4 ,they are ever on the war path4 ,a mortal hatred exists between them and the family of the ,unktei4 ,neither has power to resist the tonwan of the other if it strikes him4 ,their attacks are never open1 and neither is safe except he eludes the vigilance of the other4 ,the ,wakinyan1 in turn1 are often surprised and killed by the ,unktei4 ,many stories are told of the combats of these gods4 ,mr4 ,pond once listened to the relation1 by an eyewitness 7as he called himself71 of a story in substance as follows3 ,a ,wakinyan measuring #be to #cj yards between the tips of his wings was killed and fell on the bank of the ,blue ,earth river 7,minnesota74 ,from the ,wakinyan the ,dakota have received their war implements1 the spear and tomahawk1 and many of the pigments1 which1 if properly applied1 will shield them from the weapons of their enemies4#aai #abj4 ,when a person dreams of the ,thunderers1 it is a sign that he and they must fight4 ,the ,wakinyan are not the only gods of war2 there are also the ,takuckacka 7,takukankan7 and the ,armor gods4 7,see #abb-c1 #abg-i47 ,of the circle dance1 ,riggs says 7in ,amer4 ,antiq41 ,,ii1 #bfg73 8,they cut an image of the great bird from bark and suspend it at the top of the central pole1 which is shot to pieces at the close of the dance40 7,he probably means that the image of the great bird1 a ,thunder bird1 is shot to pieces1 not the pole47 ,sacrifices are made to the ,wakinyan and songs are sung both to the ,wakinyan and the ,unktei4 #aba4 ,there seems to be some connection between the ,heyoka gods and the ,wakinyan2 but it is not plain4 ,the ,heyoka god uses a small ,wakinyan god as his drumstick4 7,see #bah47 ,the ,wakinyan songs are sung by members of the ,heyoka dancing order4 ,smet was told that the ,dakota-- ,pretend that the thunder is an enormous bird1 and that the muffled sound of the distant thunder is caused by a countless number of young 7thunder7 birds4 ,the great bird1 they say1 gives the first sound1 and the young ones repeat it2 this is the cause of the reverberations4 ,the ,sioux declare that the young thunderers do all the mischief1 like giddy youth who will not listen to good advice2 but the old thunderer or big bird is wise and excellent2 he never kills or injures any one4#abj ,next to the ,sun1 according to ,smet1 ,thunder is the great deity of the ,assiniboin4 ,every spring1 at the first peal of thunder1 they offer sacrifices to the ,wakinyan4#aba ,the ,assiniboin1 according to ,maximilian1 ascribed the thunder to an enormous bird4#abb ,,the ,,armor ,,gods4 #abb4 ,as each young man comes to maturity a tutelar divinity1 sometimes called 8,waiu0 7see #bcf71 is assigned to him4 ,it is supposed to reside in the consecrated armor then given to him1 consisting of a spear1 an arrow1 and a small bundle of paint4 ,it is the spirit of some bird or animal1 as the wolf1 beaver1 loon1 or eagle4 ,he must not kill this animal1 but hold it ever sacred1 or at least until he has proved his manhood by killing an enemy4 ,frequently the young man forms an image of this sacred animal and carries it about with him1 regarding it as having a direct influence upon his everyday life and ultimate destiny4 ,parkman says 7in his 8,jesuits in ,north ,america10 p4 ,,lxxi1 note7 that the knowledge of this guardian spirit comes through dreams at the initiatory fast4 ,if this is ever true among the ,dakota1 it is not the rule4 ,this knowledge is communicated by the 8war prophet40#abc 7,see #abj1 #abg1 #abi1 #cje1 etc47 ,ashley tells us that among the ,sisseton and ,wahpeton ,dakota the warrior1 as such1 was forbidden by custom of law to eat the tongue1 head1 or heart of many beasts4 ,there were other animals of which the heads might be eaten1 but not the tongues4 ,a warrior about to go on the war path could not have intercourse with women1 but must go through the purification of the inipi or sweat bath1 which lasts four days4 ,a married warrior could not touch his own weapons until he had thus purified himself4#abd #abc4 ,the ,armor god and the ,spirit of the mystery sack are sometimes spoken of as if they were individual and separate divinities2 but they seem rather to be the god-power which is put into the armor and sack by consecration4 ,they should be regarded as the indwelling of the ,unktei or of the ,takukankan4 ,a young man's war weapons are wakan and must not be touched by a woman4 ,a man prays to his armor in the day of battle4 ,in the consecration of these weapons of war and the hunt a young man comes under certain taboo restrictions4 ,certain parts of an animal are sacred and must not be eaten until he has killed an enemy4#abe ,,the ,,war ,,prophet4 #abd4 ,the war prophet has been referred to4 ,in this capacity the wakan man is a necessity4 ,every male ,dakota #af years old and upward is a soldier1 and is formally and mysteriously enlisted into the service of the war prophet4 ,from him he receives the implements of war1 carefully constructed after models furnished from the armory of the gods1 painted after a divine prescription1 and charged with a missive virtue--the tonwan--of the divinities4 ,from him he also receives those paints which serve as an armature for the body4 ,to obtain these necessary articles the proud applicant is required for a time to abuse himself and serve him1 while he goes through a series of painful and exhausting performances which are necessary on his part to enlist the favorable notice of the gods4 ,these performances consist chiefly of vapor baths1 fastings1 chants1 prayers1 and nightly vigils4 ,the spear and the tomahawk being prepared and consecrated1 the person who is to receive them approaches the wakan man and presents a pipe to him4 ,he asks a favor1 in substance as follows3 8,pity thou me1 poor and helpless1 a woman1 and confer on me the ability to perform manly deeds40 ,the prophet gives him the weapons and tells him not to forget his vows to the gods when he returns in triumph1 a man4 ,the weapons are carefully preserved by the warrior4 ,they are wrapped in cloth1 together with the sacred pigments4 ,in fair weather they are laid outside of the lodge every day4 ,they must never be touched by an adult female4#abf #abe4 ,lynd's account is slightly different1 though in substantial accord with the preceding one3 ,when a youth arrives at the age proper for going on the warpath he first purifies himself by fasting and the inipi or steam bath for three days1 and then goes1 with tears in his eyes1 to some wakan man whose influence is undoubted1 and prays that he will present him with the wotawe or consecrated armor4 ,this wakan man is usually some old and experienced zuya wakan or sacred war leader4 ,after a time the armor is presented to the young man1 but until it is so presented he must fast and continue his purifications incessantly4 ,it is a singular fact that nothing but the spear of this armor is ever used in battle1 though it is always carried when the owner accompanies a war party4 ,at the same time that the old man presents the armor he tells the youth to what animal it is dedicated1 and enjoins upon him to hold that animal wakan4 ,he must never harm or kill it1 even though starvation threaten him4 ,at all times and under all circumstances the taboo or wohduze is upon it1 until by slaying numerous enemies it is gradually removed4 ,by some the animal is held sacred during life1 the taboo being voluntarily retained4#abg 7,see #aja1 #abg47 ,,the ,,spirits ,,of ,,the ,,mystery ,,sacks4 #abf4 ,these are similar to the armor gods1 in that they are divinities who act as guardian spirits4 ,each of these powers is appropriated by a single individual1 protecting and aiding him1 and receiving his worship4 ,these spirits are conferred at the time of initiation into the order of the ,mystery ,dance1 and of course are confined to the members of that order4#abh ,each spirit of the mystery sack is not a separate god1 but a wakan power derived from the ,unktei1 according to a later statement of ,riggs4#abi ,,taku,,ka,,ka1 ,,the ,,moving ,,deity4 #abg4 ,this is a form of the wakan which jugglers1 so-called mystery men1 and war prophets invoke4 ,in their estimation he is the most powerful of their gods2 the one most to be feared and propitiated1 since1 more than all others1 he influences human weal and woe4 ,he is supposed to live in the four winds1 and the four black spirits of night do his bidding4 ,the consecrated spear and tomahawk 7see #abd7 are its weapons4 ,the buzzard1 raven1 fox1 wolf1 and other animals are its lieutenants1 to produce disease and death4#acj 7,compare this with some of the pictographs on the war chart of the ,kansa tribe3 ,fig4 #d1 ,wind songs2 the connection between the winds and war is shown in #cc4 ,fig4 #h1 ,deer songs4 ,fig4 #i1 an ,elk song4 ,fig4 #aj1 seven songs of the ,wakanda who makes night songs4 ,fig4 #aa1 five songs of the ,big ,rock4 ,this is a rough red rock near ,topeka1 ,kans4 8,this rock has a hard body1 like that of a wakanda4 ,may you walk like it40 ,fig4 #ab1 ,wolf songs4 ,the wolf howls at night4 ,fig4 #ac1 ,moon songs4 ,fig4 #ad1 ,crow songs4 ,the crow flies around a dead body which it wishes to devour4 ,fig4 #ah1 ,shade songs4 ,there is a ,wakanda who makes shade4 ,fig4 #bj1 song of the ,small ,rock4 ,fig4 #bb1 songs of the young ,moon4 ,fig4 #bc1 songs of the ,buffalo ,bull4 ,fig4 #bg1 ,owl songs4 ,the owl hoots at night4#aca7 #abh4 ,miss ,fletcher has given us a very interesting account of 8,the ,religious ,ceremony of the ,four ,winds or ,quarters1 as observed by the ,santee ,sioux40 8,among the ,santee 7,sioux7 ,indians the ,four ,winds are symbolized by the raven and a small black stone1 less than a hen's egg in size40 8,an intelligent ,santee said to me3 #8,the worship of the ,four ,winds is the most difficult to explain for it is the most complicated4' ,the ,four ,winds are sent by the #8,something that ,moves4'0#acb ,there is a 8,something that ,moves0 at each of the four directions or quarters4 ,the winds are1 therefore1 the messengers or exponents of the powers which remain at the four quarters4 ,these four quarters are spoken of as upholding the earth1#acc and are connected with thunder and lightning as well as the wind4#acd 99 99 99 8,my informant went on to tell me that the spirits of the four winds were not one1 but twelve1 and they are spoken of as twelve40#ace 7,see #db47 #abi4 ,in ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 pp4 #fd1 #fe1 ,riggs says3 ,this god is too subtle in essence to be perceived by the senses1 and is as subtle in disposition4 ,he is present everywhere4 ,he exerts a controlling influence over instinct1 intellect1 and passion4 ,he can rob a man of the use of his rational faculties1 and inspire a beast with intelligence1 so that the hunter will wander idiot-like1 while the game on which he hoped to feast his family at night escapes with perfect ease4 ,or1 if he please1 the god can reverse his influence4 ,he is much gratified to see men in trouble1 and is particularly glad when they die in battle or otherwise4 ,passionate and capricious in the highest degree1 it is very difficult to retain his favor4 ,his symbol and supposed residence is the bowlder 7see ,big ,rock and ,small ,rock1 #abg71 as it is also of another god1 the ,tunkan4 ,pond assigns to him the armor feast and inipi or vapor bath 7called steam or sweat bath74 ,he says3#acf ,the armor feast is of ordinary occurrence when the provisions are of sufficient abundance to support it1 in which the warriors assemble and exhibit the sacred implements of war1 to which they burn incense around the smoking sacrifice4 #acj4 ,in ,october1 #ahha1 the late ,s4 ,d4 ,hinman read a paper before the ,anthropological ,society of ,washington1 entitled 8,the ,stone ,god or ,oracle of the ,pute-temni band of ,hunkpati ,dakotas40 ,he said that this oracle had been seen by him while on an expedition with some ,dakotas across the ,james ,river valley in ,dakota ,territory4 ,a ,hunkpati man of the party gave the history of the stone and an account of its miraculous movement from the ,sacred ,hill to the old dirt lodge village4 ,this oracle was called the ,takukaka4 #aca4 ,but the ,takukaka assumed other shapes4 ,said ,bushotter1 in one of his ,teton texts3 ,the ,lakotas regard certain small stones or pebbles as mysterious1 and it is said that in former days a man had one as his helper or servant4 ,there are two kinds of these mysterious stones 7i4e41 pebbles1 not rocks74 ,one is white1 resembling ice or glass 7i4e41 is probably translucent2 compare the translucent pebbles of the ,i-ugi order of the ,omaha1 see ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #cdf72 the other resembles ordinary stones4 ,it is said that one of them once entered a lodge and struck a man1 and people spoke of the stones sending in rattles through the smoke hole of a lodge4 ,when anything was missed in the village the people appealed to the stones for aid1 and the owner of one of the stones boiled food for a mystery feast1 to which the people came4 ,then they told the stone of their loss and the stone helped them4 ,it is said that the stones brought back different messages4 ,if anyone stole horses the stones always revealed his name4 ,once the ,omahas came to steal horses1 but the stones knew about them and disappointed their secret plans2 so that the ,lakotas learned to prize the stones1 and they decorated them with paint1 wrapped them up1 and hung a bunch of medicine with each one4 ,it is very probable that the ,assiniboin also worshipped the ,takukaka2 for they reverenced the four winds1 as ,smet tells us4#acg ,,tunkan ,,oe ,,inyan1 ,,the ,,stone ,,god ,,or ,,lingam4 #acb4 ,it has been said by ,lynd#ach that the western tribes 7probably the ,teton1 ,yanktonai1 ,yankton1 etc471 neglect the ,unktei1 and pay their main devotion to ,tunkan or ,invan1 answering to the ,hindoo ,lingam4 ,tunkan1 the ,dakotas say1 is the god that dwells in stones and rocks1 and is the oldest god4 ,if asked why he is considered the oldest1 they will tell you because he is the hardest--an ,indian's reason4 ,the usual form of the stone employed in worship is round1 and it is about the size of the human head4 ,the devout ,dakota paints this ,tunkan red1 putting colored swan's down upon it1 and then he falls down and worships the god that is supposed to dwell in it or hover near it4#aci ,the ,tunkan is painted red 7see #acf7 as a sign of active worship4#adj ,in cases of extremity ,i have ever noticed that they appeal to their ,tunkan or stone god1 first and last1 and they do this even after the ceremonies of the medicine dance have been gone through with4 ,all ,sioux agree in saying that the ,tunkan is the main recipient of their prayers2 and among the ,tetons1 ,mandans1 ,yanktons1 and ,western ,dakotas they pray to that and the spirit of the buffalo almost entirely4#ada #acc4 ,riggs says3#adb 8,the ,inyan or ,toon-kan is the symbol of the greatest force or power in the dry land4 ,and these came to be the most common objects of worship4 ,large bowlders were selected and adorned with red and green 7sic7 paint1 whither the devout ,dakota might go to pray and offer his sacrifice4 ,and smaller stones were often found1 set up on end and properly painted1 around which lay eagles' feathers1 tobacco1 and red cloth4 ,once ,i saw a small dog that had been recently sacrificed4 ,in all their incantations and dances1 notably in the circle dance1 the painted stone is the god supplicated and worshipped with fear and trembling40 #acd4 ,long tells of a gigantic stone figure resembling a human being1 which he found on the bank of ,kickapoo ,creek4 ,the ,indians made offerings to it of tobacco and other objects4#adc ,i,,ya ,a4 #ace4 ,rev4 ,horace ,c4 ,hovey says3#add 8,it was the custom of the ,dakotas to worship bowlders when in perplexity and distress4 ,clearing a spot from grass and brush they would roll a bowlder on it1 streak it with paint1 deck it with feathers and flowers1 and then pray to it for needed help or deliverance4 ,usually when such a stone had served its purpose its sacredness was gone4 ,but the peculiarity of the stone now described is that from generation to generation it was a shrine to which pilgrimages and offerings were made4 ,its ,indian name1 #8,eyah ,shah1' simply means the #8,red ,rock1' and is the same term by which they designate catlinite1 or the red pipe clay4 ,the rock itself is not naturally red1 being merely a hard specimen of granite1 symmetrical in shape1 and about #e feet long by #c feet thick4 ,the ,indians also called it #8waukon' 7mystery7 and speculated as to its origin4 99 99 99 ,the particular clan that claimed this rude altar was known as the ,mendewakantons4 ,although being but #b miles below the village of the ,kaposias1 it was to some extent resorted to by them likewise4#ade ,the hunting ground of the clan was up the ,st4 ,croix1 and invariably before starting they would lay an offering on ,eyah ,shah4 ,twice a year the clan would meet more formally1 when they would paint the stone with vermilion1 or1 as some say1 with blood1 then trim it with flowers and feathers1 and dance around it before sunrise with chants and prayers4 ,their last visit was in #ahfb1 prior to the massacre that occurred in ,august of that year4 ,since that date1 the stripes were renewed three years ago4 ,i counted the stripes and found them twelve in number1 each about #b inches wide1 with intervening spaces from #b to #f inches wide4 ,by the compass1 ,eyah ,shah lies exactly north and south4 ,it is twelve paces from the main bank of the ,mississippi1 at a point #f miles below ,st4 ,paul4 ,the north end is adorned by a rude representation of the sun with fifteen rays40 #acf4 ,bushotter writes thus3 8,sometimes a stone1 painted red all over1 is laid within the lodge and hair is offered to it4 ,in cases of sickness they pray to the stone1 offering to it tobacco or various kinds of good things1 and they think that the stone hears them when they sacrifice to it4 ,as the steam arose when they made a fire on a stone1 the ,dakotas concluded that stones had life1 the steam being their breath1 and that it was impossible to kill them40 ,,mato ,,tipi4 #acg4 ,eight miles from ,fort ,meade1 ,s4 ,dakota1 is ,mato tipi1 ,grizzly bear ,lodge1 known to the white people as ,bear ,butte4 ,it can be seen from a distance of a hundred miles4 ,of this landmark ,bushotter writes thus3 8,the ,teton used to camp at a flat-topped mountain1 and pray to it4 ,this mountain had many large rocks on it1 and a pine forest at the summit4 ,the children prayed to the rocks as if to their guardian spirits1 and then placed some of the smaller ones between the branches of the pine trees4 ,i was caused to put a stone up a tree4 ,some trees had as many as seven stones apiece4 ,no child repeated the ceremony of putting a stone up in the tree2 but on subsequent visits to the ,butte he or she wailed for the dead1 of whom the stones were tokens40 7,see #cjd47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--;,bear ,butte1 ,south ,dakota4 7,copyright by ,grabill1 #ahij47 ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,moon4 #ach4 ,the sun as well as the moon is called 8wi0 by the ,dakota and ,assiniboin tribes4 ,in order to distinguish between the two bodies1 the former is called apetu wi1 day moon1 and the latter1 hahepi wi or hayetu wi1 night moon4 ,the corresponding term in egiha is mi1 which is applied to both sun and moon1 though the latter is sometimes called niaba4 8,the moon is worshiped rather as the representative of the sun1 than separately4 ,thus1 in the sun dance1 which is held in the full of the moon1 the dancers at night fix their eyes on her40#adf #aci4 ,according to ,smet#adg-- ,the sun is worshiped by the greater number of the ,indian tribes as the author of light and heat4 ,the ,assiniboins consider it likewise to be the favorite residence of the ,master of ,life4 ,they evidence a great respect and veneration for the sun1 but rarely address it4 ,on great occasions1 they offer it their prayers1 but only in a low tone4 ,whenever they light the calumet1 they offer the sun the first whiffs of its smoke4 ,this last must refer to what ,smet describes on p4 #acf as the great 8festival lasting several days10 during which the 8high priest0 offers the calumet to the ,great ,spirit1 to the sun1 to each of the four cardinal points1 to the water1 and to the land1 with words analogous to the benefits which they obtain from each4 #adj4 ,bushotter1 in his ,teton text1 says3 ,they prayed to the sun1 and they thought that with his yellow eye he saw all things1 and that when he desired he went under the ground4 ,riggs states in ,tah-koo ,wah-kon 7p4 #fi73 ,although as a divinity1 the sun is not represented as a malignant being1 yet the worship given him is the most dreadful which the ,dakotas offer4 ,aside from the sun dance1 there is another proof of the divine character ascribed to the sun in the oath taken by some of the ,dakotas3 8,as the sun hears me1 this is so40 ,,the ,,sun ,,dance4 #ada4 ,pond#adh gave an account of the sun dance obtained from ,riggs1 in which occurs the following3 8,the ceremonies of the sun dance commence in the evening4 ,i have been under the impression that the time of the full moon was selected1 but ,i am now 7#ahfg7 informed that it is not essential40 ,neither ,capt4 ,bourke 7 #aig-baj7 nor ,bushotter speaks of the time of the full moon4 ,in ,miss ,fletcher's account of the ,oglala sun dance of #ahhb1adi she says3 8,the festival generally occurs in the latter part of ,june or early in ,july and lasts about six days4 ,the time is fixed by the budding of the ,artemisia ludoviciana40 7,see #ach1 #aej47 #adb4 ,lynd writes3#aej ,the wiwanyag wacipi1 or worship of the sun as a divinity1 is evidently one of the most radical bases of ,dakota religion4 ,it has a subordinate origin in the wihanmnapi1 or dreaming1 and is intimately connected with the hanmdepi1 or vision hunting4 ,this most ancient of all worships1 though it is of very frequent occurrence among the ,dakotas1 does not take place at stated intervals1 as among the old nations of the ,east1 nor does the whole tribe participate in the ceremonies4 ,it is performed by one person alone1 such of his relatives and friends assisting in the ceremonies as may deem fit or as he may designate4 ,preparatory to this1 as to all the other sacred ceremonies of the ,dakotas1 are fasting and purification4 ,the dance commences with the rising of the sun and continues for three days1 or until such time as the dreaming worshiper shall receive a vision from the spirit or divinity of the sun4 ,he faces the sun constantly1 turning as it turns1 and keeping up a constant blowing with a wooden whistle4 ,a rude drum is beaten at intervals1 to which he keeps time with his feet1 raising one after the other1 and bending his body towards the sun4 ,short intervals of rest are given during the dance4 ,the mind of the worshiper is fixed intently upon some great desire that he has1 and is1 as it were1 isolated from the body4 ,in this state the dancer is said to receive revelations from the sun1 and to hold direct intercourse with that deity4 ,if the worshiper of this luminary1 however1 should fail to receive the desired revelation before the close of the ceremonies1 then self-sacrifice is resorted to1 and the ceremonies of the hanmdepi become a part of the worship of the sun4 ,a ,,dakota',s ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,dance4 #adc4 ,several accounts of the sun dance have been published within the past twenty years1 but they have1 without exception1 been written by white persons4 ,the following differs in one respect from all which have preceded it2 it was written in the ,teton dialect of the ,dakota1 by ,george ,bushotter1 a ,teton4 ,as he did not furnish his description of the dance in a single text1 but in several1 which were written on different occasions1 it devolved on the present writer to undertake an arrangement of the material after translating it4 ,the accompanying illustrations were made by ,mr4 ,bushotter4 #add4 ,object of the sun dance4--,the ,dakota name for the sun dance is 8,wi wa-yag wa-tci-pi 7,wi wayag waipi710 literally1 8,sun looking-at they-dance40 ,the following are assigned as the reasons for celebrating this dance3 ,during any winter when the people suffer from famine or an epidemic1 or when they wish to kill any enemy1 or they desire horses or an abundance of fruits and vegetables during the coming summer1 different ,indians pray mentally to the sun1 and each one says1 8,well1 ,i will pray to ,wakantanka early in the summer40 ,throughout the winter all those men who have made such vows take frequent baths in sweat lodges4 ,each of these devotees or candidates invites persons to a feast1 on which occasion he joins his guests in drinking great quantities of various kinds of herb teas4 ,then the host notifies the guests of his vow1 and from that time forward the people treat him with great respect4 #ade4 ,rules observed by households4--,the members of the households of the devotees always abstain from loud talking and from bad acts of various kinds4 ,the following rules must be observed in the lodge of each devotee3 ,a piece of the soil is cut off between the back of the lodge and the fireplace1 and when virgin earth is reached vermilion is scattered over the exposed place4 ,when the men smoke their pipes and have burned out all of the tobacco in their pipe bowls1 they must not throw away the ashes as they would common refuse2 they must be careful to empty the ashes on the exposed earth at the back of the lodge4 ,no one ventures to step on that virgin earth1 and not even a hand is ever stretched toward it4 ,only the man who expects to participate in the sun-dance can empty the ashes there1 and after so doing he returns each pipe to its owner4 #adf4 ,the 8,u-ma-ne40--8,the mellowed earth space1 ,u-ma-ne in ,dakota1 and called by some peculiar names in other tribes1 has never been absent from any religious exercise ,i have yet seen or learned of from the ,indians4 ,it represents the unappropriated life or power of the earth1 hence man may obtain it4 ,the square or oblong1 with the four lines standing out1 is invariably interpreted to mean the earth or land with the four winds standing toward it4 ,the cross1 whether diagonal or upright1 always symbolizes the four winds or four quarters40#aea ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4--,the 8,u-ma-ne0 symbol4 ,miss ,fletcher uses this term1 8,u-ma-ne10 to denote two things3 the mellowed earth space 7probably answering to the u-j-i of the ,omaha and ,ponka7 and the symbol of the earth and the four winds made within that mellowed earth space4 ,a sketch of the latter symbol is shown in ,fig4 #ahi4 7,see #aab1 #aee1 etc42 also ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 ,vol4 ,,vi1--#dga-dge47 #adg4 ,rules observed by the devotee4--,during the time of preparation the devotee goes hunting1 and if he kills a deer or buffalo he cuts up the body in a 8wakan0 manner4 ,he skins it1 but leaves the horns attached to the skull4 ,he reddens the skin all over1 and in the rear of the lodge1 in the open air1 he prepares a bed of wild sage 7,artemisia71 on which he lays the skull4 ,he erects a post1 on which he hangs a tobacco pouch and a robe that is to be offered as a sacrifice4 ,when the devotee takes a meal everything which he touches must be perfectly clean4 ,he uses a new knife1 which no one else dares to handle4 ,whatever he eats must be prepared in the best possible manner by the other members of the household4 ,they make for him a new pipe ornamented with porcupine work1 a new tobacco pouch1 and a stick for pushing the tobacco down into the bowl1 both ornamented in like manner4 #adh4 ,the devotee must not go swimming1 but he can enter the sweat-lodge4 ,there he rubs his body all over with wild sage2 he cannot use calico or cotton for that purpose4 ,no unclean person of either sex must go near him4 ,the devotee is prohibited from fighting1 even should the camp be attacked4 ,he must not act hastily1 but at all times must he proceed leisurely4 ,he has his regular periods for crying and praying4#aeb #adi4 ,all his female kindred make many pairs of moccasins and collect money and an abundance of all kinds of goods1 in order to give presents to poor people at the time of the sun dance4 ,then they can make gifts to whomsoever they please1 and on that account they will win the right to have a child's ears pierced4 ,the goods or horses1 on account of which the child's ears are to be pierced1 are reserved for that occasion at some other place4 ,the man whose office it will be to pierce the children's ears has to be notified in advance that his services will be required4 7,see #bje47 ,,tribes ,,invited ,,to ,,the ,,sun-,,dance4 #aej4 ,when the devotees have performed all the preliminary duties required of them1 messages are sent to all the neighboring tribes1 i4 e41 the ,omaha1 ,pawnee ,loup1 ,cheyenne1 ,ree1 ,hidatsa1 ,blackfeet1 ,nez ,perc1 ,winnebago1 ,yankton1 and ,santee4 ,the latter part of ,june is fixed upon as the time for the dance4 7,see #ach1 #ada47 ,the visitors from the different nations begin to come together in the spring1 each visiting tribe forming its separate camp4 ,though some of the visitors are hereditary enemies1 it matters not during the sun-dance2 they visit one another2 they shake hands and form alliances4 ,in this manner several weeks are spent very pleasantly4 ,,discipline ,,maintained4 #aea4 ,policemen are appointed1 and a crier proclaims to each lodge that at a specified place there is a broad and pleasant prairie where all are expected to pitch their tents4 ,the overseers or masters of ceremonies have guns1 and their orders are obeyed2 for if one disobeys his horses and dogs are killed by the policemen4 ,this punishment is called akiita wiaktepi1 or1 in common parlance1 8soldier-killing40 ,all who join the camp must erect the upright 7or conical7 tents1 as no low rush or mat tents1 such as are found among the ,osage and ,winnebago1 are allowed in the camp circle4 ,,camping ,,circle ,,formed4 #aeb4 ,at length orders are given for all the people to pitch their tents in the form of a tribal circle1 with an opening to the north4#aec 7,see ,pl4 ,,xlv47 ,it takes several days to accomplish this1 and then all the men and youths are required to take spades and go carefully over the whole area within the circle and fill up all the holes and uneven places which might cause the horses to stumble and fall4 ,,men ,,selected ,,to ,,seek ,,the ,,mystery ,,tree4 #aec4 ,though ,bushotter has written that this work requires several days1 it is probable1 judging from what follows in his manuscript1 that only two days are required for such work4 ,for he continues thus3 ,on the third day some men are selected to go in search of the an-wakan or ,mystery ,tree1 out of which they are to form the sun pole4#aed ,these men must be selected from those who are known to be brave1 men acquainted with the war path1 men who have overcome difficulties1 men who have been wounded in battle1 men of considerable experience4 #aed4 ,the men selected to fell the mystery tree ride very swift horses1 and they decorate their horses and attire themselves just as if they were going to battle4 ,they put on their feather war bonnets4 ,they race their horses to a hill and then back again4 ,in former days it was customary on such occasions for any women who had lost children during some previous attack on the camp1 to wail often as they ran towards the mounted men1 and to sing at intervals as they went4 ,but that is not the custom at the present day4 ,three times do the mounted men tell of their brave deeds in imitation of the warriors of the olden times1 and then they undertake to represent their own deeds in pantomime4 #aee4 ,on the fourth day1 the selected men go to search for the mystery tree4 ,they return to camp together1 and if they have found a suitable tree1 they cut out pieces of the soil within the camping circle1 going down to virgin earth4 7,see #adf47 ,this exposed earth extends over a considerable area4 ,on it they place a species of sweet-smelling grass 7a trailing variety7 and wild sage1 on which they lay the buffalo skull4 ,,tent ,,of ,,preparation4 #aef4 ,after this there is set up within the camping circle a good tent known as the tent of preparation4#aee ,when the managers wish to set up the tent of preparation1 they borrow tent skins here and there4 ,part of these tent skins they use for covering the smoke hole1 and part were used as curtains1 for when they decorate the candidates they use the curtains for shutting them in from the gaze of the people and when they finish painting them they throw down the curtains4 ,in the back part of this tent of preparation are placed the buffalo skulls1 one for each candidate4 ,a new knife which has never been used is exposed to smoke4 ,a new ax1 too1 is reddened and smoked4 #aeg4 ,wild sage 7,artemisia7 is used in various ways prior to and during the sun dance4 ,some of it they spread on the ground to serve as couches1 and with some they wipe the tears from their faces4 ,they fumigate with the plant known as 8a ililya10 or else they use 8walipe watema10 sweet-smelling leaves4 ,day after day they fumigate themselves with 8waaa10 a sweet-smelling grass4 ,they hold every object which they use over the smoke of one of these grasses4 ,they wear a kind of medicine on their necks1 and that keeps them from being hungry or thirsty1 for occasionally they chew a small quantity of it4 ,or if they tie some of this medicine to their feet they do not get weary so soon4#aef #aeh4 ,when the tent of preparation is erected1 there are provided for it new tent pins1 new sticks for fastening the tent skins together above the entrance1 and new poles for pushing out the flaps beside the smoke hole4 ,these objects and all others1 which had to be used1 are brought into the tent of preparation and fumigated over a fire into which the medicine has been dropped4 ,by this time another day has been spent4 ,now all the candidates assemble in the tent of preparation1 each one wearing a buffalo robe with the hair outside4 ,one who acts as leader sits in the place of honor at the back part of the tent1 and the others sit on either side of him around the fireplace4 ,they smoke their pipes4 ,when night comes they select one of the songs of the sun dance1 in order to rehearse it4 ,certain men have been chosen as singers of the dancing songs1 and1 when one set of them rest1 there are others to take their places4 ,the drummers beat the drum rapidly1 but softly 7as the ,teton call it1 kpakpayela1 the act of several drummers hitting in quick succession74 ,illustration3 ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,eleventh ,annual ,report4 ,plate ,,xlv image ,,gast ,,lith4 ,,co4 ,,camping ,,circle ,,at ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,sun-,,dance4 ,three times do they beat the drums in that manner1 and then they beat it rapidly1 as at the beginning of the sun dance4 ,at this juncture1 as many as have flutes--made of the bones of eagles' wings1 ornamented with porcupine quills1 and hung around their necks1 with cords similarly ornamented1 with some eagle down at the tip ends of the flutes--blow them often and forcibly as they dance4 ,while the drum is beaten three times in succession 7kpakpayela1 as has been described71 all the candidates cry aloud 7eya71 but when it is beaten the fourth time1 they cry or wail no longer1 but dance and blow their flutes or whistles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--;,eaglewing flute4 7,from original1 loaned by ,capt4 ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a47 #aei4 ,when the candidates take their seats in the tent of preparation1 they select a man to fill the pipe with tobacco4 ,when they wish to smoke1 this man passes along the line of candidates4 ,he holds the pipe with the mouthpiece toward each man1 who smokes without grasping the pipe stem4#aeg ,when the candidates are allowed to eat1 the attendant feeds them4 ,no one can be loquacious within the tent of preparation4 ,if a dog or person approaches the tent1 the offender is chased away before he can reach it4 ,no spectators are allowed to enter the tent4 ,and this regulation is enforced by blows1 whenever anyone attempts to violate it4 ,,expedition ,,to ,,the ,,mystery ,,tree4 #afj4 ,the next morning1 which is that of the fifth day1 they prepare to go after the tree that is to serve as the sun pole4#aeh ,the married and single men1 the boys1 and even the women1 are all ordered to go horseback4 ,whoever is able to move rapidly accompanies the party4 ,when the chosen persons go to fell the mystery tree they rush on it as they would upon a real enemy1 just as tradition relates that the ,omaha and ,ponka rushed on their sacred tree4 7,see #db47aei ,then they turn quickly and run from it until they arrive at the other side of the hill 7nearest to the mystery tree71 after which they return to the tree4#afj ,they tie leaves together very tightly1 making a mark of the bundle1 assaulting it in turn as a foe4 #afa4 ,the tree is reached by noon4 ,the persons chosen to fell it whisper to one another as they assemble around it4 ,they approach some one who has a child1 and take hold of him4 ,then they bring robes and other goods which they spread on the ground1 and on the pile they seat the child1 who is sometimes a small girl1 or even a large one4 ,,felling ,,the ,,tree4 #afb4 ,each of the chosen men takes his turn in striking the tree4 ,every one must first tell his exploits1 then he brandishes the ax three times without striking a blow1 after which he strikes the tree once1 and only once1 making a gash4 ,he leaves the ax sticking in the tree1 whence it is removed by the next man4 ,he who leaves the ax in the tree is by this act considered to make a present of a horse to some one4 ,as soon as he gives the blow1 his father 7or some near kinsman7 approaches and hands him a stick1 whereupon the young man returns it1 asking him to give it to such a one1 calling him by name4 ,for instance1 let us suppose that a young man1 ,mato uwi maza1 ,grizzly bear with an ,iron ,side1 requests that his stick be given to ,psia wakantuya1 or ,leaping ,high4 ,the old man who is employed as the crier goes to the camp and sings thus3 8,mato uwi maza -ya-ha-he6 ,mato uwi maza -ya-ha-he604 ,the last word is a sign of a brave deed on the part of the donor1 and it is so understood by every one4 ,on reaching the tent of the other man1 the crier says1 8,psia wakantuya ukawaka wa hiyo u ye6 ,mato uwi maza a-waka kaksa a tauke wa hiyo u ye60 i4 e41 8,o ,leaping ,high1 a horse is brought to you6 ,a horse is brought to you because ,mato uwi maza has given a blow to the mystery tree60 ,on hearing this1 ,psia wakantuya says1 8,h-ye10 or 8,thanks60 as he extends his hands with the palms towards the crier2 and he brings them down toward the ground and takes the stick representing the horse4 ,then the crier passes along around the circle1 singing the praises of the donor1 and naming the man who has received the present4 #afc4 ,after all the chosen men have told of their deeds1 and have performed their parts1 the women select a man to speak of what generous things they have done1 and when he has spoken1 the larger women who are able to fell trees rise to their feet1 and take their turns in giving one blow apiece to the tree4 ,by the time that all the women have struck the tree it falls1 and all present shout and sing4 ,many presents are made1 and some of the people wail1 making the entire forest echo their voices4 ,then those men who are selected for that purpose cut off all the limbs of the tree except the highest one1 and they do not disturb the tree top4 ,wherever a branch is cut off they rub red paint on the wound4 #afd4 ,they make a bundle of some wood in imitation of that for which they have prayed1 and hang it crosswise from the fork of the tree4 ,above the bundle they suspend a scarlet blanket1 a buffalo robe or a weasel skin1 and under the bundle they fasten two pieces of dried buffalo hide1 one being cut in the shape of a buffalo1 and the other in that of a man4 ,though ,bushotter did not state the circumstance1 it is remarkable that both the figures have the membrum virile rigid4 ,the author learned about this from two trustworthy persons1 who obtained all the paraphernalia of the sun dance1 and one of them1 ,capt4 ,john ,g4 ,bourke1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army1 showed him the figures of the man and buffalo used at the sun dance at ,red ,cloud ,agency1 in #ahhb4 ,in the former figure1 the lingam is of abnormal size4 ,the connection between the phallic cult and the sun is obvious to the student4 7,see #ai1 #acb1 #adf1 #aee1 #afi1 #agj1 #agf74 ,,the ,,tree ,,taken ,,to ,,camp4 #afe4 ,no one of the company dare to touch the sun pole as they take it to the camp4 ,before wagons were available1 they made a horse carry most of the weight of the pole1 part of it being on one side of him and part on the other1 while the waka men chosen for the purpose walked on both sides of the horse in order to support the ends of the pole4 7,see #cag47 ,at the present day1 a wagon is used for transporting the sun pole to the camp4#afa ,while they are on the way no person dares to go in advance of the pole1 for whoever violates the law is in danger of being thrown from his horse and having his neck broken4 ,the married men and youths carry leaf shields on their backs1 and some of the riders make their horses race as far as they are able4 ,any member of the party can appropriate the small branches which have been cut from the mystery tree4 ,when they reach the camp circle1 all of the party who carry branches and leaves drop them in the places where they intend erecting their respective tents4 #aff4 ,judging from ,mr4 ,bushotter's first text1 the tents are not pitched when the people return with the sun pole4 ,but as soon as they lay the pole in the place where it is to be erected1 the tents are pitched again4 ,then all the objects that are to be attached to the sun pole are tied to it1 and some of the men take leather straps1 such as the women use when they carry wood and other burdens1 and fasten them to the sun pole in order to raise it into position4 ,,raising ,,the ,,sun ,,pole4 #afg4 ,this raising of the sun pole seems to be symbolic of the four winds1 the tatye tpa1 or 8the four quarters of the heavens10 as ,dr4 ,riggs translates the ,dakota term4 ,those who assist in raising the sun pole must be men who have distinguished themselves4 ,they raise the pole a short distance from the ground1 and then they shout1 making an indistinct sound2 they rest awhile and pull it a little higher1 shouting again2 resting a second time1 they renew their efforts1 pulling it higher still4 ,they shout the third time1 rest again1 and at the fourth pull the pole is perpendicular4 ,then the men around the camping circle fire guns1 making the horses flee4 ,those who raised the pole have a new spade1 and they use it one after another in throwing a sufficient quantity of earth around the base of the pole1 pressing the earth down firmly in order to steady the pole4 ,,building ,,of ,,dancing ,,lodge4 #afh4 ,next follows the building of the dancing lodge4 7,see ,pl4 ,,xlvi4 and #cag47 ,forked posts are set in the ground in two concentric circles4 ,those posts forming the circle nearer the sun pole are a few feet higher than the posts in the outer circle1 thus making a slant sufficient for a roof4 ,from the inner circle of posts to the sun pole there is no roof1 as the dancers who stand near the pole must see the sun and moon4 ,from each forked post to the next one in the same circle is laid a tent pole2 and on the two series of these horizontal tent-poles are placed the saplings or poles forming the roof4 ,in constructing the wall of the dancing lodge they use the leaf shields1 and probably some poles or branches of trees1 the shields and leaves stuck in the wall here and there1 in no regular order1 leaving interstices through which the spectators can peep at the dancers4 ,a very wide entrance is made1 through which can be taken a horse1 as well as the numerous offerings brought to be given away to the poor4 ,then they smoke the pipe1 as in that manner they think that they can induce their ,great ,mysterious ,one to smoke4 #afi4 ,all having been made ready1 the aged men and the chief men of the camp kick off their leggins and moccasins1 and as many as have pistols take them to the dancing lodge1 around the interior of which they perform a dance4 ,as they pass around the sun pole1 all shoot at once at the objects suspended from the pole 7 #afd71 knocking them aside suddenly4 ,leaving the dancing lodge1 they dance around the interior of the camping circle till they reach their respective tents4 ,,the ,,uu,,ita4 #agj4 ,this is followed by the 8uuita40 ,each man ties up the tail of his horse and dresses himself in his best attire4 ,when they are ready1 they proceed two abreast around the interior of the camping circle1 shooting into the ground as they pass along1 and filling the entire area with smoke4 ,there are so many of them that they extend almost around the entire circle4 ,if any of the riders are thrown from their horses as they dash along1 the others pay no attention to them1 but step over them1 regarding nothing but the center of the camping circle4 7,see ,pl4 ,,xlv47 #aga4 ,by this time it is nearly sunset4 ,the young men and young women mount horses and proceed in pairs1 a young man beside a young woman1 singing as they pass slowly around the circle4 ,the young men sing first1 and the young women respond1 acting as a chorus4 ,that night the tent of preparation is again erected4 ,the candidates dance there4 ,the people gaze towards that tent1 for it is rumored that the candidates will march forth from it4 ,illustration3 ,,bureau ,,of ,,ethnology4 ,,eleventh ,,annual ,,report4 ,,plate ,,xlvi4 image ,,gast ,,lith4 ,,co4 ,,the ,,dancing ,,lodge4 ,,decoration ,,of ,,candidates ,,or ,,devotees4 #agb4 ,the candidates spend the night in decorating themselves4 ,each one wears a fine scarlet blanket arranged as a skirt and with a good belt fastened around his waist4 ,from the waist up he is nude1 and on his chest he paints some design4 ,sometimes the design is a sunflower4 ,a man can paint the designs referring to the brave deeds of his father1 his mother's brother1 or of some other kinsman1 if he himself has done nothing worthy of commemoration4 ,if a man has killed an animal1 he can paint the sign of the animal on his chest1 and some hold between their lips the tails of animals1 signifying that they have scalped their enemies4 ,others show by their designs that they have stolen horses from enemies4 #agc4 ,each one allows his hair to hang loosely down his back4 ,some wear head-dresses consisting of the skins of buffalo heads with the horns attached4 ,others wear eagle war-bonnets4 ,each candidate wears a buffalo robe with the thick hair outside4 ,he fills his pipe1 which is a new one ornamented with porcupine work1 and he holds it with the stem pointing in front of him4 ,thus do all the candidates appear as they come out of the tent of preparation4 ,as they march to the dancing lodge the leader goes first1 the others march abreast after him4 ,he who acts as leader carries a buffalo skull painted red4 ,all cry as they march1 and on the way they are joined by a woman who takes the place of her 8hakata10 or cousin2 and sometimes they are joined by a horse that is highly prized by his owner4 ,,offerings ,,of ,,candidates4 #agd4 ,the first time that they emerge from the tent where they sleep they march around it four times1 and they make offerings of four blankets1 which they suspend from as many posts set up in the form of a square within which the tent is erected4 ,when they proceed from the tent of preparation to the dancing lodge1 one of their servants sets up sticks at intervals1 forming a straight line from the tent of preparation to the dancing lodge1 and on these sticks he places their offerings of blankets and tobacco pouches4 ,after the gifts are thus suspended1 none of the spectators can cross the line of sticks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4--,the tent of preparation and the dancing lodge4 #age4 ,capt4 ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke has a wand that was used by one of the heralds1 or criers1 during the sun dance4 ,it was about #e feet long1 and was decorated with beadwork and a tuft of horse hair at the superior extremity4 ,whenever the crier raised this wand the people fell back1 leaving an open space of the required area4 ,,ceremonies ,,at ,,the ,,dancing ,,lodge4 #agf4 ,on reaching the dancing lodge1 the candidates pass slowly around the exterior1 starting at the left side of the lodge and turning towards the right4 ,they do this four times and then enter the lodge4 ,they stretch their hands towards the four quarters of the heavens as they walk around the interior of the lodge4 ,they sit down at the back part of the lodge1 and then they sing4 ,between them and the pole they cut out the soil in the shape of a half-moon1 going down to virgin earth1 and on this bare spot they place all the buffalo skulls4 ,after this they paint themselves anew with red paint1 on completing which they are lifted to their feet by their attendants4 ,again they walk around the interior of the lodge1 stretching out their hands towards the four quarters of the heavens4 #agg4 ,a song of the sun dance is started by one of the candidates1 and the others join him1 one after another1 until all are singing4 ,meanwhile the men who have been selected for the purpose redden their entire hands1 and it devolves on them to dance without touching anything1 such as the withes connected with the sun pole or the buffalo skulls2 all that they are required to do is to extend their hands towards the sun1 with the palms turned from them4 ,at this time all the candidates are raised again to their feet1 and brought to the back part of the lodge1 where they are placed in a row4 ,they soon begin to cry1 and they are joined by the woman who has taken the place of her elder brother4 #agh4 ,it is customary1 when a man is too poor to take part himself in the sun dance1 for a female relation to take his place1 if such a woman pities him4 ,she suffers as the male candidates do1 except in one respect--her flesh is not scarified4 ,this woman wears a buckskin skirt1 and she lets her hair fall loosely down her back4 ,she carries the pipe of her brother or kinsman in whose place she is dancing4 #agi4 ,as the drums beat1 the candidates dance and blow their flutes4 ,the woman stands1 dancing slowly1 with her head bent downward1 but with shoulders erect1 and she is shaking her head and body by bending her knees often without raising her feet from the ground4 ,she abstains from food and drink1 just as her brother or kinsman would have done had he participated in the dance4 ,in fact1 all the candidates have to fast from the time that the sun pole is cut1 and from that time they cry and dance at intervals4 #ahj4 ,if the owner of a horse decides that his steed must take part in the dance1 he ties the horse to one of the thongs fastened to the sun pole1 and stands near the animal4 ,whenever he wishes he approaches the horse1 takes him by the lower jaw as he stands and cries1 and then he1 too1 joins in the dance4 ,this horse is decorated in the finest manner2 he is painted red1 his tail is rolled up into a bundle and tied together1 and he wears feathers in the tail and forelock4 #aha4 ,candidates scarified4 ,when the time comes for scarifying the candidates1#afb if one wishes to dance in the manner about to be described1 he is made to stand between four posts arranged in the form of a square1 and his flesh on his back being scarified in two places1 thongs are run through them and fastened to them and to the posts behind him4 ,his chest is also scarified in two places1 thongs are inserted and tied1 and then fastened to the two posts in front of him 7see ,pl4 ,,xlvii1 #a1 ,okaka nain1 or 8,he stands fastened to0 or 8within074 ,bushotter says nothing about the skewers used in torturing the dancers2 but ,capt4 ,bourke obtained three ornamental ones which had been run through the wounds of some of the devotees1 in order to be stained with blood and kept thereafter as souvenirs of the bravery of the dancers4 ,besides these were the regular skewers which were thrust horizontally through the flesh2 and to the ends of these skewers were fastened the thongs that were secured by the opposite ends to the sun pole4 ,the last dance allowed by the ,government was in #ahhc1 and it would be difficult now to find any of these skewers4 7,see #bjd47 ,illustration3 ,bureau of ,ethnology ,eleventh ,annual ,report4 ,plate ,,xlvii4 image ,,gast ,,lith4 ,,co4 ,n4,y4 #a4 ,,ptepa ,,kin ,,waci4--#b4 ,,okaska ,,nazin4 ,another man has his back scarified and a thong inserted1 from which a buffalo skull is suspended1 as shown in ,pl4 ,,xlvii1 #b1 ,pte-pa in wai1 or 8,he dances carrying a buffalo skull on his back40 ,he dances thus1 thinking that the weight of the skull will soon cause the thong to break through the flesh4 ,the blood runs in stripes down his back4 #ahb4 ,another man decides to be fastened to the sun pole4 ,for the use of such dancers there are eight leather thongs hanging down from the pole1 being fastened to the pole at a point about midway from the top4 ,for each man tied to the pole it is the rule to take two of the thongs and run them through his flesh after the holes are made with the knife 7see ,pl4 ,,xlviii74 ,after the thongs are fastened to him1 the dancer is required to look upward4 ,when the candidate is a short man1 his back is scarified and his attendants push him up high enough from the ground for the thongs to be inserted and tied4 ,in this case the weight of the man stretches the skin where the thongs are tied1 and for a long time he remains there without falling 7see ,pl4 ,,xlix74 #ahc4 ,a very long time ago it happened that the friends of such a short man pitied him1 so they gave a horse to another man1 whom they directed to release their friend by pulling at the thongs until they broke out4 ,so the other man approached the dancer1 telling of his own deeds4 ,he grasped the short man around the body1 threw himself violently to the ground1 breaking off the thong1 which flew upward1 and bringing the short man to the ground4 ,then the kindred of the short man brought presents of calico or moccasins and another horse1 with other property1 and they made the old women of the camp scramble for the possession of the gifts4 ,the horse was given away by the act called 8,kaol yeyapi10 or 8,they threw it off suddenly40 ,the father of the dancer stood at the entrance of his tent1 holding a stick in his hand4 ,he threw the stick into the air1 and the bystanders struggled for its possession4 ,whoever grasped the stick1 and succeeded in holding it1 won the horse4 ,if a forked stick is thrown up and caught it entitles the holder to a mare and her colt4 #ahd4 ,when a young man has his flesh pierced for him1 if he is beloved by his female relations1 they furnish him with many objects decorated with porcupine quills1 and these objects are suspended from the pierced places of his flesh1 this being considered as a mark of respect shown by the women to their kinsman4 ,very often the women by such acts deprive themselves of all their property4 #ahe4 ,pieces of flesh offered4--,when the candidates have their flesh pierced for the insertion of the thongs1 a number of men who do not intend to dance approach the sun pole and take seats near it4 ,with a new knife small pieces of flesh are cut out in a row from the shoulders of each of these men1 who hold up the pieces of their own flesh1 showing them to the pole4 ,they also cover the base of the pole with earth4 ,if some of the women desire to offer pieces of their flesh1 they come and do so4 #ahf4 ,very soon after this the people who are outside of the dancing lodge sing a song in praise of the devotees of all kinds1 and the old women are walking about with their clothing and hair in disorder1 the garments flapping up and down as they dance4 ,the attendants hold the pipes for the candidates to smoke1 and they decorate them anew4 ,after they decorate them1 the dancing is resumed4 ,by this time it is past noon1 so the girls and boys whose ears are to be pierced are collected in one place1 and presents are given to all the poor people4#afc ,after the children's ears have been pierced1 the attendants make the candidates rise again and continue the dance4 #ahg4 ,torture of owner of horse4--,the man whose horse has taken part in the dance is tied to the tail of his horse1 and his chest is pierced in two places and fastened by thongs to the sun pole4 ,some of the attendants whip the horse several times1 making him dart away from the pole1 thereby releasing the man1 as the thongs are broken by the sudden strain 7see #bi74 #ahh4 ,the devotees dance through the night1 and when it is nearly midnight they rest4 ,beginning at the left side of the dancing lodge1 every devotee stops and cries at each post until he makes the circuit of the lodge4 ,by this time it is midnight1 so the attendants make them face about and stand looking towards the east1 just as in the afternoon they had made them face the west4 ,illustration3 ,bureau of ,ethnology ,eleventh ,annual ,report4 ,plate ,,xlviii4 image ,,gast ,,lith4 ,,co4 ,,the ,,sun-,,dance4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,dance4 #ahi4 ,at sunrise they stop dancing and they leave the dancing lodge4 ,as they come forth1 they pass out by the right side1 and march four times around the exterior of the lodge4 ,after which they proceed directly to the lodge of preparation1 around which they march four times prior to entering it4 #aij4 ,when the devotees emerge from the dancing lodge1 one of their attendants places more gifts on the line of sticks between the two lodges1 and after the procession has moved on there is considerable disputing among the small boys of the camp for the possession of the gifts4 #aia4 ,after leaving the lodge of preparation1 the exhausted devotees are taken back to their own tents1 where each one is given four sips of water and a small piece of food1 and by the time that he gets accustomed to food after his long fast1 he eats what he pleases1 enters the sweat lodge1 rubs himself with the wild sage1 and thenceforward he is regarded as having performed his vow4 #aib4 ,the spectators scramble for the possession of the blankets and long pieces of calico left as sacrifices at the dancing lodge1 and some of them climb to the top of the sun pole and remove the objects fastened there4 ,the sun pole is allowed to remain in its place4 ,the author saw a sun pole at ,ponka ,agency1 then in ,dakota1 in #ahga4 ,it had been there for some time1 and it remained till it was blown down by a high wind4 ,at the conclusion of the dance the camp breaks up and the visitors return to their respective homes4 #aic4 ,all who participate in the dance must act according to rule for if one slights part of the rites they think that he is in great danger4 ,the men selected as overseers or managers are the persons who act as the attendants of the candidates4 ,the candidates think that all their devotions are pleasing to the sun4 ,as they dance1 they pray mentally1 8,please pity me6 ,bring to pass all the things which ,i desire60 ,,intrusive ,,dances4 #aid4 ,during the sun dance1 other dances--intrusive dances1 as ,lynd terms them--are going on in the camp4 ,among these are the following3 ,the ,mandan dance1 performed by the ate iza okolakiiye1 or the ,society of the ,stout-hearted ,ones2 the ,waka waipi or mystery dance1 the ,pei mignaka waipi or the dance of those wearing grass in their belts1 the ghost dance1 the buffalo dance1 and the ,omaha kiyotag a-i1 popularly called the grass dance4 #aie4 ,when a man joins the ,mandan dance as a leader1 he wears a feather headdress of owl feathers1 a scarf1 called 8,wai-iake10 is worn around his neck and hangs down his back1 and he carries a pipe1 a bow1 and arrows4 ,in the ,pei mignaka waipi1 both young men and young women take part4 ,all these dances are held outside the lodge of the sun dance1 within which lodge only the one dance can be performed4 ,the grass dance is named after the ,omaha tribe4 ,as many men as are able to participate in that dance march abreast until they reach the camp of some gens1 where they sit down facing the people whom they visit1 hence the name1 meaning1 8the ,omaha reach there and sit down40 ,then the visitors sing while a noise is made by hitting the ground with sticks1 etc4 ,the singers and dancers sit looking at the tents of the gens that they have visited1 and remain so until property and food are brought out and given to them4 ,then they arise and probably dance4 ,they think that if they ask ,wakantanka for anything after the conclusion of the sun dance they will receive it4 ,so they call on him in different songs1 thus3 8,o ,wakantanka1 please pity me6 ,let me have many horses60 ,or1 8,o ,wakantanka1 please pity me6 ,let there be plenty of fruits and vegetables60 ,or1 8,o ,wakantanka1 please pity me6 ,let me live a long time60 #aif4 ,during the sun dance they sing about some old woman1 calling her by name4 ,they can sing about any old woman on such an occasion4 ,one of these songs has been given by ,mr4 ,bushotter1 but the writer must content himself in giving the words without the music4 8,wina u tkiya l huwo8 ,he-ye-ye6 ,yatla u uka wkinipe4 ,h-ye-ye6 ,e-ya-ya-ha ya-ha ya-ha yo-ho he-ye-ye6 ,e-ya-ya-ha ya-ha ya-ha yo-ho he-ye-y60 ,that is3 8,old woman1 you who have been mentioned1 whither are you going8 ,when they scrambled for the stick representing a horse1 of course you were on hand6 ,how brave you are60 ,they sing this in a high key1 and when they cease suddenly1 they call out1 8,howo6 ,howo6 ,e-ya-ha-he6 ,e-ya-ha-he60 8,come on6 ,come on6 ,how brave you are6 ,how brave you are60 ,when they have said this repeatedly an old woman enters the circle1 making them laugh by her singing and dancing4 ,thus ends the ,bushotter account of the sun dance1 which was read at a meeting of the ,anthropological ,society of ,washington1 ,may #f1 #ahij4 ,,capt4 ,,bourke ,,on ,,the ,,sun-,,dance4 #aig4 ,after the reading of the paper1 ,capt4 ,john ,g4 ,bourke1 ,u4,s4 ,army1 remarked that he had seen the sun dance of the ,dakota several times1 and once had enjoyed excellent opportunities of taking notes of all that occurred under the superintendence of ,red ,cloud and other medicine men of prominence4 ,capt4 ,bourke kindly furnished the author with the following abstract of his remarks on this subject3 ,in ,june1 #ahha1 at the ,red ,cloud ,agency1 ,dakota1 there were some twenty-eight who went through the ordeal1 one of the number being ,pretty ,enemy1 a young woman who had escaped with her husband from the band of ,sitting ,bull in ,british ,north ,america1 and who was going through the dance as a sign of grateful acknowledgment to the spirits4 ,the description of the dance given in the account of ,bushotter tallies closely with that which took place at the ,red ,cloud ceremony1 with a few very immaterial exceptions due no doubt to local causes4 ,illustration3 ,bureau of ,ethnology ,eleventh ,annual ,report4 ,plate ,,xlix4 image ,,gast ,,lith4 ,,co4 ,a ,,suspended ,,devotee4 #aih4 ,at ,red ,cloud1 for example1 there was not a separate buffalo head for each ,indian2 there were not more than two1 and with them1 being placed erect and leaning against a frame-work made for the purpose1 several elaborately decorated pipes1 beautiful in all that porcupine quills1 beads1 and horsehair could supply4 ,buffaloes had at that time disappeared from the face of the country within reach of that agency1 and there was also an increasing difficulty in the matter of procuring the pipestone from the old quarries over on the ,missouri ,river sic4#afd #aii4 ,first1 in regard to securing the sacred tree1 after the same had been designated by the advance party sent out to look for it4 ,the medicine men proclaimed to the young warriors that all they were now to do was just the same as if they were going out to war4 ,when the signal was given1 the whole party dashed off at full speed on their ponies1 and as soon as we arrived at the tree1 there was no small amount of singing1 as well as of presents given to the poor4 ,next1 a band of young men stepped to the front1 and each in succession told the story of his prowess1 each reference to the killing or wounding of an enemy1 or to striking coup1 being corroborated by thumping on the skin which served the medicine men as a drum4 #bjj4 ,the first young man approached the sacred tree1 swung his brand-new ax1 and cut one gash on the east side2 the second followed precisely the same program on the south side2 the third1 on the west side1 and the fourth1 on the north side1 each cutting one gash and no more4 #bja4 ,they were succeeded by a young maiden1 against whose personal character1 it was asserted1 not a breath of insinuation could be brought1 and she was decked in all the finery of a long robe of white antelope skin almost completely covered with elks' teeth1 as well as with beads4 ,she seized the ax1 and1 with a few well-directed blows1 brought the tree to the ground4 #bjb4 ,in carrying the tree to the camp it was placed upon skids1 no one being allowed to place a hand upon the tree itself4 ,upon reaching the summit of the knoll nearest the camp the tree was left in charge of its immediate attendants while the rest of the assemblage charged at full speed upon the camp itself4 #bjc4 ,when the tree had been erected in place1 it was noticed that each of those who were to endure the torture had been provided with an esquire1 while there was also a force of men1 armed with guns to preserve order1 criers to make proclamations1 and heralds and water-carriers armed with long staves tipped with bead-work and horse-hair4 ,these water-carriers did not carry water for the men attached to the tree1 they were not allowed to drink1 but if they happened to faint away the medicine men would take a mouthful of water apiece and spray it upon the body of the patient1 producing coldness by the evaporation of the water4 #bjd4 ,all the ,indians on that occasion were attached to the tree itself by long ropes of hair or by thongs1 fastened to skewers run horizontally under the flesh4 7,see #aha47 #bje4 ,the young woman1 ,pretty ,enemy1 was not tied up to the tree1 but she danced with the others1 and had her arms scarified from the shoulders to the elbows4 ,all this scarification was done by a medicine man1 who also slit the ear of the babies born since the last sun dance4 #bjf4 ,the young men were scarified in the following manner3 ,their attendants1 whom ,i have called esquires1 seized and laid them on a bed of some sagebrush at the foot of the sacred tree4 ,a short address was made by one of the medicine men2 then another1 taking up as much of the skin of the breast under the nipple of each dancer as could be held between his thumb and forefinger1 cut a slit the length of the thumb1 and inserted a skewer to which a rope was fastened1 the other end of the rope being tied to the tree4 #bjg4 ,the young men placed eagle pipes1 as they were called1 in their mouths4 ,these pipes were flutes which were made each from one of the bones in an eaglet's wing4 ,they had to be sounded all the time the young man was dancing4 ,this dancing was done in the manner of a buck jump1 the body and legs being stiff and all movement being upon the tips of the toes4 ,the dancers kept looking at the sun1 and either dropped the hands to the sides in the military position of 8attention10 with the palms to the front1 or else held them upward and outward at an angle of #de degrees1 with the fingers spread apart1 and inclined towards the sun4 #bjh4 ,when laid on the couch of sagebrush before spoken of1 each young man covered his face with his hands and wailed4 ,i was careful to examine each one1 and saw that this wailing was a strictly ceremonial affair unaccompanied by tears4 #bji4 ,before approaching the tree the victims were naked1 with the exception of blue cloth petticoats and buffalo robes worn with the fur outside1 giving them the appearance of monks of the olden time4 ,the buffalo robes were1 of course1 thrown off when the young men were laid on the sagebrush1 preparatory to the scarification4 ,one young man was unable to tear himself loose1 and he remained tied up to the tree for an hour and seven minutes by my watch4 ,he fainted four times4 ,the medicine man put into his mouth some of the small red1 bitter1 salty seeds of the ,dulcamara1 while the women threw costly robes1 blankets1 articles of beadwork and quillwork1 and others of the skin of the elk and antelope upon the rope attaching him to the tree1 in the hope of breaking him loose4 ,the articles thus attached to the rope were taken away by the poor for whom they were given4 ,there was any amount of this giving of presents at all stages of the dance1 but especially at this time1 and the criers were calling without ceasing1 8,so and so has done well4 ,he is not afraid to look the poor women and children in the face6 ,come up some more of you people6 ,do not be ashamed to give6 ,let all the people see how generous you are60 or words to that effect4 7,i had to rely upon my interpreter1 who was reputed to be the best and most trustworthy at the agency74 #baj4 ,one of the prime movers in the organization of this particular dance1 ,rocky ,bear1 at the last moment1 for some particular reason1 decided not to go through the terrible ordeal4 ,he explained his reasons to the tribe1 and was excused4 ,he gave presents with a lavish hand1 and it was understood that on some subsequent occasion he would finish the dance4 ,there was no sign of dissatisfaction with his course1 and everyone seemed to be on the best of terms with him4 ,all through the ceremony there was much singing by the women and drumming by the medicine men1 and a feast of stewed dog1 which tastes very much like young mutton1 was served with boiled wild turnips4 #baa4 ,by a comparison of the accounts of ,miss ,fletcher1 ,capt4 ,bourke1 and ,bushotter it will be noticed that while there are several points of disagreement which1 as ,capt4 ,bourke remarks1 are 8due no doubt to local causes10 the accounts are in substantial agreement4 ,miss ,fletcher says that the opening of the camp circle was toward the east2 but ,bushotter gives it as toward the north4 ,she states that the tent of preparation was erected on the first day after sunset2 but ,bushotter says it was set up on the fourth day4 ,she represents the selection of the men who go to seek the tree1 the departure to fetch the tree1 the felling of the tree1 the bringing it and setting it up within the camp circle as all taking place on the fourth day4 ,bushotter states that the men were selected on the third day2 they went to seek the tree on the fourth day2 they went to fell the tree on the fifth day1 and on the same day they brought it to the camp and set it in place4 ,capt4 ,bourke saw four men and one girl employed in felling the tree4 ,miss ,fletcher mentions that five men and three girls did this in #ahhb2 but ,bushotter recorded that several men and women took part in this performance4 ,the ears of the children were pierced on the fourth day after the raising of the sun pole1 according to ,miss ,fletcher2 but ,bushotter says that this did not occur till after the devotees had been scarified and fastened to the pole and posts1 on the sixth day4 ,bushotter agrees with ,miss ,fletcher in saying that on the sixth day the earth was 8mellowed10 the devotees scarified1 and they danced with the thongs fastened to the pole1 etc41 and attached to the skewers running under their flesh4 ,,berdaches4 #bab4 ,these unfortunate beings1 who have been referred to as miquga and miquge in ,chapter ,,iii 7 #cj71 are called wikta by the ,santee and ,yankton ,dakota1 and wikte by the ,teton4 ,they dress as women and act in all respects as women do1 though they are really men4 ,the terms for sodomy1 wiktapi and wiktepi1 are significant1 and go to prove that the berdaches should not be called hermaphrodites4 ,it is probable that the ,dakota regard the moon as influencing these people4 7,see #cec47 ,,astronomical ,,lore4 #bac4 ,ho-ke-wi-la is a man who stands in the moon with outstretched arms4 ,his name is said to mean ,turtle ,man4 ,when the ,teton see a short man with a large body and legs they generally call him 8,ho-ke-la10 after the man in the moon4 ,the ,teton do not like to gaze at the moon1 because at some past time a woman1 who was carrying a child on her back1 gazed a long time at the moon1 till she became very weak and fell senseless4 ,no ,teton dare look at the stars and count even 8one0 mentally4 ,for one is sure to die if he begin to count the stars and desist before finishing4 ,they are also afraid to point at a rainbow with the index finger1 though they can point at it with the lips or elbow4 ,should one forget1 and point with the index finger1 the bystanders laugh at him1 saying1 8,by and by1 ,o friend1 when your finger becomes large and round1 let us have it for a ball bat40 ,,day ,,and ,,night4 #bad4 ,one of ,bushotter's ,teton texts reads thus3 ,indians are often singing 8,the day and night are mysterious0 or 8waka40 ,they do so for the following reasons3 ,while the day lasts a man is able to do many wonderful things at different times1 and he kills so many animals1 including men1 and sometimes he receives presents1 and besides he is able to see all things4 ,but he does not fully understand what the day is1 nor does he know what makes the light4 ,though the man can do various things during the day1 he does not know who makes or causes the light4 ,therefore he believes that it was not made by hand1 i4e41 that no human being makes the day give light4 ,therefore the ,indians say that the day is 8waka40 ,they do not know who causes all these things1 yet they know that there is some one thing having power1 and that this thing does it4 ,in their opinion1 that is the sun4 ,so they pray to the sun2 and they respect both the day and the sun1 making them 8waka40 ,on that account they usually sing some songs about them4 ,then they say that the night is 8waka40 ,when it is night1 there are ghosts and many fearful objects1 so they regard the night as 8waka10 and pray to it4 ,,the ,,dawn4 #bae4 ,when ,bushotter's younger brother was sick on one occasion he was made to pray to ,anpao1 ,the ,dawn4 ,the tent skins were thrown back from the entrance and the sick boy was held up with the palms of his hands extended towards the light1 while he repeated this prayer3 8,wakataka1 uimla y6 ,tha wau kte10 i4 e41 8,o ,great ,mysterious ,one1 please pity me6 ,let me live a long time60 ,then the patient was laid back on his couch4 ,while the sick boy prayed a blanket was held up1 and the next morning it was hung from the top of the tent4 ,when the invalid recovered the blanket and a tobacco pouch were taken to a hill and left there as sacrifices4 ,the boy got well1 and the people believed that some mysterious power had cured him4 ,,weather ,,spirit4 #baf4 ,the ,teton say that a giant1 called ,waziya1 knows when there is to be a change of weather4 ,when he travels his footprints are large enough for several ,indians to stand while they are abreast2 and his strides are far apart1 for at one step he can go over a hill4 ,when it is cold the people say1 8,waziya has returned40 ,they used to pray to him1 but when they found that he did not heed them they desisted4 ,when warm weather is to follow ,waziya wraps himself in a thick robe1 and when it is to be cold he goes nude4 ,the members of the ,heyoka or ,anti-natural ,society love the acts of ,waziya2 so they imitate him in always saying or doing the opposite of what might be expected under the circumstances4 ,riggs says1#afe 8,waziya1 the god of the north1 and ,itokaga1 the god of the south1 are ever in conflict and each in turn is victorious40 ,,heyoka4 #bag4 ,waziya and ,heyoka are not fully differentiated4 ,heyoka1 according to ,riggs1#aff is 8the antinatural god40 ,he is said to exist in four varieties1 all of which have the forms of small men1 but all their desires and experiences are contrary to nature4 ,in the winter they stand on the open prairie without clothing2 in the summer they sit on knolls wrapped in buffalo robes1 and yet they are freezing4 ,each of them has in his hands and on his shoulders a bow and arrows1 rattles1 and a drum4 ,all these are surcharged with lightning1 and his drumstick is a little ,wakinyan4 ,the high mounds of the prairies are the places of his abode4 ,he presides over the land of dreams1 and that is why dreams are so fantastic4 #bah4 ,in speaking of the ,heyoka gods1 ,pond says3#afg ,like the ,wakinyan1 there are four varieties of them1 all of which assume in substance the human form1 but it would be unnecessarily tedious to note the differences of form1 especially as the differences are unimportant4 ,they are said to be armed with the bow and arrows1 and with deer-hoof rattles1 which things are charged with electricity4 ,one of the varieties carries a drum1 which is also charged with the same fluid4 ,for a drumstick he holds a small ,wakinyan god by the tail1 striking on the drum with the beak of the god4 ,this would seem to us to be an unfortunate position for a god1 but it must be remembered that it is 8wakan10 and the more absurd a thing is1 the more 8wakan40 #bai4 ,one of these gods in some respects answers to the whirlwind zephyr of ,greek mythology4 ,it is the gentle whirlwind which is sometimes visible in the delicate waving of the tall grass of the prairie4#afh ,by virtue of their medicine and tonwan powers the ,heyoka render aid to such men as revere them1 in the chase1 or by inflicting and healing diseases1 especially those resulting from the gratification of their libidinous passions4 ,,heyoka ,,feast4 #bbj4 ,lynd gives an account of the ,heyoka feast4 ,he says3#afi ,they assemble in a lodge1 wearing tall1 conical hats1 being nearly naked1 and painted in a strange style4 ,upon the fire is placed a huge kettle full of meat1 and they remain seated around the fire smoking until the water in the kettle begins to boil1 which is the signal for the dance to begin4 ,they dance and sing around it excitedly1 plunging their hands into the boiling water1 and seizing large pieces of hot meat1 which they devour at once4 ,the scalding water is thrown over their backs and legs1 at which they never wince1 complaining that it is cold4 ,their skin is first deadened1 as ,i am creditably informed1 by rubbing with a certain grass2 and they do not in reality experience any uneasiness from the boiling water--a fact which gives their performances great mystery in the eyes of the uninitiated4 #bba4 ,dr4 ,brinton has confounded the ,heyoka with the ,wakinyan4 ,the two are distinct classes of powers1 though there is some connection between them1 as may be inferred from the following stories in the ,bushotter collection4 #bbb4 ,no ,indian belonging to the ,heyoka ,society ever tells of his own personal mystery4 ,such things are 8waka10 and not even one man can be induced to sing the ,heyoka songs upon an ordinary occasion2 because if they sing one of those songs except at the proper time they say that the ,thunder-beings would kill the entire households of the offenders4 ,therefore they object to singing the ,heyoka songs and they do not like to speak about them4 ,,story ,,of ,a ,,heyoka ,,man4 #bbc4 ,it is said that the people of the olden times knew when they were about to die1 and they used to dream about their deaths and how they would be when the time drew near4 ,one of those men said1 8,when the first thunder is heard next spring1 ,i and my horse shall die40 ,for that reason his kindred were weeping from time to time1 this man who had dreamed of his death decorated the legs of his horse by moistening light gray clay and drawing zigzag lines down the legs4 ,in like manner he decorated the neck and back of the horse1 and he made similar lines on his own arms4 ,then he would walk about the prairie near the camp1 singing and holding a pipe with the stem pointing toward the sky4 ,when the leaves opened out in the following spring1 the first thundercloud was seen4 ,then the man said1 8,ho1 this is the day on which ,i am to die60 ,so he tied up his horse's tail in a rounded form1 put a piece of scarlet blanket around the animal's neck1 and spread a fine blanket over his back1 as a saddlecloth1 with the ends trailing along the ground4 ,he painted himself and his horse just as he had been doing formerly1 and1 taking the pipe1 he walked round and round at some distance from the camp1 pointing the pipestem towards the clouds as he sang the ,heyoka songs4 ,the following is given as a song of the human ,heyoka man1 but it is said to have been sung originally by the mysterious and superhuman ,heyoka in the thundercloud3 ,ko-la1 o-ya-te kin1 ko-la1 wan-ni-yag u-pe e-ye he6 ,ko-la1 o-ya-te1 kin1 ko-la1 wan-ni-yag u-pe e-ye he6 ,ko-la1 lo-wa hi-bu we6 ,ko-la1 e-ya hi-bu we6 ,o-ya-te wa-ma-ya-ka-pi ye4 ,he-he-he6 ,ta-mu-ka ni u e-ye-ye he6 ,in this song1 8oyate0 means the ,thunder-beings2 8kola10 the ,heyoka men here on earth1 whom the ,thunder-beings threatened to kill2 8oyate wamayakapi10 ordinary ,indians who are not wakan2 8,he-he-he6 tamuka ni u10 i4 e41 8,alas6 ,i hate to leave them 7living ,indians710 means that the singer expects to be killed by the ,thunder-beings4 ,the whole song may be rendered freely thus3 ,my friends1 the people are coming to see you6 ,my friends1 the people are coming to see you6 ,my friends1 he sings as he comes hither6 ,my friends1 he cries as he comes hither6 ,you people on earth behold me while you may6 ,alas6 alas6 alas6 ,i hate to leave my own people6 ,on the day referred to the ,heyoka man had not been absent very long from the camp when a high wind arose1 and the rain was so plentiful that a person could not see very far4 ,then the ,thunder-beings looked 7i4 e41 there was lightning7 and they roared2 but still the man and his horse continued walking about over there in sight of the camp4 ,by and by there was a very sudden sound as if the trees had been struck1 and all the people were much frightened1 and they thought that the ,thunder-beings had killed them4 ,some of the women and children fainted from fear1 and the men sat holding them up4 ,some of the people thought that they saw many stars1 and there seemed to be the sound1 8,tu60 in the ears of each person4 ,when the storm had lasted a long time1 the ,thunder-beings were departing slowly1 amid considerable loud roaring4 ,when it was all over the people ventured forth from their lodges4 ,behold1 the man and his horse had been killed by the ,thunder-beings1 so his relations were crying ere they reached the scene of the disaster4 ,the horse had been burnt in the very places where the man had decorated him1 and his sinews had been shriveled by the heat1 so he lay with each limb stretched out stiff4 ,the man1 too1 had been burnt in the very places where he had painted himself4 ,the grass all around appeared as if the ,thunder-beings had dragged each body along1 for it was pushed partly down on all sides4 ,so the people reached there and beheld the bodies4 ,as the men in former days used to know events beforehand1 as has just been told1 it has long been the rule for no one to reveal his personal mystery1 which he regards as 8wakan40 ,,heyoka ,,women4 #bbd4 ,bushotter gave the following account of a female ,heyoka who was killed by lightning3 ,a certain woman whom ,i saw after she had been killed by lightning belonged to the ,heyoka ,society4 ,when she walked1 she carried a pipe with the mouthpiece pointing upward1 as she thought that the ,thunder-beings would put the mouthpiece into their mouths1 though the act would immediately cause her death4 #bbe4 8,women used to dream about the ,thunder-beings1 just as the men did1 and in those dreams the ,heyoka man or woman made promises to the ,thunder-beings4 ,if the dreamers kept their promises1 it was thought that the ,thunder-beings helped them to obtain whatever things they desired2 but if they broke their promises1 they were sure to be killed by the ,thunder-beings during some storm4 ,for this reason the ,heyoka members worshiped the ,thunder-beings1 whom they honored1 speaking of them as wakan40 #bbf4 ,some of the women sing1 and some do not2 but all let their hair hang loosely down their backs1 and their dresses consist of a kind of cloth or a robe sewed down the middle of the back4 ,sometimes the cloth is all blue1 at other times half is red and half is blue4 ,some times there is beadwork on the dress4 ,even the ,heyoka women wear the long red cloth trailing on the ground before and behind them1 in imitation of the young dandies of the tribe4 ,,iya1 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,gluttony4 #bbg4 ,lynd speaks of the 8vindictive ,iya0 as driving the hunters 8back from the hunt to the desolation of their lodges04#agj ,and ,riggs has written3#aga ,a people who feast themselves so abundantly as the ,dakotas do1 when food is plenty1 would necessarily imagine a god of gluttony4 ,he is represented as extremely ugly1 and is called ,e-ya4 ,he has the power to twist and distort the human face1 and the women still their crying children by telling them that the ,e-ya will catch them4 ,,ikto1 ,,iktomi1 ,,or ,,unktomi4 #bbh4 ,ikto or ,iktomi 7in the ,teton dialect7 or ,unktomi 7in the ,santee7 are the names now given to the spider by the ,dakota2 but the names once belonged to a mythical character1 who resembles in many respects the ,ictinike of the ,omaha and ,ponka1 and the ,ictcike of the ,iowa1 ,oto1 and ,missouri tribes4 8,ikto10 say the ,teton1 8was the first being who attained maturity in this world4 ,he is more cunning than human beings4 ,he it was who named all people and animals1 and he was the first to use human speech4 ,some call him the ,wauna or ,mocker1 a name now applied to the monkey4#agb ,if we see any peculiar animals at any place1 we knew that ,iktomi made them so4 ,all the animals are his kindred1 and they are obliged to act just as he commanded them at the beginning40 #bbi4 ,in enumerating the powers that delight in working ill to the ,indians1 ,lynd mentions ,unktomi thus3 8,the ubiquitous ,unktomi tortures the ,indians in their hunger by bringing herds of buffaloes near the camp1 which they no sooner start to pursue than he drives away by means of a black wolf and a white crow40#agc #bcj4 ,though ,ikto was very cunning1 he was sometimes deceived by other beings4 ,one day he caught the rabbit1 and the latter was about to fare hard1 when a thought occurred to him4 ,he persuaded his captor to release him on condition that he taught ,ikto one of his magic arts4 ,said the rabbit1 8,elder brother1 if you wish snow to fall at any time1 take some hair such as this 7pulling out some rabbit fur7 and blow it in all directions1 and there will be a blizzard40 ,the rabbit then made a deep snow in this manner1 though the leaves were still green4 ,this surprised ,ikto1 who thought that he had learned a wonderful accomplishment4 ,but the foolish fellow did not know that rabbit fur was necessary1 and when he tried to make snow by blowing his own hair1 he was disappointed4 #bca4 ,on another occasion1 ,ikto reached a stream which he could not ford4 ,so he stood on the bank and sang thus3 ,illustration musical notation ,t-kin ko-w-ka-tan ma-k-ni1 e-chinchin na-w-zhin6 ,i stand1 thinking often1 ,oh that ,i might reach the other side6 ,presently a long object passed1 swimming against the current4 ,when it reached him it said1 8,i will take you across1 but you must not lift your head above the water4 ,should you notice even a small cloud warn me at once1 as ,i must go under the water40 ,ikto was then told to give the warning thus3 8,younger brother1 your grandfather is coming40 ,before the other bank was reached ,ikto gave the warning1 and so sudden was the commotion that ,ikto became unconscious4 ,on recovering1 he found that the thunder was roaring1 and the water was dashing high1 but the monster had disappeared4 ,it is shown in the section on ,spider lore 7 #bdi7 how the name ,iktomi has been transferred from the mythical character to the insect1 who1 in turn1 is invoked as 8grandfather40 ,a,,otida ,,and ,,ho,,no,i,a4 #bcb4 ,these powers have been scarcely differentiated2 and some writers speak of them as identical4 ,they seem to have been of the nature of bogies or boggarts4 ,says ,lynd3#agd aotida draws the hungry hunters to the depths of the wood by imitating the voices of animals1 or by the nefarious 8,cico6 cico60 7i4 e41 ,i invite you to a feast6 ,i invite you to a feast67 when he scares them out of their senses by showing himself to them4 ,on the same page he distinguishes between the aotida and the ,onoia thus3 8,the stray lodge becomes the delight of the wild ,ohnogica10 implying that such lodges were haunted by this spirit for the purpose of frightening any unwary traveler who ventured there without a companion4 ,in ,tah-koo ,wah-kon 7p4 #ge1 note71 ,riggs speaks of the 8,chan-o-te-dan or ,hoh-no-ge-cha4 ,the former is a fabulous creature1 dwelling usually in the woods as the name indicates4 ,the latter name would seem to give it a place by the door of the tent40 ,with this we may compare the ,omaha invocation1 8,o thou who standest at the right side of the entrance6 ,here is tobacco60 7 #dj74 ,the name also reminds us of 8,the ,dweller upon the ,threshold0 in ,bulwer's 8,zanoni40 ,riggs1 in his 8,theogony of the ,sioux10 p4 #bgj1 writes thus of the 8,chan-o-te-na03 ,this means1 ,dweller in the woods4 ,sometimes he is called ,oh-no-ge-cha1 which would seem to assign him to a place in the tent4 ,whether these are one and the same1 or two1 is a question in dispute4 ,but they are harmless household gods4 ,the ,chan-o-te-na is represented as a little child1 only it has a tail4 ,many ,indian men affirm that they have seen it1 not only in night dreams1 but in day visions4 ,the name ,honoia or ,onoia is called by the ,teton1 ,ugnaiala1 which is the name of the screech-owl4 ,as the ,ponka ,indaiga dwells in the forest1 and is said to resemble an owl1 he must be identical with the ,dakota aotida or ,ugnaiala4 7,see #ch47 ,,an,g-,,ite4 #bcc4 ,wonderful stories of beings with two faces are found among the ,dakota as well as among the ,omaha4 ,lynd#age states the belief of the ,dakota 7i4 e41 those speaking the ,santee dialect7 that 8women with child are but torturing sports for the vengeful ,anog-ite40 ,in the ,omaha legend of ,two ,faces and the ,twins#agf the pregnant mother of the ,twins died as soon as she had gazed at ,two ,faces4 ,in the ,teton legend of ,he-who-,has-a-,sword and ,ha-ke-la1 the latter is said to have met a giant1 ,anug-ite1 or ,two ,faces1 who pretended to be an ,indian woman nursing an infant4 ,the infant had been stolen from its parents by the ,anug-ite1 who drew a rose brush across its face to make it cry4 ,as soon as this was done the ,two ,faces said1 in a woman's voice1 8,a-wo6 ,a-wo6 ,a-wo60 that being the expression used by ,teton women when they wish to soothe crying infants4 #bcd4 ,the ,indians used to hear an ,anug-ite or ,two ,faces pass along kicking the ground4 ,when he kicked the ground with one foot bells used to ring and an owl hooted1 and when he kicked with the other it seemed as if a buffalo bull was there1 snorting as he does when about to charge4 ,at the next step a chickadee was heard1 and when he moved the other foot he made all kinds of animals cry out4 ,the ,indians had heard this ,anug-ite and were afraid of him4 ,now and then when a man who thought himself strong was alone when he met the ,anug-ite the latter surprised him by catching him and throwing him into one of his ears4 ,these ears were so large that each could hold three men4 ,no person knew where the ,anug-ite made his abode1 and no one cared to follow him2 no one dared to go out of doors at night4 ,now1 there was an old man and his wife who had a lodge to themselves1 and their only child was a willful boy4 ,one night he was particularly ill-behaved1 and when his mother told him to do something he disobeyed her4 ,so she said3 8,i will put you out of the lodge and the ,anug-ite will toss you into his ear40 ,she did not believe this1 and merely said it to frighten her son into obedience4 ,finding him heedless1 she seized his arm and1 though he began to cry1 pushed him out of the lodge and fastened the entrance securely4 ,the poor boy ran crying around the lodge1 but soon there was silence4 ,the mother in turn began to cry1 and went to seek him1 but she did not find him outside the lodge4 ,the next morning she and her husband1 weeping1 went to seek him among the people in the neighboring camp1 asking every one about him1 but no one had seen him4 ,so they returned to their lodge1 and they wept many days for their son4 ,one night the mother was weeping4 ,suddenly she heard some one say1 8,hi6 hi6 ,you said to me3 ,ghost1 take that one4 ,hi6 h60 ,this was said often1 and she noticed a rattling of small bells as the being walked along4 ,just then she said3 8,husband1 ,i think now that a ghost has taken my son40 ,the husband said3 8,yes2 you gave the boy to the ghost1 and1 of course1 the ghost took him4 ,why should you complain8 ,it serves you right40 ,then the mother cried aloud1 so that her voice might have been heard at a distance4 ,then said she3 8,husband1 to-morrow night ,i will lie hid by the wood-pile1 and if the ghost comes ,i will have a knife in my hand1 and after ,i catch it by the leg ,i will call to you4 ,be ready to come at once4 ,you must aid me1 and ,i will recover my son1 because ,i know that he threw him into his ear40 ,so the next night she lay in wait for the monster4 ,by and by something was coming1 crying out 8,hi60 and making all kinds of birds and animals cry out as it walked4 ,she saw a very large being come and stand by the lodge4 ,he was very tall1 his head being above the smoke-hole1 down which he peeped into the lodge4 ,suddenly the mother called to her husband1 and seized one leg of the monster with both hands4 ,then she and her husband gashed the legs in many places1 and1 after tying a thong to one leg1 they pulled down the monster and bound him securely4 ,they guarded him till it was day4 ,then they beheld a hideous monster covered with thick hair1 except on his faces4 ,they split his ears with a knife1 and within one they found their long-lost son1 who was very lean and unable to speak4 ,he had a thick coat of long hair on him from his legs up to his head1 but his head and face were smooth4 ,and he would have become an ,anug-ite had he not been rescued4 ,he did not survive very long4 ,after the parents had taken their son from the ear of the monster they put many sticks of wood on a fire1 and on this they laid the monster4 ,he soon was in flames1 and they stood looking on4 ,many things were sent flying out of the fire in all directions1 just like sparks4 ,these were porcupine quills1 bags1 all kinds of feathers1 arrows1 pipes1 birds1 axes1 war-clubs1 flints1 stones for sharpening knives1 stone balls resembling billiard balls1 necklaces of tuki shells1 flints for striking tinder1 flint hide-scrapers1 whips1 tobacco-pouches1 all kinds of beads1 etc4#agg ,,penates4 #bce4 ,it has been supposed that the ,dakotas had no penates or household gods2 but according to ,riggs1#agh 8such have come into the possession of the missionaries4 ,one of these images is that of a little man1 and is inclosed in a cylindrical wooden case1 and enveloped in sacred swan's down40 ,,guardian ,,spirits4 #bcf4 ,each ,teton may have his special guardian spirit4 ,if such spirits are remembered they confer great power on their favorites4 ,the latter may be surrounded by foes and yet escape1 either by receiving great strength1 enabling them to scatter their enemies1 or by being made invisible1 disappearing like a ghost or the wind4 ,sometimes it is said that one is rescued by being turned into a small bird that flies off in safety4 7,see #abb1 #cbe47 ,this refers to those who 8ihabla0 7have intercourse with spirits7 or who have guardian spirits 7tawaiupi7 as servants4 ,bushotter's stepfather has a guardian spirit who enabled him to tell about lost animals1 etc41 and bad deeds1 even when the latter were committed in secret4 ,so ,bushotter and the other children of the household were afraid to do wrong after they had been detected several times by the aid of the guardian spirit4 ,,beliefs ,,about ,,the ,,buffalo4 #bcg4 ,in several of the ,siouan tribes the buffalo is considered a 8grandfather40 ,he figures in the traditions of the ,osage4#agi ,gentes and sub gentes are named after him4 ,his image plays an important part in the sun dance 7 #afd74 #bch4 ,miss ,fletcher#ahj mentions a prayer used during the ,white ,buffalo ,festival of the ,hunkpapa ,dakota1 in which are remembered the 8powers of the earth1 wind1 sun1 water1 and the buffalo40 ,and in her article on 8,the ,shadow or ,ghost ,lodge2 a ,ceremony of the ,ogallala ,sioux10 she states that #b yards of red cloth are 7were7 8lifted and offered to the buffalo1 with a prayer that good may 7might7 be granted to the father0 7i4 e41 of the dead child7 8during the period of the lodge-keeping40#aha #bci4 ,in her article on the 8,elk ,mystery of the ,ogallala ,sioux0#ahb is given an important note3 ,among the ,santees in past times1 a man who should dream of buffalo must announce it in the following manner3 ,he takes the head of a buffalo he has killed1 carefully removes the skin1 preserving it as nearly whole as possible1 and throws away the skull and the flesh4 ,he then restores the skin to its natural shape and lets it cure4 ,when this has taken place1 a few feet square of earth is set apart at the back of the lodge1 the sods cut off1 and the exposed earth made fine4 ,this is the 8,u-ma-ne40 ,upon this earth a new blanket1 formerly a robe1 is spread4 ,the blanket or robe must not belong to a woman4 ,the buffalo head is placed in the center of the blanket1 and one side of the head 7is7 painted blue1 and the other 7side7 red4 ,upon the blue side1 tufts of white swan's down are tied to the hair of the head4 ,sometimes small eagle feathers are substituted1 and1 very rarely1 large feathers4 ,upon the red side1 tufts of down-colored red are similarly tied4 ,these decorations look like 8a woman's sunbonnet10 as they cover the head and fall to the shoulders4 ,the pipe is only filled and presented to the head4 ,the feast kettle is hung over the fire4 ,when all is in readiness1 the man who prepared the head thus addresses it3 8,grandfather6 ,venerable man6 ,your children have made this feast for you4 ,may the food thus taken cause them to live1 and bring them good fortune40 ,an ,indian of remarkable intelligence1 whose father before him had been a priest of the higher class1 explained that in some religious festivals the buffalo and the earth were spoken of as one1 and 7were7 so regarded4 8,therefore if any one should revile or ridicule the buffalo1 ever so softly1 the earth would hear and tell the buffalo1 and he would kill the man40 ,bushotter furnished two articles on the buffalo1 translations of which are appended4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,buffalo4 #bdj4 ,the buffalo originated under the earth4 ,it is said that in the olden times1 a man who was journeying came to a hill where there were many holes in the ground4 ,he explored them1 and when he had gone within one of them1 he found plenty of buffalo chips1 and buffalo tracks were on all sides2 and here and there he found buffalo hair which had come out when the animals rubbed against the walls4 ,these animals were the real buffalo1 who dwelt underground1 and some of them came up to this earth and increased here to many herds4 ,these buffalo had many earth lodges1 and there they raised their children4 ,they did many strange things4 ,therefore when a man can hardly be wounded by a foe1 the people believe that the former has seen the buffalo in dreams or visions1 and on that account has received mysterious help from those animals4 ,all such men who dream of the buffalo1 act like them and dance the buffalo 7bull7 dance4 ,and the man who acts the buffalo is said to have a real buffalo inside him1 and a chrysalis lies within the flat part of the body near the shoulder-blade2 on account of which the man is hard to kill2 no matter how often they wound him1 he does not die4 ,as the people know that the buffalo live in earth lodges1 they never dance the buffalo dance in vain4 ,,the ,,tata,,gna,,ki,,ya ,,or ,,mythic ,,buffalo4 #bda4 ,it is said that a mythic buffalo once attacked a party of ,indians1 killing one of them4 ,the others fled and climbed a tree1 at which the buffalo rushed many times1 knocking off piece after piece of the tree with his horns till very little of it was left4 ,then one of the ,indians lighted some tinder and threw it far off into the tall grass1 scorching the buffalo's eyes1 and seriously injuring his horns1 causing the hard part of the latter to slip off1 so that the animal could no longer gore any one4 ,but as he was still dangerous1 one of the men determined to fight him at the risk of his own life1 and so he slipped down from the tree1 armed with a bow and some arrows4 ,he finally gave the buffalo a mortal wound4 ,then all the men came down the tree and cut up the buffalo after flaying him4 ,they were about to carry off the body of their dead comrade in a robe1 when they were obliged to climb a tree again because another mythic buffalo had appeared4 ,he did not attack them1 but went four times around the body of the slain man4 ,then he stopped and said1 8,arise to your feet40 ,all at once1 the dead man came to life4 ,the buffalo addressed him1 saying1 8,hereafter you shall be mysterious1 and the sun1 moon1 four winds1 day and night shall be your servants40 ,it was so4 ,he could assume the shape of a fine plume1 which was blown often against a tree1 to which it stuck1 as it waved repeatedly4 ,,the ,,bear4 #bdb4 ,the ,assiniboin address prayers to the bear4#ahc ,they offer it sacrifices of tobacco1 belts1 and other esteemed objects4 ,they celebrate feasts in its honor1 to obtain its favors and to live without accidents4 ,the bear's head is often preserved in the camp during several days1 mounted in some suitable position and adorned with scraps of scarlet cloth1 and trimmed with a variety of necklace collars1 and colored feathers4 ,then they offer it the calumet1 and ask it that they may be able to kill all the bears they meet1 without accident to themselves1 in order to anoint themselves with his fine grease and make a banquet of his tender flesh4 ,,the ,,wolf4 #bdc4 ,smet says1 8,the wolf is more or less honored among the ,indians0 7i4 e4 the ,assiniboin7 8,most of the women refuse to dress its skin for any purpose4 ,the only reason that ,i could discover for this freak is1 that the wolves sometimes go mad1 bite those they meet and give them the hydrophobia4 ,it is doubtless to escape this terrible disease and to avoid the destruction of their game1 that the ,indians make it0 7the wolf7 8presents1 and offer it supplications4 ,in other cases1 he is little feared40 ,the 8little medicine wolf0 is in great veneration among the ,assiniboin4 ,as soon as an ,indian hears his barks1 he counts the number2 he remarks whether his voice is feeble or strong1 and from what point of the compass it proceeds4 ,all these things are regarded as good or bad omens4 ,if the undertakings of the ,indians result1 as they occasionally do1 in success1 after hearing the barking of the little wolf1 this animal is honored by a grand feast after the return of the party4#ahd #bdd4 ,that some of the ,dakota reverenced the wolf is evident from the fact that there is a society1 called the ,wolf ,society1 but known among the white people as the ,dog ,society4 ,that society has many beautiful songs1 according to ,bushotter1 and its membership is confined to young men4 ,all the wolf stories belong to this society4 ,three of these stories follow this section4 #bde4 ,the man who met the ghost woman after fleeing from the two ghost men#ahe encountered a wolf1 who pitied him and showed him the way to a camp1 where he was received and adopted into the tribe4 ,this man always remembered the wolf as a kind animal1 and when he killed any game1 he threw a portion outside of the camp1 as an offering to the wolf4 #bdf4 ,there was once a handsome young ,teton1 whose wife's father disliked him and plotted against him4 ,he dug a pit within his lodge1 covering it with skins4 ,then he invited his son-in-law to a feast4 ,the son-in-law met a wolf1 whom he saluted1 asking him the way to the village4 ,the young man was persuaded to recline on the skins1 which gave way1 precipitating him into the pit4 ,the father-in-law and his two single daughters covered the skins with earth1 and removed their tent elsewhere on the morrow1 when all the people started on a journey4 ,after some days1 the wolf who had met the man went to the deserted camping place in search of food4 ,on reaching the place where the accident 787 had happened1 he heard a human cry4 ,so he dug away the earth1 removed the skins1 and found the man1 whom he recognized4 ,the wolf pitied him1 and said1 8,as you did not kill me when we met1 you shall now be saved40 ,so he howled1 and very soon many wolves appeared4 ,they found a lariat1 which they lowered into the pit1 and by grasping the other end with their teeth1 they pulled the man up4 ,he was very grateful1 promising never to harm a wolf4 ,just then a weeping woman appeared1 gazing in surprise at the man1 as he was very thin1 looking like a ghost4 ,she was his wife1 and her heart was soon made glad when he told her of his rescue4 #bdg4 ,once upon time a man found a wolf den1 into which he dug to get the cubs4 ,the mother came1 barking1 and she finally said to him1 8,pity my children20 but he paid no attention to her4 ,so she ran for her husband1 who soon appeared4 ,still the man persevered4 ,then the wolf sang a beautiful song1 8,o man1 pity my children1 and ,i will instruct you in one of my arts40 ,he ended with a howl1 causing a fog4 ,when the wolf howled again the fog disappeared4 ,then the man thought1 8,these animals have mysterious gifts10 and he tore up his red blanket into small pieces1 which he put as necklaces on the cubs1 whom he painted with ,indian red1 restoring them to their place in the den4 ,then the grateful father exclaimed1 8,when you go to war hereafter1 ,i will accompany you1 and bring to pass whatever you wish40 ,so they parted as friends4 ,in the course of time the man went on the war path4 ,as he came in sight of a village of the enemy1 a large wolf met him1 saying1 8,by and by ,i will sing and you shall steal their horses when they least suspect danger40 ,so they stopped on a hill close to the village1 and the wolf sang4 ,after this he howled1 making a high wind arise4 ,the horses fled to the forest1 many stopping on the hillside4 ,when the wolf had howled again1 the wind died away1 and a mist arose2 so the man took as many horses as he pleased4 ,,horses4 #bdh4 ,these are well named 8,cka waka 7uka waka70 for they are indeed waka4 ,consequently the ,dakota have the ,cg olowa 7ug olowa7 or ,horse ,songs1 and they pray to the horses 7ewiakiyapi74 ,if any one paints a horse in a waka manner1 when he has no right to do so1 he is sure to pay the penalty3 he will encounter misfortune of some sort1 or he will fall ill1 or he will be slain by a foe1 or he will have his neck broken by being thrown from a horse4 ,,spiders4 #bdi4 ,the ,teton pray to gray spiders1 and to those with yellow legs4 ,when a person goes on a journey and a spider passes1 one does not kill it in silence4 ,for should one let it escape1 or kill it without prayer1 bad consequences must ensue4 ,in the latter case1 another spider would avenge the death of his relation4 ,to avoid any such misfortune1 when the spider is encountered1 the person must say to it1 8,iktmi ,tukaila1 ,waiya niktepe lo10 i4 e41 8,o ,grandfather ,spider1 the ,thunder-beings kill you60 ,the spider is crushed at once1 and his spirit believes what has been told him4 ,his spirit probably tells this to the other spiders1 but they can not harm the ,thunder-beings4 ,if one thus addresses a spider as he kills it1 he will never be bitten by other spiders4 #bca4 ,one of the ,dakota myths tells how ,unktomi killed himself1 causing his limbs to shrivel up till they assumed the appearance of spiders' limbs4 ,,snake ,,lore4 #bej4 ,some ,dakota will not kill snakes by hitting them4 ,he who violates the law in this respect will dream horrible dreams about various kinds of snakes2 and occasionally it happens that such a man has a horse bitten by a snake4 ,the ,sitela taka1 or the ,ancient of ,rattlesnakes1 was one of the enemies of the ,thunder-beings4 8,there are some things about which it is most unlucky to dream4 ,snakes are said to be terrible2 they seek to enter a man's ears1 nose1 or mouth0 7i4e41 in the dream72 8and should one succeed1 it is a sure sign of death4 #8,no good comes from snakes4'0#ahf ,,the ,,double ,,woman4 #bea4 ,in the olden times there was what they called 8,wiya nu-papi-ka10 or the ,the ,double ,woman1 consisting of two very tall females who were probably connected by a membrane4 ,they wore horned headdresses decorated with feathers1 and bunches of feathers hung from the right shoulder of one and from the left shoulder of the other4 ,instead of heel tags1 each female had a turtle trailing from the heel or quarter of one moccasin1 and a feather from that of the other4 ,in the sketch as given by ,bushotter there is a pale blue stripe around the bottom of each skirt1 and half of each trailing feather is of that color4 ,each body1 above the top of the blanket1 is painted with blue dots on a yellow ground4 ,there is a blue stripe across the right shoulder of the woman on the right1 and one across the left shoulder of the other woman1 each stripe curving downward towards the opposite side4 7,see ,pl4 ,l47 ,they dwelt in a lodge on a very high black cliff4 ,they were always laughing immoderately1 as if they were strangers to sorrow4 ,on pleasant evenings they stood on a hill1 where they amused themselves by swinging4 ,should any ,indian see them1 when he reached home he vomited something resembling black earth1 and died suddenly4 ,these women were skillful dancers1 and they used to reflect rays of light by means of their mirror1 just as the young ,indian men do in sport4 ,they jumped many times and sang this song3 ,illustration musical notation e-pa-i ku-wa-ni-to ,tu-wa le-i i-na mi-o-ze4 8,cousin1 please come over here6 ,some one waves a robe over in this direction at me4 ,ha6 ha6 ha60 ,then they walked about4 ,no one knew from what quarter the ,double ,woman was coming1 and how the two lived was a mystery4 ,there are many tall women found now among different ,indian tribes who imitate the behavior of the ,double ,woman4 ,john ,bruyier and other ,teton at ,hampton1 ,va41 regard this story of the ,double ,woman as manufactured by ,bushotter4 ,but this character figures in two ,santee myths in ,rev4 ,s4 ,r4 ,riggs's collection1 about to be published by the ,bureau of ,ethnology4#ahg 7,see #cid47 ,illustration3 ,,bureau ,,of ,,ethnology ,,eleventh ,,annual ,,report4 ,,plate ,l4 image ,,the ,,double ,,woman4 ,,deer ,,women4 #beb4 ,deer women of the ,teton resemble the ,wolf women of the ,pawnee4 ,both tempt unwary youths whom they encounter away from the camp in solitary places4 ,should a youth yield to the woman's solicitations the result will be a sad one4 ,as soon as he leaves her she will resume her natural shape4 ,the youth will appear as if drunk or insane1 and he will reach home with difficulty4 ,his health will become impaired1 and he will soon die4 ,so now the hunters avoid any female that they see on the way4 ,they hate the ,deer women4 ,the ,deer women never speak1 but in all other respects they resemble ,indian women4 ,,dwarfs ,,or ,,elves4 #bec4 ,dwarfs or elves are probably referred to in the following2 ,this i4 e4 the object sought by ,lewis and ,clarke's party was a large mound in the midst of the plain1 about ,n4 #bj ,w4 from the mouth of ,whitestone ,river1 from which it is #i miles distant4 ,the base of the mound is a regular parallelogram1 the longest side being about #cjj yards1 the shorter #fj or #gj2 from the longest side it rises with a steep ascent from the north and south to the height of #fe or #gj feet1 leaving on the top a level plain of #ab feet in breadth and #ij in length4 ,the north and south extremities are connected by two oval borders1 which serve as new bases1 and divide the whole side into three steep but regular gradations from the plain4 ,the only thing characteristic in this hill is its extreme symmetry1 and this1 together with its being wholly detached from the other hills1 which are at the distance of #h or #i miles1 would induce a belief that it was artificial2 but as the earth and loose pebbles which compose it are arranged exactly like the steep grounds on the borders of the creek1 we concluded from this similarity of texture that it might be natural4 ,but the ,indians have made it a great article of their superstition2 it is called the ,mountain of the ,little ,people1 or ,little ,spirits1 and they believe that it is the abode of little devils in the human form1 of about #ah inches high1 and with remarkably large heads2 they are armed with sharp arrows1 with which they are very skillful1 and are always on the watch to kill those who should have the hardihood to approach their residence4 ,the tradition is that many have suffered from these little evil spirits1 and1 among others1 three ,maha ,indians fell a sacrifice to them a few years since4 ,this has inspired all the neighboring nations1 ,sioux1 ,mahas1 and ,ottoes1 with such terror that no consideration could tempt them to visit the hill4#ahh ,,bogs4 #bed4 ,bogs are very mysterious4 ,there are various strange objects covered with thick hair which remain at the bottom of a bog4 ,these objects have no eyes1 but they are able to devour anything1 and from their bodies water is ever flowing4 ,when one of these beings wishes1 he abandons his abode and reclines under ground at another place2 then there is no water issuing from the place where he used to lie1 but a spring gushes forth from the new resting place4 ,the water of this spring is warm in winter1 but as cold as ice in summer1 and before one dares to drink of it he prays to the water1 as he does not wish to bring illness on himself by his irreverence4 ,in the olden days one of these strange beings was pulled up out of a bog and carried to the camp1 where a special tent was erected for him4 ,but water flowed all around him1 which drowned almost all of the people4 ,then the survivors offered him food1 which he held as he sat motionless1 gazing at them4 ,the food disappeared before the spectators were aware of it1 though they did not see the being eat it4 ,,trees4 #bee4 ,the ,dakota prayed to trees1 because it was reported that in former days a tree had sung at intervals4 ,a man claimed to have witnessed this1 and from that time they have been regarded as mysterious4 ,,customs ,,relating ,,to ,,childhood4 #bef4 ,the ,teton sing on account of the unborn child1 and set up a pole inside the lodge1 at the part opposite the entrance1 fastening eagles' down to the top of the pole1 just as they do when a boy has advanced toward manhood4 #beg4 ,soon after birth they paint the face of the infant1 whether it be a boy or a girl1 with vermilion1 in the 8,huka0 style4#ahi ,should they neglect to do this1 it is said that the infant would become blear-eyed or it would suffer from some kind of sickness4 #beh4 ,when the navel string is cut1 a small bag is made of deerskin1 cut in the shape of a small tortoise1 known as patkaala4 ,in this bag is placed a piece of the navel string and sweet-smelling leaves1 with which the bag is filled4 ,the infant has to carry this bag on its back4 ,part of the navel string is buried1 and when the child is large enough to get into mischief they say1 8,he is hunting for his navel string40 #bei4 ,prior to the naming of the infant is the ceremony of the transfer of character4 ,should the infant be a boy1 a brave and good-tempered man1 chosen beforehand1 takes the infant in his arms and breathes into his mouth1 thereby communicating his own disposition to the infant1 who will grow up to be a brave and good-natured man4 ,it is thought that such an infant will not cry as much as infants that have not been thus favored4 ,should the infant be a girl1 it is put into the arms of a good woman1 who breathes into its mouth4 #bfj4 ,twins are a mystery to the ,teton1 who believe that they are of superhuman origin1 and must come from ,twin-land4 ,as they are not human beings1 they must be treated very politely and tenderly1 lest they should become offended and die in order to return to ,twin-land4 ,in his ,,ms4 ,teton vocabulary1 sent to the ,bureau of ,ethnology in ,july1 #ahij1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,woodburn1 ,jr41 recently physician at ,rosebud ,agency1 ,s4 ,dak41 makes the following statement which seems worthy of notice3 8,twins are lucky as regards themselves only2 the mother is looked upon as unfortunate4 ,the twins may die1 but they are sure to be born again into separate families4 ,no ordinary human being can recognize them as twins after the new births2 but twins themselves are able each to recognize the other as his fellow-twin in a previous state of existence4 ,medicine men often claim that their supernatural powers are due to a previous existence as twins40 7,see #bfg1 #bhg47 #bfa4 ,when a child is able to walk1 they say that 8,he kicks out the teeth of his elder brother0 7or 8sister10 as the case may be74 ,the teeth of the elder child which have been shed1 probably the first set1 are buried under the entrance to the lodge so that other teeth may come in their place4 ,whoever steps over the spot where the teeth have been buried will soon have other teeth in his mouth4 ,,puberty4 #bfb4 ,among the ,oglala ,dakota1 according to ,miss ,fletcher1#aij the rites incident to the puberty of girls take place on the fourth day of the sun-dance festival4 ,in a note on page #bfj of the ,peabody ,museum ,report1 vol4 ,,iii1 the same authority says3 ,through the kindness of ,rev4 ,a4 ,l4 ,riggs ,i learn that among the bands of ,eastern ,sioux living near ,fort ,sully1 ,dak41 a feast1 called the reappearance of the ,white ,buffalo ,skin1 is held for the consecration of a girl on her arriving at puberty4 ,the feast is sacred and costly1 and not everyone can afford it4 ,those who have once made the feast become the privileged guests at every such feast1 occupy the feast tent1 and are served first4 ,a prominent feature in the feast is the feeding of these privileged persons1 and the girl in whose honor the feast is given1 with choke cherries1 as the choicest rarity to be had in the winter4 ,the feast can be held at any time4 ,bull berries1 or1 as the ,dakotas call them1 8rabbits' noses10 may be substituted1 or finely pounded meat mixed with fat1 in case no berries are to be had4 ,in the ceremony1 a few of the cherries are taken in a spoon and held over the sacred smoke1 then fed to the girl4 ,the spoon is filled anew1 incensed as each person is fed4 ,as each one is given the cherries1 he is addressed thus3 8,wi-a-a-ya-ta-pi wo-yu-te de ya-ti kte10 ,transcriber's note3 the last hyphen in 8wo-yu-te0 was at the end of a line2 the word may have been 8wo-yute0 or 8wo-yu-te04 i4e41 8,you will eat this chief's food40 ,the eaters are not chiefs2 they only partake of chiefs' food4 #bfc4 ,initiation to manhood took place in one of two ways3 7#a7 ,by the wohduze ceremony1 or1 7#b7 by the bear dance1 as witnessed by ,long4 ,the former has been referred to in #abb-abe of this article2 the latter has been described by ,long#aia as a ceremony which they are in the habit of performing when any young man wishes to bring himself into particular notice1 and it is considered a kind of initiation into the state of manhood4 ,there is a kind of flag made of fawn skin dressed with the hair on1 suspended upon a pole4 ,upon the flesh side of it are drawn certain figures indicative of the dream which it is necessary the young man should have dreamed before he can be considered a proper candidate for this kind of initiation4 ,with this flag a pipe is suspended by way of sacrifice4 ,two arrows are stuck up at the foot of the pole1 and fragments of painted feathers1 etc41 are strewed upon the ground near it4 ,these pertain to the religious rites attending the ceremony1 bewailing and self-mortification4 ,the young man who has had the dream acts the bear in this dance1 and is hunted by the other young men2 but the same man can not act the bear more than once in consequence of his dreams4 #bfd4 ,miss ,fletcher says3#aib ,the maturity of the sexes is a period of serious and religious experiences which are preparatory by their character for the entrance of the youth or maiden into the religious and secular responsibilities of life1 both individual and tribal4 ,among the tribes which hold especial public ceremonies announcing the maturity of a girl1 these rights are held not far from the actual time of puberty1 and indicate the close of childhood and entrance of the person into the social status of womanhood4 ,the public festival has1 however1 been preceded by private religious rites4 ,with young men the religious training precedes and follows puberty1 and the entrance is publicly announced by the youth joining in the dangers and duties of tribal life4 ,according to the old customs1 a young man did not take a wife until he had proved his prowess1 and thus became enrolled among the manly element1 or braves1 as they are sometimes spoken of4 ,the initial fasts of warriors have been mistaken sometimes for ceremonials of puberty4 ,,ghost ,,lore ,,and ,,the ,,future ,,life4 ,,meaning ,,of ,,wana,i4 #bfe4 ,the word 8wa-na-i0 means more than 8apparition40 ,the living man is supposed to have one1 two1 or more 8wanai10 one of which after death remains at the grave and another goes to the place of the departed4 ,the writer has been told that for many years no ,yankton ,dakota would consent to have his picture taken lest one of his 8wanai0 should remain in the picture1 instead of going after death to the spirit land4 ,the ,teton ,dakota apply the name of 8ghost0 or 8shadow0 to the lock of hair cut from the forehead of the deceased and kept for some time by the parents2 and till that lock is buried the deceased is supposed to retain his usual place in the household circle4 #bff4 ,lynd#aic says that to the human body the ,dakota give four spirits3 ,the first is supposed to be a spirit of the body1 which dies with the body4 ,the second is a spirit which always remains with or near the body4 ,another is the soul which accounts for the deeds of the body1 and is supposed by some to go to the south1 by others to the west1 after the death of the body4 ,the fourth always lingers with the small bundle of the hair of the deceased1 kept by the relatives until they have a chance to throw it into the enemy's country1 when it becomes a roving spirit1 bringing death and disease to the enemy in whose country it remains4 ,from this belief arose the practice of wearing four scalp feathers for each enemy slain in battle1 one for each spirit4 #bfg4 8,some ,sioux claim a fifth scalp feather1 averring that there is a fifth spirit1 which enters the body of some animal or child after death4 ,as far as ,i am aware1 this belief is not general1 though they differ in their accounts of the spirits of man1 even in number4 ,some of these metempsychosists go so far as to aver that they have distinct recollections of a former state of existence and of the passage into this4 ,the belief1 as before stated1 does not appear to be general40 7,see #bfj1 #bhg47 #bfh4 ,with regard to the place of abode of the four spirits of each man--though they believe that the true soul which goes south or west is immortal--they have no idea1 nor do they appear to have any particular care as to what may become of them after death4 ,it may be remarked1 that the happy hunting grounds1 supposed to belong to every ,indian's future1 are no part of the ,dakota creed--though individual ,dakota may have learned something like it from the white men among them4 ,,assinniboin ,,beliefs ,,about ,,the ,,dead4 #bfi4 ,the ,assinniboin 8believe that the dead migrate toward the south1#aid where the climate is mild1 the game abundant1 and the rivers well stocked with fish4 ,their hell is the reverse of this picture2 its unfortunate inmates dwell in perpetual snow and ice and in the complete deprivation of all things4 ,there are1 however1 many among them who think that death is the cessation of life and action and that there is naught beyond it4#aie 8,the ,assinniboine believe that their dead go to a country in the south1 where the good and brave find women and buffaloes1 while the wicked or cowardly are confined on an island1 where they are destitute of all the pleasures of life4 ,the corpses of brave men are not deposited in trees1 but on the ground1 as they will help themselves1 and they are covered with wood and stones to protect them from the wolves40#aif ,,ghosts ,,not ,,always ,,visible4 #bgj4 ,the ghosts of the departed are not always visible to the living4 ,sometimes they are heard but not seen1 though in the lodge with a mortal4 ,occasionally they become materialized1 taking living husbands or wives1 eating1 drinking1 and smoking1 just as if they were ordinary human beings4 ,,death ,,and ,,burial ,,lore4 #bga4 ,as ghosts visit the sick at night it is customary to drive them away by making a smoke from cedar wood1 or else cedar is laid outside the lodge4 ,sometimes a piece of cedar is fastened up at the smoke-hole4 7,see #db47 ,one ,teton story shows how a female ghost disliked a bad odor and fled from it4 ,when they hear a ghost whistling1 some one leaves the lodge and fires a gun4 ,before death the lodge is surrounded by ghosts of deceased kindred that are visible to the dying person4 ,all the dead man's possessions are buried with him2 his body is dressed in good clothing4 ,the favorite horse is decorated and saddled1 and to this day various articles belonging to the deceased are fastened to him4 ,the horse is shot and part of his tail is cut off and laid near the head of the burial scaffold1 as it is thought that in such a case the ghost can ride the ghost of the horse and use all the articles carried by that animal4 #bgb4 ,why the ,teton stopped burying in the ground4--,long ago the people buried some men on a hill and then removed camp to another place4 ,many winters afterwards a man visited this burial place1 but all traces of the graves had disappeared4 ,so many men came and dug far down into the hill4 ,by and by one said1 8,a road lies here40 ,so they dug in that direction and made a fire underground4 ,and there they found a tunnel large enough for men to walk in by stooping1 with many similar intersecting ones4 ,they followed the main one and finally came to a place whither a strange animal1 the ,waaksia1 had dragged the corpses4 ,for this reason the ,lakota became unwilling to lay their dead in the ground1 so they began to bury on scaffolds which could not be reached by beasts of prey4 ,at the present day the ,teton gives three reasons for not burying in the ground3 7#a7 ,animals or persons might walk over the graves2 7#b7 the dead might lie in mud and water after rain or snow2 7#c7 wolves might dig up the bodies and devour them4 #bgc4 ,importance of tattooing4--,in order that the ghost may travel the ghost road in safety it is necessary for each ,lakota during his life to be tattooed either in the middle of the forehead or on the wrists4 ,in that event his spirit will go directly to the 8,many ,lodges40 ,the other spirit road is said to be short1 and the foolish one who travels it never reaches the 8,many ,lodges40 ,an old woman sits in the road and she examines each ghost that passes4 ,if she can not find the tattoo marks on the forehead1 wrists1 or chin1 the unhappy ghost is pushed from a cloud or cliff and falls to this world4 ,such is the lot of the ghosts that wander o'er the earth4 ,they can never travel the spirit road again2 so they go about whistling1 with no fixed abode4 #bgd4 ,if a quiet and well-behaved person dies his ghost is apt to be restless and cause trouble1 but the ghost of a bad person who dies a natural death is never feared4 ,the ghost of a murdered person is always dangerous4 #bge4 ,if a ghost calls to a loved one and the latter answers1 he or she is sure to die soon after4 ,if some one is heard weeping outside of a lodge1 it is a sign that a person dwelling in that lodge is doomed to die4 ,if a sister dies1 she has a strong desire to return and carry off a beloved brother4 ,so in the event of a death in the family a gun is fired or medicine is thrown on a fire to raise a smoke4 ,if one who is alone encounters a ghost1 the latter will be apt to pull his mouth and eyes until they are crooked4 ,this danger is encountered only by one who has dreamed of a ghost4 ,he who has been harmed by a ghost always faints1 and it is long before he revives4 ,mothers scare bad children by saying1 8,well1 wait a bit and ,i will tell a ghost to come and carry you off40 ,some one who has dreamed of ghosts will draw one on a skin1 etc41 to frighten the children4 ,such a person is said to draw his own ghost just as he will appear in future4 ,no one else dares to draw a ghost4 7,see #bii47 ,,ceremonies ,,at ,,the ,,ghost ,,lodge4#aig #bgf4 ,when a son dies the parents with a knife cut off some hair from the top of the head1 just above the forehead1 placing the hair in a deerskin cover4 ,then they set up three poles1 fastened together at the top and forming a sort of tripod4 ,a cord hung over the top of these holds up the white deerskin pack containing the hair of the deceased4 ,this hair is called the ghost or shade 7or wa-na-i7 of the dead person4 ,the deerskin pack hangs horizontally from the poles and the skin is worked with porcupine quills in many lines1 and here and there are various kinds of red and blue circular figures sewed on it4 ,all the sod had been cut away from the ground beneath the pack1 and on this bare or virgin earth they put a bowl and a drinking vessel1 each ornamented with porcupine work4 ,three times a day do they remember the ghost1 for whom they put the choicest food in the bowl and water in the drinking vessel4 ,every article is handled carefully1 being exposed to the smoke of sweet-smelling herbs4 ,the pack said to contain the ghost is put in the ghost lodge with the knife which he used during life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--,the ghost lodge4 ,the ,indians always have observed the custom of smoking pipes and eating while sitting in the ghost lodge4 ,at the back of the lodge they prepare a seat and in the middle they set up two poles similar to those erected outside the entrance to the tents4 ,before they eat in the lodge1 they sacrifice part of the food4 ,whenever they move the camp or single tent from one place to another all these sacred objects are packed and carried on a horse kept for this special purpose4 ,this horse is called 8,wanai taukewaka10 i4e41 8,the ghost's horse40 ,this horse has his tail and mane cut off short2 the hair on the body is shaved very close2 his body is rubbed all over with yellow clay4 ,some one then rubs paint on the fingers1 touching the rump gently several times1 as well as the forehead and around the neck and breast4 ,a feather is tied to the end of the tail4 ,on his back they place a saddlecloth and a saddle1 each ornamented with porcupine quills4 ,the horse must mourn--i4e41 keep his hair short--as long as the ghost remains unburied2 but as soon as the hair is removed from the pack and buried the horse's hair is allowed to grow long again4 ,as soon as the people stop to encamp the ghost lodge is set up before any of the others4 ,the articles which are kept there remain for a specified time1 perhaps for several years1 during which period certain ceremonies are performed4 ,at the end of the allotted time comes the ghost feast1 the ,wapi or ,wakapi1 when the ghost pack is opened and the ghost taken out and buried4 ,then all the people assemble1 setting up their tents near the ghost lodge4 ,the kindred of the deceased weep and bring food to the place4 ,all this food has been boiled4 ,they set up in the ground some forked sticks1 such as are used for digging wild turnips1 and straight poles are laid along the forked sticks4 ,on the poles are hung moccasins1 and in the space between the forked sticks are piled blankets1 buffalo robes1 calico1 untanned skin bags1 tanned bags1 porcupine quills1 wild turnips1 and fruits4#aih ,these are distributed by women1 and the people spend the time pleasantly4 ,they also give presents to the young women4 ,if the deceased was a male and a member of an order of young men1 all who belong to it are invited to a feast 7there was a similar custom among the ,ponka1 in #ahgb71 where they sing songs4 ,when they stop singing they sit with bodies erect1 but with bent head and stooping shoulders4 ,then the parents of the dead youth enter the lodge1 weeping as they pass around the circle1 and each one places both hands on the head of each guest1 because the son1 who regarded the men as his friends1 is no longer present4 ,if the deceased is a female1 only the women assemble1 except some men who lead the singing4 ,if horses take part in the ceremonies1 their manes and tails are shaved short1 and they1 too1 receive gifts4 ,here and there one of the kindred of the deceased gives away all his property1 and then the bag is opened and the hair or ghost is taken out and buried4 ,from this time the parting with his parents is absolute4 ,they think that1 until the hair is buried1 the deceased is really present with the household1 and that when this burial takes place he dies a second time4 ,after this burial the kindred put on their usual clothing1 and while they weep for the dead at intervals they are at liberty to anoint and decorate themselves according to fancy4 ,another account of ,bushotter states that when they prepare for the ghost feast they redden the sack containing the hair and hang the war bonnet of feathers on the three poles at right angles with the ghost sack4 ,they wish to remember his deeds in war1 so they also stick one end of his war spear in the ground1 with its top leaning against the tops of the three poles4 ,his shield is suspended from one of the poles4 ,the three pipes on the shield in a colored sketch prepared by ,bushotter denote that on so many expeditions the deceased warrior carried a war pipe4 ,the red stripes declare how many of the enemy were wounded by him1 and the human heads show the number of foes that he killed4 ,the half-moon means that he shouted at his foes on a certain night4 ,once he threw aside his arms and engaged in a hand-to-hand struggle with a foe2 this is shown by the human hand4 ,the horse-tracks indicate that he ran off with so many horses4 ,if his name was ,black ,hawk1 for instance1 a black hawk was painted in the middle of his shield4 ,all these things are arranged before they open the bag containing the hair4 ,then they enter the lodge1 and there they open all the things that they have brought4 ,the kindred of the deceased are the only ones to enter the lodge1 and when they see the hair taken from the sack they scream suddenly for a minute or two4 ,it is at this time that they distribute the gifts4 ,food has been boiled in many kettles1 and is now divided among the people not the kindred of the deceased1 who are scattered around the ghost lodge1 and some food is usually given to the young men of the order to which the deceased belonged4 ,a woman who attends to collecting the food1 calico1 bags1 clothing1 etc41 turns to the four posts of the scaffold in succession1 and utters one of the following sayings or prayers at each post3 8,if the ghosts eat this1 may ,i live long60 or 8,may the ghosts eat this1 and ,i obtain many horses60 or 8,if my nephew 7or niece7 eats this1 may someone give me many presents60 ,this woman is careful to put the best part of the food on the bowl or dish1 under the scaffold near the head of the corpse4#aii ,should any one eat before the food has been put aside for the ghost1 all the ghosts become angry with him1 and they are sure to punish him2 they will make him drop his food just before it reaches his mouth1 or they will spill the water when he tries to drink1 and sometimes they cause a man to gash himself with a knife4 ,,good ,,and ,,bad ,,ghosts4 #bgg4 ,some ghosts are beneficent1 but most of them are maleficent4 ,they know all things1 even the thoughts of living people4 ,they are glad when the wind blows4 ,bushotter's younger brother was crazy at one time1 and a doctor or peuta wiaa said that the sickness had been caused by a ghost4 ,,intercourse ,,with ,,ghosts4 #bgh4 ,lynd says3 ,the belief in the powers of some ,dakotas to call up and converse with the spirits of the dead is strong in some1 though not general4 ,they frequently make feasts to those spirits and elicit information from them of distant friends and relatives4 ,assembling at night in a lodge1 they smoke1 put out the fire1 and then1 drawing their blankets over their heads1 remain singing in unison in a low key until the spirit gives them a picture4 ,this they pretend the spirit does2 and many a hair-erecting tale is told of the spirit's power to reveal1 and the after confirmation4#bjj ,,ghost ,,stories4 ,a few ghost stories of the ,teton collection will now be given4 #bgi4 ,the ghost husband4--,a young ,lakota died just before marrying a young girl whom he loved4 ,the girl mourned his death1 so she cut her hair here and there with a dull knife1 and gashed her limbs1 just as if she had been an old woman4 ,the ghost returned and took her for his wife4 ,whenever the tribe camped for the night the ghost's wife pitched her tent at some distance from the others1 and when the people removed their camp the woman and her husband kept some distance behind the main body4 ,the ghost always told the woman what to do2 and he brought game to her regularly1 which the wife gave to the people in exchange for other articles4 ,the people could neither see nor hear the ghost1 but they heard his wife address him4 ,he always sent word to the tribe when there was to be a high wind or heavy rain4 ,he could read the thoughts of his wife1 so that she need not speak a word to him1 and when she felt a desire for anything he soon obtained it for her4 #bhj4 ,the solitary traveler4--,once a solitary traveler was overtaken by a tremendous thunderstorm near a forest4 ,so he remained there for the night4 ,after dark he noticed a light in the woods1 and when he reached the spot1 behold1 there was a sweat lodge1 in which were two persons talking4 ,one said1 8,friend1 some one has come and stands without4 ,let us invite him to share our food40 ,the listener fled suddenly1 as they were ghosts1 and they pursued him4 ,though he looked behind now and then1 he could not see them2 so he ran with all his might towards a hill1 and escaped from them4 ,as he was ascending a divide of the ,bad ,lands1 all at once he heard the cry of a woman4 ,he was very glad to have company for the rest of the journey2 but no sooner had he thought about the woman than she appeared by his side1 saying1 8,i have come because you have just wished to have my company40 ,this frightened the man1 but the ghost woman said1 8,do not fear me1 else you will never see me again40 ,so they went on silently till daybreak4 ,then the man looked at her1 but her legs could not be seen1 though she was walking without any apparent effort4 ,then the man thought1 8,what if she should choke me80 ,immediately the woman disappeared like the wind4 7,see #bde74 #bha4 ,the ghost on the hill4--,one day1 when the people were hunting the buffalo1 a strange man appeared on a hill4 ,he wore a winter robe1 with the hair outside4 ,when he was descending the hill the people became alarmed1 but he continued to advance4 ,the young men rushed to meet him1 taking bows and arrows4 ,they could not see his face4 ,they tried to shoot him1 but each arrow passed by him on one side or the other4 ,so they finally fled1 as he was a ghost4 #bhb4 ,the ,indian who wrestled with a ghost4--,a young man went alone on the warpath4 ,at length he reached a wilderness1 encountering many difficulties1 which did not deter him from his undertaking4 ,one day1 as he was going along1 he heard a voice1 and he thought1 8,i shall have company40 ,as he was approaching a forest he heard some one halloo4 ,behold1 it was an owl4 ,by and by he drew near another forest1 and as night was coming on he had to rest there4 ,at the edge of the forest he lay down in the open air4 ,at midnight he was aroused by the voice of a woman1 who was wailing1 8,my son6 my son60 ,still he remained where he was1 and continued putting wood on the fire4 ,he lay with his back to the fire1 placing his flint-lock gun in readiness before him4 ,he tore a hole in his blanket large enough to peep through4 ,soon he heard the twigs break under the feet of one approaching1 so he peeped without rising4 ,behold1 a woman of the olden days was coming4 ,she wore a skin dress with long fringe4 ,a buffalo robe was fastened around her at the waist4 ,her necklace was composed of very large beads1 and her leggins were covered with beads or porcupine work4 ,her robe was drawn over her head1 and she was snuffling as she came4 ,the man lay with his legs stretched out1 and she stood by him4 ,she took him by one foot1 which she raised very slowly4 ,when she let it go it fell with a thud1 as if he was dead4 ,she raised it a second and third time4 ,still the man did not move himself4 ,then the woman pulled a very rusty knife from the front of her belt1 seized his foot suddenly1 and was apparently about to lift it and gash it1 when up sprang the man1 saying1 8,what are you doing80 ,without waiting for a reply he shot at her suddenly1 and away she went1 screaming 8,yu6 yu6 yu6 yu6 yu6 yu60 ,then she plunged into the forest and was seen no more4 ,once again the man covered his head with his blanket1 but he did not sleep4 ,when day came he raised his eyes1 and1 behold1 he saw a human burial scaffold1 with the blankets1 etc41 ragged and dangling4 ,he thought1 8,is this the ghost that came to me80 ,on another occasion he came to a forest where he had to remain for the night4 ,he started a fire1 by which he sat4 ,suddenly he heard some one making the woods ring as he sang4 ,the man shouted to the singer1 but the latter paid no attention to him4 ,the man had a small quantity of wasna 7grease mixed with pounded dried buffalo meat and wild cherries7 and plenty of tobacco4 ,so when the singer1 who was a male ghost1 came to him and asked him for food1 the man replied1 8,i have nothing whatever20 but the ghost said1 8,not so2 ,i know that you have some wasna40 ,then the man gave some of it to the ghost and filled the pipe for him4 ,after the meal1 when the ghost took the pipe and held it by the stem1 the man saw that his hand had no flesh1 being nothing but bones4 ,as the ghost's robe had dropped from his shoulders to his waist all his ribs were visible1 there being no flesh on them4 ,though the ghost did not open his lips as he smoked1 the smoke was pouring out through his ribs4 ,when he finished smoking the ghost said to the man1 8,ho6 we must wrestle together4 ,if you can throw me1 you shall kill a foe without hindrance1 and steal some horses40 ,the young man agreed to the proposition2 but before beginning he gathered plenty of brush around the fire1 on which he put an armful4 ,then the ghost rushed at the man1 seizing him with his bony hands1 which pained the man1 but this mattered not4 ,he tried to push off the ghost1 whose legs were very powerful4 ,when the ghost was brought near the fire1 he became weak1 but when he managed to pull the man towards the darkness1 he became very strong4 ,as the fire got low the strength of the ghost increased4 ,just as the man began to grow weary the day broke4 ,then the struggle was renewed4 ,as they drew near the fire the man made a desperate effort1 and with his foot he pushed a firebrand suddenly into the fire4 ,as the fire blazed again1 the ghost fell just as if he was coming to pieces4 ,so the man won1 and the ghost's prophecy was fulfilled2 he subsequently killed a foe1 and stole some horses4 ,for that reason people have believed whatever the ghosts have said4 #bhc4 ,the man who shot a ghost4--,in the olden time a man was traveling alone1 and in a forest he killed several rabbits4 ,after sunset he was in the midst of the forest1 so he made a fire1 as he had to spend the night there4 ,he thought thus3 8,should ,i encounter any danger by and by1 ,i have this gun1 and ,i am a man who ought not to regard anything40 ,he cooked a rabbit and satisfied his hunger4 ,just then he heard many voices1 and they were talking about their own affairs1 but the man could see nobody4 ,so he thought1 8,it seems that now at length ,i have encountered ghosts40 ,then he went and lay under a fallen tree1 which was at a great distance from the fire4 ,he loaded his gun with powder only1 as he knew by this time that they were really ghosts4 ,they came round about him and whistled1 8,hyu1 hyu1 hyu60 8,he has gone yonder10 said one of the ghosts4 ,they came and stood around the man1 just as people do when they hunt rabbits4 ,the man lay flat beneath the fallen tree1 and one ghost came and climbed on the trunk of that tree4 ,suddenly the ghost gave the cry uttered on hitting an enemy1 8,a-he60 and he kicked the man on the back4 ,but before the ghost could get away1 the man shot at him and wounded him in the legs2 so the ghost gave the male cry of pain1 8,au6 au6 au60 ,and finally he went off crying as females do1 8,yu6 yu6 yu60 ,and the other ghosts said to him2 8,where did he shoot80 ,and the wounded one said3 8,he shot me through the head and ,i have come apart40 ,then the other ghosts were wailing on the hillside4 ,the man decided to go to the place where they were wailing4 ,so1 as the day had come1 he went thither1 and found some graves1 one of which a wolf had dug into so that the bones were visible1 and there was a wound in the skull4 ,,assinniboin ,,beliefs ,,about ,,ghosts4 #bhd4 ,smet says3#bjb ,the belief in ghosts is very profound1 and common to all these tribes4 ,indians have often told me that they have met1 seen1 and conversed with them1 and that they may be heard almost every night in the places where the dead are interred4 ,they say that they speak in a kind of whistling tone4 ,sometimes they contract the face of a human being whom they meet like that of a person in an epileptic fit4#bja ,the ,assinniboines never pronounce the name of ,tchatka i4e41 atka1 or1 ,left ,hand1 a former chief but with respect4 ,they believe that his shade guards the sacred tree2 that he has power to procure them abundance of buffalo and other animals1 or to drive the animals from the country4 ,hence1 whenever they pass they offer sacrifices2 they present the calumet to the tutelary spirits and manes of ,tchatka4 ,he is1 according to their calendar1 the ,wah-kon-tangka par excellence1 the greatest man or genius that ever visited their nation4#bjb ,,prayers ,,to ,,the ,,dead1 ,,including ,,ancestors4 #bhe4 ,riggs says#bjc that the ,dakota pray to the spirits of their deceased relatives4 ,see #fg-ga4 ,and in his account of the ,assinniboin1 ,smet says3 ,the ,assinniboines esteem greatly a religious custom of assembling once or twice a year around the graves of their immediate relatives4 ,these graves are on scaffolds about #g or #h feet above the surface of the ground4 ,the ,indians call their dead by name and offer to them meats carefully dressed1 which they place beside them4 ,the ceremony of burying the dead is terminated with tears1 wailings1 howlings1 and macerations of all present4 ,they tear the hair1 gash the legs1 and at last they light the calumet1 for that is the ,alpha and ,omega of every rite4 ,they offer it to the shades of the departed and entreat them not to injure the living4 ,during their ceremonious repasts1 in their excursions1 and even at a great distance from their graves1 they send to the dead puffs of tobacco smoke and burn little pieces of meat as a sacrifice to their memory4 #bhf4 ,before consulting the tutelary spirits see #cd or addressing the dead1 they begin by kindling the sacred fire4 ,this fire must be struck from a flint1 or it must reach them mysteriously by lightning1 or in some other way4 ,to light the sacred fire with a common fire would be considered among them as a grave and dangerous transgression4#bjd ,,metamorphoses ,,and ,,the ,,transmigration ,,of ,,souls4 #bhg4 ,they believe in transformations1 such as are described in ,ovid1 and they think that many of the stars are men and women translated to the heavens4 ,they believe in the transmigration of souls4 ,some of the medicine men profess to tell of what occurred to them in bodies previously inhabited for at least six generations back4 ,see #bfj1 #bfg4 ,,exhortations ,,to ,,absent ,,warriors4 #bhh4 ,among the ,teton it has been customary for those remaining at home to make songs about the absent warriors1 calling them by name1 as if they could hear the speakers4 ,this ,dakota custom agrees with what has been recorded of the ,omaha4#bje ,bushotter has told of another ,teton custom4 ,the kindred of a slain warrior make songs in his honor1 and sing them as they mourn for his death4 ,,mysterious ,,men ,,and ,,women4 #bhi4 ,lynd says3 ,certain men profess to have an unusual amount of the wakan or divine principle in them4 ,by it they assume the working of miracles1 laying on of hands1 curing of the sick1 and many wonderful operations4 ,some of these persons pretend to a recollection of former states of existence1 even naming the particular body in which they formerly lived4 ,others assert their power over nature1 and their faculty of seeing into futurity1 and of conversing with the deities4 ,a third class will talk of the particular animals whose bodies they intend to enter when loosed from their present existence #bfj1 #bfg1 #bhg4 ,in endeavoring to sustain these pretensions they occasionally go through performances which are likely to deceive the ignorant throng4#bjf ,pond wrote thus of the ,dakota waka men3#bjg ,they do not spring into existence under ordinary operations of natural laws1 but1 according to their faith1 these men and women 7for females1 too1 are wakan7 first arouse to conscious existence in the form of winged seeds1 such as the thistle1 and are wafted by the 99 99 99 influence of the four winds till they are conducted to the abode of some ,taku ,wakan1 by whom they are received into intimate communion4 ,they remain there till they become acquainted with the character and abilities of the class of gods whose guests they happen to be1 and until they have imbibed their spirits1 and are acquainted with all the chants1 feasts1 dances1 and rites which the gods deem necessary to impose on men4 ,thus do some of them pass through a series of inspirations with different classes of divinities1 till they are fully wakanized and prepared for human incarnation4 ,they are invested with the invisible wakan powers of the gods1 their knowledge and cunning1 and their omnipresent influence over mind1 instinct1 and passions4 ,they are taught to inflict diseases and heal them1 discover concealed causes1 manufacture implements of war1 and impart to them the ton-wan power of the gods2 and also the art of making such an application of paints that they will protect from the powers of the enemies4 ,this process of inspiration is called 8dreaming of the gods40 ,thus prepared and retaining his primitive form1 the demi-god rides forth on the wings of the wind over 99 99 99 the earth1 till he has carefully observed the characters and usages of the different tribes of men2 then1 selecting his location1 he enters one about to become a mother1 and1 in due time1 makes his appearance among men4 99 99 99 ,when one of these wakan men dies he returns to the abode of his god1 from whom he receives a new inspiration1 after which he passes through another incarnation as before1 and serves another generation4 ,in this manner they pass through four incarnations1 99 99 99 and then return to their original nothingness4 #bij4 ,there are different persons who regard themselves as waka1 says ,bushotter4 ,among these are those who practice medicine1 those who act as ,heyoka1 those who boil for the grizzly bear feasts1 those who take part in the mystery dance1 those who foretell the future1 those who detect wrong-doers and find what has been lost or stolen1 and those who do various things in a cunning manner4 ,it happens thus to them3 ,a man hears a human voice during the day and he does what the voice directs to be done1 or on a certain night a tree converses with him1 and the two talk about their own affairs1 and what the tree tells him to do1 that he does1 so he says1 or1 it orders him to keep some law or custom as long as he lives4 ,among these superstitious notions are the following3 ,some men direct the pipe to be handed around the lodge from the left side to the right1 and others vice versa4 ,some men dare not gash a firebrand with a knife2 and should a visitor do so heedlessly1 they say that he 8cuts his finger40 ,others will not kill a swallow1 lest thunder and hail ensue4 ,some do not allow a knife to be passed above a kettle4 #bia4 ,the wakan men claim that they are invulnerable4 ,to prove this they assemble at stated intervals1 having painted themselves in various styles4 ,each one has a flute suspended over the chest by a necklace4 ,they wear long breechcloths1 and march in single file4 ,two men armed with bows and arrows rush suddenly towards the waken men and shoot at them2 but instead of wounding them they merely bend the arrows6 ,sometimes the men fire guns at them1 but the bullets fall to the ground1 and when they are examined they are flattened6 ,no visible mark of a wound can be found on the bodies of these wakan men1 though when they were hit by the bullet or arrow blood pours from their mouths4 ,after they wash off the paint from their bodies their flesh becomes tender and is vulnerable4 ,this is the excuse urged when an ordinary person succeeds in wounding a wakan man4 ,it is supposed that the wakan men rub themselves with some kind of medicine known only to themselves1 making them invulnerable1 and that perhaps the bullets or arrows are rubbed with the medicine prior to the shooting4 ,it is also supposed that the playing of the flute aids in rendering them invulnerable4 7,see #cjf1 etc47 #bib4 ,bushotter names two kinds of ,dakota doctors--the ,mato wapiya1 or ,grizzly ,bear doctor1 who is very wakan1 and the ,peuta wapiya1 or ,peuta wiaa1 the doctor who prescribes roots4 ,the person who practices medicine claims to have had interviews with the spirits1 but he never reveals what the spirits have told him1 though he says that immediately after the revelation made him by the spirit he begins to act according to its directions4 ,and in some cases of sickness this doctor takes the flesh of the patient into his mouth and makes a sucking sound while inhaling1 and from the patient's side he pretends to remove something4 ,when he has made the sucking sound after taking the flesh into his mouth1 or when he has taken blood or something else from the side of the patient1 he spits it from his mouth4 ,then he sees the patient's mother1 whom he tells what is the cause of the disease1 and whether the patient will recover or die4 ,such doctors pretend to have within themselves one of the following3 ,a small red hawk1 a common woodpecker1 a real buffalo1 a rattlesnake1 or a grizzly bear4 ,and when one of these doctors kicks on the ground there is heard something within him1 singing in a beautiful voice2 and so the people believe what the doctors say about diseases4 #bic4 ,when the doctor has sucked the patient's flesh a long time without removing anything1 he asks a favor of the mysterious being dwelling within himself1 and then that being cries out often1 and the doctor succeeds in his efforts4 ,it is by the aid of these mysterious beings that the doctors are enabled to practice medicine4 ,in the olden time one of the doctors was very mysterious4 ,once1 when he was practicing1 a bowl of water was set down before him4 ,he vomited into the bowl and a water-snake appeared in it4 ,but when the doctor opened his mouth again the snake glided gently into it and disappeared down his throat4 ,such exhibitions by the doctors have been observed by the ,indians1 who are constrained to believe what the doctors claim for themselves4 ,and because they believe that the doctors are very mysterious1 the latter are able to gather together many possessions as pay for their services4 ,therefore the men and women doctors try to excel one another in their skill1 as it pays them so well4 #bid4 ,a 8peuta wicaa0 told ,bushotter to say to his step-father that his son1 ,bushotter's younger brother1 had been made crazy by a ghost4 ,the doctor came and fumigated the patient1 and after he felt a little better he sucked at the boy's chest and drew out some blood4 ,he resumed the operation1 and then declared that there was in the boy's side a flat object resembling a serpent1 the removal of which would insure the boy's recovery4 ,the doctor was promised a horse if he would attend the patient until he cured him4 ,acting by his directions1 ,bushotter's elder brother caught a large catfish1 of the species called 8howasapa10 and handed it to his step-father1 who offered a prayer and marked the fish with a knife on the top of the head4 ,after this the fish was cooked1 and the sick boy ate it and recovered his health4 ,it was after this that the same boy was cured by invoking the ,dawn and offering sacrifice1 as related in #bae4 ,,gopher ,,lore4 #bie4 ,scrofulous sores on the neck under the jaw are said to be caused by gophers4 ,these animals can shoot at persons in a magical way with the tip of a species of grass1 wounding them very mysteriously1 the injured person being unconscious of the harm done till some time has elapsed4 ,the place swells1 splits open1 and becomes very bad1 affecting even the face of the sufferer4 ,few doctors can cure it4 ,he who can relieve the patient pretends to extract pieces of grass from the neck1 and then the person begins to recover4 ,the people are so afraid of gophers that they go around the camp with their hands over their jaws4 ,no one dares to go near a gopher hill except he or she be a mysterious person4 ,such a one can go near it and even touch it with impunity1 as he has different remedies at his command4 ,,causes ,,of ,,boils ,,and ,,sores4 #bif4 ,whoever gets into the habit of eating the large intestine of cattle1 known as the taiyaka1 is sure to 8be hit by a iyaka10 i4 e41 he will have a boil4#bjh iyaka is the name of the grebe or dabchick1 but what connection there is between the bird and the boil has not been learned4 ,the boil will be on some covered part of the body1 not on the hands or face4 ,the ,teton fear to go outside of their lodges at night lest the cause of boils be blown to them4 ,if a man eats the liver of a female dog1 or if a woman eats that of a male dog1 the face of the offender will break out in sores4 ,,results ,,of ,,lying1 ,,stealing1 ,,etc4 #big4 ,warts betray a bad person1 one given to stealing4 ,if the skin of the hard palate peels off1 it is said that the person is untruthful4 ,when the ,teton doubt a man's word1 they ask him to open his mouth and let them see his hard palate4 ,he who makes a practice of eating the calves of the legs of any species of animal will have a cramp in the muscles of his own legs4 ,when one wishes to extract the marrow from a bone1 he takes care not to split the bone in two1 lest his own legs should be in frequent pain1 or he should become lame4 ,,secret ,,societies4 #bih4 ,the ,dakota use 8ihabla0 or 8ihamda0 as the ,omaha and ,ponka do 8ia#8e10 to describe the mysterious communications received from the animals and spirits 7 #h1 #dc-eb74 ,among the ,siouan family of ,indians there are societies1 religious in character1 which are distinguished by the name of some animal4 ,each society has a ritual composed of chants and songs to be sung during different parts of the ceremonies1 having words describing in simple and direct terms the act which accompanies the music4 ,these musical rituals1 it is often claimed1 have been received in a mysterious or supernatural manner1 and are therefore regarded as possessing a religious power 99 99 99 ,some societies admit women to membership1 through their own visions1 or occasionally by those of their husbands'1 but more generally by means of the visions of male relatives4 99 99 99 ,membership in these societies is not confined to any particular gens1 or grouping of gentes1 but depends upon supernatural indications over which the individual has no control4 ,the animal which appears to a man in a vision during his religious fasting determines to which society he must belong4#bji #bii4 ,those having visions or revelations from ghosts are called ,wanai ihablapi ki4 ,it is such persons who can draw pictures of ghosts with impunity4 ,it is also said that the only persons who have their faces drawn awry by the ghosts are the members of this order4 7,see #bge47 #cjj4 ,bushotter's step-father belongs to the ,tatag ihablapi ki1 or the ,society of those who have ,revelations from the ,buffalo1 answering to the ,omaha e ia#8e-ma 7 #dc1 #ej74 ,in one of his visions he saw a buffalo with cocklebur down in his hair1 so the man subsequently put such down in his own hair in imitation of the buffalo4 ,one night he saw 7probably in a vision7 a bison going toward the south with a hoop on his head4 ,so the man painted a small hoop red all over and wore it on his head1 giving his nephew the name agleka wayag mani1 ,he ,walks ,in-sight-of a ,hoop4 #cja4 ,some ,dakota belong to the ,heikayapi ihablapi ki1 or the ,society of those who have ,revelations from ,goats4 ,goats are very mysterious1 as they walk on cliffs and other high places2 and those who dream of goats or have revelations from them imitate their actions4 ,such men can find their way up and down cliffs1 the rocks get soft under their feet1 enabling them to maintain a foothold1 but they close up behind them1 leaving no trail4 ,members of the ,waka waipi1 or the ,order of the ,mystery ,dance1 commonly called the medicine dance1 are also reckoned among the mysterious or 8waka0 people 7see #aac74 ,one of ,bushotter's texts relates to this order4 ,another of his articles tells of the ,miwatani okolakiiye ki or ,the ,mandan ,society1 which used to be called ate iza okolakiiye1 or ,society of the ,stout ,hearted ,ones4 ,it is now known as ,kai yuha1 ,keeps the ,raven4 ,for a notice of this order1 see #aid1 #aie4 #cjb4 ,the report of the ,peabody ,museum of ,american ,archaeology and ,ethnology for #ahhd contains an article on the ,elk ,mystery or ,festival of the ,oglala1 a division of the ,teton ,dakota 7pp4 #bgf-bhh74 ,those who have visions of the elk are the ,heaka ihablapi ki4 ,bushotter has recorded articles on different societies as follows3 ,big ,belly ,society1 ,ioka and ,tokala 7animal7 ,societies1 ,dog ,society1 ,kaela or ,tania iu ,society1 ,grizzly ,bear ,dance1 and ,night ,dance2 but we have no means of learning whether any or all of them are composed of persons who had visions of animals4 ,,fetichism4 ,,public ,,or ,,tribal ,,fetiches4 #cjc4 ,among these may be included the ,bear ,butte1 referred to in #acg2 and any white buffalo hide1 such as has been described in 8,the ,white ,buffalo ,festival of the ,uncpapas40#baj ,smet gives a description of a gathering of all the ,assiniboin1 and a religious festival lasting several days3 ,offerings are placed on perches that are fastened to the tops of posts supporting certain buffalo skin lodges4 ,a tall pole is erected in the middle of the circle 7it is between #cj and #dj feet high71 and to it they fasten the medicine bags1 containing the idols1 their arrows1 quivers1 trophies won from their enemies1 especially scalps4 ,men1 women1 and children join in raising and planting the pole1 amid the acclamations of the tribe4#baa ,,private ,,or ,,personal ,,fetiches4 #cjd4 ,smet also tells us that 8,a ,sioux chief has his war waka1 the colored picture of the ,russian general1 ,diebitsch40#bab ,in speaking of the ,assinniboin1 the same author states3 ,each savage who considers himself a chief or warrior possesses what he calls his wah-kon1 in which he appears to place all his confidence4 ,this consists of a stuffed bird1 a weasel's skin1 or some little bone or the tooth of an animal2 sometimes it is a little stone or a fantastical figure1 represented by little beads or by a coarsely painted picture4 ,these charms or talismans accompany them on all their expeditions for war or hunting--they never lay them aside4 ,in every difficulty or peril they invoke the protection and assistance of their wah-kon1 as though these idols could really preserve them from all misfortunes4 ,if any accident befalls an idol or charm1 if it is broken or lost1 it is enough to arrest the most intrepid chief or warrior in his expedition1 and make him abandon the most important enterprise in which he may be engaged4#bac ,we may also reckon among the personal fetiches the wohduze of each warrior 7see the ,armor god1 #abb-e71 and perhaps the use of the initipi or sweat lodge1 and the wild sage or ,artemisia1 by each of which personal purification is supposed to be effected4 ,,ordeals ,,or ,,modes ,,of ,,swearing4 #cje4 ,while there are no oaths or curses as we have them1 the ,teton can invoke higher powers4 ,thus one may say3 8,the ,thunderers hear me0 7,waiya namuwe l1 ,the ,flying one really hears me671 and if he is lying the ,thunderers or one of their number will be sure to kill him4 ,sometimes the man will put a knife in his mouth1 and then if he lies he will be stuck by a knife thereafter1 and death must follow4 ,or1 he will say1 8,the horse heard me0 7ukawaka namu we l71 knowing that the penalty for falsehood will be certain death from a horse that will throw him and break his neck4 ,when one says1 8,the ,earth hears me0 7,mak ki l namu we l71 and he lies1 he is sure to die miserably in a short time1 and his family will also be afflicted4 ,smet says3#bad ,the objects by which an ,assinniboine swears are his gun1 the skin of a rattlesnake1 a bear's claw1 and the wah-kon that the ,indian interrogates4 ,these various articles are placed before him1 and he says1 8,in case my declaration prove false1 may my gun fire and kill me1 may the serpent bite me1 may the bears tear and devour my flesh1 and may my wah-kon overwhelm me with misery40 ,in extraordinary and very important affairs1 which demand formal promises1 they call upon the ,thunder to witness their resolution of accomplishing the articles proposed and accepted4 ,,sorcery ,,and ,,jugglery4 #cjf4 ,as among the ,omaha and other ,siouan tribes1 so among the ,dakota do we find traces of the practice of sorcery1 and there is a special word in the ,dakota dictionary3 8mua1 to cause sickness or death1 as the ,dakotas pretend to be able to do1 in a supernatural way--to bewitch--kill by enchantment40 ,the syllable 8mu0 seems to convey the idea of humming1 buzzing1 or muttering4 ,jugglery or sleight-of-hand performances are resorted to by the mysterious men and women4 7,see #fd-ff1 #bia-d47 ,some of these practitioners claim to possess the art of making love-charms1 such potions being sold to women who desire to attract particular men of their acquaintance4 ,when a woman obtains such a medicine1 she uses it in one of two ways4 ,sometimes she touches the man on his blanket with the medicine1 at others she persuades the man to give her a piece of chewing gum1 which she touches with the medicine4 ,then she seizes him1 and he can not escape from her1 even should he wish to leave her4 ,so he is obliged to marry her4 ,,omens4 ,,bodily ,,omens4 #cjg4 ,ringing in one ear signifies one of two things4 ,some one will come without his family1 and he must be entertained1 or you will hear news4 ,the direction whence the person or news will come is shown by the ear that is affected4 ,if the eye twitches involuntarily some one will weep4 ,if any other part of the body twitches involuntarily some one will hit the person there or he will be stabbed or shot there4 ,if the palm of the hand twitches often he will soon strike some one1 or else he will become angry4 ,when a woman has a son sick somewhere1 or if he has been killed on the way home1 her breasts are often very painful4 ,if one sneezes once his special friend or fellow1 his son or his wife has named him2 so the sneezer calls out1 8,my son40 ,if he sneezes twice he exclaims1 8,my son and his mother60 ,,animal ,,omens4 #cjh4 ,when whip-poor wills sing together at night1 saying1 8,hohi1 hohi10 one says in reply1 8,no40 ,should the birds stop at once it is a sign that the answering person must die soon4 ,but if the birds continue singing the man will live a long time4#bae ,the ugnaala 7gray screech owl7 fortells cold weather4 ,when the night is to be very cold this owl cries out1 so the ,teton say1 just as if a person's teeth chattered4 ,when its cry is heard1 all the people wrap themselves in their thickest robes and put plenty of wood on the fires4 ,the ,ski-bi-bi-la is a small gray bird1 with a black head1 and spotted here and there on the breast4 ,it dwells in the forest1 and is said to answer the person who calls to it4 ,when this bird says1 8,gl hu w10 i4e41 8,has it returned80 the people rejoice1 knowing that the spring is near4 ,when a boy hears this bird ask the question1 he runs to his mother and learns from her that he must reply1 8,no2 it has not yet returned40 ,the reason for giving this reply has not been obtained4 ,when the people first hear the cry of the night hawk in the spring1 they begin to talk of going to hunt the buffalo1 because when the night hawks return the buffalo have become fat again1 and the birds bring the news1 for they never cry in vain4 ,,omens ,,from ,,dreams4 #cji4 ,there are some animals which are esteemed as bringing better fortunes than others4 ,hawks are lucky4 ,bears are not so good1 as the bear is slow and clumsy1 and apt to be wounded2 and although savage when cornered1 is not as likely as some animals to escape harm4 ,among some tribes in this family of ,indians to dream of the moon is regarded as a grave calamity4#baf ,see #cj4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #hd3 ,say1 in ,james's ,account of ,long's ,exped4 ,rocky ,mts41 ,vol4 ,i1 #bfh4 ,footnote #he3 ,shea1 ,amer4 ,cath4 missions1 p4 #be4 ,footnote #hf3 ,lynd1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #fc4 ,compare these seeming contradictions with those observed among the ,omaha and ,ponka1 especially #ba-bd4 ,footnote #hg3 ,ibid1 pp4 #fd-fe4 ,footnote #hh3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #c1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #hi3 ,riggs1 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 pp4 #ef1 #eg4 ,footnote #ij3 ,riggs in ,am4 ,antiq41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #bfe2 and in ,am4 ,philolog4 ,assoc4 ,proc41 #ahgb1 pp4 #e1 #f4 ,footnote #ia3 ,riggs1 in ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #bff4 ,pond1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #c1 p4 #cc4 ,smet1 op4 cit41 #abj1 note4 ,footnote #ib3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b4 ,footnote #ic3 ,lynd1 ,ibid41 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #id3 ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,v1 #adi4 ,footnote #ie3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,i1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #fg1 #fh4 ,footnote #if3 ,ibid41 pt4 #c1 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #ig3 ,riggs1 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 p4 #fa1 et passim4 ,footnote #ih3 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bgf1 note4 ,footnote #ii3 ,lynd1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,lynd1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #gb1 #gf1 #gg4 ,footnote #aja3 ,smet1 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #ib4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,ibid41 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,lynd1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,lynd1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #hj4 ,footnote #aje3 ,riggs1 in ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bff4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,riggs1 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 p4 #fb4 ,see ,maza or ,iron names of ,indians in the author's forthcoming monograph on ,indian ,personal ,names4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,riggs1 in ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn4 vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #ceg-ceh4 ,footnote #aji3 ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #acf4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,v1 p4 #adi4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #big4 ,footnote #aab3 ,pond1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ce-ch4 ,footnote #aac3 ,lynd1 ,ibid41 pt4 #b1 pp4 #ga-gg4 ,riggs1 in ,amer4 ,philolog4 ,assoc4 ,proc1 #ahgb41 p4 #f4 ,footnote #aad3 ,a picture of 8,wah-,menitu1 the spirit or god in the water10 is given on p4 #afa of ,lloyd's translation of ,maximilian1 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,footnote #aae3 ,according to ,omaha tradition1 two buffalo gentes are of subaquatic origin4 ,see ,om4 ,soc41 pp4 #bca-bcc4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,from an unpublished text of ,bushotter4 ,footnote #aag3 ,the ,thunderers in the ,omaha myth have hair of different colors4 ,one has white hair1 the second has yellow1 the third1 bright red1 and the fourth1 green hair4 ,see ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,eth41 vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #aah3 ,pond1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 #da-db4 ,footnote #aai3 ,pond1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #c1 p4 #dc4 ,riggs1 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 pp4 #fb-fd4 ,footnote #abj3 ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #aba3 ,smet4 op4 cit41 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #abb3 ,maximilian1 ,travels in ,north ,america1 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #abc3 ,riggs1 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 pp4 #fi1 #gj4 ,footnote #abd3 ,rev4 ,e4 ,ashley1 ,,ms4 letter to ,dorsey1 ,march #bd1 #ahhd4 ,footnote #abe3 ,riggs1 in ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #abf3 ,pond1 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt #c1 p4 #ec4 ,footnote #abg3 ,ibid41 pt4 #b1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #abh3 ,riggs1 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 pp4 #gj1 #ga4 ,footnote #abi3 ,am4 ,antiq41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #acj3 ,riggs in ,am4 ,antiq41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bfh4 ,footnote #aca3 ,mourning and ,war ,customs of the ,kansas1 in ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,july1 #ahhe1 pp4 #fgf1 #fgg4 ,footnote #acb3 ,that is1 the ,takukaka4 ,footnote #acc3 ,geikie1 in his ,hours with the ,bible 7,new ,york3 ,james ,pott4 #ahha71 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ee1 has the following quotation from ,das ,buch ,henoch1 edited by ,dillmann1 ,kap4 #ag1 #ah3 8,and ,i saw the cornerstone of the earth and the four winds which bear up the earth1 and the firmament of heaven40 ,footnote #acd3 ,note that both the ,takukaka1 the 8,something that ,moves10 and the ,wakiya or the ,thunder-beings1 are associated with war4--,j4 ,o4 ,d4 ,footnote #ace3 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bhi1 and note #a4 ,the use of the number twelve in connection with the ceremony of the ,four ,winds finds a counterpart in the ,osage initiation of a female into the secret society of the tribe2 the ,osage female is rubbed from head to foot1 thrice in front1 thrice on each side1 and thrice behind1 with cedar needles4--,j4 ,o4 ,d4 ,footnote #acf3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #c1 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #acg3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #acf4 ,footnote #ach3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #c1 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #aci3 ,ibid41 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #adj3 ,ibid41 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #ada3 ,ibid41 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #adb3 ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bfh4 ,footnote #adc3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #ee4 ,footnote #add3 ,hovey on 8,eyah ,shah0 in ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,proc41 vol4 ,,xxxiv1 ,buffalo ,meeting1 #ahhf4 ,salem1 #ahhg1 p4 #ccb4 ,also in ,am4 ,antiq41 ,jan41 #ahhg1 pp4 #ce1 #cf4 ,footnote #ade3 ,mr4 ,hovey appears ignorant of the fact that the ,kapoa 78,kaposias07 are a division of the ,mdewakantonwan4 ,the latter had six other divisions or gentes4 ,footnote #adf3 ,riggs1 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #adg3 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #adh3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #c4 ,footnote #adi3 ,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,montreal meeting1 ,vol4 ,,xxxi1 p4 #ehj4 ,footnote #aej3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b4 ,footnote #aea3 ,miss ,fletcher1 in ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bhd1 note4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,compare ,miss ,fletcher1 in ,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 #ahhb1 p4 #eha4 ,footnote #aec3 ,miss ,fletcher says1 in ,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 #ahhb1 p4 #ehj1 8,the people camp in a circle1 with a large opening at the east4 ,in #ahhb over #i1jjj ,indians were so camped1 the diameter of the circle being over three-quarters of a mile wide40 ,footnote #aed3 ,miss ,fletcher's account 7,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 p4 #ehb7 names the fourth day as that on which they sought for the sun pole4 ,footnote #aee3 ,miss ,fletcher 7,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 #ahhb1 p4 #ehj7 states that 8the tent set apart for the consecrating ceremonies1 which take place after sunset of the first day1 was pitched within the line of tents1 on the site formerly assigned to one of the sacred tents40 ,footnote #aef3 ,the author heard about this medicine in #ahgc1 from a ,ponka chief1 one of the leaders of a dancing society4 ,it is a bulbous root1 which grows near the place where the sun pole is planted4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,with this compare the ,omaha act1 uia1 in the ,ike-sab dance after the sham fight1 ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d4 ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #bii4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,see ,miss ,fletcher1 ,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 #ahhb1 p4 #ehb4 ,footnote #aei3 ,see #bh1 the ,kansa ceremony of the waqpele gaxe1 and ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #bcd1 #big4 ,footnote #afj3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 vol4 ,,vi1 #dgj1 #ab-ae2 and ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #bif4 ,footnote #afa3 ,miss ,fletcher states that the sun pole is carried to the camp on a litter of sticks1 and must not be handled or stepped over4 ,op4 cit41 p4 #ehb4 ,footnote #afb3 ,see ,miss ,fletcher's account1 ,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 #ahhb1 p4 #ehd4 ,footnote #afc3 ,miss ,fletcher1 op4 cit41 p4 #ehc4 ,footnote #afd3 ,the famous pipestone quarry was near the ,big ,sioux river in ,minnesota4 ,footnote #afe3 ,concerning ,dakota ,beliefs1 in ,proc4 ,amer4 ,philol4 ,assoc41 #c;d ,an4 ,session1 #ahgb1 p4 #e4 ,footnote #aff3 ,theogony of the ,sioux1 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #afg3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #afh3 ,compare the ,manahidje sub-gens of the ,kansa tribe1 and part of the wind gens1 as the ,kaze gens of the ,omaha1 ,kansa and ,osage may be associated with the ,takukaka of the ,dakota4 ,footnote #afi3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #gj1 #ga4 ,footnote #agj3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #aga3 ,theogony of the ,sioux1 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #agb3 ,with this compare the belief of some ,african tribes that the monkey has the gift of speech1 but fears to use it lest he should be made a slave4 ,footnote #agc3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #agd3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #age3 ,ibid41 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #agf3 ,cont4 ,n4,a4 ,ethnol41 vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #bjg-bai4 ,footnote #agg3 ,translated from the original ,,ms4 in the ,bushotter collection4 ,tuki is the ,teton name for a univalve shellfish said to come from the ,great ,lakes4 ,footnote #agh3 ,tah-koo ,wah-kon1 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #agi3 ,osage ,traditions1 in #fth ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #cgi1 #chj4 ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,february1 #ahhd1 pp4 #aac1 #aad1 #acc4 ,ibid1 ,july1 #ahhe1 p4 #fga1 ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #bbh1 #bcc1 #bdd1 #bdg4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bfd4 ,note how in the sun dance the sun1 the four winds1 and the buffalo are referred to 7 #adg1 #afd1 #afg1 #agc1 and #aha1 and ,pl4 ,,xlviii71 and ceremonies are performed connected with the earth1 such as mellowing the earth 7 #adf1 #aee1 and #agf7 and the 8,uuita10 in which they shoot into the ground 7 #agj74 ,footnote #aha3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #big4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bhb1 note4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,smet1 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,smet1 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,see ,ghost ,lore1 #bhj4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,miss ,fletcher1 ,elk ,mystery of the ,ogalalla ,sioux1 in ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bha1 note4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,contr4 to ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 vol4 ,,ix1 ,dakota ,grammar1 ,texts1 and ,ethnography4 ,washington3 ,government ,printing ,office4 #ahic4 pp4 #aca1 #ada1 #add1 #adh4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,lewis and ,clarke1 ,expedition1 ed4 ,allen1 ,dublin1 #ahag1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fe1 #ff4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,see 8,calumet ,dance10 in ,om4 ,sociology1 #c;d ,am4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p 4#bhj4 ,footnote #aij3 ,proc4 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,montreal meeting1 #ahhb1 p4 #ehc4 ,footnote #aia3 ,skiff ,voy4 to ,falls of ,st4 ,anthony1 in ,minn4 ,hist4 ,coll41 ,,ii1 pt4 #a1 pp4 #ah-ai4 ,footnote #aib3 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bgg1 #bgh4 ,footnote #aic3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #fh1 #hj4 ,footnote #aid3 ,a similar belief has been held by the ,athapascans now on the ,siletz reservation1 ,oregon4 ,this has been published by the author in ,the ,american ,anthropologist for ,january1 #ahhi1 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #aie3 ,smet1 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #aif3 ,maximilian1 ,travels in ,north ,america1 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #aig3 ,read in this connection the article by ,miss ,fletcher on 8,the ,shadow2 or1 ,ghost ,lodge3 a ,ceremony of the ,ogallala ,sioux10 ,rept4 of ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bif1 #cjg4 ,footnote #aih3 ,these things are probably given by the kindred of the deceased1 but ,bushotter has not so informed us4 ,footnote #aii3 ,in one of his papers ,bushotter says that it is the mother of the deceased person who deposits the food under the scaffold and utters the prayers4 ,john ,bruyier1 a half-blood ,teton from ,cheyenne ,river ,agency1 ,south ,dakota1 never heard the petition about the horses1 for if parents obtained horses after the death of their son1 they gave them away4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #bja3 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #bjd4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,am4 ,antiq41 vol4 ,v1 #ahhc1 p4 #adi4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #bdc4 ,footnote #bje3 ,om4 ,sociology1 ,third ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,eth41 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,minn4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,coll41 vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #b1 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,pond1 in ,schoolcraft1 ,ind4 ,tribes1 vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #feb4 #aheg4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,see ,contr4 to ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn4 vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #adf1 #adi4 ,footnote #bji3 ,miss ,fletcher3 ,elk ,mystery of the ,ogallala ,sioux2 in ,ann4 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 #ahhd1 pp4 #bgf1 #bgg4 ,footnote #baj3 ,miss ,fletcher in ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bfj-bge4 ,footnote #baa3 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #acf4 ,footnote #bab3 ,ibid41 p4 #df4 ,footnote #bac3 ,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #ada4 ,footnote #bad3 ,ibid41 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #bae3 ,this is also an ,omaha belief4 ,footnote #baf3 ,miss ,fletcher1 8,elk ,mystery of the ,ogalalla ,sioux10 in ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bha note4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,cults ,,of ,,the ,,mandan1 ,,hidatsa1 ,,and ,,sapona4 ,,authorities4 #caj4 ,this chapter contains no original material1 but is a compilation made from the following works for the convenience of the reader3 ,byrd 7,wm471 ,history of the ,dividing line 7#agbi71 vol4 ,i4 ,reprint3 ,richmond1 ,va41 #ahff4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,miscell4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians4 ,by ,washington ,matthews4 ,james's ,account of ,long's ,exped41 to ,rocky ,mountains1 ,phil41 #ahbc1 vol4 ,i4 ,lewis and ,clarke's ,exped41 ed4 ,allen1 ,dublin1 #ahag1 vol4 ,i4 ,the ,george ,catlin ,indian ,gallery 99 99 99 ,thomas ,donaldson3 ,smithson4 ,rept41 #ahhe1 pt4 #b1 appendix4 ,travels in 99 99 99 ,north ,america1 by ,maximilian1 ,prince of ,wied4 ,trans4 by ,h4 ,evans ,lloyd1 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,,alleged ,,belief ,,in ,a ,,great ,,spirit4 #caa4 ,as among the ,dakota1 so among the ,mandan and ,hidatsa1 we find that some of the earlier writers assert that the religion of the ,indians under consideration 8consists in the belief in one ,great ,spirit40#bag ,but such assertions are closely followed by admissions which explain the mistake of the writer3 8,great ,spirit0 is synonymous with 8,great ,medicine10 a name applied to everything which they do not comprehend4 ,among the ,mandan1 8each individual selects for himself the particular object of his devotion1 which is termed his medicine1 and is either some visible being1 or more commonly some animal40 ,,the ,,great ,,mystery ,a ,,modern ,,deity4 ,matthews states of the ,hidatsa3 ,many claim that the ,great ,spirit1 or1 more properly1 the ,great ,mystery1 is a deity of the modern ,indian only4 ,i have certainly heard some old and very conservative ,minnetarees speak of ,mahopa as if they meant thereby an influence or power above all other things1 but not attaching to it any ideas of personality4 ,it would now be perhaps impossible to make a just analysis of their original conceptions in this matter4#bah ,,polytheism4 ,instead of believing in one ,great ,spirit1 the ,mandan and ,hidatsa 8believe in a multitude of different beings in the heavenly bodies2 offer sacrifices to them2 invoke their assistance on every occasion2 howl1 lament1 fast1 inflict on themselves acts of penance to propitiate these spirits2 and1 above all1 lay very great stress upon dreams40#bai #cab4 ,the most sacred objects in the eyes of the ,crow or ,absaroka1 a nation closely related to the ,hidatsa1 are 8the sun1 the moon1 and tobacco10 that is1 the leaves of the genuine tobacco 7,nicotiana72 and all their children wear a small portion of this herb1 well wrapped up1 round their neck1 by way of an amulet4#bbj ,,worship4 #cac4 ,full information respecting worship has not been obtained2 but we know that among its accessories are the following3 prayer1 fasting1 and sacrifice4 ,the different writers tell us of petitions offered to the gods for help4 ,,fasting4 #cad4 ,when a young ,mandan wishes to establish his reputation as a brave man1 he fasts for four or seven days1 as long as he is able1 goes to the bluffs1 cries to the ,omahank-,numakshi1 calls incessantly on the higher powers for aid1 and goes home at night to sleep and dream4 ,they fast before taking part in the ,okipa1 before organizing a war party1 etc4#bba ,,sacrifice4 #cae4 ,said a ,mandan to ,lewis and ,clarke1 8,i was lately owner of seventeen horses1 but ,i have offered them all up to my medicine1 and am now poor40 ,he had taken all his horses to the plain1 where he turned them loose1 committing them to the care of his 8medicine10 thus abandoning them forever4#bbb 8,around the burial scaffolds of the ,mandans were several high poles1 with skins and other things hanging on them1 as offerings to the lord of life1 ,omahank-,numakshi1 or to the first man1 ,numank-,machana40#bbc #caf4 ,the ,okipa4--,that form of self-sacrifice called ,okipa by the ,mandan has been described in detail by ,catlin and ,maximilian4 ,it differs in some respects from the sun dance of the ,dakota and ,ponka1 as well as from the ,dapike or ,napike of the ,hidatsa4#bbd #cag4 ,the ,dapike4--,according to ,matthews1 the most important ceremony of the ,hidatsa is that of-- ,the ,dapike or ,napike1 which formerly took place regularly once a year1 but is now celebrated every second or third year only4 ,on the day when it is determined to begin this ceremony1 some of the men1 dressed and mounted as for a war-party1 proceed to the woods4 ,here they select a tall1 forked cottonwood1 which they fell1 trim1 and bark2 to this they tie lariats1 and1 by the aid of horses1 drag it to the village4 ,in the procession1 the man who has most distinguished himself in battle1 mounted on the horse on whose back he has done his bravest deeds1 takes the lead2 others follow in the order of the military distinction2 as they drag the log along1 they fire guns at it1 strike it with sticks1 and shout and sing songs of victory4 ,the log1 they say1 is symbolical of a conquered enemy1 whose body they are bringing into the camp in triumph4 ,see #bh1 #db1 #afj4 ,when the log is set up1 they again go to the woods to procure a quantity of willows4 ,a temporary lodge of green willows is then built around the log1 as the medicine lodge1 wherein the ceremony is performed see #afh4 ,the participants fast four days with food in sight1 and1 on the fourth day1 submit to tortures which vary according to the whim of the sufferer or the advice of the shamans4 ,some have long strips of skin separated from different parts of their bodies1 but not completely detached4 ,others have large pieces of the integument entirely removed1 leaving the muscles exposed4 ,others have incisions made in their flesh1 in which raw-hide strings are inserted2 they then attach buffalo-skulls to the strings and run round with these until the strings becomes disengaged by tearing their way out of the flesh4 ,other have skewers inserted in their breasts1 which skewers are secured by raw-hide cords to the central pole1 as in the ,dakota sun dance2 the sufferer then throws himself back until he is released by the skewers tearing out of the flesh4 ,many other ingenious tortures are devised4#bbe #cah4 ,in the narrative of ,long's expedition to the ,rocky ,mountains1 we find an account of the latter part of this ceremony1 prepared1 as ,matthews thinks1 from the statements of ,mr4 ,dougherty or ,mr4 ,lisa1 as the expedition did not go near the ,minnetaree country4 ,all the torments there described1 and more1 are inflicted to this day4 ,that account is as follows3#bbf ,annually in the month of ,july the ,minnetarees celebrate their great medicine dance4 99 99 99 ,on this occasion a considerable quantity of food is prepared4 99 99 99 ,the devotees then dance and sing to their music at intervals for three or four days together in full view of the victuals without attempting to taste them4 ,but they do not1 even at this time1 forego their accustomed hospitality4 ,and if a stranger enters1 he is invited to eat1 though no one partakes with him4 ,on the third or fourth day1 the severer 99 99 99 tortures commence4 99 99 99 ,an individual presents himself before one of the 99 99 99 magi1 crying and lamenting1 and requests him to cut a fillet of skin from his arm1 which he extends for that purpose4 ,the operator thrusts a sharp instrument through the skin near the wrists1 then introduces the knife and cuts out a piece of the required length1 sometimes extending the cut entirely to the shoulder4 ,another will request bands of skin to be cut from his arm4 ,a third will have his breast flayed so as to represent a full-moon or crescent4 ,a fourth submits to the removal of concentric arcs of skin from his breast4 ,a fifth prays the operator to remove small pieces of skin from various indicated parts of his body4 99 99 99 ,an individual requests the operator to pierce a hole through the skin on each of his shoulders1 and after passing a long cord through each hole1 he repairs to a burial ground at some distance from the village1 and selects one of the bison skulls collected there4 ,to the chosen skull he affixes the ends of his cords1 and drags it to the lodge1 around which he must go with his burden before he can be released from it4 ,no one is permitted to assist him1 neither dare he to put his hands to the cords to alleviate his sufferings4 ,if it should so happen that the horns of the skull get hooked under a root or other obstacle1 he must extricate it in the best manner he can by pulling different ways1 but he must not touch the cords or the skull with his hands1 or in any respect attempt to relieve the strain upon his wound until his complete task is performed4 ,some of the penitents have arrows thrust through various muscular parts of their bodies1 as through the skin and superficial muscles of the arms1 leg1 breast1 and back4 ,a devotee caused two arrows to be passed through the muscles of his breast1 one on each side near the mammae4 ,to these arrows cords were attached1 the opposite ends of which were affixed to the upper part of a post which had been planted in the earth for the purpose4 ,he then threw himself backward into an oblique position1 his back within about #b feet of the ground1 so as to depend with the greater part of his weight by the cords4 ,in this situation of agony he chanted and kept time to the music of the gong 7sic71 until he fainted from long abstinence and suffering4 ,the bystanders then cried out1 8,courage6 courage60 ,after a short interval of insensibility1 he revived and proceeded with his self-tortures as before1 until nature being completely exhausted he again relapsed into insensibility1 upon which he was loosed from the cords and carried off amidst the acclamations of the whole assembly4 ,another ,minnetaree in compliance with a vow he had made1 caused a hole to be perforated through the muscles of each shoulder4 ,through these holes cords were passed1 the opposite ends of which were attached as a bridle to a horse which had been penned up three or four days without food or water4 ,in this manner he led the horse to the margin of the river4 ,the horse1 of course1 endeavored to drink1 but it was the province of the ,indian to prevent him1 and that only by straining at the cords with the muscles of the shoulder1 without resorting to the assistance of his hands4 ,and1 notwithstanding all the exertions of the horse to drink1 his master succeeded in preventing him1 and returned with him to his lodge1 having accomplished his painful task4 #cai4 ,in describing the ,hidatsa1 ,prince ,maximilian says3#bbg ,they likewise celebrate the ,okippe 7which they call ,akupehri71 but with several deviations4 ,thus1 instead of a so-called ark1 a kind of high pole with a fork on it1 is planted in the center of the open circle4 ,when the partisans 7i4 e4 war captains7 intend to go on some enterprise in ,may or ,june1 the preparations are combined with the ,okippe 7i4 e41 ,okipa7 of several young men1 who wish to obtain the rank of brave4 ,a large medicine lodge is erected open above1 with a division in the middle1 in which the candidates take their places4 ,two pits are usually dug in the middle for the partisans1 who lie in them four days and four nights1 with only a piece of leather around the waist4 ,the first partisan usually chooses the second1 who undergoes the ceremony with him4 ,there are always young people enough to submit their bodies to torture1 in order to display their courage4 ,they fast four days and nights1 which leaves them faint4 ,many of them begin the tortures on the third day2 but the fourth day is that properly set apart for them4 ,to the forked pole of the medicine lodge is fastened a long piece of buffalo hide1 with the head hanging down1 and to this a strap is fastened4 ,an old man is then chosen1 who is to see to the torturing of the candidates1 which is executed precisely in the same manner as among the ,mandans4 ,the sufferers often faint4 ,they are then taken by the hands1 lifted up1 and encouraged1 and they begin afresh4 ,when they have dragged about the buffalo skull long enough1 99 99 99 a large circle is formed1 as among the ,mandans1 in which they are made to run round till they drop down exhausted1 when they are taken to the medicine lodge4 ,the medicine man receives from one of the spectators the knife with which the operation is to be performed4 ,the partisan is bound to build the medicine lodge4 ,during the ceremony the spectators eat and smoke2 the candidates take nothing1 and1 like the partisans1 are covered all over with white clay4 ,the latter1 when they dance during the ceremony1 remain near their pits1 and then move on the same spot1 holding in their hands their medicines1 a buffalo tail1 a feather1 or the like4 ,none but the candidates dance1 and the only music is striking a dried buffalo hide with willow rods4 ,there have been instances of fathers subjecting their children1 only #f or #g years of age1 to these tortures4 ,we ourselves saw one suspended by the muscles of the back1 after having been compelled to fast four days4 ,no application whatever is subsequently made for the cure of the wounds1 which leave large swollen weals1 and are much more conspicuous among the ,hidatsa than among the ,mandan4 ,most of the ,hidatsa have three or four of these weals in parallel semicircular lines almost an inch thick1 which cover the entire breast4 ,there are similar transverse and longitudinal lines on the arms4 ,referring to ,maximilian's description just given1 ,matthews observes3 ,at this time1 the ,hidatsa call the ,mandan ceremony akupi 7of which word probably akupehi is an old form72 but they apply no such term to their own festival4 ,maximilian did not spend a summer among those ,indians1 and1 therefore1 knew of both ceremonies only from description4#bbh ,if the ,minnetaree festival to which he referred was1 as is most likely1 the ,napike1 he is1 to some extent1 in error4 ,the rites resemble one another only in their appalling fasts and tortures4 ,in allegory1 they seem to be radically different4 ,,cult ,,of ,,the ,,yoni4 #cbj4 ,an account of the great buffalo medicine feast of the ,hidatsa 78instituted by the women07 has been recorded by ,maximilian4 ,prayers are made for success in hunting and in battle4 ,when the feast had continued two hours1 the women began to act the part1 which bore a slight resemblance to what ,herodotus tells of the women in the temple of ,mylitta4#bbi ,when the dance of the half-shorn head was sold by its ,mandan possessors1 they received in part payment the temporary use of the wives of the purchasers1 each woman having the right to choose her consort4#bcj ,lewis and ,clarke have given accounts of two of the ,mandan dances1 the buffalo dance and the medicine dance1 at the conclusion of which were rites that astonished the travelers1 but they were told that in the medicine dance only virgins or young unmarried females took part4#bca ,,absaroka ,,fear ,,of ,a ,,white ,,buffalo ,,cow4 #cba4 ,the ,absaroka or ,crow ,nation have a superstitious fear of a white buffalo cow4 ,when a ,crow meets one1 he addresses the sun in the following words3 8,i will give her 7i4 e41 the cow7 to you40 ,he then endeavors to kill the animal1 but leaves it untouched1 and then says to the sun1 8,take her1 she is yours40 ,they never use the skin of such a cow1 as the ,mandan do4#bcb ,,mandan ,,cults4 ,,mandan ,,divinities4 #cbb4 ,according to one of ,maximilian's informants1 the ,mandan believe in several superior beings4 7#a7 ,the first is ,ohmahank-,numakshi1 the ,lord of ,life4 ,he is the most powerful4 ,he created the earth1 man1 and every existing object4 ,they believe that he has a tail1 and appears sometimes in the form of an aged man and1 at others1 in that of a young man4 7#b7 ,numank-,machana1 the ,first ,man1 holds the second rank2 he was created by the ,lord of ,life1 but is likewise of a divine nature4 ,he resembles ,nanabush or ,manabozho of the ,ojibwa and cognate tribes4 7#c7 ,ohmahank-,ohika1 the ,lord of ,evil1 is a malignant spirit1 who has much influence over men2 but he is not as powerful as ,ohmahank-,numakshi and ,numank-,machana4 7#d7 ,rohanka-,tauibanka1 who dwells in the planet ,venus1 protects mankind on earth4 ,the name of the fifth power has not been gained1 but he is ever moving1 walking over the earth in human form4 ,they call him1 8,the ,lying ,prairie ,wolf40 7#f7 ,ochkih-,hadda#bcc is a spirit that it is difficult to class4 ,they believe that one who dreams of him is sure to die very soon thereafter4 ,this spirit is said to have come once into their villages and taught them many things1 but since then he has not appeared4 ,they fear him1 offer him sacrifice1 and in their villages they have a hideous image representing him4 #cbc4 ,the sun is thought to be the residence of the ,lord of ,life4 ,in the moon dwells1 as they say1 the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies4 ,they do not know much about her1 but they sacrifice to her as well as to the other spirits4 ,she has six children1 three sons and three daughters1 who inhabit certain stars4 ,the eldest son is the ,day1 the second is the ,sun1 the third is the ,night4 ,the eldest daughter is the star that rises in the east1 the ,morning ,star1 called1 8,the ,woman ,who ,wears a ,plume40 ,the second daughter1 called 8,the ,striped ,gourd10 is a star which revolves the polar star4 ,the third daughter is the ,evening ,star1 which is near the setting sun4#bcd #cbd4 ,the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies4--,the cult of this spirit is observed in what ,say calls 8the corn dance of the ,manitaries40 ,maximilian declares that ,say is quite correct in his account of it1 and that the ,mandan practice it as well as the ,hidatsa4 ,it is the consecration of the grain to be sown1 and is called the corn dance feast of the woman4 ,the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies sends1 in the spring1 the waterfowl1 swans1 geese1 and ducks1 as symbols of the kinds of grain cultivated by the ,indians4 ,the wild goose signifies corn2 the geese1 the gourd1 and the duck1 beans4 ,it is the old woman who causes these plants to grow1 and1 therefore1 she sends these birds as her representatives4 ,it is seldom that eleven wild geese are found together in the spring2 but1 if it happens1 this is a sign that the crop of corn will be remarkably fine4 ,the ,indians keep a large quantity of dried meat in readiness for the time in the spring when the birds arrive1 that they may immediately celebrate the corn feast of the women4 ,they hang the meat before the village on long scaffolds made of poles1 three or four rows1 one above another1 and this1 with other articles of value1 is considered as an offering to the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies4 ,the elderly women of the village1 as representatives of that old woman1 assemble about the scaffolds on a certain day1 each carrying a stick1 to one end of which an ear of corn is fastened4 ,sitting in a circle1 they plant their sticks in the ground before them1 and then dance around the scaffolds4 ,some old men beat the drum and shake the gourd rattles4 ,the corn is not wetted or sprinkled1 as many believe1 but on the contrary1 it is supposed that such a practice would be injurious4 ,while the old women are performing their part1 the younger ones come and put some dry pulverized meat into their mouths1 for which each young woman receives in return a grain of the consecrated corn1 which she eats4 ,three or four grains of the consecrated corn are put into their dish1 and are afterwards carefully mixed with the seed corn1 in order to make it yield an abundant crop4 ,the dried meat on the scaffolds is the perquisite of the aged females1 as the representatives of the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies4 ,but members of the ,dog ,society have the privilege of taking some of this meat from the scaffolds without opposition from anybody4 ,a similar corn feast is held in the autumn1 but at that season it is held for the purpose of attracting the herds of buffaloes and of obtaining a large supply of meat4 ,each woman then carries an entire cornstalk with the ears attached1 pulling up the stalk by the roots4 ,they designate the corn as well as the birds by the name of the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies1 and call on them saying1 8,mother1 pity us2 do not send the severe cold too soon1 lest we do not gain enough meat4 ,prevent the game from departing1 so that we may have something for the winter60 ,in autumn1 when the birds migrate to the south1 or1 as the ,indians say1 return to the ,old ,woman1 they believe that they take with them the dried meat hung on the scaffolds1 and they imagine that the ,old ,woman partakes of it4 ,the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies has very large patches of corn1 kept for her by the great stag and the white-tailed stag4 ,she has1 too1 many blackbirds which help to guard her property4 ,when she intends to feed these keepers1 she summons them1 and they fall on the corn1 which they devour with greediness4 ,as these corn patches are large1 the ,old ,woman requires many laborers1 hence she has the mice1 moles1 and stags to perform such work for her4 ,the birds which fly from the seashore in the spring represent the ,old ,woman1 who then travels to the north to visit the ,old ,man who ,never ,dies1 who always resides there4 ,she generally returns to the south in three or four days4 ,in former times the ,old ,woman's hut was near the ,little ,missouri ,river1 where the ,indians often visited her4 ,one day twelve ,hidatsa went to her1 and she set before them a kettle of corn1 which was so small that it did not appear sufficient to satisfy the hunger of one of the party4 ,but she told them to eat1 and1 as soon as the kettle was emptied it was filled again1 and all the men had enough4#bce ,,guardian ,,spirits4 #cbe4 ,the ,mandan undertake nothing without first invoking their guardian spirits1 which appear to them in dreams 7see #bcf74 ,when a man wishes to choose his guardian spirit1 he fasts for three or four days1 and sometimes longer1 retires to a solitary place1 does penance1 and sometimes sacrifices joints of his fingers4 ,he howls and cries to the ,lord of ,life1 or to the ,first ,man1 beseeching him to point out the guardian spirit4 ,he continues in this excited condition until he dreams1 and the first animal or other object which appears in the dream is the guardian spirit4 ,each man has such a spirit4 ,there is on the prairie a large hill1 where they remain motionless many days1 lamenting and fasting4 ,not far from this hill is a cave1 into which they creep at night4 ,the choice and adoration of guardian spirits is said to have been taught the people many years ago by the ,ochkih-,hadda4 ,it was he who taught them the art of tattooing1 and who instituted medicine feasts4#bcf ,,mandan ,,belief ,,about ,,serpents ,,and ,,giants4 #cbf4 ,the ,mandan believe that there is a huge serpent which inhabits a lake three or four days' journey from their village1 and to which they make offerings4 ,the tradition relates how two ,mandan youths encountered a giant1 who carried them to a village of giants4 ,the latter part1 which tells how one of the youths was changed into a huge serpent after killing and eating a serpent1 resembles a ,winnebago tradition4#bcg ,,thunder ,,lore ,,of ,,the ,,mandan4 #cbg4 ,the ,mandan believe that thunder is produced by the wings of a gigantic bird4 ,when the bird flies softly1 as is usually the case1 he is not heard2 but when he flaps his wings violently1 he occasions a roaring noise4 ,this bird is said to have two toes on each foot1 one behind and one before4 ,it dwells on the mountains1 and builds nests there as large as one of the forts4 ,it preys upon deer and other large animals1 the horns of which are heaped up around the nest4 ,the glance of its eyes produces lightning4 ,it breaks through the clouds and makes way for the rain4 ,the isolated and peculiarly loud claps of thunder are produced by a large tortoise which dwells in the clouds4 ,,astronomical ,,lore4 #cbh4 ,the stars are deceased men4 ,when a child is born a star descends and appears on earth in human form2 after death it reascends and appears again as a star in the heavens4 ,the rainbow is a spirit which accompanies the sun4 ,many affirm that the northern lights are occasioned by a large assembly of medicine men and distinguished warriors of several northern nations1 who boil their prisoners and slain enemies in huge cauldrons4#bch ,,mystery ,,objects ,,and ,,places ,,of ,,the ,,mandan ,,and ,,hidatsa4 #cbi4 ,the mystery rock of the ,mandan and ,hidatsa is thus described by ,lewis and ,clarke3#bci ,this medicine stone is the great oracle of the ,mandans1 and whatever it announces is believed with implicit confidence4 ,every spring and1 on some occasions during the summer1 a deputation visits the sacred spot1 where there is a thick1 porous stone #bj feet in circumference1 with a smooth surface4 ,having reached the place1 the ceremony of smoking to it is performed by the deputies1 who alternately take a whiff themselves1 and then present the pipe to the stone2 after which they retire to an adjoining wood for the night1 during which it may be safely presumed that all the embassy do not sleep4 ,in the morning they read the destinies of the nation in the white marks on the stone1 which those who made them are at no loss to decipher4 ,the same stone1 as worshiped by the ,hidatsa1 is thus described by ,james3#bdj ,the ,me-ma-ho-pa or medicine stone 99 99 99 is a large1 naked1 and insulated rock situated in the midst of a small prairie1 about a two days' journey southwest of the village of that nation4 ,in shape it resembles the steep roof of a house4 ,the ,minnetarees resort to it for the purpose of propitiating their ,man-ho-pa or ,great ,spirit by presents1 by fasting and lamentation1 during the space of from three to five days4 ,an individual who intends to perform this ceremony takes some presents with him1 99 99 99 and also provides a smooth skin upon which hieroglyphics may be drawn1 and repairs to the rock accompanied by his friends and the magi4 ,on his arrival he deposits the presents there1 and1 after smoking to the rock1 he washes a portion of its face clean1 and retires with his fellow devotees to a specified distance4 ,during the principal part of his stay1 he cries aloud to his god to have pity on him1 to grant him success in war and hunting1 to favor his endeavors to take prisoners1 horses1 and scalps from the enemy4 ,when the time for his 99 99 99 prayer has elapsed he returns to the rock2 his presents are no longer there1 and he believes them to have been accepted and carried off by the ,man-ho-pa himself4 ,upon the part of the rock which he had washed he finds certain hieroglyphics traced with white clay1 of which he can generally interpret the meaning1 particularly when assisted by some of the magi1 who are no doubt privy to the whole transaction4 ,these representations are supposed to relate to his future fortune1 or to that of his family or nation2 he copies them off 99 99 99 upon the skin which he brought with him for that purpose1 and returns home to read from them to the people the destiny of himself or them4 ,if a bear be represented with its head directed toward the village1 the approach of a war-party or the visitation of some evil is apprehended4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the tail of the bear be toward the village1 nothing but good is anticipated1 and they rejoice4 ,they say that an ,indian on his return from the rock exhibited 99 99 99 on his 99 99 99 chart the representation of a strange building1 as erected near the village4 ,they were all much surprised and did not perfectly comprehend its meaning2 but four months afterward the prediction was1 as it happened1 verified1 and a stockade trading house was erected there by the ,french trader ,jessaume4 ,matthews refers thus to this 8oracle0 of the ,hidatsa and ,mandan3#bda ,the famous holy stone or medicine rock 7,mihopa1 or ,mandan1 ,mihopini7 99 99 99 was some two or three days' journey from their residence4 ,the ,hidatsa now seldom refer to it1 and ,i do not think they ever visit it4 #ccj4 ,according to ,maximilian3#bdb ,the ,mandans have many other medicine establishments in the vicinity of their villages1 all of which are dedicated to the superior powers4 99 99 99 ,of those near ,mitutahanku1 one consists of four poles placed in the form of a square2 the two foremost have a heap of earth and green turf thrown up round them1 and four buffalo skulls laid in a line between them1 while twenty-six human skulls are placed in a row from one of the rear poles to the other1 and on some of these skulls are painted single red stripes4 ,behind the whole two knives are stuck into the ground1 and a bundle of twigs is fastened at the top of the poles with a kind of comb1 or rake1 painted red4 ,the ,indians repair to such places when they desire to make offerings or petitions2 they howl1 lament1 and make loud entreaties1 often for many days together1 to the ,omahank-,numakshi4 ,another 8medicine establishment0 consisted of a couple of human figures1 very clumsily made of skins1 fixed on poles1 and representing1 as was told to ,maximilian1 the sun and moon1 but in his opinion1 probably the ,omahank-,numakshi and the ,old ,woman that ,never ,dies4 #cca4 ,if a ,mandan possesses a 8medicine pipe0 7i4 e41 what the ,omaha and ,ponka call a niniba weawa7 he sometimes decides to adopt a 8medicine son40 ,the young man whom he is to choose appears to him in a dream2 but it is necessary that he should be of a good family1 or have performed some exploit4#bdc ,,dreams4 #ccb4 ,dreams afford the motives for many of their actions1 even for the penances which they impose on themselves4 ,they think that all which appears in their dreams must be true4 ,before they became acquainted with firearms1 a ,mandan dreamed of a weapon with which they could kill their enemies at a great distance1 and soon after the white men brought them the first gun4 ,in like manner they dreamed of horses before they obtained any4 ,in many cases the guardian spirit is revealed to the fasting youth in a dream4 ,if the ,lord of ,life makes him dream of a piece of cherry wood or of an animal1 it is a good omen4 ,the young men who follow such a dreamer to the battle have great confidence in his guardian spirit or 8medicine40#bdd ,,oracles4 #ccc4 ,the ,mandan and ,hidatsa consider the large gray owl a mystery bird1 with whom they pretend to converse and to understand its attitudes and voice4 ,such owls are often kept alive in lodges1 being regarded as soothsayers4 ,they have a similar opinion of eagles4#bde ,,fetiches4 #ccd4 ,the skin of a white buffalo cow is an eminent fetich in the estimation of the ,mandan and ,hidatsa4 ,the hide must be that of a young cow not over #b years old1 and be taken off complete1 and tanned1 with horns1 nose1 hoofs1 and tail4 ,it is worn on rare occasions4 ,when the owner wishes to sacrifice such a skin to the ,omahank-,numakshi or to the ,numank-,machana1 he rolls it up1 after adding some artemisia or an ear of corn1 and then the skin remains suspended on a pole until it decays4#bdf ,besides the white buffalo skins hung on tall poles as sacrifices1 there were other strange objects hung on tall poles near the villages of the ,mandan and ,hidatsa4 ,these figures were composed of skin1 grass1 and twigs1 which seemed to represent the sun1 moon1 and perhaps the ,omahank-,numakshi and the ,numank-,machana4 ,the ,indians resorted to them when they wished to petition for anything1 and sometimes howled for days and weeks together4#bdg ,for a reference to trees and stones1 see #cdh4 8,charata-,numakshi 7the ,chief of ,wolves710 a ,mandan1 had a painted buffalo dress1 which was his fetich4 ,he valued it highly as a souvenir of his brother1 who had been shot by the enemy4#bdh ,,folk-,,lore4 #cce4 ,when a child is born the father must not bridle a horse1 that is1 he must not fasten a lariat to the horse's lower jaw1 otherwise the infant would die in convulsions4 ,should the wife be enceinte when the husband bridled the horse ill luck would be sure to follow1 frequently in the form of a failure to kill any game4 ,if an ,indian in such cases wounds a buffalo without being able to kill it quickly1 he tries to take the buffalo's heart home and makes his wife shoot an arrow through it2 then again he feels confidence in his weapons that they will kill speedily4 ,the ,indians affirm that a pregnant woman is very lucky at a game resembling billiards4 ,if a woman passes between several ,mandan who are smoking together it is a bad omen4 ,should a woman recline on the ground between men who are smoking a piece of wood is laid across her to serve as a means of communication between the men4 ,the strongest man now living among the ,mandan1 who has been the victor in several wrestling matches with the white people1 always takes hold of his pipe by the head1 for were he to touch another part of it the blood would suddenly rush from his nostrils4 ,as soon as he bleeds in this manner he empties his pipe1 throwing the contents into the fire1 where it explodes like gunpowder1 and the bleeding stops immediately4 ,they say that nobody can touch this man's face without bleeding at nose and mouth4 ,a certain ,mandan affirms that whenever another offers him a pipe to smoke1 out of civility1 his mouth becomes full of worms1 which he throws into the fire by handfuls4 ,among the ,hidatsa1 when a certain man smoked very slowly no person in the lodge was allowed to speak nor to move a single limb1 except to grasp the pipe4 ,neither women1 children1 nor dogs were allowed to remain in the hut while the man was smoking1 and some one was always placed as a guard at the entrance4 ,if1 however1 there were just seven persons present to smoke none of these precautions were observed4 ,when the particular man cleared his pipe and shook the ashes into the fire it blazed up1 perhaps because he had put into the pipe some gunpowder or similar combustible4 ,when any person had a painful or diseased place this same man put his pipe upon it and smoked4 ,on such occasions he did not swallow the smoke1 as is the ,indian custom1 but he affirmed that he could extract the disease by his smoking1 and he pretended to seize it in his hand and to throw into the fire4#bdi ,,sorcery4 #ccf4 ,they believe that a person whom they dislike must die1 if they make a figure of wood or clay1 substituting for the heart an awl1 a needle1 or a porcupine quill1 and bury the image at the foot of one of their 8medicine poles40#bej ,,jugglery4 #ccg4 ,the 8medicine of one man consists in making a snow ball1 which he rolls a long time between his hands1 so that at length it becomes hard and is changed into a white stone1 which1 when struck1 emits a fire4 ,many persons1 even whites1 pretended they had seen this1 and they can not be convinced to the contrary4 ,the same man pretends that1 during a dance1 he plucked white feathers from a certain small bird1 which he rolled between his hands1 and formed of them in a short time a similar white stone4 99 99 99 ,a great many ,mandan and ,hidatsa believe that they have wild animals in their bodies2 one1 for instance1 affirmed that he had a buffalo calf1 the kicking of which he often felt2 others said that they had tortoises1 frogs1 lizards1 birds1 etc4 99 99 99 ,among the ,hidatsa were seen medicine dances of the women1 where one claimed to have an ear of corn in her body1 which she ejected from her mouth during the dance1 and then ate1 after it had been mixed with ,artemisia4 99 99 99 ,another female dancer caused blood to gush from her mouth at will40#bea ,,ghost ,,lore4 #cch4 ,the ,mandan believe that each person has several spirits dwelling within him2 one of which is black1 another brown1 and a third light-colored1 the last alone returning to the ,lord of ,life4 ,they think that after death they go to the south1 to several villages which are visited by the gods2 that their existence there is dependent on their course of life while in this world2 that the brave and kind-hearted carry on the same occupation1 eat similar food1 have wives1 and enjoy the pleasures of war and the chase4 ,some of the ,mandan are said not to believe all these particulars1 but to suppose that after death their spirits will dwell in the sun or in certain stars4 ,,the ,,future ,,life4 #cci4 ,the ,mandan belief in a future state is connected with the tradition of their origin3 ,the whole nation resided in one large village under ground1 near a subterraneous lake4 ,some of the people climbed up to this earth by means of a grape-vine1 which broke when a corpulent woman essayed to climb it4 ,therefore the rest of the people remained in the subterranean village4 ,when the ,mandan die they expect to return to the original seats of their forefathers1 the good reaching the ancient village by means of the lake1 which the burden of the sins of the wicked will not enable them to cross4#beb ,the concluding clause of the last sentence can hardly be of ,indian origin2 it is very probably due to white influence4 ,,four ,,as ,a ,,mystic ,,number ,,among ,,the ,,mandan4 #cdj4 ,according to ,catlin3#bec ,the ,okipa invariably lasts four days2 four men are selected by the first man to cleanse out and prepare the mystic lodge for the occasion2 one of these men is called from the north part of the village1 another from the east1 a third from the south1 and the fourth from the west 7see #cgc74 ,the four sacks of water1 in the forms of large tortoises1 resting on the floor of the lodge1 seem to typify the four cardinal points4 ,the four buffalo skulls and as many human skulls on the floor of the lodge1 the four couples of dancers in the buffalo dance and the four intervening dancers in the same dance1 deserve our study4 ,the buffalo dance in front of the mystic lodge1 repeated on the four days1 is danced four times on the first day1 eight times on the second1 twelve times on the third1 and sixteen times on the fourth4 ,there are four sacrifices of black and blue cloths erected over the entrance of the mystic lodge4 ,the visits of the ,evil ,spirit were paid to four of the buffalo in the buffalo dance4 ,in every instance the young man who submitted to torture in the ,okipa had four splints or skewers run through the flesh on his leg1 four through his arms1 and four through his body4 ,,hidatsa ,,cults4 ,,hidatsa ,,divinities4 #cda4 ,the ,hidatsa believe in the ,man who ,never ,dies1 or ,lord of ,life1 ,ehsicka-,wahaddish1#bed literally1 the first man1 who dwells in the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,he made all things4 ,another being whom they venerate is called the ,grandmother4 ,she roams over the earth4 ,she had some share in creation1 though an inferior one1 for she created the toad and the sand-rat4 ,she gave the ,hidatsa two kettles1 which they still preserve as a sacred treasure and employ as charms or fetiches on certain occasions4 ,she directed the ancestors of the present ,indians to preserve the kettles and to remember the great waters1 whence came all the animals dancing4 ,the red-shouldered oriole 7,psaracolius phoeniceus7 came at that time out of the water1 as well as the other birds which still sing along the banks of rivers4 ,the ,hidatsa1 therefore1 look on all these birds as 8medicine0 for their corn patches1 and attend to their songs4 ,when these birds sing the ,hidatsa1 remembering the direction of the ,grandmother1 fill the two kettles with water1 dance and bathe1 in order to commemorate the great flood4 ,when their fields are threatened with a great drought they celebrate a 8medicine0 feast with the two kettles1 as they beg for rain4 ,the shamans are still paid1 on such occasions1 to sing for four days together in the huts1 while the kettles remain full of water4 #cdb4 ,the sun1 or as they term it1 8the sun of the day10 is a great power4 ,they do not know what it really is1 but when they are about to undertake some enterprise they sacrifice to it and also to the moon1 which they call 8the sun of the night40 ,the morning star1 ,venus1 they regard as the child of the moon1 and they account it as a great power4 ,they affirm that it was originally a ,hidatsa1 being the grandson of the ,old ,woman who ,never ,dies4#bee #cdc4 ,matthews#bef found that the object of the greatest reverence among the ,hidatsa was1 perhaps1 the ,itsika-mahidi1 the ,first ,made1 or ,first in ,existence4 ,they assert that he made all things1 the stars1 sun1 the earth1 the first representatives of each species of animals and plants1 but that no one made him4 ,he also1 they say1 instructed the forefathers of the tribes in all the ceremonies and mysteries now known to them4 ,they sometimes designate him as ,itaka-te-ta1 or ,old ,man ,immortal4 ,,animism4 #cdd4 ,if we use the term worship in its most extended sense it may be said that 99 99 99 7the ,hidatsa7 worship everything in nature4 ,not man alone1 but the sun1 the moon1 the stars1 all the lower animals1 all trees and plants1 rivers and lakes1 many bowlders and other separated rocks1 even some hills and buttes which stand alone--in short1 everything not made by human hands1 which has an independent being1 or can be individualized1 possesses a spirit1 or1 more properly1 a shade4 ,to these shades some respect or consideration is due1 but not equally to all4 ,for instance1 the shade of the cottonwood1 the greatest tree of the ,upper ,missouri ,valley1 is supposed to possess an intelligence which may1 if properly approached1 assist them in certain undertakings2 but the shades of shrubs and grasses are of little importance4 ,when the ,missouri1 in its spring-time freshets1 cuts down its bank and sweeps some tall tree into its current1 it is said that the spirit of the tree cries while the roots yet cling to the land and until the tree falls into the water4 ,formerly it was considered wrong to cut down one of these great trees1 and1 when large logs were needed1 only such as were found fallen were used2 and to-day some of the more credulous old men declare that many of the misfortunes of the people are the result of their modern disregard for the rights of the living cottonwood4 ,the sun is held in great veneration1 and many valuable sacrifices are made to it4#beg ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,elements1 ,,etc4 #cde4 ,this is in substantial accord with what ,maximilian was told1 as will be seen from the following3 ,in the sweat bath the shaman1 after cutting off a joint of the devotee's fingers1 takes a willow twig1 goes to the dishes containing food1 dips the twig in each and throws a part of the contents in the direction of the four winds1 as offerings to the ,lord of ,life1 the fire1 and the divers superhuman powers4#beh ,,serpent ,,worship4 #cdf4 ,the ,hidatsa make occasional offerings to the great serpent that dwells in the ,missouri ,river by placing poles in the river and attaching to them sundry robes or colored blankets4 ,the tradition of this great serpent resembles the ,mandan tradition1 but with some differences4#bei #cdg4 ,daimonism4--,the ,hidatsa believe neither a hell nor in a devil1 but believe that there are one or more evil genii1 in female shape1 who inhabit this earth1 and may harm the ,indian in this life1 but possess no power beyond the grave4 ,such a power or powers they call ,mahopa-mii4 ,the ,mahopa-mii dwells in the woods and delights in doing evil4 ,she is supposed to strangle such children as1 through parental ignorance or carelessness1 are smothered in bed4#bfj ,,fetiches4 #cdh4 ,among the fetiches of the ,hidatsa are the skins of every kind1 of fox and wolf1 especially the latter2 and1 therefore1 when they go to war1 they always wear the stripe off the back of a wolf skin1 with the tail hanging down the shoulders4 ,they make a slit in the skin through which the warrior puts his head1 so that the skin of the wolf's head hangs down upon his breast4 ,tribal fetiches4--,buffalo heads also are fetiches4 ,in one of their villages they preserved the neck bones of the buffalo1 as do the ,crow or ,absaroka1 and this is done with a view to prevent the buffalo herds from removing to too great a distance from them4 ,at times they perform the following ceremony with these bones3 ,they take a potsherd with live coals1 throw sweet-smelling grass upon it1 and fumigate the bones with the smoke4 ,there are certain trees and stones which are fetiches1 as among the ,mandan4 ,at such places they offer red cloth1 red paint1 and other articles to the superhuman powers4#bfa 7,see #ccd47 ,in the principal ,hidatsa village1 when ,maximilian visited it1 was a long pole set up1 on which was a figure of a woman1 doubtless representing the ,grandmother1 who first gave them kettles4 ,a bundle of brushwood was hung on the pole1 to which were attached the leathern dress and leggins of a woman4 ,the head of the figure was made of ,artemisia1 and on it was a cap of feathers4#bfb #cdi4 ,personal fetiches4--,matthews uses the term amulet instead of personal fetich1 in speaking of the ,hidatsa3 ,every man in this tribe1 as in all neighboring tribes1 has his personal medicine1 which is usually some animal4 ,on all war parties1 and often on hunts and other excursions1 he carries the head1 claws1 stuffed skin1 or other representative of his medicine with him1 and seems to regard it in much the same light that ,europeans in former days regarded--and in some cases still regard--protective charms4 ,to insure the fleetness of some promising young colt1 they tie to the colt's neck a small piece of deer or antelope horn4 ,the rodent teeth of the beaver are regarded as potent charms1 and are worn by little girls on their necks to make them industrious4#bfc ,the 8,medicine ,rock0 of the ,mandan and ,hidatsa has been described in #cbi4 #cej4 ,oracles4--,matthews speaks of another oracle1 to which the ,hidatsa now often refer1 the ,makadistati1 or house of infants1 a cavern near ,knife ,river1 which they supposed extended far into the earth1 but whose entrance was only a span wide4 ,it was resorted to by the childless husband or the barren wife4 ,there are those among them who imagine that in some way or other their children come from the ,makadistati2 and marks of contusion on an infant1 arising from tight swaddling or other causes1 are gravely attributed to kicks received from his former comrades when he was ejected from his subterranean home4#bfd #cea4 ,james says3 ,at the distance of the journey of one day and a half from ,knife ,creek 99 99 99 are two conical hills1 separated by about the distance of a mile4 ,one of these hills was supposed to impart a prolific virtue to such squaws as resorted to it for the purpose of lamenting their barrenness4 ,a person one day walking near the other hill1 fancied he observed on the top of it two very small children4 ,thinking that they had strayed from the village1 he ran towards them to induce them to return home1 but they immediately fled from him4 99 99 99 and in a short time they eluded his sight4 ,returning to the village1 the relation of his story excited much interest1 and an ,indian set out the next day1 mounted on a fleet horse1 to take the little strangers4 ,on the approach of this person to the hill he also saw the children1 who ran away as before1 and though he tried to overtake them by lashing the horse to his utmost swiftness1 the children left him far behind4 ,these children are no longer to be seen1 and the hill once of such singular efficacy in rendering the human species prolific has lost this remarkable property4#bfe ,matthews#bff says that this account seems to refer to the ,makadistati1 but1 if such is the case1 he believes that the account is incorrect in some respects4 ,,dreams4 #ceb4 ,the ,hidatsa have much faith in dreams1 but usually regard as oracular only those which come after prayer1 sacrifice1 and fasting4#bfg ,,berdaches4 #cec4 ,the ,french ,canadians call those men berdaches who dress in women's clothing and perform the duties usually allotted to women in an ,indian camp4 ,by most whites these berdaches are incorrectly supposed to be hermaphrodites4 ,they are called miati by the ,hidatsa1 from mia1 a woman1 and the ending1 ti1 to feel an involuntary inclination1 i4 e41 to be impelled against his will to act the woman4 ,see the ,omaha miquga1 the ,kansa miquge1 and the ,dakota wikta and wikte 7 #cj1 #bab47 ,,astronomical ,,lore4 #ced4 ,ursa major is said to be an ermine1 the several stars of that constellation indicating1 in their opinion1 the burrow1 the head1 the feet1 and the tail of that animal4 ,they call the milky way the 8ashy way40 ,they think that thunder is caused by the flapping of the wings of the large bird1 which causes rain1 and that the lightning is the glance of his eye when he seeks prey4 ,they call the rainbow1 8the cap of the water10 or 8the cap of the rain40 ,once1 say they1 an ,indian caught in the autumn a red bird that had mocked him1 releasing it after binding its feet together with a fish line4 ,the bird saw a hare and pounced upon it1 but the hare crept into the skull of a buffalo lying on the prairie1 and as the line hanging from the bird's claws formed a semicircle1 they imagine that the rainbow is still caused by that occurrence4#bfh ,,food ,,lore4 #cee4 ,they have queer notions respecting the effects of different articles of diet2 thus3 an expectant mother believes that if she eats a part of a mole or shrew1 her child will have small eyes2 that if she eats a piece of porcupine1 her child will be inclined to sleep too much when it grows up2 that if she partakes of the flesh of the turtle1 her offspring will be slow or lazy1 etc42 but they do not suppose that such articles of food affect the immediate consumer4 ,,four ,,souls ,,in ,,each ,,human ,,being4 #cef4 8,it is believed by some of the ,hidatsa that every human being has four souls in one4 ,they account for the phenomena of gradual death where the extremities are apparently dead while consciousness remains1 by supposing the four souls to depart1 one after another1 at different times4 ,when dissolution is complete1 they say that all the souls are gone1 and have joined together again outside of the body4 ,i have heard a ,minnetaree quietly discussing this doctrine with an ,assinneboine1 who believed in only one soul to each body40#bfi ,,sorcery4 #ceg4 8,they have faith in witchcraft1 and think that a sorcerer may injure a person1 no matter how far distant1 by acts upon an effigy or upon a lock of the victim's hair40#bgj ,,disposal ,,of ,,the ,,dead4 #ceh4 ,the ,hidatsa always lay their dead upon scaffolds4 ,as the ,lord of ,life is displeased when they quarrel and kill one another1 those who do so are buried in the earth1 that they may be no longer seen4 ,in this case a buffalo head is laid on the grave1 that the herds of buffalo may not keep away1 for1 if they were to smell the wicked1 they might remove and never return4 ,the good are laid upon scaffolds1 that they may be seen by the ,lord of ,life4#bga ,the ,crows have no fear of death1 but they have a horror of being buried in the ground4#bgb ,,hidatsa ,,belief ,,as ,,to ,,future ,,existence4 #cei4 ,they think that after death they will be restored to the mansions of their ancestors under ground1 from which they are intercepted by a large and rapid watercourse4 ,over this river1 which may be compared to the ,styx of the ancients1 they are obliged to pass on a very narrow footway4 ,those ,indians who have been useful to the nation1 such as brave warriors or good hunters1 pass over with ease and arrive safely at ,a-pah-he1 or ancient village4 ,but the worthless ,indians slip off from the bridge or footway into the stream which 99 99 99 hurries them into oblivion4#bgc ,their faith concerning a future life is this3 ,when a ,hidatsa dies his shade lingers four nights around the camp or village in which he died1 and then goes to the lodge of his departed kindred in the ,village of the ,dead4 ,when he has arrived there1 he is rewarded for his valor1 self-denial1 and ambition on earth by receiving the same regard in the one place as in the other2 for there1 as here1 the brave man is honored and the coward despised4 ,some say that the ghosts of those who commit suicide occupy a separate part of the village1 but that their condition differs in no wise from that of the others4 ,in the next world1 human shades hunt and live on the shades of the buffalo and other animals that have here died4 ,there too there are four seasons1 but they come in an inverse order to the terrestrial seasons4 ,during the four nights that the ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling1 those who disliked or feared the deceased1 and do not wish a visit from the shade1 scorch with red coals a pair of moccasins1 which they leave at the door of the lodge4 ,the smell of the burning leather1 they claim1 keeps the ghost out2 but the true friends of the dead man take no such precautions4 99 99 99 ,they believe in the existence and advisability of human and other ghosts1 yet they seem to have no terror of graveyards and but little of mortuary remains4 ,you may frighten children after nightfall by shouting noidai 7ghost71 but will not scare the aged4#bgd ,,sapona ,,cults4 #cei4 ,the following account of the religion of the ,sapona1 a tribe related to the ,tutelo1 was given in #agbi by ,col4 ,william ,byrd1 of ,westover1 ,va4#bge ,while much of it appears to be the white man's amplification of the ,indian's narrative1 it is plain that the account contains a few aboriginal beliefs4 ,for this reason1 and because it is the only known account of the ,sapona religion1 it is now given in full3 8,in the evening we examined our friend ,bearskin concerning the religion of his country1 and he explained it to us1 without any of that reserve to which his nation is subject4 ,he told us he believed there was one supreme ,god1 who had several subaltern deities under him4 ,and that this ,master-,god made the world a long time ago4 ,that ,he told the sun1 the moon and stars their business in the beginning1 which they1 with good looking after1 have faithfully perform'd ever since4 ,that the same ,power that made all things at first has taken care to keep them in the same method and motion ever since4 ,he believed ,god had form'd many worlds before ,he form'd this1 but that those worlds either grew old or ruinous1 or were destroy'd for the dishonesty of the inhabitants4 ,that ,god is very just and very good--ever well pleas'd with those men who possess those ,god-like qualities4 ,that ,he takes good people under ,his safe protection1 makes them very rich1 fills their bellies plentifully1 preserves them from sickness and from being surpriz'd or overcome by their enemies4 ,but all such as tell lies and cheat 99 99 99 ,he never fails to punish with sickness1 poverty and hunger1 and after all that1 suffers them to be knockt on the head and scalpt by those that fight against them4 ,he believed that after death both good and bad people are conducted by a strong guard into a great road1 in which departed souls travel together for some time till1 at a certain distance this road forks into two paths#bgf1 the one extremely levil1 the other stony and mountainous4 ,here the good are parted from the bad by a flash of lightning1 the first being hurry'd away to the right1 the other to the left4 ,the right hand road leads to a charming warm country1 where the spring is everlasting1 and every month is ,may2 and as the year is always in its youth1 so are the people1 and particularly the women are bright as the stars1 and never scold4 ,that in this happy climate there are deer1 turkeys1 elk1 and buffaloes innumerable1 perpetually fat and gentle1 while the trees are loaded with delicious fruit quite throughout the four seasons4 ,that the soil brings forth corn spontaneously1 without the curse of labour1 and so very wholesome1 that none who have the happiness to eat of it are ever sick1 grow old or dy4 ,near the entrance into this blessed land sits a venerable old man on a mat richly woven1 who examins strictly all that are brought before him1 and if they have behav'd well1 the guards are order'd to open the crystal gate and let them enter the land of delights4 ,the left hand path is very rugged and uneven1 leading to a dark and barren country1 where it is always winter4 ,the ground is the whole year round cover'd with snow1 and nothing is seen upon the trees but icicles4 ,all the people are hungry1 yet have not a morsel to eat except a bitter kind of potato1 that gives them the dry-gripes1 and fills their whole body with loathsome ulcers1 that stink and are insupportably painful4 ,here all the women are old and ugly1 having claws like a panther1 with which they fly upon the men that slight their passion4 ,for it seems these haggard old furies are intolerably fond1 and expect a vast amount of cherishing4 ,they talk much1 and exceedingly shrill1 giving exquisite pain to the drum of the ear1 which in that place of torment is so tender1 that every sharp note wounds it to the quick4 ,at the end of this path sits a dreadful old woman on a monstrous toadstool1 whose head is cover'd with rattlesnakes instead of tresses1 with glaring white eyes1 that strike a terror unspeakable into all that behold her4 ,this hag pronounces sentence of woe upon all the miserable wretches that hold up their hands at her tribunal4 ,after this they are deliver'd over to huge turkey-buzzards like harpys1 that fly away with them to the place above mentioned4 ,here1 after they have been tormented a certain number of years1 according to their several degrees of guilt1 they are again driven back into this world1 to try if they will mend their manners1 and merit a place next time in the regions of bliss40 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bag3 ,lewis and ,clarke's ,exped41 ed41 ,allen1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #agd4 ,footnote #bah3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #bai3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #cei4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,ibid1 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #bba3 ,ibid1 pp4 #cfi1 #cgd1 #chf1 #chh1 #djj4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,ibid1 p4 #agd4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,ibid1 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,ibid1 pp4 #cgc1 #cgg4 ,o-kee-pa3 ,a ,religious ,ceremony 99 99 99 by ,george ,catlin1 ,phil41 #ahfg1 #be pp4 ,smithson4 ,rept41 #ahhe1 pt4 #b1 pp4 #cec-cfh4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians1 pp4 #de1 #df4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,james's account of ,long's ,expedition to ,rocky ,mountains1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bgf-bgh4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 pp4 #djj1 #dja4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,yet ,maximilian says1 8,we ourselves saw one suspended1 etc40 ,footnote #bbi3 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 pp4 #dai-dbb4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,ibid1 pp4 #dbf-dbh4 ,footnote #bca3 ,ibid1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ahi1 #aij4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,ibid1 p4 #age4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,o-kee-hee-dee of ,catlin4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 pp4 #cei1 #cfj4 ,footnote #bce3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 pp4 #cgh-chj4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #cfi4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,ibid41 pp4 #chj1 #cha4 ,footnote #bch3 ,ibid41 p4 #cfa4 ,footnote #bci3 ,lewis and ,clarke1 ,exped41 ed4 ,allen1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bje4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,james's ,account of ,long's ,exped4 to ,rocky ,mountains1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #bda3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,pub41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians1 pp4 #ej1 #ea4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 pp4 #cha1 #chb4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #cgj4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,ibid1 pp4 #chb1 #chf4 ,footnote #bde3 ,ibid1 pp4 #chc1 #djc4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,ibid1 pp4 #cga1 #cgb4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,ibid41 p4 #cgb4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,ibid41 pp4 #djc1 #djd4 ,footnote #bej3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #chb4 ,footnote #bea3 ,ibid1 pp4 #chb1 #chc1 #dbc1 #dbd4 ,footnote #beb3 ,lewis and ,clarke1 ,expedition1 ed4 ,allen1 ,vol4 #a1 p4 #age4 ,footnote #bec3 ,catlin1 in ,smithsonian ,rept41 #ahhe1 pt4 #b1 p4 #cgb4 ,footnote #bed3 ,so called by ,maximilian1 same as the ,itsika-mahidi of ,matthews4 ,footnote #bee3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #cih4 ,footnote #bef3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #beg3 ,ibid41 pp4 #dh1 #di4 ,footnote #beh3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #djb4 ,footnote #bei3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #djb4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,publ4 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnol4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians1 pp4 #di1 #ahd4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 pp4 #cii-djj4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,ibid1 p4 #cif4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,ibid1 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,james's ,account of ,long's ,exped4 to ,rocky ,mountains1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bgd1 #bge4 ,footnote #bff3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians1 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,ibid1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 p4 #cii4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,ibid1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #bga3 ,maximilian1 ,travels 99 99 99 in ,north ,america1 pp4 #djd1 #dje4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,ibid1 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,lewis and ,clarke's ,exped41 edited by ,allen1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv41 ,hayden1 ,miscell4 ,publ41 ,no4 #g1 #ahgg3 ,ethnog4 and ,philol4 of ,hidatsa ,indians1 p4 #di4 ,footnote #bge3 ,byrd1 history of the dividing line 7#agbi71 vol4 ,i1 #ajf-ajh4 ,reprint3 #ahff4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,see the ,omaha belief1 in #fh4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,concluding ,,remarks4 ,,peet ,,on ,,indian ,,religions4 #cfj4 ,in the ,journal of the ,victoria ,institute of ,great ,britain for #ahhh1bgg is an article containing the following statements1 which were not seen by the writer until he had completed the preceding chapters of this paper4 ,referring to ,mr4 ,eells1 the ,nez ,perc missionary1 and to ,mr4 ,williams1 who has been laboring among the ,chippewas1 ,mr4 ,peet observes3#bgh ,there are four or five points on which both missionaries seem to be agreed 99 99 99 ,these four doctrines--the existence of ,god1 immortality of the soul1 the sinfulness of man1 and the necessity of sacrifice--seem to have been held in various modified forms by all the tribes in ,north ,america4 ,on the next page#bgi he gives a classification of native religions1 by which he means those of ,america4 ,he says that these religions may be divided by geographical districts into several classes3 7#a7 ,shamanism1 by which he seems to mean the worship of the wakan men and women4 8,among the ,eskimos1 ,aleuts1 and other hyperborean nations1 who subsist chiefly by fishing40 7#b7 ,animism1 by which he probably means the worship of 8souls0 or 8shades10 including ghosts1 as every object1 whether animate or inanimate1 is thought to have a 8shade40 ,this belief1 he says1 is found in its highest stage among tribes that formerly dwelt in ,british ,north ,america1 between ,hudsons ,bay and the ,great ,lakes4 ,these tribes subsist by hunting4 7#c7 ,animal worship1 practiced by a class partly hunters1 partly farmers1 dwelling1 say1 between #ce and #dh ,n4 lat4 7#d7 ,sun worship1 the cult of the tribes south of #ce ,n4 lat41 and extending to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 7#e7 ,elemental worship1 which he defines as 8the worship of rain1 lightning1 the god of war and death10 found in ,mexico and ,new ,mexico4 7#f7 ,anthropomorphism1 a religion which gave human attributes to the divinities1 but assigned to them supernatural powers4 ,this prevailed in ,central ,america4 ,,the ,,author',s ,,reply4 #cfa4 ,but what do we find prevalent among the tribes under consideration in this paper8 ,i4 ,idea of ,god4--,the ,siouan tribes considered in this paper were not monotheists 7 #bf1 #id1 #ie1 #caa74 ,the statement recorded in #ba about a crude belief in a ,supreme ,being1 which the ,omaha called ,wakanda1 was accepted by the author as the belief of his informants2 but we must remember that the ,omaha tribe has been in a transition state for many years1 certainly since #ahee1 and possibly since the days of ,maj4 ,long's visits to them4 7#b7 ,that these ,indians believed in a ,great ,spirit who was supreme over all other superhuman powers needs more evidence4 ,the only assertion of such a belief which the author has gained was obtained from an ,omaha 7see #bb71 but this assertion was denied by two other members of that tribe4 7#c7 ,in those cases alleged as proving a belief in one ,great ,spirit1 a closer study of the language employed reveals the fact that a generic term has been used instead of a specific one1 and1 in almost every instance1 the writer who tells of one ,great ,spirit supplements his account by relating what he has learned about beliefs in many gods or spirits4 7#d7 ,these tribes had cults of many powers2 everything animate and inanimate was regarded as having a 8shade40 ,,ii4 ,belief in immortality4--,the author finds no traces of a belief in the immortality of human beings4 ,even the gods of the ,dakota were regarded as being mortal1 for they could be killed by one another 7 #id74 ,they were male and female2 they married and died1 and were succeeded by their children4 ,but if for 8immortality0 we substitute 8continuous existence as shades or ghosts0 there will be no difficulty in showing that the ,siouan tribes referred to held such a belief respecting mankind1 and that they very probably entertained it in a crude form prior to the advent of the white race to this continent 7 #fg-ga1 #ia1 #cch74 ,,iii4 ,idea of sin4--,the scriptural idea of sin seems to be wanting among these tribes4 ,there have been recorded by the author and others many acts which were deemed violations of religious law1 but few of them can be compared with what the ,bible declares to be sins4 ,it was dangerous to make a false report to the keeper of the sacred tent of war or to the directors of the buffalo hunt1 in the estimation of the ,omaha1 for the offender was sure to be struck by lightning or bitten by a snake or killed by a foe or thrown by a horse or have some other disaster befall him4#bhj ,it was dangerous to break the taboo of any gens or subgens1 or to violate any other ancient custom4#bha 7,see #de1 #fh1 #bbb1 and #bhf of this paper47 ,,iv4 ,idea of sacrifice4--,the idea of sacrifice as atoning for sin has not yet been found by the author among these ,siouan tribes4 ,in no instance of sacrifice recorded in this paper has the author detected any notion of expiation for sin against a just and holy ,being4 ,but sacrifice1 whether in the form of fasting1 self-torture1 or the offering of property1 was made in order to win the favor of a god1 to obtain a temporal advantage 7 #bh1 #bi1 #aja1 #add1 etc471 or to avert the anger of demons1 as when the people were suffering from famine or an epidemic 7 #add74 ,v4 ,shamanism4--,while there have been shamans and various orders of shamans among these tribes1 no trace of a worship of shamans as gods has yet been found4 ,on one occasion the author met a ,ponka shaman1 ,cramped ,hand1 who exclaimed1 8,i am a wakanda40 ,but no other ,ponka ever said that he or she worshiped ,cramped ,hand as a wakanda4 ,,vi4 ,the other beliefs named by ,dr4 ,peet have been found1 in some tribes1 side by side4 ,animism1 or a form of animism1 was held by those who worshiped the sun1 animals1 etc4 8,everything had a soul0 7 #ig1 #acf1 #acg1 #bfe-bhh1 #cdd1 etc474 ,certain animals were worshiped 7 #bd1 #dc1 #gh1 #ib1 #cbf1 etc474 ,the sun was invoked1 not only in the sun dance 7 #aci-bab71 but on other occasions 7 #bh1 #dc1 #gc1 #cab1 #cbc74 ,stars1 too1 were regarded as gods 7 #ca1 #dc74 ,elemental worship had a wider significance among these tribes than ,dr4 ,peet assigns it 7 #bg1 #cc-ce1 #dc1 #dd1 #gd-gg1 #cfc1 etc474 ,and there are traces of anthropomorphism1 for some of the gods are in human form 7 #bag1 #bce72 others are supposed to inhale the odor of tobacco smoke1 which is pleasant to them2 they eat1 breathe1 use weapons against one another as well as against human beings1 and on one occasion an ,indian was called on to aid one or the other of two contending gods2 they hear1 think1 marry1 die1 and are succeeded by their children 7 #be1 #bi1 #ce1 #cf1 #gb1 #ge1 #id1 #aji1 #aab1 #aag1 #aai1 #acf1 #bag1 #cbb1 etc474#bhb #cfb4 ,the cults affected the social organization of the tribes that had gentes bearing mystic names 7see #eg and #hb of this paper1 and ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,eth41 ,chap4 iii1 and pp4 #cef1 #cei-cfa72 orders of shamans and other secret societies were intimately associated with them 7 #dc-de1 #hf1 #hg1 and #hi2 and ,om4 ,soc41 pp4 #cdb-cee72 personal names still refer to them 7 #ca1 #dg1 #ec1 #ei1 #gd1 #ge1 and #gg2 and ,om4 ,soc41 pp4 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bch-bdd1 #bdf-bdh1 #bej1 and #bea72 and almost every act of the daily life of the people was influenced by them 7 #bc1 #bd1 #bg1 #bh-cj1 #cb1 #cc-cf1 #ci-da1 #ed1 #aja1 etc42 and ,om4 ,soc41 ,chap4 vi1 and pp4 #bfg1 #bgd1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bhi-bia1 #bic-bii1 #caf1 #cai-cbe1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #ceg1 #cfh-cgj74 ,,cults ,,of ,,the ,,elements4 #cfc4 ,prior to writing this paper1 the author had observed what ,dr4 ,foster stated in his ,indian ,record and ,historical ,data respecting the division of the ,winnebago tribe into four groups1 named after the earth1 air1 fire1 and water1 respectively1 i4e41 ,foster claimed that the ,winnebago had people named after land animals1 others after birds and the winds1 others after the thunder-beings1 and others after the ,waktceqi or water monsters4#bhc 7,see #if47 ,during the year #ahij the author obtained from the three principal ,ponka chiefs the classification of their gentes by phratries1 and the character of the mystic songs peculiar to each phratry4 ,on comparing this information with that which has been related about the ,dakota gods1 there seemed to be good reasons for inferring that not only the ,dakota tribes1 but also the ,omaha1 ,ponka1 ,winne-bago1 and others of the same stock1 divided their gods into four classes1 those of the earth1 wind-makers1 fire1 and water4 #cfd4 ,among the ,omaha1 ,iowa1 and cognate tribes1 we find that when a gens assembled as a whole1 for council purposes1 they sat around the fire in the order shown in the accompanying diagram1 ,fig4 #aic3 ,legend4--#a1 ,black ,bear subgens2 #b1 ,small ,bird subgens2 #c1 ,eagle subgens2 #d1 ,turtle subgens2 #e1 fireplace2 #f1 entrance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--,the atada gentile circle4 ,places in the circle were assigned according to kinship2 thus1 the ,black ,bear and ,small ,bird people are spoken of as 8sitting on the same side of the fireplace10 as they are full kin1 while they are only partially related to those who sit on the other side 7,nos4 #c and #d74 ,that the fireplace was sacred1 there being traces of a hearth cult1 has been shown in #cc and #dj4 ,furthermore1 the atada circle is remarkable not only for its arrangement according to kinship1 but for its symbolic character2 because the ,black ,bear people are associated with the ground or earth1 as is shown by their personal names2 the ,small ,bird people are ,thunder-beings or ,fire people2 the ,eagle subgens consist of 8,wind-maker0 people2 and the ,turtle subgens is composed of ,water people4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--,the four elements1 etc4 #cfe4 ,this suggests another diagram1 ,fig4 #aid1 in which the author has put the names of four classes of ,dakota gods1 with what he suspects to be their appropriate colors1 ,r standing for red1 ,b for black1 ,y for yellow1 and ,bl for blue4 ,earth people serve or assist ,fire people 7 #ce and perhaps #cf74 ,do ,water people ever serve ,wind-maker people 7see address to a stream in time of war1 #bc78 ,the ,fire powers are hostile to the powers of the ,water 7 #ge1 #gg1 #aag-aai72 we have yet to learn whether1 in any gens1 a subgens named after the ,thunder-being sits on the same side of the gentile fireplace with a subgens named after a power of the ,water4 ,is there a warfare going on between the powers of the ,earth and the ,wind-makers8 ,the ,fire powers and ,wind-makers are concerned in all kinds of suffering1 including war1 disease1 and death 7 #aag1 #aai1 #abg1 #abi71 and there is no hostility existing between them4#bhd ,the ,kase gens of the ,osage has several names1 ,wind people1 ,south-wind people1 ,those who light the pipes 7in council71 and ,fire people4 ,the powers of the ,earth and ,water are interested in the preservation of life1 and so we may consider them the patrons of peace4 8,peace10 in ,omaha1 ,ponka1 and iwere1 means 8,the land is good10 and 8to make peace0 is expressed by 8to make the land good40 ,the words for 8water0 and 8life0 are identical in some of the ,siouan languages1 and they differ but slightly in others4 ,it is interesting to note what has been said by ,mr4 ,francis ,la ,flesche#bhe about water3 8,water seems to hold an important place in the practice of this medicine society1 even when roots are used for the healing of wounds4 ,the songs say3 #8,water was sent into the wound1' #8,water will be sent into his wound1' etc40 ,the mystic songs of the doctors of the order of buffalo shamans tell of the pool of water in a buffalo wallow where the wounded one shall be treated4 ,but we must note some apparent inconsistencies4 ,while the ,unktei created the earth and the human race 7 #aab71 they are believed to feed on human spirits or ghosts2 though ghosts are reckoned among the servants of the ,unktei6 ,and while the powers of the ,fire and ,water are enemies1 one is surprised to observe that in the war gens of the ,omaha as well as in the two war gentes of the ,kansa1 there is the sacred clam shell as well as the war pipe6 7,see #cf and ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #bbf47 ,,the ,,four ,,quarters4 #cff4 ,according to the tradition of the ,ike-sab1 an ,omaha buffalo people1 the ancestral buffaloes found the ,east and ,south winds bad ones2 but the ,north and ,west winds were good4 ,from this the author infers that the ,omaha associated the ,east with the ,fire powers or the sun1 the ,south#bhf with the ,air powers1 the ,north with the ,earth powers1 and the ,west with the ,water powers4 ,on the other hand1 an ,iowa man told ,mr4 ,hamilton that the ,south wind was a beneficent one1 while the ,northeast wind was maleficent 7 #gd74 ,this variation may have been caused by a difference in the habitats of the tribes referred to4 #cfg4 ,among the ,kansa1 ,pahale-gaqli and ,alikawahu1 when they invoked the four winds1 began at the left 7as they were ,yata people7 with the ,east wind 7,bazata1 ,toward the ,pines71 next they turned to the ,south wind 7,ak'a1 whence one of the names of the ,kaze gens71 then to the ,west wind 7,ak'a jiga or ,ak'uye71 and lastly to the ,north wind 7,hnita1 ,toward the ,cold74#bhg 7,see ,fig4 #aie47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--,kansa order of invoking the winds1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--,tsiu 7,osage7 order of placing the four sticks1 etc4 ,it should be noted that those ,kansa war captains1 ,pahale-gaqli and ,alikawahu1 belong to gentes on the left side of the tribal circle4 ,they were facing the ,south before they began the invocations to the various powers including the four winds4 ,see #bjj for the order 7,e1 ,s1 ,w1 ,n7 observed in felling the tree to be used as a sun pole4 ,the same order was observed by the ,dakota 8priest0 in the ceremonies pertaining to the ,white ,buffalo festival of the ,hunkpapa1 as related by ,miss ,fletcher3 in placing cherries on the plate1 in pouring water on the piles of cherries1 in placing tufts of swan's down on the plate#bhh1 in rotating the plate1 in circling the heap of black earth#bhi1 and in giving the four pinches of consecrated meat to the four sons of the owner of the white buffalo hide4#bij #cfh4 ,the ,tciu old man of the ,osage tribe consecrated each mystic hearth by placing four sticks in the form of a cross1 beginning at the west1 as shown in ,fig4 #aif1 then laying the sticks at the north1 east1 and south1 as he named the four mystic buffaloes 7 #cc74 ,this ,tsiu man belonged to the peace side of his tribe1 and he began with the quarters referring to the peace elements4 ,but the ,paka old man of the same tribe1 when he consecrated the mystic fireplaces for his half-tribe1 began on the right1 with the stick at the east1 as shown in ,fig4 #aig4 ,he belonged to the war side of the tribe1 though his gens was a peace-making gens6 #cfi4 ,the ,mayika and pa gentes of the ,kansa tribe consecrated the mystic fireplaces for their people2 but we have not obtained the particulars of the ,kansa ceremony1 which probably resembled that in which the ,tsiu and ,paka old men took part4 ,according to ,two ,crows and the late ,joseph ,la ,flche1 there were four sacred stones in the custody of the ,maika-gaxe or ,earth-lodge-makers' gens of the ,omaha3 red1 black1 yellow1 and blue4#bia #cgj4 ,whenever the ,osage warriors came in sight of their village on returning from an expedition against the enemy1 they were met outside the village by the principal man of the ,kase 7the ,wind or ,south wind gens47 ,this ,kase man walked around the warriors1 performing a ceremony as he started from the north1 repeating it at each quarter1 and ending with the east1 as shown in ,fig4 #aih4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4--,paka 7,osage7 order of placing the four sticks1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--,kase 7,osage7 order of circumambulation4 #cga4 ,assuming that we have a correct grouping of the four elements in ,fig4 #aid1 it appears that ,pahale-gaqli and ,alikawahu began with the quarters associated with war2 that the ,tsiu old man began with those referring to peace1 and the ,paka old man with those pertaining to war1 and the principal man of the ,kase gens with those on the peace side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--,showing how the ,osage prepared the scalp for the dance4 #cgb4 ,in cutting off the under skin from a scalp1 the ,osage war captain-- stood facing the ,east 99 99 99 ,holding the scalp in one hand1 with the other he placed the knife-blade across it1 with the point toward the ,south 7see ,fig4 #aii74 ,then he turned the knife with the point toward the ,east4 ,next1 with the blade resting on the scalp1 the point to the ,south1 he moved the knife backward and forward four times1 cutting deeper into the scalp on each occasion4 ,then he made four similar cuts1 but with the point to the ,east4 ,after this1 the flat part of the blade being on the scalp1 its edge was put against one of the four corners made by the previous incisions 7#a1 #b1 #c1 and #d71 beginning with ,no4 #a4 ,he cut under each corner four times1 singing a sacred song each time that he changed the position of the knife4 99 99 99 ,the scalp was stretched and fastened to a bow1 which was bent and formed into a hoop4 ,this hoop was tied to a pole1 which was carried by the principal kettle-bearer4#bib ,observe that in this ceremony the ,south and ,east were the mystic quarters1 answering to the 8bad winds0 of the ,ike-sab tradition4 ,when the ,dakota 8priest10 referred to in #cfg1 wished to rotate the plate containing the cherries and down1 he grasped the plate with his right hand 7note that the right side of the ,osage circle was the war side7 between the east and south piles of cherries and his left hand 7compare with custom of ,tsiu gens of ,osage1 #cfh7 held the plate between the west and north piles4#bic ,in the ,hede-watci1 the ,omaha women and girls danced from the east to the south1 and thence to the west and north1 while the men and boys proceeded in a different order1 beginning at the west1 and dancing toward the north1 and thence toward the east and south4#bid ,,symbolic ,,colors4 #cgc4 ,on the tent of ,hupea 7,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,e71 a black bear man1 were represented four kinds of lightning--blue1 red1 black1 and yellow4 ,this was a mystery decoration 7 #de71 and if the colors were associated with the four quarters1 the powers were probably invoked in the order shown in ,fig4 #bjj4 7,see #cdj1 #cfi47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4--,omaha lightnings and the four quarters4 #cgd4 ,blue is assumed to be the earth symbol for two reasons3 7#a7 ,in the decorations of those who have had visions of bears1 there is a broad blue band1 representing the earth1 out of which the bear is sometimes depicted as issuing2 7#b7 and1 furthermore1 the ,indians seldom distinguish between blue and green1 hence1 blue may symbolize grass and other vegetation1 springing from the earth4 ,in apparent contradiction of this use of blue1 we are told by ,lynd that 8the ,tunkan is painted red as a sign of active worship0 7see #acb71 and by ,riggs 7 #acc7 that large bowlders were adorned with red and green paint1 though the use of the two colors may have depended on a composite cult4 ,in this connection attention is called to the battle standards represented on the tent of ejequta1 an ,omaha4 ,these painted standards had red and blue stripes1 denoting the stripes of ,indian cloth1 sometimes used instead of feathers on the real standards4 ,the latter were carried by the leaders of war parties1 and each standard could be used on four such expeditions4 ,when the warriors approached the hostile camp1 the keeper of the standard removed the scarf of blue and red cloth from the shaft and wore it around his neck as he went to steal horses 7see ,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,a1 the name ,bowlder ,thunder-being in #cij1 also #chh74 #cge4 ,red is known to be the ,omaha color for the east4 ,among the ,dakota the spear and tomahawk1 the weapons of war1 were said to have been given by the ,wakinyan1 the ,thunder-being or ,fire power2 hence they are painted red 7 #aje74 ,the late ,dr4 ,s4 ,r4 ,riggs informs us that-- ,in the tiyotipi were placed the bundles of the black and red sticks of the soldiers4#bie ,toward the rear of the tent1 but near enough to the fire for convenient use1 is a large pipe placed by the symbols of power4 ,these are two bundles of shaved sticks about #f inches long4 ,the sticks in one bundle are painted black and in the other red4 ,the black bundle represents the real men of the camp--those who have made their mark on the warpath4 ,the red bundle represents the boys and such men as wear no eagle feathers4#bif ,they shave out small round sticks all of the same length1 and paint them red1 and they are given out to the men4 ,these are to constitute the tiyotipi4 99 99 99 ,of all the round shaved sticks1 some of which were painted black and some painted red1 four were especially marked4 ,they are the four chiefs of the tiyotipi that were made4#big #cgf4 ,black is assumed to be the symbolic color for the ,takukankan1 the ,wind-makers1 whose servants are the four winds and the four black spirits of night4 ,black as a war color is put on the face#bih of the warrior4 ,the ,santee ,dakota consider the raven 7a black bird7 and a small black stone1 less than a hen's egg in size1 symbols of the four winds or quarters4 ,among the ,teton ,dakota1 the ,takukankan symbols1 are small pebbles of two kinds1 one white1 and1 according to the description1 translucent2 the other 8resembles ordinary pebbles10 probably in being opaque4 #cgg4 ,yellow is assumed to be the color symbolizing water1 the west1 and the setting sun4 ,the ,dakota1 ,omaha1 ,ponka1 and iwere tribes have been familiar for years with the color of the water in the ,missouri river4 ,in a ,yankton ,dakota legend#bii recorded by the author it is said that when two mystery men prepared themselves to visit a spirit of the water in order to recover an ,indian boy1 one of the men painted his entire body black1 and the other painted himself yellow 7this seems to refer to the south and west1 the windmakers and the spirits of the waters74 ,in certain ,omaha tent decorations we find that the tent of a ,turtle man 7,fig4 #afa7 has a yellow ground4 ,a similar yellow ground on the tent of ,matcu-naba of the ,haga gens 7,fig4 #agd7 may be connected with the tradition that the ,haga gens came originally from beneath the water4 ,too much stress1 however1 must not be placed upon the colors of such mystery decorations1 as they may be found hereafter to have had another origin4 ,it is conceivable1 although we have no means of proving it1 that he who had a vision1 depicted on his robe and tent not only the colors pertaining to the objects seen in the vision1 but also the color peculiar to the eponymic ancestor or power that was the 8nikie0 7 #ec74 ,as some men were members of more than one order of shamans1 their tent and robe decorations may refer to the one order rather than to the other1 and sometimes there may be a reference to both orders4 ,the yellow on the top of the tent of ,frog1 an ,ictasanda man1 was said to refer to a grizzly bear vision 7fide ,george ,miller1 an ,omaha--see ,fig4 #agg47 ,but when we compare it with ,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,d1 showing the tent of a ,haga man1 who was a ,buffalo shaman as well as a ,grizzly ,bear shaman1 we find that the top of the latter tent has a yellow band 7apparently pointing to the ,haga tradition of an aquatic origin71 as well as a blue band at the bottom 7referring to the grizzly bear vision74 #cgh4 ,from what has been said respecting the figures #aid-aii1 we are led to make the following provisional cordinations3 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,dakota god4 ,element4 ,quarter4 ,color4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,tunkan ,earth ,north ,blue ,wakinyan ,fire ,east ,red ,takukankan ,wind-makers ,south ,black ,unktei ,water ,west ,yellow ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,note4--,the names of the ,dakota gods are given because we have more information about them1 and the exact ,omaha equivalent for ,takukankan has not been obtained4 #cgi4 ,miss ,fletcher gave1 in #ahhd1 a list of symbolic colors1 which differs somewhat from that which the author has suggested in the preceding section4 ,she said3 ,white1 blue1 red1 and yellow possess different meaning1 yet are not very clearly determined by all tribes4#cjj ,among the ,dakotas the following interpretation prevails3 ,white is seldom used artificially2 when it occurs in nature1 as the white buffalo1 deer1 rabbit1 etc41 and on the plumage of birds1 it indicates consecration4 ,the sacred feathers and down are always white1#cja the former being taken from the underpart of the eagle's wing and are soft and downy4 ,this meaning of white holds good with the ,omahas1 ,poncas1 etc41 and seems to have a wide application among the ,indians4 ,blue represents the winds1 the west1 the moon1 the water1 the thunder1 and sometimes the lightning4 99 99 99 ,red indicates the sun1 the stone1 the forms of animal and vegetable life1 the procreative force4 ,yellow represents sunlight as distinguished from the fructifying power of the sun4#cjb ,the author has never observed this use of white as a symbolic color4 ,in speaking of albino animals1 we infer that to the ,siouan mind they are consecrated because they are rare4 ,in fact1 ,miss ,fletcher says3 ,the white buffalo is rare and generally remains near the center of the herd1 which makes it difficult of approach4 ,it is therefore considered as the chief or sacred one of the herd2 and it is consequently greatly prized by the ,indians4#cjc ,while the author is convinced of the great value of ,miss ,fletcher's investigations1 he inquires concerning the veracity of her interpreters4 ,he would like to see more detailed evidence before he accepts as the ,dakota classification one which puts in the same category not only the winds and thunder1 but also the water1 the west1 and the moon4 ,he also asks why should the moon be separated from the sun 7see #ach71 and why should the west be the only quarter symbolized by a color8 ,besides1 the ,dakota shamans say that the ,thunder-beings are of four colors1 black1 yellow1 scarlet1 and blue 7see #aaf74 ,in response to the wish of the author1 ,miss ,fletcher has kindly furnished him with the following letter of explanation1 received after the rest of the paper had been written3 ,consecration as applied to the color white in the article you have quoted needs a few words of explanation4 ,the almost universal appropriation of white animals to religious ceremonies is unquestionable2 whether this selection rests wholly upon the rarity of this color is a little doubtful4 ,the unusual is generally wakan2 this feeling1 however1 is not confined to a color1 and although the white buffalo and the white deer are not often met with1 other white animals1 as the rabbit1 are not uncommon1 nor are white feathers4 ,it is true these white feathers are often colored for ceremonial uses1 but the added colors have their particular meanings1 and these do not seem to override the primal signification that the feathers selected to bear these symbolic colors are white4 ,the natural suggestion that a white ground would best serve to set off the added lines may have been in the distant past the simple reason why white feathers were chosen2 and this choice adhered to for generations would at last become clothed with a mysterious significance4 ,if this were ever true1 this reason for choosing white feathers is not recognized to-day4 ,i have been frequently told1 the feathers must be white4 ,while ,i should now hesitate to say that white symbolizes consecration1 still1 after continued study1 ,i find the idea clinging about the color1 which1 as ,i said then1 is seldom artificially used4 ,various symbolic colors are not infrequently placed upon one object1 so that the combining of symbols1#cjd or even their occasional exchange1 does not seem discordant to the ,indian mind2 this fact among others renders it difficult to draw a hard and fast line about any one color or symbol4 ,further research has shown me that green and blue and black are related and that to a degree green and blue are interchangeable4 ,blue is regarded as a darkened green2 that is1 green removed from the light1 not deepened in hue4 ,blue1 therefore1 stands intermediate between green which has the light on it2 and blue shaded into black1 which has no light on it4 ,in some ceremonies green typifies the earth2 in others blue is the symbol4 ,the sky is sometimes represented by green1 and again blue is used1 while blue darkened to black stands for the destructive elements of the air4 ,i have found a subtle connection between the elements of earth and air that answers somewhat to the blending of the symbolic colors just spoken of4 ,this connection is revealed in the reciprocal or complementary functions of gentes belonging to these two great divisions represented in the tribal structure1 as well as in the reactionary character of the elements themselves as portrayed in the myths and typified in some ceremonies4 ,for instance1 the eagle mythically belongs to the air1 and is allied to the destructive powers of the element and to wars upon the earth1 yet the ,eagle gens1 although connected with the air division of the gentes1 is in some tribes a peace gens4 ,an enemy escaping to the tent of an ,eagle man is safe and cannot be molested4 ,in symbols eagle feathers are not only the pride and emblem of the warrior but they are essential in certain ceremonies of amity and peace-making4 ,a study of the position of gentes belonging to the divisions of earth and air1 their tribal and ceremonial duties1 together with their mythological significance1 shows lines connecting the gentes of the earth with the gentes of the air which are vertical1 so to speak1 and might be represented as running north and south on the tribal circle1 and indicating mediating offices as between contending or opposite forces4 ,it would occupy too much space to fully set forth my reasons for thinking blue-black to be the symbol of the thunder rather than red and yellow4 ,although thunder is allied to the four quarters1 to the four elemental divisions and partakes of their symbolism1 still a study of thunder myths1 thunder-names1 and the tribal offices of thunder gentes seems to me1 at my present understanding of them1 to indicate the blue-black as the persistent symbol4 ,i would not at this date make any unqualified statement giving green1 blue1 or black as the symbol of the west1 the water1 or the moon2 and although in some instances these colors occur in connection with these objects of reverence1 ,i am now inclined to class these as incidental rather than as representative of the color symbols4 ,one word regarding red and yellow4 ,red not only represents the sun and the procreative forces 7yet black is sometimes used in the latter71 but the color carries with it the idea of hope1 the continuation of life4 ,the dawn of the day1 the east1 is almost without exception in these tribes denoted by red4 ,this red line1 forceful1 aggressive1 yet life giving and hope-inspiring1 starts from a war division of the tribal circle and fades into yellow as it passes into an opposite peace division in the west4 ,red and yellow bear to each other a relation somewhat resembling that of blue and black1 only reversed2 the red loses its intensity in yellow1 the aggressive force symbolized in the red is not expressed in the yellow4 ,if the ,indian's world were arched with his symbolic colors1 we should see a brilliant band of red start from the east and fade to yellow in the west2 while the green-blue line from the north would deepen to the black of the south4 ,in the first the intense color would rush from war into the mild light of peace2 the second bright hue would spring from peace to be lost in the darkness of war4 ,thus the two hold the tribe within the opposing yet complementary forces which constitute the mystery of the relation between life and death4 ,i will not go further into this interesting subject nor revert to the revolution of these symbolic colors as throwing light on tribal migrations and history4 ,thanking you for this opportunity to modify some of my statements written nine years ago1 ,i remain1 cordially yours1 ,,alice ,c4 ,,fletcher4 ,,peabody ,,museum1 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 ,january #c1 #ahia4 ,in the ,word ,carrier of ,november1 #ahij1 published by ,a4 ,l4 ,riggs1 at ,santee ,agency1 ,nebr41 is an article on page #cj1 from ,mary ,c4 ,collins1 who is evidently one of the mission workers4 ,she says3 8,i went into the sacred tent and talked with ,sitting ,bull4 ,he sat 99 99 99 opposite the tent door4 ,hands and wrists were painted yellow and green2 face painted red1 green1 and white40 7,did the four colors refer to the elements87 8,as ,i started toward him he said1 #8,winona1#cje approach me on the left side and shake my left hand with your left hand4'0 7,does the gens of ,sitting ,bull camp on the left side of the tribal circle1 occasioning the use of the left in all ceremonies1 as among the ,tsiu gentes of the ,osage8 ,or is the left the war side among the people of ,sitting ,bull1 as among the ,kansa8 ,see #cc and #cfh47 #chj4 ,the following are the symbolic colors of the ,north ,carolina ,cherokee1 the ,ojibwa1 the ,navajo1 the ,apache1 the ,zui1 and the ,aztec3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,ojibwa4 ,navajo4 ,quarter1 ,cherokee4 ------------------------------------- etc4 a b c d e ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,east ,red1 #a4 ,white4 ,red4 ,white1 #a4 ,yellow4 ,south ,white1 #d4 ,green4 ,green4 ,blue1 #b4 ,red4 ,west ,black1 #h4 ,red4 ,white4 ,yellow1 #c4 ,blue4 ,north ,blue1 #b4 ,black4 ,black4 ,black1 #d4 ,white4 ,upperworld 444 444 444 ,blue4 444 ,lowerworld 444 444 444 ,white and 444 black in spots4 ,sunlight 444 444 444 ,red4 444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- a ,mooney1 in ,jour4 ,am4 ,folklore1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 #h1 ,jan4-,mar41 #ahij1 pp4 #di1 #ej4 b ,hoffman1 in ,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,july1 #ahhi1 pp4 #bag1 #bah2 from ,sicosige1 a second-degree ,mide of ,white ,earth1 ,minn4 c ,hoffman1 in ibid41 p4 #bah2 from ,ojibwa1 a fourth-degree ,mide1 from another locality4 d ,matthews1 in #eth ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,eth41 p4 #ddi4 e ,mallery1 from ,thos4 ,v4 ,keam's catalogue of relics of the ancient buildings of the southwest table-lands--quoted in ,trans4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4 of ,washington1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #ada1 #ahhe4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,apache4 ,quarter1 ------------------- ,zui4 ,aztec4 etc4 f g h i ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,east ,black4 ,yellow4 ,white1 #d4 ,yellow4 ,south ,white4 ,green ,red1 #c4 ,white4 or ,blue4 ,west ,yellow4 ,black4 ,blue1 #b4 ,blue4 ,north ,blue4 ,white4 ,yellow1 #a4 ,red4 ,upperworld 444 444 ,all colors1 #e4 ,lowerworld 444 444 ,black1 #f4 ,sunlight 444 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------- f ,gatschet1 on ,chiricahua ,apache sun circle1 in ,trans4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4 of ,washington1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #adg1 #ahhe4 g ,capt4 ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke1 in a letter to the author1 ,dec4 #d1 #ahij4 ,in ,nov41 #ahhe1 he obtained from a ,san ,carlos 7,pinal7 ,apache green as the color for the north4 h ,mrs4 ,m4 ,c4 ,stevenson1 in #eth ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,eth41 p4 #edh4 ,according to ,dr4 ,j4 ,walter ,fowkes the ,hopi or ,moki have a similar order of colors1 the west having green 7or blue74 i ,kingsborough1 ,antiquities of ,mexico1 ,vol4 ,,vii 7fide ,capt4 ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke74 ,according to ,gatschet the ,chiricahua ,apache call the sun1 when in the east1 8the black sun10 and a tornado or gust of wind also is called 8black40 7,see #cgh47 ,matthews says that in rare cases white is assigned to the north and black to the east1 and that black represents the male and blue the female among the ,navajo4 7,see #aje of this paper47 #cha4 ,the author calls special attention to the colors of the four sacred stones of the ,omaha ,wolf gens1 red1 black1 yellow1 and blue i4 e41 ,e41 ,s41 ,w41 ,n42 7see #cfi71 and to those on the tent of an ,omaha ,black ,bear man 7see #cgc1 and ,,pl4 ,,xliv1 ,e1 where the colors are given in the order ,n41 ,e41 ,s41 ,w474 ,he has not yet gained the colors for the upper and lower worlds1 though the ,omaha offer the pipe to the 8venerable man sitting above0 and to the 8venerable man below lying on his back40 7 #bg47 ,in the tradition of the ,tsiu wactae gens of the ,osage there is an account of the finding of four kinds of rocks1 black1 blue or green1 red1 and white4 ,and from the left hind legs of four buffalo bulls there dropped to the ground four ears of corn and four pumpkins4#cjf ,the corn and pumpkin from the first buffalo were red1 those from the second were spotted1 those from the third were cape1 i4e41 dark or distant-black1 and those from the fourth were white4 ,green1 black1 white1 and gray are the traditional colors of the ancestral wolves1 according to the ,wolf people of the ,winnebago1 though for 8green0 we may substitute 8blue10 as the corresponding name for the first son in that gens is ,blue ,sky4 ,among the personal names in the ,thunder-being subgens of the ,winnebago are the four color names1 ,green ,thunder-being1 ,black ,thunder-being1 ,white ,thunder-being1 and ,yellow ,thunder-being 7instead of ,gray74 ,james ,alexander1 a member of the ,wolf gens1 said that these four ,thunder-being names did not refer to the four quarters4 ,this seems probable1 unless white be the ,winnebago color for the east and gray or yellow that for the west4 ,in ,november1 #ahic1 more than two years after the preceding sentence was written1 a ,winnebago told the author that among his people white was associated with the north1 red with the west1 and green with the south4 ,of these he was certain4 ,he thought that blue was the color for the east1 but he was not positive about it4 ,,colors ,,in ,,personal ,,names4 #chb4 ,the following shows the color combinations in a list of forty-six objects taken from the census schedules of the ,dakota1 ,hidatsa1 and ,mandan tribes 7,u4 ,s4 ,census of #ahhj71 the lists of ,dakota names given in the ,fourth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 pp4 #age1 #agg-ahj1 and the list of ,winnebago names collected by the author4 ,blue or green1 7chiefly blue71 #bf2 red1 #be2 black1 #ca2 yellow1 #cj2 scarlet1 #ch2 white1 #cg2 gray1 #ah2 sa or distant-white 7whitish71 #d2 rusty-yellow or brown 7i71 #ah2 spotted1 #ag2 and striped1 #h4 ,objects combined with two colors1 #g2 with three colors1 #g2 with four colors1 #d2 with five colors1 #e2 with six colors1 #e2 with seven colors1 #f2 with eight colors1 #f2 with nine colors1 #e2 with ten colors1 #a2 with all eleven colors1 none4 ,it should1 however1 be remembered that the lists consulted did not contain all the personal names of the ,siouan tribes which have been mentioned1 and that it is probable there would be found more color combinations if all the census schedules were accessible4 ,we can not say whether each of the colors 7including spotted and striped7 has a mystic significance in the ,siouan mind4 ,perhaps further study may show that red 7a7 and scarlet 7duta1 luta7 have the same symbolic meaning1 and rusty-yellow 7i7 may be an equivalent of yellow 7zi74 ,,the ,,earth ,,powers4 #chc4 ,the ,tunkan or bowlder1 the ,dakota name for the ,earth powers1 is also called the ,lingam by ,riggs 7 #acb71 as if connected with a phallic cult 7 #afd1 etc474 ,the ,earth powers 7,tunkan7 and the ,wind-makers 7,takukankan7 are said by the ,dakota to have a common symbol2 but is not the symbol of the ,takukankan a pebble 7 #cgf78 ,in the ,kansa war chart 7see #abg7 does the large 7red7 rock refer to the ,earth powers8 ,and does the small rock refer to the ,wind-makers8 ,the ,earth powers and the ,wind-makers seem to be associated in some degree3 7a7 ,in the use of the rock symbol 7if the ,takukankan symbol be a true rock71 and 7b7 in the use1 among the ,omaha1 of eagle birth names in the social divisions called 8,keepers of the pipes40 ,this latter rests upon the assumption that the ,ike-sab is a buffalo gens which should be regarded as having some connection with the ,earth cult4 ,when the ,omaha chiefs assembled in council the two sacred pipes were filled by the ,ictasanda keeper 7a member of a ,fire and ,water gens72 but they were carried around the council lodge by the ,ike-sab and e-pa-it#8aj keepers4 ,the ,ike-sab keeper started around the lodge with one of the pipes2 when he had gone halfway 7i4e41 as far as the entrance7 the e-pa-it#8aj keeper started from the back of the lodge with the other pipe1 taking care to keep behind the ,ike-sab keeper just half the circumference of the circle4#cjg ,the e-pa-it#8aj man belonged to the ,eagle or ,wind-makers subgens and the ,ike-sab man to one that we term provisionally an ,earth gens4 7,see ,fig4 #aid47 ,the ,ike-sab1 it is true1 have a tradition that they came originally from the water2 but the buffalo is specially associated with the earth4 ,among the ,dakota the buffalo and the earth are regarded as one4 7 #bci47 ,,earth ,,gentes4 ,the ,earth gentes1 as far as we can judge1 are as follows3 ,ike-sab and ,haga 7871 two ,buffalo gentes1 and the ,wasabe-hit#8aj1 a ,black bear subgens1 among the ,omaha2 the ,wacabe and ,maka 7,buffalo gentes17 among the ,ponka2 the ,mayika 7,earth7 and ,wasabe 7,black bear71 of the ,kansa2 the ,earth and ,black bear of the ,osage2 ,black bear1 and perhaps ,wolf1 among the ,iowa and ,oto2 ,black bear1 of the ,missouri2 and ,black bear and ,wolf of the ,winnebago4 ,the ,black bear people of the ,winnebago were the only men of that tribe who enforced discipline in time of war and acted as policemen when there was peace4 ,the tradition of the ,winnebago ,wolf gens names four brothers that were created4 ,the first was green sic and was named ,blue ,sky 7referring to day74 ,the second was black1 and his name referred to night4 ,the third was white and the fourth was gray4 ,the green1 black1 and white wolves have remained in their subterranean abodes4 ,they are never seen by mankind4 ,the gray wolf was the ancestor of all the wolves which are seen above ground4 7,see #ij47 ,these four colors are evidently symbolic2 but the author has not yet learned whether they have any reference to the four quarters4 7,see #ge47 ,,the ,,fire ,,powers4 #chd4 ,among these were the ,thunder-beings and the ,sun4 ,the former were usually considered maleficent powers1 as distinguished from the ,sun1 the beneficent ,fire power2 but occasionally the ,thunder-beings were addressed as 8grandfathers10 who could be induced to gratify the wishes of the suppliants by granting them success in war 7 #ce1 #cf74 ,it was probably with reference to the ,sun that the ,east was considered the source of light and life1 the ,west being associated with the taking of life in the chase or on the war path 7see #bh74 ,red among the ,omaha is the color symbol of the ,east1 but red is also symbolic of war4 ,the 8fire paint0 among the ,tsiu gentes of the ,osage tribe is red4 ,it is applied when the fire prayers are said4 ,red is a war color among the ,dakota1 ,omaha1 ,kansa1 and ,osage4 ,the ,tsiu crier received in his left hand a knife with the handle painted red4 ,the ,haa crier received in his right hand a hatchet with the handle reddened4 ,on the death of a comrade the surviving ,osage removed the bark from a post oak1 say1 about #e feet from the ground1 painted the blazed tree red1 broke four arrows and left them and some paint by the tree4#cjh ,whenever the author saw ,pahale-gaqli1 one of the war chiefs of the ,kansa1 he noticed that the man's face was painted red all over4 ,in the middle of the war chart of ,pahale-gaqli was a fire symbol2 but the chief feared to represent it in the copy which he made for the author4 ,it probably consisted of the four firebrands placed at right angles and meeting at a common center4 ,the ,omaha must have had such a symbol at one time 7see #cc74 ,the ,osage had it1 according to their tradition 7see #dj1 #cfe74 ,the successful warriors among the ,omaha could redden their weapons when they joined in the dance4#cji ,the ,dakota give the following as the sentinels for the ,wakinyan3 ,the deer at the north1 the butterfly at the east1 the beaver at the south1 and the bear at the west 7 #aaf74 ,if these were arranged to conform to the order of ,fig4 #aid the bear would be at the north1 the beaver at the west1 the deer at the east1 and the butterfly at the south4 ,but there may be a special order of grouping the servants of each class of powers differing from the order of the four powers themselves4 ,the ,dakota wakan men say that the ,wakinyan are of four colors1 black1 yellow1 scarlet1 and blue 7 #aaf74 ,the ,thunder men of the ,omaha legend had hair of different colors1 the first having white hair1 the second red1 the third yellow1 and the fourth green hair4#caj ,,fire ,,gentes4 ,the following appear to be the ,fire gentes3 ,thunder-being people of the ,omaha tribe1 ,elk gens1 ,small-bird subgens1 ,deer1 and ,ictasanda 7,reptile and ,thunder-being7 gentes2 the ,hisada and ,black bear gentes of the ,ponka2 the ,l or ,gray hawk people 7also called ,thunder-being people7 of the ,kansa tribe1 with whom are associated the ,deer and ,buffalo gentes in the singing of the ,thunder songs 7 #cf72 the ,k#caa or ,thunder-being gens1 on the ,tsiu1 ,buffalo1 or ,peace side of the ,osage tribe 76671 perhaps the ,tcexia1 a bird gens of the ,iowa tribe2 part of the ,tcexia gens of the ,oto and ,missouri tribes2 and the ,wakatcar or ,thunder-being subgens of the ,winnebago4 ,four ,thunder-beings were invoked by the ,ictasanda gens 7 #ce73 igize-mai1 iaba-tige1 iaba-gi-na1 and ,gaagigeda4 ,was each of these supposed to dwell at one of the four quarters8 ,among the ,osage and ,kansa tribes there is a gens known as the ,mi k'i 7from mi1 the sun1 and k'i1 to carry a load on the back71 rendered 8,sun ,carriers40 ,some of the ,osage insisted that this name referred to the buffalo instead of the sun1 as that animal carries a robe or plenty of hair on his back2 and they maintained that the ,mi k'i was a buffalo gens4 ,that there is some connection in the ,indian mind between the sun and the buffalo is shown in the sun dance1 in which the figure of a buffalo bull 7 #afd7 and buffalo skulls 7 #adg1 #agc1 #agf1 #agg1 #aha1 and #aih1 and ,pl4 ,,xlviii7 play important parts4 ,,the ,,wind-,,makers4 #che4 ,the ,takukankan of the ,dakotas has been described in a previous chapter 7 #abg-aca74 ,the ,omaha tribe has the order of the ,i-kugi or the translucent stone1 in which order the ,wind-makers were probably invoked4 ,the ,tsiu old man addressed the four winds and as many mystic buffaloes when he laid down the four firebrands4 ,and at a similar ceremony the old man of the ,paka gens addressed the four winds and as many mystic deer 7 #cc74 ,the ,omaha evidently had a prayer1 8,ho1 ye four firebrands that meet at a common point60 7 #dj47 ,with this there may have been addresses to the winds4 ,four firebrands were used in a ,winnebago ceremony 7 #hd74 ,the ,ike-sab 7,omaha7 belief as to the four winds has been related in #cff4cab ,the winds and the sun were associated in the ceremony of raising the sun pole1 judging from what ,bushotter has written 7 #afg74 ,there was also some connection in the ,dakota mind between the winds and the buffalo4 ,compare the figure of the winds on a buffalo skull as described by ,miss ,fletcher#cac in her account of the sun dance4 ,,wind ,,gentes4 ,the following social divisions are assigned to this category3 ,the ,kaze1 or ,wind people1 and the e-pa-it#8aj1 ,touch-not-a-buffalo-skull1 or ,eagle people1 of the ,omaha tribe2 the ixida and ,nikapana gentes of the ,ponka2 the ,kaze 7,wind or ,south ,wind-people71 ,qya 7,white eagle71 ,ghost1 and perhaps the ,large ,haga 7,black eagle71 among the ,kansa2 the ,kase 7also called the ,wind and ,south ,wind people71 and perhaps the ,haa utaanse 7,black eagle7 gens of the ,osage2 the ,pigeon and ,buffalo gentes of the ,iowa and ,oto tribes2 the ,hawk and ,momi 7,small bird7 subgentes of the ,missouri tribe2 the ,eagle and ,pigeon1 and perhaps the ,hawk subgens of the ,winnebago ,bird gens4 ,,each ,,quarter ,,reckoned ,,as ,,three4 ,each wind or quarter is reckoned as three by the ,dakota#cad and presumably by the ,osage 7see #db71 making the four quarters equal to twelve4 ,can there be any reference here to a belief in three worlds1 the one in which we live1 an upper world1 and a world beneath this one8 ,or were the winds divided into three classes1 those close to the ground1 those in mid air1 and those very high in the air8 ,the ,kansa seem to make some such distinction1 judging from the names of the divisions of the ,kaze or ,wind gens of that tribe4 ,,names ,,referring ,,to ,,other ,,worlds4 ,references to a world supposed to be above that one in which we dwell occur in some of the personal names of the ,dakota1 in the ,u4 ,s4 ,census list of #ahhj4 ,there we find such names as1 ,wolf ,up-above1 ,hawk ,up-above1 ,grizzly-bear ,up-above1 and ,buffalo-bull ,up-above4 ,grizzly-bear ,up-above should be taken in connection with the tradition of the ,black-bear people of the ,osage tribe4 ,these people tell how their ancestors descended from the upper world1 bringing fire4#cae ,the tradition of the ,wolf people of the ,winnebago tribe tells of the creation of their ancestors as wolves in a subterranean world1 and of a belief that many wolves remain there still4 ,the ,winnebago have1 too1 the name1 ,second ,earth ,person1 referring to a waktceqi or watermonster1 as the waktceqi are supposed to dwell in the world beneath this one4 ,they call this world ,the ,first ,world1 and the subterranean one ,the ,second ,world4 ,,the ,,water ,,powers4 #chf4 ,the ,unktei of the ,dakota answers to the ,wakandagi of the ,omaha and ,ponka1 and the ,waktceqi of the ,winnebago4 ,one of the ,omaha myths relates to a ,wakandagi with seven heads4 ,the ,waktceqi have the ,loon as a servant1 and in this respect they resemble the tyrant ,u-twa-e of the iwere myth4 ,the name utwae is now given to the muskrat4 ,the male ,water powers inhabit streams1 and the females dwell under the ground1 presumably in subterranean streams4 ,according to ,winnebago belief1 they support the weight of the hills4 ,some of the ,omaha thought that these powers dwelt under the hills 7 #gg1 #ajg74 ,the monsters supposed to inhabit bogs were probably a species of water spirits 7 #bed74 ,streams were invoked as 8,wakanda0 by the ,omaha 7 #bc74 ,though the natural habitat of the buffalo is the surface of the earth1 and the ,dakota believe the animal to be of subterranean origin1 he is of subaquatic origin according to the traditions of the ,ike-sab and ,haga gentes of the ,omaha4#caf ,but no traces of such a belief have been found among the buffalo gentes of cognate tribes4 8,one day1 when the principal man of the people not known as the ,waigije subgens of the ,ike-sab1 was fasting and praying to the sun-god1#cag he saw the ghost of a buffalo1 visible from the flank up1 arising from a spring40#cah ,,water ,,people4 ,the ,water people among the ,omaha are the ,turtle subgens1 parts 7if not all7 of the ,ike-sab and ,haga 7,buffalo7 gentes1 and perhaps a part of the ,ictasanda gens4 ,those among the ,ponka have not yet been ascertained2 but they may be the ,wajaje and part of the ,hisada4 ,among the ,kansa they are the ,turtle people4 ,in the ,osage tribe are the ,turtle ,carriers1 ,ke ats 7said to be a turtle1 but probably a ,water-monster71 ,fish1 ,beaver1 and1 perhaps1 the ,tsewae or ,pond ,lily people4 ,among the ,iowa and ,oto are the ,beaver gentes4 ,and the ,winnebago have the ,water-monster gens4 ,,cautions ,,and ,,queries4 #chg4 ,there are many gentes and subgentes which can not be assigned to any of the four categories of elemental powers for want of evidence4 ,it is unsafe to argue that1 because two buffalo gentes of the ,omaha claim a subaquatic origin1 all buffalo gentes should be regarded as ,water people4 ,certain cautions should be kept in mind4 #chh4 ,the power of each of the four classes of elemental gods extends beyond its special element4 ,for instance1 the ,unktei1 who rules in the water1 has for his servants or allies1 the black owl in the forest 7,query3 ,has this any connection with the fire or thunder871 eagles in the air1 and serpents in the earth4 ,and the ,thunder-beings have as their servants1 the bear1 whose abode is in the ground1 the beaver1 who is associated with the water1 the butterfly1 who lives in the air2 and the deer4 #chi4 ,the servants of a class of elemental gods do not necessarily belong to that element which those gods regulate4 ,thus1 the ,black bear people of the ,omaha1 an earth people1 assist the ,elk people in the worship of the ,thunder2 and among the ,kansa1 the ,buffalo people perform a similar service for the ,l or ,thunder-being people 7 #ce1 #cf74 ,those who belong to the same phratry1 belong to the same social division2 but while they 8sing the mystery songs together10 they need not be assigned to the same elemental category4 #cij4 ,as the order of ,thunder shamans is composed of those who have had dreams or visions of the sun1 moon1 stars1 ,thunder-beings1 or some other superterrestial objects or phenomena1 may not all superterrestial beings1 including those of the 8upper world10 be regarded as ,thunder-beings by the ,indians8 7,see #de and the ,thunder-being names in #cic47 ,that is to say1 may not the eagles1 and other birds of the 8upper world0 be ,eagle ,thunder-beings1 ,crow ,thunder-beings1 etc41 though their special element is not the fire but the 8wind-makers10 and the grizzly bears who reside under ground in that upper world1 have given rise to the personal name1 ,grizzly-bear ,thunder-being8 ,if this be correct1 then ,bowlder ,thunder-being may refer to a bowlder in the upper world1 unless the supposition respecting composite names 7in #cib7 be true4 #cia4 ,the following appears at first sight to be the proper classification of the subgentes of a ,bird gens in a few of the ,siouan tribes3 ,thunder-bird1 ,eagle1 ,hawk1 and ,pigeon4 ,but a study of personal names has led to a modification of this grouping3 for we find such names as ,eagle ,thunder-being1 ,hawk ,thunder-being1 and ,pigeon ,thunder-being1 as distinguished from ordinary eagles1 hawks1 and pigeons4 ,hence1 we may find on further study that in some tribes there are eagle1 hawk1 and pigeon names for gentes and subgentes whose patron gods are ,thunder-beings4 ,for instance1 the ,l gens of the ,kansa tribe has two names for itself1 ,leda nikaciga1 ,gray hawk ,people1 and ,l nikaciga1 ,thunder-being ,people4 ,,composite ,,names4 #cib4 ,there are other composite names1 most of which are found in the census lists of the ,dakota tribes1 whose gentes are said to have no animal names1 and a few have been obtained from the personal name lists of the ,omaha1 ,ponka1 and ,kansa1 and the census lists of the ,mandan1 and ,hidatsa1 that give animal names to some or all of their gentes4 ,in the ,winnebago name list no such personal names have been found1 though that people has animal names for its gentes4 ,each of these composite names may refer to a vision of a composite being1 who was subsequently regarded as the guardian spirit of the person who had the dream or vision4 ,or the bearer of such a name may have had a dream or vision of two distinct powers4 ,in the pictograph of such a name1 the powers 7or symbols of the two powers7 represented in the name are joined 7see #cgd74 #cic4 ,the following is a list of composite names which may be found to symbolize the four elements4 ,the elements are designated by their respective abbreviations3 ,e for earth1 ,f for fire2 ,a for air1 and ,w for water4 ,the interrogation mark after any name denotes a provisional or conjectural assignment4 ,turtle ,grizzly-bear 7,w ,e74 ,grizzly-bear ,small-bird 7,e ,a74 ,cloud ,grizzly-bear 7,f8 ,e74 ,grizzly-bear ,buffalo-bull 7,e 874 ,fire ,grizzly-bear 7,f ,e74 ,sun ,grizzly-bear 7,f ,e74 ,ghost ,grizzly-bear 78 ,e74 ,grizzly-bear ,weasel1 given as 8,weasel ,bear0 in #dth ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lxix1 ,no4 #agd4 ,iron ,grizzly-bear 78,iron0 is generally denoted by blue in the ,dakota pictographs4 ,see #ajg47 ,bald-eagle ,grizzly-bear 7,a8 ,e74 ,shield ,grizzly-bear4 7,the shield is on the bear's side1 #dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lxiii1 ,no4 #fb47 ,crow ,grizzly-bear4 ,whirlwind ,grizzly-bear4 7,the whirlwind precedes in the pictograph1 #dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lviii1 ,no4 #gg47 ,hawk ,thunder-being4 ,pigeon ,thunder-being4 7,a iwere name--not yet found in ,dakota47 ,buffalo-bull ,thunder-being4 ,grizzly-bear ,thunder-being 7,e ,f74 ,fire ,thunder-being 7,f ,f74 ,elk ,thunder-being4 ,pipe ,thunder-being4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lxxi1 ,no4 #agi1 a winged pipe47 ,cloud ,thunder-being4 ,horse ,thunder-being4 ,iron ,thunder-being4 7,see #ajg47 ,earth ,thunder-being 7,e ,f47 ,black-,bird ,eagle4 ,eagle ,hawk4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lvi1 ,no4 #ec47 ,eagle ,small-bird4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lxvi1 ,no4 #aaf47 ,grizzly-bear ,eagle4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lxix1 ,no4 #agj2 a bear with an eagle's tail47 ,horse ,eagle4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lxviii1 ,no4 #aec2 horse body and eagle's tail47 ,dog ,eagle4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lii1 ,no4 #i2 dog with eagle's tail47 ,eagle ,swallow4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lxxix1 ,no4 #bhb2 eagle with forked tail of a swallow74 ,cloud ,eagle4 ,iron ,deer4 ,cloud ,dog4 ,buffalo-bull ,small-bird4 ,mountain ,buffalo-bull4 ,crow ,buffalo-bull4 ,buffalo-bull ,dog4 ,cloud ,buffalo-bull4 ,buffalo-bull ,man 7i4 e41 ,indian74 ,buffalo-bull ,ghost4 ,stone ,buffalo-bull4 ,buffalo-bull ,buffalo-cow 7the only name in which both sexes are given74 ,iron ,buffalo-bull4 7,see #ajg47 ,buffalo-bull ,wind4 ,buffalo-cow ,eagle4 ,iron ,buffalo4 7,n4 ,b4--,it is uncertain to which element the buffalo should be assigned4 ,he seems to be associated with all of them47 ,sun-dog 7,f8 ,e874 ,eagle ,thunder-,being 7,a8 ,f74 ,elk ,eagle4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lxx1 ,no4 #agh2 an elk's horns and eagle's tail47 ,sun ,eagle 7,f ,a74 ,star ,eagle 7,f8 ,a74 ,stone ,eagle 7,e8 ,a74 ,iron ,eagle4 ,crow ,eagle4 ,owl ,eagle4 ,weasel ,eagle4 ,grizzly-bear ,hawk4 ,fire ,hawk4 ,scarlet ,hawk ,whirlwind4 ,hawk ,ghost4 ,iron ,hawk4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lvi1 ,no4 #dg2 the hawk is blue47 ,iron ,wolf4 ,wolf ,ghost4 ,fire ,wind 7,f ,a74 ,fire ,lightning4 ,iron ,lightning4 ,iron ,star4 ,iron ,boy4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lviii1 ,no4 #ha2 a boy painted blue47 ,iron ,crow4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lvi1 ,no4 #dg2 a crow painted blue47 ,crow ,ghost4 ,iron ,elk4 ,female-elk ,boy4 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,lvii1 ,no4 #ff2 the head and shoulders of a boy joined to a female elk47 ,iron ,dog4 ,dog ,ghost4 ,bowlder ,thunder-,being 7,e ,f74 ,iron ,whirlwind4 ,iron ,beaver4 ,small-bird ,beaver4 ,iron ,owl4 ,cloud ,hail4 ,iron ,cloud4 ,fire ,cloud4 ,iron ,wind4 ,stone ,ghost4 ,cloud ,black-bear4 ,hermaphrodite ,ghost767 ,iron ,kingfisher4 ,cloud ,horse4 ,iron ,horse4 ,lightning ,horse4 ,earth 7or ,ground7 ,horse4 ,wind ,horse4 ,fire ,horse4 ,black-bird ,horse4 ,small-bird ,man 7or1 ,indian2 #dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,liv1 ,no4 #bh2 bird's head and wings on a man's body74 ,dog ,rattlesnake4 ,there are several 8,waiun0 names3 ,cloud ,waiun1 ,fire ,waiun1 ,night ,waiun1 and ,iron ,waiun4 ,the last one has for its pictograph a man with a hat1 i4 e41 a white man1 and can hardly have any mystic significance4 ,the name1 ,waiun1 originally meant 8guardian spirit10 but it is now applied to white people 7 #abb74 ,in the absence of the pictographs1 we can not tell whether ,cloud ,waiun1 ,fire ,waiun1 and ,night ,waiun refer to guardian spirits 7in which case they are mystic names connected with cults7 or to white men4 ,most of the above names are taken from the ,dakota census lists4 ,the iwere lists furnish only two composite names of this character3 ,iron ,hawk ,female1 and ,pigeon ,thunder-being4 ,the ,kansa list has ,moon ,hawk and ,moon ,hawk ,female1 the latter name1 which is found in the ,omaha and ,ponka list1 suggesting the ,egyptian figure of a woman's body with a hawk's head1 surmounted by a crescent moon4 ,horse ,eagle appears to be a sort of ,pegasus4 ,buffalo-bull ,eagle may refer to the myth of the ,orphan and the ,buffalo-woman1 in which we learn that the ,buffalo people ascended through the air to the upper world4#cai ,,personal ,,names ,,from ,,horned ,,beings4 #cid4 ,the ,dakota lists have several names of horned beings1 as follows3 ,horned ,grizzly-bear1 ,horned ,horse 7#dth ,eth41 ,pl4 ,,liv1 ,no4 #bi1 and ,pl4 ,,lxxi1 ,no4 #aic71 ,horned ,dog1 ,horned ,eagle1 ,gray ,horned ,thunder-,being1 ,horned ,deer1 ,black ,horned ,boy1 and ,snake ,horn4 ,no attempt to explain these names has been made4 ,among the ,winnebago1 the following names refer to water monsters1 and belong to the ,waktceqi or ,water-monster gens3 ,horn on one side 7equivalent to the ,dakota1 ,he-sania71 ,horns on both sides1 ,two ,horns1 ,four ,horns1 and ,five ,horns4 ,the ,winnebago list has the name ,four ,women 7in one71 with which compare what has been said about the ,double-,woman 7 #bea74 ,,names ,,derived ,,from ,,several ,,homogeneous ,,objects ,,or ,,beings4 ,an examination of the personal name lists reveals such names as ,first or ,one ,grizzly-bear1 ,two ,grizzly-bears1 ,three ,grizzly-bears1 ,four ,grizzly-bears1 ,many ,grizzly-bears2 ,one ,path1 ,two ,paths1 ,four ,paths ,female1 ,many ,paths2 ,one ,cloud1 ,two ,clouds1 ,three ,clouds1 ,many ,clouds2 ,one ,crow1 ,two ,crows1 ,three ,crows1 ,four ,crows1 ,many ,crows4 ,the author suspects that these names and many others of a similar character are symbolic of the four quarters and of the upper and lower worlds1 and that the ,indian who was named after the larger number of mystic objects enjoyed the protection of more spirits than did he whose name referred to the smaller number4 ,this accords with the ,cherokee notion described by ,mr4 ,mooney in his article on the ,cherokee theory and practice of medicine3#cbj ,the shaman is represented as calling first on the ,red ,hawk from the east1 then on the ,blue ,hawk in the north1 the two hawks accomplishing more by working together4 ,still more is effected when the ,black ,hawk from the west joins them1 and a complete victory is won when the ,white ,hawk from the south joins the others4 ,compare with this the ,osage opinion that the man who could show seven sticks 7representing seven brave or generous deeds7 was of more importance than he who could show only six sticks4 ,,return ,,of ,,the ,,spirit ,,to ,,the ,,eponym4 #cie4 ,in two of the buffalo gentes of the ,omaha 7the ,ike-sab and ,haga7 there is a belief that the spirits of deceased members of those gentes return to the buffaloes4 ,does the abode of the disembodied spirit differ in the gentes according to the nature of the eponymic ancestor8 ,for instance1 is there a belief among the ,elk people that their spirits at death return to the ancestral ,elk8 ,,functions ,,of ,,gentes ,,and ,,subgentes4 #cif4 ,in several tribes there seems to have been a division of labor among the gentes and subgentes1 that is1 each social division of the tribe had its special religious duties4 ,in the ,omaha tribe we find the following3 the ,elk gens regulated war2 it kept the war tent1 war pipes1 and the bag containing poisons2 it invoked the ,thunder-being1 who was supposed to be the god of war1 and it sent out the scouts4 ,the ,ike-sab and ,haga gentes were the leading peace gentes2 they regulated the buffalo hunt and the cultivation of the soil4 ,the ,haga gens had the control of the peace pipes1 and a member of that gens lighted the pipes on all ceremonial occasions except at the time of the anointing of the sacred pole4#cba ,the ,ike-sab gens kept the peace pipes1 and a member of that gens acted as crier on many occasions1 the other crier being a member of the ,kaze or ,wind gens4 ,an ,ictasanda man usually filled and emptied the pipes2 but a ,haga man filled them when the sacred pole was anointed4 ,the e-pa-it#8aj keeper of a sacred pipe really kept instead the sacred tobacco pouch and buffalo skull4 ,the ,ike-sab and e-pa-it#8aj keepers carried the two pipes around the circle of chiefs4 ,the ,black bear people aided the ,elk people in the worship of the ,thunder-being in the spring of the year4 #cig4 ,the following division of labor existed in the ,ponka tribe3 ,the ,wasabe-hit#8aj and ,hisada gentes led in the worship of the ,thunder-being4 ,the ixida and ,nikapana gentes led in war4 ,the ,wacabe1 ,maka1 and ,nuqe1 all buffalo gentes1 regulated the buffalo hunt4 ,the ,wajaje 7,reptile people7 with whom used to be the ,necta or ,owl people1 appear to have been servants of the subaquatic powers4 #cih4 ,in the ,kansa tribe we find that the ,earth ,lodge and ,elk gentes consecrated the mystic fireplaces whenever a new village was established2 that the ,earth ,lodge people consecrated the corn1 and regulated the buffalo hunt as well as farming2 that the ,elk people directed the attack on the buffalo herd2 that the ,ghost people announced all deaths2 that the two ,haga gentes led in war and in mourning for the dead2 that the ,tciju wactage was a peace-making gens2 that a member of the ,deer gens was the crier for the tribe2 that the member of the ,l or ,thunder-being gens could not take part in the waqpele gaxe4 7 #bh7 and must remain in the rear of the other warriors on such an occasion2 and that the ,wind people1 who had to pitch their tents in the rear of the other gentes had a ceremony which they performed whenever there was a blizzard 7 #ee74 #cii4 ,in the author's account of ,osage war customs he relates the following incidents3 ,on the first day of preparation for the warpath the ,black bear people bring willows and kindle a fire outside the war tent4 ,on the same day some other ,haa people deposit branches of dried willow in some place out of sight of the war tent1 and the uqe men 7part of the ,buffalo-bull gens7 bring in those branches4 ,on the next day men of the ,night gens 7a sort of ,black bear people7 set the willow branches on fire1 and they and the ,elder ,osage people say prayers4 ,after this there is a struggle to secure pieces of the charcoal4 ,an ,elk man and a ,kase man act as criers4 ,on the third day an ,osage man brings in the sacred bag for the ,haa or ,waae mourner 7the gens of each man is not specified1 but both men belong to the right or war side of the tribe71 and a ,sinsae man brings in a like bag for the mourner belonging to the ,tsiu or peace side of the tribe4 ,on the fourth day a woman of a ,buffalo gens on the right or ,haa side of the tribe lays down two strips of buffalo hide so that the warriors may take the first step on the warpath4 ,after the warriors start1 a uqe man is taken ahead of them in order to perform some ceremony which has not been recorded4 ,on the return of the war party the warriors are met outside of the village by an old man of the ,kase or ,wind gens4 ,he performs certain ceremonies as he walks around the party 7beginning at the north and ending at the east71 and then he tells them whether they can enter the village4 ,the clothing of the returning warriors becomes the property of the old ,kase man and his attendant4 ,the ,kase gens of the ,osage tribe is called the ,ipats#81 because it devolves on a member of that gens to fill the peace pipes4 ,the corresponding gens of the ,kaze tribe is called ,ibatc#8 or ,haga-jiga4 ,,the 8,,messiah ,,craze40 #djj4 ,since the present article was begun there has arisen the so-called 8,messiah craze0 among the ,dakota and other tribes of ,indians4 ,the author does not feel competent to describe this new form of ,indian religion1 but he suspects that some features of it are either willful or accidental perversions of the teachings of the missionaries4 99 99 99 99 99 #dja4 ,in presenting this study of ,siouan cults to the scientific world the author has a painful sense of its incompleteness1 but he hopes that the facts here fragmentarily collated may prove helpful to future investigators4 ,the inferences1 provisional assumptions1 and suggestive queries in this chapter are not published as final results4 ,even should any of them prove to be erroneous the author's labor will not be in vain1 for through the correction of his mistakes additional information will be collected1 tending to the attainment of the truth1 which should be the aim of all mankind4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bgg3 ,rev4 ,s4 ,d4 ,peet1 on the tradition of aborigines of ,north ,america1 in ,jour4 ,vict4 ,inst41 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 pp4 #bbi-bdg4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,ibid41 p4 #bcb4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,ibid41 p4 #bcc4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,om4 ,soc41 #c;d ,ann4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethnol41 #acf1 #acg4 ,footnote #bha3 ,ibid41 #ai1 #ba1 #ca1 #ig1 etc4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,see ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,july1 #ahhe1 pp4 #fgc1 #fgd1 ,figs4 #c and #d4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,the reader is cautioned against supposing that 8air0 as used in this section is employed in the scientific sense1 because the ,indians were ignorant of the nature of the atmosphere4 ,they distinguish between the 8,something-that-moves0 7which we term the 8,wind-maker10 8,wind-makers0 in the plural7 and the winds1 and they also had distinct names for the clouds and 8upper world40 ,they also had special names for the ,four ,quarters 7,dakota1 tatuye topa2 egiha1 tade ui dubaha74 ,footnote #bhd3 ,see #cc where there is an account of the invocation of the winds at the consecration of the fireplaces4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,the ,omaha ,buffalo ,medicine-,men1 in ,jour4 ,amer4 ,folk-lore1 ,no4 ,x1 p4 #bai1 and note4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,it is interesting to observe in this connection that the ,director of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 in an address entitled 8,outlines of the philosophy of the ,north ,american ,indians40 ,new ,york1 #ahgg1 7p4 #aj71 spoke of 8the god of the south1 whose breath is the winds40 ,footnote #bhg3 ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,july1 #ahhe1 p4 #fgf4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,an4 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,ibid1 p4 #bfh4 ,footnote #bij3 ,ibid1 pp4 #bgb1 #bgc4 ,footnote #bia3 ,om4 ,soc41 #c;d ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #bib3 ,osage ,war ,customs1 in ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,feb41 #ahhd1 pp4 #aca1 #acb4 ,footnote #bic3 ,the west and north are supposed to be the peace quarters1 and the east and south the war quarters4 ,see ,fig4 #aid and #cgh4 ,footnote #bid3 ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #bii4 ,footnote #bie3 ,contr4 to ,n4 ,a4 ,ethnol41 vol4 ,,ix1 ,dakota ,grammar1 ,texts1 and ,ethnography1 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #bif3 ,ibid41 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #big3 ,from ,renville's account of the tiyotipi1 in ibid41 pp4 #bjj1 #bjb4 ,footnote #bih3 ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #cag4 ,osage ,war ,customs1 pp4 #aah1 #aai1 #abd1 #aca4 ,footnote #bii3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethnol41 vol4 ,,vi1 ,the egiha ,language1 p4 #cge4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,the author accepts this without hesitation4 ,footnote #cja3 ,yet these feathers and down are often colored3 see #aab1 #aaf1 #acb1 #bci1 #bdb1 and #bfc4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,an4 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bhe1 note #aj4 ,written in #ahhb4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,an4 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bfj4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,as it was customary for gentes of the same phratry to exchange personal names1 a 7,kansa7 ,deer name1 for instance1 being given to a 7,kansa7 ,buffalo man1 and vice versa1 the author thinks that an exchange of symbolic colors might be expected4 ,compare what ,matthews tells about the exchange of white and black among the ,navajo1 in #chj4 ,footnote #cje3 ,winona1 name of the first child if a daughter1 not 8first daughter40 ,footnote #cjf3 ,osage ,traditions1 in #fth ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #cgi4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #bbc1 #bbd4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,osage war customs1 in ,am4 ,naturalist1 ,feb41 #ahhd1 pp4 #aah1 #abf1 #acb4 ,footnote #cji3 ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #cbi1 #ccj4 ,footnote #caj3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #caa3 ,a ,kansa saying3 ,l1 ,tcedga1 ,taqtci aba cki wanaxe kinukiye1 abe au1 ,they say that the ,thunder-being1 ,buffalo1 and ,deer gentes cause a ghost to 8kinu10 referring to some effect on a ghost which can not be explained4 ,footnote #cab3 ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #cac3 ,am4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci4 ,proc41 ,vol4 #ca1 p4 #ehc4 ,see1 too1 ,an4 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bfb1 lines #ae-ah4 ,footnote #cad3 ,compare ,an4 ,rept4 ,peabody ,museum1 ,vol4 #c1 p4 #bhi1 note #a4 ,footnote #cae3 ,osage ,war ,customs1 in ,amer4 ,naturalist1 ,feb4 #ahhd1 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #caf3 ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d4 ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #bbi1 #bcc4 ,footnote #cag3 ,symbolizing the fire4 ,footnote #cah3 ,this seems to point to a subaquatic origin4 ,see ,om4 ,soc41 p4 #bca4 ,footnote #cai3 ,contr4 ,n4 ,a4 ,ethn41 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #adb1 #adf4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,jour4 ,am4 ,folk-lore1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 ,,viii1 pp4 #di1 #ej4 ,footnote #cba3 ,om4 ,soc41 in #c;d ,an4 ,rept4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 pp4 #bbb1 #bbc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,in the ,indian language as presented here1 as in ,english1 there are hyphenated words4 ,in the original1 some hyphens occurred at the end of a line4 ,e4g41 in #bh41 there appears the word #8gayakiy-' at the end of a line1 followed on the next line by #8da'4 ,in cases like this1 where it is not possible to determine by looking at similar words whether the word contained a hyphen or was simply split over two lines1 the hyphen has been retained and a note has been added4 ,inconsistencies in diacritical marks have been corrected when there is an overwhelming majority of examples of a given word having the same marks1 as in the case of 8,uuita0 which appears three times with a dot under the 8c0 and once without1 and left as is otherwise4 ,the same is true for inconsistencies in spelling4 ,inconsistencies in hyphenation have been retained4 ,obvious mistakes in punctuation have been corrected4 ,most of the sections in the original started with a section sign 77 followed by a space followed by the section number4 ,a few were missing the space2 the space has been put in all sections1 for consistency4 ,some of the illustrations had explanatory text both above and below the image2 that is depicted here like this3 ,illustration3 ,text which was above the image 8image0 ,text which was below the image ,in ,footnote #d there is a reference to what must be 8,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion0 by ,andrew ,lang2 the original has 8,myth4 ,ritual1 and ,religion04 ,on p4 #cgf there is a quotation starting 8,on one occasion4440 ,because of injudicious use of quotation marks1 it is impossible to tell where the quotation ends4 ,on p4 #cge1 the quotation of ,samuel ,fremont about the word 8abicude0 is not closed2 it cannot be determined whether he spoke one sentence or two4 ,in footnote #bg there is a mark after the #8k' in the third word4 ,it may be an accent mark or it may be the closing single quote used to describe an 8exploded k0 as described in #c4 ,it does not look much like either4 ,but as there are no other instances of an accent mark after a #8k' in the book1 it has arbitrarily been made a closing single quote4 ,on p4 #chd1 the 8,translation0 had a double-quote 707 at the end but not at the beginning2 as there are double-quotes within the translation1 the double-quote at the end has been removed4 ,on p4 #cij1 in #da1 the phrase 8you do not acquire personal mysterious power0 had 8myterious0 in the original4 ,on p4 #cia1 in #db1 the phrase 8what ,matthews tells about the ,hidatsa reverence0 had 8tell0 in the original4 ,on p4 #djb1 in #dh1 the phrase 8they themselves have not had visions of the objects0 had 8obects0 in the original4 ,on p4 #daj1 about 8,,omaha ,,nikie ,,customs01 there were seven footnotes1 numbered #a to #g1 but the anchors appeared in the order3 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #e4 ,they are now numbered #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 and #ff1 and the anchors appear in the order #fj4 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fd4 ,that is1 two separate places in the text have pointers to footnote #fd4 ,on p4 #dca1 in #ic1 the word 8counter-beliefs0 was split over two lines3 8counter-0 and 8beliefs04 8,counter-beliefs0 was arbitrarily chosen over 8counterbeliefs04 ,on p4 #dcf1 in #aja1 the phrase 8some other part of it is sacrificed by the person0 had 8sacrified0 in the original4 ,on p4 #dcf1 in #aja1 in the phrase 8and is always constant with individuals0 had 8individuls0 in the original4 ,on p4 #ddi there is a quotation from ,smet starting 8the ,great ,spirit1 to the sun02 there is no ending quotation mark for this4 ,on p4 #dee1 in #afj1 the word 8horseback0 was split over two lines in the original3 8horse-0 and 8back04 8horseback0 was arbitrarily chosen over 8horse-back04 ,in footnote #aeg the original had 8,bept40 instead of 8,rept40 ,footnote #bja1 8,western ,missions and ,missionaries1 p4 #adj0 has two anchors4 ,on p4 #dgi1 there is a section numbered #bca between section #bdi and section #bej4 ,it starts3 8,one of the ,dakota myths tells how ,unktomi killed himself04