,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,exponents are denoted by so for example #db indicates #d squared4 ,for consistency and clarity1 a space 7when absent7 has been placed between the number and the unit of weight lb4 and lbs4 giving for example '#ba lbs4' in place of '#balbs4' ,fractions1 usually in the form '#ad #c-d' in the original text1 have been converted to the form '#ad-c_/d' in this etext4 ,fractions in all tables have been converted to ,unicode etc41 for clarity and to conserve space in larger tables4 ,a few tables have non-,unicode fractions which remain in the form #a-g_/ab4 ,also1 in a few larger tables with italic styling on some text1 this italic styling has been removed1 for clarity and to conserve space4 ,in a few cases a word has been abbreviated to conserve table space3 cal4 caliber2 diam4 diameter4 ,some instances of ,tome in ,french citations have been changed to ,tome 7no italic71 for consistency4 ,some accents and spelling in ,french citations have been corrected4 ,for consistency1 instances of 'fireworks' and 'fire works' have been changed to the predominant form 'fire-works'4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,more detail can be found at the end of the book4 ,a ,,system ,,of ,,pyrotechny1 ,,comprehending ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practice1 ,,with ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,chemistry2 ,,designed ,,for ,,exhibition ,,and ,,for ,,war4 ,,in ,,four ,,parts3 ,,containing ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,substances ,,used ,,in ,,fire-,,works2 ,,the ,,instruments1 ,,utensils1 ,,and ,,manipulations2 ,,fire-,,works ,,for ,,exhibition2 ,,and ,,military ,,pyrotechny4 ,,adapted ,,to ,,the ,,military ,,and ,,naval ,,officer1 ,,the ,,man ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,artificer4 ,,by ,,james ,,cutbush1 ,a4 ,s4 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,late ,,acting ,,professor ,,of ,,chemistry ,,and ,,mineralogy1 ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states' ,,military ,,academy--,,member ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,philosophical ,,society--,,corresponding ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,columbian ,,institute--,,member ,,of ,,the ,,linn,,an ,,and ,,agricultural ,,societies ,,of ,,philadelphia--,,late ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,columbian ,,chemical ,,society1 ,,and ,,vice-,,president ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,for ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,a ,,rational ,,system ,,of ,,education1 ,c4 ,c4 ,c4 ,,philadelphia3 ,,published ,,by ,,clara ,f4 ,,cutbush4 #ahbe4 ,,eastern ,,district ,,of ,,pennsylvania1 to wit3 ,,be ,,it ,,remembered1 that on the ninth day of ,february1 in the forty-ninth year of the independence of the ,united ,states of ,america1 ,a4 ,d4 #ahbe1 ,,clara ,f4 ,,cutbush1 of the said district1 hath deposited in this office the title of a book1 the right whereof she claims as proprietor1 in the words following1 to wit3 ,a ,system of ,pyrotechny1 comprehending the ,theory and ,practice1 with the application of ,chemistry2 designed for ,exhibition and for ,war4 ,in four parts3 containing an account of the ,substances used in ,fire-,works2 the ,instruments1 ,utensils1 and ,manipulations2 ,fire-,works for ,exhibition2 and ,military ,pyrotechny4 ,adapted to the ,military and ,naval ,officer1 the ,man of ,science1 and ,artificer4 ,by ,james ,cutbush1 ,a4 ,s4 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 late ,acting ,professor of ,chemistry and ,mineralogy in the ,united ,states' ,military ,academy--,member of the ,american ,philosophical ,society--,corresponding ,member of the ,columbian ,institute--,member of the ,linnan and ,agricultural ,societies of ,philadelphia--late ,president of the ,columbian ,chemical ,society1 and ,vice-,president of the ,society for the ,promotion of a ,rational ,system of ,education1 c4 c4 c4 ,in conformity to the act of the congress of the ,united ,states1 intituled ,an act for the encouragement of learning1 by securing the copies of maps1 charts1 and books1 to the authors and proprietors of such copies1 during the times therein mentioned4--,and also to the act1 entitled1 ,an act supplementary to an act1 entitled1 ,an act for the encouragement of learning1 by securing the copies of maps1 charts1 and books1 to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned1 and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing1 engraving1 and etching historical and other prints4 ,d4 ,,caldwell1 ,clerk of the ,eastern ,district of ,pennsylvania4 ,to the ,corps of ,cadets1 of the ,united ,states' ,military ,academy1 ,west ,point2 ,,gentlemen1 ,to you1 a scientific and distinguished ,corps1 this work on ,pyrotechny is respectfully dedicated4 ,your liberal subscription first encouraged me to undertake its publication2 for which1 accept my grateful thanks4 ,,clara ,f4 ,,cutbush4 ,,advertisement4 ,in submitting the present work to the public1 it may be proper to state some of the difficulties1 under which it has been published1 and to bespeak an indulgent allowance for any imperfections1 which may be observed in the style or arrangement4 ,as a posthumous work1 it has been deprived of those final improvements and emendations1 which are generally made by ,authors1 while their works are in progress of publication4 ,while1 however1 the work has laboured under these disadvantages1 the publisher has felt it her duty to make every arrangement1 to supply1 as far as possible1 the want of the author's personal superintendence of the publication4 ,this course was due to the scientific reputation of her late husband1 as well as to the numerous and generous patrons of the work4 ,philadelphia1 ,april1 #ahbe4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,page4 ,pyrotechny in ,general1 #a ,sec4 i4 ,definition of ,pyrotechny1 ib4 ii4 ,general ,theory of ,pyrotechny1 ib4 iii4 ,remarks on the ,nature of ,particular ,compositions1 #i iv4 ,of ,illuminations1 #bc v4 ,of some of the ,feats or ,performances by ,fire1 #bf ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,of the ,substances used in the ,formation of ,fire-works1 #dh ,sec4 i4 ,of ,nitrate of ,potassa1 or ,saltpetre1 ib4 ii4 ,of ,nitrate of ,soda1 #gc iii4 ,of ,chlorate of ,potassa1 #gd iv4 ,of ,sulphur1 #gh v4 ,of ,phosphorus1 #hd vi4 ,of ,charcoal1 #hg vii4 ,of ,gunpowder1 #ig viii4 ,of ,lampblack1 #add ix4 ,of ,soot1 #ade x4 ,of ,turpentine1 ,rosin1 and ,pitch1 #adf xi4 ,of ,common ,coal1 or ,pitcoal1 #adi xii4 ,of ,naphtha1 ,petroleum1 and ,asphaltum1 #aec xiii4 ,of ,oil of ,spike1 #aef xiv4 ,of ,amber1 ib4 xv4 ,of ,camphor1 #aeg xvi4 ,of ,gum ,benzoin1 and ,benzoic ,acid1 #afa xvii4 ,of ,storax ,calamite1 #afb xviii4 ,of ,essential ,oils1 #afc xix4 ,of ,mastich1 ib4 xx4 ,of ,copal1 #afd xxi4 ,of ,myrrh1 ib4 xxii4 ,of ,sugar1 #afe xxiii4 ,of ,sal ,prunelle1 #afg xxiv4 ,of ,alcohol1 #afh xxv4 ,of ,fulminating ,mercury1 #aga xxvi4 ,of ,fulminating ,silver1 #agc xxvii4 ,of ,fulminating ,gold1 #age xxviii4 ,of ,fulminating ,platinum1 #agf xxix4 ,of ,detonating ,powder from ,indigo1 #agg xxx4 ,of the ,fulminating ,compound1 called ,iodide of ,azote1 ib4 xxxi4 ,of ,detonating ,oil1 or ,chloride of ,azote1 #agi xxxii4 ,of ,pyrophorus1 #ahj xxxiii4 ,of ,sal ,ammoniac1 #ahd xxxiv4 ,of ,corrosive ,sublimate1 #ahf xxxv4 ,of ,orpiment1 #ahg xxxvi4 ,of ,antimony1 #ahh xxxvii4 ,of ,carbonate of ,potassa1 #ahi xxxviii4 ,of ,wood ,ashes1 #aib xxxix4 ,of ,clay1 #aic xl4 ,of ,quicklime1 #aid xli4 ,of ,lapis ,calaminaris1 #aie xlii4 ,of ,zinc1 #aif xliii4 ,of ,brass1 #aig xliv4 ,of ,bronze1 #aih xlv4 ,of ,mosaic ,gold1 #bjj xlvi4 ,of ,iron and ,steel1 #bja xlvii4 ,of ,glass1 #baj xlviii4 ,of ,glue and ,isinglass1 #bad xlix4 ,of ,wood1 #baf l4 ,of ,linseed ,oil1 #bah li4 ,of ,gum ,arabic and ,gum ,tragacanth1 #bai lii4 ,of ,cotton1 ib4 liii4 ,of ,bone and ,ivory1 #bbj liv4 ,of ,galbanum1 #bba lv4 ,of ,tow and ,hemp1 #bbb lvi4 ,of ,blue ,vitriol1 ib4 lvii4 ,of ,nitrate of ,copper1 #bbc lviii4 ,of ,strontia1 #bbd lix4 ,of ,boracic ,acid1 #bbf ,,part ,,ii4 ,instruments1 ,tools1 and ,utensils1 #bbh ,,chapter ,i4 ,of the ,laboratory1 #bbh ,sec4 i4 ,of ,laboratory ,tools and ,utensils1 ib4 ii4 ,of ,mandrils and ,cylinders for forming ,cartridges and ,cases1 #bcj iii4 ,of ,rammers1 ,charges1 and ,mallets1 #bca iv4 ,of ,utensils necessary for constructing ,signal ,rockets1 #bcb v4 ,of the rolling or plane ,board1 #bcc vi4 ,of the ,driver for ,charging large ,rockets1 #bcc vii4 ,of ,mortars and ,pestles1 ib4 viii4 ,of the ,choaker or ,strangler1 ib4 ix4 ,of the ,table and ,sack for mealing ,gunpowder1 #bcd x4 ,of ,sieves1 ib4 xi4 ,of the ,paper ,press1 ib4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,preliminary operations in the preparation of fire-works1 and observations on the preservation of ,gunpowder1 and sundry manipulations1 #bce ,sec4 i4 ,of the ,workshop1 ib4 ii4 ,of the ,magazine1 ib4 iii4 ,of the ,driving or ,ramming of ,sky-rockets1 #bcf iv4 ,of the ,boring of ,rockets1 #bch v4 ,of the ,preservation of ,steel or ,iron filings1 #bci vi4 ,of the ,making of ,wheels and other ,works incombustible1 #bdj vii4 ,of the ,formation of ,rocket and other ,cases1 #bdc viii4 ,of ,tourbillon cases1 #bde ix4 ,of ,balloon ,cases1 or ,paper ,shells1 ib4 x4 ,of ,cases for ,illumination ,port-,fires1 #bdf xi4 ,of ,cases and ,moulds for ,common ,port-,fires1 #bdg xii4 ,of ,pasteboard1 and its ,uses1 #bdi xiii4 ,of the ,pulverization of ,substances1 #bec xiv4 ,of ,mixtures1 ib4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,fire-,works in ,general1 #bee ,,chapter ,i4 ,observations on ,fire-works1 #bee ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,fire-works for ,theatrical ,purposes1 #bfb ,sec4 i4 ,of ,puffs1 or ,bouffes1 ib4 ii4 ,of ,eruptions1 #bfc iii4 ,of the ,flames1 #bfd iv4 ,of the ,fire-rain1 ib4 v4 ,of other ,compositions for ,fire-rain in ,chinese ,fire1 #bfe vi4 ,of ,thunderbolts1 7,foudres71 ib4 vii4 ,of ,dragons and other ,monsters1 #bff viii4 ,of ,lightning1 #bfg ix4 ,of the ,artifice of ,destruction1 ib4 x4 ,of the ,spur-,fire1 ib4 xi4 ,of the ,coloured ,flame of ,alcohol1 #bfi xii4 ,of ,red ,fire1 #bgj ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,portable ,fire-works1 #bga ,sec4 i4 ,of ,exhibitions on ,tables1 ib4 ii4 ,of ,table ,rockets1 #bgb iii4 ,of the ,transparent ,illuminated ,table ,star1 #bgc iv4 ,of ,detonating ,works1 ib4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,scented ,fire-works1 #bhc ,sec4 i4 ,of ,pastilles1 #bhf ii4 ,of ,vases of ,scent1 #bhh iii4 ,remarks on ,spontaneous ,accension1 ib4 iv4 ,of ,torches1 and ,odoriferous ,flambeaux1 #bhi v4 ,remarks concerning ,odoriferous and ,fetid ,fire1 #bij ,,chapter ,v4 ,of ,matches1 ,leaders1 and ,touch ,paper1 #bib ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,of the ,furniture1 or ,decorations for ,fire-works1 #bih ,sec4 i4 ,of ,serpents1 ib4 ii4 ,of ,crackers1 #cjj iii4 ,of ,single ,reports1 #cja iv4 ,of ,serpent ,stars1 ib4 v4 ,of ,whirling ,serpents1 #cjb vi4 ,of ,chinese ,flyers1 #cjc vii4 ,of ,simple ,stars1 ib4 viii4 ,of ,rolled ,stars1 #cjd ix4 ,of ,cracking ,stars1 ib4 x4 ,of ,sundry ,compositions for ,stars1 designed for ,various ,purposes1 ib4 xi4 ,of the ,fire-rain1 7filamentous71 #cji xii4 ,of ,sparks1 ib4 xiii4 ,of ,gold-rain1 #caj xiv4 ,of ,rains in ,general1 for ,sky-,rockets1 c4 #caa xv4 ,of ,rain-,falls and ,stars1 double and single1 ib4 xvi4 ,of substances which show in ,sparks1 #cab xvii4 ,of ,italian ,roses1 or ,fixed ,stars1 #cac xviii4 ,of ,lances of ,illumination1 white1 blue and yellow1 #cad xix4 ,of ,slow ,white-flame ,lances1 #cae xx4 ,of ,lights1 ib4 xxi4 ,of ,lances for ,petards1 #cah xxii4 ,of ,lances for ,service1 ib4 xxiii4 ,of ,marrons1 ib4 xxiv4 ,of ,shining ,marrons1 #cbj xxv4 ,of ,saucissons1 #cba xxvi4 ,of ,fire-,pumps1 #cbb xxvii4 ,of the ,volcano of ,lemery1 #cbc xxviii4 ,of the ,blue and ,green ,match for ,cyphers1 ,devices and ,decorations1 #cbd xxix4 ,of the ,purple or ,violet ,match1 #cbe xxx4 ,of ,meteors1 ib4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,of ,rockets and their ,appendages1 #cbf ,sec4 i4 ,of the ,caliber and ,proportion of ,rockets1 ib4 ii4 ,of the ,composition of ,sky-,rockets1 and ,observations on its ,preparation1 and on other ,subjects respecting rockets1 #cbi iii4 ,of the ,heading of ,rockets1 #ccd iv4 ,of the ,decorations for ,rockets1 and the ,manner of filling their ,heads1 #cce v4 ,of the ,dimensions1 and ,poise of ,rocket-,sticks1 #ccf vi4 ,of the ,mode of ,discharging ,rockets1 #ccg vii4 ,of the ,appendages1 and ,combinations of ,rockets1 #cdj viii4 ,of ,swarmers or ,small ,rockets1 #cdc ix4 ,of ,scrolls for ,sky-,rockets1 and of ,strung1 ,tailed1 ,drove1 and ,rolling ,stars1 #cdd x4 ,of ,line-,rockets and their ,decorations1 #cde xi4 ,of ,signal ,sky-,rockets1 #cdg ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,of ,sundry ,fire-works1 denominated ,air-works1 #cdg ,sec4 i4 ,of the ,composition1 and ,mode of ,forming large and small ,gerbes1 #cdh ii4 ,of ,paper ,mortars1 #cdi iii4 ,of ,mortars to throw ,aigrettes1 c4 #cej iv4 ,of ,making ,balloon ,fuses1 #ceg v4 ,of the ,mosaic and ,common ,tourbillon1 #ceh vi4 ,of ,mortars for throwing ,aigrettes1 and the ,manner of ,loading and ,firing them1 #cfc vii4 ,of ,making1 ,loading1 and ,firing ,pots des ,brins1 #cfd viii4 ,remarks respecting ,fire ,pots1 #cfe ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,of ,particular ,compositions1 #cfg ,sec4 i4 ,of ,fire-,jets1 or ,fire-,spouts1 ib4 ii4 ,of ,priming and ,whitening ,cases1 and ,remarks concerning ,spunk and ,touch ,paper1 #cgj iii4 ,of ,chinese ,fire1 #cga iv4 ,of ,bengal ,lights1 #cgg v4 ,of ,roman ,candles1 #chj vi4 ,of ,mosaic ,simples1 #cha vii4 ,of ,mosaic ,tourbillons1 #chb viii4 ,of ,hydrogen ,gas in ,fire-works1 #chc ,,chapter ,x4 ,of the ,manner of fixing and arranging ,fire-works in ,general for ,exhibition1 #chg ,sec4 i4 ,of the ,composition of ,wheel-,cases1 ,standing and ,fixed1 #chh ii4 ,of ,single1 ,vertical1 ,horizontal1 ,spiral1 and other ,wheels1 #cia iii4 ,of ,revolving ,suns1 #cie iv4 ,of ,fixed ,suns1 #cig v4 ,of ,fixed ,suns with ,transparent ,faces1 #cih vi4 ,of the ,rose-,piece and ,sun1 #cii vii4 ,of the ,manner of changing a ,horizontal to a ,vertical ,wheel1 and representing a ,sun in front1 ib4 viii4 ,of ,caprices and ,fire-,wands1 #djj ix4 ,of ,palm and other ,trees1 #dja x4 ,of the ,pyramid of ,flower ,pots1 #djb xi4 ,of the ,dodecaedron1 #djc xii4 ,of ,cascades of ,fire1 #djd xiii4 ,of ,chinese ,fountains1 and ,parasols1 #dje xiv4 ,of ,wings1 or ,cross ,fire1 #djf xv4 ,of ,galleries of ,fire1 and ,batteries of ,roman and ,mosaic ,candles1 ib4 xvi4 ,of ,girandoles1 and their ,modifications1 #djg xvii4 ,of ,cracking ,caprices1 ib4 xviii4 ,of the ,projected ,regulated ,piece of ,nine ,mutations1 #djh xix4 ,of the ,pyric or ,fire-,piece1 #dab xx4 ,of ,sundry ,illuminated ,figures1 #dac xxi4 ,of the ,spiral or ,endless ,screw1 and ,waved ,fire1 #dah xxii4 ,of the ,decoration of ,wheels1 ib4 xxiii4 ,of ,globes1 with their ,various ,decorations1 #dai xxiv4 ,of the ,representation of the ,moon and ,stars1 #dba xxv4 ,of the ,representation of ,sundry ,figures in ,fire1 #dbc xxvi4 ,of the ,representation of ,flat ,stars with a large ,body of ,fire1 #dbd xxvii4 ,of the ,single1 ,double1 and ,triple ,table ,wheel1 #dbe xxviii4 ,of ,decorations1 ,transparencies1 and ,illuminations1 ib4 xxix4 ,of ,imitative ,fire-works1 #ddj ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,of ,aquatic ,fire-works1 #ddb ,sec4 i4 ,of ,water ,rockets1 #ddc ii4 ,of ,pipes of ,communication1 ib4 iii4 ,of ,horizontal ,wheels for ,water1 #ddd iv4 ,of ,water ,mines1 ib4 v4 ,of ,fire ,globes for the ,water1 #dde vi4 ,of ,odoriferous ,water ,balloons1 #ddf vii4 ,of ,water ,balloons1 #ddg viii4 ,of ,water ,squibs1 #ddh ix4 ,of the ,water ,fire-,fountain1 ib4 x4 ,of ,swans and ,ducks1 to discharge ,rockets in ,water1 ib4 xi4 ,of ,discharging ,rockets under ,water1 #ddi xii4 ,of the ,representation of ,neptune in his ,chariot1 #dej xiii4 ,of the ,representation of a ,sea-,fight with small ,ships1 and the ,preparation of a ,fire-,ship1 #dea ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,of the ,arrangement of ,fire-works for ,exhibition1 #deb ,,part ,,iv4 ,military ,pyrotechny1 #def ,,chapter ,i4 ,observations in ,general1 #def ,sec4 i4 ,of ,cartridges1 #dfb ii4 ,of ,cannon ,cartridges1 #dfg ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,of ,matches1 #dga ,sec4 i4 ,of ,slow ,match1 ib4 ii4 ,of ,priming ,tubes1 #dge iii4 ,of ,quick ,matches1 #dgg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,port-,fires1 #dgi ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,of ,fuses for ,shells1 ,howitzes1 and ,grenades1 #dha ,sec4 i4 ,of the ,method of ,charging the ,fuses of ,bombs or ,shells1 #dhb ii4 ,of ,loading ,shells1 ,howitzes1 and ,grenades1 #dhd iii4 ,of ,fuses with ,dead ,light1 #dhe iv4 ,of the ,dimensions of ,fuses1 and the ,dimensions and ,charge of ,bombs1 ,howitzes1 and ,grenades1 #dhg ,,chapter ,v4 ,of ,incendiary ,fire-works1 #dij ,sec4 i4 ,of ,fire ,stone1 #dia ii4 ,of ,incendiary ,matches1 #dib iii4 ,of ,carcasses and ,fire ,balls1 ib4 iv4 ,of ,incendiary ,balls1 or ,fire ,balls1 to be thrown from ,cannon or by ,hand1 #dig v4 ,of ,smoke ,balls1 #dii vi4 ,of ,stink ,balls1 ib4 vii4 ,of ,poisoned ,balls1 ib4 viii4 ,of ,red-hot ,balls1 #dii ix4 ,of ,pitched ,tourteaux and ,fascines1 #ejj x4 ,of ,torches1 or ,flambeaux1 #eja xi4 ,of ,powder ,bags1 #ejc xii4 ,of the ,powder ,barrel1 ib4 xiii4 ,of the ,burning1 or ,illuminating ,barrel1 ib4 xiv4 ,of the ,thundering ,barrel1 #ejd xv4 ,of the ,petard1 #eje xvi4 ,of the ,stink-,fire ,lance1 #ejf xvii4 ,of the ,combustible ,substances used in1 and the ,manner of preparing1 a ,fire-,ship1 #ejg xviii4 ,of ,infernal ,machines1 #eab xix4 ,of the ,catamarin1 #ead xx4 ,of the ,american ,turtle1 #eae xxi4 ,of the ,torpedo1 #eba xxii4 ,of the ,marine ,incendiary ,kegs1 #ebc xxiii4 ,of ,sea ,lights1 #ebe xxiv4 ,of ,signal and ,war-rockets1 #ebf xxv4 ,of ,sky-,rockets1 7,meurtrires17 #ech xxvi4 ,of the ,rocket ,light-,ball1 #eci xxvii4 ,of the ,floating ,rocket ,carcass1 ib4 xxviii4 ,observations on ,rockets1 #edj xxix4 ,of the ,succouring ,rocket1 #edd xxx4 ,of the ,greek ,fire1 ib4 xxxi4 ,of ,mines and ,mining1 #eej xxxii4 ,of the ,means of ,increasing the ,strength of ,gunpowder for ,mining1 #eed xxxiii4 ,of ,incendiary ,bombs1 #eef xxxiv4 ,of ,murdering ,marrons1 #eeg xxxv4 ,of ,incendiary ,rope1 #eeh xxxvi4 ,of ,balloons of ,grenades1 of ,bombs1 and of ,flints or ,stone1 #eei xxxvii4 ,of ,spherical ,case ,shot1 ib4 xxxviii4 ,of the ,fire-,rain1 according to ,casimir ,siemienowicz1 #efj xxxix4 ,of the ,effect of ,mirrors in inflaming ,bodies at a ,distance1 #efb xl4 ,of ,incendiary and ,poisoned ,arrows1 #eff xli4 ,of ,pyrotechnical ,sponge1 #egj xlii4 ,of ,extinguishing ,flame with ,fired ,gunpowder1 #egb xliii4 ,of the ,inflammable ,dart1 #egd xliv4 ,of the ,firebrand1 ib4 xlv4 ,of the ,fire ,flask1 #ege xlvi4 ,of the ,trompe-,route1 ib4 xlvii4 ,of ,fire-,pots for ,ramparts1 ib4 xlviii4 ,of ,inflammable ,balls1 #egg xlix4 ,of ,pauly's ,inflammable ,powder1 ib4 l4 ,of ,extemporaneous ,fire1 #egh li4 ,of the ,indian ,white ,fire1 #ehj lii4 ,of the ,pyrophore of ,defence1 #eha ,,introduction4 ,in presenting this work to the public as a system of ,pyrotechny1 which1 we have reason to believe1 is the only full and connected system that has appeared1 we may be permitted to remark1 that1 in our arrangement of the subject1 we have appropriated separate heads for each article4 ,this plan1 of the subject being considered in chapters and sections1 and forming with the divisions of the work1 a connected system of arrangement1 enables the reader to have a full view of the whole1 and1 at the same time1 all the facts in detail belonging to the chapter1 or section under consideration4 ,by referring to the ,table of ,contents1 this plan will be seen without further comment4 ,the arrangement of the different articles in this manner1 necessarily comprehends in the onset all the substances1 which are employed in various preparations4 ,in considering this part of our subject1 we have given the chemical characters1 or peculiar properties of each substance respectively2 by which a rationale of pyrotechnical effects may be the better understood1 and1 consequently1 the action of bodies on each other better illustrated4 ,in this part we also comprehend the ,general ,theory of ,fire-works1 which it may be proper to remark1 we have drawn from the known effects of chemical action2 so far1 at least1 as the laws1 of affinity1 which govern such action1 are applicable to the subject4 ,the importance of this inquiry1 although having no relation to the mere manipulations of the artificer1 can not be doubted2 since a knowledge of chemistry has already improved the preparation of gunpowder1 and its effects are now known to be owing to the formation of sundry elastic aeriform fluids4 ,on this head1 that of the application of chemistry to ,pyrotechny1 we claim so much originality1 as1 so far as we know1 to have been the first1 who applied the principles of chemistry4 ,it is not to be expected in every instance1 that a rationale of the decomposition as it occurs1 or the order in which it takes place1 can be given with certainty2 because1 where a variety of substances enter into the same preparation1 which is frequently the case1 the affinities become complicated1 and the laws of action for that reason indeterminate1 and frequently anomalous4 ,but1 on the contrary1 in a variety of primary operating causes1 by which effects analogous in their nature result1 decomposition of course being the same1 the causes are well understood1 and the effects are thereby known1 and duly appreciated4 ,this1 for instance1 is the case with a mixture of nitrate of potassa1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 in the proportion necessary to form gunpowder2 for1 it is known1 that the explosive effects of powder are owing to the sudden production of a number of gases1 which suffer dilatation by the immense quantity of caloric liberated at the moment of combustion4 ,although the production of caloric by the inflammation of gunpowder is a case1 which cannot be explained by the present received theory of combustion1 as we have noticed in that article2 yet we know that it is a fact1 and that caloric is generated by the decomposition of the powder4 ,if we consider the primary cause of this decomposition1 we naturally inquire into the products of the combustion1 and endeavour to account for the production of the elastic aeriform fluids4 ,we know that carbon has the property of decomposing nitric acid1 and also nitrate of potassa2 for1 when it is brought in contact in the state of ignition with nitre1 a deflagration will ensue1 and carbonic acid be formed4 ,the quantity of this acid is in the direct ratio to the quantity of oxygen required to saturate a given quantity of carbon2 and therefore1 by employing certain proportions of nitre and charcoal1 the latter will decompose the former1 and by abstracting its oxygen1 on the same principle form carbonic acid1 while the azote1 the other constituent of nitric acid1 will be set at liberty4 ,nor is this all1 if we consider the action of sulphur4 ,the sulphur must unite with one portion of the oxygen to produce sulphurous acid gas1 and also with the potassa of the nitre1 and form a sulphuret1 a compound necessary to be formed1 before we can explain the production of sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 which results from the decomposition of water contained in the nitre4 ,there also results1 as a product1 sulphate of potassa4 ,in considering these products at large1 it would be necessary to go into detail2 and1 as we have descanted largely on its combustion in gunpowder1 we accordingly refer the reader to the article on ,gunpowder4 ,it will be sufficient1 however1 to remark1 that the agent1 and consequently the cause1 which produces the decomposition of nitrate of potassa1 is carbon or charcoal4 ,this1 by uniting with the greater part of the oxygen of the nitre1 produces1 in a determinate proportion1 carbonic acid gas4 ,this gas1 therefore1 in conjunction with other gases1 formed at the same time1 all of which being expanded1 causes what is denominated the explosive effect of gunpowder4 ,we have then a primary cause of the decomposition1 and most of the effective force of gunpowder is owing to the carbonic acid2 and it is found1 that gunpowder made without sulphur is equally powerful as that with1 since it adds nothing to its power4 ,causes1 therefore1 chemically speaking1 operate alike under similar circumstances4 ,the materials made use of being equally pure1 and used in the same proportion1 the effect must necessarily be the same4 ,it is not only in the instance we have mentioned1 but in every other1 in which chemical action ensues1 that this doctrine is tenable4 ,we might1 indeed1 notice a number of cases of a similar kind2 as1 for instance1 in the combustion of many incendiary preparations1 as fire-stone1 fire-rain1 composition for carcasses1 light-balls1 and a variety of fire-works of the same kind4 ,if we mix pitch1 tar1 tallow1 c4 with nitrate of potassa1 and burn the mixture1 we have the combined action of two elementary substances1 which enter into the composition of these bodies1 namely1 carbon and hydrogen4 ,the products would be carbonic acid gas1 and water2 because the oxygen of the nitre would unite with the hydrogen1 as well as the carbon4 ,if we employ sulphur at the same time1 another product would be sulphurous acid gas1 and probably sulphuric acid2 and if gunpowder be used1 as in the fire-stone composition1 then1 besides these products1 we would have those of the gunpowder4 ,as this subject1 however interesting to the theoretical pyrotechnist1 cannot be understood without a knowledge of chemistry1 it is obvious1 that that science is a powerful aid to pyrotechny4 ,it is unnecessary to dwell on this head4 ,we may add1 nevertheless that1 in order to understand the effect of all mixtures1 or compositions made use of1 it is necessary to consider the nature of the substances employed1 and the manner in which chemical action takes place1 and consequently the products1 which determine in fact the characteristic property of each species of fire-work1 and the phenomena on which it is predicated4 ,all products of combustion depend on the substances thus decomposed1 and by knowing the effects1 we may readily refer them to their proper causes4 ,with respect to caloric1 it may not be improper to offer some remarks4#a ,the hypothetical element of phlogiston having given way to the antiphlogistic theory at present received1 our ideas respecting caloric are predicated on facts4 ,caloric is a term1 which expresses heat1 or matter of heat4 ,in pyrotechny1 we have merely to consider it in a free1 or uncombined state2 but as the subject is interesting1 we purpose to notice it very briefly under the following heads3 viz4 its nature2 the manner it is set in motion2 its tendency to a state of rest2 the changes it produces on bodies2 and the instruments for measuring its intensity4 ,as to the nature of caloric1 different opinions are entertained4 ,we know the effect of heat3 if we touch a substance of a higher temperature than our bodies1 we call it hot1 and vice versa4 ,the one is evidently the accession1 and the other the abstraction1 of caloric4 ,the latter is merely relative as respects ourselves2 for the effect depends on our feelings1 and the sensation of hot or cold is therefore governed by them4#b ,caloric1 however1 is considered to be a substance1 composed of inconceivably small particles2 but count ,rumford and sir ,h4 ,davy are of a contrary opinion1 namely1 that it depends upon a peculiar motion and not on a subtle fluid4 ,as the effect of caloric1 according to their view1 depends on motion1 the agencies by which this is effected are of the first importance4 ,that it exists in all bodies in a state of rest1 and in a greater or smaller quantity1 and consequently in a relative proportion1 is well known1 and on this1 the capacities of bodies for caloric is founded4 ,the capacities of bodies for heat are changed by various means1 and caloric is put in motion2 and1 according to its quantity1 the bodies may be either cold or hot4 ,when the surrounding bodies become heated1 they receive this caloric thus set free1 and1 in this view1 the absolute quantity of their heat is increased4 ,this state of rest1 to which caloric is subject1 may be destroyed either by an increase or a diminution of the capacity of a body4 ,if caloric be put in motion by causes of any kind1 which influence the capacities of different bodies1 a theory maintained by ,davy1 then as the capacity for heat is changed so is free heat produced4 ,diminish the capacity of a body1 its excess will of course be given out1 and distribute itself among the surrounding bodies1 which become heated2 but increase the capacity1 and a different effect ensues4 ,the body absorbs caloric1 by which its capacity is increased1 and cold is produced4 ,caloric1 whether considered a substance1 or an attribute1 possesses1 nevertheless1 this property1 that when it is given out1 as in the mixture of sulphuric acid and water1 which occupies a less space than both in a separate state1 the sensation of heat follows2 and when it is absorbed1 as in the various freezing mixtures1 or in a mixture of snow and common salt1 the sensation of cold is excited4 ,the causes1 however1 which set caloric in motion1 or that produce heat1 are such as combustion1 condensation1 friction1 chemical mixture1 and the like4 ,it is remarkable1 that these effects are invariably the same1 and are affected by corresponding affinities4 ,when a piece of iron is struck with a hammer1 the percussion produces a condensation of the iron1 its specific gravity is increased1 and the iron finally becomes ignited4 ,the condensation of air1 in the condensing syringe1 will set fire to tinder4 ,the flint and steel produce a condensation2 for the metal1 although small1 is sent off in scintillations in the state of ignition4 ,that caloric is contained in bodies in the state of absolute rest1 and is evolved by condensation1 there is no doubt4 ,gunpowder1 by percussion1 in contact with pulverized glass1 is inflamed2 and it appears very probable1 that it also contains caloric in a state of rest4 ,the experiments of ,lavoisier and ,laplace1 on the quantity of caloric actually absorbed in nitric acid1 and in a latent state1 7noticed in the article on gunpowder71 are satisfactory4 ,if caloric is not in that state in nitre1 how are we to explain the sudden transmission or evolution of caloric in fired gunpowder1 where no external agent in any manner can influence the formation1 or disengagement of caloric8 ,friction or attrition produces heat2 and the distributable excess of caloric1 as it is called1 although not satisfactorily accounted for1 may arise from a condensation2 which1 however1 is denied4 ,the ,esquimaux ,indians kindle a fire1 very expeditiously1 in the following manner3 ,they prepare two pieces of dry wood1 and making a small hole in each1 fit into them a little cylindrical piece of wood1 round which a thong is put4 ,then1 by pulling the ends of this thong1 they whirl the cylindrical piece about with such velocity1 that the motion sets the wood on fire1 when lighting a little dry moss1 which serves for tinder1 they make as large a fire as they please2 but as the little timber they have is drift wood1 this fails them in the winter1 and they are then obliged to make use of their lamps for the supply of their family occasions4 ,ellis's ,voyage for the ,discovery of a ,north-,west ,passage4 ,friction is1 therefore1 one means of producing distributable heat1 which is also exemplified very frequently in the axis of a carriage wheel2 of mill work2 in the rubbing of wood1 when turned on its axis in a lathe1 by which turners ornament their work with black rings2 rubbing a cord very swiftly backwards and forwards against a post or tree1 or letting it run over a boat1 c4 as in the whale fishery2 the motion of two iron plates against each other1 pressing them at the same time1 c4 ,the great object in the construction of machines is to avoid1 or lessen the degree of friction4 ,see ,hatchette1 ,vince1 and ,gregory4 ,count ,rumford 7,nicholson's ,journal1 #dth edit4 ii1 #ajf71 and professor ,pictet 7,essai sur le ,feu1 chap4 ix47 have made some valuable experiments on heat evolved by friction4 ,the sun is one great source of caloric4 ,in whatever mode it produces it1 whether by giving it out from its own substance1 by the action of light on the air that surrounds the globe2 by the concentration of calorific rays by means of the atmosphere1 acting as a lens2 or by putting caloric in the distributable state1 always pre-existing in some other1 as in a state of rest1 are questions1 which1 in our present state of knowledge1 we are unable to solve4 ,we know the fact1 and that the caloric is of the same nature as that obtained by combustion4#c ,combustion is a process by which caloric is put in a distributable state4 ,the opinion of ,stahl and others1 that all combustible bodies contained a certain principle called phlogiston1 to which they owed their combustibility1 and that combustion was nothing more than a separation of this principle1 gave rise to the phlogistic or ,stahlian theory1 which was afterwards modified by ,dr4 ,priestley4 ,but his theory is equally untenable4 ,kirwan's opinion was no less vague1 although he substituted hydrogen for phlogiston4 ,the ,lavoiserian1 or antiphlogistic theory overturned the ,stahlian4 ,according to this theory1 a combustible in burning unites with oxygen1 and heat and light are given out by the gas1 and not from the combustible4 ,according to a modified theory of the above1 by ,dr4 ,thomson1 caloric is evolved by the gas1 and light from the burning body4 ,without noticing the instances1 in which this theory1 as a general one1 is insufficient to explain the cause of combustion1 or of the production of heat and light1 we will merely remark1 that bodies which support combustion are called supporters1 as oxygen gas1 chlorine gas1 c4 and those1 that undergo this change1 are named combustible bodies4 ,the products of combustion may be fixed or gaseous1 and either alkalies1 oxides1 or acids2 or1 when chlorine is the supporter1 chlorides1 c4 ,a few examples will be sufficient4 ,by the combustion of metals1 iron for instance1 we obtain a fixed product1 and in the present case an oxide of iron2 by the combustion of antimony and arsenic1 the antimonic and arsenic acids2 by the combustion of charcoal1 we have carbonic acid gas1 a gaseous product2 by the combustion of potassium or sodium1 we obtain a fixed alkali1 depending however on the quantity of oxygen2 by the combustion of sulphur1 phosphorus1 c4 acids2 and when metals are burnt in chlorine gas1 chlorides are produced4 ,it is evident from facts1 that1 whatever theory may be assumed1 combustion occasions the production of free caloric1 or changes the condition of caloric1 from quiescent to distributable heat4 ,the conclusions drawn by ,mr4 ,davy and others1 appear to have been predicated on the absorption of the base1 and development of caloric1 as in oxygen gas1 and the peculiar alteration in bodies implying a decrease in their capacity2 and hence1 as regards the products of combustion1 they must necessarily possess a less capacity for heat than the mean capacity of their constituents4 ,whether we regard heat as latent1 in the acceptation of the term1 as applied or used by ,dr4 ,black1 or quiescent1 or in a state of rest1 it is certainly evident1 that combustion is a chemical change1 and by it caloric passes from a combined to an uncombined state1 and is thus made sensible1 free1 or thermometrical heat4 ,combustion may1 as it certainly does1 put quiescent heat in a distributable state2 but this quiescent heat is the same in the present case1 of which there can be no doubt1 as latent caloric4 ,the thermometer will only indicate as much caloric in the air as is in a distributable1 or free state2 but1 if the same air be employed to supply1 or support combustion1 the heat1 rendered appreciable by the senses and the thermometer1 will be in the ratio of the decomposition of the oxygen gas of the atmosphere1 and1 of course1 to the development of free caloric4 ,chemical combination1 such as occurs by the mixture of fluids1 as alcohol and water1 sulphuric acid and water1 some of the gases1 as muriatic acid gas with water1 c4 evolves heat1 and sometimes sufficient to boil water4 ,in cases of spontaneous combustion1 it would seem1 that quiescent heat passes to the state of distributable heat2 for if nitric acid1 for instance1 contains so large a quantity of quiescent heat1 or fixed heat1 as the experiments of ,mr4 ,lavoisier make it appear1 we may readily explain why spontaneous combustion ensues1 when that acid is brought in contact with spirits of turpentine2 because the chemical action of the acid on the carbon and hydrogen of the turpentine1 which takes place1 produces at the same time a corresponding change in the caloric itself1 from a quiescent to a distributable state4 ,if the same data be admissible with regard to the combination of the nitric acid with potassa1 which we may judge to be the case by the experiments of ,lavoisier and ,laplace1 7quoted in our article on ,gunpowder71 then1 indeed1 its mechanical union with charcoal1 and sulphur1 although in a common temperature no combustion ensues1 will1 at the temperature required to inflame the mixture1 7about #gjj degrees according to some71 produce a decomposition altogether chemical2 and while new products are formed1 the caloric1 necessary also for their generation1 passes from a quiescent to a distributable state2 and a portion of it goes into a new state of combination1 also quiescent4 ,we mean that portion which is necessary for the constitution of gaseous fluids4 ,this fact is remarkable4 ,by referring to the original state or condition of the caloric1 if we admit that state in the present instance1 7which appears the only mode of accounting for the emanation of free caloric by the combustion of gunpowder71 it is easily perceived1 that chemical changes1 besides the usual supporters of combustion being concerned1 as in ordinary cases of combustion1 must produce a similar change in the state of combined or quiescent heat4 ,predicating this opinion on the results of the experiments of ,,mm4 ,lavoisier and ,laplace1 and seeing that gunpowder inflames per se1 or without the aid of a gaseous supporter1 we have no hesitation in risking it1 in the present state of our knowledge concerning heat as our present belief and conviction4 ,although there is no satisfactory theory offered to explain all the instances of spontaneous combustion1 yet it seems reasonable to conclude1 that in many cases at least1 that effect may take place by some chemical action1 which1 like the instances already quoted1 may change quiescent into distributable heat4 ,we have stated 7,see ,gunpowder7 some instances of spontaneous combustion1 which have taken place merely in consequence of the charcoal4 ,some have attributed the effect to pyrophorus1 and others to the presence of hydrogen in the coal1 which1 by absorbing and combining with oxygen and forming water1 sets the caloric of the oxygen gas at liberty1 and thus produces combustion4 ,however this may be1 there are other instances1 that of cotton and oil1 some kinds of wood1 wood-ashes and oils1 c4 which have produced spontaneous combustion4 ,we will only add1 however1 that until we can give a better theory1 the effect in these instances may be attributed to chemical action1 and with it1 the change of caloric in the manner already mentioned4 ,chemical action in such cases appears necessary1 although mechanical means1 as percussion will produce heat4 ,quiescent heat is also put in motion by electricity2 but in what manner it acts1 so as to produce that effect1 is unknown4 ,it is a powerful agent in nature1 and calculated for important ends1 of which we are ignorant4 ,it is unnecessary to notice opinions concerning it4 ,all electrics will yield it1 such as glass1 rosin1 c4 and it may be collected in the usual manner by the prime conductor and ,leyden jar4 ,galvanism1 called also ,galvanic electricity1 produced by an arrangement of zinc1 and copper plates in a pile1 or trough1 and placed in contact with some oxygenizing fluid1 has the same effect of causing quiescent heat to become distributable1 and is undoubtedly the result of chemical action4 ,the peculiar character of this fluid1 the nature of the two opposite poles1 c4 have been1 and continue to be1 a subject of interest to the philosopher4 ,the deflagrator of professor ,hare of ,philadelphia is an apparatus well calculated for many interesting experiments on galvanism4 ,to that gentleman1 we are also indebted for the compound blowpipe1 which produces a very intense heat by the combustion of hydrogen in contact with oxygen gas4 ,notwithstanding professor ,clark of ,england has laid claim to the apparatus1 and the use of hydrogen gas in this way1 the merit of the discovery is due to our learned and ingenious countryman4 ,since heat is put in motion as a consequence of the increased capacity of a body1 and1 by combining with a substance whose capacity has been increased1 becomes by degrees quiescent1 according to the respective capacities of bodies2 cold is an effect1 which is occasioned by this change from a free to a combined or quiescent state4 ,the absorption of heat1 necessary for the generation of cold1 if so we may consider it1 takes place in every instance1 where that effect is observed4 ,the heat of surrounding bodies1 in a distributable state1 is now no longer characterised as such2 and the consequence is1 therefore1 that that particular sensation1 or effect follows4 ,cold may be produced by saline mixtures1 the salts for which having their full quantum of the water of crystallization2 and by the evaporation of fluids1 as water1 alcohol and ether4 ,in the one case1 that of the freezing mixtures1 we have seen1 that the effect is produced by the absorption of heat2 and with regard to the cold produced by fluids1 even in vacuo1 7where the effect is more instantaneous71 the cause is attributable to evaporation2 for the fluid changes from a liquid to an aeriform state1 and during this transition robs the body1 with which it was in contact1 of a part of its caloric1 and thereby reduces its temperature4 ,artificial ice is made on this principle4 ,the next subject with regard to heat1 is the different modes in which it tends to a state of rest4 ,there are some facts in relation to this subject worthy of notice2 and particularly1 that1 in the tendency of caloric to become quiescent1 after having been put in motion1 bodies often increase in temperature4 ,this tendency to a state of rest is effected either by the conducting power of bodies1 or radiation4 ,heat radiates in all directions1 and in quantities1 according to the experiments of ,leslie1 more or less variable1 which depend on the nature of the radiating surface4 ,hence that power1 which bodies possess1 called the radiating power1 varies in different substances4 ,thus1 the radiating power of lampblack is #ajj1 while gold1 silver1 copper1 and tin plate are #ab1 from which it appears that the metals distribute less heat by radiation4 ,that caloric obeys the same laws as light1 is obvious from ,pictet's experiments with concave mirrors1 where the calorific rays move in the same order1 the angle of incidence being equal to the angle of reflection4 ,it is also refracted2 hence the concentration of the solar rays in a focus by the burning glass4 ,various experiments have been made with mirrors1 and concave reflectors4 ,the effect of the former in destroying the fleet before ,syracuse1 an experiment made by ,archimedes1 is a fact well authenticated in history4 ,concave reflectors have inflamed gunpowder4 ,this subject1 however1 is noticed at large1 when speaking of mirrors as an incendiary in war4 ,that bodies conduct heat1 and with different degrees of power1 so that some are called good and others bad conductors1 is well known4 ,this property depends on the quantity of caloric1 which a body receives1 before it changes its state4 ,metals are considered good conductors1 and glass1 charcoal1 feathers1 c4 bad conductors4 ,hence bad conductors1 as wool1 c4 preserve the temperature of the body1 or keep it warm in winter2 and snow1 for the same reason1 prevents the action of intense cold on the ground4 ,liquids also conduct heat4 ,whether we consider caloric in this case carried1 or transported1 as it is more properly defined1 the fact may be shown by several experiments4 ,ebullition1 or boiling1 is a phenomenon1 which depends on the increment of temperature2 for as water1 for instance1 receives caloric1 until the thermometer indicates #bab degrees1 the boiling point1 mere evaporation ensues2 but that temperature1 under the usual pressure of the atmosphere1 causes the formation of bubbles at the bottom of the vessel1 as that part receives the degree of heat necessary for ebullition before any other2 and these bubbles1 as they form1 rise in succession1 and pass off in the state of steam1 while the circumjacent fluid takes its place1 and the process continues till all is boiled away4 ,water1 when it passes off in the state of steam1 which requires a degree of heat equal to #bab degrees of ,fahrenheit1 receives also #ajjj degrees of non-distributable caloric1 or latent heat2 and however singular the fact may appear1 the wise ,author of ,nature1 it seems1 has reserved a store of caloric1 in this form1 ready to be put in requisition1 when necessity demands it1 in a distributable shape4 ,caloric1 when in a state of rest1 exists in different proportions1 and although the actual temperature may be the same1 yet the quantity of caloric in a quiescent state may be variable4 ,there are several experiments1 which are adduced to illustrate this fact4 ,it results from experiment1 that bodies receive heat according to their several capacities for it2 hence1 when any number of bodies are differently heated1 the caloric1 which becomes latent1 does not distribute itself in equal quantities1 but in various proportions1 according1 as we remarked1 to their several capacities4 ,caloric1 therefore1 in a state of rest1 is in relative quantities2 and as the capacity of bodies for heat is variable1 and relative as to each other1 the term specific caloric has been applied4 ,from these conclusions1 we may readily perceive what is implied by an equality of temperature4 ,that it merely depends on the state of rest1 which caloric necessarily comes to1 and which is relative as respects the capacity of bodies1 and nothing more1 is a deduction very plain and obvious4 ,heat1 in a state of motion1 may be said to be progressing to a quiescent state2 and equalization of temperature1 although differently understood1 may be considered an equalization of fixed caloric1 according to the relative capacity of bodies1 without regarding the equalization1 which takes place of uncombined caloric1 as is manifested by thermometrical instruments4 ,in a word1 by considering caloric in this view1 that of tending to a state of rest1 and uniting with bodies according to their respective capacities1 we may account for many phenomena2 as1 for instance1 the quantity of caloric which enters into ice1 and becomes latent1 during liquefaction4 ,the quantity of caloric1 in this respect1 may be learnt by adding a pound of ice at #cb degrees to a pound of water at #agb degrees4 ,the temperature will be much below #ajb degrees1 the arithmetical mean1 viz4 #cb degrees4 ,it is evident that the excess of caloric has disappeared2 and by deducting #cb degrees from #agb degrees1 #adj degrees remain1 which is the quantity of caloric that enters into a pound of ice during liquefaction1 or the quantity required to raise a pound of water from #cb degrees to #agb degrees4 ,this change of capacity appears to be absolutely essential to the well being of the universe1 as affording a constant modification of the action of heat and cold1 the effects of which would otherwise be inordinate4 ,if this did not take place1 the whole of a mass of water1 which was exposed to a temperature above the boiling point1 would be instantly dissipated in vapour with explosion4 ,the polar ice1 would all instantly dissolve1 whenever the temperature of the circumambient air was above #cb degrees1 if it were not that each particle absorbs a quantity of caloric in its solution1 and thereby generates a degree of cold which arrests and regulates the progress of the thaw2 and the converse of this takes place in congelation1 which is in its turn moderated by the heat developed in consequence of the diminution of capacity1 which takes place in the water during its transition to a solid state4 ,the reason why boiling water in the open air never reaches a higher temperature than #bab degrees is evident1 if we consider1 that the capacity of those portions of liquid1 which are successively resolved into a vapour1 becomes thereby sufficiently augmented to enable them to absorb the superabundant caloric as fast as it is communicated4 ,the most obvious effect of caloric on bodies1 is the change1 which they undergo when exposed to its action4 ,that it acts constantly in opposition to the attraction of cohesion or of aggregation1 by which bodies pass from a solid to a fluid1 and from a fluid to an aeriform state1 and produces also different changes in bodies1--are facts that come under our daily observation4 ,it occasions changes in the bulk of bodies2 hence solids1 liquids1 and gases are expanded4 ,the expansion1 and subsequent contraction of atmospheric air1 give rise to various winds1 which are currents of air rushing from one point of the compass to another to maintain an equilibrium4 ,the theory of the winds is predicated on this fact1 although some have asserted1 that they depend greatly on the diurnal motion of the earth4 ,the air thermometer of ,sanctorius1 and the differential thermometer of ,leslie1 are founded on this principle1 of the expansion of air4 ,fluids expand until they arrive at the boiling point1 as is the case with water1 alcohol1 c4 ,the expansion of mercury1 in a glass tube1 furnished with a graduated scale1 forms the mercurial thermometer1 by the rise and fall of which1 the different variations of temperature are marked4 ,notwithstanding caloric has the property of expanding bodies1 there are some exceptions to this law1 which may be proper to notice4 ,water1 for instance1 at the temperature below #dj contracts at every increment of temperature until it reaches #dj1 which is its maximum of density4 ,above #dj it expands1 until it arrives at the boiling point4 ,alumina1 or pure argillaceous earth1 also contracts by heat2 hence it is used in the pyrometer of ,wedgwood1 to measure by its contraction intense degrees of heat4 ,various saline substances1 in the act of crystallization1 also expand4 ,several of the metals1 when previously melted1 on cooling exhibit the same character2 and water1 in the act of freezing1 exerts a powerful force by its expansion1 competent to the bursting of shells1 and the splitting of rocks4 ,the changes in bodies1 produced by caloric1 we have already noticed4 ,we will only add1 that fluids require different temperatures1 called the boiling point1 to make them boil1 under the same atmospheric pressure4 ,water boils at #bab4 ,many observations have been made with respect to water1 both in the state of ice1 and the state of vapour4 ,besides the accession of #bab degrees of caloric1 appreciable by the thermometer1 in water in the state of steam1 there is also an accession of non-distributable caloric1 called latent heat1 which is calculated at #ajjj4 ,in consequence of this circumstance1 steam has been judiciously applied to various useful purposes1 and particularly in a certain manner for the drying of gunpowder4 ,that chemical changes are produced by the agency of caloric1 is a fact well known4 ,it is supposed to occasion decompositions1 according to the laws of affinity1 by changing previous affinities1 and causing new affinities to take place4 ,hence the operations by fire1 whether the substances themselves are exposed in a dry state to the action of heat1 or otherwise1 produce new results1 or compounds1 which could not be made without it4 ,this truth has long been obvious4 ,in consequence of a knowledge of this fact1 ,dr4 ,black 7,lectures vol4 i1 p4 #ab17 defined chemistry to be the study of the effects of heat and mixture1 with the view of discovering their general and subordinate laws1 and of improving the useful arts4 ,caloric as a powerful auxiliary1 performing as it does an innumerable multitude of changes and effects1 an agent by which the operations of the universe are maintained in order and harmony for universal good1 exerts the same effect in the furnace of the chemist1 as in the great laboratory of nature2 and regulates1 and determines all the consequences1 which follow a succession of fixed1 and appointed changes4#d ,we have thus1 in this brief and hasty outline of the nature1 principal effects1 and properties of caloric1 detailed the leading facts on this subject2 from which it will be seen1 that caloric1 so far as respects its generation by the combustion of different pyro-mixtures1 and effects1 generally1 should form a part of ,pyrotechny1 and claim the attention of those1 who are connected with the preparation of ,fire-,works4 ,respiration is also a process which puts quiescent heat in motion4#e ,in the second part of the work1 we embrace the furniture of a laboratory1 for the use of fire-workers1 consisting of various tools and utensils4 ,under this head1 we also embrace sundry manipulations1 such as the preparation of substances for use1 the manner of forming mixtures1 and various anterior operations4 ,the formation of pasteboard for cases1 the mode of forming as well as charging cases1 different modes of charging rockets1 the dimensions of rammers1 mallets c4 ,this preliminary ought to be well understood2 as the successful practice of the art depends greatly on these operations4 ,we may observe1 however1 that we have had occasion to repeat some of these manipulations in certain instances1 to make them more intelligible2 or rather to present1 more in connection with the subject1 a detail of minuti4 ,in the different compositions1 the reader will bear in mind1 that the copious collection of formul1 both old and new1 embraces all the facts1 with which we are acquainted1 concerning pyrotechnical preparations4 ,in most instances1 where the importance of the subject required it1 we designated1 or set apart from the rest1 formul1 which have been approved1 and particularly in ,france4 ,this is more particularly the case as it respects the fourth and last part1 which appertains exclusively to ,military ,fire-,works4 ,on this subject1 permit me to remark1 that fire-works1 intended for the purposes of war1 should be depended on2 and for that reason1 in order to produce a certain effect1 the materials of which they are composed should be pure1 weighed with accuracy in the proportions required1 and carefully mixed according to the rules laid down4 ,it is true1 however1 that while this nicety is required in particular cases1 it is unnecessary in the formation of all fire-works4 ,the composition for carcass and light-ball1 for tourteaux1 links1 and fascines1 and some others1 do not require that precision2 whereas the composition for fuses for bombs1 howitzes1 and grenades should be in every respect accurately made2 for on the accuracy of the composition1 must depend the time a fuse will burn1 which is afterwards regulated by using more or less of the fuse1 according to the time it will take for the shell to reach its destination1 on which depends the skill of the bombardier4 ,accuracy1 however1 in making of preparations should be a general rule4 ,viewing ,pyrotechny either as a science or an art1 there is undoubtedly required in its prosecution much skill and practice4 ,a knowledge of the theory of fire-works may be readily acquired4 ,the mere artificer or fire-worker1 by constant habit and experience1 may understand it is true how to mix materials1 prepare compositions1 charge cases1 and perform all other mechanical operations2 but it is equally certain1 that1 without a knowledge of chemistry1 he cannot understand the theory4 ,we would not say1 that the workman should be a chemist1 but that he should know enough to determine the purity of the substances he employs1 and their respective qualities and effects2 for if that principle were admitted1 we might go further and say1 that every person1 who practices a chemical art1 as the tanner1 gluemaker1 brazier1 c4 should be a chemist1 or that the art could not be conducted without a previous knowledge of chemistry1 which we know is contrary to fact4 ,this1 however1 may be said1 that in all arts which are decidedly chemical1 as that of dying for instance1 chemical knowledge will enable the artist or operator to conduct his processes with better advantage1 and correct any old routine1 which is too often pursued1 because it was handed down from generation to generation4 ,mr4 ,seguin in ,france facilitated the preparation of tanned leather1 by adopting a new process altogether chemical4 ,in a word1 so far as chemistry is connected with the arts1 and by which we explain the operations that take place1 it is undoubtedly important2 and with regard to ,pyrotechny1 it appears1 in the way we have mentioned1 to be indispensable4 ,chaptal 7,elements de ,chimie7 observes1 that the works of artificers frequently miscarry in consequence of their being unacquainted with the art4 ,in noticing this subject1 we may be permitted to digress1 while we state1 that1 being fully convinced of this truth1 we have directed our labours in the ,chemical ,department of the ,united ,states' ,military ,academy to two distinct objects2 viz4 to theoretical and experimental chemistry1 forming the first year's course1 and chemistry in its application to the arts1 manufactures1 and domestic economy1 constituting1 along with mineralogy1 the course of the second year4 ,in addition to the usual applications1 ,pyrotechny1 in the manner we have stated1 and especially that branch which treats of military fire-works1 has claimed our attention2 and we have reason to believe1 that this addition1 to the usual course of chemical instruction1 has considerably advanced the utility1 especially to gentlemen designed for the army1 of the application of chemistry4 ,the system of instruction adopted throughout the academy1 in the different departments1 7the plan of which may be seen in the new ,army ,regulations1 article ,military ,academy71 which1 we have no hesitation in believing1 is the most complete of any in the ,united ,states1 and by far the most extensive1#f is so regulated1 that each section of a class regularly recite1 and are interrogated on each subject of instruction1 so that1 while an emulation to excel is thus excited1 the comparative merit or standing of the cadets is thereby determined4 ,adopting the same system in the ,chemical department1 that of interrogation on the subject of the preceding lecture1 has many peculiar advantages2 so that1 while the mind and memory of the pupil are thus exercised1 a comparative estimate of the progress of each one is obtained during each week1 by which we are enabled1 as in other departments1 to present a ,weekly ,class ,report of their progress4 ,while we are indebted to the talents and industry of the professors and teachers of the ,academy1 for the flourishing condition it is now in1 and the progress of the cadets in every branch there taught2 it is but justice to remark1 that for the present organization of the academy1 as relates to the studies1 which is obviously preferable to the old system1 and also for the improvements in instruction1 we are indebted to the present superintendent1 ,col4 ,s4 ,thayer1 of the ,u4 ,s4 corps of engineers4 ,considering pyrotechny1 abstract from the questions usually given1 and forming a distinct branch1 it may be proper to remark1 that the interrogatories on this head have been minutely and satisfactorily answered4 ,the following outline will exhibit the order in which such questions were put1 observing1 however1 that they are merely in connection with this subject3 ,what is saltpetre8 ,what is nitric acid8 ,what is potash8 ,what are the sources of saltpetre1 and how is it obtained8 ,how is it formed in nitre beds1 extracted1 and refined8 ,what circumstances are necessary to produce nitre1 and how does animal matter act in its production8 ,what is the difference between the old and new process for refining saltpetre8 ,what reagents are used to discover the presence of foreign substances in nitre8 ,what are nitre caves8 ,where do they exist8 ,what are the nitre caves of the ,western country1 and how is nitre extracted from the earth8 ,what proportion of nitre does the saltpetre earth of the nitre caves afford8 ,what is the theory of the process for extracting saltpetre from nitrous earth1 or nitrate of lime8 ,what is sulphur8 ,how is it obtained1 and how is it purified for the manufacture of gunpowder8 ,of what use is sulphur in the composition of gunpowder8 ,does it add to the effective force of gunpowder8 ,what is charcoal8 ,what is the best mode of carbonizing wood for the purpose of gunpowder8 ,what woods are preferred for this purpose8 ,in the charring of wood1 what part is converted into coal1 and what gas and acid are disengaged8 ,what is the use of charcoal in gunpowder8 ,what is gunpowder8 ,what are considered the best proportions for forming it1 and what constitutes the difference between powder for war1 for gunning1 and for mining8 ,how does the combustion of gunpowder take place8 ,can you explain why combustion takes place without the presence of a gaseous supporter of combustion1 as gunpowder will inflame in vacuo8 ,what are the products of the combustion of gunpowder8 ,what gases are generated8 ,to what is the force of fired gunpowder owing8 ,what are the experiments of ,mr4 ,robins on the force of gunpowder8 ,how would you separate the component parts of gunpowder1 so as to determine their proportions8 ,what are gunpowder proofs8 ,what is understood by the comparative force of gunpowder8 ,what are eprouvettes8 c4 ,in noticing in the same manner the preparations used for fire-works1 and for war1 as the rocket for instance1 the following questions were propounded2 viz4 ,what is a rocket8 ,how is it formed8 ,is the case always made of paper8 ,what is the war rocket8 ,what is the composition for rockets1 and how does it act8 ,what particular care is required in charging a rocket8 ,what is the cause of the ascension of rockets8 ,what is the use of the conical cavity1 made in a rocket at the time it is charged1 or bored out after it is charged8 ,how do cases charged with composition impart motion to wheels1 and other pieces of fire-work8 ,what is understood by the rocket principle8 ,what is the rocket stick1 and its use8 ,is the centre of gravity fixed1 or is it shifting in the flight of rockets8 ,how are rockets discharged8 ,what is the head of a rocket8 ,what is usually put in the head8 ,are all rockets furnished with a head8 ,what is understood by the furniture of a rocket8 ,how are the serpents1 stars1 fire-rain1 c4 forming the furniture of a rocket1 discharged into the air1 when the rocket has terminated its flight1 or arrived at its maximum of ascension8 ,what forms the difference between a balloon1 in fire-works1 and a rocket8 ,as the balloon contains also furniture1 and is projected vertically from a mortar1 how is fire communicated to it1 so as to burst it in the air8 ,is the fuse used1 in this case the same as that for bombs1 howitzes1 and grenades8 ,what is the ,asiatic rocket8 ,the fougette of the ,french8 ,in what seige were they employed with success by the native troops of ,india8 ,what was the nature of their war-rocket8 ,what is the murdering rocket of the ,french8 ,is the conical head hollow1 or solid1 blunt or pointed8 ,why is it called the murdering rocket8 ,what is the ,congreve rocket8 ,is ,congreve the inventor1 or improver of this rocket8 ,what are ,congreve rockets loaded or armed with8 ,in what part is the load placed8 ,is the case made of paper or sheet iron8 ,what are the sizes of ,congreve rockets8 ,what are the ranges of ,congreve rockets8 ,what angle of elevation produces the best range8 ,how are ,congreve rockets discharged in the field1 and what number of men are usually employed for that service8 ,are the ,congreve rockets considered to be a powerful offensive weapon2 and1 if so1 in what particular8 ,what is a carcass rocket8 ,as an incendiary1 is the carcass rocket equal to the usual carcass thrown from mortars8 ,what is the carcass composition made of8 ,what is the ,congreve rocket light ball8 ,in large rockets1 are their sticks solid1 or bored and filled with gunpowder8 ,why is that expedient used8 c4 ,it is obvious1 that the student1 after obtaining a knowledge of each subject by the preceding lecture1 accompanied with demonstrations1 is enabled to detail minutely all the facts in relation to it4 ,pyrotechny1 as known at present1 is confined to a few books1 and scattered in a desultory manner1 without any regular or connected system4 ,in fact the works which treat on this subject are in ,french1 or translations from the ,french on particular subjects1 but generally very imperfect4 ,as applied to the uses of war1 we may indeed say1 that the small treatise of ,bigot1 7,trait d',artifice de ,guerre71 and ,ruggeri 7,pyrotechnie ,militaire7 are the only works4 ,we have1 therefore1 consulted these authors1 as will be seen in the pages of the work4 ,roger ,bacon1 in his ,opus ,majus1 has given some account of the ,greek fire1 and of a composition1 which seems to have had the effect of our modern gunpowder4 ,malthus 7,trait de l',artillerie7 contains some formul for ,military ,fire-,works4 ,anzelet and ,vanorchis1 in their several works1 have given some receipts for incendiary preparations4 ,henzion 7,recreations ,mathmatiques7 and ,joachim ,butelius have also something on the subject4 ,the celebrated ,polander1 ,casimir ,siemienowicz1 has nothing of any moment1 if we except the incendiary fire-rain1 an account of which may be seen in the fourth part of our work4 ,his book is considered1 however1 the best of the whole of them4 ,belidor1 ,theodore ,duturbrie1 c4 have mentioned some preparations2 but their works are chiefly confined to artillery4 ,the improvement of ,pyrotechny is ascribed to the ,germans and ,italians1 and the ,french acknowledge1 that they are indebted for a knowledge of it to the ,italians4 ,be this as it may1 it is certain1 that it was known in ,china from time immemorial4 ,their acquaintance with gunpowder1 before it was known in ,europe1 is a fact which appears to be generally admitted4 ,for an account of the ,chinese fire-works1 and the origin of gunpowder in ,europe1 consult these articles respectively4 ,whatever merit we may claim in this work1 as the public will be able to judge impartially1 it will be seen1 by referring to the different chapters and sections1 that we have endeavoured to form a system1 by presenting a connected view of the whole subject4 ,having noticed under separate heads1 the particular use and application of each composition1 we have added a chapter on the arrangement of fire-works for exhibition1 together with the order to be observed4 ,we may remark here1 that we have enlarged in this part more perhaps than its merit or importance deserves2 but1 on reflection1 we thought it better to embrace the whole subject1 in order to form a more complete system in all its parts4 ,after going through the fire-works for exhibition1 and noticing the different formul1 and preparations1 for arrangement1 with the theory of effects1 we consider1 in the next place1 a subject of more importance1 that of ,military ,pyrotechny4 ,we have adopted this arrangement1 more on account of obtaining a better acquaintance with ordinary fire-works1 before the reader is prepared for military works1 which he will understand with more facility2 for all the preliminary operations precede the practical part4 ,on this head1 it will be sufficient to add1 to what we have already stated1 that we have given in each article1 generally speaking1 a variety of formul1 with ample instructions for the preparation of each composition4 ,the table of contents will exhibit the order in which they are treated4 ,in noticing the substances used in fire-works1 in the first part1 it will be perceived1 that we have noticed some of them more extensively according to their importance2 as for instance1 saltpetre4 ,besides the different modes of obtaining saltpetre in ,europe and elsewhere1 and the means employed for refining it1 we mention the saltpetre caves of the western country1 which furnish an abundance of this article1 and which contain an almost inexhaustible supply4 ,the extraction of saltpetre from the earth1 7principally nitrate of lime71 by using a lixivium of wood-ashes2 the formation of rough1 and subsequently of refined nitre2 the various methods of refining saltpetre1 and particularly that adopted in ,france2 with sundry facts respecting the origin of nitre1 and on the formation of artificial nitre beds2 all claim our particular notice4 ,the extraction of sulphur from its combinations1 and the means used for purifying it for the purpose of gunpowder1 are also considered in the same manner4 ,the subject of charcoal1 an essential constituent of gunpowder1 claims1 in like manner1 particular attention4 ,the various modes of charring1 the woods employed1 the quantity of coal obtained1 the formation of pyroacetic acid in the process of carbonization1 and many facts of the same kind are considered4 ,these subjects1 viz4 nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 are highly important to the manufacturer of gunpowder4 ,a knowledge of the various processes for refining saltpetre2 the best and most approved modes of carbonizing wood2 the purification and quality of sulphur2 the different processes for making gunpowder1 with the proportion of the ingredients used in ,france and elsewhere2 the granulation1 glazing1 and drying of powder1 the use of the steam apparatus1 and the different modes of proving it1 and of examining it chemically2 and the means of ascertaining the purity of nitre in any specimen of gunpowder2 are1 with others1 subjects of particular interest to the gunpowder manufacturer4 ,with respect to the ,theory of the explosion of gunpowder1 we have noticed it at some length1 and have added the experiments and observations of ,mr4 ,robins1 and of other persons1 made at different periods4 ,in the consideration of the gaseous products1 and the caloric evolved by the combustion of powder1 we have taken a view of the gases produced1 the cause of their production1 the dilatation which they suffer1 and the experiments of ,lavoisier and ,laplace1 with regard to latent heat1 and deducing therefrom some views of the probable cause of the production of caloric in fired gunpowder4#g ,our observations respecting rockets1 the theory of their ascension1 of the ,congreve carcass and ,asiatic rockets1 and some others1 are we apprehend sufficiently extensive4 ,as it regards the different incendiary compositions1 and their use in war1 the reader will find ample instructions on these heads4 ,we may also remark1 that we have given some of the more common1 or general properties of the substances1 employed in the composition of fire-works1 without going into that detail1 which belongs exclusively to works that treat of ,chemistry4 ,it was neither our design1 nor have we given1 for the reasons thus stated1 all the chemical characters or properties of the substances so employed2 and1 therefore1 have confined ourselves1 generally speaking1 to an enumeration of such properties as are connected with the subject1 or are indispensably necessary to be known1 before a rationale of the causes and effects can be understood4 ,it was our intention to accompany the work with plates1 exhibiting the arrangement1 c4 of fire-works1 which1 there can be no doubt1 would have facilitated in particular the knowledge of forming1 and arranging1 certain pieces of fire-work2 but1 on second reflection1 as such illustrations were connected more with fancy exhibitions1 and have little or no relation to ,military ,fire-works1 the most useful branch of ,pyrotechny1 we were finally of opinion1 that the addition of plates would greatly enhance the price1 without advancing or adding to the value of the work4 ,if1 however1 a second edition should be required1 various figures in illustration of particular subjects may be added1 either with a distinct explanatory chapter1 or a reference from the articles themselves1 with the necessary explanation1 to the figures respectively4 ,it would require at least twenty-five plates to include all the figures we originally intended to have introduced4 ,before concluding this introduction1 it remains for us to remark1 that1 in forming this work1 we consulted a variety of authors1 but with little advantage1 except some ,french works1 which we shall notice4 ,chaptal 7,chimie ,appliqu aux ,arts27 ,bigot 7,artifice de ,guerre27 ,morel 7,feux d',artifice27 ,thenard 7,trait de ,chimie27 ,ruggeri 7,pyrotechnie ,militaire27 ,,mm4 ,botte and ,riffault 7,trait de ,l',art de ,fabriqu la ,poudre canon27 ,peyre 7,le ,mouvement ,ign27 ,biot 7,trait de ,physique1 ,recherches ,experimentales et ,mathmatique1 sur les mouvement des ,molecules de la ,lumiere1 c427 ,m4 ,duloc 7,theorie ,nouvelle sur le ,mechanisme de l',artillerie27 the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie2 the ,dictionnaire ,encyclopedique des ,arts et ,metiers ,mecaniques1 article ,art de ,l',artificier2 uvre ,militaire2 ,archives des ,dcouvertes2 ,systme des ,connoissances ,chimiques par ,a4 ,f4 ,fourcroy2 ,aide-,mmoire a l'usage des officiers d',artillerie de ,france4 ,we examined various authors in ,english2 and with regard to the origin of inventions1 we found the learned1 and valuable work of professor ,beckman 7,history of ,inventions7 very useful1 and likewise ,james's ,military ,dictionary4 ,to the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 we are indebted for many interesting facts1 and some extracts on fire-works for exhibition4 ,on the subject of mining1 we consulted the ,treatise on mines for the use of the ,royal ,military ,academy1 by ,landmann4 ,we deem it necessary to observe1 that1 in collecting our formul for military fire-works1 although we have sometimes extracted from the ,strasbourg ,memoir1 the ,bombardier and ,pocket ,gunner1 and the ,military ,dictionary of ,duane and ,james1 we have generally followed ,bigot2 as the formul which he gives for the preparation of ,military fire-works have been approved by the ,french government2 and where any thing of importance occurred in ,ruggeri1 we have1 for the same reason1 extracted such formul from that author4 ,as respects the turtle1 torpedo1 and catamarin1 submarine machines1 it appears that ,bushnel 7,trans4 ,am4 ,phil4 ,soc47 claims the originality of the discovery from the date of his invention1 although similar contrivances had long ago been suggested4 ,fulton's improvements1 in the torpedo1 are deserving of particular attention2 but it is plain1 that the ,catamarin of the ,english is the same in principle and application as ,fulton's torpedo1 and that ,fulton deserves the merit of it4 ,congreve1 if we believe ,ruggeri1 was not the inventor of the rocket1 which bears his name2 for1 according to him1 it was invented about the year #agih by a naval officer at ,bourdeaux4 ,it is certain1 however1 it was neither much known1 nor used before the attack on ,copenhagen4 ,it is certain that the present incendiary fire-stone was taken from the recipe for fire-rain contained in the military work of ,cassimir ,siemienowicz1 or that the fire-rain gave rise to a similar preparation4 ,the idea of the pyrophore1 mentioned in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 must have originated from the use of the powder-barrel1 and of similar means of defence4 ,we might enumerate many other inventions1 which owe their origin in the same way4 ,a ,,system ,,of ,,pyrotechny4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,pyrotechny ,,in ,,general4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,definition of ,pyrotechny4 ,pyrotechny is defined the doctrine of artificial fire-works1 whether for war or exhibition1 and is derived from the ,greek1 fire1 and art4 ,in a more general sense1 it comprehends the structure and use of fire-arms1 and the science which teaches the management and application of fire in several operations4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,general theory of ,pyrotechny4 ,in the composition of artificial fire1 various substances are employed1 having different properties1 and designed to produce certain effects characterised by particular phenomena4 ,these substances are either inflammable1 or support the combustion of inflammable bodies4 ,as pyrotechnical mixtures are differently formed1 and of various substances1 the effects are also modified1 although combustion1 under some shape always takes place4 ,combustion is either modified1 retarded1 or accelerated2 and in consequence of the presence of certain substances1 different appearances are given to flame4 ,the conditions necessary for combustion are1 the presence of a combustible substance1 of a supporter of combustion1 and a certain temperature4 ,thus1 charcoal when raised to the temperature of #hjj in the open air1 takes fire4 ,this elevation of temperature enables it to act chemically on the oxygen gas of the atmosphere2 the latter1 as it comes in contact1 being decomposed4 ,now1 as oxygen gas is a combination of oxygen and caloric1 the caloric being in a latent state1 the charcoal unites with the oxygen1 and the phenomena of combustion ensue2 that is1 an evolution of heat and light4 ,the caloric of the decomposed gas is given out in a free state1 and1 according to the theory of ,dr4 ,thomson1 7,thomson's ,system of ,chemistry1 vol4 i47 the light proceeds from the burning body4 ,we have then an instance of combustion1 in which there is a combustible1 a supporter of combustion1 and an elevated temperature4 ,the old theory of combustion1 called the ,stahlian theory1 which presupposes an element called phlogiston1 or a principle of fire1 to exist in all bodies under some modification1 would explain these effects by merely supposing1 that combustion was nothing more than a disengagement of phlogiston2 and that when a body had lost its inflammable principle1 7as a metal1 when oxidized71 it became dephlogisticated4 ,but1 as it proved that phlogiston is a hypothetical element1 and the anti-phlogistic doctrine clearly shows1 that combustion is no other than a process which unites the supporter with the combustible1 forming new products2 it follows1 that1 in all changes of the kind1 the same reasoning will apply1 and the same principle be tenable4 ,the products of combustion depend on the nature of the substance burnt1 and the supporter employed4 ,thus1 in the instance just mentioned1 the charcoal1 by its union with oxygen1 is changed into carbonic acid1 which takes the gaseous state4 ,we say then1 that carbonic acid is the product of the combustion of charcoal1 or1 chemically speaking1 of carbon4 ,as resins1 oil1 c4 contain hydrogen1 as well as carbon1 the products in such cases would be water1 as well as carbonic acid4 ,the chemical effects1 therefore1 which we consider in fire-works1 forming the basis on which a theory of sundry phenomena may be formed1 are no other than the result of the action of one body on another1 according to the laws which govern such action1 and the consequent operation of chemical combination4 ,combustion1 in fire-works1 may be considered a primary agent in all effects which characterise artificial fire4 ,the second change1 with respect to the appearance of the flame1 the formation of stars1 serpents1 rain1 c4 terms used in the art1 is owing either to new chemical changes which the substances undergo1 or to the decomposition of the products themselves4 ,these effects1 it is obvious1 must be governed by the circumstances1 under which the mixtures are made4 ,saltpetre1 for instance1 is the basis of fire-works1 whether used in a separate state1 or employed in mixture with charcoal and sulphur1 as in gun-powder2 and1 from its composition1 is adapted to all the purposes of the art1 because it yields its oxygen very readily to all inflammable bodies4 ,in consequence of the decomposition1 it undergoes at an elevated temperature1 when brought in contact with charcoal1 sulphur1 c4 and various substances which contain carbon1 as pitch1 rosin1 turpentine1 tallow1 copal1 and amber1 combustion results1 and1 according to circumstances1 is more or less rapid1 and the flame also more or less brilliant4 ,when charcoal1 in the state of ignition1 is brought in contact with nitre1 a deflagration takes place1 because1 at the temperature of ignition1 it has the property of decomposing the nitric acid of the nitre2 and as this process unites the carbon with the oxygen1 in the proportion necessary to constitute carbonic acid1 this acid is accordingly produced4 ,when1 therefore1 we inflame a mixture of nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 or gun-powder1 the whole or greater part disappears2 and if we were to collect in a pneumatic apparatus1 the products of the combustion1 it would be found1 that they are nearly altogether gaseous1 and composed1 as we shall speak hereafter1 of sundry elastic ariform fluids4 ,this decomposition1 the immediate effect of the charcoal on the nitric acid of the nitre1 is the same as in the preceding instance1 for carbonic acid gas is formed in both cases4 ,we have then another instance of combustion1 where a number of substances are concerned1 and therefore1 the products must be numerous4 ,we notice this subject more particularly1 since1 as in the different fire-works1 nitre and inflammable bodies are used in different proportions1 the result is always affected by the same laws of chemical decomposition2 for the same substances1 placed under similar circumstances of proportion1 mixture1 c4 afford the like results4 ,if carbon alone be employed1 carbonic acid gas is the result2 if oil1 tallow1 rosin1 or turpentine be used1 we have then1 as we had occasion to remark1 water1 as well as carbonic acid1 by reason of the union of the hydrogen1 which forms one of their constituent parts1 with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid4 ,again1 in a composition of mealed powder1 rosin and sulphur1 with or without the addition of saw dust1 we infer1 from the composition of the ingredients and the chemical action which subsequently takes place1 that the products of combustion would be carbonic acid gas1 sulphurous acid gas1 water1 sulphuretted hydrogen1 and probably azotic1 and nitric oxide gases4 ,if the filings of steel1 brass1 zinc1 or copper1 enter into the composition1 besides the products above-mentioned1 there would be either an oxide of iron1 an oxide of zinc1 or1 an oxide of copper1 according as one or other of these metals are employed4 ,copper1 in fire-works1 has the effect of communicating a green colour to the flame4 ,m4 ,homberg1 7,collection ,acad47 observes1 that the green colour in such cases is owing to the dissolution of the metal1 which in fact is nothing more than the effect of its oxidizement4 ,the various compositions for brilliant fire1 as the ,chinese fire1 owe their peculiar character to pulverised cast iron1 and commonly to steel and iron filings4 ,now the effects in these cases are the same2 for the same oxidizement ensues1 more or less rapidly1 which in fact distinguishes the kinds of brilliant fire4 ,that of the ,chinese is the most perfect1 and next is the composition made with steel filings4 ,it will be seen1 however1 that compositions generally are governed1 in their respective appearances when inflamed1 by the purity1 as well as the proportion of other substances1 which enter into them2 and hence much of their effect depends on collateral circumstances1 which we purpose to consider when we treat of the compositions individually4 ,that the light of certain burning bodies may be increased1 is evident from these facts2 and experiment has shown1 that the intensity of the light of burning sulphur1 hydrogen1 carbonic oxide1 c4 is increased by throwing into them1 zinc1 or its oxide1 iron1 and other metals1 or by placing in them very fine amianthus or metallic gauze4 ,protochloride of copper burns with a dense red light1 tinged with green and blue towards the edges4 ,if the hydrogen of the oil acts in separating the chlorine from the copper1 and the reduced copper is ignited by the charcoal1 this appearance must necessarily ensue4 ,when solid matter is the product of combustion1 as in the burning of phosphorus1 zinc1 iron1 c4 the flame is remarked to be more intense4 ,flame may be modified under other circumstances1 as we will have occasion to mention hereafter4 ,when1 for instance1 a wire-gauze safety-lamp is made to burn in a very explosive mixture of coal gas and air1 the light is very feeble and of a pale colour2 but when a current of coal gas is burnt in atmospheric air1 the combustion is rapid and the flame brilliant4 ,dr4 ,ure thinks it probable1 7,dictionary of ,chemistry1 article combustion17 that1 when the colour of the flame is changed by the introduction of incombustible compounds1 the effect depends on the production1 and subsequent ignition or combustion of inflammable matter from them4 ,thus he infers1 that the rose-coloured light given to flame by the compounds of strontium and calcium1 and the yellow colour given by those of barium1 and the green by those of boron1 may depend upon a temporary production of these bases1 by the inflammable matter of the flame4 ,it is inferred also1 as a probable conclusion1 that the heat of flames may be actually diminished by increasing their light1 7at least the heat communicable to other matter71 and vice versa2 because1 in the most intense heat1 as in the compound blow pipe1 or in ,newman's blow pipe apparatus1 in which a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases is compressed1 the flame1 although hardly visible in bright day light1 instantly fuses the most refractory bodies2 but the light of solid bodies ignited in it1 is so vivid as to be painful to the eye4 ,some curious facts with regard to flame1 in connection with electricity1 are given by ,brande in the ,phil4 ,trans4 for #ahad4 ,he supposes that some chemical bodies are naturally in the resinous1 and others in the positive electrical state4 ,he supposes also1 as a consequence1 that the positive flame will be attracted1 and neutralize the negative polarity1 while the negative flame will operate a similar change by inducing an equilibrium at the positive pole4 ,thus he found1 that certain flames were attracted by the positive ball of an electrical apparatus1 and others attracted by the negative ball4 ,the flame of sulphur and phosphorus is attracted by the positive pole1 and the flame of camphor1 resins1 and hydrogen by the negative pole4 ,in relation to the production of flame1 we may observe1 that1 as sundry solid and fluid substances are inflammable1 the products of combustion depend on the composition of the substance made use of1 and the condition under which it is burnt4 ,as to gaseous substances that are inflammable1 the base of some gases1 we may remark1 as carbon and hydrogen1 unite in the process of combustion with the base of other gases1 7as oxygen27 and in other instances1 the gas itself takes fire1 and exhibits the phenomena of flame4 ,now carbonic acid gas extinguishes flame1 although its base is inflammable2 but hydrogen1 as well as hydrogen gas1 is inflammable1 and when burnt in oxygen gas or atmospheric air produces water1 which also extinguishes the flame of burning bodies4 ,as we will have occasion to notice a variety of ariform fluids1 especially when we treat of the ariform products of fired gun-powder1 a few remarks on this head may be useful at this time4 ,by the combustion of bodies1 substances are generated that are either gaseous or solid1 whence arises the variety of products4 ,of ariform fluids1 some are coloured1 as nitrous acid vapour1 7nitrous gas and oxygen71 chlorine1 and the protoxide and deutoxide of chlorine4 ,the first is red1 the rest yellowish-green1 or yellowish4 ,some relight a taper1 provided the wick remain ignited1 as oxygen gas1 protoxide of azote1 and the oxides of chlorine4 ,others produce white vapours in the air1 as muriatic acid1 fluoboric1 fluosilicic1 and hydriodic4 ,the inflammable gases1 which take fire in the air by contact of the lighted taper1 are hydrogen1 hydroguret1 and bihydroguret of carbon1 carbonic oxide1 prussine or cyanogen1 called also carburet of azote1 and phosphuretted1 sulphuretted1 arsenuretted1 telluretted1 and potassuretted hydrogen4 ,other gases are acid1 and redden litmus1 which1 for that reason1 are called acid gases1 such as nitrous1 sulphurous1 muriatic1 fluoboric1 hydriodic1 fluosilicic1 chlorocarbonic1 and carbonic acids2 the oxides of chlorine1 sulphuretted hydrogen1 telluretted hydrogen1 and carburet of azote4 ,some gases are destitute of smell1 as oxygen1 azote and its protoxide1 and carbonic acid2 while others have a strong and characteristic odour1 as ammoniacal gas4 ,some gases are very soluble in water1 and others but slightly soluble1 such as fluoric1 fluosilicic1 carbonic1 sulphurous1 and muriatic acids1 and ammoniacal gas4 ,alkaline solutions absorb some gases1 as nitrous1 sulphurous1 muriatic1 fluoboric1 carbonic1 hydriodic1 fluosilicic1 chlorine1 chlorocarbonic1 and the two oxides of chlorine1 sulphuretted hydrogen1 telluretted hydrogen1 and ammonia4 ,alkaline gases are ammonia1 and potassuretted hydrogen4 ,the character of gases is well defined4 ,the compound gas of phosphorus and hydrogen takes fire spontaneously in the atmosphere1 burning with a brilliant white flame2 but there is another gas formed of the same substances1 that does not inflame spontaneously1 but is inflammable1 called subphosphuretted hydrogen4 ,this gas has a strong smell of garlic or phosphorus1 and is luminous in the dark4 ,it may be this peculiar combination1 which gives rise to the ignes fatui2 but the permanent ignes fatui1 observed in volcanic countries1 are said to be the slow combustion of sulphur1 forming sulphurous acid gas4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy found1 that phosphuretted hydrogen produced a flash of light when admitted into the best vacuum that could be made by an excellent pump of ,nairn's construction4 ,naphtha in contact with red hot iron glows with a lambent flame at a rarefaction of thirty times1 though its flame ceases at an atmospheric rarefaction of six4 ,camphor ceases to burn in an air rarefied six times1 but1 in a glass tube which becomes ignited1 the flame of camphor exists under ninefold rarefaction2 whereas phosphorus1 according to the experiments of ,van ,marum1 will burn1 although the atmosphere be rarefied sixty times4 ,hydrogen gas will burn in a rarefied air1 when it is four or five times less than the pressure of the atmosphere1 and its flame be extinguished1 when the pressure is between seven and eight times less2 from which it is inferred1 that the flame is extinguished in rarefied atmospheres1 only when the heat it produces is insufficient to keep up the combustion4 ,olefiant gas 7hydroguret of carbon7 ceased to burn in an atmosphere1 where its pressure was diminished between ten and eleven times4 ,the flames of alcohol and of wax taper were extinguished in an atmosphere1 where pressure was five or six times less without the wire of platinum1 and seven or eight times less when the wire was kept in the flame4 ,see ,flameless ,lamp4 ,several interesting conclusions may be drawn from these facts1 which1 to enumerate1 would lead us beyond our design4 ,it will be sufficient1 therefore1 to add1 that although a supporter of combustion is necessary for that process1 and flame may be differently modified1 yet combustion ceases if the pressure of the atmosphere be diminished in certain ratios1 as already noticed4 ,besides nitre1 other saline substances which contain oxygen feebly combined1 have been used for the same purpose4 ,some years ago1 it was proposed to substitute the hyper-oxymuriate1 now called chlorate of potassa1 for nitre in the formation of gun-powder4 ,as chlorate of potassa1 when mixed with sulphur1 c4 produces combustion by percussion1 or by the contact of fire1 this effect is attributed to the same cause1--the separation of oxygen1 not from azote1 but from the chlorine of the chloric acid1 ,hence1 when that salt is used in fire-works1 the result of the combustion is similar to that in which nitre is employed2 at least as regards the union of the oxygen with the elementary principles of the inflammable body4 ,on this subject1 we shall make some remarks hereafter4 ,nitrate of soda1 a salt which contains nitric acid1 and similar to saltpetre in that particular1 has been recommended also for fire-works4 ,it has1 however1 several objections4 ,our object in noticing it at this time is to remark1 that1 when it is so employed1 its effect is the same as nitrate of potassa1 or saltpetre1 by furnishing oxygen as the supporter of combustion4 ,see ,nitrate of ,soda4 ,we are of opinion1 that many of the nitrates might be advantageously employed in the manufacture of fire-works4 ,some1 as nitrate of strontian1 communicate a red colour to flame1 as the flame of alcohol4 ,nitrate of lime also might be used4 ,all nitrates1 as well as the different hyperoxymuriates1 or chlorates1 contain oxygen as an essential ingredient in the acid of their respective salts1 which is readily given up to inflammable substances4 ,when nitrates are employed for fire-works1 they should be free from moisture1 or water of crystallization1 unless otherwise required4 ,the presence of water may1 in many cases1 prove injurious to the composition2 and1 consequently1 the effect in those instances1 may be influenced by this circumstance4 ,the composition of nitric acid1 and the action of carbon in the decomposition of the nitrates1 or salts formed by the union of nitric acid with sundry bases1 will claim our attention in the article on gun-powder4 ,with respect to the production of colours1 some remarks on this subject may be here added4 ,speaking of colours1 ,hay 7,elementary ,treatise of ,natural ,philosophy1 trans4 ii4 p4 #bec47 takes into view their formation according to the ,newtonian doctrine2 and in a note by the translator1 several instances are given of the change of colour by oxidizement and other processes4 ,iron when exposed to heat in contact with atmospheric air gradually absorbs oxygen1 and changes its colour4 ,the colours produced depend entirely on the quantity of oxygen1 and on the absorption of some of the rays of light1 and the reflection of others4 ,see ,iron4 ,the tempering of steel instruments depends on this property1 and also the blueing of sword blades1 and many similar operations4 ,the first impression of fire usually developes a blue colour2 a second degree produces a yellow2 and1 if the oxidizement augments1 the iron becomes red4 ,the major part of the metals present similar phenomena4 ,in vegetables1 the blue colour is formed by fermentation2 and many of these colours are susceptible of passing to red by a greater quantity of oxygen1 as they depend on the absorption of oxygen4 ,it is thus that the green fecula of indigo becomes blue2 turnsol1 red by air and acids2 and the protoferrocyanate of iron1 blue when exposed to the air4 ,when meat putrefies1 the first degree of oxygenation decides the blue colour2 the red soon succeeds as the process goes on4 ,it would seem that the maximum of oxidation determines the reflection of rays of every kind1 in the same proportions as subsist in solar light1 of which we have many instances in combustion4 ,the flame of burning bodies exhibits the same phenomena4 ,it is blue when the combination of oxygen is slow2 red when it is stronger1 and white when the oxygenation is complete4 ,these facts lead to the conclusion1 that the combination of oxygen1 and its proportions1 give birth in bodies to the property of reflecting corresponding rays of light2 but1 since the combination of oxygen in different proportions ought to change the thickness and density of the component lamin1 and1 consequently1 to produce variations in the colours1 this doctrine is not easily reconciled with the received theory4 ,by considering the temperature necessary to inflame different bodies2 the nature of flame1 and the relation between light and heat1 which compose it2 the caloric disengaged in a free state during the combustion of bodies1 and the causes1 which modify the appearance of flame1--we may be enabled to account for the phenomena already noticed4 ,thus1 phosphorus at #aej1 and sulphur at #eej1 are said to take fire1 and two acid products are formed2 at #hjj1 hydrogen gas explodes with oxygen1 and produces water2 and1 according to ,ure's view1 the flame of combustible bodies may in all cases be considered as the combustion of an explosive mixture of inflammable gas1 or vapour1 with air2 and as to the change of quiescent into distributable heat1 and the causes that modify combustion and flame1 the facts on these heads are numerous and very important4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,remarks on the ,nature of particular ,compositions4 ,the spur fire1 which was invented by the ,chinese1 but brought to perfection in ,europe1 is remarkably beautiful when employed in some particular parts of fire-works4 ,this fire was so named from the effect it produces1 that of forming scintillations1 resembling a shower1 or drops of rain1 or the rowel of a spur4 ,the artificial flower pot is formed of this fire4 ,the stars and pinks1 which it produces1 are said to be brilliant4 ,the composition of spur fire being saltpetre1 lampblack1 and sulphur1 in the proportions we shall give hereafter1 is similar in fact to that of gunpowder2 for the lampblack acts in the same manner as common charcoal4 ,as the lampblack1 however1 is extremely fine1 and of a purer quality1 its action on that account may be more powerful4 ,while one portion of it decomposes the nitric acid of the nitre1 with the oxygen of which it forms carbonic acid2 another portion is thrown off in actual combustion1 which puts on the appearance we have mentioned4 ,lampblack1 it is to be observed1 is a very impalpable powder1 and takes fire with more facility than pulverised charcoal4 ,the lampblack1 therefore1 is consumed both by the oxygen of the nitre1 and the oxygen gas furnished by the atmospheric air4 ,with respect to the sulphur1 it facilitates the combustion1 as it is more readily inflamed1 and it forms in the process of combustion1 sulphurous acid gas4 ,spur fire has been improved by the addition of steel filings3 ,they produce very brilliant scintillations1 in the combustion of which1 oxide of iron is formed4 ,with respect to the composition of rockets1 the materials of which are united in different proportions1 we will remark at this time1 that as mealed powder1 saltpetre1 and charcoal constitute their principal ingredients1 the chemical effect is similar to that we have stated4 ,the combustion of such mixtures is attributed to the same cause2 for whether we consider the composition of gunpowder1 or the extra addition of saltpetre and charcoal1 or the substitution of nitre for the gunpowder1 the action must be the same1 and therefore the products of combustion1 similar4 ,the action1 however1 as the effect evidently shows1 is affected by the proportion of the substances employed1 and by other circumstances which we shall notice hereafter4 ,the different appearances1 therefore1 are owing entirely to the composition1 as in rocket stars1 rains1 gerbes1 tourbillons1 c4 ,it may appear surprising1 that the combustion of gunpowder with other substances1 previously well rammed in cases1 as in the rocket1 will give to the case a momentum of great velocity and force4 ,this motion is regulated by the balance of the rocket2 and its power depends upon the size of the case1 and the compactness of the composition4 ,there is nothing new1 however1 in the fact2 for it is perfectly familiar with every one1 if we consider the recoil of a gun when fired1 the powder having a resistance to overcome1 as the ball1 that the explosive effect of gunpowder is equal1 and that the gases produced impel on all sides4 ,now the effect of a ball is as the difference of its weight with the weight of the gun2 while the one being so much lighter is propelled forward with great celerity1 and with a corresponding projectile force1 the other suffers but little motion1 which we term the recoil4 ,the combustion of the materials1 of which a rocket is composed1 in a case1 and in many fire-works where the cases are arranged on wheels1 c4 which act on the rocket-principle1 produces in like manner a force proportionate to the quantity of the material employed1 and the manner it is driven in the case4 ,the force in such instances is given to the rocket by the combustible substances2 and the rocket itself when free1 will ascend1 or move in the direction required2 or if small cases are fixed on wheels1 which move on an axis1 they communicate motion1 as in the single vertical wheels1 horizontal wheels1 plural wheels1 and the like1 and may then be considered a moving power4 ,that rockets are used as a missile weapon is well known4 ,they were employed by the native troops of ,india against the ,british during the siege of ,seringapatam in #agii4 ,mr4 ,congreve1 the inventor of the war-rocket which bears his name1 may have received his first idea of using rockets from this circumstance4 ,this rocket will be described hereafter4 ,the projectile force of the rocket is well calculated for the conveyance of case shot to great distances2 because1 as it proceeds1 its velocity is accelerated instead of being retarded1 as happens with every other projectile1 while the average velocity of the shell is greater than that of the rocket only in the ratio of #i to #h4 ,the basis of this increase of power in the flight of rockets1 induced ,congreve to make a number of experiments1 which resulted in their improvement1 so far as they may be used of various calibres1 either for explosion or conflagration1 and armed both with shells and case shot4 ,it may be sufficient to remark1 that the #cb pr4 rocket carcass1 which has been used in bombardment1 will range #cjjj yards with the same quantity of combustible matter as that contained in the ten inch spherical carcass4 ,m4 de ,buffon1 7,mmoires de l',acadmie1 #agdj17 wrote an ingenious essay on sky rockets1 in which he states the appendages which may be put to them4 ,if we inquire into the cause of the ascension of rockets1 it will appear1 that this apparently extraordinary effect1 as we have already remarked1 is owing to the decomposition1 and the consequent production and disengagement of a large quantity of gaseous fluid and caloric4 ,the impelling power1 as in the large ,congreve rocket1 of which we had occasion to speak1 is regulated in proportion to its size1 and the accuracy with which the materials have been driven4 ,the manner in which the flame1 and1 consequently1 the gases are expelled from the orifice of a rocket1 resembles the operation of an olipile1 which throws out the vapour of water1 and sets in motion the air in its vicinity4 ,as the more flexible must yield to the more solid body1 so1 in this respect1 the gases produced are repelled by the air in contact with the orifice of the rocket4 ,thus it follows1 that the rocket displaces a volume of air of a much greater weight than itself4 ,the rocket then has upon the air1 reasoning a priori1 the same effect as the oars of a boat have upon water2 and hence1 the greater the volume of fire from the rocket1 the greater is its velocity and ascent4 ,the impelling force also increases as it consumes1 being a uniformly accelerated motion4 ,it also appears1 that a rocket sent in an horizontal direction will not pass over so great a distance1 as when its motion is vertical2 for1 a rocket1 directed in a line parallel to the horizon1 passes through a medium of equal density1 but if directed perpendicular to the horizon1 from the moment it leaves the ground till it arrives at its greatest height1 it penetrates and passes through an atmosphere whose density is continually decreasing1 and consequently its impelling force meets with less resistance4 ,but when we consider the increase of the force of the rocket1 there is no comparison between that force1 and the diminution of the density of the air4 ,from these premises it follows1 that the ascension of rockets of all kinds is governed by one principle1 namely1 the disengagement of gaseous fluids and caloric1 which displacing an equal volume of atmospheric air1 operates by mutual contact4 ,since1 however1 the air is heavier than the gases produced by the rocket1 as the latter are greatly expanded1 it is evident1 that the gases will ascend2 their specific gravity at the time of dilatation being less than that of the air4 ,the gases proceeding from the interior of the rocket1 act therefore upon the air in the immediate vicinity of the orifice1 and the rocket is consequently propelled1 the stick guiding it in the direction given to it4 ,if it were not for the rocket-stick or balance1 its direction would be neither regular nor certain4 ,considering then1 that1 by the rocket-stick1 the centre of gravity is changed from the rocket itself to the stick1 the motion is regulated in its perpendicular flight by the stick4 ,the rocket-stick must be always of a proportionate length and weight to the rocket4 ,the motion given to rockets is always to be considered1 for this depends upon the direction at first imparted2 but the force of ascension is regulated by the size1 and other circumstances which we have mentioned4 ,assuming the principle of constant force acting upon the rocket1 its velocity will increase with the time1 and will be as the squares of the time1 according to the principles of uniform accelerated motion2 but if the force varies from uniformity1 then the velocity and spaces will proportionably vary4 ,as action and re-action must be equal1 the repulsion produced by the action of the gases upon the air is equal to the force impelling the rocket4 ,the constant action produces equal acceleration of the motion4 ,on the subject of the condensation and dilatation of air1 and the different pressures at a mean temperature1 which is more or less connected with this inquiry1 the reader may consult with advantage1 the work of ,mr4 ,biot1 7,trait de ,physique1 c4 tome i1 p4 #aaj1 and #ada47 ,the conclusions of ,mr4 ,robins on the gaseous products of gunpowder1 and the elasticity of those products1 may be seen by referring to the article on gunpowder4 ,it must be confessed1 that the theory of rockets differs in many essential particulars from that of the usual projectiles2 for the motion of rockets is more complicated than that of common projectiles1 and is described to partake of all the anomalies that attend the accelerated motion arising from the rocket composition1 and the uniform motion of the rocket-case1 after the composition is expended4 ,it is a fact1 which appears to be established1 that little or no advantage has yet been gained from the experiments that have been made with cannon1 even where the angle of elevation1 and the initial velocity of the ball were both accurately known4 ,it seems totally useless to look for mathematical investigations1 with respect to determining the ranges1 c4 of military rockets2 because1 if we could determine1 with the greatest accuracy1 the point1 position1 and velocity of the rocket1 at the moment when the composition was expended1 the remaining part of its track would still be subject to all the inequalities attending on common projectiles4 ,during the burning of the rocket1 however1 its motion might1 by a series of experiments1 be reduced to precise rules4 ,as the principles of gunnery1 or rather of projectiles1 involve a number of collateral circumstances1 such as the exact momentum of any given ball when projected with a given velocity1 and from a given distance1 the subject is still not fully settled2 but they are so far conclusive1 that the resistance of the air to the same ball is as some function of the velocity4 ,the remarks of ,dr4 ,hutton on this head would be too lengthy4 ,a rocket1 however1 is very different4 ,the very medium1 in this case1 is the principal agent in producing the motion2 and being enabled to ascertain all the successive energies of the propelling power1 and the resisting force1 we may thus far determine correctly4 ,it is suggested1 that a rocket fixed to the ballistic pendulum would determine its whole energy2 but1 in order to make the experiment more perfect1 it is proposed to attach it to a wheel1 or revolving body1 and then to measure its successive energies by the motion of some weight attached to the revolving axis of the machine4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that it is impossible to accommodate or determine the motion of rockets by other projectiles2 and1 therefore1 to ascertain their momentum1 such a contrivance would be eminently useful4 ,mr4 ,moore of the ,royal ,military ,academy1 ,great ,britain1 7,treatise on the motion and flight of rockets17 who seems to have adopted the hypothesis of ,dr4 ,desaguliers1 respecting the momentum of the ignited composition1 has given a variety of problems relative to the motion and flight of rockets in non-resisting mediums1 some of which we purpose to notice4 ,mariotte and ,desaguliers have given two distinct theories of the motion of rockets4 ,the latter ascribes their motion to the momentum of combustion1 and the former to the elastic nature of the gaseous fluid1 generated by the combustion1 and the resistance of air4 ,the observations of ,desaguliers are the following3 ,conceive the rocket to have no vent at the choke1 and to be set on fire1 the consequence will be1 either that the rocket will burst in the weakest place1 or if all the parts be equally strong1 and be able to sustain the impulse of the flame1 the rocket would burn out immoveable4 ,now1 as the force of the flame is equable1 suppose its action downwards1 or that upwards1 to lift #dj pounds2 as these forces are equal1 but their directions contrary1 they will destroy each other's action4 ,imagine then the rocket opened at the choke2 by this means1 the action of the flame downwards is taken away1 and there remains a force equal to forty pounds1 acting upwards1 to carry up the rocket and stick4 ,this theory1 however ingenious1 is not altogether true2 for it is asserted on the contrary1 that the action of the flame or gas within the rocket1 when closed1 as supposed above1 is conceived to arise wholly from the elastic nature of the gas1 and the reaction it experiences against the ends and sides of the rocket-case2 the whole of which ceases as soon as a free vent is given to the flame2 and1 therefore1 if a rocket could be fixed in a vacuum1 as the flame would1 in that case1 experience no resistance1 there would be no reaction1 and consequently1 no motion would ensue4 ,some experiments1 analogous to this position1 have been made4 ,we may merely add1 with respect to ,mariotte's theory1 that he attributes the motion of the rocket to the resistance and reaction of the air1 in consequence of which the propelling force will decrease as the velocity increases1 owing to the partial vacuum left behind the rocket in its flight2 so that the correct solution of the problem necessarily involves the integration of partial differences of the highest orders4 ,we may remark also1 from the premises already established1 that the first motion of the rocket1 like all other motions not produced by a great momentary impulse1 is slow2 and before the stick is clear of the flame1 gravity has been acting upon the rocket1 and depressed it below its natural position1 while the stick is prevented from being equally depressed1 by the top of the frame2 so that the angle of projection is in fact considerably less than the angle of the frame1 or slope of the rocket's first position4 ,in consequence of this1 the rocket has the appearance of falling the moment after projection2 and1 for this reason also1 the angle for producing the greatest range of a rocket exceeds very considerably that which gives the extreme range of a shell projected from a mortar4 ,there are various propositions given by ,mr4 ,moore respecting rockets1 but to give the calculus1 c4 would take up more room than we could appropriate to this abstract question4 ,the nature of these propositions1 however1 may be given in a few words1 viz3 ,the strength or force of the gas from the inflamed composition of a rocket being given1 as also the weight and quantity of the composition1 the time of its burning1 and the weight and dimensions of the case and stick1 to find the height to which it will ascend1 when projected perpendicularly upwards4 ,after making the necessary calculation1 he concludes by observing1 that1 having determined the height of the rocket1 and its velocity1 when the composition is just consumed1 it follows that its whole height may be determined in the usual manner by the known formula1 for the ascent and descent of heavy bodies4 ,another proposition is that of determining the path of a rocket near the earth's surface1 neglecting the resistance of the air2 and among others1 for finding the horizontal range of a rocket1 the angle of elevation1 and the time the composition is on fire1 being given4 ,the observations of ,mr4 ,peyre1 7,le ,mouvement ,ign17 are confined principally to the effects of gunpowder2 and although applied to the use of gunpowder1 and the theory of its explosive effects1 yet there is nothing in immediate relation with this subject4 ,the generation of gaseous fluid1 and its impelling power1 and the consequent recoil of pieces1 predicated in fact on the ingenious experiments and conclusions of ,mr4 ,robins1 may furnish some data on this head4 ,but the principles of accelerated motion1 on which the effective power of war-rockets depends1 this accelerated motion being no other than the acquired velocity of their recoil1 necessarily involves a question of a different kind from that of common projectiles4 ,the caduceus rocket has not much more than half the power of ascension as the single rockets2 because1 being composed of two rockets placed at an angle of #ij degrees1 with the usual counterpoise1 7the stick71 it forms in its flight a serpentine motion resembling two spiral lines1 or double worm2 and although by reason of the stick it ascends vertically1 yet the great resistance it meets with from the air1 in consequence of this motion1 causes its flight to be considerably retarded4 ,on the contrary1 when rockets are fixed one on the top of another1 called towering rockets1 their effect is not at all diminished2 for they experience no additional resistance1 as the small rocket is placed in the head of the large one2 and when the latter arrives at the maximum of elevation1 it communicates fire to the former1 which then rises as far beyond the first1 if not higher1 in consequence of the pressure of the atmosphere being less1 as it would1 if discharged by itself on the ground4 ,sky rockets1 however1 which are merely placed on one stick1 do not1 unless so required1 act in this manner4 ,although two1 three1 or more1 may be so arranged1 yet the intention is nothing more than to combine their effect1 so that their tails may appear as one stream of fire4 ,nevertheless1 they may be so arranged1 as that when one is consumed1 another may take its place1 and produce a new volume of fire1 and1 in this case1 they would mount to a great height4 ,tourbillons1 usually called the common or table tourbillons1 which receive their name from the whirling motion they take in their flight1 produce also1 by the arrangement of their cases1 and the cross stick which serves as a balance1 a horizontal and rotary motion2 and while one part of the fire serves to elevate them1 another part1 issuing in a horizontal direction1 but at opposite sides and extremities1 gives to the tourbillon a wheeling motion4 ,the mosaic tourbillons are of a different kind1 and intended for another effect4 ,tourbillons of this kind preserve a regular and constant motion4 ,the mosaic candle owes its effect1 in a great measure1 to the rocket composition4 ,using alternately1 composition1 meal-powder1 and a star1 ramming the composition sufficiently1 but not so as to break the stars1 a case is formed1 the effect of which is brilliant and striking4 ,besides the rapid combustion of the composition1 the stars1 when the fire comes to the meal-powder1 are thrown out by it in succession1 and to the height of one hundred and more feet4 ,we have also1 in this instance1 the effect of the rocket composition1 and that of gunpowder2 the last of which1 acting in the case in the same manner as powder in a musket on a ball1 throws the stars to a great height4 ,hence the effect is varied according to the manner of loading the case2 and by employing alternately the substances we have mentioned1 the effects follow in regular succession4 ,the use of gunpowder in this manner1 is strikingly shown in many other fire-works4 ,when1 for instance1 stars1 serpents1 c4 forming the furniture of a rocket1 are to be dispersed1 gunpowder is put in the head or conical cap of the rocket1 and fire is communicated to it at the moment the rocket has arrived at its extreme elevation4 ,in the bursting of paper shells1 the same effect ensues1 and the different substances contained in the shell are dispersed in every direction4 ,balloons are nothing more than shells made either of paper1 or wood turned hollow4 ,these balloons are discharged from mortars1 or fire-pots1 sometimes called pots of ordnance4 ,they are merely cylinders of various diameters1 made of paper and very thick1 or of metal1 and are furnished at their bottom with a conical cavity lined with copper1 designed to hold the charge of powder4 ,when the balloon is filled1 7see ,balloons71 it is introduced into the mortar over the charge1 and being furnished with a fuse as in other shells1 takes fire the moment the powder is inflamed4 ,according to the quantity of powder made use of1 so will be the height of ascension4 ,by determining the ascension1 and the time required for the fuse to burn1 and communicate fire to the shell1 we may fix the precise moment for its explosion4 ,the powder contained in the shell is sufficient only to burst it1 and disperse its contents4 7,see ,mortars1 ,fire-pots1 and pots of ,aigrette47 ,a balloon will contain more stars1 serpents1 c4 than the head of an ordinary rocket1 and the effect which they produce1 must of course be more striking4 ,the ,congreve rocket1 calculated as it is to convey carcass composition1 balls1 grenades1 c4 if furnished with stars1 crackers1 c4 would produce an effect equal1 if not superior to the balloon4 ,we remarked1 that1 in common sky rockets1 the charges consist of a mixture of gunpowder1 saltpetre1 and charcoal1 with occasionally other additions1 as steel-filings4 ,rocket-stars1 on the contrary1 are usually formed of mealed powder1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and sometimes other substances according to the colour of the flame required4 ,thus1 for the white star1 composition oil of spike1 7a preparation of ,barbadoes tar1 and spirit of turpentine71 and camphor are employed2 the camphor giving to the flame a white appearance4 ,the blue stars owe their colour to sulphur1 which is in the proportion of one to four of the meal-powder2 the variegated stars have the same materials1 with sulphur vivum1 and camphor2 and the brilliant stars1 common stars1 and a variety of others1 we shall mention in their proper places1 are all formed by the addition of sundry substances4 ,the variety of rains1 as gold rain1 silver rain1 c4 are differently prepared4 ,besides saltpetre1 meal-powder1 and sulphur1 gold rain contains in its composition the filings of brass1 saw-dust1 and pulverized glass4 ,in this instance1 the saw-dust communicates colour1 while the brass and the glass are thrown out1 the former partly consumed1 and the latter partially fused by the intense heat4 ,the same effect may be produced by meal-powder1 saltpetre1 and charcoal1 or saltpetre1 sulphur1 antimony1 brass filings1 saw-dust1 and pulverized glass4 ,here the antimony1 as well as the brass1 communicates the golden colour4 7,see antimony47 ,silver rain is generally formed of saltpetre1 sulphur1 meal-powder1 antimony1 and sal prunelle1 but without saw-dust2 the antimony communicating silver brilliancy to the flame4 ,it may also be formed1 by employing1 in given proportions1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 the particular effect depending upon the proportions2 or by using antimony in lieu of the charcoal1 or in the place of the antimony1 steel-filings4 ,whether antimony or steel-filings are used1 the effect of their combustion is the same1 forming in the one instance1 an oxide of antimony1 and in the other1 an oxide of iron4 ,both gold and silver rain is employed chiefly for sky-rockets4 ,as to the colours required1 they may be formed of other substances4 ,the charges for water-rockets are also various4 ,in some of which1 besides the usual ingredients1 7meal-powder1 saltpetre1 and sulphur17 sea-coal1 steel-filings1 saw-dust1 c4 enter into their composition4 ,as to the different compositions1 it will be sufficient to remark1 that for wheels1 fixed cases1 sun cases1 gerbes1 ,chinese fire1 tourbillons1 water balloons1 water squibs1 serpents1 port-fires1 cones1 globes1 air-balloon fuses1 fire-pumps1 and many others to be noticed hereafter1 the basis of them is either gunpowder or saltpetre1 and sulphur and charcoal1 with or without additions4 ,with respect to the composition of the stars of different colours1 it is to be observed1 that the particular colour is given by pulverized cast-iron1 steel-filings1 camphor1 amber1 antimony1 perchloride of mercury1 7corrosive sublimate71 ivory-dust1 copper1 frankincense1 c4 ,to produce tails of sparks1 pitch or rosin is added4 ,stars which produce some sparks are usually made by using gum water in mixing the composition4 ,the gum appears to produce a separation of the inflammable substances1 and1 as it is not combustible1 to check1 as it were1 the rapidity of the combustion4 ,in some preparations1 also1 isinglass or fish-glue is used in solution4 ,this1 no doubt1 acts in the same manner1 as well as to give firmness to the composition2 but its solution is also used as a vehicle4 ,on the same principle also1 we learn the use of caustic ley1 quicklime1 c4 in preparing match-rope4 ,after soaking the cord in a solution of nitre1 it is afterwards dipped into ley1 which is nothing more than a solution of potash rendered caustic by means of quicklime4 ,the potash evidently checks the combustion4 ,the formul for slow match1 are1 however1 various4 ,in the match-wood1 also1 prepared from the wood or bark of the linden1 the wood is usually first soaked in a solution of saltpetre1 and afterwards in a solution of acetate or sugar of lead1 c4 ,for the same purpose1 nitrate of copper is recommended4 ,for stars of a yellow colour1 besides gum arabic1 or gum tragacanth1 saltpetre1 and sulphur1 the addition of powdered glass1 orpiment1 7sulphuret of arsenic71 and white amber1 are occasionally made4 ,the colour is owing to the amber and the orpiment1 which have the property of communicating it to flame4 ,we may observe1 generally1 that the colours produced by different compositions1 is a subject of importance to the pyrotechnist4 ,he should know the properties of each substance1 and the effect of each ingredient2 and1 with respect to their action1 be able to foretell the appearance of the flame1 and other circumstances connected with the art4 ,as a general example1 we may state1 that sulphur gives a blue2 camphor1 a white1 or pale colour2 saltpetre1 a clear white yellow2 amber1 a colour inclining to yellow2 muriate of ammonia1 7sal ammoniac71 a green2 antimony1 a reddish2 rosin1 a copper colour1 and ,greek pitch1 a bronze1 or a colour between red and yellow4 ,in using these substances1 the following remarks may be useful2--that for producing a white flame1 the saltpetre should be the chief part2 for blue1 the sulphur2 for flame inclining to red1 the saltpetre should be the principal ingredient1 using at the same time1 antimony and pitch4 7,see matches of different colours1 in ,part ii47 ,coloured flame may be produced by various other substances1 many of which are expensive1 and therefore could not be employed economically4 ,thus1 in fire-works made with hydrogen gas1 or inflammable air1 which have a pleasing effect1 by forcing the gas1 either from a bladder1 oiled-silk bag1 or gas-holder1 through a variety of revolving jets1 which are so arranged as to exhibit stars1 or through pipes furnished with small apertures1 c4 to resemble different standing figures1--the effect may be varied by previously mixing the gas with the vapour of ether1 and other substances1 which communicate to the flame1 particular colours1 which1 in a darkened room1 are extremely brilliant4 ,cartwright's fire-works are formed in this manner4 7,see fire-works with inflammable air47 ,muriate of strontian1 mixed with alcohol1 or spirit of wine1 will give a carmine-red flame4 ,for this experiment1 one part of the muriate is added to three or four parts of alcohol4 ,muriate of lime produces1 with alcohol1 an orange-coloured flame4 ,nitrate of copper produces an emerald-green flame4 ,common salt and nitre1 with alcohol1 give a yellow flame4 7,see ,illuminations and ,transparencies47 ,in addition to the facts already stated1 it may be proper to observe1 that the ingredients employed to show in sparks1 which are rammed in choaked cases1 are various1 according to the colours required2 as black1 white1 gray1 and red4 ,the black charges are composed of meal-powder and charcoal2 the white1 of saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal2 the gray1 of meal powder1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal2 and the red1 of meal-powder1 charcoal1 and saw-dust4 ,these are considered regular or set charges1 to which we may add two others1 called compound and brilliant charges4 ,the compound charges contain a variety of substances which afford sparks2 and hence1 besides the usual inflammable bodies1 saw-dust1 antimony1 steel and brass-filings1 are used4 ,the brilliant fires owe their particular effect to the presence of steel-filings1 or pulverized cast-iron4 ,iron1 in any of its states1 when minutely divided1 has the same effect4 ,quick match is usually formed of cotton1 by soaking it in a solution of nitre1 and adding meal-powder4 ,a solution of isinglass is sometimes used4 ,the etoupille of the ,french is of the same nature4 ,the manner1 quick and slow match1 c4 are prepared1 with the various formul1 will be considered under their respective heads4 ,touch paper1 for capping serpents1 crackers1 c4 will also be noticed4 ,the pyrotechnical spunge owes its inflammability to nitre4 ,in the various composition of aquatic fire-works1 although more care and attention are required1 it is to be observed1 that1 in forming water-rockets1 horizontal wheels1 water-mines1 fire-globes1 water-balloons1 water-squibs1 water-fire-fountains1 and the like1 substances are generally used along with the usual ingredients1 which1 under particular circumstances1 may be said to repel1 as well as resist the action of the water2 and in this particular they resemble the celebrated ,greek fire1 of which we shall speak hereafter4 ,this remark1 however1 applies only to certain works4 ,after the rockets have been filled1 their ends are dipped in melted rosin or sealing-wax1 or secured with grease4 ,fire-works1 usually exhibited in rooms1 are made with odoriferous gums and perfumes1 and hence are called odoriferous fire-works4 ,we may remark1 that the odour or perfume is given by a variety of substances2 for these1 at a high temperature1 are partly consumed1 and partly evaporated4 ,thus camphor1 yellow amber1 flowers of benzoin1 myrrh1 frankincense1 cedar-raspings1 and the essential oils1 particularly of bergamot1 are employed for this purpose4 ,scented fire-works are of the same character4 ,the ,italians and the ,french1 who have made more experiments in ,pyrotechny1 than other nations1 have improved odoriferous fire-works4 ,in these compositions1 they also employ storax1 calamite1 gum benzoin1 and other substances4 ,scented fire was greatly in use in ,egypt1 ,rome1 and ,athens1 at their fetes and public ceremonies4 ,the unpleasant smell which gunpowder1 sulphur1 c4 occasion in a confined apartment1 has induced the modern artificers to add sundry odoriferous substances to their pyro-mixtures4 ,on this subject1 it will be sufficient to observe1 that the scented vase1 which was in use at ,athens1 contained the following substances3 storax1 benzoin1 frankincense1 camphor1 gum juniper in grains1 and charcoal of the willow4 ,it does not appear that nitre was employed4 ,the custom of burning frankincense before the altar1 is indeed very ancient2 for1 in the primitive temple at ,jerusalem1 the custom was adopted by the priests in the ,sanctum ,sanctorum1 and is continued by the ,greeks and ,armenians1 the ,jews1 the ,turks1 the ,persians1 7especially the followers of ,zoroaster71 preserve this custom4 ,the ,holy ,fire of the latter is nothing more than the inflamed carburetted hydrogen gas1 which comes from the naphtha ground at ,baku4 ,besides the use of nitre in pyrotechnical compositions1 as it forms an essential part in all of them1 there is another salt we had occasion to notice1 of which an account will be given hereafter1 that affords a variety of amusing experiments4 ,this salt is the hyperoxymuriate or chlorate of potassa4 ,although it has neither been used for fire-works on an extensive scale1 nor does it enter into any of the compositions usually made for exhibition1 yet its effect is not the less amusing4 ,some general idea may be had of its effect1 by stating a few experiments4 ,if a mixture of this salt and white sugar be made in a mortar1 and the mixture laid on a slab or tile1 and a string wetted with sulphuric acid1 7oil of vitriol71 be brought in contact with it1 or a drop or two of the acid be let fall upon it1 a vivid combustion will take place4 ,in this experiment1 the acid decomposes the salt1 and the oxygen unites with the carbon and hydrogen of the sugar1 and forms carbonic acid and water4 ,the same salt1 rubbed in a mortar with sulphur1 will produce a crackling noise resembling that of a whip2 and if a mixture of the two be struck with a hammer1 the percussion will cause a loud detonation4 ,the same thing happens when phosphorus is used1 but the detonation is more violent4 ,various other experiments may be made with it4 ,it forms the principal part of the match1 called the pocket lights4 ,these are made1 in the first place1 by dipping the wood previously cut in splints in melted sulphur1 and afterwards in a mixture of this salt with sugar1 which is moistened with water4 ,the match is then dried4 ,when used1 it is dipped in sulphuric acid4 ,the red colour1 usually given to the match1 is formed by mixing with the composition some vermillion4 ,another application of the same principle1 is the firing of cannon4 ,for this purpose1 after the tube is filled with powder1 a covering of the same mixture is applied when mixed with water4 ,it is then dried4 ,when the tube is put in the vent1 a drop of sulphuric acid will inflame it1 and consequently discharge the gun4 ,this salt also1 when mixed with sulphur1 may be used to fire fowling pieces1 provided the lock be so constructed1 as in a late invention1 that it acts by percussion4 7,see ,thenard's ,priming powder47 ,the ,rev4 ,alexander ,forsyth of ,alexander ,forsyth of ,belhelvie1 in ,aberdeenshire1 ,scotland1 took out a patent for a new kind of gun-lock1 to be used without a flint1 and has contrived to inflame powder merely by percussion4 ,the powder employed for priming1 consists of chlorate of potassa and sulphur4 ,the gun-lock is calculated for firing cannon as well as musquetry2 it is contrived to hold forty primings of such powder2 and the act of raising the cock primes the piece4 ,each charge of priming is supposed to contain one-eighth of a grain of the salt4 ,there are other substances which also produce fire by percussion4 ,the fulminating silver1 mixed with any substance1 or used by itself1 will detonate by percussion4 ,it should be used with great caution4 ,a grain or two will explode with great violence4 7,see ,detonating ,works1 ,waterloo crackers1 c47 ,there are several other metallic preparations which detonate violently1 such as the fulminating gold1 fulminating mercury1 c4 all of which must be used with extreme caution4 7,see the respective articles47 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of ,illuminations4 ,although nothing of much importance can be said on the subject of illumination1 yet at the same time1 as it is connected with some remarks we will hereafter offer1 it may be proper to observe1 that the practice of illuminating1 as well as the exhibition of fire-works in public rejoicings1 has been in use for many years4 ,the former indeed has been customary for many centuries4 ,we have1 however1 appropriated an article to the manner of forming illuminations and transparencies1 and also on imitative fire-works4 ,illuminations1 whether with lamps1 candles1 flambeaux1 c4 may be rendered more impressive from the manner of their arrangement4 ,in some instances different coloured flames have been used2 and the effect in this case is more grand and beautiful4 ,the public lighting of cities on festivals1 and particularly on joyful occasions1 called illuminations1 is of great antiquity4 ,indeed1 illuminations are a general expression of the public feeling1 and should1 on important occasions1 be encouraged4 ,victories gained over an enemy by the army or navy are subjects of rejoicing4 ,while1 in such cases1 illuminations may be viewed as an expression of the feelings of the people1 they serve moreover to stimulate1 in the spirit of the amor patri1 the future actions of the patriot and the soldier2 and while such rejoicings are demonstrative of victory1 they are equally expressive of that virtuous feeling1 of which every one must partake1 on the return of an honourable peace4 ,what could have been more impressive than the brilliant spectacle exhibited in ,paris in #agci1 on the return of peace8 ,besides illuminations1 the fire-works on that occasion were truly magnificent4 ,the same may be said of those at ,pont ,neuf1 and those at ,versailles in the same year4 ,we shall have occasion to speak of them1 when we come to the arrangement or the order of fire-works for exhibition4 ,the ,egyptians at an early period1 made use of illuminations1 and particularly at a festival1 which is mentioned by the ,greek authors4 ,during the festival1 as ,herodotus says1 lamps were placed before all the houses throughout the country1 and kept burning the whole night4 ,during the festival of the ,jews1 called festum encniorum1 the feast of the ,dedication of the ,temple1 the lamps were lighted before each of the houses1 and the festival continued eight days4 ,illuminations were also used in ,greece1 according to a passage in schylus4 ,when games were exhibited in the night-time at ,rome1 the forum was lighted4 ,caligula1 on a similar occasion1 caused the city to be illuminated4 ,in honour of the great orator ,cicero1 as he was returning home at night1 after the defeat of ,cataline's conspiracy1 lamps and torches were lighted in all the streets4 ,byzantium1 afterwards ,constantinople1 was ordered to be illuminated with lamps and wax candles on an ,easter eve1 in the time of ,constantine4 ,that this custom was prevalent among the christians in the first century1 is evident from many authors4 ,professor ,beckman1 in his ,history of ,inventions1 vol4 iii1 p4 #chc1 says1 that the fathers of the first century frequently inveigh against the christians1 because1 to please the heathens1 they often illuminated their houses1 on idolatrous festivals1 in a more elegant manner than they4 ,this they considered as a species of idolatry4 ,that the houses of the ancients were illuminated on birth-days1 by suspending lamps from chains1 is too well known to require any proof4 ,at ,damascus1 the ,turks always keep a lamp burning over the tomb1 as it is called1 of ,ananias1 which they much reverenced4 ,it is said to be in the same house in which ,st4 ,paul lodged with ,judas4 7,see ,maundrel's ,travels from ,aleppo to ,jerusalem47 ,lamps1 according to ,dr4 ,pococke1 are kept continually burning in the ,jewish synagogue at ,old ,cairo1 said to have been built about sixteen hundred years ago4 7,see ,pococke's ,travels through ,egypt47 ,in ,persia1 lamps are kept burning in consequence of some religious notion1 and particularly at the sepulchre of ,seid ,ibraham4 7,see ,travels through ,muscovy into ,persia47 ,a lighted lamp is frequently put up in ,persia as a mark to shoot at4 ,to be a good shot1 the marksman must extinguish it4 ,at the celebration of the feast called ,ashur or ,ten1 from its lasting ten days1 which is kept in memory of ,hossein1 the youngest son of ,hali1 the ,persians make use of rags dipped in suet and naphtha1 and burn them in lamps2 and their courts are lighted up with thousands of lamps1 the light from which is increased by as many more lanterns made of paper1 that are fastened to cords drawn across the court4 ,the ,chinese1 in celebrating their solemn feasts1 especially on the #aeth day of the first month1 called the ,feast of the lanterns1 from the multitude and grandeur of the lamps they exhibit in the evening1 are remarkable for the splendour of their exhibitions4 ,we are informed1 7,a ,description of ,china1 c471 that many of the grandees1 retrenching every year something from their tables1 apparel1 and equipage1 to show the greater magnificence in the lanterns1 used on this occasion1 expend the sum of #bjjj crowns4 ,the largest are about twenty feet in diameter1 and are lighted by an immense number of wax candles and lamps2 but those that are most common1 are of a middling size4 ,these are generally composed of six faces1 or panes1 each of which has a frame of varnished wood1 adorned with gildings four feet high1 a foot and a half broad1 covered on the inside with fine transparent silk1 on which are painted flowers1 trees1 rocks1 and sometimes human figures4 ,the painting is very curious1 the colours lively1 and the wax candles give the painting a beautiful splendour4 ,these six pannels joined together1 compose a hexagon1 surmounted at the extremities by six carved figures1 that form its crown4 ,around it are hung broad strings of satin1 of all colours1 with other silken ornaments1 that fall upon the angles without hiding the light of the pictures4 ,the feast of the lanterns is also celebrated by bonfires and fire-works4 ,candles are also used for the same purpose4 ,chandeliers1 differently made1 and holding a greater or smaller number of candles1 add greatly to the effect4 ,the candles used by the natives of ,otaheite are curiously made4 ,according to ,cooke1 7,first ,voyage1 c471 they have candles made of a kind of oily nut1 which they stick one over another upon a skewer thrust through the middle of them4 ,the upper one being lighted1 burns down to the second1 at the same time consuming that part of the skewer which goes through it2 the second1 taking fire1 burns in the same manner down to the third1 and so of the rest4 ,these candles give a tolerable light1 and some of them will burn a considerable time4 ,the lighting of streets1 ,beckman considers in some respects to be a modern invention1 and after quoting various authorities concludes1 that1 of modern cities1 ,paris was the first that followed the example of the ancients by lighting its streets4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that the practice of illuminating was reserved by the ancients for some great occasion1 that lighting of the streets was more or less partial1 and confined to particular places1 and that it was not general without some particular occasion called for it4 7,see ,illuminations47 ,kircher1 the ,german philosopher1 had a wick made of amianthus1 which burnt for two years without injury1 and was at last destroyed by accident4#h ,the ,greenland stone flax1 which is the same as amianthus1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,edge says is used in ,greenland for lamp wicks1 and burn without being in the least wasted1 whilst supplied with oil or fat4 ,ellis 7,voyage for the ,discovery of a ,north-,west ,passage71 found the mountain flax1 7asbestus71 among other minerals1 on the ,resolution ,islands1 inhabited by the ,esquimaux1 which is used for similar purposes4 ,we may remark here1 that the ,esquimaux use stone for lamps1 which they hollow out1 and1 according to circumstances1 use also dried goose dung for wick4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of some of the ,feats or ,performances by ,fire4 ,we introduce this subject to show1 that certain kinds of fire-works have been employed for the purpose of deceiving the ignorant1 and amusing the better informed part of mankind4 ,many of the tricks of jugglers and slight-of-hand men1 and the performances of certain rites1 particularly by the ancient magi1 and pagan priests1 come under this head4 ,sundry substances1 in connection with artificial fire1 have been employed by persons of this description4 ,it is true1 our account of them is rather imperfect4 ,had the works of ,celsius1 which he wrote against the ancient magi1 been preserved1 we would1 no doubt1 have been better acquainted with the art of the ancient conjurors and jugglers4 ,professor ,beckman has endeavoured to trace the origin of the necromantic art2 but although of opinion that it is very ancient1 and founded in superstition and unnatural causes1 he is of opinion1 that the works of ,celsius1 which are lost1 were full on the subject1 and for that reason our account must be imperfect4 ,plain common sense1 but with enlightened reason1 has alone convinced mankind of the follies of older generations1 and of relying on superstitious ceremonies1 or believing in miracles1 exorcism1 conjuration1 necromancy1 sorcery1 or witchcraft4 ,the torch of reason1 and experimental philosophy have dispelled the clouds of ignorance and superstition2 and men1 becoming more enlightened as they progress in the investigation of truth1 are no longer under the influence of false doctrines1 or led away by a bigoted priesthood4 ,philosophical experiments1 the various optical illusions1 the effects of electricity1 magnetism1 c4 are founded on immutable truths1 which become the more familiar as we progress in science4 ,truth1 however1 although elicited by the genius of great men1 who have lived in every age1 was suffered to be brought to the rack2 because it either militated against the views of the priesthood1 and enlightened the people1 or curtailed the ecclesiastical power and authority of the church4 ,because ,anaxagoras taught that the sun and stars were not deities1 but masses of corruptible matter1 he was tried and condemned in ,greece4 ,accusations of a similar nature contributed to the death of ,socrates4 ,copernicus1 in consequence of the threats of bigots and the fear of persecution1 was prevented from publishing1 during his life time1 his discovery of the true system of the world2 and it is well known1 that the great ,galileo was imprisoned a year1 and then obliged to renounce the motion of the earth1 because he asserted it4 ,in #agdb1 a commentary on ,newton's ,principia1 one of the first productions of human genius1 was not allowed to be printed at ,rome1 in consequence of its promulgation of this doctrine2 and1 in the true spirit of priest-craft1 the commentators were obliged to prefix to their work a declaration1 that on this point1 they submitted to the decisions of the supreme pontiffs6 ,such are the results of bigotry1 ignorance1 superstition1 and especially of civil and ecclesiastical governments1 that consider learning a curse1 and ignorance a blessing6 ,happily for the people of the ,united ,states1 their co-equal rights and enlightened reason1 will ever guarantee them against tyranny on the one hand1 and fanaticism on the other4 ,superstition has always been an engine of oppression1 and wherever it prevails1 the powerful are sure to make use of it to oppress and destroy the weak4 ,another instance of the assumed prerogative of the holy fathers may be found in their conduct towards the house of ,medici2 for the pontiffs1 it is known1 induced the house of ,medici1 by granting it the cardinalship1 to suppress the academy del ,cimento4 ,the reason of this step is obvious to all2 for they were sensible1 that1 if the people became once enlightened1 they would lose their weight1 their influence1 and authority4 ,but as jugglers are conscious of their gross deceptions1 working on the imagination and credulity of the multitude1 they in this respect appear at least to know themselves4 ,like the juggler mentioned in ,xenophon1 who requested the gods to allow him to remain in places1 where there was much money and abundance of simpletons1 they acted as the prototype4 ,we might enumerate1 if it were not irrelevant to our subject1 a number of facts concerning these impostors4#i ,the miracles wrought by ,moses1 as recorded in the books of ,exodus1 were1 we have reason to believe1 by the immediate command of a supreme power4 ,when ,moses had commissioned ,aaron 7,exodus1 chap4 vii1 verse #i1 #aj1 c47 to be a prophet1 ,aaron took a rod and cast it before ,pharaoh and his servants1 and it became a serpent2 but it seems1 however1 that ,pharaoh called the wise men and the sorcerers1 called the magicians of ,egypt1 who performed the same thing with their enchantments2 for they cast down every man his rod1 and they became serpents3 but ,aaron's rod swallowed up their rods4 ,it appears that on another occasion1 the waters were turned into blood by smiting them with the rod2 and the magicians of ,egypt did so with their enchantments4 ,when ,aaron was commanded to stretch forth his hand with his rod over the streams1 c4 frogs appeared upon the land1 and the magicians did so likewise2 but when vermin were brought forth1 by smiting the land1 the magicians were unsuccessful1 and said unto ,pharaoh1 ,this is the finger of ,god4 ,in the continuation of the plague1 ,moses and ,aaron were commanded to take the ashes of the furnace1 before ,pharaoh1 and sprinkle them up towards ,heaven2 and it became a hail on man and beast1 but the magicians were affected1 and could not stand before ,moses4 ,when ,moses stretched forth his rod towards heaven hail1 and fire mingled with hail1 came down2 and on another occasion1 they brought forth locusts4 ,when this plague ceased1 ,moses caused darkness to prevail4 ,we will merely observe1 that1 with regard to the magi of ,egypt1 who it is known possessed all the learning of the day1 and were celebrated in after ages for superior wisdom1 so much so that many of the ,grecians resorted there to be initiated into their mysteries1--they were of a different description from those who really worked miracles1 according to divine inspiration4 ,hence we find1 that1 although distinct in their character1 the magicians of ,egypt pretended to perform certain rites1 and to work upon the feelings of the people4 ,their initiary process1 which the ,pythagoreans in many respects pursued1 and traces of which are extant in the order of free-masonry1 was merely intended to preserve their knowledge within the pale of1 and veiled in1 hieroglyphic mystery1 which none but the initiated could understand4 ,priestley1 in his ,institutes of ,moses1 points out the difference between the magi1 so called1 and the rites and ceremonies of the ancient ,hebrews4 ,but the imposition practised on mankind1 even in modern times1 aided by engines of the most abominable kind1 as instruments of torture1 in the inquisitorial tribunals of ,portugal and ,spain1 are sufficient of themselves to call down the vengeance of impartial justice4 ,that the magicians were conscious of their inability to work miracles1 is evident from their own declaration2 for1 after vermin had been brought forth by ,moses and ,aaron1 they endeavoured to do the same1 and being unsuccessful declared1 that this was the finger of ,god2 and many other instances are recorded of their attempts being altogether abortive4 ,it appears also1 that at first they believed they were able to perform all that ,moses had done2 and ,pharaoh himself1 by calling them together for that purpose1 seemed to be of the same opinion1 until he and his servants were finally convinced that ,moses and ,aaron wrought such miracles by inspiration4 ,there can be no relation whatever between ,moses and the magicians2 for although he was1 if we may judge from biblical history1 acquainted with all the knowledge of the magicians1 his mission was altogether of a different character4 ,many of the modern ,greek and ,armenian priests1 in their celebration of the holy fire1 palm upon their credulous followers1 a belief1 that they possess the power of working miracles1 as will appear from the account we shall give of them4 ,we will not enlarge on this subject at present1 but pass on to consider the more common performances1 which have excited the wonder and admiration of mankind4 ,the deception of breathing out flames1 which excites the astonishment of the ignorant1 is very ancient4 ,when the slaves of ,sicily1 about two centuries ago1 made a formidable insurrection1 and avenged themselves in a cruel manner for the severities which they had suffered1 there was among them a ,syrian named ,eunus1 a man of great craft and courage1 who1 having passed through many scenes of life1 had become acquainted with a variety of arts4 ,he pretended to have immediate communication with the gods2 was the oracle and leader of his fellow slaves2 and1 as is usual on such occasions1 confirmed his divine mission by miracles4 ,when1 heated by enthusiasm1 he was desirous of inspiring his followers with courage1 he breathed flames or sparks among them from his mouth while he was addressing them4 ,we are told by historians1 that1 for this purpose1 he pierced a nut shell at both ends1 and1 having filled it with some burning substance1 put it into his mouth and breathed through it4 ,some affirm1 that he used tow previously soaked in a solution of saltpetre4 ,the deception at present is much better performed4 ,the juggler rolls together some flax or hemp2 sets it on fire2 and suffers it to burn till it is nearly consumed2 he then rolls round it1 while burning1 some more flax1 and by these means the fire may be retained in it a long time4 ,when he wishes to exhibit1 he slips the ball into his mouth and breathes through it2 which again revives the fire1 so that a number of weak sparks proceed from it2 and the performer sustains no hurt1 provided he inspire the air not through the mouth but the nostrils4 ,by this art1 the rabbi ,bar-,cacheba1 in the reign of the emperor ,hadrian1 made the credulous ,jews believe1 that he was the hoped for ,messias1 and two centuries after1 the emperor ,constantius was thrown into great terror1 when ,valentian informed him1 that he had seen one of the body guards breathing out fire and flames in the evening4 ,it appears evident from the writings of ,herodotus1 that the ancients possessed a knowledge of attracting lightning1 or the electric fluids with pointed instruments made of iron4 ,he informs us1 that the ,thracians disarmed heaven of its thunder-bolts1 by discharging arrows into the air2 and the ,hyperboreans by darting into the clouds1 pikes headed with pieces of sharp pointed iron4 ,pliny speaks of a process1 by which ,porsena caused fire from the heavens to fall upon a monster which ravaged his country4 ,he mentions also1 that ,numa ,pompilius1 and ,tullius ,hostilius practised certain mysterious rites to call down the fire from heaven4 ,what these mysterious rites were is of no moment2 the fact is sufficient4 ,tullius1 because he omitted some prescribed ceremony1 is said to have been killed by the fire4 ,a similar accident happened in ,france with the electrical kite4#aj ,for deceptions with fire1 the ancients employed a number of inflammable substances1 which they dexterously used2 among them1 naphtha1 a fine bituminous oil1 which readily inflames1 was principally used4 7,for the effect of naphtha1 see ,greek fire47 ,galen informs us1 that a person excited great surprise by extinguishing a candle1 and again lighting it without any other process than holding it against a wall or a stone4 ,this1 ,galen observes1 7,de ,temperamentis1 iii4 #b1 p4 #dd47 was effected in consequence of the wall or stone being previously rubbed with sulphur1 which1 however1 must have been something more4 ,he also speaks of a mixture of sulphur and naphtha4 ,if it had been phosphorus1 or some of its preparations1 it would appear more probable4 ,plutarch relates the secret effects of naphtha1 and observes1 that ,alexander was astonished and delighted1 when it was exhibited to him in ,ecbatana4 ,medea destroyed ,creusa1 the daughter of ,creon1 with this oil4 ,this fact is stated by ,plutarch1 ,pliny1 ,galen1 and others1 and believed by ,beckman4 ,she sent1 it appears1 to the unfortunate princess1 a dress covered with it1 which burst into flames as soon as she approached the fire of the altar4 ,the dress of ,hercules1 which also took fire1 was dipped in naphtha1 though said to be in the blood of ,nessus4 ,on the subject of naphtha1 ,beckman remarks1 that this oil must have been employed when offerings caught fire in an imperceptible manner4 ,in all periods of the world1 priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people4 ,the most ludicrous account of the necromantic art1 by which similar tricks were performed1 is that given by ,celini1 7,life of ,benvenuto ,celini1 a ,florentine ,artist1 by ,t4 ,nugent1 ,,ll4 ,d4 c47 of a ,sicilian priest1 who drew circles on the floor with various ceremonies1 using fire and different perfumes4 ,having made an opening to the circle1 and thrown perfumes into the fire at a proper time1 he observes1 that in the space of an hour and half1 there appeared several legions of devils1 insomuch that the amphitheatre was quite filled with them4 ,benvenuto1 it seems1 at the instance of the priest1 asked some favours of them1 which1 however1 he never realized4 ,at a second exhibition he held a pentagorun1 while the priests questioned the leaders of the demons by the virtue and power of the eternal uncreated ,god1 using the ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin languages4 ,the ,demons appeared more numerous than at first1 and more formidable4 ,he states that quivering like an aspen leaf1 he took good care of the perfumes1 and was directed by the priest to burn proper perfumes4 ,this ceremony was continued until the bell rang for morning prayers1 and the priest stripped off his gown and took up a wallet-full of books1 declaring1 that as often as he had entered magic circles1 nothing so extraordinary had ever happened to him6 ,how is it1 in the language of professor ,beckman1 that in all periods of the world1 priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people8 99 99 99 99 99 ,this same ,benvenuto ,celini1 however1 was a man of intelligence4 ,he wrote a work called the ,history of ,jewelry2 in which the first idea of phosphorescent mineral bodies is to be found4 ,this work was written in the beginning of the #afth century4 ,his life1 although singularly marked1 what with popes1 priests1 artists1 and necromancers1 presents a singular retrospect4 ,what was more absurd1 and even profane1 than the tricks of ,joseph ,balsamo1 called ,il ,conte ,cagliostro1 who with ,schpfer1 revived the study of the magical arts2 and who with invocations1 friction1 fumigations1 and optical deceptions astonished the ignorant of their day4 ,whether like neas1 in his descent to hell1 they made their way with their falchions through crowds of ghosts1 or like ,dioscorides1 relied on the efficacy of herbs1 or like ,paracelsus1 carried an evil spirit in their canes1 or wore a jewel like ,shakspeare's toad1 which possessed marvellous virtues1 or employed the magic stone 7agate7 of the east1 and invoked their urim and thummim1--it is certain they worked upon the imagination of the people4 ,by the application of conium maculatum1 7hemlock7 consisted the ceremony of ordaining a ,hierophant2 by the hartshorn of ,orpheus1 they had a divine remedy for the passions of the body2 and by a mixture of new mustard and olive oil1 they could produce a symphony1 which invoked the spirits1 and1 ,pythonesis like1 declare to the people1 that they had devils in their bellies66 ,of the phial of ,cagliostro1 ,cardan relates that he had this phial twice exhibited to him1 and complains bitterly of having seen nothing1 after the anthem ,sancte ,michael1 but some bubbles that issued from the bottom1 though it was believed that these bubbles were angels6 ,he says1 ,nihil tamen omnino vidi poste hanc invocationem nisi bulas pauculas quasdam ex imo gutti fundo exstuantes4 ,aulus ,gellius and ,hero mention tricks of this kind practised by the ,egyptians4 ,roger ,bacon1 the alchymist1 was excommunicated by the pope1 and imprisoned ten years1 for supposed dealings with the devil4 ,equally absurd to a man of reflection1 are the observations of antiquated writers on spontaneous generation1 by heat4 ,borello 7,physical ,history7 tells us1 that fresh water craw fish may be regenerated1 by their own powder1 calcined in a crucible1 then boiled in water with a little sand1 and left to cool1 for a few days2 when the animalcula will appear swimming merrily in the liquor1 and must be then nourished with beef blood1 till they attain the proper size to stock your ponds with4#aa ,the ,sieur ,pogeris and ,m4 de ,chamberlan1 both agree with ,signior ,borello1 but1 in the chemistry of the matter1 they add that the operation must be performed1 during the full of the moon6 ,if this lunar system be adopted1 would not the crab also1 have been a more favourable sign to have ruled the nativity of craw fish8 ,swift1 however1 alludes to these agencies1 fallacious as they are1 in the following lines3 ,so chymists boast they have a power1 ,from the dead ashes of a flower1 ,some faint resemblance to produce1 ,but not the virtue1 taste1 or juice4 ,rochos1 equally absurd with ,borello1 says1 in ,the ,art of ,nature1 that the ashes of toads will produce the very same effect1 as the powder of crabs' eyes6 ,reasoning upon that ridiculous and unnatural principle of ,csalpinus1 in his comment on ,aristotle1 ,qucumque ex semine fiunt1 eadem fieri posse sine semine1 the procreation of eels from rye-meal1 or mutton broth was predicated4 ,julius ,camillus1 however1 would out-do nature herself2 for ,amatus ,lusitanus affirms1 that he has seen his phials full of homunculi complete in all their parts6 ,paracelsus 7,de ,rerum ,natura17 had the same and many other absurd notions4 ,what1 we may truly say1 has not been palmed upon the world1 when we are told1 that the following translation from a ,hague ,gazette1 which appeared in the ,british ,evening ,post1 ,no4 #afde1 contained facts1 which were confidently believed by the ignorant3 ,mr4 ,tunestrick1 by origin an ,englishman1 has just exhibited at ,versailles1 a very singular experiment4 ,he opened the head of a sheep1 and a horse from side to side1 by driving a large iron wedge into the skull1 by means of a mallet2 drew the wedge out afterwards1 with pincers1 and recalled the animals to life1 by injecting through their exterior aperture with a tin syringe1 a spirituous liquor of his own composition1 to which he attributes surprising effects6 ,the taste of this liquor resembles that of ,commandus ,balm66 ,the remarkable effects of galvanism1 however1 are well authenticated2 but resuscitation1 notwithstanding all apparent life1 has in no instance1 to our knowledge1 been effected4 7,see ,ure's ,chemical ,dictionary1 article ,galvanism47 ,among other tricks1 we may mention those with serpents1 especially in the ,east ,indies1 and neighbouring islands1 where a certain class of people exhibit them for money4#ab ,persons who could walk over red-hot coals1 or red-hot iron1 or who could hold them in their hands and their teeth1 are frequently mentioned4 ,in the end of the #agth century1 ,richardson1 an ,englishman1 was a great adept in this performance4 ,we are assured he could chew burning coals1 pour melted lead upon his tongue1 swallow melted glass1 c2 but the fact is incredible4 ,it is true1 that the skin may be prepared in such a way as to become callous and insensible against the impression made on the feet and hands4 ,it may be rendered as firm as shoes and gloves4 ,such callosity may be produced1 if the skin is continually compressed1 singed1 pricked1 or injured in any other manner4 ,beckman relates1 that in #agfe1 he visited the copper-works at ,awestad1 when one of the workmen1 for some money1 took some of the melted copper in his hand1 and after showing it1 threw it against a wall4 ,he performed a variety of other experiments with the melted metal4 ,the workmen at the ,swedish melting-house have exhibited the same thing to some travellers in the #agth century4 ,the skin is first rendered callous by frequently moistening it1 as ,beckman says1 with sulphuric acid2 and also1 he remarks1 by using the juice of certain plants4 ,the skin must also be rubbed frequently1 and for a long time1 with oil4 ,haller1 in his ,elementa ,physiologica1 ,v4 p4 #af1 speaks of this fact4 ,the manner of rendering the hands callous1 or insensible1 so that they may take up1 and hold1 ignited iron1 charcoal1 or other substances1 may be seen in an ,english publication of #affg4 ,the ,journal des ,savants1 of #afgg1 contains the secret4 ,it consists in applying to the hands1 various pastes1 with spirits of sulphur1 7sulphuric acid17 which destroys the epidermis1 c4 and the nervous energy4 ,this corroborates the account by ,beckman4 ,we read that ,richardson had prepared his tongue in such a manner1 that he could hold on the point of it a live coal1 covering it first with pitch1 rosin1 and sulphur1 and could hold a piece of ignited iron between his teeth4 ,after showing the coal on his tongue1 he would then extinguish it in his mouth4 ,the ,mmoires de l',acadmie state1 that a person who is salivated can put a live coal in his mouth4 ,the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie observes1 that the sulphur diminishes the heat of the coal1 for the flame is less hot than a candle2 and that the flame of a combination of pitch1 rosin1 and sulphur1 is still less hot1 and by no means so considerable as we would imagine4 ,in the experiment1 the rosin is not melted1 and the flame of the sulphur is inconsiderable4 ,m4 ,gallois observes1 that he witnessed in the ,swedish iron founderies1 the men hold melted cast iron in their hands1 doubtless having them previously prepared4 ,the traces of this art may be found in the works of the ancients4 ,a festival was held annually1 on ,mount ,soracta1 in ,etruria1 at which the ,hirpi1 who lived not far from ,rome1 jumped through burning coals1 and on this account had certain privileges granted them by the ,roman ,senate4 ,women also1 we are informed1 were accustomed to walk over burning coals1 at ,cartabola1 in ,cappadocia1 near the temple dedicated to ,diana4 ,servius remarks1 that the ,hirpi did not trust to their sanctity so much as they did to the preparation of their feet for the operation6 ,with respect to the ordeal by fire1 which it seems was performed in several ways1 one was1 that when persons were accused1 they were obliged to prove their innocence by holding in their hands red-hot iron4 ,this mode of exculpation1 as it is called1 was allowed only to weak persons1 who were unfit to wield arms1 and particularly to monks and ecclesiastics1 to whom1 for the sake of their security1 the trial by single combat was forbidden4 ,in ,grupius' learned dissertation1 in the ,german1 p4 #fgi1 as quoted by ,beckman1 we read1 that the trial itself took place in the church1 under the inspection of the clergy2 mass was celebrated at the same time2 the defendant and the iron1 were consecrated1 by being sprinkled with holy water2 the clergy made the iron hot themselves2 and they used all these preparations1 as jugglers do many motions1 only to divert the attention of the spectators4 ,it was necessary that the accused person should remain at least three days and three nights1 under their immediate care1 and continue as long after4 ,they covered their hands both before and after the proof2 sealed and unsealed the covering3 the former1 as they pretended1 to prevent the hands from being prepared by art2 and the latter to see if they were burnt4 ,some artificial preparation was undoubtedly necessary1 or why prescribe three days for the defendant1 who1 if they wished to make him appear innocent1 had a certain preventive against the actual cautery8 ,the three days allotted1 after the trial1 were requisite1 in order to restore the hands to their natural state4 ,the sacred sealing secured them from the examination of presumptuous unbelievers4 ,when the ordeal was abolished1 it no longer was kept secret4 ,in the #acth century1 an account of it was published by a ,dominican ,monk1 ,albertus ,magnus4 ,in the work of this author1 entitled1 ,de ,mirabilibus ,mundi1 he has given the receipt for the composition4 ,it seems that it consisted in covering the hands with a kind of paste1 and not by searing them4 ,the sap of the altha1 or marsh mallow1 the mucilaginous seeds of the fleabane1 together with the white of an egg1 were mixed1 and by applying this mixture1 the hands were as safe as if they had been secured by gloves4 ,the use of this mixture1 for the same purpose1 may be traced back1 it is said1 to a pagan origin4 ,in the ,antigone of ,sophocles1 the guards1 placed over the body of ,polynicus1 which had been carried away and buried1 contrary to the orders of ,creon1 offered1 in order to prove their innocence1 to submit to any trial3 ,we will1 said they1 take up red-hot iron in our hands1 or walk through fire4 ,the ordeal1 by heated ploughshares1 was common in ,england4 ,it seems1 according to ,english ,history1 that queen ,emma had charges preferred against her1 by ,robert1 archbishop of ,canterbury1 for consenting to the death of her son ,alfred1 and preparing poison for her son ,edward1 the ,confessor4 ,she claimed1 by the law of the land1 the ordeal1 or trial1 by burning ploughshares4 ,she passed the nine ploughshares unhurt1 which established her innocence1 and caused the archbishop to fly the kingdom4 ,the chief trials1 by ordeal1 appear to have been by fire1 water1 walking blindfold among heated ploughshares1 and swallowing consecrated bread1 which last was introduced about the time of pope ,eugene4 ,the custom was borrowed from the ,mosaic law4 ,an example of its practice occurs in the ,new ,testament1 in the story of ,ananias and ,sapphira2 and the remembrance of it1 as ,blackstone remarks1 still subsists among common people1 as ,may this morsel be my last2 ,may ,i be choked if it is so1 and the like2 for it appears1 that this ordeal was a piece of bread of about an ounce in weight1 blessed by the priest1 and given to the accused person1 who was to try and swallow it1 praying that it might choke him if he were guilty4 ,the bible-ordeal1 and the drowning-ordeal1 are familiar to every one1 degrading as they all must have been to human reason1 and enlightened principles4 ,fox1 in his ,book of ,martyrs1 speaks of various ordeals1 as well as the cruel deaths1 and inhuman punishments inflicted1 by the hand of bigotry1 and fanaticism1 under the cloak of religion1 which were nothing more than a base and impious prostitution of its genuine principles4 ,even among the modern ,greeks1 the same superstitious notions prevail4 ,almost every cavern about ,athens has its particular virtues1 and is celebrated for various things2 and the offerings1 made by ,grecian women1 to the destinies1 in order to make them propitious to their conjugal speculations1 are equally absurd4 ,these offerings1 by which they are to work a miracle1 consist of a cup of honey and white almonds1 a cake on a little napkin1 and a vase of aromatic herbs1 burning and exhaling an agreeable perfume4 ,we are told1 however1 that those evil spirits1 whose assistance is invoked1 for vengeance and blood1 are not regaled upon cakes and honey1 but on a piece of a priest's cap1 or a rag from his garment1 which are considered as the most favourable ingredients for the perpetration of malice and revenge4 ,when a person is hated1 another absurd custom is used1 which is supposed to be followed by dreadful results4 ,it consists in placing before his door1 a log of wood1 burnt at one end1 with some hairs twisted round it4 ,this curse1 says ,mr4 ,dodwell1 in his ,classical ,tour1 was placed with due solemnity1 at the door of the ,english agent1 ,speridion ,logotheti1 while ,i was at ,athens2 but he rendered it of no avail1 by summoning a great number of priests1 who easily destroyed the spell1 by benediction1 frankincense1 and holy water6 ,this story is much in character with that of the exorcism of rats1 caterpillars1 flies1 and other insects1 an old ritual of the papal church1 performed between the feasts of ,easter and the ,ascension4 ,a priest who resided at ,bononia1 performed the ceremony4 ,i went1 he says1 to exorcise the insects in that country1 accompanied by a curate1 who was a droll fellow1 and laughed at the credulity of the people1 while he pocketed their money4 ,it appears1 however1 that in all superstitious ceremonies1 fire1 under some form1 was a pre-requisite2 but ecclesiastical fire-works we leave within the pales of the priesthood4 ,the author of the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 vol4 iii1 speaks of a trick1 performed with a loaded musket and ball1 which1 although apparently inconsistent1 is nevertheless true1 if we consider the action of gunpowder equal4 ,this trick is stated to be the firing of a musket1 loaded with ball1 at a person1 without wounding1 or in any way injuring him4 ,by taking a ball of solid lead of a smaller size than the calibre of the musket1 and placing it on the charge in a gun1 and as much or nearly so of powder1 over the ball1 the effect we are assured is1 that when the gun is fired1 the ball will pass out without any very sensible force1 and even drop a few yards from the gun1 although the report will be as great as if the charge and ball had been used in the usual manner4 ,this trick is often performed by jugglers1 to the great astonishment of the spectators4 ,the mode of catching a cannon ball is also of the same character4 ,the proper charge of powder for the cannon1 is divided into two unequal portions1 the lesser of which is placed in the gun as a charge2 the ball is placed on it in the usual way1 and the rest of the powder 7by much the greater portion17 placed over the ball1 the lesser quantity being not more than a twelfth part of the whole4 ,a cannon1 so charged1 will not project the ball more than #bj yards1 where it might be caught with safety4 ,any person who has been in the custom of shooting1 must have frequently observed1 that when the shot happens to be mixed with the powder1 its range is impeded2 and1 under similar circumstances1 they have even been found only a few yards from the muzzle of the piece4 ,this fact ,i have witnessed1 although ,i confess ,i never once reflected on it4 ,as to the explanation of this phenomenon1 it appears1 that it can only be accounted for by referring to the action of two opposite forces1 mutually repelling each other1 added to that of the charge under the ball2 hence1 the reaction would be equal1 if1 under the same circumstances1 both charges were alike situated3 but the effect of the first charge is so much weakened by the counter effect of the second1 that the projectile force of the ball becomes comparatively nothing4 ,there is another trick very often performed1 which1 however chemical1 is not looked upon in that light1 neither do performers attempt to explain it2 we mean the exhibition of the ,glace ,inflammable of the ,french4 ,the preparation is made in the following manner3 melt some spermaceti over a fire1 and add a sufficient quantity of spirit of turpentine1 and blend them together4 ,the mixture when cold1 will become solid1 having somewhat the appearance of ice4 ,if made in hot weather1 the vessel containing the melted substances must be immersed in cold water4 ,it does not1 we are told1 remain in a solid state any length of time4 ,it floats more or less in the fluid1 which of course is the spirit of turpentine4 ,the trick1 with this preparation1 after having put some of the solid and fluid substance together on a plate1 is to pour upon it concentrated nitric acid1 or a mixture of eight or ten parts of nitric acid1 and two of sulphuric acid2 inflammation ensues4 ,it is no other in fact than accension of the oil of turpentine2 the addition of the spermaceti is altogether secondary1 and its effect1 if any1 must retard instead of promoting the combustion of the turpentine4 ,the art of making this preparation is in rendering the essential oil solid and transparent1 without altering its inflammable properties4 ,there is another trick performed1 by burning a thread1 to which an ear-ring is tied1 and which1 notwithstanding the thread is reduced to a cinder1 still holds the ring4 ,this is what the ,french call the ,bague suspendue aux cendres d'un fil4 ,the string is first prepared by soaking it for #bd hours1 in a solution of common salt1 and drying it2 then tying it to a ring1 and setting it on fire1 avoiding any vibration or oscillation of the string4 ,it is obvious that the salt serves to render the cinder cohesive4 ,we have an account in ,maundrel's ,travels from ,aleppo to ,jerusalem1 of the office of the ,holy ,fire4 ,the ceremony is kept up by the ,greeks and ,armenians1 from a persuasion that every ,easter eve1 a miraculous flame descends from heaven into the holy sepulchre1 and lights all the lamps and candles1 as the sacrifice was consumed at the prayers of ,elijah4 ,on our approaching the holy sepulchre1 says ,maundrel1 we found it crowded with a numerous and distracted mob1 who made a hideous clamour2 but with some difficulty pressing through the crowd1 we got up in the gallery next to the ,latin convent1 where we could have a view of all that passed4 ,the people began1 by running with all their might1 round the holy sepulchre1 crying out 'huia1' which signifies1 ',this is he1' or1 ',this is it4' ,after this1 they began to perform many antic tricks3 sometimes they dragged one another along the floor round the sepulchre2 sometimes marched round with a man upright upon another's shoulders2 at others1 took men with their heels upwards1 and hurried them about with such indecency1 as to expose their nudities2 and sometimes they tumbled round the sepulchre like tumblers on a stage4 ,in a word1 nothing can be imagined more rude and extravagant than what was acted upon this occasion4 ,this frantic humour continued from twelve till four1 and then the ,greeks first set out in a procession round the sepulchre1 followed by the ,armenians1 and marched three times round it with their standards1 streamers1 crucifixes1 and embroidered habits2 and towards the end of the procession1 a pidgeon came fluttering into the cupola over the sepulchre1 at which the people redoubled their shouts and clamours1 when the ,latins told the ,english gentlemen1 that this bird was let fly by the ,greeks1 to deceive the people with a belief that it was a visible descent of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the procession being over1 the suffragan of the ,greek patriarch1 and the principal ,armenian bishop1 approached the door of the sepulchre1 cut the string with which it was fastened1 and breaking the seal1 entered1 shutting the door after them1 all the candles and lamps within having been before extinguished in the presence of the ,turks4 ,as the accomplishment of the miracle drew near1 the exclamations were redoubled1 and the people pressed with such violence towards the door1 that the ,turks could not keep them off with the severest blows4 ,this pressing forward was occasioned by the desire to light their candles at the holy flame as soon as it was brought out of the sepulchre4 ,the two miracle-mongers had not been above a minute in the sepulchre1 when the glimmering of the holy fire was seen through some chinks in the door1 which made the mob as mad as any in bedlam2 then presently came out the priests1 with blazing torches in their hands1 which they held up at the door of the sepulchre1 while the people thronged with extraordinary zeal to obtain a part of the first and purest flame1 though the ,turks laid on with their clubs without mercy4 ,those who got the fire immediately applied it to their beards1 faces1 and bosoms1 pretending that it would not burn like an earthly flame2 but none of them would endure the experiment long enough to make good that pretension4 ,however1 so many tapers were presently lighted1 that the whole church seemed in a blaze1 and this illumination concluded the ceremony4 ,maundrel afterwards observes1 that the ,latins take great pains to expose this ceremony as a shameful imposition1 and a scandal to the ,christian ,religion3 but the ,greeks and ,armenians1 lay such stress upon it1 that they make the pilgrimages chiefly on this account2 and their priests have acted the cheat so long1 that they are forced now to stand to it1 for fear of endangering the apostacy of the people4 ,they entertain many absurd ideas respecting the miraculous power of the holy fire4 ,even the melted wax of the candle1 which had been lighted by it1 is covered over with linen1 and designed for winding-sheets2 for they imagine1 says ,maundrel1 that if they are buried in a shroud1 smutted with this celestial fire1 it will secure them from the flames of hell6 ,before concluding this article1 we shall mention a subject highly interesting in optics1 which1 in some of its forms1 was employed by the old magicians2 we mean the phantasmagoria4 ,the exhibitions of this kind1 when first got up1 drew the attention of ,europeans1 and particularly the ,french1 who greatly improved the apparatus and machinery1 and varied the forms and appearances4 ,the principles of the phantasmagoria are described in every work on ,natural ,philosophy1 which treats of optics4 ,the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 ,encyclopedie ,mthodique1 ,biot's ,trait de ,physique1 in ,french and in ,english1 the different treatises on philosophy and optics1 particularly ,dr4 ,smith's1 the ,cyclopedias1 c4 contain either a description1 or the principles of it4 ,the third volume of ,biot1 especially1 is full on the subject of optics4 ,with regard1 however1 to the narrative and explanation of the appearance of the phantoms1 and other figures1 a subject which immediately concerns us1 the account given by ,mr4 ,nicholson1 7,journal of ,natural ,philosophy1 ,chymistry1 and the ,arts1 vol4 i1 p4 #adg47 is the most interesting4 ,connected with this optical illusion1 is the imitation of lightning and thunder1 which1 from the account1 appears also to have been performed4 ,the phantasmagoria may be considered nothing more than an application of the magic lantern1 the invention of which is attributed to ,roger ,bacon1 who was a contemporary with ,vitellio1 a native of ,poland1 who published a treatise on optics1 in #abgj4 ,john ,babtista ,porta1 of ,naples1 who discovered the camera obscura1 having formed a society of ingenious persons at ,naples1 which he called the ,academy of ,secrets1 wrote the ,magia ,naturalis1 containing his account of this instrument1 and1 it is said1 the first hint of the magic lantern4 ,kircher1 it is known1 received his first information of the magic lantern from this book1 and afterwards improved it4 ,adams 7,lectures on ,natural and ,experimental ,philosophy1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bcb4 ,appendix by the ,english editor7 very justly observes1 that persons1 unacquainted with the principles of optics1 have been surprised at the great illusion of their sight1 by an artificial construction of many optical instruments1 exhibited by showmen and others3 such1 for instance1 as the optical and dioptrical paradox2 the endless gallery2 the animated balls by simple reflection2 phantoms2 causing the appearance of a flower from its ashes2 the optical perspective box1 and the cylindrical mirror3 to which we may add1 the enchanted bottle2 the enchanted palace2 the magic lantern2 the magician's mirror2 the perspective mirror2 the camera obscura2 distorting and oracular mirror2 the diagonal opera glass1 c4 c42 all which may be seen in ,smith's ,school of ,arts4 ,we may also remark1 that optical exhibitions sometimes accompany those of fire1 when performed on a small scale4 ,in the phantasmagoria1 for instance1 whether before1 or at the time the exhibition commences1 as well as after1 thunder and lightning1 if well imitated1 produces a good effect4 ,the mechanism of the phantasmagoria is concealed from the spectators1 who have only before their eyes a screen of gauze or gummed muslin posited vertically1 which serves as the ground of a picture1 where the images are depicted by reason of the transparency4 ,the apartment is deprived of all light1 except that which proceeds from an apparatus hid behind the screen4 ,at the moment when the operation commences1 a spectre appears 7as a skeleton1 the head of a celebrated person1 c471 at first extremely small1 but which afterwards increases rapidly1 and thus seems to advance at a great rate towards the spectators4 ,and when the scene passes before them in a room representing a cave hung with black1 a solemn silence being occasionally interrupted by mournful sounds from an appropriate musical instrument1 it is not easy for an observer to defend himself from the impression of terror1 at the sight of an object1 in itself formed to produce the illusion1 and which finds in the imagination a place already prepared for the reception of phantoms4 ,the instrument placed behind the gauze screen is in fact a peculiar construction of the magic lantern3 only in the former1 it is necessary that the lenses should run over a much greater space1 and that the instrument may be susceptible of approaching to1 and receding from1 the frame of gauze1 in such manner1 that each luminous pencil may be depicted there in a single point4 ,the general construction is this3 ,in a square box1 a lamp is placed1 the luminous rays proceeding from which1 are reflected by a conical mirror1 towards an orifice made in the box4 ,at this orifice is placed a tube1 blackened within1 and composed of several tubes which slide one into another1 like those of a pocket telescope4 ,this tube is furnished with two bi-convex lenses of about five inches diameter2 one of these is fixed1 the other is at the outer extremity of the tube1 and is separated from the former in proportion as the tube is lengthened by the aid of a hooked lever situated along the tube1 between the lamp and the lenses4 ,a groove is properly adapted to the tube1 destined to receive transparent figures2 lastly1 the box rests upon a table moveable on four wheels1 that slide in two channels perpendicularly to the frame on which the images are depicted4 ,it is manifest1 that we may augment or diminish the dimensions of the images1 and consequently make the spectre appear more or less near to the spectator1 by separating farther1 or by bringing nearer together1 the two lenses2 but then the focus of the diverging rays1 which proceed from the same point of the transparent body1 will be no longer upon the screen2 we must1 therefore1 cause the machine so to recede or approach1 that the two motions1 being duly combined1 the image may be distinctly formed4 ,these phantasmagoria are furnished with a great number of transparencies1 in each of which1 several changes may be made by slackening their springs4 ,thus we may change at every instant1 the form1 the magnitude1 and the distance of the spectres1 as they appear to the spectator4 ,what has been said hitherto1 relates only to the images of transparent figures4 ,to obtain those of opaque bodies1 first place the gauze and box1 at the distance of about six feet one from the other1 and adapt to the orifice of the box1 an apparatus of two tubes furnished with two bi-convex lenses4 ,an opaque body1 such1 for example1 as a medal1 or a picture1 is attached to a little support1 posited in the middle of the box2 the lamp with its supply of air1 situated in one of the foremost corners of the box1 illuminates that object1 and the reflected rays1 crossing the lenses1 proceed till they trace the image upon the gauze1 with an amplification which is in the ratio of the distances4 ,if the image be not distinct1 we must infer that it is not at the focus2 but it may be adjusted in three different ways2 #a4 ,by moving the box to or from the gauze2 #b4 ,by moving the object nearer to1 or farther from1 the lenses within the box2 #c4 ,by slowly moving the tubes1 to cause a variation in the distance between the lenses4--,see ,hay's ,philosophy1 translated by ,gregory1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cij4 ,mr4 ,nicholson1 however1 witnessed an exhibition of the phantasmagoria at the ,london ,lyceum by ,philipstal1 who took out a patent for his improvements in the apparatus and machinery4 ,he observes1 that the novelty consists in placing the lantern on the opposite side of the screen which receives the images1 instead of on the same side as the spectator1 and suffering no light to appear but what passes through1 and tends to form those images4 ,his sliders are therefore perfectly opaque1 except that portion upon which the transparent figures are drawn1 and the exhibition is thus conducted4 ,all the lights of the small theatre of exhibition were removed1 except one hanging lamp1 which could be drawn up1 so that its flame should be perfectly enveloped in a cylindrical chimney1 or opaque shade4 ,in this gloomy and wavering light1 the curtain was drawn up1 and presented to the spectator a cave or place exhibiting skeletons1 and other figures or terror1 in relief1 and painted on the sides or walls4 ,after a short interval1 the lamp was drawn up1 and the audience were in total darkness1 succeeded by thunder and lightning2 which last appearance was formed by the magic lantern upon a thin cloth or screen1 let down after the disappearance of the light1 and consequently unknown to most of the spectators4 ,these appearances were followed by figures of departed men1 ghosts1 skeletons1 transmutations1 c4 produced on the screen by the magic lantern on the other side1 and moving their eyes1 mouth1 c4 by the well known contrivance of two or more sliders4 ,the transformations are effected by moving the adjusting tube of the lantern out of focus1 and changing the slider during the moment of the confused appearance4 ,it must be again remarked1 that these figures appear without any surrounding circle of illumination1 and that the spectators1 having no previous view or knowledge of the screen1 nor any visible object of comparison1 are each left to imagine the distance according to their respective fancy4 ,after a very short time of exhibiting the first figure1 it was seen to contract gradually in all its dimensions1 until it became extremely small1 and then vanished4 ,this effect1 as may easily be imagined1 is produced by bringing the lantern nearer and nearer the screen1 taking care at the same time to preserve the distinctness1 and at last closing the aperture altogether3 and the process being 7except as to brightness7 exactly the same as happens when visible objects become more remote1 the mind is irresistibly led to consider the figures1 as if they were receding to an immense distance4 ,several figures of celebrated men were thus exhibited with some transformations2 such as the head of ,dr4 ,franklin being converted into a skull1 and these were succeeded by phantoms1 skeletons1 and various terrific figures1 which instead of seeming to recede and then vanish1 were 7by enlargement7 made suddenly to advance2 to the surprise and astonishment of the audience1 and then disappear by seeming to sink into the ground4 ,this part of the exhibition1 which by the agitation of the spectators appeared to be much the most impressive1 had less effect with me than the receding of the figures2 doubtless because it was more easy for me to imagine the screen to be withdrawn than brought forward4 ,but among the young people who were with me1 the judgments were various4 ,some thought they could have touched the figures1 others had a different notion of their distance1 and a few apprehended that they had not advanced beyond the first row of the audience4 ,the whole1 as well as certain mechanical inventions1 were managed with dexterity and address4 ,the lightning1 being produced by the camera1 was tame1 and had not the brisk transient appearance of the lightning at the theatres1 which is produced by rosin1 or lycopodium powder1 thrown through a light1 which in ,mr4 ,p's utter darkness might easily have been concealed in a kind of dark lantern4 ,a plate of thin sheet iron1 such as ,german stoves are made of1 is an excellent instrument for producing the noise of thunder4 ,it may be three or four feet long1 and the usual width4 ,when this plate is held between the finger and thumb by one corner1 and suffered to hang at liberty1 if the hand be then moved or shaken horizontally1 so as to agitate the corner at right angles to the surface1 a great variety of sounds will be produced2 from the low rumbling swell of distant thunder1 to the succession of loud explosive bursts of thunder from elevated clouds4 ,this simple instrument is very manageable1 so that the operator soon feels his power of producing whatever character of sound he may desire2 and notwithstanding this description may seem extravagant1 whoever tries it for the first time will be surprised at the resemblance4 ,if the plate be too small1 the sound will be short1 acute1 and metallic4 ,we may remark also1 that the magic lantern1 by new contrived sliders and machinery1 may be applied to important uses1 by employing it with such figures as will explain the general principles of optics1 astronomy1 botany1 c4 ,the experiment mentioned by ,ferguson1 with a concave mirror1 reflecting into the air the appearance of fire1 c4 into a focal point1 7founded on a general principle of concave reflectors17 is productive of many agreeable deceptions1 and which exhibited with art and an air of mystery1 has been very successfully employed4 ,the phantasmascope of ,walker is similar to the phantasmagoria4 ,it is an optical machine1 which presents a door that opens itself4 ,the apparatus is so contrived1 that1 on opening the door1 a phantom makes its appearance1 having all the colours of a picture1 which approaches the spectator4 ,various figures may be accurately represented4 ,we will not enlarge on this subject1 although many other instances of tricks1 performed by means of fire1 c4 might be noticed4 ,we will merely remark3 #a4 ,for the performance of these exhibitions1 the ancient1 as well as the modern jugglers1 of all descriptions1 employed1 and were acquainted with sundry mixtures1 and compositions1 by the use of which1 they deceived the people2 and some pretended to possess supernatural agencies4 ,of these compositions1 with many of which we are unacquainted1 we have enumerated some1 and their effects4 ,that of producing a callosity of the skin1 c4 by means of acids1 is an example4 #b4 ,that they possessed1 as a trade or profession1 the arts of deception4 ,not only by the use of chemical preparations1 but by other means1 they pretended to work miracles in the dark ages of science4 ,however degraded these persons may seem1 they yield in vice to another class1 who practised the art of poisoning1 and who kept it so profound a secret1 that few then understood the effect of the now common1 vegetable1 and mineral poisons4 ,who could have been more infamous than the celebrated female poisoner1 ,tophania8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,of ,,the ,,substances ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,fire-,,works4 ,sect4 ,i4 ,of ,nitrate of ,potassa1 or ,saltpetre4 ,nitrate of potassa1 nitre1 or saltpetre1 is composed1 as its name expresses1 of nitric acid1 and potassa4 ,when pure1 it contains1 according to ,kirwan1 potassa #ea4h1 nitric acid #dd1 and water #d4b in the hundred4 ,this salt1 when pure1 or even mixed with other saline substances1 is recognised by placing it on hot coals4 ,slight detonations1 and a hissing noise1 with a vivid combustion take place4 ,it is also decomposed by sulphuric acid1 and the nitrous vapour is apparent from its smell and colour4 ,nitrate of potassa crystallises in six-sided prisms1 terminated by six-sided pyramids4 ,its specific gravity is #a4icc4 ,its taste is sharp and cooling4 ,one part is soluble in seven parts of water1 at the temperature of #fj degrees1 and in rather less than its own weight of boiling water4 ,it melts in a strong heat1 and by cooling congeals into an opaque mass1 called crystal mineral1 or sal prunelle4 ,exposed to a red heat1 it disengages oxygen gas1 and passes to the state of a nitrate2 at a higher temperature1 this is decomposed1 and oxygen1 azote1 and a portion of nitrous acid1 which has not been decomposed1 are evolved4 ,what remains is potassa4 ,when projected on ignited coals1 it burns brilliantly4 ,detonation also ensues by mixing nitre and charcoal1 and throwing the mixture into a red-hot crucible4 ,the residuum is carbonate of potassa4 ,fourcroy 7,systme des ,connoissances ,chimiques1 ,tome iii1 p4 #abd47 observes1 that metals1 with nitrate of potassa1 will decompose this salt1 and produce different coloured flame1 extremely brilliant1 on which account such substances are used in fire-works4 ,the alchymists believed1 they could obtain1 from nitre1 a liquor1 which would constitute1 with other substances1 the philosopher's stone4 ,the clyssus of nitre1 they imagined1 possessed wonderful properties4 ,the decomposition of nitre by charcoal1 they effected in two ways1 viz4 by submitting the mixture to the action of heat in a crucible1 or1 otherwise in an earthen or iron retort4 ,in the latter case1 they collected a fluid1 principally water1 containing some carbonic acid1 and the aeriform product they suffered to escape4 ,the residue they named nitre fixed by charcoal1 or1 the extemporaneous alkali of nitre4 ,when1 in the place of charcoal1 a mixture of sulphur and nitre was projected into a red-hot crucible1 they obtained a saline substance1 to which they gave the name of sal polychrest4 ,this is the same as vitriolated tartar1 or sulphate of potassa1 and is that salt which is formed in the distillation of nitric acid from nitre1 and sulphuric acid4 ,the crystal mineral1 of some of the old pharmacopias1 was nothing more than nitrate of potassa fused with a portion of sulphur1 and1 therefore1 a mixed salt1 consisting of nitrate and sulphate of potassa4 ,nitrate of potassa1 distilled with half its weight of sulphuric acid1 furnishes nitric acid1 or concentrated spirit of nitre4 ,this1 diluted with about an equal weight of water1 forms the aqua fortis of the shops4 ,a mixture of nitre and phosphorus1 if struck with a hammer1 produces a violent detonation4 ,nitre oxidizes all the metals at a red heat1 even gold and platinum4 ,nitre and sulphur1 thrown into a red-hot crucible1 produces an instantaneous combustion1 accompanied with a great disengagement of light and heat4 ,sulphurous acid gas1 with sulphuric acid1 is produced4 ,equal parts of cream of tartar1 7supertartrate of potassa17 and nitre1 deflagrated in a crucible1 form white flux4 ,two parts of tartar1 and one of nitre1 treated in the same manner1 produce black flux4 ,three parts of nitre1 one part of sulphur1 and one part of sawdust1 mixed together1 form the powder of fusion4 ,when three parts of nitre1 two parts of potash1 and one of sulphur1 all previously well dried1 are mixed together1 the compound is called pulvis fulminans1 or1 fulminating powder4 ,a small portion of this powder1 or as much as will lay on a shilling-piece1 put on a shovel1 and exposed to heat1 will first melt1 become liver-coloured1 and then explode with great noise4 ,the theory of this explosion is1 that a part of the sulphur1 and the potassa unite1 and form a sulphuret2 the sulphuret then decomposes water1 and produces sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 which appears to be decomposed by the nitric acid2 and there results sulphurous acid gas1 water1 and1 as ,thenard observes1 protoxide of azote1 azotic gas1 and sulphate of potassa4 ,the loudness of the report depends on the combustion of the whole powder at the same instant1 which is secured by the previous fusion it undergoes4 ,gunpowder1 on the contrary1 burns in succession1 although apparently instantaneous4 ,in using common potash1 there is also1 as the alkali contains it1 carbonic acid1 given out in the state of gas4 ,in fact carbonic acid appears to assist the explosive effect of this powder1 for when it is prepared with potash1 containing little carbonic acid1 its detonating power is considerably less4 ,nitre likewise enters into the composition of another fulminating powder1 invented by ,dr4 ,higgins4 ,higgins's fulminating powder is composed of three and a half parts of nitre1 two parts of crude antimony1 and one part of sulphur4 ,this is used in the same manner as the former4 ,nitre enters into the composition of gunpowder1 which we shall notice under a separate head4 ,the proportions of nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 for the formation of gunpowder1 which are considered the best1 are1 #ge parts of nitre1 #ab-a_/b of charcoal1 and #ab-a_/b of sulphur4 ,the new powder of ,,mm4 ,gengembrie and ,botte1 which inflames by percussion1 but without explosion1 is composed of #ba parts of nitre1 #ed parts of chlorate of potassa1 #ah parts of sulphur1 and #g parts of lycopodium4 ,a mixture of nitre and crude antimony projected into a red-hot crucible1 produces a deflagration more or less rapid1 forming a composition which is used in pharmacy1 and medicine4 ,the quality of saltpetre may be determined by a variety of experiments4 ,fire-workers judge of its quality by the colour of its flame4 ,the flame should be white4 ,if it be green or yellow1 it is said to be impure4 ,nitric acid1 obtained by distilling saltpetre and sulphuric acid1 has a powerful effect on inflammable substances4 ,if nitric acid1 or in preference1 the fuming nitrous acid1 be poured on spirit of turpentine1 especially if it be old1 it will inflame4 ,to succeed1 however1 in this experiment1 a small portion of sulphuric acid is usually added to the nitric acid4 ,as this effect is owing to the facility1 with which the acid parts with its oxygen to inflammable bodies1 other essential oils1 besides turpentine1 will have the same effect4 ,if the same acid is poured on finely pulverized charcoal1 or on lampblack1 combustion will also take place4 ,when oils are used1 water as well as carbonic acid is produced1 and when charcoal or lampblack1 carbonic acid alone4 ,there is also a large quantity of carbon1 in the former instance1 which remains on the plate1 or dish4 ,m4 ,delametherie 7,journal de ,physique1 #ahae7 has shown1 that olive oil may be converted into a substance1 resembling1 and having many of the properties of1 wax1 by mixing it with a given proportion of nitric acid4 ,the acid is decomposed1 deutoxide of azote is formed1 and the oil acquires a hard consistence4 ,a candle made with this artificial wax1 he observes1 burns with a clear light and without smoke4 ,the experiment with the glace inflammable is on the same principle4 ,morey 7,silliman's ,journal1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aba47 states a singular experiment1 in which nitre is used2 viz3 ,if to tallow or linseed oil1 a small quantity of saltpetre be added1 and the temperature raised to nearly that of the boiling point1 the saltpetre appears to be dissolved by the oil2 they will evaporate together1 and the mixture1 or the vapour1 will burn1 wholly excluded from the atmosphere4 ,saltpetre was one of the substances employed by the alchemists4 ,it appears from the memoir of ,geoffroy1 7,coll4 ,academ4 #agbb17 that the object of the alchemists was twofold2 the transmutation of metals1 and particularly what were denominated the baser metals into the precious1 which they pretended to effect by a universal spirit1 the grand elixir1 the philosopher's stone1 c4 and the reduction of metals to their earths4 ,alchemy was introduced into ,europe by the crusaders1 and it is remarkable1 that1 in the reign of ,henry ,,iv1 an act was passed to make it felony to transmute metals4 ,mr4 ,boyle1 aware of its absurdity1 suggested the propriety of repealing that act1 which was done4 ,one of their powders was composed of nitre1 cream of tartar1 and sulphur4 ,preparation4 ,although nitrate of potassa is generated in abundance1 particularly in the ,east1 yet in all countries1 where the circumstances are favourable to its production1 it is found4 ,it never occurs1 native1 in very large masses4 ,it is generally found in an efflorescence1 on the surface of the soil1 or in caverns4 ,it never exists in the soil more than a few yards beneath the surface4 ,we may remark1 that native nitre has never been found in pure clay1 or pure sand1 except in the rock-ore1 as it is called1 of the western ,united ,states4 ,it is often found in caverns1 and fissures in calcareous rocks4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 the districts which furnish saltpetre1 are swept at certain seasons of the year4 ,this is repeated two or three times a week2 for the saltpetre again appears in the same places1 in the form of efflorescence4 ,it is supposed that some countries furnish saltpetre1 in consequence of the drought1 which continues for some time4 ,at ,lima1 ,m4 ,dombay informs us1 there is seldom rain2 and the fields1 which serve as pasturage for beasts1 are so much covered with saltpetre1 as to be removed with the spade4 ,there must then be a rapid formation of nitre4 ,m4 ,talbot observes1 that in the meridional provinces of ,spain1 the earth frequented by animals1 contains it1 ready formed4 ,when saltpetre became an article of importance1 the rulers of ,germany1 c4 justified themselves in exclusively carrying away the incrustations of walls from private houses1 which1 when it could be used1 became accessorium fundi4 ,accordingly this regale1 as it was called1 was extended every where1 and was generally unpopular4 ,in #adai1 ,gunther1 archbishop of ,magdeburgh1 issued the first grant1 which was the right of searching saltpetre and boiling it1 during a year1 in the district of ,gibicherstein1 for which the person1 to whom it was granted1 was to pay a barrel of saltpetre1 and deliver to the archbishop the remainder at a certain price4 ,the succeeding archbishop1 ,frederick1 let1 in #adfj1 to a burgher of ,halle1 all the earth and saltpetre that could be collected in the bailiwick of ,gibicherstein1 for four years1 at the annual rent of a given quantity of refined saltpetre4 ,bishop ,ernest1 in #adgg1 let1 for his time1 the privilege of collecting saltpetre4 ,in #aedd1 saltpetre was collected1 in the same manner1 from the rubbish before the gates of ,halle2 and in the year following1 the magistrates of ,halle erected a powder mill1 and had saltpetre works4 ,john ,,vi1 archbishop of ,triers1 granted similar privileges in #aefj4 ,the saltpetre regale1 was long known1 and confirmed by a ,brandenburgh decree in #aehc4 ,old walls1 and the vicinity of stables1 frequently exhibit saltpetre in the state of efflorescence4 ,it was the ancient scrophula contra lapides1 represented as a kind of leprosy4 ,for the spontaneous production of nitre1 animal and vegetable substances1 in a state of decomposition1 and the presence of dry atmospheric air are necessary4 ,that lime1 and the calcareous carbonates also promote its formation1 there can be no doubt4 ,notwithstanding the large quantity of saltpetre collected in the ,east ,indies1 we are told1 that two-thirds of the whole are annually sent into ,china1 and other parts of ,asia1 to make artificial fire-works4 ,the pyrotechny of the ,chinese is said to be very perfect2 in variety and beauty1 some writers assert they exceed all other nations4 ,there is a natural nitre bed at ,apulia1 near ,naples1 which affords #dj per centum of nitre4 ,pelletier1 7,ann4 de ,chim4 tome xxii47 has published an analysis4 ,the cavity of ,molfetta is one hundred feet deep1 containing grottos or caverns4 ,nitrate of potassa is found in the interior1 in efflorescence or crusts1 attached to compact limestone4 ,on removing these efflorescences1 others appear4 ,the soil in this cavity is richly impregnated with nitre4 ,in ,switzerland1 the farmers extract an abundance of saltpetre from the stalls under their cattle4 ,during the ,american revolution1 when every expedient was resorted to1 to obtain a supply of this article1 the floors of tobacco houses1 c4 were dug up and lixiviated4 ,in the reign of ,charles the ,first1 certain patentees were authorised to dig up the floors of all dove-houses1 stables1 c4 the floors being again laid with mellow earth4 ,the ,ukraine1 ,podolia1 ,hungary1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,peru1 and ,india1 furnish more or less of this salt1 which is extracted by lixiviating the earths that compose the soil4 ,the springs1 in particular districts of ,hungary1 contain it4 ,we are informed1 7,ann4 de ,chim4 xx4 #bih17 that1 during the second and third years of the ,french ,republic1 the government required every district to send two intelligent young persons to ,paris4 ,this convocation1 consisting of nearly eleven hundred persons1 received regular instruction from their first chemists1 partly concerning the manufacture of cannon1 and partly respecting the manufacture of saltpetre and gunpowder4 ,this body of pupils was afterwards distributed among the different establishments in proportion to their abilities1 and saltpetre was soon furnished in abundance4 ,in the ,united ,states1 we have an abundant source of saltpetre in the nitre caves of the western country4 ,there is now no occasion for lixiviating the soil of tobacco houses1 or of stables1 or the refuse of old buildings1 the preparation of artificial nitre beds1 as adopted in ,france1 or for any other expedient1 to furnish a supply of saltpetre2 these caverns1 which are calcareous1 producing it in great abundance4 ,the earth of these caves does not1 however1 contain pure nitrate of potassa1 but generally a mixture of this salt and nitrate of lime1 a calcareous nitrate which constitutes the principal part4 ,the latter is changed into nitrate of potassa1 as we shall observe more particularly hereafter1 by making a lixivium of the earth in the usual manner1 and passing it through wood ashes4 ,the alkali1 which the latter contains1 decomposes the nitrate of lime1 by uniting with the nitric acid2 hence the fluid1 which passes through1 is nitrate of potassa or saltpetre4 ,this is evaporated1 and suffered to crystallize4 ,it is then the crude1 or rough nitre1 which is purified1 principally by re-solution1 and crystallization4 ,the saltpetre makers1 at the caves1 have found1 that two bushels of ashes1 made by burning the dry wood in hollow trees1 afford as much alkali as eighteen bushels of ashes obtained from the oak4 ,notwithstanding the nitre earth contains a mixture of the nitrates of potassa and lime1 nitrate of potassa1 nearly pure1 has been discovered4 ,it is sometimes found in the fissures of sandstone1 or among detached fragments4 ,some of these masses are said to weigh several hundred pounds4 ,besides these caverns1 which have been accurately described by ,dr4 ,brown1 in the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 7vol4 v1 vi47 similar caverns have been discovered in ,tennessee1 and in some parts of ,virginia and ,maryland4 ,at ,hughes' cave near ,hagerstown1 in ,maryland1 this salt has also been made4 ,we are of opinion1 that most of the calcareous caverns in the ,united ,states1 if carefully examined1 might be found to contain nitre1 or at least1 the calcareous nitrate1 which is readily converted into nitre by lixiviation with wood ashes1 or the addition of a due quantity of potash4 ,professor ,cleaveland1 in noticing the saltpetre caves of the western country1 observes1 7,elementary ,treatise on ,mineralogy and ,geology17 that one of the most remarkable of these caverns is in ,madison county1 on ,crooked ,creek1 about sixty miles ,s4 ,e4 from ,lexington4 ,this cavern extends entirely through a hill1 and affords a convenient passage for horses and wagons4 ,its length is six hundred and forty-six yards2 its breadth is generally about forty feet2 and its average height1 about ten feet4 ,one bushel of the earth of this cavern1 commonly yields from one to two pounds of nitre2 and the same salt has been found to exist1 at the depth of at least fifteen feet2 even the clay1 a fact which seems rather remarkable1 is impregnated with nitrate of lime4 ,kentucky also furnishes native nitre under a very different form1 and constituting what is there called the rock ore1 which is in fact a sand stone1 richly impregnated with nitrate of potassa4 ,these sand stones are generally situated at the head of narrow vallies1 which traverse the sides of steep hills4 ,they rest on calcareous strata1 and sometimes present a front from sixty to one hundred feet high4 ,when broken into small fragments1 and thrown into boiling water1 the stone soon falls into sand2 one bushel of which1 by lixiviation and crystallization1 frequently yields ten pounds1 and sometimes more than twenty pounds of nitrate of potassa4 ,the nitre from these rocks contains little or no nitrate of lime4 ,this account is corroborated by ,dr4 ,brown1#ac to whom our author is indebted for his remarks4 ,in a memoir in the ,american ,philosophical ,transactions by ,dr4 ,brown1 then of ,lexington ,kentucky1 we have a description of a nitre cave on ,crooked ,creek1 with the process for extracting the saltpetre4 ,from this memoir1 the following extracts are made3 ,the water which percolates through the cave in summer1 as the walls and floor are dry in winter1 condenses upon the rocks1 and the substance thus formed1 has the same properties as the salt obtained by lixiviating the earth of the floor4 ,as far as the workmen have dug1 the earth is strongly impregnated1 every bushel of which1 upon an average1 furnishes one pound of nitre4 ,the same earth will be again impregnated1 if thrown into the cave4 ,what length of time it requires to saturate it1 is not known4 ,the workmen have different modes of forming an opinion with regard to the quantity of nitre1 with which the earth may be impregnated4 ,they generally trust to their taste2 but it is always considered as a proof of the presence of the nitre1 when the impression made one day on the dust by the hand or foot disappears the day following4 ,where there is a great deal of sand mixed with the dust1 it is commonly believed that a small quantity of potash will suffice for the operation4 ,the method of making saltpetre1 usually practised in ,kentucky1 is as follows3 ,the earth is dug1 and carried to hoppers of a very simple construction1 which contain about fifty bushels4 ,cold water is poured on it for some time1 and in a day or two1 a solution of the salts runs into troughs placed beneath the hoppers4 ,the lixiviation is continued as long as any strength remains in the earth4 ,the liquor is then put into iron kettles1 and heated to ebullition2 it is afterwards thrown upon a hopper containing wood ashes1 through which it is suffered to filtrate4 ,as the alkaline part of the ashes is discharged before the nitrate passes through1 the first runnings of this hopper are thrown back1 and after some time1 the clear solution of nitrate of potassa runs out1 mixed with a white curd1 which settles at the bottom of the trough4 ,this clear liquor is boiled to the point of crystallization1 then settled for a short time1 and put into troughs to crystallize1 where it remains twenty-four hours2 the crystals are then taken out1 and the mother water thrown upon the ash hopper1 with the next running of the nitrate of lime4 ,when the quantity of the nitrate of lime is too great for the portion of ashes employed1 the workmen say their saltpetre is in the grease1 and that they do not obtain a due quantity of nitre4 ,if too much ashes are used1 they say it is in the ley2 and when it is left to settle previous to crystallization1 a large quantity of salt will be deposited in the settling troughs1 which they call cubic salts4 ,these salts are again thrown upon the ash-hoppers1 and are supposed to assist in precipitating the lime from the nitrate of lime1 and in the opinion of the workmen are changed into pure saltpetre4 ,to make a hundred pounds of good saltpetre at the great cave1 eighteen bushels of oak ashes are necessary2 ten of elm1 or two of ashes made by burning the dry wood in hollow trees4 ,the earth in some caves does not require half this quantity of wood ashes to decompose the earthy salts4 ,when wood ashes cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity1 they make a lixivium of the earth1 and boil it down1 which they call thick stuff4 ,this is put in casks1 and transported to a place where ashes can be had4 ,when dissolved and passed through wood ashes1 it is changed1 as in the former process1 into saltpetre4 ,having thus given the ,doctor's account1 let us inquire1 in the next place1 into the theory of the process4 ,the theory is very evident4 ,the mixed nitrate1 consisting of variable proportions of nitrate of lime and nitrate of potassa1 is extracted from the saltpetre earth by water1 which dissolves it4 ,now1 as the affinity of nitric acid for potassa is greater than for lime1 and consequently potassa will decompose nitrate of lime1 when the lixivium is passed through wood ashes1 the potassa they contain will unite with the nitric acid1 and the lime be separated1 which remains in the hopper4 ,the liquor holds in solution no other salt than nitrate of potassa1 provided the quantity of alkali in the wood ashes be sufficient to effect the decomposition2--if more1 it will pass through in an uncombined state2 and if less1 the liquor will contain nitrate of lime4 ,as the alkali contains more or less carbonic acid1 the decomposition is not a case of single but of double affinity1 in which we form1 at the same time1 a carbonate of lime4 ,when the solution is boiled1 and set aside in the troughs to crystallize1 the nitre will form in a regular manner4 ,the mother water1 or the fluid which remains after the crystallization1 may contain1 from the circumstance before stated1 either potash1 or undecomposed nitrate of lime--hence it is thrown on the hopper in a subsequent operation4 ,the nitre1 however1 as made at the caves1 is called rough or crude nitre4 ,before it is used for the manufacture of gunpowder1 and other purposes1 it is purified or refined4 ,this operation1 which we shall notice more fully hereafter1 is nothing more than the separation of all earthy salts1 and the alkaline muriates and sulphates2 in other words1 the conversion of the whole by the separation of foreign substances1 into pure nitrate of potassa4 ,the mode of treating the rock ore1 or sand rocks1 which contain nitre1 is the same as before given4 ,it contains more nitrate of potassa1 and therefore requires less potash1 and in some instances1 the nitre is perfectly pure4 ,the sand rocks often yield twenty or thirty pounds per bushel4 ,a mass of pure nitre1 weighing sixteen hundred pounds1 has been discovered4 ,smaller masses have also been found4 ,the rocks which contain the greatest quantity of nitre are extremely difficult to bore1 and are tinged brown or yellow4 ,saltpetre makers find it to their interest to work the rock ore in preference to the calcareous nitrate1 as it yields more nitre4 ,it is a fact well known1 that foreign saltpetre contains a variety of deliquescent salts1 or those salts which attract and absorb moisture and also common salt4 ,the efforts of ,european refiners are directed to their separation4 ,the saltpetre of the ,western country1 ,dr4 ,brown assures us1 does not contain common salt4 ,dr4 ,brown1 in ,silliman's ,journal1 i1 p4 #adg1 in a letter to professor ,silliman1 observes1 that there exists a black substance in the clay under the rocks1 of a bituminous appearance and smell4 ,this black substance1 it appears1 accompanies the sand-rock nitre1 and is the same as that found in ,africa1 which also accompanies nitre in that country4 ,animal matter seems to have existed in the nitre caves of ,africa1 forming1 as ,mr4 ,barrow expresses it1 either a roof or covering2 no such matter1 however1 has ever been found in or adjacent to the nitre caves of the ,western country4 ,the observations of ,mr4 ,barrow on the subject of the saltpetre of ,africa may be interesting to the reader4 ,he observes1 7,southern ,africa1 p4 #bia17 that1 about twelve miles to the eastward of the wells1 7,hepatic ,wells71 in a kloof of the mountain1 we found a considerable quantity of native nitre4 ,it was in a cavern similar to those used by the ,bosgesmans for their winter habitations4 ,the under surface of the projecting stratum of calcareous stone1 and the sides that supported it1 were incrusted with a coating of clear1 white saltpetre1 that came off in flakes4 ,the fracture resembled that of refined sugar2 it burnt completely without leaving any residuum2 and if dissolved in water1 and thus evaporated1 crystals of pure prismatic nitre were obtained4 ,this salt1 in the same state1 is to be met with under the sand-stone strata of many of the mountains of ,africa4 ,there was also in the same cave1 running down the sides of the rock1 a black substance1 that was apparently bituminous4 ,the peasants called it the urine of the das4 ,the dung of this gregarious animal was lying upon the roof of the cavern to the amount of many wagon loads4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,cornelius1 in describing a cave in the ,cherokee country at ,nicojack1 the north west angle in the map of ,georgia1 7,silliman's ,journal1 vol4 i1 p4 #cba17 observes1 that it abounds with nitrate of potassa1 a circumstance very common to the caves of the ,western country1 and is found covering the surfaces of fallen rocks1 but in more abundance beneath them4 ,there are two kinds2 one is called the clay dirt1 the other the black dirt4 ,the earth1 however1 contains calcareous nitre1 and for that reason an alkaline lixivium is employed4 ,in short1 the process employed there is the same as at the other saltpetre caves which we have described4 ,one bushel of the clay dirt yields from three to five pounds of nitre1 and the black dirt from seven to ten pounds4 ,it seems also1 that the same dirt1 if carried back to the cave1 will become impregnated with nitre4 ,mr4 ,cornelius remarks1 that these caves have been used by the natives as burial places2 in one of which he counted a hundred human skulls in the space of twenty feet square2 and infers1 that1 by the decomposition of animal matter1 the acid of nitric salts arises1 and therefore that this may have occasioned the formation of the nitrates of potassa and lime4 ,at ,corydon1 in ,indiana1 there is a cave1 which1 according to ,stilson's account1 contains both nitrate of lime1 and nitrate of magnesia4 ,it is not worked4 ,kain1 in his remarks on the ,geology and ,mineralogy of ,east ,tennessee1 7,silliman's ,journal1 vol4 i1 p4 #fe17 observes1 that the numerous caves which have been found in the ,cumberland mountains1 and other parts of ,tennessee have been very productive of nitrate of potassa2 and in confirmation of the remarks before made1 he adds1 in investigating the causes that have given rise to these salts1 that wild animals burrow in these caves2 that1 when pursued by the hunter1 they make them the places of their retreat1 and probably die there2 that the aborigines have made them a place of burial2 and that the streams of water1 which flow through them1 in wet weather1 carry with them not only great quantities of leaves1 but many other vegetable productions4 ,without offering any theory1 by which we may account for the formation of nitre1 in nitre caves1 or in situations which cannot be influenced by the putrefactive process1 we may merely remark1 that as nitric acid is composed of oxygen and azote1 there must be some operation unknown to us1 by which the union of these elements takes place4 ,nascent azote must unite with the base of oxygen gas2 but whence1 in saltpetre caves1 proceeds the azote and the oxygen8 ,it appears that calcareous bodies facilitate the formation of nitre1 as they do in artificial nitre beds4 ,the greater part of the nitrous earth is lime2 and it also appears1 that the same earth1 after the extraction of the saltpetre1 will again furnish it4 ,we know that lime is a compound of a base called calcium united with oxygen2 but in what manner it promotes the union of azote and oxygen1 or furnishes either one or the other of these bodies1 or perhaps both1 is altogether uncertain4 ,nor can we account for the formation of potash in the native nitre of the nitre caves4 ,in other situations1 as for instance where nitrous efflorescence appears on the earth1 and in artificial nitre beds1 in which animal and vegetable substances are in the act of decomposition by the putrefactive fermentation1 we may account for the generation of nitric acid4 ,it is extremely probable1 that the azote of the atmosphere1 and oxygen may combine spontaneously1 under particular circumstances1 in various operations of nature4 ,azote1 it is known1 forms with oxygen two gases1 a protoxide and deutoxide1 and the same elements in other proportions form nitric acid4 ,some condition1 unknown to us1 must1 as an operating cause1 produce this compound4 ,as a condition for its generation1 the presence of calcareous and alkaline matter1 favours the formation of nitric acid4 ,of this fact1 we have sufficient proof1 in the generation of nitre in artificial nitre beds4 ,but1 with respect to natural causes1 although the facts themselves are conclusive1 we know little or nothing4 ,atmospheric air is a mixture1 or compound1 according to some1 of two gases1 oxygen and azote1 with carbonic acid2 but the proportion of the latter rarely exceeds two per cent1 while the quantity of oxygen is about twenty-two4 ,it is a solvent1 as well as a vehicle1 and hence may contain water1 gaseous fluids1 c4 ,miasmata1 which is contained often in the air1 are vapours or effluvia1 that affect the human system1 and bring on diseases1 of which the principal are the intermittent1 remittent1 and yellow fevers1 dysentery and typhus4 ,that of the last is generated in the human body itself4 ,the same1 or analogous causes1 that produce the formation of nitric acid1 may1 under other circumstances1 cause the formation of miasmata2 for moist vegetable and other matter1 in some unknown state of decomposition1 generates it1 and is known to have caused the yellow and other malignant fevers4 7,see an admirable work on the causes1 c4 of the yellow fever in ,philadelphia1 by ,,samuel ,,jackson1 ,m4 ,d4 president of the board of health1 etc4 in reply to the observations of ,dr4 ,hosack47 ,the contagious virus of the plague1 small pox1 etc4 as it operates in a more limited distance than marsh1 or other miasmata1 is communicated only in certain localities1 and through the intermedium of the atmosphere4 ,as to the chemical nature of miasmata1 there can be no doubt that azote1 under some form of combination1 is one of its component parts1 and one of the causes of disease4 ,is not cyanogen1 or carburet of azote1 perhaps combined with hydrogen1 in the form of hydrocyanic or prussic acid1 the substance1 or principal substance1 which forms the miasmata1 that engenders the yellow fever8 ,what compounds may be formed of hydrogen1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 carbon1 and azote1 so as to produce miasmata1 that will act specifically on the system for the production of intermittent1 remittent1 yellow1 typhus1 and other fevers8#ad ,this inquiry1 permit me to add1 is one of no small moment1 as it involves in it a question of great importance relative to the origin of yellow fever4 ,while we thus digress1 in noticing the compounds of azote1 let us briefly remark1 as an indisputable conclusion1 that the same causes of malignant disease in the ,west ,india islands1 operating under similar circumstances in every respect1 may engender the same disease in our cities4 ,the atmosphere is subject to changes of various kinds1 and may be considered not only as a solvent1 but a repository for different foreign bodies4 ,electricity1 an agent so essential in the economy of nature1 has its ends1 its uses2 and while1 no doubt1 it unites hydrogen with oxygen1 in the most elevated regions of the air1 and forms water1 it may act under particular circumstances to produce a union of azote and oxygen so as to generate nitric acid4 ,dr4 ,priestley1 7,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society17 detected nitric acid in snow4 ,but of all atmospheric phenomena1 the formation of meteorolites1 or meteoric stones1 is the most wonderful4 ,if they be really formed in the atmosphere1 there can be no doubt1 that the elementary principles which compose them must exist in it2 and that the phenomenon denominated meteoric1 in such cases1 is no other than the operating cause1 by which meteoric stones are generated4#ae ,animal substances furnish azote1 as it is one of their constituent parts2 and in the act of its separation1 by uniting with oxygen1 principally furnished by the air1 it forms nitric acid2 which1 attaching itself to the alkali of the vegetable matter1 or the lime usually added to nitre beds1 or to other salifiable bases1 forms either nitrate of potassa1 nitrate of lime1 or a nitrate of the particular base4 ,the lixiviation of the nitrous substances1 and the use of wood ashes1 or potash itself1 will produce saltpetre4#af ,brongniart has given the following process for purifying or refining saltpetre3 ,pulverize the impure nitre1 and wash it three times in cold water1 in the proportion of #ce lbs4 of water1 to #ajj lbs4 of the salt1 taking care to pour off the water before another portion is added4 ,these washings separate the greater part of the muriate of soda1 and the deliquescent salts1 such as nitrate of lime4 ,when thus washed1 the nitre is to be dissolved in half its weight boiling water4 ,on cooling1 the salt begins to crystallize1 and1 by agitating the liquid during the process1 minute crystals are obtained4 ,these crystals when dried are to be washed in #e lbs4 of cold water for every #ajj lbs4 of the salt1 and then dried in a temperature of forty-five degrees4 ,in ,india1 where nitrate of lime also occurs1 but in situations different from those in the ,united ,states1 the natives extract the saltpetre by a process similar to that we have described4 ,they refine it by solution in water1 evaporation1 and crystallization4 ,in ,france1 the potash of commerce is used2 and the nitrates which are decomposed1 are those principally of lime and magnesia4 ,according to the analysis of ,m4 ,pelletier1 and the experiments of professor ,vaizo1 in #agha1 they found the calcareous earth of the cave at ,naples1 to contain forty or forty-two to the hundred1 of nitrate of potassa4 7,see ,annales de ,chimie1 tome #bc47 ,in #agib1 ,m4 ,pickel announced the discovery of native saltpetre1 in a quarry in the neighbourhood of ,wurtzburgh4 ,m4 de la ,rochefoucald discovered nitre in the neighbourhood of chalk in ,france1 in the departments of ,seine and ,oise4 ,,mm4 ,lavoisier and ,clouet1 made a number of researches with the same view4 ,since that time1 saltpetre1 or nitrous earth has been found in several of the departments of ,france2 and it appears reasonable to conclude1 that in all situations favourable to the generation of nitre1 where the same causes operate1 nitre must occur in more or less abundance4 ,from the rubbish of old buildings1 saltpetre is obtained in some quantity4 ,old plaster is said to give five per cent4 ,the soluble salts it contains1 are six in number1 viz3 nitrate and muriate of lime1 nitrate and muriate of magnesia1 and nitrate of potassa1 and muriate of soda4 ,now it is obvious1 that besides the decomposition of the earthy nitrates1 the earthy muriates also are decomposed by the potash1 leaving in solution1 besides muriate of soda1 if it is not decomposed1 by the potash1 7which has this effect17 muriate1 as well as the nitrate of potassa4 ,to refine the saltpetre prepared in this manner1 consists in separating the muriates4 ,the proportions1 in which these salts are to each other in a hundred parts1 are stated by ,thenard1 7,trait de ,chimie1 ,tome ii1 p4 #dhe17 to be ten1 nitrate of potassa1 seventy1 nitrates of lime and magnesia1 fifteen1 marine salt1 and five1 muriates of lime and magnesia4 ,the mode of extracting saltpetre1 and the various processes which have been adopted for refining it1 in ,france1 and on the continent generally1 have but one object1--that of lixiviating the substances which afford it1 and subsequently1 separating all foreign salts4 ,the best memoir was written by count ,chaptal1 occupying forty-seven pages in the ,annales de ,chimie1 tome xx4 ,in this he explains the theory at large4 ,in the same work1 tome xxiii1 there is also a paper by ,guyton1 and many other memoirs of the same character4 ,in ,chaptal's ,chimie ,appliqu aux ,arts1 tome iv1 p4 #aai1 in ,thenard's ,trait de ,chimie1 tome ii1 p4 #dhe1 and in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 tome v1 p4 #agc1 the subject is ably treated4 ,we will now give the process of extracting saltpetre from the rubbish of old buildings1 principally plaster1 as adopted in ,france4 ,the lixiviation1 in the first place1 is performed in the following manner3 a certain number of casks or tubs1 thirty-six for instance1 is placed in three ranges4 ,these tubs are pierced laterally near their bottom1 by a hole of about half an inch in diameter1 and closed with a cork2 they are placed above a trough connected with a reservoir4 ,there is put then into each tub a bucket full of the plaster1 previously pounded1 which is supported in the casks by cross sticks1 a certain distance from the hole1 so as not to obstruct the passage of the fluid4 ,after this1 a bushel of wood ashes is added1 and the tubs are then filled with the plaster4 ,water is then put into the tubs of the first row1 and after some time1 the stop cocks are turned2 water is then put into the tubs of another row1 and the lixiviation is continued until the fluid indicates the zero of ,beaum's areometer4 ,the saline waters1 which are thus obtained1 are divided into three parts1 in proportion to their specific gravity1 or quantity of salt they contain4 ,the lixivium1 of five degrees of the areometer1 is known under the name of eaux de cuite4 ,the waters1 which are marked between three and five degrees1 take the name of eaux de forte2 and those below three degrees are called eaux faibles4 ,according as the waters are weak1 they are made to run through another range of tubs1 in order to saturate them4 ,when strong and weak solutions are made to pass through the tubs in the same manner1 proceeding from the second row to the third1 and from the third to the first1 the earths plaster1 c4 being renewed1 the lixiviation is not interrupted4 ,the lixiviation1 it appears1 is thus continued2 for we obtain1 at the same time1 weak waters from the second row1 the strong waters from the third1 and the boiling waters1 or those fit to be put into the boilers1 from the first4 ,when a sufficient quantity of the strong solution is obtained1 it is put into the copper1 or boiler1 and evaporated4 ,during the evaporation1 there is a scum formed1 and sundry earthy substances1 in the form of a mud1 are deposited4 ,this is usually caught in a vessel placed in the boiler1 which is raised from time to time1 by means of a rope1 moved through a pulley1 and fastened to a chain from the handles of the vessel4 ,the solution is concentrated until it indicates the strength of twenty-five degrees of ,beaum's areometer4 ,it is then mixed with the mother water of the preceding boiling1 and a concentrated solution of the potash of commerce is added1 until the precipitation ceases4 ,the sulphate of potassa may be used for the same purpose1 at least to decompose the nitrate of lime2 but it must be used in the first instance1 and the operation finished in the common way1 by the addition of potash4 ,the precipitation being finished1 that is to say1 the nitrates of lime and magnesia1 being transformed into nitrate of potassa1 the hot liquor is then carried in a large tub1 called the reservoir1 and placed on the edge of the boiler4 ,as soon as the insoluble salts1 which the solution contains1 are deposited there1 which takes place immediately1 the liquor is drawn off clear by cocks1 which are adapted to the tubs1 and received into the boiler1 previously cleaned4 ,the deposite obtained in the boiling1 is washed with a certain quantity of the solution1 which becomes clear1 and is then mixed with the preceding liquor4 ,from what has been said1 the liquor must contain a great quantity of nitrate of potassa1 a small quantity of the salts of lime and magnesia1 and all the marine salt contained in the plaster4 ,it is frequently the case1 that the liquor contains muriate of potassa1 and a small quantity of sulphate of lime4 ,it is1 therefore1 submitted again to evaporation4 ,when it is at the forty-second degree of concentration1 some part of the marine salt separates1 which rises to the surface1 and is taken off1 and drained through an osier basket placed over the boiler4 ,the solution being concentrated to the forty-fifth degree of the hydrometer1 it is put into copper vessels1 in which1 by cooling1 it crystallizes4 ,the salt is then separated from the mother water1 drained and coarsely bruised1 and afterwards washed in a certain quantity of the first boiling4 ,it is now in a state to be delivered to the central administration1 under the name of crude saltpetre1 or saltpetre of the first boiling4 ,the crude saltpetre contains about seventy-five per cent of nitrate of potassa4 ,the quality may be determined by treating it with a saturated solution of pure nitrate of potassa1 which cannot dissolve any more of the nitrate1 but will dissolve any foreign salts4 ,the twenty-five parts of the foreign substances1 contained in the crude saltpetre1 are composed of a large quantity of marine salt1 and of a small portion of muriate of potassa4 ,it is necessary to separate them1 and other foreign substances4 ,the operation for this purpose1 is called the refining of saltpetre4 ,the refining of saltpetre is founded principally upon the property1 which nitre has1 of being more soluble in warm water1 than the muriate of soda1 and muriate of potassa4 ,thirty parts of saltpetre1 and six parts of water are put into a boiler and the liquor is heated4 ,by this means1 there is precipitated a large quantity of marine salt mixed with muriate of potassa4 ,a small quantity of water is added from time to time1 to keep the nitre in solution4 ,when the foreign salt is not fully deposited1 the liquor is clarified1 and more water is added1 sufficient to form ten parts1 including that which has already been poured upon it4 ,the liquor is removed1 when it is clear and less heated1 and put into copper vessels1 where it is agitated to prevent crystallization1 and to effect the pulverization of the saltpetre4 ,the saltpetre obtained by this process is not sufficiently pure4 ,the purification is completed by washing it with water saturated with nitre1 which dissolves the foreign substances4 ,this washing is completed in a vessel1 the bottom of which has been pierced with holes4 ,the nitre1 however1 is left some hours in contact with the water1 when the latter is permitted to run out4 ,when the solution is of the same degree of concentration as that of the saturated water1 the operation is finished4 ,the nitre is dried for use4 ,the old process of refining saltpetre is thus described3 ,put into a copper1 one hundred pounds of nitre1 and fourteen gallons of water2 let it boil gently half an hour1 removing the scum as it forms2 then stir it1 and before it settles put it into filtering bags1 which must be suspended from a rack4 ,put under the filters glazed earthen pans1 to receive the liquor2 in which place sticks for the crystals to form on4 ,in two or three days1 it will all crystallize4 ,in some saltpetre works1 sulphate of potassa is used with advantage4 ,this salt is furnished in abundance1 by the combustion of a mixture of nitre and sulphur1 in the manufacture of oil of vitriol4 ,it forms the residue after the combustion4 ,it is likewise produced in the preparation of nitric acid1 in the decomposition of nitrate of potassa1 by sulphuric acid4 ,it may1 therefore1 be obtained in quantity1 from the oil of vitriol manufacturers1 and the aquafortis distillers4 ,it is usually called vitriolated tartar4 ,it is known that sulphuric acid forms1 with lime1 an almost insoluble compound1 called sulphate of lime1 or gypsum2 and hence1 when sulphate of potassa is mixed with a solution of nitrate of lime1 nitrate of potassa is formed1 which remains in solution1 and sulphate of lime is precipitated4 ,the same effect takes place with all earthy nitrates4 ,for the application of sulphate of potassa1 in this way1 we are indebted to ,m4 ,berard4 ,it might be advantageously employed in decomposing the calcareous nitrate of the nitre-caves of the western country4 ,m4 ,longchamp has recommended the use of sulphate of soda1 or ,glauber's salt1 for decomposing the muriate of lime1 which exists occasionally in impure nitre4 ,these two salts reciprocally decompose each other2 sulphate of lime is precipitated1 and muriate of soda remains in solution4 ,the latter is separated by evaporating the nitrous solution4 ,m4 de ,saluces 7,mmoire de l',acadmie des ,sciences de ,turin1 ,anne1 #ahje #ahjh17 has proposed a new process for purifying nitre4 ,it consists in filtering it through argillaceous earth1 or clay4 ,although the process is highly spoken of1 yet we can see no particular advantage it possesses4 ,chaptal observes1 that the process mostly in use is that of dissolving #bjjj pounds of crude saltpetre in a copper boiler1 in #afjj lbs4 of water4 ,as the solution is made by the heat1 the scum1 which forms1 is taken off4 ,twelve ounces of glue1 dissolved in ten pints of boiling water1 and mixed with four pails full of cold water1 are then added4 ,this addition cools the solution4 ,as to the manipulations of the process1 they have been given4 ,the principal thing to be attended to1 is to separate the marine salt1 which is done during the boiling4 ,to pass this saltpetre through a second operation1 in order the more to purify it1 it is again dissolved1 in the proportion of #bjjj pounds1 in one-fourth of its weight of water4 ,heat is applied4 ,the scum is separated2 a solution of #h ounces of glue in one or two pails full of water is then added4 ,after the solution becomes clear1 it is suffered to cool1 and at the expiration of five days1 it will crystallize1 or form in a mass1 which is then exposed to the air six or eight weeks to become completely dry4 ,in treating of the formation of nitre in ,france1 ,botte and ,riffault 7,trait de l',art de ,fabriquer la ,poudre ,canon17 consider it under the following heads3 #a4 ,the constituent principles of nitre2 its generation1 and the theories respecting it4 ,in this article1 the composition of nitric acid and its union with potassa1 and the production of artificial nitre1 are taken into view4 #b4 ,nitrous earths1 and substances which yield saltpetre4 ,this subject comprehends a view of the substances1 which contain saltpetre1 as well as those which afford it by nitrification4 #c4 ,the preparation of the substances to produce saltpetre4 ,this article relates to the manipulations required for the production of nitre4 #d4 ,the manner of lixiviating saltpetre earths4 ,the lixiviation is an important part of the process1 however simple it may appear2 as upon its accuracy depends the quantity of the product4 #e4 ,the treatment of the different waters 7lixiviums7 with potash1 sulphate of potassa1 and wood-ashes4 ,this article points out the use of potash in decomposing the earthy salts1 such as nitrate of lime2 of sulphate of potassa1 which converts the nitrate of lime by double decomposition into nitrate of potassa1 the sulphate of lime being precipitated2 and of wood-ashes1 which act in the same manner as potash1 as they contain this alkali4 #f4 ,the evaporation of saltpetre waters1 and the crystallization of nitre4 ,in this article1 they consider the separation of foreign alkaline salts1 as muriate of soda1 and the crystallization of the nitre1 to obtain it in a state of purity4 #g4 ,the treatment of the mother water of crystallization4 ,this article refers to the manner of using the mother water1 in order to obtain more nitre from it1 and its employment in lieu of fresh water for other lixiviums4 #h4 ,the refining of saltpetre by the old process4 ,they describe here the old process1 in which a variety of substances were used to purify the saltpetre1 but which is now generally abandoned1 or laid aside4 #i4 ,the process of refining saltpetre1 as adopted in the establishments of the administration4 ,under this head they give1 in detail1 the process employed throughout ,france1 as uniform and the same1 in every refinery4 #aj4 ,the manner of proceeding in the examination of various kinds of saltpetre in the magazines of the administration4 ,this article relates to the different modes of examining saltpetre4 #aa4 ,on the manufacture of potash and pearlash4 ,this subject is important1 as potash is an indispensable article in the preparation of saltpetre1 and the formation of the alkali may be considered as of primary magnitude in establishments1 conducted upon so large a scale as those of ,france4 ,it is thus1 that a regular system is adopted1 by the ,french government1 for the production of saltpetre2 and we may add also1 for the manufacture of gunpowder1 which we notice in that article4 ,it may be proper to mention some facts1 respecting the formation of nitre-beds1 and the means adopted1 in this way1 to obtain saltpetre1 and to offer1 at the same time1 some observations on this mode of obtaining nitre4 ,the ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 #agbj1 contain the observations of ,m4 ,bouldoc1 relative to the process of lixiviating saltpetre earths4 ,lacourt published a pamphlet some years after1 entitled1 ,instruction concernant la ,fabrication du ,saltpetre4 ,various dissertations appeared on the same subject4 ,in #agge1 the ,french ,academy of ,sciences proposed a prize-question1 which produced a more thorough investigation4 ,the ,memoirs of ,thouvenal1 of the ,chevalier de ,lorgna1 and of ,,mm4 de ,chevrand1 and ,ganivel1 were highly approved1 some of which took the prize4 ,chaptal1 who has done more1 perhaps1 than any other person in ,france1 to promote this all-important object1 published1 in #agid1 an excellent dissertation1 founded on experiment and observation4 ,this ,memoir was published in the ,journal des ,arts et ,manufactures1 t4 iii1 p4 #ab4 ,kirwan 7,geological ,essays1 p4 #adc17 remarks1 that the saline crust1 which is found on the walls of the houses of ,malta1 is owing to the walls being built of fine grained limestone4 ,when wetted with sea-water1 it never dries4 ,the crust is nitrate of potassa1 nitrate of lime1 and muriate of soda1 and is some tenths of an inch thick4 ,under this crust1 the stone moulders into dust4 ,when the first falls off1 it is succeeded by a second1 and so on1 until the whole stone is destroyed4 ,this particular effect1 however1 is attributed to the presence of marine salt4 ,mr4 ,kirwan observes1 that1 ,m4 ,dolomieu shows1 at the end of his ,tract on the ,lipari ,islands1 that the atmosphere of ,malta1 in some seasons1 when a south wind blows1 is remarkably fouled with mephitic air2 and1 at other times1 when a north wind blows1 remarkably pure2 and hence1 of all others1 most fit for the generation of nitrous acid4 ,mr4 ,kirwan remarks1 ,how the alkaline part of the nitre1 which is one of the products resulting from the decomposition of this stone1 is formed1 is as yet mysterious3 ,is it not from the tartarin lately discovered in clays and many stones8 ,he adds1 after speaking of animal and vegetable decomposition1 ,i should rather suppose1 that the alkali is conveyed into these earths by the putrid air1 than newly formed2 and the reason is1 that tartarin1 7potash17 notwithstanding its fixity1 is also found in soot2 and1 in the same manner1 may be elevated in putrid exhalations4 ,artificial nitre-beds consist of the refuse of animal and vegetable substances1 undergoing putrefaction1 mixed with calcareous earth2 the refuse of old buildings1 particularly plaster2 earths from the vicinity of inhabited buildings2 blood1 urine1 c4 ,they are covered1 from the rain1 by a shed1 open at the sides4 ,cramer1 an author of credit1 informs us1 that he made a little hut1 with windows to admit the wind4 ,in this1 he put a mixture of garden mould1 the rubbish of lime1 and putrid animal and vegetable substances4 ,he frequently moistened them with urine1 and in a month or two found his composition very rich in saltpetre1 yielding at least one-eighth part of its weight4 ,the practice of obtaining nitre from nitre beds1 was followed in ,france and ,germany4 ,it is extracted and refined by the process already given4 ,when oxygen gas is presented to azote at the moment of its liberation1 nitric acid is formed4 ,as ammonia is the result of animal putrefaction1 or is formed in the process1 hydrogen must unite also with azote4 ,the azote is furnished by the animal substances4 ,these facts being known1 we are enabled to account for the generation of nitric acid1 and1 consequently1 of the earthy and other nitrates1 in artificial nitre beds4 ,in noticing this subject1 it is unnecessary to quote the opinion of ,stahl1 who believed that there was but one acid in nature1 the sulphuric2 and that nitric acid was the sulphuric acid1 combined with phlogiston1 which he affirmed was produced by putrefaction2 nor is it necessary to mention the opinion of ,lemery1 who believed that nitre exists ready formed in animals and vegetables by the processes of vegetation and animalization4 ,the experiments of the ,french philosophers have put these opinions at rest4 ,thouvenal discovered1 that nothing more was necessary for the production of nitre than a basis of lime1 heat1 and open air2 so that nitre beds1 formed of putrefying animal and vegetable substances1 with the conditions thus stated1 must produce saltpetre2 a fact which experience abundantly justifies4 ,the process for the formation of nitre1 is called nitrification4 ,although animal substances1 by putrefaction1 furnish azote1 and nascent azote unites with facility with the oxygen of the atmosphere1 by which nitric acid is generated--7hence the spontaneous decomposition of nitre composts7--yet ,vauquelin is of opinion1 that the presence of calcareous or alkaline substances is indispensable1 and that the production of carbonate of ammonia from the animal matter1 is another compound1 which results from the same decomposition4 ,ammonia is produced by the union of azote and hydrogen1 and carbonic acid by that of carbon and oxygen4 ,he considers then1 that the presence of lime1 magnesia1 potash1 c4 determines the union of the azote with oxygen1 and of course1 the formation of nitric acid2 and as this acid unites with one or other of these substances1 according to circumstances1 we have either nitrate of lime1 or of magnesia1 or nitrate of potassa4 ,the idea that water is decomposed in the change which animal and vegetable substances undergo1 in the process of nitrification1 is contrary to observation2 for the presence of air in dry situations1 is indispensable to the process4 ,if a compost1 made up of animal1 vegetable1 and calcareous substances1 and put in small beds or heaps1 and covered with a shed open at both sides1 be frequently turned to admit new surfaces to the air1 and occasionally moistened with urine1 c4--nitric acid will be generated as the putrefaction goes on4 ,when this process is suffered to proceed until the decomposition is complete1 and the beds then lixiviated1 the quantity of nitre will be considerable4 ,in all cases1 we are to observe1 that1 as various earthy nitrates are produced1 and mostly nitrate of lime1 potash1 or wood-ashes which contain this alkali1 are to be used4 ,it was long since shown by ,glauber1 that a vault plastered over with a mixture of lime1 wood-ashes1 and cows' dung1 soon becomes covered with efflorescent nitre2 and that1 after some months1 the materials yield1 on lixiviation1 a considerable proportion of this salt4 ,m4 de ,roder1 speaking of nitrous walls1 observes1 that the efflorescence of nitre on them is in consequence of the stone1 lime1 and sand employed in the building4 ,what is denominated the saltpetre rot1 is an efflorescence observed on the walls of old buildings1 and on the ground4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,gren1 professor at ,halle1 in ,saxony1 7,principles of ,modern ,chemistry1 vol4 ii1 p4 #abh71 very justly remarks1 that1 among the matters capable of corruption1 those are the most convenient in making nitre1 which contain the greatest portion of azote1 of which animal substances are the first2 among which he enumerates flesh1 blood1 skins1 excrements of animals1 old woolen stuffs1 and urine4 ,he also mentions marsh plants1 green herbs1 mud from streets trodden by cattle1 and the ground from marshes or bogs4 ,as a compost he adds1 that the ground from church-yards1 where corpses have successively1 and during a long series of years1 undergone corruption1 would be the best for artificial nitre beds4 ,on the subject of nitre beds1 the reader may consult the ,recueil de ,mmoires et de ,pices sur la formation et la fabrication du saltpetre1 ,paris1 #aghf1 #dto4 ,these remarks on the generation of nitre1 although of more ancient date1 are confirmed by ,james and ,herman ,boerhaave1 7,chemistry1 c47 ,hoffman1 7de ,salium ,medicorum1 et de ,prstantissima ,nitri ,virtute71 ,stahl1 7de ,usu ,nitri ,medico71 ,neuman1 7chemical works71 and ,lewis1 7,materia ,medica7--all of whom have written more or less on the formation of saltpetre2 to which we may add the observations of ,parr1 7,london ,medical ,dictionary1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bd47 ,the process for extracting saltpetre from damaged gunpowder is nothing more than putting it into a boiler1 and adding water sufficient to cover it4 ,on applying heat1 the nitre will be dissolved4 ,if any scum forms1 it must be removed4 ,when the solution is effected1 pour it on a sufficient number of filters1 and collect the fluid which passes through4 ,the residue may be treated with more water1 and the whole again filtered4 ,after boiling the solution1 set it aside to crystallize4 ,the sulphur may be recovered1 by subliming the residue in a temperature not sufficient to inflame it4 ,the charcoal may be used again for the same purpose4 ,saltpetre1 when properly refined1 does not contain any foreign salts1 and its purity may be known by a variety of experiments1 as follows3 make a solution of the salt in distilled water1 and filter it through paper4 ,put a portion of it in a wine glass1 and add a solution of carbonate of potassa4 ,to another portion1 add a small quantity of muriate1 or in preference1 nitrate of barytes4 ,to a third portion1 add nitrate of silver4 ,if the fluid in the first glass remains clear1 without any turbidness1 we are to infer the non-existence of earthy salts2 if turbid1 that it contains lime1 or some other earth1 either in the form of a nitrate or muriate4 ,the addition of oxalate of potassa to another portion of the solution will show the presence of lime by forming a precipitate1 and the addition of carbonate of ammonia1 and then of phosphate of soda1 will indicate magnesia4 ,if the second glass remains transparent1 it shows that neither sulphuric acid1 nor any of the sulphates are present4 ,if the fluid in the third glass continues also clear1 we infer that none of the muriates exist4 ,these experiments are sufficient to show the purity of saltpetre4 ,it would afford perhaps more satisfaction to institute also the same experiments on other samples of nitre1 by which a comparison may be formed of the relative purity of each4 ,to make an analysis of the salt1 with the view to determine the proportion of the foreign substances would be altogether unnecessary for common purposes4 ,a regularly defined crystal would1 in a great measure1 point out its purity4 ,the double refined saltpetre is chemically pure4 ,artificers determine the purity of nitre by its flame2 if white1 they call it pure1 if yellow1 impure4 ,the same reagents may be used in the examination of gunpowder1 as we shall notice hereafter4 ,if a portion of powder be mixed with distilled water1 the water will dissolve only the saline substances1 leaving the charcoal and sulphur4 ,when the whole is thrown on a filter1 the fluid1 which passes through1 will contain the saltpetre1 and foreign salts1 if any are present4 ,the same experiments may then be performed with the solution1 and the quality of the nitre1 of which the gunpowder was made1 be determined4 ,some gunpowder absorbs a large portion of water1 which is owing to the presence of deliquescent salts4 ,these salts may be detected by proceeding in the way we have pointed out4 ,the art of refining saltpetre is so well known of late in the ,united ,states1 especially by the ,messrs4 ,dupont of ,brandywine1 ,delaware1 that our gunpowder is of a very superior quality4 ,i have examined various specimens of this saltpetre1 and gunpowder made with it1 and could not detect any of the sulphates or muriates1 either alkaline or earthy4 ,for the manufacture of gunpowder1 and fire-works generally1 the nitre1 it may be observed1 cannot be too pure4 ,in pyrotechny1 it is necessary to have the nitre in powder4 ,pulverizing it in a mortar is a tedious method1 if a large quantity is required for use4 ,there is an advantage1 likewise1 in the mode we will describe2 because the saltpetre1 besides being extremely fine1 is made perfectly dry4 ,put into a copper kettle1 whose bottom must be spherical1 fourteen pounds of refined saltpetre1 with two quarts or five pints of water4 ,put the kettle on a slow fire1 and if any impurities rise and form a scum1 remove them2 keep constantly stirring with two large spatulas1 till the water evaporates1 and the nitre is reduced to a powder4 ,this will be perfectly white1 and almost impalpable4 ,if it should boil too fast1 remove the kettle1 and set it on wet sand1 which will also prevent the nitre from adhering to the pot4 ,it should be kept in a dry place4 ,this process of powdering saltpetre is performed on a large scale for the manufacture of gunpowder4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,nitrate of ,soda4 ,this salt has been recommended in lieu of nitre1 for preparing certain fire-works2 but we confess1 we can see no particular advantage in using it4 ,it has the property of attracting humidity from the air1 and on that account is rendered unfit for the manufacture of gunpowder4 ,this salt is composed of nitric acid and soda4 ,it was formerly called cubic nitre4 ,it may be formed1 very readily1 by saturating nitric acid with soda1 and evaporating the solution4 ,it crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms4 ,it may be formed more economically1 by mixing together the solutions of nitrate of lime and sulphate of soda1 filtering the mixture1 and evaporating the filtered liquor4 ,it will be sufficient to observe1 that it deliquesces1 or absorbs moisture1 and in the fire1 that its phenomena are the same as those of nitre4 ,it does not melt so readily4 ,used in the same proportion as nitre1 it will form a gunpowder1 which soon1 however1 spoils by exposure4 ,it will1 like nitre1 communicate a yellow colour to the flame of alcohol4 ,experiments were made with this salt1 with the view to the fabrication of gunpowder1 by ,,mm4 ,botte and ,riffault4 ,their conclusions1 as we have stated1 may be seen in their work on gunpowder4 ,professor ,proust says1 that five parts of nitrate of soda1 with one of charcoal1 and one of sulphur1 will burn three times as long as common powder1 so as to form an economical composition for fire-works4 ,the cubic nitre1 and the nitrum flammans were known1 and so called1 by the older chemists4 ,the former we have seen1 is the nitrate of soda1 and the latter1 is a combination of nitric acid and ammonia4 ,nitrate of soda1 consists of #f4ge acid #c4ie soda4 ,nitrate of ammonia possesses the property of exploding2 and1 when exposed to a temperature of about six hundred degrees1 is decomposed1 furnishing the nitrous oxide1 called also the protoxide of azote1 and exhilarating gas1 besides water4 ,nitrate of ammonia is composed of #f4ge acid #b4ac ammonia #a4abe water4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,chlorate of ,potassa4 ,this salt1 formerly called hyperoxymuriate of potassa1 is used for sundry preparations1 and especially for experimental fire-works4 ,it is prepared by dissolving one part of carbonate of potassa in six parts of water1 and saturating it with chlorine1 formerly called oxymuriatic acid gas4 ,this operation is usually performed in a ,woulfe's apparatus4 ,the gas1 as it proceeds from the retort or gas bottle1 is brought in contact with1 and passes through1 the fluid4 ,it is formed by pouring liquid muriatic acid on the black oxide of manganese1 or by pouring sulphuric acid on a mixture of muriate of soda1 and the black oxide4 ,when the saturation is nearly complete1 crystals fall down4 ,these being dissolved in boiling water1 and the solution allowed to stand1 pure chlorate of potassa will be formed4 ,this salt is composed of #i4e1 chloric acid1 and #f potassa2 and chloric acid is formed of #bh4hg1 chlorine1 and #cb4bh1 oxygen4 ,it is to the oxygen in the salt1 that its particular properties in fire-works are to be ascribed4 ,this salt is decomposed by all combustible bodies1 and detonations generally accompany the decomposition4 ,hence it is used in a variety of experiments1 some of which we will give4 ,three parts of the salt and one of sulphur detonate when rubbed in a mortar4 ,the same mixture1 struck with a hammer on an anvil1 produces a loud explosion4 ,phosphorus detonates with this salt either by trituration or percussion4 ,the quantity of each should not exceed a grain4 ,treated in the same manner with almost all the metals1 the same effect takes place4 ,cinnabar1 antimony1 pyrites1 c4 produce the same effect4 ,nitric acid1 poured on a mixture of this salt with phosphorus1 produces flashes of fire4 ,a mixture of the chlorate and white sugar1 when touched with sulphuric acid1 immediately inflames4 ,hence it is used in the preparation of pocket lights2 the mixture being put on a common sulphur match1 and immersed in sulphuric acid4 ,the same preparation of sugar and chlorate of potassa1 put over a tube used for firing artillery1 will set fire to the priming fuse1 by dropping on it sulphuric acid4 ,owing to this effect1 ,m4 ,gassicourt 7,archives des ,dcouvertes71 recommended a similar mixture for discharging cannon by means of this acid4 ,as it contains a large quantity of oxygen1 that gas may be obtained from it by distillation4 ,light decomposes it4 ,it should1 therefore1 be excluded from the light4 ,as this salt1 when mixed with inflammable substances1 detonates when struck with a hammer1 it has been used for the purpose of inflaming gunpowder without the use of the flint and steel4 ,there are several formul given for the purpose4 ,we remarked1 when treating of the general theory of fire-works1 that the ,rev4 ,alexander ,forsyth discovered a new kind of gunpowder1 which inflames merely by percussion2 that the gun-lock1 which he contrived1 was calculated for firing cannon1 as well as musquetry2 that it was so contrived as to hold forty primings of such powder2 and that the act of raising the cock primes the piece4 ,in his composition1 each charge of priming contains no more than one-eighth of a grain of chlorate of potassa4 ,since that period1 it appears1 that the lock1 as well as the powder1 has been improved1 although neither of them is in general use4 ,thenard1 7,trait de ,chimie1 tome ii1 p4 #eei1 troisime dition71 has given a formula for preparing a priming powder of this salt1 adapted to the new lock1 which is made by mixing it with #j4ee of nitrate of potassa1 #j4cc of sulphur1 #j4ag of the raspings of peach-wood passed through a fine sieve1 and #j4ag of lycopodium1 or puffball4 7,see ,inflammable ,powder47 ,this salt also produces powerful effects with charcoal and sulphur4 ,three parts of it1 with half a part of sulphur1 and half a part of charcoal powder1 produce most violent explosions4 ,two persons1 in #aghh1 lost their lives by it4 ,if this mixture be thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid1 a brilliant flame is produced4 ,such mixtures1 we are informed1 will explode spontaneously4 ,it should not1 for that reason1 be kept prepared4 ,chlorate of potassa has been used in the place of nitre1 for the manufacture of gunpowder1 in consequence of its decomposition by charcoal4 ,from its explosive effects1 ,m4 ,berthollet was induced to propose it as a substitute for nitre4 ,the proportions used by ,chaptal1 7,chimie ,appliqu aux ,arts1 tome iv1 p4 #aih71 are six parts of chlorate of potassa1 one of sulphur1 and one of charcoal4 ,they are to be mixed in a marble mortar with a wooden pestle4 ,the first experiment was made at ,essone1 in ,france1 in #aghh4 ,no sooner1 however1 had the workmen begun to triturate the mixture1 than it exploded with violence1 and killed two persons4 ,the force of this gunpowder is greater than that of the common sort2 but the danger of preparing it1 and even of using it1 is so great1 that these circumstances will always prevent its introduction4 ,a salt1 containing so much oxygen1 and so loosely combined1 that even the slightest friction1 in contact with inflammable bodies1 will separate it1 must1 of necessity1 prevent its use in that way4 ,the experiments1 which were made at the arsenal at ,paris1 on the #bgth of ,april1 #agic1 comparing the effects of muriated powder1 and the superfine common powder1 have given us the following results3 #ast4 ,by the eprouvette of ,darcy1 consisting of a cannon1 which1 being suspended to the extremity of a bar of iron1 described by its recoil an arc1 of which the degrees can be measured4 ,recoil4 #b drachms muriatic powder1 #ae deg4 #b_/bj #b ---- do do moistened1 #ad -- #a_/bj #b ---- common powder1 #aj -- #g_/bj #b drachms common powder1 #aj -- #a_/bj #c ---- muriatic powder1 #bj -- #i_/bj #c ---- common powder1 #af -- #f_/bj ,from these results1 it appears1 that1 by the eprouvette of ,darcy1 the muriated powder1 or that prepared with chlorate of potassa1 gave a superiority of force of about one-fourth4 #bnd4 ,by the eprouvette of ,regnier1 which is repelled by the explosion1 to a distance greater or less1 measured by the degrees of the arc which it describes3 ,muriated powder1 #db ,idem1 #ea ,idem1 moistened1 #eb ,common powder1 superfine1 #bc ,idem1 #bb ,from which it results1 that by the eprouvette of ,regnier1 the force of the powder of the oxymuriate is double that of the nitrate1 or common powder4 ,m4 ,ruggieri is of opinion1 that chlorate1 or hyperoxymuriate of potassa may be employed with advantage in the composition of rockets1 but we have not heard that it has been used4 ,it is more powerful in its effects1 and probably for this reason he recommended it4 ,this salt1 mixed with other substances1 will produce the green fire of the palm-tree1 in imitation of the ,russian fire4 ,chloric acid may be obtained in a separate state1 by boiling the compound solution formed by passing chlorine gas through a solution of barytic earth1 with phosphate of silver1 which separates the muriatic acid4 ,by evaporation1 the chlorate of barytes will crystallize in fine rhomboidal prisms4 ,when these crystals are dissolved in water1 and diluted sulphuric acid added by degrees1 an acid liquid will be obtained1 which1 if the sulphuric acid be added cautiously1 will be found entirely free from the latter acid and barytes1 and not affected by nitrate of silver4 ,this is the chloric acid dissolved in water4 ,chloric acid unites with sundry bases4 ,combined with ammonia1 it forms a fulminating salt1 formerly described by ,m4 ,chenevix4 ,this salt is formed1 by mixing together carbonate of ammonia1 and chlorate of lime4 ,the carbonate of lime is then separated by the filter1 and the clear liquid1 holding the chlorate of ammonia in solution1 is evaporated4 ,chlorate of ammonia is very soluble in water and alcohol1 and decomposed by a moderate heat4 ,chlorates1 as the chlorate of potassa1 are formed more readily in the manner already stated3 viz4 by saturating the base with chlorine1 but in this case two salts are produced1 the chlorate and hydrochlorate4 ,chloric acid has also been obtained in a separate state1 from chlorate of potassa1 by a process recommended by ,mr4 ,wheeler4 ,perchloric acid1 composed of seven primes of oxygen and one of chlorine1 is obtained from chlorate of potassa1 treated in a particular manner4 ,three parts of sulphuric acid and one of chlorate of potassa1 when heated1 will give a saline mass1 consisting of bisulphate of potassa1 and perchlorate of potassa4 ,deutoxide of chlorine will be evolved4 ,the perchlorate detonates feebly when triturated with sulphur4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,sulphur4 ,sulphur1 or brimstone1 is a principal ingredient in almost all the compositions of fire-works4 ,it should1 therefore1 be pure4 ,the flowers may be considered the purest kind of sulphur4 ,sulphur is found native1 either alone1 or accompanying certain minerals1 such as gypsum1 rock-salt1 marl1 and clay1 as in ,switzerland1 ,poland1 and ,sicily4 ,in the neighbourhood of salt-springs1 it is also found2 and frequently in water1 in combination with hydrogen1 forming the natural hepatic waters4 ,it is also found on the surface of the earth1 as in ,siberia4 ,volcanic sulphur1 or that which occurs in the fissures and cavities of lava1 near the craters of volcanoes1 is very common4 ,solfatere1 ,sicily1 the ,roman states1 ,guadaloupe1 and ,quito1 in the ,cordilleras1 are most celebrated for native sulphur4 ,it has been found in the ,united ,states1 but in no quantity4 ,we have a number of mineral springs1 which deposite sulphur4 ,the ,clifton ,springs of ,ontario are of this kind4 ,it occurs abundantly1 in combination with hydrogen1 as sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 in various parts of the ,united ,states4 ,native sulphur is abundant in the island of ,java4 ,it is obtained from the now almost extinct volcano1 about sixty miles from the town of ,batavia4 ,at the bottom of the crater1 there is said to lie many hundred tons of native sulphur4 ,silliman 7,journal1 vol4 i1 p4 #eh7 observes1 that it is in the crater of this volcano1 that the celebrated lake of sulphuric acid exists1 and from which it flows down the mountain1 and through the country below1 a river of the same acid4 ,sulphur1 however1 is usually obtained from pyrites or metallic sulphurets1 by fusion and sublimation4 ,it is usually denominated by the name of the place whence it comes4 ,hence we have the ,italian and ,sicilian sulphur2 the crude1 roche1 or stone brimstone of ,marseilles1 c4 ,the quantity of sulphur1 which may be obtained from the galena1 or sulphuret of lead1 by sublimation1 is considerable4 ,twenty-five per cent is the loss sustained in the reduction of the lead ore1 which occurs so abundantly in the neighbourhood of ,st4 ,louis4 ,when general1 the then lieut4 ,pike1 7,expeditions1 c4 ,appendix7 interrogated ,mr4 ,dubuque in #ahje1 respecting the quantity of lead obtained from those mines1 a detailed account of which is given by ,schoolcraft1 he replied that the mineral would yield seventy-five per cent4 of lead1 and hence the twenty-five per cent4 loss must be the sulphur1 together with any foreign matter it may contain4 ,the experiments of ,m4 ,vauquelin1 7,annales de ,chimie1 #ahaa7 to determine the quantity of sulphur contained in some metallic sulphurets1 show1 at once1 the proportion which may be obtained from those combinations4 ,thus he found1 that sulphuret of copper contains #ba4ca per cent of sulphur2 sulphuret of tin1 #ad4a2 sulphuret of lead1 #ac4gg2 sulphuret of silver1 #ab4gc2 sulphuret of iron1 #bb2 sulphuret of antimony1 #be2 sulphuret of bismuth1 #ca4ge2 sulphuret of manganese1 #gd4e2 and sulphuret of arsenic1 #dc4 ,of native or prismatic sulphur1 there are two species1 the common and volcanic4 ,the former is of two kinds1 the compact and earthy4 ,sulphur1 says ,hanway1 7,travels1 c47 is dug at ,baku on the western side of the ,caspian sea4 ,it is found in the neighbourhood of the celebrated naphtha springs1 some of which form a mouth of #h or #aj feet diameter4 ,von ,humboldt 7,annales de ,museum ,national7 communicated to the ,french national institute1 that he discovered1 in the province of ,quito1 a bed composed of sulphur and quartz1 in a mountain of mica slate1 and also sulphur in primitive porphyry4 ,kirwan 7,geological ,essays1 p4 #adc7 observes1 that sulphur promotes decomposition1 by absorbing oxygen1 while it is thus converted into vitriolic acid2 but moisture is also requisite4 ,he attributes1 in the same manner1 the decomposition of stones that contain pyrites4 ,as the sulphur1 which occurs in commerce1 is chiefly obtained from its native combinations1 it may be proper to make some brief remarks on this head4 ,sulphur in the state of combination is abundantly met with1 and in all countries4 ,it is found in the state of sulphuric acid1 in various salts1 as gypsum1 epsom salt1 native alum1 c42 and united with metals1 forming natural sulphurets1 as in sulphuret of iron1 or iron pyrites1 sulphuret of copper1 or copper pyrites1 sulphuret of lead1 or potter's lead ore1 called also galena1 sulphuret of antimony1 or crude antimony1 sulphuret of zinc1 or blende1 sulphuret of mercury1 or cinnabar1 sulphuret of arsenic1 or orpiment1 c4 ,in fact1 it appears to be a general mineralizer4 ,it is found also in some plants1 and in animal substances4 ,without detailing minutely the processes employed for extracting sulphur from its combinations1 which may be seen in ,thenard1 7,trait de ,chimie1 tome i1 p4 #ahd7 it will be sufficient to observe1 that1 in general1 pyrites1 both of iron and copper1 are arranged in alternate layers in the form of a pyramid1 and the roasting is continued for several months4 ,part of the sulphur is consumed1 and part is sublimed1 and is condensed and collected in hollows1 in the upper part of the pyramid1 whence it is removed several times a day4 ,it is also obtained from pyrites1 by a kind of distillation4 ,they are reduced to coarse powder1 and put into hollow iron cylinders1 or retorts1 where the sulphur is disengaged and melted1 and thence runs into vessels of water4 ,this process is employed in ,saxony1 where nine hundred pounds of pyrites will yield one hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds of sulphur1 which is afterwards purified4 ,when melted and cast into wooden moulds1 it forms the roll brimstone2 and1 by sublimation1 conducted in large chambers1 as we shall afterwards mention1 it is converted into the flowers of sulphur4 ,the residue of the sublimation is sulphur vivum1 which is also used in fire-works4 ,the roll brimstone is frequently adulterated4 ,in the island of ,anglesea1 it is obtained by the sublimation of the yellow copper ore4 ,the operation is conducted in kilns1 and the sulphur is conveyed by means of long horizontal flues1 and collected in large chambers4 ,as the ,united ,states furnish an abundance of martial pyrites1 and also galena1 sulphur might be manufactured in this country1 and advantageously1 especially from galena1 which is very abundant in the neighbourhood of ,st4 ,louis4 ,in the roasting of the ore1 all the sulphur is now lost1 tons of which might be collected4 ,for the purpose of gunpowder1 the purer the sulphur1 the better will be the powder2 hence attention is always paid to this circumstance4 ,m4 ,michel1 one of the principal refiners of sulphur at ,marseilles1 has improved the process for purifying sulphur for the purpose of gunpowder4 ,m4 ,libaw1 connected likewise with the ,french national powder establishment1 has furnished a very useful and important memoir on the same subject4 ,two methods are proposed for the refining of sulphur1 which we will briefly state1 namely1 fusion1 and sublimation4 ,the first is conducted in iron pots fixed in a furnace2 and the sulphur1 before it is thrown in1 is beaten into small pieces with a mallet4 ,this facilitates the fusion1 and renders it more uniform4 ,small portions at a time are thrown into the boiler1 and stirred frequently with a wooden spatula4 ,this manipulation ought to be continued till the boiler is filled4 ,the heat must be regulated so as not to inflame1 or sublime the sulphur4 ,the sulphur of commerce is commonly of three different colours1 viz3 citron-yellow1 deep yellow1 and brownish-yellow4 ,these colours depend on the different degrees of heat to which the sulphur was exposed1 in its extraction4 ,the operation of refining consists in conducting the fire in such a manner1 as that the colour of the sulphur will assume a brilliant yellow1 bordering on a green4 ,we must1 therefore1 to produce this effect1 operate on the sulphur according to its colour4 ,for the green sulphur1 as little heat has been used for its extraction1 the fire may be left under the boiler until there is no more left to melt than the top4 ,the sulphur of the yellow colour may be kept longer on the fire1 which may be removed when the mass is melted three-fourths4 ,the sulphur of a brown colour1 being already much burnt1 may be removed when the mass is melted one-half4 ,if it is required to operate on all the varieties at the same time1 in order to produce sulphur of a uniform colour1 in that case we must fill the boiler one-half with the green sulphur1 one-fourth with the yellow1 and the remainder with the brown1 and removing the fire when the yellow is almost wholly melted4 ,the boiler is then covered with a lid4 ,the fusion is completed by the heat of the mass4 ,the light bodies then raise themselves to the surface1 forming a black scum1 which is removed1 and the heavy bodies fall to the bottom4 ,the boiler remains for four or five hours1 uncovering it from time to time to take off the scum4 ,the fluid part is removed1 and is suffered to congeal1 taking care not to disturb the deposite4 ,the second process of refining is by sublimation4 ,this operation consists in subliming it in a close apparatus1 which in sulphur refineries are boilers placed in brick work1 and furnished with heads4 ,these heads communicate by a pipe with a vaulted chamber1 placed at some distance from the furnace4 ,the chamber serves to collect the sulphur4 ,there is usually a stone slab fixed between the chamber and the head4 ,the chamber is furnished with one or two iron-plate valves4 ,there is an opening in the head of each boiler1 in order to renew the sulphur3 it is closed very tight by a plate of iron4 ,there is an opening also in the chamber1 to admit a person1 which is closed likewise by an iron plate4 ,the heads are luted before the process is commenced4 ,by this process the sulphur is refined2 for the pure part is sublimed1 and the foreign substances remain in the pots4 ,the product thus obtained is the ordinary flowers of sulphur4 ,if the heat be moderate1 the sublimation is more perfect4 ,it is necessary at the same time that the temperature of the chamber should be low1 otherwise the sulphur will melt1 which frequently takes place4 ,coarse particles are separated from the flour1 should they occur1 by a sieve4 ,during the first part of the process1 there is formed some sulphurous acid gas1 which is not produced after the vapour of sulphur forms the atmosphere in the head4 ,this is known to exist1 by the acid taste of the sulphur1 and its black colour4 ,detonation very frequently takes place1 and sulphurous acid gas is produced4 ,in the sublimation of brimstone1 about ten to eleven per cent4 is the usual total loss1 of which six or seven per cent4 is residue4 ,the acid may be separated from the sulphur by washing it in water1 and afterwards drying it4 ,it is then called the washed flowers of sulphur4 7,see ,trait de l',art de ,fabriquer la ,poudre ,canon1 p4 #aec47 by ,,mm4 ,botte and ,riffault1 for a minute description of this process4 ,sulphur undergoes no change by exposure to the air4 ,it is insoluble in water4 ,it breaks in the hand with a crackling noise4 ,at #agj degrees it begins to evaporate1 and when collected it is called sublimed1 or flowers of sulphur4 ,it melts at #bah degrees4 ,when melted and poured into water1 it forms the sulphurs for taking the impression of coin1 c4 ,if melted1 and cooled slowly1 it will crystallize in the form of needles4 ,it is soluble in different degrees in alcohol1 ether1 and oils4 ,when sulphur is burnt very slowly in the open air1 it unites with oxygen and forms sulphurous acid4 ,this acid is used in bleaching4 ,when mixed with nitre1 and burnt in leaden chambers1 it forms sulphuric acid1 or oil of vitriol1 by which process it combines with a larger quantity of oxygen4 ,there is another compound called hyposulphurous acid1 all the salts of which are inflammable and burn with a blue flame4 ,sulphur unites with the alkalies1 earths1 and metals4 ,if the alkaline sulphurets be dissolved in water1 and an acid added1 the sulphur will precipitate of a white colour1 known by the name of milk of sulphur4 ,it is considered by some a hydrate of sulphur4 ,the same preparation is made by subliming sulphur in a vessel containing the vapour of water4 ,sulphur unites with chlorine and iodine1 forming chlorides1 and iodides4 ,with hydrogen1 it forms the sulphuretted hydrogen1 or hepatic gas1 called also the hydrothionic and hydrosulphuric acid2 with carbon1 the sulphuret of carbon2 and with nitre and charcoal1 in the state of mixture1 it constitutes gunpowder4 ,the motionless ignes fatui of ,italy1 which are seen nightly on the same spot1 are attributed to the slow combustion of sulphur1 emitted through clefts and apertures in the soil of that volcanic country2 but the ,will-with-the-,wisp1 which moves in undulations1 near the surface of the ground1 in swampy situations1 and where the putrefactive process is going on1 originates in all probability from decaying vegetable and other matters1 and the extrication of phosphorus4 ,it is known that the acid of phosphorus is found in plants1 and especially those that grow in marshy places1 in turf1 and several species of the white woods4 ,mealing of ,brimstone4 ,what is termed the mealing of sulphur by fire-workers1 is no other than reducing it1 if it be the roll1 to powder4 ,large mortars and pestles made of ebony1 and other hard wood1 and horizontal mills with brass wheels are used4 ,the mealing table is used by artificers4 ,it is generally made of elm1 with a rim around its edge four or five inches high4 ,one end is narrow1 and furnished with a slider that runs in a groove1 and forms part of the rim4 ,after using as much of the powdered brimstone as is required1 copper shovels being employed1 the rest may be swept out at the slider4 ,this table is also used for the mealing of gunpowder and saltpetre4 ,the muller is generally made of ebony4 ,after reducing it to powder1 it is then passed through a lawn sieve1 furnished with a cover4 ,as brimstone is frequently adulterated with different substances1 it may be of importance to discover the fraud4 ,we may remark1 that1 if it is pure1 it will be taken up entirely by chlorine gas1 or by using a solution of caustic potassa4 ,the latter1 however1 cannot be depended on in all cases4 ,but the best mode1 is that of melting some of it in a ladle2 if any residue remains1 after the fumes have ceased1 the presence of foreign substances may be inferred1 for pure sulphur will sublime without leaving any residue4 ,it is not unfrequently adulterated with common flour4 ,there is another mode of determining the quality of sulphur1 ,it should1 if pure1 be completely soluble in boiling oil of turpentine4 ,if any residue remain1 we may infer the presence of foreign substances1 either vegetable1 earthy1 or metallic4 ,it is obvious1 that if the brimstone is impure1 the effect of it in fire-works will be imperfect4 ,flowers of sulphur1 however1 may be almost always depended on4 ,in all artificial fire1 in which sulphur forms a part1 the flame is more clear1 as the sulphur is pure4 ,several modes are recommended for the separation of sulphur from charcoal1 in gunpowder1 which may be seen by referring to the analysis1 or chemical examination of gunpowder4 ,sulphur constitutes one of the ingredients1 generally speaking1 of incendiary compositions1 used for military purposes1 and1 in such cases1 is usually mixed with pitch1 tar1 saltpetre1 and sometimes gunpowder4 ,it is said to be one of the substances1 which entered into the composition of the ancient and celebrated ,greek fire2 but the principal character of which1 that of burning in water1 was owing to the presence of camphor4 ,this substance1 associated with sulphur1 pitch1 and nitre1 forms one of the most effective incendiaries of all military fire-works4 ,for such purposes1 it is hardly necessary to add1 that the common roll brimstone is sufficiently pure4 ,as to the mode of preparing these works1 the custom is to melt the resinous substances first1 then to add the sulphur1 and finally the saltpetre2 and after the whole are melted and thoroughly mixed1 to remove the pot from the fire1 and add gradually the gunpowder4 ,if a carcass is to be made1 tow or hemp1 or untwisted rope1 is immersed in the composition while hot1 and taken out and formed into a ball of the size required4 ,rope1 treated in the same manner1 with the same composition1 will make a more active tourteaux than the common kind4 7,see ,carcass and ,tourteaux47 ,all oils1 whether expressed or essential1 can dissolve sulphur4 ,to make this solution1 the oil must be poured on the sulphur1 and sufficient heat applied to melt the substance4 ,while the oil dissolves the sulphur1 it acquires a reddish or brown colour1 an acrid1 disagreeable taste1 and a strong fetid smell1 somewhat hepatic1 resembling that of oil with sulphuric acid4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of ,phosphorus4 ,we mention this substance1 because it is used in some experiments1 although not in extensive fire-works4 ,it is a very inflammable substance1 inflaming either by friction1 or an increase of temperature4 ,it produces a most brilliant fire1 and when mixed with some substances1 exhibits very pleasing phenomena4 ,it usually comes to us in sticks1 which must be constantly kept in water to prevent its inflammation4 ,phosphoric matches1 phosphoric fire-bottles1 c4 are made of it4 ,these are made in various ways4 ,phosphorus and sulphur melted together in a small phial1 forms the fire-bottle1 or some add a portion of lime4 ,a sulphur-match dipped in this mixture and gently rubbed1 immediately inflames4 ,they do not last any time1 in consequence of the acidification of the phosphorus4 ,phosphoric tapers are usually made with a glass tube1 on the breaking of which1 it inflames4 ,when rubbed upon a wall in a dark room1 it appears very luminous4 ,dissolved in ether1 and poured upon boiling water in the dark1 the vapour as it ascends appears remarkably luminous1 and has a pleasing effect4 ,dissolved in oil1 as olive-oil1 it forms the phosphorized oil1 which may be rubbed on the face and hands without injury4 ,this oil has the same appearance in the dark4 ,the time of night may be known by the light it produces4 ,when mixed with nitrate of silver1 sulphuret of antimony1 sulphur1 chlorate of potassa1 c4 and struck with a hammer1 it produces an explosion more or less loud4 ,a variety of explosive compounds may be made with it1 but they must be used with great care4 ,when combined with hydrogen1 it inflames spontaneously when brought in contact with atmospheric air4 ,it inflames also in chlorine gas4 ,it is supposed to be the cause of the ignes fatui1 or ,will-with-the-,wisp4 ,the formation of phosphoretted hydrogen gas may be shown in a variety of ways1 as the following3 throw some pieces of phosphuret of lime into water1 and bubbles of gas will rise1 which will take fire on coming to the air2 or1 put into a flask some phosphorus1 iron or zinc filings1 water1 and sulphuric acid1 and the gas will be generated2 or1 introduce into a small retort1 a solution of potassa1 and a piece or two of phosphorus1 and apply heat1 immersing the beak of the retort in a basin of water1 the gas will pass over1 and inflame as it comes to the surface of the water4 ,in all these experiments1 the water is decomposed2 its oxygen goes to a part of the phosphorus in the first experiment1 and the hydrogen of the water then unites with another portion of phosphorus1 which is then evolved2 in the second experiment1 the oxygen oxidizes the metal1 and the hydrogen dissolves a part of the phosphorus2 and in the third experiment1 the phosphorus unites with the potassa1 forming a phosphuret1 which decomposes the water1 the hydrogen of which passes off in combination with some of the phosphorus1 forming the phosphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,the cause of the spontaneous combustion is1 that the oxygen of the atmosphere unites with the hydrogen and the phosphorus1 and forms water and phosphoric acid2 the latter producing a beautiful corona as it rises in the air4 ,the heat and light given out proceeds as well from the oxygen gas1 as from the phosphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,when saturated with oxygen1 it is no longer inflammable4 ,there are some other experiments which can be made with this singular substance4 ,it was formerly obtained from urine1 as that fluid contains some phosphoric salts4 ,it is now prepared from bones4 ,these are burnt to an ash1 and diluted sulphuric acid is poured on it2 the phosphoric acid it contains is then disengaged1 and remains in the fluid4 ,the sulphate of lime is then separated1 the fluid boiled to dryness1 and the dry mass is mixed with charcoal1 and distilled in the open fire4 ,the phosphoric pencil1 for writing on a wall1 paper1 c4 to be luminous in the dark1 is nothing more than a bit of phosphorus put into a quill4 ,it must be kept in water1 and when used1 frequently dipped in water1 to prevent its taking fire4 ,the phosphoric stone of ,m4 ,bucholz1 described in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 ii1 p4 #aji1 is a phosphuret of magnesia1 prepared by melting thirty grains of phosphorus in a small flask1 and adding twenty or thirty grains of calcined magnesia4 ,although this process is given by ,bucholz1 yet1 as it is difficult to prevent the inflammation of the phosphorus1 the best mode would be to bring the vapour of phosphorus in contact with magnesia1 in the same manner as in preparing phosphuret of lime4 ,the pyrophorus of ,wurzer is nothing than a phosphuret of lime4 ,it is prepared by taking two parts of pulverized quicklime1 and one part of phosphorus2 introducing them into a bottle1 and covering it with three parts of quicklime1 leaving one-third of the bottle empty2 then putting the bottle into a crucible surrounded with sand1 previously stopping the mouth with clay1 and applying heat4 ,remove the phial when the phosphorus appears to sublime of a red colour4 ,when the bottle is opened it becomes luminous1 and brought out it inflames4 ,phosphorus in the state of acidification1 and united with lime1 is found in abundance4 ,whole mountains in the province of ,estremadura in ,spain1 are said to be composed of this combination4 ,according to ,mr4 ,bowles1 this stone is whitish and tasteless1 and affords a blue flame without smell when thrown upon burning coals4 ,mr4 ,proust observes1 that it is a dense stone1 not hard enough to strike fire with steel1 and is found in strata1 which always lie horizontally upon quartz1 and which are intersected with veins of quartz4 ,he adds1 that it does not decrepitate on burning coals1 but burns with a beautiful green light4 ,this stone is the common phosphorite4 ,it contains1 according to ,klaproth1 #cb4be per cent4 of phosphoric acid4 ,several substances are known under the name of phosphorus1 although they do not contain it1 such as ,baldwin's phosphorus1 or ignited muriate of lime1 ,canton's phosphorus1 or oyster-shells calcined with lime1 and ,bologna phosphorus1 or calcined sulphate of barytes4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of ,charcoal4 ,charcoal performs an important part in all the various kinds of fire-works4 ,the facility with which it decomposes nitric acid1 when it is combined with salifiable bases1 as with potassa in saltpetre1 and its action in all cases wherein nitre is concerned1 are sufficient examples of its effect4 ,pure carbon is the diamond4 ,it affords by combustion in oxygen gas1 the same gas as common charcoal1 when charcoal is burnt in oxygen1 or in atmospheric air4 ,this gas is carbonic acid1 or fixed air4 ,charcoal has been considered a long time an oxide of carbon1 and according to some1 as ,berthollet1 a compound of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,charcoal is insoluble in water4 ,it is not affected by the most violent heat1 if confined in close vessels4 ,it is an excellent conductor of electricity1 but a bad conductor of heat4 ,it is very indestructible2 and1 therefore1 when wood is charred1 it will remain a long time under ground without rotting4 ,as an antiseptic1 it is powerful4 ,it will therefore prevent the putrefaction of bodies1 and even recover tainted meat4 ,as a preservative of water1 for sea-voyages1 it has been long known4 ,the charring of water casks is designed for the same purpose4 ,the quality of wine is said to be improved by having the casks previously charred4 ,it possesses the property of absorbing gases1 and to this property is ascribed its use as an antiseptic1 and its disinfecting quality4 ,to the distiller it is useful1 as it destroys effectually the burnt or empyreumatic smell of liquor4 ,when heated to eight hundred degrees in the open air1 it burns4 ,in oxygen gas the combustion is brilliant1 forming in both instances carbonic acid gas1 called also aerial acid1 fixed air1 mephitic air1 and calcareous acid4 ,this acid is formed in a variety of processes1 and is carbon saturated with oxygen4 ,carbon exists in various states of combination1 and many of the compounds into which it enters are inflammable2 hence carbonic acid is generated in the combustion of coal1 oils1 fat1 c4 ,in the form of an acid1 it is abundant in various stones1 such as the calcareous carbonates1 as chalk1 marble1 limestone1 and calcareous spar1 barolite1 c4 all which effervesce with acids1 the carbonic acid being liberated4 ,when limestone is burnt1 to obtain quicklime1 the carbonic acid is disengaged1 for the presence of this acid distinguishes limestone from pure lime4 ,carbonic acid is generated in various processes of nature as well as art4 ,hence it is produced in the respiration of animals1 and is found in a gaseous state in wells1 cellars1 caverns1 c4 ,it neither supports animal life1 nor combustion4 ,in mines it is called choke damp2 and the ,grotto del ,cani1 in the kingdom of ,naples1 has been long celebrated1 on account of it4 ,this cave is in the side of a mountain1 near the lake ,agnano1 measuring not more than eighteen feet from its entrance to the inner extremity2 where if a dog or other animal that holds down its head be thrust1 it is killed by the gas4 ,some experiments were made in this cave with gunpowder1 which see4 ,carbonic acid1 during the formation of alcohol1 in the vinous fermentation1 is generated1 and its production appears to be designed by nature to carry off the excess of carbon1 which gives rise to that phenomenon called fermentation4 ,when combined with water1 it forms aerated water1 and with alkalies and water1 the aerated alkaline waters4 ,its union with bases forms salts called carbonates4 ,plants have the property of decomposing it1 and in this respect nature has employed a mean of regenerating the atmosphere1 on the purity of which depends1 in an eminent degree1 the very existence of animal life4 ,the prime equivalent of carbonic acid is #b4ge1 and carbonic acid is composed of carbon #j4ge #b4j oxygen4 ,carbonic acid may be decomposed when combined with a base1 as lime1 by phosphorus and heat1 for charcoal and a phosphate of lime will be produced4 ,but carbonic acid in the state of gas may be decomposed by potassium4 ,five grains of potassium will decompose three cubic inches of gas1 and be converted into potassa1 producing at the same time three-eighths of a grain of charcoal4 ,if passed over a coil of fine iron wire heated to redness1 in a porcelain tube1 and the operation repeated1 the iron will be oxidized1 and the carbonic acid changed into carbonic oxide gas4 ,charcoal will not burn in dry chlorine4 ,it unites with a less proportion of oxygen1 and forms carbonic oxide gas1 which burns with a deep blue flame4 ,this combination is formed by distilling in a red heat1 a mixture of equal parts of iron filings and chalk4 ,this gas mixed with chlorine gas1 and exposed to the sun's rays1 will unite with it1 and form chlorocarbonic acid gas4 ,carbon unites with azote1 and forms cyanogen1 the base of ,prussic acid4 ,it unites likewise with hydrogen in two proportions1 forming the hydroguret and the bihydroguret of carbon1 both of which are carburetted hydrogen gases4 ,the former is obtained by distilling a mixture of four parts of sulphuric acid1 and one of alcohol4 ,the gas is very inflammable1 and burns with great splendour2 and on that account may be used for exhibition1 in an apparatus similar to that of ,cartwright4 7,see ,fire-works with ,inflammable air47 ,it was called by the ,german chemists olefiant gas4 ,the other species1 called also the light carburetted hydrogen gas1 may be obtained by agitating the mud at the bottom of stagnant pools2 and by the distillation of moist charcoal1 wood1 pitcoal1 pitch1 or almost any animal or vegetable substance4 ,the gas1 used for gas-lights1 is the same4 ,it is usually obtained from pit coal4 ,we may merely observe1 that the gas used for that purpose1 i4 e4 for illuminating streets1 theatres1 manufactures1 c4 as obtained in the common method1 is not altogether the bihydroguret of carbon2 but1 according to the experiments of ,dr4 ,henry1 a mixture of that gas with the hydroguret1 and occasionally carbonic oxide4 ,carbon enters into other combinations4 ,it exists as a component part of gums1 resins1 sugar-starch1 and other vegetable products1 as the vegetable acids1 its union with iron forms steel1 a substance greatly used in the preparation of some fire-works1 especially in some of the rains and stars1 and in the composition of brilliant fire4 7,see ,iron47 ,as charcoal enters into the composition of gunpowder1 and the effective force of powder depends considerably on the quality1 as well as the proportion of charcoal1 it is obvious for this purpose1 it should be as pure as possible4 ,carbon is always obtained from some of its combinations1 as from pitch1 tar1 rosin1 wood1 and oil4 ,various processes are employed for this purpose4 ,thus1 by the combustion of rosin and oil1 as well as pitch1 tar1 turpentine1 c4 a soot is formed that collects1 called lampblack1 which is nothing more than the carbon or charcoal4 ,when pit-coal is charred in an oven1 called a coke oven1 all the bitumen and sulphur contained in it are disengaged1 and a charcoal remains1 called1 however1 coke4 ,wood1 when charred is decomposed2 all the volatile parts are disengaged with carburetted hydrogen gas1 and the woody fibre is converted into coal4 ,this coal is more or less dense according to the compactness of the wood4 ,hard woods furnish the most solid coal1 and light woods on the contrary4 ,when the solid parts of animals1 as bone1 are charred1 the volatile products1 principally ammonia or volatile alkali1 are dissipated1 and there remains a substance called bone-black1 improperly called1 ivory black4 ,the carbonization of wood in the common way is well known3 after it is cut to the lengths required1 it is piled on the ground in a pyramidal form1 and covered with sod and clay1 leaving a place for the current of air1 and the smoke4 ,the wood is then set on fire1 and when the whole is burnt to a coal the vents1 c4 are closed with sod and clay4 ,nicholson 7,chemical ,dictionary7 observes1 that in the forest of ,benon1 near ,rochelle1 great attention is paid to the manufacture1 so that the charcoal made there fetches twenty-five or thirty per cent4 more than any other4 ,the wood is that of the black oak4 ,it is taken from ten to fifteen years old1 the trunk as well as the branches1 cut into billets about four feet long1 and not split4 ,the largest pieces1 however1 seldom exceed six or seven inches in diameter4 ,the end that rests on the ground is cut a little sloping1 so as to touch it merely with an edge1 and they are piled nearly upright1 but never in more than one story4 ,the wood is covered all over about four inches thick with dry grass or fern1 before it is enclosed in the usual manner with clay2 and when the wood is charred1 half a barrel of water is thrown over the pile1 and earth to the thickness of five or six inches is thrown on1 after which it is left four-and-twenty hours to cool4 ,the wood is always used in the year in which it is cut4 ,turf or peat has been charred lately in ,france1 it is said1 by a peculiar process1 and1 according to the account given in ,sonnini's ,journal1 is superior to wood for this purpose4 ,charcoal of turf kindles slower than that of wood1 but emits more flame1 and burns longer4 ,it boiled a given quantity of water four times1 while an equal weight of wood charcoal boiled the same quantity but once4 ,in a goldsmith's furnace1 it fused eleven ounces of gold in eight minutes1 while wood charcoal required sixteen4 ,the malleability of the gold1 too1 was preserved in the former instance1 but not in the latter4 ,iron heated red-hot by it1 in a forge1 was rendered more malleable4 ,in charring wood it has been conjectured1 that a portion of it is sometimes converted into a pyrophorus1 and that the explosions that happen in powder-mills are sometimes owing to this4 ,bartholdi supposes1 that such explosions are owing to the formation of phosphoretted hydrogen gas1 while others attribute them to the absorption of oxygen1 by the hydrogen contained in the coal1 and the consequent evolution of free caloric4 ,percussion1 which necessarily takes place in mixing the materials of gunpowder by stampers1 no doubt accelerates the combustion4 ,the addition of water1 and having the charcoal previously pulverized1 will prevent such accidents4 7,see ,gunpowder47 ,coal prepared in the manner above stated1 is liable to many foreign admixtures1 nor can the process be so well regulated as to produce coal of a uniform quality throughout4 ,the present improved process has many advantages1 as experience has proved4 ,it consists in charring the wood in confined vessels1 made of iron4 ,these are usually cylindrical1 furnished with an iron cover1 and placed in furnaces4 ,the pyroacetic1 formerly called the pyroligneous1 acid1 which is formed in the destructive distillation of wood1 is caught for use4 ,this acid is useful to the calico printer1 dyer1 c4 in making their iron liquor1 and when purified1 is employed in ,europe in the place of vinegar1 as it is more pungent1 and highly concentrated4 ,when pine and various kinds of wood1 which yield turpentine1 are carbonized1 we obtain tar during the process4 ,chaptal informs us1 that tar is obtained from the wood of the trunk1 branches1 and roots of the pine1 which are heaped together1 covered with turf1 and set on fire to produce a close combustion1 in the same manner as for making charcoal4 ,the oily parts which are disengaged1 trickle down1 and are received in a gutter1 which serves to convey them to a tub4 ,the most fluid part is sold under the name of huile de cade2 and the thicker part is the tar used for paying or painting the parts of shipping and other vessels4 ,according to the wood submitted to the process of charring1 the products are1 more or less1 various2 but in all cases it is only the solid part1 or ligneous fibre1 that furnishes the coal4 ,by the ordinary process we obtain sundry volatile products1 among which are pyroacetic acid and carburetted hydrogen gas4 ,when wood is carbonized in the usual manner1 it yields from #af to #ag parts of charcoal in the hundred2 but when the operation is conducted in close vessels1 the product is #bh per cent4 a saving of eleven or twelve per cent4 ,by this difference in the quantity1 it appears that eleven or twelve per cent4 is burnt in the common process4 ,m4 ,mollerat was the first who tried the experiment with iron cylinders4 ,m4 ,vauquelin 7,annales de ,chimie1 tome lxvi1 p4 #agd7 has given some observations on the carbonization of wood in close vessels1 predicated on a ,memoir of ,m4 ,mollerat2 both of which are interesting4 ,the apparatus used by ,m4 ,mollerat is described by ,thenard1 7,trait de ,chimie1 iii1 p4 #cgc17 to be composed of two parts1 viz3 a furnace with a moveable dome1 and a cylindrical kettle1 or vessel of iron sufficiently large to contain a cord of wood4 ,it is furnished with a cover and pipe4 ,the pyroacetic acid is collected4 ,smaller cylinders are preferred1 because the wood is ignited more readily and the charcoal is more of a uniform quality4 ,from #ajj parts of the following named woods1 ,messrs4 ,allen and ,pepys 7,phil4 ,trans4 #ahjg7 obtained the following proportional parts of charcoal3 ,beech #ae4jj ,mahogany #ae4ge ,lignum ,vit #ag4be ,oak #ag4dj ,fir #ah4ag ,box #bj4be ,see also the experiments of ,mr4 ,mushet1 in the third volume of ,tilloch's ,magazine4 ,it appears by the ,annales de ,chimie1 vol4 #ff1 and the ,retrospect of ,discoveries1 vol4 vi1 p4 #ajj1 that three brothers have established at ,pellerey1 near ,nuits1 ,cote d',or1 a manufactory on a large scale1 for making charcoal in close vessels4 ,the quantity of charcoal they obtained is double that by the usual mode1 while it requires only one-eighth part of wood to be consumed in the distillation2 it is also better than the common1 as a given quantity evaporates one-tenth more water than the other2 hence iron masters may obtain twice as much iron from the use of a given quantity of wood2 and in addition to this1 there is also prepared a number of other articles1 of each of which in order4 #cej kilogrammes 7#gjj lbs47 of wood1 yield #be or #cj of tar1 which retains so much acid that it is soluble in water2 but when it is washed1 and rendered thick by boiling1 for some time1 it offers more resistance to water4 ,if mixed with one-fifth of rosin it is rendered equally fit for the use of ships1 c4 as the common tar4 ,four sorts of vinegar are prepared1 all of which are perfectly limpid1 which do not1 like the common1 contain any tartar1 malic acid1 resinous or extractive matter1 nor indeed any mineral acid1 lime1 copper1 or other substances4 ,the simple vinegar marks--#b hydrometer for salts1 at #ab centigrade thermo4 it is stronger tasted than common vinegar1 and produces a disagreeable irritation4 ,the aromatic vinegar is prepared with tarragon1 the smell is agreeable1 but it has the same fault as the former4 ,the vinous vinegar is formed by adding some alcohol to simple vinegar2 it has a very sensible odour of acetic ether2 the alcohol softens the flavour in some degree1 but the vinegar is still very sharp4 ,the acid1 called strong vinegar1 is in fact a very good acetic acid at #aj-a_/b hydr41 it is very white1 clear1 and sharp1 without the usual burnt flavour1 and seems to form the basis of the preceding kinds4 ,it can be sold for #h or #i francs 7#gs47 per lb4 which is only half the price of that distilled from verdigris4 ,although not so agreeable to the taste as common vinegar1 these new kinds are more elegant to the eye1 and do not mother4 ,the editor of the ,retrospect makes the following observations3 ,the proprietors of this manufactory seem to be perfectly aware of all the several productions which could be prepared from the refuse of their principal object2 and we have no doubt but that the substances they procure in this manner will amply compensate them for the use of the capital that must be invested in building the furnaces4 ,the nature of the vessels in which they distil the wood is not mentioned1 but they are probably cast iron retorts1 or vessels of a similar nature1 in which a distillation per latus takes place4 ,the application1 therefore1 of lord ,dundonald's furnaces for procuring coke to this purpose would be still more advantageous4 ,a cubic yard of wood yields #ajj quarts of acid liquor1 besides #ej or #fj lbs4 of thick oil4 ,the method of making charcoal of a uniform quality1 for which a ,mr4 ,kurtz has taken out a patent1 is the following3 ,a sheet-iron chest1 which has a cover that fits it tight1 and a pipe1 or tube1 that descends nearly to the bottom1 and coming out from its side above1 is fixed in brick work4 ,in this the billets of wood are put4 ,fire is then made underneath4 ,it is obvious1 that the wood is kept at one temperature from its being immersed in vapour1 as the vapour cannot escape at the top1 but must descend to the bottom1 and then proceed up the pipe1 by which it is conveyed away4 ,the effect is1 that the charring process goes on regularly1 and the wood is charred equally4 ,the carbonization is finished when the vapour ceases to appear1 and nothing but carburetted hydrogen gas escapes4 ,the charring of bones is performed in iron cylinders1 furnished with tubes to receive1 and convey away1 the impure ammonia4 ,in the manufacture of powder1 particular kinds of wood are selected for carbonization4 ,these are generally1 willow1 hazle1 maple1 poplar1 linden1 buckthorn1 or alder1 or those which are tender and light1 because1 as they are less dense1 and consequently more friable1 they enflame and consume more rapidly3 they are known in the arts by the name of white wood4 ,when a less sudden effect is to be produced with the gunpowder1 and the combustion prolonged1 as in some sky-rockets1 the charcoal of hard wood is to be preferred1 such as the oak1 beech1 c4 ,when the wood is gathered1 the bark is removed1 and the wood exposed to the sun to dry3 it is then cut into billets1 and charred4 ,the ashes1 if any be formed1 are to be carefully separated4 ,in considering the use of charcoal1 therefore1 for the preparation of gunpowder1 we are to direct our inquiries to the choice of wood for carbonization1 and the best process for carbonizing it4 ,all light woods1 we remarked1 as the linden1 willow1 poplar1 c4 furnish the lightest coal1 and on that account are preferred4 ,it is remarked1 that tender wood1 besides making a light1 friable1 and porous coal1 is more combustible than ordinary hard1 and more compact wood1 and the coal that it furnishes leaves less residue after combustion4 ,many experiments have been made with coal prepared from different kinds of wood1 with a view of ascertaining the kind best adapted for the manufacture of gunpowder4 ,m4 ,letort1 at the powder mills of ,essonne1 in ,france1 instituted a number of experiments of this kind4 ,he made gunpowder with the coal of several kinds of wood1 and compared its effects by a mortar eprouvette4 ,the result was1 that the powder made with the coal of poplar1 was the strongest2 and the other powder1 made with the coal of the linden1 willow1 c4 was of the same quality throughout4 ,as to the second inquiry1 it is hardly necessary to repeat1 that for the complete and thorough carbonization of the wood1 to produce at the same time coal of a uniform quality1 the process of charring in iron cylinders or close vessels1 is to be preferred4 ,the point to be attended to is1 to bring the wood to a complete state of ignition1 and consequently to disengage all the volatile or fluid parts4 ,when the gas 7carburetted hydrogen7 ceases to appear1 it is a criterion that the operation is finished4 ,this gas1 it is to be recollected1 will come over even after the whole of the wood is completely ignited4 ,the first volatile product is the pyroacetic acid4 ,some saturate the acid liquor with chalk1 and decompose the acetate of lime with sulphate of soda1 and separate the acetic acid from the acetate of soda by distillation with sulphuric acid4 ,the acetic acid is then tolerably pure1 and may be diluted for use4 ,it is observed1 however1 that when charcoal1 prepared in iron cylinders1 is designed for gunpowder1 the last portion of vinegar and tar must be allowed to escape1 and the reabsorption of the crude vapours prevented1 by cutting off the communication between the interior of the cylinders and the apparatus for condensing the pyroacetic acid1 whenever the fire is withdrawn from the furnace4 ,if this precaution be not taken1 the gunpowder made with the charcoal would be of inferior quality4 ,on a large scale1 when the object is also to prepare the vinegar of wood1 a series of cast-iron cylinders1 about four feet diameter1 and six feet long1 are built horizontally1 in brick-work1 so that the flame of one furnace may play round about two cylinders4 ,both ends project a little from the brick-work4 ,one of them has a disc of cast iron well fitted and firmly bolted to it1 from the centre of which disc an iron tube about six inches diameter proceeds1 and enters at a right angle1 the main tube of the refrigeration4 ,the diameter of this tube may be from #i to #ad inches1 according to the number of cylinders4 ,the other end of the cylinder is called the mouth of the retort4 ,this is closed by a disc of iron1 smeared round the edge1 with clay lute1 and secured in its place by wedges4 ,the charge of wood for such a cylinder is about #h cwt4 ,the hard woods1 oak1 ash1 birch1 and beech1 are alone used4 ,fir does not answer4 ,the heat is kept up during the day-time1 and the furnace is allowed to cool during the night4 ,next morning the door is opened1 the coal removed1 and a new charge of wood is introduced4 ,the average product of crude vinegar is #ce gallons4 ,its total weight is about #cjj lbs4 ,but the residuary charcoal1 according to ,ure1 7,chemical ,dictionary71 from whom we have taken this account1 is found to weigh no more than one-fifth of the wood employed4 ,the crude pyroacetic acid is rectified by a second distillation1 in a copper still1 in the body of which about #bj gallons of viscid tarry matter are left for every #ajj4 ,its acid powers are now superior to the best household vinegar in the proportion of #c to #b4 ,ure observes1 that by distillation1 saturation with quicklime1 evaporation of the liquid acetate to dryness1 and gentle torrefaction1 the empyreumatic matter is so completely dissipated1 that on decomposing the calcareous salt by sulphuric acid1 a pure1 perfectly colourless1 and grateful vinegar rises in distillation4 ,pyroacetic acid is said to be a powerful antiseptic4 ,m4 ,monge1 ,dr4 ,jorg1 and more lately1 ,mr4 ,ramsay1 of ,glasgow1 have made experiments with it4 ,fish dipped in it have been preserved for many days1 and meat treated in the same manner1 has also been preserved from putrefaction4 ,with respect to the pulverization of charcoal1 the operation is so exceedingly simple1 that we deem it unnecessary to notice it4 ,it is obvious1 that mortars1 mills1 c4 may be used1 with fine or coarse sieves4 ,for fire-works1 charcoal is frequently pulverized in a leather sack1 in the same manner as grained powder is reduced to meal-powder4 ,it may be made either coarse or fine1 to answer different purposes1 by employing sieves of different kinds4 ,charcoal may be separated from nitre and sulphur1 in gunpowder1 by a simple process1 which may be seen by referring to the section on gunpowder4 ,the quantity of carbon in coal1 is directly proportionate to the quantity required for the decomposition of nitrate of potassa1 a fact necessary to be considered in the theory of the action of charcoal in gunpowder4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,kirwan found that1 #ab4gji of carbon are necessary to decompose #ajj of nitrate of potassa4 ,it will be easy to deduce the quantity of carbon1 in a given weight of coal1 from the quantity of nitrate of potassa it is capable of decomposing4 ,the experiment is made very readily by fusing in a crucible1 five hundred or more grains of nitre1 and when red-hot projecting by degrees the powdered coal on the nitre4 ,when the detonation produced by one projection of coal has ceased1 add a new portion till it produces no farther effect4 ,charcoal may be made intensely black1 resembling ivory black1 according to ,m4 ,denys-de-,montfort1 7,bibliothque ,physico-,economique1 for ,march #ahae17 by pulverizing it very fine1 mixing it with wine lees1 and drying the mixture1 and then subjecting it to a strong heat in a covered crucible1 or other vessel4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of ,gunpowder4 ,having remarked1 that the quality of gunpowder depends upon the purity of the materials1 of which it is formed1 and that they should be prepared in a state of purity2 the subject that will now particularly claim our attention1 is the proportions of the ingredients1 their mixture1 and the final preparation of gunpowder for use4 ,to this1 we purpose to add1 the theory of its explosive effects1 the different modes of proving it1 and the experiments necessary to determine the quality of its respective ingredients1 on all which we will be as brief as the importance of the subjects will admit4 ,previously1 however1 it may be interesting to notice the history of gunpowder1 the invention of which has so completely changed the art of war4 ,the history of gunpowder has been fully treated by many writers of eminence2 but by none more largely1 and1 at the same time1 more satisfactorily than by the ,french4 ,beckman1 in his ,history of ,inventions1 is full on this subject4 ,our purpose is not to go into details1 as it would enlarge our volume1 to the exclusion1 perhaps1 of other and more important matter4 ,we shall1 therefore1 confine ourselves to a few facts and observations4 ,notwithstanding much has been written on the subject1 the original invention of gunpowder seems to be in obscurity4 ,by whom1 and at what time it was invented1 is a question not fully settled4 ,it is said to have been known in the east from time immemorial1 and whatever claim ,roger ,bacon1 who died in #abib1 may have had to the discovery1 or that he knew the properties of gunpowder1 it is certain1 that the use of fire-arms was then unknown in ,europe4 ,professor ,beckman1 who examined all the authors extant on the origin of gunpowder1 is of opinion1 that it was invented in ,india1 and brought by the ,saracens from ,africa to the ,europeans1 who improved the preparation of it1 and employed it in war1 as well as for small arms and cannon4 ,m4 ,langles1 who read a memoir on this subject to the ,national ,institute1 in #agih1 observes1 that the ,arabians obtained a knowledge of gunpowder from the ,indians1 who had been acquainted with it from the earliest periods4 ,the use of it was forbidden in their sacred books1 the veidam or vede4 ,it was employed in #fij at the battle near ,mecca4 ,as nitre was employed in all probability in the ,greek fire1 invented about the year #fgh1 it is supposed1 that that composition gave rise to the invention of gunpowder4 ,various prescriptions1 or formul1 have been given for the preparation of this fire4 ,the oldest is by princess ,anna ,commena1 in which1 however1 there is only resin1 sulphur1 and oil4 ,beckman observes1 that the first certain mention of saltpetre will be found in the oldest account of the preparation of gunpowder1 which1 in his opinion1 became known in the thirteenth century1 about the same time that the use of the ,greek fire1 of which there were many kinds1 began to be lost4 ,the oldest information on this subject is to be found in the works of ,albertus ,magnus1 and the writings of ,roger ,bacon4 ,the true recipe for making the ,greek fire1 and the oldest for gunpowder1 were found in a manuscript1 preserved in the electoral library at ,munich4 ,various copies of this manuscript were made4 ,bacon employed this writing1 which was mentioned by ,jebb1 in the preface to his edition1 from a copy preserved in the library of ,dr4 ,mead4 ,whether the writer was ,marcus ,grcus1 is of no moment2 for ,cardan observes1 that the fire that can be kindled by water1 or rather not extinguished by water1 was prepared by ,marcus ,gracchus4 ,the former ,marcus1 mentions two kinds of fire-works2 and the composition1 which he prescribes for both1 is two pounds of charcoal1 one pound of sulphur1 and six pounds of saltpetre1 well powdered and mixed together in a stone mortar4 ,friar ,bacon1 who lived three centuries after ,grcus1 was in possession of the recipe4 ,it was concealed1 however1 from the people1 veiled in mystery4 ,in his treatise ,de ,secretis ,operibus ,artis et ,natur1 c4 the secret of the composition is thus expressed3 sed tamen salispetr1 ,,luru ,,mope ,,can ,,urbe et sulphuris2 et sic facies tonitrum et corruscationem1 si scias artificium4 ,luru mope can urbe1 is the anagram for carbonum pulvere4 ,bacon supposes1 that it was with a similar composition that ,gideon defeated the ,midianites1 with only three hundred men4 ,besides the use of gunpowder in the #ith century1 in the war between the ,tunisians and the ,moors1 in which the former are said to have employed certain tubes or barrels1 wherewith they threw thunderbolts of fire1 the ,venetians employed it against the ,genoese1 and it was reprobated as a manifest contravention of fair warfare4 ,peter ,mexia1 in his ,various ,readings1 relates1 that the ,moors1 being besieged1 in #acdi1 by ,alphonso the eleventh1 king of ,castille1 discharged a kind of iron mortars upon them1 which made a noise like thunder4 ,this1 with the sea-combat between the ,tunisians and the ,moors1 stated on the authority of don ,pedro1 bishop of ,leon1 places the invention much earlier than by some writers4 ,polydore ,virgil ascribes the invention of gunpowder to a chemist1 who1 having put some of his composition in a mortar1 and covered it with a stone1 was blown up1 in consequence of its accidentally taking fire4 ,the person here alluded to1 according to ,thevet1 was a monk of ,friburg1 named ,constantine ,anelzen4 ,others1 as ,belleforet1 with more probability1 hold it to be ,bartholodus ,schwartz1 or the black1 who discovered it1 as some say1 about the year #acbj4 ,du ,cange1 however1 remarks1 that there is no mention made of gunpowder in the registers of the chamber of accounts in ,france1 as early as the year #acch4 ,roger ,bacon knew of gunpowder1 near one hundred years before ,schwartz was born4 7,see the invention of cannon1 in military fire-works1 fourth part47 ,it is certain1 that ,albert de ,bollstdt indicated the constituent parts of gunpowder1 when he says1 in his ,mirabilis ,mundi1 ,ignis volans1 accipe libram unam1 sulphuris1 libras duas1 carbonas salicis1 libras sex1 salis petrosi1 qu tria subtilissime terantur in lapide marmorea2 postea aliquid posterius ad libitum in tunica de papyro volante1 vel tonitrum faciente ponatur4 ,tunica ad volandum debet esse longa1 gracilis1 pulvere illo optime plena1 ad faciendum vero tonitrum brevis1 grossa et semiplena4 ,gunpowder was of a much weaker composition than that now in use1 or that described by ,marcus ,grcus4 ,tartalgia1 7,ques4 and ,inv4 lib4 #c1 ques4 #e71 observes1 that1 of twenty-three different compositions1 used at different times1 the first1 which was the oldest1 contained equal parts of the three ingredients4 ,when guns of modern construction came into use1 gunpowder of the present strength was introduced4 ,the strength of powder depends upon the proportions of the ingredients1 they being pure2 and ,mr4 ,napier observes1 7,trans4 ,royal ,irish ,academy1 ii47 that the greatest strength is produced1 when the proportions are1 nitre1 three pounds1 charcoal1 nine ounces1 and sulphur1 three ounces4 ,the cannon powder was in meal1 and the musket powder in grain4 ,in the time of ,tartalgia1 the cannon powder was made of four parts of nitre1 one of sulphur1 and one of charcoal2 and the musket powder of forty-eight parts of nitre1 seven parts of sulphur1 and eight parts of charcoal2 or of eighteen parts of nitre1 two parts of sulphur1 and three parts of charcoal4 ,the intimate mixture1 therefore1 and the determinate proportions of saltpetre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 form gunpowder2 the different qualities of which1 depend1 as well upon the proportions which are used1 as on the purity of the materials1 and the accuracy with which they are mixed4 ,gunpowder is reckoned to explode at about #fjj ,fahr2 but1 if heated to a degree just below that of faint redness1 the sulphur will mostly burn off1 leaving the nitre and charcoal unaltered4 ,the saltpetre should be perfectly refined1 and entirely free from deliquescent salts2 the sulphur as pure as possible1 and1 for that reason1 a preference should be given1 to that which is sublimed1 or distilled2 and the charcoal should be prepared in iron cylinders1 as described under that head1 from woods1 which are light and tender1 as the linden1 willow1 hazle1 dogwood1 etc4 ,there is a considerable difference in the proportions used by different nations2 but1 from the many accurate and conclusive experiments of the ,french chemists1 their formula is certainly the most perfect4 ,in ,english powder1 three-quarters of the composition are nitre1 and the other quarter is made up of equal parts of charcoal and sulphur2 but sometimes1 to seventy-five parts of nitre1 fifteen of charcoal is used1 adding ten of sulphur4 ,their government powder is the same for cannon1 as for small-arms4 ,according to a number of experiments1 made at ,grenille1 it was found1 that the proportion of saltpetre in gunpowder1 must be in a given ratio with the charcoal1 so that the latter might effectually decompose it in the act of combustion2 and hence the ratio is as #ab of the latter to #ge of the former1 and these1 with #ab of sulphur1 are the proportions generally employed4 ,ruggeri 7,pyrotechnie ,militaire1 p4 #ia17 gives1 as the proportions1 #ab parts of saltpetre of the third boiling1 #b parts of charcoal1 and #a part of sulphur4 ,the proportions1 used in ,sweden1 are #ge saltpetre1 #i sulphur1 and #af charcoal2 in ,poland1 #hj saltpetre1 #h sulphur1 and #ab charcoal2 in ,italy1 #gf saltpetre1 #ab sulphur1 and #ab charcoal2 in ,russia1 #gj saltpetre1 #aa sulphur1 and #ah-a_/b charcoal2 in ,denmark1 #hj saltpetre1 #aj sulphur1 and #aj charcoal2 in ,holland1 #gf saltpetre1 #ab sulphur1 and #ab charcoal2 in ,prussia and ,austria1 #gh saltpetre1 #aa sulphur1 and #aa charcoal2 and in ,spain1 #gg saltpetre1 #aa-a_/b sulphur1 and #aa-a_/b charcoal4 ,according to ,klaproth and ,wolff1 7,dictionnaire de ,chimie1 translated into ,french by ,,mm4 ,lagrange and ,vogel71 ,berlin powder is composed of three-quarters nitre2 one-eighth sulphur1 and one-eighth charcoal2 ,chinese powder1 of #af parts nitre1 #f charcoal1 and #d sulphur2 ,swedish powder1 of #ge parts nitre1 #af sulphur1 and #i charcoal2 the powder of ,lissa1 of #hj nitre1 #ab sulphur1 and #h charcoal2 and ,english powder1 on the authority of ,beckman1 as follows3 ,powder for war1 #ajj parts of nitre1 #be charcoal1 and #be sulphur2 musket powder1 #ajj nitre1 #ah sulphur1 and #bj charcoal2 pistol powder1 #ajj nitre1 #bc sulphur1 and #ae charcoal2 strong cannon powder1 #ajj nitre1 #bj sulphur1 and #bd charcoal2 strong musket powder1 #ajj nitre1 #ae sulphur1 and #ah charcoal2 and strong pistol powder1 #ajj nitre1 #aj sulphur1 and #ah charcoal4 ,german powder1 for war1 is composed1 generally1 of #j4gj saltpetre1 #j4af charcoal1 and #j4ad sulphur4 ,a small portion of gum is sometimes added1 to make the grain firmer2 but such additions retard the combustion1 and the effect4 ,the addition of gum arabic1 however small1 must injure the quality of gunpowder1 although it has the effect of making the grain firmer1 and less liable to fall into meal powder4 ,the grain is also made heavier1 and less liable to absorb moisture4 ,m4 ,proust1 in his second memoir on gunpowder1 mentions the use of icthyocolla1 a fish glue1 for the same purpose2 and1 nevertheless1 speaks of some advantages that the gunpowder1 prepared with it1 possesses4 ,it is observed by ,mr4 ,coleman1 of the ,royal ,powder ,mills of ,waltham abbey1 that it is not exactly ascertained1 whether there is any one proportion1 which ought always to be adhered to1 and for every purpose4 ,we have no hesitation in believing1 for our own part1 that the ,french formula is the most correct1 from the numerous experiments made at the royal manufactory at ,essone1 near ,paris4 ,a very considerable variation is found in the proportions of the ingredients of the powder of different nations and different manufactories4 ,the powder made in ,england1 is the same for cannon as for small arms1 the difference being only in the size of the grains2 but in ,france1 it appears1 that there were formerly six different sorts manufactured2 namely1 the strong and the weak cannon powder1 the strong and the weak musquet powder1 and the strong and the weak pistol powder4 ,the following are the proportions in each1 though the reason of this nicety of distinction is not very obvious4 ,for the strong cannon powder1 the nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal were in the proportions of #ajj of the first1 #be of the second1 and #be of the third3 for the weak cannon powder1 #ajj1 #bj1 and #bd3 for the strong musket powder1 #ajj1 #ah1 and #bj2 for the weak1 #ajj1 #ae1 and #ah3 for the strong pistol powder1 #ajj1 #ab1 and #ae2 for the weak1 #ajj1 #aj1 and #ah4 ,the ,chinese powder appears1 by the analysis of ,mr4 ,napier1 to be nearly in the proportions of #ajj of nitre1 #ah of charcoal1 and #aa of sulphur4 ,this powder1 which was procured from ,canton1 was large-grained1 not very strong1 but hard1 well coloured1 and in very good preservation4 ,the following proportions are now used in ,france1 for the manufacture of gunpowder for war1 for hunting1 and for mining4 ,for war4 ,for the chase4 ,for mining4 ,saltpetre1 #ge4j #gh #fe4 ,charcoal1 #ab4e #ab #ae4 ,sulphur1 #ab4e #aj #bj4 ,after having made choice of the materials1 the nitre being pulverized1 is passed through a brass sieve2 the sulphur is pulverized by means of a muller1 or other contrivance1 and also sifted in a bolter2 the quantities are then weighed1 as well as the charcoal4 ,the mixing of these substances is performed in a series of mortars1 hollowed out of a strong piece of oak wood2 and by the aid of pestles or stampers1 which are set in motion by machinery and water power1 the mixture is thoroughly made4 ,the end of the stampers is usually covered with1 and sometimes made of1 brass1 and the mortars are also1 in some powder mills1 lined with brass4 ,the mill has generally two rows of mortars and stampers1 of ten each4 ,the nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 in proper proportions1 are put into each mortar4 ,the charcoal is first introduced into the mortar1 being sometimes previously pulverized2 then wetted with water1 and the pounding is continued for thirty minutes4 ,the nitre and the sulphur are then added1 and the whole is stirred with the hand4 ,more water is then added2 it is again stirred1 and the operation of pounding is continued4 ,the object of adding the water is to prevent the so called volatilization of the ingredients1 and to give the mixture the consistency of paste1 and at the same time to prevent the explosion of the powder2 a circumstance1 which must be always guarded against4 ,after the operation is continued for half an hour1 the pounders are stopt1 and the powder is then re-exchanged by means of copper or brass ladles2 that is to say1 the powder of the first mortar is removed1 and put into a box1 and the contents of the second mortar are put into the first1 that of the third is put into the second1 that of the fourth into the third1 c4 in succession1 and in the last1 the contents of the first mortar4 ,we make1 in this manner1 twelve exchanges1 allowing one hour between two1 and adding water from time to time1 to the mixture1 and especially during the summer months4 ,after this1 the pounders are again set in motion1 for the space of two hours1 and the operation is finished4 ,fourteen hours are generally required to complete the mixture1 which is then in the form of paste4 ,it is then granulated4 ,after being partially dried1 the graining is performed by passing it through sieves1 which are more generally formed of parchment4 ,these sieves are made to work horizontally1 and the powder is caught in vessels placed beneath4 ,the size of the grain depends on the sieve2 hence1 fine grain1 or coarse grain powder is thus obtained4 ,in the sieve is usually placed a contrivance to break the masses1 and to cause the powder to pass through in grains4 ,after this1 the powder is again passed through a second sieve1 commonly called a grainer1 the holes of which are of the same diameter as the powder we wish to obtain4 ,it is then put into another sieve1 which permits only the dust to pass1 whilst the grain-powder remains4 ,as the powder1 however1 contains some grains too large1 as well as others too small1 we may separate the former by a fourth sieve1 of a suitable size4 ,the dust and fine grain are carried to the mill1 and worked over4 ,the powder for war1 and for mining1 is dried immediately after the graining4 ,formerly1 the powder was dried in the open air1 by spreading it on tables lined with cloth1 or in oblong boxes2 but serious inconveniences resulted from it1 and1 particularly1 the powdermakers were obliged to watch the temperature1 as well as the state of the atmosphere4 ,when the latter was moist1 the drying was suspended4 ,m4 ,champy1 however1 has obviated these inconveniences by a very advantageous process1 which consists in raising the temperature of the air to #ej or #fj degrees1 and causing it to pass from the chamber in which it is heated1 through cloths1 on which is spread a bed of powder1 of a certain thickness4 ,by this means1 large quantities of powder may be dried1 in all seasons of the year1 in a short time1 and at little expense4 ,in whatever manner the drying is performed1 there is always more or less dust formed1 which1 to make the grain of one uniform appearance1 must be separated by a hair sieve4 ,this operation is called the dusting4 ,whether we adopt the plan recommended by ,m4 ,champy1 or heat the rooms for the drying of powder to a certain temperature1 by means of steam pipes1 a plan which presents every advantage1 or use the old mode1 the effect is the same4 ,the musket1 or hunting powder1 undergoes an operation more than the powder for war1 namely1 that of glazing1 which is performed before it is dried4 ,with the exception of this process1 it is made in the same manner1 using1 however1 a finer sieve in granulating it4 ,the glazing has for its object the smoothing1 or removing the asperities of the grain1 and to prevent its falling into dust1 and soiling the hands4 ,the powder intended for glazing is first exposed an hour to the sun on one cloth1 in winter1 and between two cloths in summer1 in order to dry it more perfectly1 which is very necessary before the operation of glazing4 ,for this purpose1 it is put into a vessel like a barrel1 which is turned horizontally upon its axis1 by machinery4 ,this barrel is furnished with bars that go across1 intended to augment the friction1 or rubbing of the grain1 and expedite the process4 ,the barrels are made to turn slowly1 to avoid breaking the grain1 and at the expiration of eight or twelve hours1 the glazing is finished1 the powder having acquired a sufficient hardness and polish4 ,after removing the powder1 the dust is separated in the usual manner4 ,gunpowder-mills are mills1 in which powder is prepared1 by pounding and beating together the ingredients of which it is composed4 ,they are always worked by water-power1 and as there are generally many of them belonging to the same manufactory1 one dam of water will furnish a sufficient supply4 ,in the construction of powder-mills1 the frame of the house is made very stout1 and the roof put on lightly1 so that in case of explosion1 it may be carried off easily1 and thus give vent to the powder1 without much injury to the works4 ,the lights1 to enable the work to be carried on at night1 are placed on the outside of the building1 beyond the reach of the powder1 and by means of glass windows1 the light passes into the mill4 ,it is lamentable1 indeed1 that so many accidents occur in the operation of making powder4 ,this may take place1 as it has to our knowledge1 by the friction of the pounders4 ,their weight1 the rapid succession of the blows1 and the dryness of the powder1 are the principal causes of such accidents1 and sometimes by the inattention of the workmen1 suffering nails1 and the like1 to get among the materials4 ,i once witnessed the effect of an explosion of the kind1 in the neighbourhood of ,frankford1 in the vicinity of ,philadelphia1 at the old and well-known powder mills1 at that place4 ,it was produced1 in consequence of the friction1 by the neglect of the men not adding water at a proper time1 to keep the materials moist4 ,the mill in which the explosion took place was not much injured2 but the roof1 together with the men1 were sent a considerable distance4 ,some of the latter fell into the mill-race1 and were much injured4 ,the effect1 however1 did not stop here2 for the fire communicated1 strange as it may appear1 to some of the other mills1 although at some distance1 and blew them up4 ,several explosions have happened at the same mills4 ,an experiment1 made at the same works1 by the then proprietor1 the father of the late commodore ,decatur1 by putting the nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 into a barrel1 with iron balls covered with lead1 which was turned upon its axis1 terminated in the same way4 ,it exploded1 but no other injury or accident was sustained4 ,on examining the balls1 we found1 that the lead was entirely worn off1 and the explosion must have been owing to the iron4 ,this experiment was performed1 in order to find if the mixture could be made in this manner1 a plan which was afterwards adopted in ,france1 with success1 but brass balls were used4 ,in a series of essays1 which ,i wrote for1 and published in1 the ,aurora1 in #ahjh1 on the ,application of ,chemistry to the ,arts and ,manufactures1 as manufactures are vitally important to the practical independence of this country1 ,i mentioned the subject of gunpowder1 and the different modes of preparing it1 and among which1 the various experiments on this subject4 ,the machinery1 required in gunpowder mills1 is exceedingly simple4 ,the power of the water1 which may be given by an overshot1 or undershot wheel1 is communicated to the parts of the mill1 which perform the work4 ,thus it is1 that pounders1 like the snuff1 or plaster-paris mill1 are put in motion1 by a horizontal shaft1 furnished1 at different distances1 with pieces of wood1 which1 by the revolution of the shaft1 and meeting with the projecting pieces from the pounders1 raises them in succession4 ,they fall1 then1 in the same order of succession1 in the respective mortars4 ,the mortars of the powder-mill1 are hollow pieces of wood1 capable of holding twenty pounds of paste1 composed of the substances before mentioned1 which are incorporated by means of the pestle4 ,there are usually twenty-four mortars in each mill1 where are made1 each day1 four hundred and eighty pounds of gunpowder2 care being taken1 to sprinkle the ingredients with water1 from time to time1 lest they should take fire4 ,this precaution is absolutely necessary1 and if attended to1 would prevent many of the explosions1 which1 unhappily1 take place1 in the manufacture of powder4 ,the friction must be great1 and1 therefore1 the increase of temperature1 occasioned in this manner1 ought to be guarded against4 ,this can only be done1 by diminishing the time1 or number of the blows1 or by proportioning the weight of the pestle1 and the frequent addition of water4 ,the last is the most certain1 and indeed1 the water is in some respects1 necessary to promote a more intimate mixture of the materials4 ,the observations of ,m4 ,david1 on the use of water in the manufacture of powder1 are certainly correct4 ,the pestle is a piece of wood1 ten feet high1 and four and a half inches broad1 armed at the bottom with a round piece of metal4 ,it weighs about sixty pounds4 ,having mentioned one cause of the explosion of powder-mills1 that of friction produced by the pestle1 we find that it has been accounted for on another principle4 ,the ,annales de ,chimie1 tome xxxv1 mentions some instances of spontaneous combustion in powder mills4 ,it is well known1 that charcoal has the property of absorbing several gases1 and the observations of ,rouppe and ,berthollet1 on this subject1 are conclusive4 ,it is also known1 that charcoal1 which contains hydrogen1 when exposed to atmospheric air1 will absorb oxygen1 and form water2 and during this combination1 heat must be generated1 by the emission of caloric from the oxygen gas4 ,it is said1 then1 that in cases of spontaneous combustion1 when nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 are mixed together1 7unless water be added to prevent it71 this effect will ensue1 and fire be produced4 ,we know1 however1 that percussion is one source of heat2 and in truth1 if that opinion be well founded1 percussion itself may facilitate the union of hydrogen1 with the oxygen of the air1 and necessarily operate as a secondary cause of such explosions4 ,another opinion has been advanced by ,bartholdi1 to account for the spontaneous combustion in powder mills3 namely1 that charcoal sometimes contains phosphorus1 combined with hydrogen1 which1 by the action of the pestle1 is disengaged in the form of gas1 and inflames1 the moment it comes in contact with the air4 ,others again suppose1 that it sometimes contains pyrophorus4 ,pulverizing the charcoal1 in the first instance1 by itself1 and adding water1 during its mixture1 from time to time1 a measure proposed in #ahjh1 by ,m4 ,david1 and now generally adopted1 will prevent such accidents2 for it appears1 they have not occurred in ,france1 since the adoption of this plan4 ,some remarks on spontaneous combustion1 may be seen in the article on artificial volcanoes4 ,m4 ,sage1 7,journal de ,physique1 vol4 lxv1 p4 #dbc1 or ,nicholson's ,journal1 vol4 xxiii1 p4 #bgg71 has written on the spontaneous ignition of charcoal1 and adduced some facts on the subject2 by which it appears1 that ,m4 de ,caussigni was the first1 who observed1 that charcoal was capable of being set on fire1 by the pressure of mill stones4 ,mr4 ,robin1 commissary of the powder mills of ,essonne1 has given an account1 in the ,annales de ,chimie1 of the spontaneous inflammation of charcoal1 from the black berry bearing alder1 that took place the #bc;d of ,may1 #ahja1 in the box of the bolter1 into which it had been sifted4 ,this charcoal1 made two days before1 had been ground in the mill1 without showing any signs of ignition4 ,the coarse powder1 that remained in the bolter1 experienced no alteration4 ,the light undulating flame1 unextinguishable by water1 that appeared on the surface of the sifted charcoal1 was of the nature of inflammable gas1 which is equally unextinguishable4#ag ,the moisture of the atmosphere1 of which fresh made charcoal is very greedy1 appears to have concurred in the development of the inflammable gas1 and the combustion of the charcoal4 ,it has been observed1 that charcoal powdered and laid in large heaps1 heats strongly4 ,alder charcoal has been seen to take fire in the warehouses1 in which it has been stored4 ,about thirty years ago1 ,m4 ,sage saw the roof of one of the low wings of the mint set on fire by the spontaneous combustion of a large quantity of charcoal1 that had been laid in the garrets4 ,mr4 ,malet1 commissary of gunpowder at ,pontailler1 near ,dijon1 has seen charcoal take fire under the pestle4 ,he also found1 that when pieces of saltpetre and brimstone were put into the charcoal mortar1 the explosion took place between the fifth and sixth strokes of the pestle4 ,the weight of the pestles is eighty pounds each1 half of this belonging to the box of rounded bell metal1 in which they terminate4 ,the pestles are raised only one foot1 and make forty-five strokes in a minute4 ,in consequence of the precaution now taken1 ,m4 ,sage observes1 to pound the charcoal1 brimstone1 and saltpetre separately1 no explosions take place2 and time is gained in the fabrication1 since the paste is made in eight hours1 that formerly required four and-twenty4 ,every wooden mortar contains twenty pounds of the mixture1 to which two pounds of water are added gradually4 ,the paste is first corned3 it is then glazed1 that is1 the corns are rounded1 by subjecting them to the rotary motion of a barrel1 through which an axis passes3 and lastly1 it is dried in the sun1 or in a kind of stove4 ,experience has shown1 that brimstone is not essential to the preparation of gunpowder2 but that which is made without it falls to powder in the air1 and will not bear carriage4 ,there is reason to believe1 that the brimstone forms a coat on the surface of the powder1 and prevents the charcoal from attracting the moisture of the air4 ,the goodness of the powder depends on the excellence of the charcoal2 and there is but one mode of obtaining this in perfection1 which is distillation in close vessels1 as practised by the ,english4 ,the charcoal of our powder manufactories is at present prepared in pots1 where the wood receives the immediate action of the air1 which occasions the charcoal to undergo a particular alteration4 ,in #agbd1 7,coll4 ,academ4 t4 v1 p4 #dac17 ,m4 de ,moraler proposed a new mode of mixing the materials for gunpowder4 ,in #agei1 ,m4 ,musy proposed another method to prevent explosions2 and in #aghc1 the baron de ,gumprecht constructed a very ingenious powder mill1 a model of which he presented to the king of ,poland1 whose approbation it received4 ,there is an account in detail1 of the results of the experiments made by ,,mm4 ,regnier and ,pajot ,laforet1 with different fulminating powders1 in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 iii1 p4 #ccg4 ,these experiments1 although interesting in a philosophical view1 cannot be of service in the present case4 ,they were made with gunpowder1 fulminating silver1 fulminating silver and mercury combined1 fulminating mercury alone1 c4 ,see also the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',encouragement1 cahir #fe4 ,the observations of ,m4 ,proust 7,journal de ,physique for ,may1 #ahae7 on the mixing of powder1 and the consequences that result by following the old process1 may be consulted4 ,the process of manufacturing gunpowder1 which we have described1 is followed in all1 or the greater part of the factories of ,france4 ,it is1 however1 tedious1 and not exempt from danger4 ,the same process1 with some modifications or improvements1 is adopted in this country2 but of all our gunpowder manufactories1 that of the messrs4 ,dupont of ,brandywine1 ,delaware1 has heretofore produced the best powder4 ,powder1 however1 equally powerful1 has been made in other factories4 ,the improved process of ,m4 ,champy1 which1 in many respects1 is superior to the foregoing1 is the following3 #a4 ,the nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal are first reduced1 separately1 to very fine powder4 ,this operation is performed in barrels1 which are made to turn upon their axis1 similar to the barrel-churn1 and the substances are introduced gradually4 ,balls1 made of an alloy of copper and tin1 are then put in1 which by their action reduce the substances to powder4 #b4 ,the second operation has for its object1 the intimate mixture of the ingredients4 ,the quantities to be mixed are weighed1 and put into a drum with a quantity of shot1 which is made to revolve during an hour and a quarter4 ,in this manner1 three hundred pounds of the mixture are at once operated upon4 #c4 ,the mixture is then moistened with water4 ,about fourteen per cent4 is added4 ,it is then passed through a sieve made with round holes1 and then put into a drum1 and submitted for a half hour1 to a rotary motion4 ,a number of small round grains are thereby formed1 which are separated from the mass by means of a sieve1 the holes of which are very small4 #d4 ,when a sufficient quantity of these grains are procured1 they are put into another drum1 of a suitable size1 with one and a half times their weight of the original mixture4 ,the drum being put in motion1 some water is added1 which serves to make them increase in size1 by constant rubbing3 at the end of a certain time1 the whole becomes granulated1 or perfectly round4 ,the density of the grains depends on the mixture1 and the time they were kept in motion4 #e4 ,the powder being thus grained1 is passed through sieves1 whose holes are of different diameters2 and hence it is divided into three kinds3 viz4 cannon powder1 musket powder1 and fine grained powder4 #f4 ,finally1 the powder is dried1 and preserved in the usual manner4 ,its strength is equal to that made by the old process1 and is perfectly round4 ,it may be proper to observe1 that this process presents many important and decided advantages4 ,although1 in our description1 we have not gone into details1 yet the whole operation will be seen at one view4 ,it was practised in ,france1 by its inventor1 ,m4 ,champy1 and1 besides being introduced into the ,united ,states1 it has also been adopted in ,prussia4 ,m4 ,proust endeavoured to show1 that charcoal made of shoots or branches1 makes the best powder1 and will mix with more facility with the nitre and sulphur2 and in employing the ordinary charcoal1 two hours beating is necessary to obtain a perfect mixture4 ,the pestles1 as ,chaptal observes1 usually make fifty-five strokes in a minute4 ,their weight is various2 he gives them at eighty pounds4 ,m4 ,carney discovered a new process for the fabrication of powder1 and although ,chaptal himself made some advantageous changes in the process1 yet the merit of the discovery he gives entirely to ,carney4 ,the process of ,m4 ,champy1 is in some particulars the same4 ,it will be sufficient1 however1 to observe1 that it is reduced to three heads3 viz4 #a4 ,the pulverization1 and sifting of the materials2 #b4 ,mixing the materials intimately in vessels similar to casks2 and1 #c4 ,giving the mixture the necessary consistence1 and the final granulation4 ,for some details of the process1 the reader may consult ,chaptal's ,chimie ,appliqu aux ,arts1 tome iv1 p4 #ade4 ,chaptal is of opinion1 that ,carney's mode of fabricating powder1 presents many advantages1 among which he considers the facility of its formation1 economy in the expense1 and the superiority of the powder4 ,in a memoir on the subject1 and the formation of powder at ,grenelle1 ,chaptal has described the process very minutely4 ,botte and ,riffault reduce the manufacture of gunpowder in ,france to the following heads3 #a4 ,the mixture of the ingredients4 ,this relates to the manner of uniting the nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 the quantity of the composition put into each mortar1 and observations respecting the manipulation4 ,the time required for reducing gunpowder to its proper consistency1 and for effecting the mixture is termed by the ,french1 ,battage4 ,they are usually twenty-four hours1 7or eight according to the new mode17 in pounding the materials to make good gunpowder4 ,supposing the mortar to contain sixteen pounds of composition1 it would require the application of the pestle #cejj times each hour4 ,the order in which they are beaten1 and mixed1 is as before given1 and also the rechanging1 or transferring the materials from one mortar to another4 #b4 ,granulation1 7,grenage ,fr47 ,this operation consists1 as before observed1 in passing the mixture through different sized sieves1 employing also parchment sieves1 and afterwards separating the dust by a fine sieve4 ,the size of the grain depends altogether on the sieve4 ,hence we have cannon-powder1 gunning or musket-powder1 pistol-powder1 and mining-powder4 ,superfine powder is the very small grained4 #c4 ,glazing4 7,lissage ,fr47 ,this operation takes off the asperities of the grain1 renders it hard and less liable to soil the hands1 and gives it a kind of lustre4 ,it is only used for fine powder1 such as the pistol1 and hunting-powder4 ,cannon powder is never glazed4 ,it is performed in a barrel-shaped vessel1 which is made to revolve on its axis1 like the ordinary barrel-churn4 ,the quantity of powder glazed in one of these barrels at a time1 in ,france1 is #aej kilogrammes4 ,by the rotary motion1 the grains of powder rub against each other1 by which each grain becomes smooth1 and receives a polish4 ,according to the motion of the barrel1 so is the glazing more perfect4 ,this1 however1 is regular4 ,after the operation1 which continues several hours1 the dust is separated from the grain by a sieve4 ,the state of the atmosphere influences the process4 ,if dry1 the grain receives a better polish2 if wet or damp1 the operation is retarded1 and the gloss imperfect4 ,it has been customary to introduce a very small portion of finely pulverized plumbago1 7carburet of iron71 in order to give the grain a better polish4 ,but such additions1 however small1 are obviously injurious to the powder4 ,it is said that it prevents the absorption of moisture4 ,powder1 which has been glazed with black lead1 7plumbago71 may be known by its peculiar shining lustre1 and also by experiment4 ,m4 ,cagniard ,latour made some experiments with glazed powder1 which may be seen in the work of ,botte and ,riffault1 p4 #bcc4 #d4 ,drying4 7,schage4 ,fr47 ,the drying of powder is performed in two ways1 viz4 by exposure to the sun1 and by exposure to heat in close rooms4 ,the ,english mode1 that of drying by steam pipes1 ,,mm4 ,botte and ,riffault are of opinion1 presents many advantages1 and particularly that the powder may be dried in all weathers1 and with perfect safety4 ,the mode of drying gunpowder by the vapour of water1 7confining it1 however1 in iron pipes or vessels17 was suggested in #agha1 and #aghg4 ,see ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,sciences de ,suede1 #agha1 the ,journal des ,savants1 #aghg1 and the ,transactions of the ,society of ,arts1 vol4 xxiv4 ,mr4 ,snodgrass1 in the last work1 gave an account of a method of communicating heat by steam1 by using pipes of cast iron1 for which the society of arts voted him forty guineas4#ah ,chaptal 7,elements de ,chimie7 has some judicious remarks on the exsiccation of powder4 ,the experiment made at ,essonne near ,paris1 by ,m4 ,champy1 in #ahjh1 on a contrivance for the drying of powder1 was satisfactory4 ,this experiment may be seen in page #bdb of ,botte and ,riffault4 #e4 ,dusting1 7,epoussetage47 ,this operation is confined merely to the sifting4 ,it is nothing more than the separation of the dust from the grain1 which we have before noticed4 ,the dust is put in the mortars1 and worked over4 #f4 ,barrelling c4 ,after the powder has gone through the several operations described1 it is then put into barrels1 and taken to the magazine4 ,after speaking of gunpowder under these heads1 they describe the manner of treating the green1 7verd7 and dry meal powder2 the police of powder establishments1 for order and economy2 the workmen necessary in a powder manufactory2#ai the process of making powder in the revolution2 and for the manufacture of imperial powder 7which contains #j4gh saltpetre #j4aj sulphur1 and #j4ab charcoal72 the process of ,berne1 where the powder is made of #j4gf saltpetre1 #j4ad charcoal1 and #j4aj sulphur2 the process of ,mr4 ,champy1 noticed in this article2 observations respecting different processes2 on powder magazines2 gunpowder made of other saline substances besides nitre2 different modes of proving powder1 examination of powder2 description of workshops1 mechanics1 and utensils1 c4 c4 with a variety of engravings4 ,we have merely to remark1 that this work of ,botte and ,riffault 7a large quarto volume1 of #cdj pages1 besides the plates1 which make a distinct volume7 ought to be in the possession of every gunpowder manufacturer1 as it contains all the information known on that subject4 ,of this fact there can be no difference of opinion1 that in consequence of the great attention paid to the subject of gunpowder in ,france1 not only by the government1 but by scientific associations and individuals1 their knowledge generally must be more minute and accurate1 and their works1 as authentic records of facts1 more to be depended on4 ,besides many interesting works1 and memoirs in ,french1#bj there have appeared some valuable dissertations in the ,english language4 ,mr4 ,coleman1 in his paper in the ,phil4 ,mag4 ix1 p4 #cee1 may be considered the first1 who1 as superintendant of one of the ,royal powder mills1 was enabled to present a body of facts on this subject4 ,as the mode of manufacturing gunpowder at the ,royal ,powder ,mills of ,waltham ,abbey1 in ,england1 may be interesting and useful1 in connection with the different processes already given2 we will introduce in this place the account of ,mr4 ,coleman1 having extracted it from the ,artist's ,manual1 c4 of the author1 and having taken it from the original memoir of that gentleman4 ,the ingredients of gunpowder are taken in the following proportion1 namely1 #ge of saltpetre1 #ae of charcoal1 and #aj of sulphur4 ,the saltpetre used is almost entirely that which is imported from the ,indies1 which comes over in the rough state mixed with earthy and other salts1 and is refined by solution1 evaporation1 and crystallization4 ,after this it is fused in a moderate heat1 so as to expel all the pure water1 but none of the acid1 and is then fit for use4 ,the great use of refining the nitre is to get rid of the deliquescent salts1 which by rendering the powder made of it liable to become damp by keeping1 would most materially impair its goodness4 ,the sulphur used is imported from ,italy and ,sicily1 where it is collected in its native state in abundance4 ,it is refined by melting and skimming1 and when very impure1 by sublimation4 ,it should seem that the ,english sulphur1 extracted in abundance from some of the copper and other mines1 is too impure to be economically used for gunpowder1 requiring expensive processes of refining4 ,the charcoal formerly used in this manufacture was prepared in the usual way of charring wood1 piles being formed of it and covered with sods or fern1 and suffered to burn with a slow smothering flame4 ,this method however cannot with any certainty be depended on to produce charcoal of a uniformly good quality1 and therefore a most essential improvement has been adopted in this country1 to which the present superior excellence of ,american powder may be in a good measure attributed1 which is1 that of enclosing the wood1 cut into billets about nine inches long1 in iron cylinders placed horizontally1 and burning them gradually to a red heat1 continuing the fire till every thing volatile is driven off1 and the wood is completely charred4 ,but as the pyroligneous acid1 the volatile product of the wood heated per se1 is of use in manufacture1 it is collected by pipes passing out of the iron cylinder1 and dipping into casks where the acid liquor condenses4 ,this acid is used in some parts of calico-printing1 chiefly as the basis of some of the iron liquors and mordants for dark-coloured patterns4 ,the wood before charring is barked4 ,it is generally either alder or willow1 or dog-wood1 but there does not appear to be any certain ground for preferring one wood to another provided it be fully charred4 ,the above three ingredients being prepared1 they are first separately ground to fine powder1 then mixed in the proper proportions1 after which the mixture is fit for the important operation of thoroughly incorporating the component parts in the mill4 ,a powder mill is a slight wooden building1 with a boarded roof1 so that in the event of any moderate explosion1 the roof will fly off without difficulty1 and the sudden expansion will thus be made in the least mischievous direction4 ,stamping mills were formerly used here1 which consisted simply of a large wooden mortar1 in which a very ponderous wooden pestle was made to work1 by the power of men1 or horses1 or water1 as convenience directed4 ,these performed the business with very great accuracy1 but the danger from over-heating was found to be so great1 and the accidents attributable to this cause were so numerous1 that stamping mills have been mostly disused in large manufactures1 and the business is now generally performed by two stones placed vertically1 and running on a bed-stone or trough4 ,the mixed ingredients are put on this bed-stone in quantities not exceeding #dj or #ej pounds at a time1 and moistened with just so much water1 as will bring the mass in the grinding to a consistence considerably stiffer than paste1 in which it is found by experience that the incorporation of the ingredients goes on with the most ease and accuracy4 ,these mills are worked either by water or horses4 ,the composition is usually worked for about seven or eight hours before the mixture is thought to be sufficiently intimate1 and even this time is often found1 by the inferior quality of the powder1 to be too little4 ,the fine powder manufactured at ,battle in ,sussex1 is still however made in large mortars or stamping mills1 in the old way1 with heavy lignum vit pestles4 ,only a very few pounds of the materials are worked at a time4 ,the composition is then taken from the mills and sent to the corning-house1 to be corned or grained4 ,this process is not essential to the manufacture of perfect gunpowder1 but is adopted on account of the much greater convenience of using it in grains than in fine dust4 ,here the stiff paste is first pressed into hard lumps1 which are put into circular sieves with parchment bottoms1 perforated with holes of different sizes1 and fixed in a frame connected with a horizontal wheel4 ,each of these sieves is also furnished with a runner or oblate spheroid of lignum vit1 which being set in motion by the action of the wheel1 squeezes the paste through the holes of the parchment bottom1 forming grains of different sizes4 ,the grains are then sorted and separated from the dust by sieves of progressive dimensions4 ,they are then glazed or hardened1 and the rough edges taken off1 by being put into casks1 filling them somewhat more than half-full1 which are fixed to the axis of a water-wheel1 and in thus rapidly revolving1 the grains are shaken against each other and rounded1 at the same time receiving a slight gloss or glazing4 ,much dust is also separated by this process4 ,the glazing is found to lessen the force of the powder from a fifth to a fourth1 but the powder keeps much better when glazed1 and is less liable to grow damp4 ,the powder being thus corned1 dusted and glazed1 is sent to the stove-house and dried1 a part of the process which requires the greatest precautions to avoid explosion1 which in this state would be much more dangerous than before the intimate mixture of the ingredients4 ,the stove-house is a square apartment1 three sides of which are furnished with shelves or cases1 on proper supports1 arranged round the room1 and the fourth contains a large cast-iron vessel called a gloom1 which projects into the room1 and is strongly heated from the outside1 so that it is impossible that any of the fuel should come in contact with the powder4 ,for greater security against sparks by accidental friction1 the glooms are covered with sheet copper1 and are always cool when the powder is put in or taken out of the room4 ,here the grains are thoroughly dried1 losing in the process all that remains of the water added to the mixture in the mill1 to bring it to a working stiffness4 ,this ,mr4 ,coleman finds to be from three to five parts in #ajj of the composition4 ,the powder when dry is then complete4 ,the government powder for ordnance of all kinds as well as for small arms1 is generally made at one time1 and always of the same composition2 the difference being only in the size of the grains as separated by the respective sieves4 ,a method of drying powder by means of steam-pipes running round and crossing the apartment has been tried with success3 by it all possibility of an accident from over-heating is prevented4 ,the temperature of the room when heated in the common way by a gloom-stove is always regulated by a thermometer hung in the door of the stoves4 ,the strength of the powder is sometimes injured by being dried too hastily and at too great a heat1 for in this case some of the sulphur sublimes out 7which it will do copiously at a less heat than will inflame the powder7 and the intimate mixture of the ingredients is again destroyed4 ,besides if dried too hastily1 the surface of the grain hardens leaving the inner part still damp4 ,mr4 ,coleman deduces from experiment the following inferences1 namely3 that the ingredients of gunpowder only pulverized and mixed have but a very small explosive force3 that gunpowder granulated after having been only a short time on the mill1 has acquired only a very small portion of its strength1 so that its perfection absolutely depends on very long-continued and accurate mixture and incorporation of the ingredients3 that the strength of gunpowder does not depend on granulation1 the dust that separates during this process being as strong as the clean grains3 that powder undried1 is weaker in every step of the manufacture than when dried3 and lastly1 that charcoal made in iron cylinders in the way already mentioned1 makes much stronger powder than common charcoal4 ,this last circumstance is of so much consequence1 and is so fully confirmed by experience1 that the charges of powder now used for cannon of all kinds have been reduced one-third in quantity1 when this kind of powder is employed4 ,in barrelling powder1 particular care must be taken to avoid moisture1 and this business is also generally reserved for dry weather4 ,when powder is only a little damp1 it may be restored to its former goodness merely by stoving2 but if it has been thoroughly wetted1 the nitre 7the only one of the ingredients soluble in water7 separates more or less from the sulphur and charcoal1 and by again crystallizing1 cakes together the powder in whitish masses1 which are a loose aggregate of grains covered on the surface with minute efflorescences of nitre4 ,in this case the spoiled powder is put into warm water merely to extract the nitre1 and the other two ingredients are separated by straining and thrown away4 ,the specific gravity of gunpowder is estimated by ,count ,rumford to be about #a4hfh4 ,the strength and goodness of powder is judged of in several ways2 namely1 by the colour and feel1 by the flame when a small pinch is fired1 and by measuring the actual projectile force by the eprouvette1 and by the distance to which a given weight will project a ball of given dimensions under circumstances in all cases exactly similar4 ,when powder rubbed between the fingers easily breaks down into an impalpable dust1 it is a mark of containing too much charcoal1 and the same if it readily soils white paper when gently drawn over it4 ,the colour should not be absolutely black1 but is preferred to be more of a dark blue with a little cast of red4 ,the trial by firing is thus managed2 lay two or three small heaps of about a dram each on clean writing paper1 about three or four inches asunder1 and fire one of them by a red-hot iron wire3 if the flame ascends quickly with a good report1 sending up a ring of white smoke1 leaving the paper free from white specks and not burnt into holes1 and if no sparks fly off from it1 setting fire to the contiguous heaps1 the powder is judged to be very good1 but if otherwise1 either the ingredients are badly mixed1 or impure4 ,gunpowder mixed with powdered glass1 and struck with a hammer is said to explode4 ,an advertisement appeared in the public papers some time in #ahac or #ad1 signed ,t4 ,ewel1 addressed to powder manufacturers1 by which it appears1 in the words of the advertisement1 that he obtained from the ,united ,states a patent right for three very simple and important improvements in the manufacture of gunpowder1 which do most truly diminish more than one half the risk1 the waste1 and the expense of the manufacture4 ,they consist in boiling the ingredients by steam1 in incorporating them without the objection of barrels1 the danger of pounders1 or the tediousness of stones running on the edge3 and in the granulation effected by a simple machine turning by hand or water1 and graining more in a day than twenty hands1 losing not a particle of dust1 and making not half the quantity for re-manufacture4 ,the advantages of this mode have been so great that he had to discharge half his workmen from his manufactory1 as will be readily accounted for by those accustomed to the tediousness and loss from graining1 particularly the press powder by the sifter and rollers1 c4 ,we have not seen the plan in operation1 and1 therefore1 can say nothing respecting it2 but it would appear1 from the description1 that the process was conducted altogether by steam4 ,it is true1 that the use of steam is no new application1 nor was it then1 as it had been used in ,europe for heating of dye kettles1 in soap boiling1 distilling1 for warming apartments1 and many other purposes4 ,the application to that particular use1 that of the manufacture of gunpowder1 may be original as far as we know1 notwithstanding steam has been applied by means of pipes1 c4 as is used at present in some manufactories1 for the drying of gunpowder4 ,professor1 now president ,cooper1 of ,columbia ,college1 ,s4 ,c4 7,emporium of ,arts and ,sciences vol4 ii1 p4 #cag7 in making some observations respecting that publication1 believes1 that the application of steam to the manufacture of gunpowder to be practicable1 and in reference to the advertisement1 also a real improvement2 and speaking of steam for that purpose adds1 whether it be adopted in ,england or not1 or whether among the numerous patents granted for the application of steam to the arts and manufactures of that country1 ,i know not4 ,on a general principle of heating apartments by steam1 we may remark1 that one cubic foot of boiler will heat about two thousand feet of space1 in a cotton mill1 whose average heat is from #gj to #hj ,fahr4 ,one square foot of surface of steam pipe1 is adequate to the warming of two hundred cubic feet of space4 ,cast iron pipes are preferable to all others for the diffusion of heat4 ,for drying muslins and calicoes1 large cylinders are employed1 and the temperature of the apartment is from #ajj to #acj4 ,dr4 ,black observes that steam is the most effectual carrier of heat that can be conceived1 and will deposite it only on such bodies as are colder than boiling water4 ,dr4 ,ure 7,researches on ,heat7 has given a new table of the latent heat of vapours1 by which it appears that the vapour of water1 at its boiling point1 contains #ajjj degrees1 while that of alcohol of the specific gravity1 4#hbe contains #deg1 and ether1 whose boiling point is #aab1 only #cab4i4 ,we see then not only by the recent experiments of ,ure1 but also those of ,dr4 ,black1 ,lavoisier and ,laplace1 ,count ,rumford1 ,mr4 ,watt and some others1 that water is the best carrier of heat1 using the expression of ,dr4 ,black1 and hence is admirably calculated for the warming of apartments and other purposes4 ,steam may be applied for the heating of water or other fluids1 either for baths or manufactures1 and consequently for the saltpetre and sulphur refineries1 attached to a gunpowder establishment1 either by plunging the steam pipe with an open end into the water cistern1 if it be for the heating of water1 or by diffusing it around the liquid in the interval between the wooden vessel and an interior metallic case4 ,this last mode is applicable to all purposes4 ,a gallon of water in the form of steam will heat #f gallons at #ej up to the boiling point1 or #afb degrees2 or one gallon will be adequate to heat #ah gallons of the latter up to #ajj degrees1 making an allowance for waste in the conducting pipe4 ,mr4 ,woolf 7,monthly ,magazine vol4 xxxii1 p4 #bec7 has taken out a patent for a steam apparatus for various purposes1 among which that for the drying of gunpowder is specified4 ,this patent is considered under three heads2 viz4 the construction of the boilers1 which are cylindrical vessels properly connected together1 and so disposed as to constitute a strong and fit receptacle for water1 or any other fluid1 intended to be converted into steam1 and also to present an extensive portion of convex surface to the current of flame1 or heated air or vapour from a fire4 ,secondly1 of other cylindrical receptacles placed above these cylinders1 and properly connected with them1 for the purpose of containing water and steam1 and for its reception1 transmission1 c4 ,thirdly1 of a furnace so adapted to the cylindrical parts just mentioned1 as to communicate heat with facility and economy4 ,by means of this invention1 he states1 that any desired temperature1 necessary for the drying of gunpowder1 may be produced where the powder is to be dried1 without the necessity of having fire in1 or so near the place as to endanger its safety2 for by employing steam only1 conveyed through pipes1 and properly applied and directed1 without allowing any of it to escape into the room or apartment where the powder is1 any competent workman can produce a heat equal to that found necessary for drying gunpowder1 or much higher if required4 ,the heat may be regulated1 to effect the purpose1 without producing the sublimation of the sulphur1 which has sometimes taken place4 ,among the numerous patents of the late ,d4 ,pettibone are some for ovens1 both fixed and portable1 for the drying of gunpowder4 ,speaking of the use of heated air 7,description of the ,improvements of the ,rarefying air-stove1 p4 #ai7 he observes1 that powder makers would derive a very great advantage by using rarefied air for drying their gunpowder4 ,mr4 ,ingenhouz 7,nouvelles experiences et observations sur divers objects de physique7 attributed the effect of gunpowder to the simultaneous disengagement of dephlogisticated air from the nitre1 and inflammable air from the charcoal at the moment of ignition4 ,he followed the calculation of ,bernouilli with respect to the quantity of gas generated1 viz3 that one cubic inch of gunpowder at the moment of inflammation1 calculating at the same time its expansion1 occupies not less than #bbgf cubic inches4 ,that the effective force of gunpowder depends on the generation and expansion of sundry gaseous fluids1 is evident1 from the chemical action which takes place in the combustion4 ,at a red heat gunpowder explodes4 ,this ensues even in a vacuum2 a fact at once conclusive1 that1 while it possesses the inflammable principle1 it has also the supporter of combustion4 ,it is to be observed that the particle of powder which is struck by the spark1 is instantaneously heated to the temperature of ignition1 and is thereby decomposed2 and the affinity existing between its oxygen or the oxygen of the nitric acid1 and the charcoal and sulphur produces the principal part of the gases4 ,the caloric thus evolved1 inflames successively1 though with rapidity1 the remaining mass4 ,the expansive force of powder1 is therefore attributed to the sudden production of carbonic acid gas1 sulphurous acid and nitrogen gas1 with the water which is instantaneously converted into steam2 all of which are greatly augmented by the quantity of caloric liberated4 ,the combustion1 therefore1 is owing to the action of the charcoal and sulphur on the nitre2 and the decomposition is the effect of the union of the charcoal with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid1 with which it forms carbonic acid1 and also with the sulphur producing sulphurous acid gas4 ,it is asserted1 that sulphuretted hydrogen gas is also produced2 if so1 there must be a sulphuret formed1 which decomposes a part of the water4 ,after combustion1 what remains is carbonate of potassa1 sulphate of potassa1 and a small proportion of sulphuret of potassa and unconsumed charcoal4 ,good powder1 however1 should leave no very sensible residue when inflamed3 this is one of the proofs recommended4 ,thenard observes1 7,trait de ,chimie1 ii1 p4 #dih17 that the products of the combustion of gunpowder are numerous2 some gaseous1 and some solid4 ,the gaseous products are carbonic acid1 deutoxide of azote 7nitrous gas7 and azotic gas1 besides the vapour of water2 and the solid products are sub-carbonate of potassa1 sulphate of potassa1 and sulphuret of potassa4 ,m4 ,proust considers1 that nitrite of potassa1 prussiate of potassa1 charcoal1 sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 carburetted hydrogen gas1 nitrous gas1 and carbonic oxide gas may be generated or result1 as the products of the combustion1 when the materials have not been properly mixed4 ,our object in all cases should be to render the materials pure1 and the proportions so accurate1 as to produce the greatest possible effect1 which1 of course1 must depend on the formation and the consequent expansion of the gases4 ,the effect of fired gunpowder is owing in a great degree to the generation of carbonic acid gas2 for while the charcoal acts primarily in the combustion1 by taking a greater part of the oxygen from the nitric acid of the nitre1 with which we have said it produces carbonic acid2 the sulphur has a secondary influence1 by forming sulphurous acid gas1 although it renders the combustion more rapid1 and in this respect enables the charcoal to act at once on the nitric acid of the saltpetre4 ,we learn then1 that in gunpowder1 the quantity of charcoal should be such as to effect the decomposition2 and1 that while the sulphur has a secondary effect1 in the formation of sulphurous acid gas1 it promotes1 if so we may term it1 the rapid combustion1 and consequent action of the charcoal4 ,,mm4 ,botte and ,riffault 7,trait de l'art de ,fabriqu la poudre canon1 p4 #aig17 after making some observations on the constitution of powder1 and the action which takes place when it is burnt1 with the aeriform products that result1 give some remarks on the proportion of charcoal necessary to decompose a given quantity of nitric acid2 and conclude generally1 that in the production of carbonic acid gas1 the principal gas which is formed1 while the nitric acid is decomposed1 and gives up its oxygen to the carbon1 the azote is liberated in the state of gas1 and at the same time caloric is evolved4 ,they observe then1 that the ancient formula for the manufacture of gunpowder1 as used in ,france1 consists of the following proportions1 viz3 #j4gej saltpetre1 #j4abe charcoal1 and #j4abe sulphur1 which agrees with modern experiments1 although chemistry at that period was in its infancy4 ,m4 ,pelletier1 a member of the ,national ,institute1 and ,m4 ,riffault made several experiments at ,essonne1 on different proportions of nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur in the fabrication of powder4 ,it is unnecessary to state the different proportions1 made use of1 or the experiments on the strength of the powder made with the eprouvette4 ,they observe1 however1 that powder made in the following proportions1 was more satisfactory1 viz4 #j4gf saltpetre1 #j4ae charcoal1 #j4ji sulphur1 and #j4gf saltpetre1 #j4ad charcoal1 and #j4aj sulphur4 ,before we give the gaseous products1 according to these gentlemen1 it will be necessary to observe1 that the quantity of nitric acid in nitrate of potassa1 is #dh4fb in the hundred1 and according to ,gay-,lussac1 nitric acid is composed in volume of #bej oxygen and #ajj azote1 or in weight of #fi4dhh oxygen1 and #cj4eab azote4 ,using the ,french gramme in the present instance1 it appears that #ge grammes of nitrate of potassa1 the proportion of this salt which enters into #ajj grammes of gunpowder for war1 contains #cf4dg grammes of nitric acid2 and that this quantity of acid is formed of #be4cd grammes of oxygen1 and #aa4ac grammes of azote4 ,that quantity of oxygen 7#be4cd7 is disengaged from its combination with azote in the nitric acid1 at the instant of the inflammation of the powder by the charcoal1 forming carbonic acid2 the constituents of which1 according to the proportions established by ,gay-,lussac and others1 must be in the ratio of #bg4cgf of carbon and #gb4fbd of oxygen4 ,if #be4cd grammes of oxygen exist in #ge grammes of nitrate of potassa1 the proportion usually admitted1 then it will require #i4ee grammes of carbon to saturate it1 so as to produce carbonic acid4 ,it is necessary to consider1 that this is independent of any foreign earthy or saline matter or moisture which may exist4 ,with respect to the presence of hydrogen in charcoal1 the observations of ,dr4 ,priestley1 ,cruikshanks1 ,kirwan1 ,berthollet1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,thenard1 ,vauquelin1 ,lowitz and some others1 are conclusive on that head4 ,lavoisier made the quantity of hydrogen in charcoal upon an average1 to be #j4abe of its weight4 ,see ,memoirs de la ,socit d',arcueil1 tome ii1 p4 #cdc1 and the ,statique ,chimique1 tome ii1 pages #dd and #de1 and also charcoal in a preceding section4 ,it is said1 that by employing more charcoal than is necessary to decompose the nitric acid of the nitre1 the excess passes off1 not as carbonic acid1 but carbonic oxide1 or gaseous oxide of carbon1 which is necessarily inflamed1 and finally forms carbonic acid1 as one of the products with the carbonic acid originally formed4 ,but the carbonic oxide1 to be changed into carbonic acid1 requires in fact the oxygen of the atmosphere4 ,if #cd4hi grammes of carbonic acid result from the combustion of #i4ee grammes of carbon1 it must unite with a quantity of oxygen1 as before expressed1 and according to the temperature1 be more or less expanded4 ,the #aa4ac grammes of azote thus disengaged from its combination with oxygen1 in the nitric acid1 remains1 of course1 in the gaseous state1 and is also expanded by caloric4 ,the quantity of the latter is stated by ,lavoisier1 to be #dcj degrees1 using a scale of #hj parts2 and according to more recent experiments1 it is fixed at #fjj degrees of the centigrade thermometer4 ,the experiments of ,gay-,lussac are more recent1 in which he has given the dilatation of the gases1 and the quantity of free caloric evolved1 which corresponds with the last data4 ,we have not room to insert his remarks4 ,the use of sulphur with the charcoal1 in the fabrication of powder1 ,botte and ,riffault state to be1 7page #bjd7 that it inflames more rapidly than charcoal1 and at a lower temperature1 which accelerates the combustion of the charcoal1 and consequently the detonation of the powder4 ,the presence of the sulphur augments the volume of gas1 by producing sulphurous acid gas4 ,the proportion of sulphur in the powder for war1 is1 #j4abe1 for musket powder1 #j4aj1 and for mining powder1 #j4bj1 according to the same gentlemen4 ,m4 ,fourcroy 7,systme des ,connaissances ,chimiques1 tome iii1 p4 #abb47 among other products of the combustion of powder1 mentions ammonia4 ,if ammoniacal gas be formed1 the hydrogen must proceed from decomposed water1 and the azote from the nitric acid4 ,prussine1 cyanogen1 or carburet of nitrogen1 the radical of prussic acid1 may also be generated by the union of carbon and nitrogen or azote1 in the same manner4 ,we know that cyanogen may exist in the form of gas2 but as it is inflammable1 burning with a bluish flame mixed with purple1 we may infer1 nevertheless1 that1 if generated1 it must undergo decomposition by the process of combustion4 ,although ,i know of no experiments on this subject1 either by ,gay-,lussac1 ,vauquelin or ,davy1 all of whom have investigated the properties of this compound of carbon and azote1 which ,dr4 ,ure has called prussine2 yet it would appear1 that during its combustion1 the carbon is changed into carbonic acid1 and whether the azote be also combined with oxygen1 or merely set at liberty1 is altogether uncertain4 ,many difficulties present themselves to a complete and satisfactory set of experiments on the gaseous products of fired gunpowder4 ,with respect to the granulation of powder1 we may observe1 that although some writers consider that granulated powder is stronger than the fine powder1 yet others are of opinion1 that its strength is not increased by granulation4 ,grained powder is more fit for use2 but the graining of it prevents the whole of the powder from taking fire instantaneously4 ,gunpowder1 although prepared in the best manner1 is not wholly consumed by inflammation4 ,however remarkable it may appear1 yet nevertheless it is true1 that a considerable portion of gunpowder fired in a confined space is thrown out without being kindled4 ,that gunpowder passes through a volume of fire without being consumed1 may seem incredible1 yet the fact may be proved by firing with a musket upon snow1 or upon a paper screen4 ,m4 ,morveau communicated to the ,institute some experiments1 which may be seen in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 i1 p4 #bfi1 relative to the time necessary for the inflammation of a given mass of gunpowder1 c4 ,he infers that large grain powder inflames more readily than the fine grain4 ,since during the combustion of powder1 gaseous bodies more or less considerable are generated1 it follows that the full force of fired gunpowder must depend on the maximum of the quantity of those gases2 and the powder is more strong as it is susceptible of forming more gas in a given time4 ,besides the purity and the proper proportion of the materials1 the gunpowder1 to produce the greatest possible effect1 should not only be intimately mixed1 but dried perfectly and with care4 ,it is a fact which is well known1 that a musket1 fowling piece1 c4 are very apt to burst1 if the wadding is not rammed down close to the powder4 ,hence it is obvious1 that in loading a screw barrel pistol1 care should be taken that the cavity for the powder be entirely filled with it1 so as to leave no space between the powder and the ball4 ,experience has shown1 that if a shell is only half or two-thirds filled with gunpowder1 it breaks into a great number of pieces1 and on the contrary1 if completely filled1 it separates only into two or three pieces1 which are thrown to a very great distance4 ,it is also found that the same principle1 of leaving a space for air1 is applied with success in blasting rocks1 and splitting trunks of trees4 ,if the trunk of a tree is charged with gunpowder1 and the wadding is rammed down very hard upon the powder1 in that case 7unless the quantity of powder is great17 the wadding is only driven out1 and the tree remains entire2 but if1 instead of ramming the wad close to the powder1 a certain space is left between them1 the effects of the powder are then such as to tear the tree asunder4 ,addison 7,travels through ,italy and ,swisserland7 speaking of the celebrated ,grotto ,del ,cani1 which contains carbonic acid gas1 and on that account extinguishes flame1 and is fatal to animal life1 observes1 that he laid a train of gunpowder in the channel of a reed1 and placed it at the bottom of the grotto1 and on inflaming it1 that it burnt entirely away1 although the carbonic acid gas in the same spot would immediately extinguish a lighted taper1 snuff and all2 for1 he remarks1 fire is as soon extinguished in it as in water4 ,if gunpowder did not contain within itself that which was necessary to produce combustion1 how are we to account for its combustion in an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas1 or in vacuo8 ,whether gunpowder be fired in a vacuum or in air1 a permanently elastic fluid is generated1 the elasticity or pressure of which is1 cteris paribus1 directly as its density4 ,gregory1 7,treatise on ,mechanics1 c4 ii1 p4 #ef7 has given a summary of the results of the experiments of ,mr4 ,robins1 which we insert verbatim4 ,to determine the elasticity and quantity of this fluid 7the elastic7 produced from the explosion of a given quantity of gunpowder1 ,mr4 ,robins premises1 that the elasticity increases by heat1 and diminishes by cold1 in the same manner as that of the air2 and that the density of this fluid1 and consequently its weight1 is the same with an equal bulk of air1 having the same elasticity at the same temperature4 ,from these principles1 and from the experiments by which they are established 7for a detail of which we must refer to the book itself17 he concludes that the fluid produced by the firing of gunpowder1 is nearly #c_/ajths of the weight of the generating powder itself2 and that the volume or bulk of this air or fluid1 when expanded to the rarity of common atmospheric air1 is about #bdd times the bulk of the said generating powder4 ,count ,salace in his ,miscel4 ,phil4 ,math4 ,soc4 ,priv4 ,taurin1 p4 #abe1 makes the proportion as #bbb to #a2 which he says agrees with the computation of ,messrs4 ,hawkesbe ,amontons1 and ,belidor4 ,hence it would follow that any quantity of powder fired in any confined space1 which it adequately fills1 exerts at the instant of its explosion against the sides of the vessel containing it1 and the bodies it impels before it1 a force at least #bdd times greater than the elasticity of common air1 or1 which is the same thing1 than the pressure of the atmosphere2 and this without considering the great addition arising from the violent degree of heat1 with which it is endued at that time2 the quantity of which augmentation is the next head of ,robins's inquiry4 ,he determines that the elasticity of air is augmented in a proportion somewhat greater than that of #d to #a1 when heated to the extremest heat of red-hot iron2 and supposing that the flame of fired gunpowder is not of a less degree of heat1 increasing the former number a little more than four times1 makes nearly #ajjj2 which shows that the elasticity of flame1 at the moment of explosion1 is about #ajjj times stronger than the elasticity of common air1 or than the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,but1 from the height of the barometer1 it is known that the pressure of the atmosphere upon every square inch is on a medium of #ad-c_/dths1 and therefore #ajjj times this1 or #adgej lbs4 is the force of pressure of inflamed gunpowder1 at the moment of explosion1 upon a square inch1 which is very nearly equivalent to six tons and a half4 ,this great force1 however1 diminishes as the fluid dilates itself1 and in that proportion2 viz4 in proportion to the space it occupies1 it being only half the strength1 when it occupies a double space1 one-third the strength1 when a triple space1 and so on4 ,mr4 ,robins further supposed the degree of heat above mentioned to be a kind of medium heat2 but that in the case of large quantities of powder the heat will be higher1 and in very small quantities lower2 and that therefore in the former case the force will be somewhat more1 and the latter somewhat less1 than #ajjj times the force of the atmosphere4 ,he further found1 that the strength of powder is the same in all variations in the density of the atmosphere3 but that the moisture of the air has a great effect upon it2 for the same quantity which in a dry season would discharge a bullet with the velocity of #agjj feet in one second1 will not in damp weather give it a velocity of more than #ab or #acjj feet in a second1 or even less1 if the powder be bad1 or negligently kept4 ,robins's ,tracts vol4 i1 p4 #aja1 c4 ,further1 as there is a certain quantity of water1 which1 when mixed with powder1 will prevent its firing at all1 it cannot be doubted but every degree of moisture must abate the violence of the explosion2 and hence the effects of damp powder are not difficult to account for4 ,the velocity of expansion of the flame of gunpowder1 when fired in a piece of artillery1 without either bullet or other body before it1 is prodigiously great1 viz4 #gjjj feet per second4 ,but ,mr4 ,bernoulli and ,mr4 ,euler think it is still much greater4 ,dr4 ,hutton1 after applying some requisite corrections to ,mr4 ,robins's numbers1 and after remarking that the powder does not all inflame at once1 as well as that about #g_/ajths of it consist of gross matter not convertible into an elastic fluid1 gives v #abe sqrt 77n q7_/7#af q7 log4 of b_/a7 for the initial velocity of any ball of given weight and magnitude1 and n 77p w7_/#cahj ad#b7v#b log4 b_/a for the value of the initial force n of the powder in atmospheric pressures3 when a length of the bore occupied by this charge1 b whole length of the bore1 d diameter of the ball1 w its weight1 #b p weight of the powder1 q a_/d4 ,in his experiments and results1 he found n to vary between #agjj and #bcjj1 and the velocity of the flame to vary between #cjjj and #dgcb2 specifying1 however1 the modification in his computations1 which would give more than #gjjj feet per second for that velocity4 ,taking #bbjj for an average value of n1 and substituting #dg for its square root in the above formula for v1 it becomes v #ehge sqrt 7q_/7#af q7 log4 of b_/a7 for the velocity of the ball1 a theorem which agrees remarkably well with the ,doctor's numerous and valuable experiments4 7,tracts1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bij1 #cae47 ,in a ,french work entitled1 ,le ,mouvement ,ign considr principalement dans la charge d'une pice d'artillerie1 published in #ahji1 there are advanced1 among other notions which we apprehend few philosophers will be inclined to adopt1 some which may demand and deserve a careful consideration4 ,the author of this work observes1 that if a fluid draws its force partly from a gaseous or aeriform matter1 and partly from the action of caloric1 which rarefies that aeriform matter2 then its density in proportion to its dilatation1 will follow the inverse ratios of the squares of the spaces described4 ,he then investigates two classes of formul3 the first appertains to fluids which possess simply the fluid or aeriform elasticity1 which are free from all heat exceeding the temperature of the atmosphere4 ,whether there be one or many gaseous substances signifies not1 provided their temperature agrees with that of the atmosphere2 for when these dilate they conform to the inverse of the spaces described4 ,the second relate to those which derive their elasticity as well from the aeriform fluids1 as from the matter of heat which pervades them1 and which are denominated fluids of mixed elasticity1 to distinguish them from those of simple or purely aeriform elasticity4 ,these fluids1 in dilating1 conform to the inverse ratio of the squares of the spaces described4 ,thus the celerity of action of mixed elastic fluids1 is to that of simple elastic fluids as ,s#b to ,s2 whence it follows that mixed elastic fluids are more prompt and energetic in their action than others2 and hence also is inferred why the fluid produced by the combustion of gunpowder1 is more impetuous and more terrible in its operation than atmospheric air1 however compressed it may be4 ,the force exerted by the caloric to dissolve a quantity of powder1 is regarded as equal to that possessed by the fluid which results from that dissolution1 and is named the force of dissolution of powder by fire3 and the surface of least resistance is that 7as of the ball17 which yields to the action of the fluid4 ,the gunpowder subjected to experiment by this author1 was of seven different qualities1 varying from #ajjj1 the density of water1 down to #idf1 the density of powder used by sportsmen4 ,it was found by theory1 and confirmed by experiment1 that the real velocity with which the elastic fluid1 considered under the volume of the powder1 and penetrated by a degree of heat capable of quadrupling the volume1 would expand1 when it had only the resistance of the atmosphere to surmount1 is #bedf4di feet1 that is1 about #bgcd4d feet ,english4 ,comparing the several forces which were calculated for the same quantity of powder1 in three different circumstances3 #a4 ,when the fluid has only to surmount the atmospheric pressure1 it has a force of dissolution which is proper to it1 and which in a charge of #h lbs4 of powder 7the specific gravity #idd4gb1 for a #bd pounder17 acts upon the surface of the least resistance with an energy equivalent to #igdg4hjgd lbs4 #b4 ,the fluid retarded in its expansion by a surface of least resistance1 whose tenacity 7occasioned by the compactness and pressure of the wadding1 c47 is t #ca1 acquires by its elasticity of force #ebhci4adfc lbs4 at the instant when that surface yields to its action4 #c4 ,if the tenacity t #bih lbs41 the force of the fluid at the moment when the resisting surface yields to it1 will be equivalent to #dagcga4dbge lbs4 ,if each of these forces be divided by the surface of least resistance1 the quotient will indicate the equation of each filament1 namely1 #ast4 ,that of the force of dissolution #agc4fc grains2 #b;d4 when t #ca lbs4 that of elasticity #ibc4bf grains2 #c;d4 when t #bih lbs4 force elastic equal to #gdcc4ii grains4 ,dividing again these latter values by the length of the charges1 we shall have for the mean force of each elementary fluid particle1 #a4 ,force of dissolution1 #j4adbje grains4 #b4 ,when t #ca lbs4 the force elastic #j4geedj grains4 #c4 ,when t #bih lbs4 the force elastic #f4jhagd grains4 ,it appears1 however1 that equal charges of powder of the same quality employed in the same piece1 produce very different velocities2 the more considerable being the resistance to the expansion of the fluid1 the less the velocity becomes4 ,thus1 it is found1 when t #ca lbs4 the velocity of the ball when expelled at the mouth of the piece1 is #aefc4f feet3 when t #bih lbs4 v #acej4i feet4 ,the following table will exhibit in one view the velocities with which a #bd lb4 ball issues from the mouth of a gun1 when propelled with the several charges expressed in the first column4 #ast4 ,according to the theory developed in the volume1 from which we have made these extracts4 #b;d4 ,according to the experiments of ,m4 ,lombard1 at ,auxerre1 on guns for land service4 #c;d4 ,according to the experiments of ,m4 ,teixiere de ,norbec1 at ,toulon1 on guns for sea service4 #dth and #ethly4 ,according to the determination of ,mr4 ,robins and ,dr4 ,hutton4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,velocity from ,mean ,velocity from ,,velocities4 ,charges ,theory velocity experiment4 of -------------- from - ------------------------------ powder4 ,when ,when ,theory4 t#ca4 t#bih4 ,lombard4,norbec4 ,robins4 ,hutton4 ------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- #a lb4 #fbb #ebd #egc #ege #egj #fdj #ejj #b #ihj #hcf #ijh #ijf #idj #gej #gcj #c #ajgb #iah #iie #ihi #ajbj #ifi #hcj #d #abcc #ajeg #aade #aacb #abde #ajfi #idj #f #adjg #abaf #acab #acbj #acdj #abae #aafd #h #aefd #acea #adeg #adbe #aefj #acai #acdh #aj #aeha #acgj #adgf #adge #aejj #ab #afca #adba #aebf #aecj #afjj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,it is the prodigious celerity of expansion of the flame of fired gunpowder1 which is its peculiar excellence1 and the circumstance in which it so eminently surpasses all other inventions1 either ancient or modern2 for as to the momentum of these projectiles only1 many of the warlike machines of the ancients produced this in a degree far surpassing that of our heaviest cannon1 shot or shells2 but the great celerity given to them cannot be approached with facility by any other means than the explosion of powder4 ,dr4 ,hutton1 in conjunction with several able officers of the artillery and other gentlemen1 made an extensive course of experiments at ,woolwich1 at the expense of the ,british government1 by the direction of the then master-general of the ordnance1 7the late duke of ,richmond17 in the years #aghc1 #aghd1 and #aghe1 which demonstrated the following facts3 #a4 ,that the velocity continually increases as the gun is longer1 though the increase in velocity is but very small in respect of the increase in length2 the velocities being in a ratio somewhat less than that of the square roots of the length of the bores1 but somewhat greater than the cube roots of the same1 and nearly indeed in the middle ratio between the two4 #b4 ,that the charge being the same1 very little is gained in the range of a gun1 by a great increase of its length2 since the range or amplitude is nearly as the fifth root of the length of the bore1 and gives only about a seventh part more range with a gun of double length4 #c4 ,that with the same gun and elevation1 the time of the ball's flight is nearly as the range4 #d4 ,that no sensible difference is produced in the range or velocity1 by varying the weight of the gun1 by the use of wads1 by different degrees of ramming1 or by firing the charge of powder in different parts of it4 #e4 ,that a great difference1 however1 in the velocity1 is occasioned by a small variation in the windage2 so much so1 indeed1 that with the usual windage of one-twentieth of the caliber1 no less than between one-third and one-fourth of the whole charge of the powder escapes and is entirely lost2 and that as the windage is often greater1 one-half the powder is unnecessarily lost4 #f4 ,that the resisting force of wood to balls fired into it1 is not constant1 and that the depths penetrated by different velocities1 or charges1 are not as the charges themselves1 or1 which comes to the same thing1 as the squares of the velocities4 #g4 ,that balls are greatly deflected from the direction they are projected in1 sometimes1 indeed1 so much as #cjj or #djj yards in a range of a mile1 or almost a fourth part of the whole range1 which is nearly a deflection of an angle of #ae degrees4 ,the observations of ,glenie1 7,history of ,gunnery1 #aggf17 show the theory of projectiles in vacuo by plain geometry1 or by means of the square and rhombus2 with a method of reducing projections on inclined planes1 whether elevated or depressed below the horizontal plane1 to those which are made on the horizon4 ,this author1 in his treatise1 after stating in page #dh1 the two following positions of ,mr4 ,robins1 namely1 that till the velocity of the projectile surpasses that of #aah feet in a second2 the resistance of the air may be estimated to be in the duplicate of the velocity2 that if the velocity be greater than that of #aa or #abjj feet in a second1 the absolute quantity of the resistance will be nearly three times as great as it should be by a comparison with the smaller velocities2 says1 that he is certain from some experiments1 which he and two other gentlemen tried with a rifle piece properly fitted for experimental purposes1 that the resistance of the air to a velocity somewhat less than that mentioned in the first of these proportions1 is considerably greater than in the duplicate ratio of the velocity2 and that to a celerity somewhat greater than that stated in the second1 the resistance is less than that which is treble the resistance of the same ratio4 ,he observes1 also1 that some of ,mr4 ,robins's own experiments come to this conclusion2 since to a velocity no quicker than #bjj feet in a second1 he found the resistance to be somewhat greater than in that ratio1 and remarks1 therefore1 that after ascertaining the velocities of the bullets with as much accuracy as possible1 ,i instituted a calculus from principles which had been laying by me for some time before1 and found the resistance to approach nearer to that1 which exceeds the resistance in the duplicate ratio of the velocity1 by that which is the ratio of the velocity1 than to that1 which is only in the duplicate ratio4 ,the experiments of ,mr4 ,dalton1 confirm the premises of ,mr4 ,robins1 that the elasticity of the gases produced from a given quantity of powder1 is equally increased by heat and diminished by cold as that of atmospheric air4 ,hence1 as we before remarked1 and from direct experiments1 he concludes that the elastic fluid produced by the firing of gunpowder1 is nearly three-tenths of the weight of the powder itself1 which1 expanded to the rarity of common air1 is about #bdd greater than the elasticity of common air1 or in other words1 than the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,to this1 however1 must be superadded the increase of expansive power produced by the heat generated1 which is very intense4 ,the mere conversion of confined powder into elastic vapour1 would exert against the sides of the containing vessel1 an expansive force #bdd times greater than the elasticity of common air1 or1 in other words1 than the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,if the heat1 for the expansion of the gases1 should be equal to that of red-hot iron1 this would increase the expansion of common air1 7and also of all gases7 about four times1 which in the present instance would be as we stated in the preceding pages1 #bdd to nearly #ajjj2 so that in a general way it may be assumed1 that the expansive force of closely confined powder at the instant of firing1 is #ajjj times greater than the pressure of common air2 and as this latter is known to press with the weight of #ad-c_/d pounds on every square inch1 the force of explosion of gunpowder is #ajjj times this1 or #adgej lbs4 or about six tons and a half upon every square inch4 ,this enormous force diminishes in proportion as the elastic fluid dilates1 being only half the strength when it occupies a double space1 one-third of the strength when in a triple space1 and so on4 ,there is one more fact worthy of notice1 that ,mr4 ,robins found the strength of powder to be the same in all variations of the density of the atmosphere1 but not so in every state of moisture1 being much impaired by a damp air1 or with powder damped by careless keeping1 or any other cause2 so that the same powder which will discharge a bullet at the rate of #agjj feet in a second in dry air1 will only propel it about #abjj feet when the air is fully moist1 and a similar difference was observed between dry and moist powder4 ,the sum of these remarks1 with the necessary illustrations1 may be found in the extract we have given from ,gregory's ,mechanics4 ,before we mention the different modes of proving powder1 we will offer some remarks respecting the use of sulphur in gunpowder4 ,the conclusions on this head are drawn from the experiments made at ,essonne1 near ,paris4 ,the sulphur is not 7properly speaking7 a necessary ingredient in gunpowder1 since nitre and charcoal alone1 well mixed1 will explode2 but the use of the sulphur seems to be to diffuse the fire instantaneously through the whole mass of powder4 ,but1 if the following experiments are correct1 it should seem that the advantage gained by using sulphur in increasing the force of explosion only applies to small charges2 but in quantities of a few ounces1 the explosive1 or at least the projecting force of powder without sulphur1 is full as great as with sulphur4 ,the following are a few out of many trials made at the ,royal ,manufactory at ,essonne1 near ,paris1 in the year #agef1 to determine the best proportions of all the ingredients4 ,of powder made with nitre and charcoal alone1 #af of nitre and #d of charcoal was the strongest1 and gave a power of #i in the eprouvette4 ,with all three ingredients1 #af of nitre1 #d of charcoal1 and #a of sulphur1 raised the eprouvette to #ae1 and both a less and a greater quantity of sulphur produced a smaller effect4 ,then diminishing the charcoal1 a powder of #af of nitre1 #c of charcoal1 and #a of sulphur gave a power of #ag in the eprouvette1 which was the highest produced by any mixture4 ,this last was also tried in the mortar-eprouvette against the common proof powder1 and was found to maintain a small superiority4 ,the powder made without sulphur in the proportions above indicated was also tried in the mortar-eprouvette1 and with the following singular result3 when the charge was only two ounces it projected a sixty pound copper ball #bac feet1 and the strongest powder with sulphur projected it #bdi feet2 but in a charge of three ounces1 the former projected the ball #dge feet and the latter only #dgb feet2 and on the other hand the great inferiority of force in the smaller eprouvette of the powder without sulphur has been just noticed4 ,it is a fact1 known from time immemorial1 that by the combustion of bodies caloric is generated1 or chemically speaking1 is given out in a free state2 but the cause was not known until the anti-phlogistic theory of chemistry was established1 which abolished as untenable the old doctrine of phlogiston2 ,the quantity of caloric1 which passes from a latent to a free state in combustion1 as combustion is nothing more than the phenomena occasioned by this transition1 is variable2 and depends therefore on the substances burnt1 and the nature of what is denominated the supporter of combustion4 ,the experiments of ,,mm4 ,lavoisier and ,laplace have shown the quantity of caloric produced by the combustion of different substances by the calorimeter1 a table of which may be seen in ,thenard4 7,trait de ,chimie1 c4 t4 i1 p4 #ha74 ,from this table it appears1 that while a mixture of one pound of saltpetre with one pound of sulphur liquefied1 by its combustion1 thirty-two pounds of ice1 one pound of hydrogen gas melted #cac lbs4 phosphorus #ajj lbs4 and the same quantity of charcoal #if4cea lbs42 and by the detonation of a mixture of one pound of saltpetre with #j4cabe lbs4 of charcoal 7,french weight7 melted only #ab lbs4 of ice4 ,in the table of the elevation of temperature by the combustion of different substances1 the caloric being communicated to water1 7,thenard1 ,trait de ,chimie1 vol4 i1 p4 #hb71 it appears1 that by the combustion of equal weights of hydrogen gas1 phosphorus1 charcoal1 and oak1 the caloric produced was as follows3 ,hydrogen #bc1djj ,phosphorus #g1ejj ,charcoal #g1bbf ,oak wood #c1adf ,the reader may find some interesting calculations on this subject in ,biot's ,trait de ,physique1 c4 tome iv1 p4 #gjd1 and #gaf4 ,it appears also1 that in the combustion of one pound of hydrogen gas1 six pounds of oxygen were consumed1 and according to ,crawford's experiment the caloric given out melted #dhj lbs4 of ice4 ,one pound of phosphorus requires for combustion one and a half pounds of oxygen gas2 one pound of charcoal1 #b4h2 and one pound of sulphur1 #a4cf4 ,see ,thomson's ,system of ,chemistry1 vol i1 p4 #acc4 ,while noticing this subject we may remark1 that in combustion heat and light1 according to the ,lavoiserian doctrine1 are given out from the oxygen gas1 while the oxygen unites with the combustible body3 which has since been modified by supposing1 that while caloric is evolved from the gas1 the light is emitted from the burning body4 ,there are some facts contrary to the received theory of combustion2 that of gunpowder furnishes one4 ,we have also another instance in the combustion of oil of turpentine by nitric acid4 ,gunpowder will burn with great avidity in close vessels1 or under an exhausted receiver1 and we know that the oxygen is already combined with azote in the nitric acid of the nitrate of potassa1 and consequently not in a gaseous but a solid state2 yet we also know that a great quantity of caloric and light are emitted during the combustion1 and nearly all the products are gaseous4 ,the other anomaly is1 that as combustion is produced by pouring nitric acid on spirit of turpentine1 the oxygen being already combined with azote1 caloric and light are evolved by the mixture of the two fluids1 from which it is inferred1 that oxygen is capable of giving out caloric and light1 not only when liquid1 but even after combustion4 ,in the instance of gunpowder1 in order to explain the combustion which takes place independently of atmospheric air1 or any aeriform supporter1 the caloric and light1 in the opinion of ,dr4 ,thomson1 7,chemistry1 i1 #abh7 must be supposed to be emitted from a solid body during its conversion into gas1 which ought to require more caloric and light for its existence in the gaseous state than the solid itself contained4--,mr4 ,lavoisier 7,elements of ,chemistry1 p4 #aeg17 observes1 that he and ,m4 ,de la ,place deflagrated a convenient quantity of nitre and charcoal in an ice apparatus1 and found that #ab lbs4 of ice were melted by the deflagration of one pound of nitre4 ,after giving the proportions of acid and alkali in nitre1 and the quantity of oxygen and azote in the acid1 he observes1 that during the deflagration1 #ade-a_/c grains of carbon have suffered combustion along wit #cgch4cd grains of oxygen2 and as #ab lbs4 of ice were melted1 one pound of oxygen burnt in the same manner would have melted #bi4ehcb lbs4 of ice4 ,to which1 if we add the quantity of caloric retained by a pound of oxygen1 after combining with carbon to form carbonic acid gas1 which was already ascertained to be capable of melting #bi4achdd lbs4 of ice1 we shall have for the total quantity of caloric remaining in a pound of oxygen when combined with nitrous gas in the nitric acid1 #eh4gbafd2 which is the number of pounds of ice1 the caloric remaining in the oxygen in that state is capable of melting4 ,in the state of oxygen gas it contains at least #ff4ffffg4 ,m4 ,lavoisier infers then1 that the oxygen in combining with azote to form nitric acid1 only loses #g4idejb1 and that this enormous quantity of caloric1 retained by oxygen in its combination into nitric acid1 explains the cause of the great disengagement of caloric during the deflagration of nitre2 or1 more strictly speaking1 upon all occasions of the decomposition of nitric acid4 ,this view of the subject may enable us to explain the production of caloric1 in those cases of combustion which cannot be explained on the ordinary principles2 and1 with regard to gunpowder1 the accension of oil of turpentine by nitric acid1 and similar cases1 we may conclude1 as the only rationale which seems applicable1 that it is nothing more than the transition of caloric from one state to another1 from a latent to a free state4 ,be this as it may1 the combustion in such instances furnishes an anomaly to the already established doctrine1 of the absorption of oxygen1 or the base of the supporter1 and the evolution of caloric from the gas1 and not from the combustible2 or1 in other words1 the change of caloric in the supporter from a combined to an uncombined state4 ,the idea of latent heat may be had from ,dr4 ,black's own expression 7,black's ,lectures by ,robinson37 ,by this discovery1 says the doctor1 we now see heat susceptible of fixation--of being accumulated in bodies1 and1 as it were1 laid by till we have occasion for it2 and are as certain of getting the stored-up heat1 as we are certain of getting out of our drawers the things we laid up in them4 ,murray's ,system of ,chemistry1 #b;d edition1 p4 #cih1 and ,watson's ,chemical ,essays1 vol4 iii1 c4 may be consulted on this subject with advantage4 ,see ,introduction4 ,we will consider1 in the next place1 the subject of gunpowder proof4 ,the first examination of gunpowder is by rubbing it in the hands1 to find whether it contains any irregular hard lumps4 ,if it is too black1 it is a sign that it is moist1 or else1 that it has too much charcoal in it2 so1 also1 if rubbed upon white paper1 it blackens it more than good powder does2 but1 if it be of a kind of azure colour1 it is a good indication4 ,if on crushing it with the fingers1 the grains break easily1 and turn into dust1 without feeling hard1 it is a criterion1 that it has too much coal2 or1 if in pressing it under the fingers upon a smooth hard board1 some grains feel harder than the rest1 it is inferred that the sulphur is not well mixed with the nitre4 ,by blasting two drachms of each sort on a copper plate1 and comparing it with approved powder4 ,in this proof it should not emit any sparks1 nor leave any beads or foulness on the copper4 ,the method of burning1 which is commonly employed1 ,mr4 ,robins observes1 is to fire a small heap on a clean board1 and to attend nicely to the flame and smoke it produces1 and to the marks it leaves behind on the boards4 ,another trial of powder is to expose it to the atmosphere4 ,one pound of each sort1 accurately weighed1 is exposed to the atmosphere for #ag or #ah days2 during which time1 if the materials are pure1 it will not increase any thing material in weight1 by attracting moisture from the air4 ,one hundred pounds of good powder should not absorb more than twelve ounces1 or somewhat less than one per cent4 ,see ,mr4 ,coleman's account of the manufacture of powder in ,england1 page #aaj4 ,to determine the strength of powder in the easiest manner1 is by comparing its effect with improved powder2 as1 for instance1 by using a given weight of powder1 as two ounces1 and discharging a ball of a known weight1 say #fd pounds1 from an #h inch mortar4 ,the best cylinder powder generally gives about #ahj feet range1 and pit #ahj1 with a ball and charge of the above weights2 but the weakest powder1 or powder that has been reduced1 c4 only from #ajg to #aag feet4 ,the practice adopted in ,england1 we are told1 is1 that the merchant powder1 before it is received into the king's service1 is tried against powder of the same kind made at the king's mills1 and it is received if it gives a range of #a_/bj less than the king's powder1 with which it is compared4 ,in this comparison1 both sorts are tried on the same day1 and at the same time1 and under exactly the same circumstances4 ,james 7,mil'y ,dictionary1 p4 #cdh7 remarks1 that the proof of powder as practised by the board of ordnance1 besides that of comparing it by combustion on paper1 is that #b drachms1 when put into the eprouvette1 must raise a weight of #bd pounds to the height of #c-a_/b inches4 ,according to ,botte and ,riffault1 before gunpowder is received into the arsenals of ,france1 for service1 it undergoes a variety of proofs2 and the instructions for that purpose are contained under forty-two heads1 embracing1 at the same time1 the specific duties of the officer employed for that service4 ,the principal points1 however1 refer to a standard proof1 made with the eprouvette1 and differ1 in no essential part1 from the methods practised elsewhere4 ,there is a uniformity in the ,french service1 which cannot but be admired4 ,in every thing which relates to the ordnance especially1 even in the most minute details1 the ,french1 without doubt1 exceed any other nation4 ,having examined the different kinds of proof1 not only for gunpowder1 but for cannon and small arms1 as established by an act of parliament1 it appears1 that musket powder undergoes another description of proof4 ,a charge of four drachms of fine grain or musket powder in a musket barrel1 should perforate1 with a steel ball1 a certain number of half inch wet elm boards1 placed #c_/d inch asunder1 and the first #ci feet #aj inches from the barrel4 ,the powder manufactured at the ,royal ,powder ,mills generally passes through fifteen or sixteen1 and restored powder1 from nine to twelve4 ,there are other contrivances made use of1 such as powder-triers1 acting by a spring1 commonly sold at the shops1 and others again that move a great weight1 throwing it upwards1 which is an imperfect kind of eprouvette4 ,dr4 ,hutton is of opinion1 that the best eprouvette is a small cannon1 the bore of which is about one inch in diameter1 and which is to be charged with two ounces of powder1 and with powder only2 as a ball is not necessary2 and the strength of the powder is accurately shown1 by the arc of the gun's recoil4 ,the whole machine is so simple1 easy1 and expeditious1 that1 as ,dr4 ,hutton remarks1 the weighing of the powder is the chief part of the trouble2 and so accurate and uniform1 that the successive repetition1 or firings1 with the same quantity of the same sort of powder1 hardly ever make a difference in the recoil of the one-hundredth part of itself4 ,gregory 7,treatise of ,mechanics1 vol4 ii1 p4 #agh7 has given a more particular description of the eprouvette of ,dr4 ,hutton2 namely1 that it is a small brass gun1 #b-a_/b feet long1 suspended by a metallic stem1 or rod1 turning1 by an axis1 on a firm and strong frame1 by means of which1 the piece oscillates in a circular arch4 ,a little below the axis1 the stem divides into two branches1 reaching down to the gun1 to which the lower ends of the branches are fixed1 the one near the muzzle1 the other near the breech of the piece4 ,the upper end of the stem is firmly attached to the axis1 which turns very freely by its extremities in the sockets of the supporting frame2 by which means1 the gun and stem vibrate together in a vertical plane1 with a very small degree of friction4 ,the charge is the same we have mentioned1 usually about two ounces1 without any ball1 and then fired2 by the force of the explosion1 the piece is made to recoil or vibrate1 describing an arch or angle1 which will be greater or less1 according to the quantity or strength of the powder4 ,to measure the quantity of recoil1 and consequently the strength of the powder1 a circular brazen or silver arch of a convenient extent1 and of a radius equal to its distance below the axis1 is fixed against the descending two branches of the stem1 and graduated into divisions1 according to the purpose required by the machine3 viz4 #ast4 ,into equal parts1 or degrees1 for the purpose of determining the angle actually described in the vibration4 #bnd4 ,into equal parts1 according to the chords1 being1 in fact1 #ajj times the double sines of the half angles1 and running up to #ajj1 as equivalent to #ij degrees4 #c;d4 ,into unequal parts1 according to the versed sines2 they are1 in truth1 #ajj times the versed sines of our common tables1 #ada-a_/b corresponding with #ij degrees4 ,these serve to compare the forces4 ,the divisions in these scales are pointed out by an index1 which is carried on the arch during the oscillation1 and then1 stopping there1 shows the actual extent of the vibration4 ,two ounces of powder1 give1 on an average1 according to the experiments of professor ,gregory1 about #cf on the chords1 or about #ba on the arch4 ,a more detailed account1 with diagrams1 may be seen1 by consulting ,hutton's ,tracts1 vol4 iii1 p4 #aec4 ,the eprouvette constructed by the late ,mr4 ,ramsden1 differs from the preceding simply by the gun's recoiling in a direction parallel to itself1 instead of its vibrating as a pendulum4 ,the gun is suspended by two hanging frames1 which serve to make it rise and fall1 during its recoil and return1 so as always to retain the horizontal direction4 ,the degrees are measured upon a fixed arch1 by means of a moveable index1 nearly as in ,dr4 ,hutton's eprouvette4 ,we remarked1 that the common powder-triers are small strong barrels1 in which a determinate quantity of powder is fired1 and the force of expansion measured by the action excited on a strong spring1 or a great weight4 ,the ,french eprouvette is usually a mortar of seven inches 7,french7 in caliber1 which with three ounces of powder should throw a copper globe of sixty pounds weight to the distance of #cjj feet4 ,no powder is admitted that does not answer this trial4 ,this eprouvette1 however1 has been improved1 as we shall mention hereafter4 ,these methods have been objected to1 the former because the spring is moved by the instantaneous stroke of the flame1 and not by its continued pressure1 which is somewhat different2 and the other1 on account of the tediousness attending its use1 when a large number of barrels of powder are to be tried4 ,j4 ,bodington of ,london1 invented a machine to try the force of gunpowder4 ,m4 the chevalier d',arcys made an eprouvette on the principle of ,mr4 ,robins4 ,m4 ,le ,roy proposed to employ the different elastic forces of inflammable air1 but his method has never been used4 ,m4 ,tresnel also proposed an eprouvette1 which was announced in the ,french journal1 entitled ,nouvelles de la ,rpublique des ,lettres et des ,arts1 par ,m4 de la ,blancherie1 for #aghb1 p4 #aij4 ,it is hardly necessary to observe1 that the eprouvette has undergone some improvements3 thus1 the eprouvette of ,darcy consists of a cannon suspended at the extremity of a bar of iron1 and the graduated arc measures the recoil2 the eprouvette of ,regnier is nearly the same1 and the arc determines the force of the powder4 ,a description of mortar-eprouvettes generally1 may be seen in the work of ,,mm4 ,botte et ,riffault1 7,trait sur l'art de ,fabriquer la poudre canon17 and in the ,memoirs of ,proust 7,journal de ,physique1 tome lxx1 et suiv471 c4 ,i saw a model of an improved eprouvette1 which appeared to possess every advantage1 at the ,ordnance ,arsenal near ,albany2 an index hand moved in an arc4 ,quicklime is said to increase the force of powder4 ,dr4 ,baine says1 that three ounces of pulverized quicklime being added to one pound of gunpowder1 its force will be augmented one-third2 shake the whole together1 till the white colour of the lime disappears4 ,the preservation of gunpowder in properly constructed magazines1 of which we will have occasion to speak hereafter1 is a subject that should claim our attention4 ,the greatest difficulty1 if any1 exists at sea1 and on this head we have a variety of opinions4 ,mr4 ,james 7,military ,dictionary1 p4 #cdh7 says1 that it has been recommended to preserve gunpowder at sea by means of boxes lined with sheet-lead4 ,m4 ,d4 ,gentien1 a naval officer1 tried the experiment by lodging a quantity of gunpowder and parchment cartridges in a quarter of the ship which was sheathed in this manner4 ,after they had been stowed for a considerable time1 the gunpowder and cartridges were found to have suffered little from the moisture2 whilst the same quantity1 when lodged in wooden cases1 became nearly half destroyed4 ,it has been recommended to line powder magazines with lead1 as a mean for preserving the powder from dampness4 ,the lead1 it seems1 so far attracts moisture1 as to condense it4 ,in the last volume of the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 is a memoir on leaden cartridges1 by ,wm4 ,jones1 ,esq4 the late secretary of the navy1 which1 besides preserving the powder1 has advantages over either paper or flannel4 ,see ,magazine4 ,what is termed the analysis of gunpowder1 is nothing more than the separation of its component parts1 and determining the relative proportions of its respective ingredients4 ,we may indeed examine the quality of the nitrate of potassa1 by dissolving a portion of powder in distilled water1 and employing the reagents mentioned under the head of nitre2 but for the purpose of separating1 as well as determining the proportion of saline matter1 charcoal and sulphur1 it may be readily accomplished in the following manner3 ,take a given quantity of gunpowder and affuse it in distilled water sufficient to dissolve the salt2 after suffering it to remain for some time1 applying heat to assist the solution1 decant the whole upon a filter of unsized paper4 ,the saltpetre and other saline matter will pass through1 and the sulphur and charcoal remain on the filter4 ,by evaporating the solution to dryness1 and weighing it1 the quantity of saltpetre will be found2 or1 after drying the mass on the filter1 and weighing it1 by subtracting its weight from that of the original1 it will give the loss sustained1 which of course is the saltpetre4 ,by exposing the mass to a heat sufficient to evaporate the sulphur1 it will be expelled2 the loss sustained will indicate its quantity1 and the weight of the residue the proportion of charcoal4 ,the sulphur may be even separated by subjecting gunpowder itself to the action of a well regulated heat2 it will sublime1 and leave the nitre and charcoal4 ,it takes a much higher temperature to inflame gunpowder than is required to volatilize sulphur4 ,the method of extracting the nitre from damaged powder1 we have already noticed4 ,see nitre4 ,this process also depends on the solubility of the nitre1 and the insolubility of the charcoal and sulphur4 ,bishop ,watson1 in his ,chemical ,essays1 proposed the examination of gunpowder by solution and sublimation2 a process sufficiently accurate4 ,if it should be our object to ascertain the presence and quantity of foreign substances1 in the saltpetre1 this may be accomplished by following the process already given1 viz3 by collecting the precipitates1 c4 determining their weights1 and making the necessary allowance1 for the new compounds1 as the carbonates of lime1 sulphate of barytes1 muriate of silver1 and the like4 ,baum proposed the analysis of powder by sublimation1 in order to separate the sulphur1 using however a graduated heat4 ,another mode consists in distilling the powder in a retort with water1 and collecting the sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 and then separating the charcoal1 c4 ,a third process was recommended by ,pelletier1 after the separation of the nitre1 by subliming a mixture of the residue with mercury1 which1 however1 presents no advantages4 ,the use of nitric acid has also been recommended1 in order to acidify the sulphur4 ,for this purpose nitric acid is poured on the residue1 and the whole is digested for some time1 renewing the acid as it is decomposed4 ,by this means the carbon1 as well as the sulphur1 is acidified1 and carbonic acid gas with deutoxide of azote are disengaged1 leaving the sulphuric acid formed by the union of oxygen with the sulphur1 in the remaining fluid1 from which it is separated by nitrate of barytes1 and its quantity ascertained by the sulphate of barytes produced4 ,the proportion of sulphur1 in the sulphuric acid1 is then calculated4 ,caustic potassa has been employed for the separation of the sulphur from the charcoal4 ,it unites with the sulphur1 forming a sulphuret2 and as sulphuretted hydrogen gas is also produced1 the sulphuret must likewise contain the hydroguretted sulphuret of potassa4 ,the charcoal is not acted upon4 ,m4 ,vito ,caravelli1 professor of chemistry at ,naples1 7,elements d',artillerie1 #aggc17 has given a more simple process for the separation of these substances1 which depends on their specific gravity4 ,when mixed with water1 the sulphur will deposite1 and the charcoal float on the fluid4 ,vauquelin directed his attention to this subject1 and has recommended various processes1 not only for the separation of the sulphur and charcoal1 but also the nitre4 ,the process of ,smithson ,tennant is nearly of the same nature4 ,the separation of sulphur from charcoal may be effected more perfectly1 according to ,brande1 by introducing the mixture into a small retort furnished with a stop cock1 exhausted1 and filled with chlorine gas2 the chlorine will unite with the sulphur1 forming a chloride1 and leave the charcoal1 which may be washed1 dried1 and weighed4 ,baum found1 that when all the sulphur is expelled which will be driven off in the heat1 a certain portion will still remain1 and not burn away at a lower temperature than will consume the charcoal2 so that to the last the burning residue will smell strongly sulphurous4 ,this retained portion of sulphur he finds1 by the results of many other experiments1 to be very uniformly about one-twenty-fourth part of the whole sulphur employed2 whence1 for all common purposes1 an adequate correction may be made1 by estimating that the slow weak combustion of the residue1 after the nitre has been extracted1 destroys only #bc_/bdths of the sulphur instead of the whole4 ,on trying to separate them by an alkaline solution1 he found some of the sulphur to remain undisturbed1 and still adhering to the charcoal4 ,in consequence of this circumstance1 it is recommended1 to insure a perfect analysis1 to separate the nitre in the first place from gunpowder1 by hot water1 and to treat the residue with nitric acid4 ,after the sulphur is acidified1 the addition of nitrate or muriate of barytes will separate1 effectually1 the sulphuric acid from the fluid1 and form a sulphate of barytes2 this being collected1 washed1 dried1 and weighed1 will give the quantity of sulphuric acid1 and of sulphur in the acid1 by the well known proportion of acid in the salt1 and of sulphur in the acid4 ,one hundred parts of sulphate of barytes1 when perfectly dry1 indicate fourteen and a half parts of sulphur2 or1 which is the same1 according to ,chenevix1 one hundred and fifty-five grains denote twenty-two and a half grains of sulphur4 ,the observations of ,m4 ,champy and professor ,proust on humid powder1 seem to place the quantity of water absorbed1 at #h1 #aj1 and #ad per cent4 ,these proportions1 it is evident1 depend greatly on the quality of the nitre2 and if deliquescent salts exist in any quantity1 the absorption1 and consequently the increase of weight must be greater4 ,chemical examination will readily determine this fact4 ,the different sorts of gunpowder are usually distinguished by marks on the heads of the barrels4 ,gunpowder marks are various4 ,all gunpowder for service is mixed in proportions according to its strength1 so as to bring it as much as possible to a mean and uniform force4 ,this sort of powder1 says ,adye1 7,bombardier and ,pocket ,gunner17 is marked with a blue ,l4 ,g4 and the figure #a_/b2 or with ,f4 #a_/b ,g4 and the figure #c1 whose mean force is from #aej to #afj of the eprouvette4 ,this is the powder used for practice1 for experiments1 and for service4 ,the white ,l4 ,g4 or ,f4 ,g4 is a second sort of powder of this quality4 ,it is sometimes stronger but not so uniform as the ,l4 ,g4 ,it is1 therefore1 generally used in filling shells1 or such other things as do not require accuracy4 ,the red ,l4 ,g4 ,f4 ,g4 denotes powder in the ,british service1 made at the ,king's mills1 with the coal made in cylinders1 and is used at present only in particular cases1 and in comparisons1 and to mix with other sorts to bring them to a mean force4 ,the figures #a1 #b or #c denote that the powder is made from saltpetre1 obtained from the rough4 ,other marks are also in use to designate the rifle1 musket1 cannon powder1 and the like4 ,powder merchants recover damaged gunpowder1 by putting a part of the powder on a sail cloth1 and adding an equal quantity of good powder1 which is well mixed with it1 and the mixture is then dried4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,lampblack4 ,lampblack1 which is nothing more than a finer kind of coal1 is so named from its being produced and originally made by the combustion of oil in lamps4 ,it is hardly necessary to say1 that it is formed in the combustion of turpentine1 various species of the pinus1 tar1 pitch1 rosin1 c4 as all these substances yield it more or less1 and of different qualities4 ,it is the result of imperfect combustion2 for1 if the combustion were rapid1 and the smoke itself consumed1 we would then have only carbonic acid4 ,this fact is exemplified in the argand lamp1 which1 on account of the glass cylinder1 consumes its own smoke4 ,the process of forming lampblack is conducted in lampblack houses4 ,after the combustion has ceased1 the soot or lampblack is swept down1 as it collects above and on the sides of the room4 ,when it is obtained by burning the dregs and coarser parts of tar1 furnaces of a particular construction are used4 ,the smoke is conveyed through tubes into boxes1 each covered with linen1 in the form of a cone4 ,upon this linen the soot is deposited1 from which it is1 from time to time1 beaten off into boxes1 and afterwards packed in barrels for sale4 ,there is also a very fine black1 superior in many respects to lampblack1 especially in making the ink for copperplate printers1 prepared by carbonizing grape stalks1 c4 in close iron vessels4 ,there are two kinds of lampblack in common use4 ,one is the light soot1 from burning wood1 of the pine and other resinous kinds1 usually made in ,sweden4 ,in ,sweden the impure turpentine is also burnt for this purpose4 ,it is collected from incisions made in pine and fir-trees1 and the turpentine is boiled down with a small quantity of water1 and strained1 while hot1 through a bag2 and while this part is used for another purpose1 the dregs and pieces of bark remaining in the strainer1 are burnt in a low oven1 whence the smoke is conveyed through a long passage into a square chamber1 which contains a sack1 as above stated1 where the greater part of the lampblack collects1 and the remainder is caught in the chamber4 ,the other kind of lampblack is formed by carbonization1 a process similar to that for preparing the black1 called blue-black1 from grape stalks1 or for preparing the ,german black1 a pigment made by charring principally the lees of wine and husks of grapes4 ,the lampblack made in ,philadelphia1 for the purpose of printers' ink1 is prepared by the combustion of tar4 ,one barrel of ,carolina tar will produce forty pounds of soot or lampblack4 ,a patent was granted #agih to a ,mr4 ,row1 7,repository of ,arts1 vol4 x47 for a newly invented mineral lampblack4 ,it is nothing more than the smoke obtained by the combustion of pit coal4 ,in the county of ,sarrbrook on the ,rhine1 are some establishments for making coke and lampblack at the same time2 and from #ajj lbs4 of coal1 #cc lbs4 of coke1 and #c-a_/b of lampblack are obtained4 ,jeanson 7,archives des ,dcouvertes1 c4 i1 p4 #ba7 has described a process for carbonizing oil4 ,lampblack has the same chemical properties as charcoal1 and being remarkably fine1 and containing sometimes a portion of oil1 is used on that account in the composition of some fire-works4 ,its quality may be known by its colour1 and1 when burnt1 leaving no residue4 ,it may be sufficient to remark1 that like charcoal1 it decomposes nitric acid2 and the nitrates1 when mixed with it1 and projected into a red-hot crucible1 will deflagrate or produce a vivid combustion4 ,it may therefore be used in all kinds of fire-works1 in which charcoal is employed4 ,concentrated nitric acid1 when poured on lampblack1 previously dried1 will produce combustion4 ,it is to the carbon1 as well as the hydrogen1 in oil of turpentine1 that turpentine inflames when brought in contact with nitric acid2 and although much charcoal is deposited1 yet a considerable part passes off in the state of carbonic acid gas4 ,by a proper treatment1 lampblack like charcoal may be converted into artificial tannin by nitric acid4 ,it has also antiseptic qualities2 but to be used for this purpose it should first be exposed to heat1 in order to drive off any oil which it may have contracted1 or with which it might be contaminated4 ,the quality of lampblack may1 we suspect1 be improved by bringing it to a state of ignition in close iron vessels4 ,if required intensely black1 as for the making of printers' ink1 this process might be advantageously used4 ,mixed with gum water1 it makes a durable writing ink1 or1 according to ,mr4 ,close1 by mixing it with a solution of copal in oil of lavender4 ,this ink is not1 like the common kind1 acted upon by acids4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of ,soot4 ,soot1 or that substance formed by the combustion of wood1 c4 which collects in chimnies1 is used in some of the pyrotechnical preparations1 partly to assist the flame1 and partly to modify its appearance4 ,it is found1 that soot1 produced by the combustion of wood1 is formed by the condensation of the carbon evolved in the smoke4 ,it also contains volatile products1 the nature of which1 depends on the kind of combustible4 ,wood-soot is considered a good manure1 on account of the carbon and some volatile salts1 it is said to contain4 ,that it contains ammonia1 is evident1 since it may be detected by experiment2 and that this alkali is combined with carbonic acid1 and sometimes with muriatic acid1 a number of facts prove4 ,soot1 then1 when used in fire-works1 may1 like sal ammoniac1 but in a lesser degree1 produce a particular coloured flame4 ,when soot is well washed in water1 in order to free it from saline and other soluble matter1 and probably from pyroacetic acid1 and then pulverized1 it forms the pigment called bistre4 ,it is a fact1 that the excrement of some animals1 the camel for instance1 which feed on saline vegetables1 when burnt1 will yield a soot1 which contains an abundance of muriate of ammonia1 or sal ammoniac4 ,hence1 by re-subliming this soot1 sal ammoniac was originally prepared in ,egypt4 ,the quantity of muriate of ammonia1 contained in the soot of camels' dung1 is considerable4 ,it is found that #bf lbs4 of soot yield on an average #f lbs4 of that salt2 ,see ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,camels' dung1 and in fact the dried excrement of animals1 furnish a very good fuel4 ,in ,egypt it is used with advantage4 ,the soot of oil1 c4 is of a different kind2 it is the substance1 which forms our lampblack4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,of ,turpentine1 ,rosin1 and ,pitch4 ,all these substances enter into the composition of fire-works1 either to increase the rapidity of combustion1 as in incendiary fire-works1 or1 in some cases1 as with rosin1 to produce a coloured flame4 ,that they contain carbon and hydrogen1 as their principal ingredients1 is well known2 to which we may attribute their rapid combustion1 and the facility with which they decompose nitrous salts4 ,the ,greek fire1 for example1 owed1 it is said1 its powerful effect to turpentine1 which1 with other substances employed1 made the composition remarkably inflammable1 and the decomposition of the nitre1 7which some say it contained7 so rapid1 as even to defy the action of water4 ,all of the turpentines are obtained from different species of pinus4 ,common turpentine is the resinous juice1 which exudes chiefly from the ,pinus ,sylvestris1 or ,scotch fir1 and is obtained by boring holes into the trunks of the trees1 early in the spring1 and placing vessels beneath for its reception4 ,this turpentine1 and in fact all others1 are composed of rosin and a volatile oil4 ,the latter is obtained by distilling the turpentine with water4 ,it passes over with the water1 from which it is afterwards separated1 and is then known by the name of the essential oil1 or spirit of turpentine4 ,the substance1 remaining in the still1 is common rosin1 or yellow rosin1 known likewise by the names of fidlers' rosin and colophony4 ,tar is also obtained from the roots and refuse parts of the fir tree1 by cutting them in billets1 piling these in a proper manner1 in pits or ovens1 formed for the purpose1 covering them partly over1 and setting them on fire4 ,during the combustion1 a black and thick matter1 which is tar1 falls to the bottom1 and is conducted into barrels4 ,pitch is nothing more than tar boiled down to a solid consistence2 it is usually made1 however1 by melting together coarse hard rosin1 and an equal quantity of tar4 ,the ancient pitch possessed a flavour and fragrance4 ,white pitch is the same as the white turpentine4 ,melted pitch1 sulphur1 and camphor1 mixed1 when nearly cold1 with pulverized saltpetre1 and afterwards thinned with spirit of turpentine1 will form a composition1 that is very inflammable1 and will almost resist the action of water4 ,a similar composition must have formed the ,greek fire1 of which1 according to ,beckman1 there were several kinds4 ,the turpentine trees furnish various products3 ,thus1 the ,pinus ,abies1 or spruce fir1 yields the ,burgundy pitch1 and its branches produce the ,essence of ,spruce2 but other species of pinus are used for the same purpose1 which are nearly allied to it1 and which grow abundantly in ,canada4 ,from the ,pinus laryx1 or larch1 ,venice ,turpentine is obtained2 but that sold1 is usually made by melting rosin1 and adding the spirit of turpentine4 ,from the sap of the larch1 the ,russians prepare a gummy substance1 known in ,russia by the name of ,orenburg gum4 ,turpentine is extracted in ,france1 in great quantity1 from the pinus maratima4 ,gallipot1 colophony1 tar1 pitch1 c4 are likewise obtained from it4 ,the turpentine of cedar1 according to ,dr4 ,pocoke 7,travels through ,egypt7 was employed by the ,egyptians for embalming1 the operation being performed in several ways4 ,it was injected1 and used with salt1 nitre1 c4 ,pitch1 tar1 and turpentine all enter into sundry compositions1 used in war4 ,the different incendiary preparations1 noticed in the last part of the work1 are composed1 in general1 of either one or all of these substances4 ,their use is obvious4 ,being very inflammable1 and brought in contact with gunpowder1 nitrate of potassa1 c4 they burn with great rapidity1 and consume every thing before them4 ,hence the tourteaux of the ,french1 tarred links1 and fascines1 carcasses1 c4 owe their effect to the presence of these substances4 ,rosins are considered to be volatile oils1 saturated with oxygen4 ,thus1 or frankincense1 of which there are several varieties1 has been long used in fire-works2 it is frequently employed in the composition of odoriferous fire4 ,it is obtained from the pinus abies1 and appears in tears4 ,during winter1 the wounds made in fir trees become incrusted with a brittle substance1 called barras or gallipot1 consisting of rosin united with a small portion of oil4 ,all rosins1 according to the experiments of ,gay-,lussac1 and ,thenard1 7,recherches physico-chimiques7 are composed of a great quantity of carbon and hydrogen1 united with a small quantity of oxygen4 ,to this1 we attribute their great inflammability1 and it enables us to account for the rapid decomposition of nitre1 in those preparations1 in which nitre and resinous substances are employed4 ,see ,general ,theory of ,pyrotechny1 sec4 ii4 ,for the accension which takes place by mixing oil of turpentine and nitric acid1 see the properties of nitric acid1 under the head of nitre4 ,morey 7,silliman's ,journal1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aba7 observes1 that a small quantity of spirit of turpentine being added to a mixture of iron-filings1 sulphuric acid1 and water1 the hydrogen gas produced1 will burn with a very pleasant white flame1 and without smoke4 ,he also observes1 that1 if the vapour of spirit of turpentine be made to pass through a tube1 covered at the upper end with a fine wire gauze1 it burns with much smoke2 but1 if a quantity of atmospheric air be allowed to mix with it1 the smoke ceases1 and the flame continues white4 ,if more still be added1 the flame lessens1 and becomes partly blue4 ,by adding still more and more1 it will burn with a very small flame1 entirely blue1 and with a singular musical sound4 ,if still more be added1 the flame1 and every ray of light cease2 but that the combustion still continues1 is certain1 from the explosive detonating noise1 continuing to be distinctly heard4 ,mr4 ,morey further remarks1 that1 if tar1 containing a considerable proportion of water1 is dropped on brick or metal1 at a temperature1 which will readily evaporate them1 the vapours will burn with white shooting streaks1 much flame1 and without smoke1 while the water lasts4 ,inflamed drops of tar1 burn1 while falling1 with a red flame1 and much smoke2 but1 on reaching boiling water1 the smoke instantly disappears1 and streaks of a white flame shoot up4 ,he also says1 that1 if water in one cylinder be made to boil1 and the steam be led to the bottom of another1 containing rosin1 or tar1 at a high temperature1 after passing up through it1 the water1 together with the vapourized portion of the rosin or tar1 will1 when the preparations are properly regulated1 burn with an intense white flame1 and no smoke2 much the greater part of which appears1 7by alternately shutting the steam out1 or letting it in7 to be derived from the water2 and also1 that if steam be led over the surface of tar in a cylinder1 and made to force out a small stream of it through a pipe1 into which a quantity of steam is also admitted1 and made to mix intimately with it1 they burn1 with a great body of flame and intense heat1 and without smoke1 provided the proportions are well regulated4 ,these facts are remarkable1 and may probably lead to some useful applications4 ,that water is decomposed1 appears more than probable4 ,if water is thrown1 in considerable quantities1 on oil or tar1 in a state of inflammation1 as ,morey observes1 the flame is greatly increased2 and if ever so small a drop of water fall into oil at a temperature near boiling1 an explosion will take place4 ,he draws the following conclusion1 from these circumstances2 that we have only to pass the steam of water through oil1 heated to the temperature1 at which it boils1 or takes fire1 to produce combustion4 ,sec4 ,,xi4 ,of ,common ,coal1 or ,pitcoal4 ,all the variety of coals1 belonging to the coal family1 are composed principally of charcoal and bitumen1 with small quantities of earthy1 and metallic matter4 ,whether we consider the formation of coal1 the localities or situation in which it occurs1 whether in beds or strata1 accompanying other minerals1 such as clay-slate1 bituminous schistus1 sandstone1 c4 is of no moment1 except so far as the situation in which it is found1 indicates or determines its character and qualities4 ,the different kinds of coal owe their variety to the presence or absence of bituminous matter1 whether great or small1 the quantity of the carbonaceous ingredient1 and the presence or absence of anthracite1 and other foreign substances4 ,coal1 which is1 or ought to be preferred in fire-works1 should contain the greatest quantity of bituminous matter2 and1 while it contains the due proportion of carbon1 should be entirely free from anthracite4 ,coal1 and all other inflammable fossils1 are characterized by their inflammability1 insolubility in water1 alcohol1 and acids1 and by their specific gravity1 which scarcely exceeds #b1 unless loaded with foreign matter4 ,coal surcharged with bitumen1 burns with a bright flame1 and1 by distillation1 affords more carburetted hydrogen gas1 which is used for gas light4 ,common coal1 or pitcoal1 burns in cakes1 more or less1 during combustion4 ,besides charcoal and bitumen1 it contains sometimes pyrites1 sulphate of iron1 and earth4 ,slate-coal1 however1 contains more clay4 ,the collieries1 from which pitcoal is obtained1 are more or less extensive in ,england1 and elsewhere4 ,immense beds of coal are found near ,pittsburgh1 and ,richmond4 ,the ,lehigh1 and other localities in the ,united ,states1 produce it also in abundance1 but of various qualities4 ,coal districts1 or places in which it is found1 may be considered a valuable acquisition to a country2 and as coal is so essential in many manufactories1 it is a satisfaction to know1 that our resources in this particular1 are almost inexhaustible2--a fact1 which shows1 that1 while our national industry is the main pillar of national independence1 in its true acceptation1 the arts1 which require a supply of coal1 will1 for centuries to come1 be abundantly furnished with it4 ,when coal is exposed to the action of heat1 in iron retorts or cylinders for the preparation of coal gas1 or when it is exposed to heat in coke-ovens1 the bitumen1 c4 are disengaged1 and there remains a coal called coke4 ,coke1 therefore1 is nothing more than charred pitcoal4 ,mr4 ,mushet made some valuable experiments on the carbonization and incineration of coals4 ,he found that the ,scotch cannel-coal afforded #ef4eg volatile matter1 #ci4dc charcoal1 and #d ashes2 while the stone-coal1 found under basalt1 gave #af4ff volatile matter1 #fi4gd charcoal1 and #ac4f ashes1 and oak wood1 #hj4jj volatile matter1 #ai4e charcoal1 and #j4e ashes4 ,the quantity of gas1 however1 depends entirely on the quality of the coal4 ,a temperature of about #fjj to #gjj is sufficient to disengage it4 ,a pound of good cannel coal1 properly treated in a small apparatus1 will yield five cubic feet of gas1 equivalent in illuminating power to a mould candle1 six in the pound4 ,one pound of coal1 on a large scale1 affords only #c-a_/b cubic feet of gas4 ,a gas jet1 which consumes half a cubic foot per hour1 gives a steady light equal to that of a candle of the above-mentioned size4 ,the cannel coal1 known in ,scotland by the name of parrot coal1 is very inflammable1 takes fire immediately1 and produces a brilliant flame4 ,it is used by the poor as a substitute for candles4 ,this coal1 we have seen1 furnishes an abundance of carburetted hydrogen gas4 ,it has the appearance of jet1 and admits of being turned in a lathe4 ,stone coal1 ,kilkenny coal1 ,welch coal1 and glance coal consist almost entirely of charcoal2 and hence1 when laid on burning coals1 they become red-hot1 emit a blue lambent flame1 in the same manner as charcoal1 and at length are wholly consumed1 leaving behind a portion of red ashes4 ,they burn without smoke or soot4 ,the pitch coal1 which has a brownish-black colour1 and is generally found massive in plates1 the bovey coal1 called brown coal1 and bituminous wood1 with the anthracite coal1 and some others of lesser note1 form the remaining varieties of coal4 ,when coal is employed in fire-works1 it is to be pulverized1 and sifted in the usual way4 ,for some purposes it is preferred to charcoal1 in consequence of the bitumen it contains1 which appears to contribute to the rapidity of the combustion4 ,it is to be observed1 that1 as the base of coal is carbon1 its action is the same as charcoal1 and therefore1 by producing the same effects1 or nearly so1 as charcoal itself1 the phenomena it presents are analogous4 ,as #ab4gji parts of carbon1 according to ,kirwan1 are required to decompose #ajj parts of nitrate of potassa1 we may readily ascertain the quantity of real carbon in any specimen of coal4 ,according to ,kirwan1 #ej grains of ,kilkenny coal will decompose #dhj grains of nitrate of potassa1 from which it is inferred1 that ten grains would have decomposed #if of nitrate of potassa1 precisely the same quantity of charcoal1 which would have produced the same effect4 ,therefore1 ,kilkenny coal is composed almost entirely of carbon4 ,cannel coal1 when treated in the same manner with nitrate of potassa1 left a residuum of #c4ab in the hundred parts of earthy ashes2 and #ff4e of it were required to decompose #dhj grains of nitrate of potassa1 but #ej of charcoal would have been sufficient4 ,from this experiment1 it appears1 that #ff4e grains of cannel coal contain #ej grains of charcoal1 and #b4jh of earth2 the remaining #ad4db grains must be bitumen4 ,in a similar manner1 by knowing the quantity of coal required to decompose a given quantity of nitrate of potassa1 when melted in a crucible1 the quantity of carbon in any variety of this substance may be ascertained4 ,with respect to the earthy and metallic ingredients of coal1 we may ascertain them by burning the coal1 with free access of air4 ,what remains unburnt must be considered an impurity4 ,its weight may be ascertained1 and its nature by analysis4 ,as the object1 however1 is generally to determine the relative proportion of combustible matter1 or carbon1 which different species of coal are capable of yielding1 that point may be determined in the manner already stated4 ,that coal originates from vegetables1 whatever opinion may be formed to the contrary1 we may fairly infer from a variety of vegetable remains1 and impressions of animals that are both found in the strata of coal1 and in earthy strata above and below them4 ,of its submarine origin1 there can also be no doubt2 or why do we find in it shells1 the impression of fish1 and other productions of the ocean8 ,that coals grow like vegetables1 an opinion with the uninformed1 is contrary to fact1 and the nature of things4 ,we may notice1 in this place1 another substance which sometimes is found partially carbonized2 we mean turf4 ,turf or peat1 obtained from morasses1 consists of a multitude or congeries of vegetable fibres1 partly in a decomposed state1 and is frequently so inflammable as to inflame by a spark4 ,very extensive morasses are found in some countries from which the inhabitants are supplied with fuel4 ,some improvements in the manner of preparing turf for use1 have been made2 that of charring it in kilns is one4 ,by this process it kindles sooner1 burns with less air1 and forms a moderate and uniform fire1 without much smoke1 though it is not so lasting as that produced by turf4 ,the method of reducing turf to coal is still practised in some parts of ,bohemia1 ,silesia1 and ,upper ,saxony1 which was first proposed in #affi1 by ,john ,joachim ,becher1 who also recommended1 at that time1 a process for depriving coals of their sulphur1 by burning them in an oven1 and the use of the oil procured from them4 ,what are our modern patents on this subject8 ,what are lord ,dundonald's coke ovens and coal tar8 ,are they original8 ,boyle 7,usefulness of ,natural ,philosophy17 speaks of ,becher's invention4 ,anderson1 7,history of ,commerce17 however1 observes1 that something of the kind was attempted before ,becher's time2 for in the year #afbg1 ,john ,hacket and ,octavius ,strada obtained a patent for their invention of rendering coals as useful as wood for fuel in houses1 without hurting any thing by their smoke4 ,with respect to turf1 it appears that ,hans ,charles von ,carlowitz1 to save wood1 introduced the use of it in ,saxony1 in the smelting houses1 in #agjh4 ,turf has been known for a long time4 ,it was used from the earliest periods1 in the greater part of ,lower ,saxony1 and throughout the ,netherlands2 as is fully proved by ,pliny's account of the ,chauci1 who inhabited that part of ,germany4 ,pliny 7,hist4 ,nat4 lib4 xvi1 c4 i47 observes1 that they pressed together with their hands1 a kind of mossy earth which they dried by the wind rather than by the sun1 and which they used1 not only for cooking their victuals1 but also for warming their bodies4 ,we also read that a morass in ,thessaly1 having become dry1 took fire1 and the same thing ensued in some part of ,russia1 where a morass burned several days and did much damage4 ,very dry turf is nearly as inflammable as spunk1 and when prepared with nitre1 has been used for the same purpose4 ,see ,pyrotechnical sponge4 ,ure 7,chemical ,dictionary7 observes1 that turf has been charred lately in ,france1 it is said by a peculiar process1 c4 ,the truth is1 that the charring of turf is by no means a recent invention1 as we stated above4 ,sonnini 7,journal1 c47 says1 that it is superior to wood4 ,it kindles slower than charcoal of wood1 but emits more flame and burns longer4 ,in a gold-smith's furnace1 it fused eleven ounces of gold in eight minutes1 while wood charcoal required sixteen4 ,turf frequently contains phosphoric acid2 for bogs or morasses1 and bog-iron ores abound1 more or less with it1 in different states of combination4 ,the siderite of ,bergmann which he supposed to be a peculiar metal1 and found in bog-ore1 is a phosphate of iron4 ,the native ,prussian blue1 which also occurs in such localities1 is generally admitted to be a combination of phosphoric acid iron and alumina4 ,sec4 ,,xii4 ,of ,naphtha1 ,petroleum1 and ,asphaltum4 ,naphtha1 petroleum1 and asphaltum are all modifications of bituminous oil2 and as they are all inflammable1 naphtha being the most so1 they have been used in the preparation of fire-works4 ,it will be sufficient to remark1 that naphtha or rock oil is a yellow or brownish bituminous fluid1 of a strong1 penetrating odour1 and so light as to float on spirits of wine4 ,by exposure to the air1 it acquires the consistence of petroleum4 ,it takes fire on the approach of a lighted taper1 and burns with a bluish flame1 yielding a thick smoke4 ,plutarch and ,pliny both affirm1 that the substance with which ,medea destroyed ,creusa1 the daughter of ,creon1 was naphtha4 ,she sent a dress to the princess1 which had been immersed in1 or covered over with the oil1 and which burst into flames as soon as she approached the fire of the altar4 ,plutarch relates that ,alexander the great1 was amused and astonished with the effects of naphtha1 which were exhibited to him at ,ecbatana4 ,on the shores of the ,caspian sea1 it is burnt in lamps1 instead of oil4 ,there are copious springs of this oil in that neighbourhood1 and it is sometimes obtained by distilling bituminous substances4 ,hanway 7,travels through ,russia into ,persia1 i1 #bfc17 mentions the naphtha of ,baku1 and remarks that the earth is strongly impregnated with it2 for1 he adds1 by taking up two or three inches of the surface1 and applying a live coal1 the part which is so uncovered1 immediately takes fire1 almost before the coal touches the earth4 ,eight horses were consumed by the fire from naphtha1 being under a roof where the surface of the ground was turned up1 and1 by some accident took fire4 ,a cane1 or tube1 even of paper1 set two inches in the ground1 and the top of it touched with a live coal1 and blown upon1 immediately emits a flame1 without hurting either the cane or paper1 provided the edges be covered with clay4 ,three or four of these lighted canes will boil water in a pot4 ,pinkerton1 7,petralogia ii1 p4 #adh17 speaks of the naphtha of ,baku1 which exists on the western side of the ,caspian sea1 being carried to ,constantinople1 where it formed the chief ingredient of the noted composition called the ,grecian ,fire2 which1 burning with increased intensity under water1 became a most formidable instrument against an inimical fleet4 ,see ,greek fire4 ,naphtha is obtained of several qualities by suffering it to remain in pits or reservoirs4 ,the ,persians1 who use it in their lamps1 and to boil their food1 find it to burn best with a small mixture of ashes4 ,they keep it at a small distance from their houses1 in earthen vessels1 under ground1 to prevent any accident by fire1 of which it is extremely susceptible4 ,hanway speaks also of what is called the everlasting fire1 about ten miles from ,baku1 which is an object of devotion to the followers of ,zoroaster4 ,near the altar of their temple1 he observes1 is a large hollow cane1 from the end of which issues a blue flame1 which the ,indians pretend has continued to burn ever since the flood1 and which1 they fancy1 will last to the end of the world4 ,we have no hesitation in believing1 that the ancients made use of this oil in their exhibitions2 and1 from its properties1 that when mixed with other substances1 it would make a brilliant fire-work4 ,petroleum1 called also mineral tar1 is less fluid and less transparent than naphtha4 ,it has an oily consistence1 more or less viscid4 ,it occurs of a black or brown colour4 ,it burns rapidly1 but not so readily as naphtha1 and exhales a black smoke4 ,by distillation1 it forms a liquid like naphtha1 and leaves a thick tar in the retort4 ,it exudes from rocks1 is found in wells1 c4 ,in ,pegu1 the wells furnish annually #djj1jjj hogsheads4 ,it is used there in the place of oil for lamps4 ,when boiled with rosin1 it is used for painting houses1 and the bottoms of vessels4 ,in the embalming of dead bodies1 it was employed by the ancient ,egyptians2 and1 in some countries1 clay1 soaked in it1 is used as fuel4 ,it is found in the ,united ,states1 in ,kentucky1 ,ohio1 the western parts of ,pennsylvania1 in ,new ,york at the ,seneca lake1 c4 ,the ,seneca or ,genessee oil is the same bitumen4 ,when petroleum is exposed to the atmosphere1 it acquires a greater degree of consistence1 and passes into another bituminous substance1 called maltha4 ,this has the properties1 and frequently the appearance of pitch4 ,when burnt1 it yields more smoke and soot than petroleum4 ,according to its original meaning1 it signifies a kind of cement2 and the maltha mentioned by ,pliny1 ,heineccius1 ,festus1 and others1 which was employed in the same manner as our modern sealing wax1 was a mixture of pitch and wax1 and was also used to make reservoirs1 pipes1 c4 water-tight4 ,maltha also sometimes resembles wax4 ,mr4 ,kirwan1 however1 gave it the name of mineral tallow4 ,mineral or ,barbadoes tar is somewhat thicker than petroleum1 and nearly of the consistence of common tar4 ,it is used for the same purposes as the ordinary petroleum4 ,elastic bitumen1 a variety between the softer and harder bitumens1 resembles caoutchouc4 ,it burns with a bright flame1 and bituminous odour4 ,asphaltum1 or solid bitumen1 is much harder than pitch1 brittle1 and of a brownish-black colour4 ,it burns freely1 and leaves but little residue4 ,in ,judea1 it is found on the waters of the ,dead sea1 or the lake of ,asphaltes4 ,it is also called ,jews' pitch4 ,it was employed by the ,egyptians for embalming under the name of mumia mineralis4 ,both maltha and asphaltum were used by the ancients as a cement4 ,the walls of ,babylon were cemented with these substances1 as obtained from the river ,is1 which falls into the ,euphrates4 ,it may be observed1 that those countries1 which yield bitumen1 contain salt springs1 and it frequently accompanies pyrites4 ,limestone1 particularly the black1 contains it1 and the colour is often owing to its presence4 ,the stink stone1 or bituminous carbonate of lime1 is of this kind4 ,the retinasphaltum1 a combination of bitumen and earth1 having a yellow colour1 burns with a bright flame1 and fragrant odour1 which at last becomes bituminous4 ,many stones1 and particularly some of the black marbles1 owe their colour to bitumen2 hence they burn white4 ,the bituminous schistus1 or bituminous shale1 sometimes contains so much of this substance as to burn in the fire4 ,jet is a mineral of a black colour1 and resembles the cannel coal4 ,it is inflammable1 producing a green flame1 with a strong bituminous odour4 ,with respect to bitumens1 we may observe1 that they all possess one character1 that of being inflammable2 and that they are more or less so in proportion as they partake of the principle of naphtha2 or1 at least1 the rapidity of their combustion depends upon the presence of this oil4 ,the following additional facts1 therefore1 with respect to naphtha1 may be interesting3 ,certain liquids have the property of uniting with naphtha1 which has also the property of dissolving and combining with solid substances1 of which the following examples may be stated3 ,at the degree of ebullition1 it dissolves sulphur1 which1 on cooling1 is in part deposited in needle-form crystals4 ,at the same temperature1 it also dissolves phosphorus1 part of which is again separated4 ,it unites also with iodine4 ,with camphor1 it also combines1 and in large quantity4 ,it takes up a much larger proportion of pitch4 ,in the cold1 its action on wax is feeble1 but assisted by heat1 it unites with it in all proportions4 ,on lac and copal1 its action is feeble4 ,in the cold1 it does not dissolve caoutchouc2 but when assisted by heat1 it dissolves this substance1 though not completely4 ,these facts may determine its action in certain mixtures4 ,according to ,theodore de ,saussure's ,analysis1 7,bibliot4 ,universelle1 iv1 p4 #aaf71 it appears1 that naphtha is composed of #hg4fj carbon1 and #ab4gh hydrogen4 ,sec4 ,,xiii4 ,of ,oil of ,spike4 ,this oil is principally used as a vehicle for mixing the ingredients of some kinds of fire-works2 and1 although it is employed in that way1 yet it has also an effect in combustion1 having similar properties with liquid bitumen4 ,it enters into the composition of some of the preparations1 and perhaps is equally good as liquid bitumen4 ,indeed1 the oil of spike1 as sold in the shops1 and used principally by farriers as an embrocation for horses1 is an artificial preparation1 made by mixing together about five ounces of ,barbadoes tar1 with a pint of the spirit of turpentine4 ,sec4 ,,xiv4 ,of ,amber4 ,amber1 succinum1 karabe1 the electron of the ancients1 which are synonimous terms1 is very inflammable4 ,a piece of it1 put on the point of a knife1 and set on fire1 will burn entirely away1 emitting1 at the same time1 a white smoke1 and a somewhat agreeable odour4 ,it is used in the composition of fire-works1 and particularly in some kinds of rockets4 ,all the preparation it undergoes1 when thus used1 is to reduce it to powder in a mortar1 and to pass it through a fine sieve4 ,it also forms a part of the composition of odoriferous fire2 but the formul for the latter are various4 ,amber is of various colours1 either yellowish1 white1 or honey-yellow4 ,it is translucent1 and sometimes transparent4 ,it may be turned or polished4 ,it occurs in grains or in irregular masses4 ,alluvial deposites of sand1 gravel1 c4 frequently contain it4 ,it is also found with bituminous wood1 brittle lignite1 or jet1 and with other substances4 ,it has been discovered in ,new-,jersey1 near ,trenton1 in alluvial soil4 ,naturalists believe1 that amber was once a resinous juice4 ,masses weighing #bj lbs4 have been found4 ,sometimes it contains insects4 ,it is formed into beads and the like4 ,as amber becomes electric by friction1 and the ancients called it electron1 the term electricity is derived from it4 ,by distillation1 it yields both an acid1 7the succinic71 and an oil4 ,jet is usually considered black amber4 ,we may introduce here a few remarks respecting ambergris3 ,ambergris is a substance1 which has a peculiar fragrance1 and for that reason is used as a perfume1 and may be employed like similar substances in odoriferous fire4 ,as to its origin1 we have no certain account2 but it seems1 from its general properties1 to be formed in the same manner as bituminous substances1 although it is mostly found on the sea-shore1 where it has been probably washed up from the sea4 ,ambergris is found principally on the shores of ,ceylon1 and is known to be good1 by laying some of it on a very hot knife1 when1 if pure1 it will not only melt and run like wax1 but entirely evaporate1 leaving no residue4 ,ambergris1 on account of its price1 7the retail price in ,london being a guinea per ounce71 is frequently adulterated with various mixtures of benzoin1 labdanum1 meal1 c4 scented with musk4 ,but pure ambergris1 when heated1 has a greasy feel1 and appearance1 and is soluble in hot ether and alcohol4 ,sec4 ,,xv4 ,of ,camphor4 ,camphor is a resinous substance1 although generally called a gum1 which has a peculiar1 and powerful smell4 ,it is obtained principally from the ,laurus ,camphora4 ,it is extracted from this1 and other trees in the ,east ,indies4 ,we are informed1 that1 in ,borneo and ,sumatra1 the larger pieces which contain the most camphor1 are picked out with sharp instruments4 ,the ,chinese cut off the branches1 chop them small1 and place them in spring water4 ,they are then boiled1 and stirred with a stick4 ,as soon as the camphor is observed to adhere to the stick1 the fluid is strained4 ,it is then poured into a basin1 and the camphor separates1 in ,japan1 the roots and the extremities of the branches are steamed4 ,it is also obtained by sublimation4 ,the roots1 wood1 and leaves are all boiled in large iron pots1 and the camphor is collected on straw1 placed in a tubular head4 ,with respect to the refining of crude camphor1 in order to produce heads1 as they are called1 and to free it from impurities1 the operation is nothing more than sublimation4 ,sublimers made of glass are used2 and into each1 the camphor1 along with a small portion of lime1 is introduced1 and they are then placed in a sand bath4 ,heat is applied1 and the pure camphor rises and attaches itself to the upper part of the vessel1 forming the refined camphor4 ,the general properties of camphor are the following3 ,it is not altered by the atmospheric air1 but is volatilized during warm weather4 ,it is insoluble in water2 is soluble in alcohol1 forming the spirit of camphor1 and also in volatile and fixed oils4 ,it is not acted upon by the alkalies4 ,it is dissolved in acids without effervescence1 and by some it is decomposed4 ,nitric acid converts it into a peculiar acid1 called the camphoric4 ,it melts between #cjj and #djj degrees4 ,it takes fire1 and burns with a white flame1 and1 generally1 while it presents the character of a resin1 it shows1 by its combustion1 like other inflammable bodies1 that it contains1 in its composition1 a large quantity of carbon and hydrogen4 ,there are several species of camphor1 which have been examined by chemists and which differ in their properties4 ,these are1 common camphor1 the camphor of volatile oils1 and the artificial camphor1 formed by treating oil of turpentine with muriatic acid4 ,the base of camphor forms a constituent part of some volatile oils1 which are in a liquid state2 and for its separation1 it appears to require a combination with oxygen4 ,camphor may be apparently set on fire by means of water1 an experiment1 which is nothing more than producing chemical action by it1 in the following manner3 ,put a portion of nitrate of copper on some tin-foil1 along with camphor2 then by adding some water1 and quickly wrapping the foil up1 pressing the edges close1 it will inflame1 and sparks of fire be produced4 ,camphor has been used in the manufacture of candles4 ,for this purpose1 it is dissolved in brandy1 and the wick1 composed of equal parts of cotton and linen1 is dipped in4 ,it is then dried1 and covered1 in the usual manner1 with tallow or wax4 ,the tallow1 recommended as the best for candles1 is a combination of equal parts of mutton and beef suet4 ,camphor is very soluble in acetic acid1 which is highly inflammable4 ,this solution is decomposed by water4 ,when combined with essential oils1 it forms aromatic vinegar4 ,romieu has observed that small pieces of camphor floating on water have a rotary motion4 ,camphor enters into a composition1 which is used to determine1 like a barometer1 the state of the weather1 and the changes it undergoes4 ,according to the ,journal de ,pharmacie1 #ahae1 some experiments were made in ,france on the fluid taken out of one of the ,english weather gauges4 ,the liquid contained water and alcohol1 was strong with camphor1 and reddened litmus paper4 ,the tube contained #c-a_/b ounces4 ,on analysis1 its contents were found to be1 #bd grains of alum1 #abj grains of camphor1 and enough water to dissolve the former1 and alcohol to dissolve the latter4 ,a similar composition was made1 and put into a tube1 which1 it seems1 had the same effect4 ,the tube is hermetically sealed4 ,m4 ,cadet observes1 that the prognosticator1 made in ,paris many years ago1 was a similar preparation4 ,although1 according to ,cadet1 this contrivance cannot be depended upon1 as the appearances it presents are not regular2 yet1 as the effect is produced by heat1 as well as light and electricity1 the following summary may be added3 #a4 ,in fair weather1 the composition remains at the bottom1 and the liquor is clear4 #b4 ,before rain1 it will rise a little2 the liquor will be clear1 having merely a star floating in it4 #c4 ,before a storm1 it will rise to the surface1 the liquor will appear troubled4 ,these appearances may be seen #bd hours before the change in the weather takes place4 #d4 ,in winter1 it is higher than common4 ,during a snow1 it will be very white1 and pieces are seen in motion4 #e4 ,in settled weather in summer1 and when warm1 the composition will be low4 #f4 ,to know from what quarter wind will come1 the composition will remain attached on the opposite side of the bottle to that from which it is expected4 ,camphor has been burnt1 like ether and alcohol1 by platinum wire1 previously heated4 ,dr4 ,ure observes1 that a cylinder of camphor may be used for both wick and spirit1 in the aphlogistic lamp2 and the ignition is very bright1 while an odoriferous vapour is exhaled4 ,by adding various essential oils in small quantities to the alcohol of the lamp1 various aromas may be made to perfume the air of an apartment4 ,see ,scented ,fires for rooms4 ,camphor is employed in those fire-works chiefly1 which are exhibited in rooms2 its expense being an objection to its use in large exhibitions4 ,in what are termed perfumed pastes1 or mixtures1 scented fire1 or odoriferous fire-works1 it is used in abundance3 in fact1 it enters into nearly all the compositions of this kind4 ,camphor1 besides producing1 alone1 a white flame1 gives a brilliant light1 and1 when mixed with other substances1 adds greatly to the appearance of the flame2 and1 giving out a powerful odour1 destroys1 in a measure1 the disagreeable smell arising from the combustion of the sulphur and nitre4 ,by referring to the article on ,greek fire1 and some incendiary preparations used in war1 it will be seen1 that camphor is an important constituent4 ,as camphor is very combustible1 and will even burn on the surface of water1 it is well adapted for all those purposes4 ,we have already spoken of the ,greek fire2 and it seems1 that the peculiar character of that fire1 of burning in water1 was owing to the presence of camphor4 ,this opinion appears plausible1 when we consider1 that some preparations have been made with camphor1 which had the property of burning on water4 ,camphor may be pulverized by the assistance of1 and brought into intimate mixture with1 nitre and sulphur2 because the former1 in particular1 tends to divide it4 ,but it may be pulverized separately1 and afterwards added to the composition1 by rubbing it in a mortar with a small quantity of alcohol1 or spirit of wine2 or1 if this cannot be had1 with fourth proof brandy4 ,as camphor is very inflammable1 its effects1 when mixed with saltpetre and fired1 are much the same as those produced by other resins1 or concrete oils4 ,a combustion1 more or less rapid1 ensues1 and1 while the nitre itself is decomposed1 the camphor also undergoes the same change1 producing both water and carbonic acid1 from the union of two of its elements1 the hydrogen and carbon1 with the oxygen of the nitric acid4 ,in all cases1 in which camphor is employed in artificial fire-works1 although its own flame is white1 it may assist in increasing the flame1 which1 however1 is modified1 according to the substances1 which enter into the composition4 ,these may not retard its combustion1 but1 nevertheless1 may change the appearance of the flame2 as is the case1 when we employ the filings of iron1 steel1 brass1 or zinc1 sal ammoniac1 rosin1 saw-dust1 and other substances1 which usually form a part of such mixtures4 ,upon the whole1 then1 we may consider1 that camphor acts in fire-works2 #ast1 as an inflammable body2 #bndly1 that1 besides being in a great measure decomposed1 a portion of it is evaporated1 and communicates1 to the surrounding atmosphere1 a peculiar smell1 which is recognised in the odoriferous fire-works2 #crdly1 that1 while it acts in taking a part of the oxygen from the nitric acid of the nitre1 it assists in the decomposition of this salt1 more especially if it be mixed separately with the nitre2 #dthly1 that1 in all instances of its combustion1 while it acts primarily on the nitre1 with the oxygen of which it forms both water and carbonic acid1 it1 at the same time1 increases the flame1 which may be either white1 red1 or yellow1 according to the other substances employed2 and1 finally1 it may be thrown out in the state of combustion1 and receive1 for the further support of its combustion1 the oxygen of the air1 and hence produce a white exterior flame1 while that in the immediate vicinity of the composition may be more or less coloured4 ,but its application1 the proportions in which it is used1 as well as the kind of fire-works to which it is applicable1 will be considered at large in other parts of the work4 ,the great inflammability of camphor is to be ascribed to its containing a large quantity of carbon and hydrogen1 and a small quantity of oxygen4 ,there is a preparation1 called artificial camphor1 that is formed by passing muriatic acid gas through spirit of turpentine4 ,it inflames with facility1 and burns1 without leaving any residue4 ,might not this preparation be economically employed1 in lieu of camphor1 for incendiary fire-works8 ,sect4 ,,xvi4 ,of ,gum ,benzoin1 and ,benzoic acid4 ,gum ,benzoin1 or ,benjamin1 is considered a solid balsam1 and is the production of a tree1 which grows in ,sumatra1 c4 called the styrax benzoe4 ,it is obtained from this tree by incision1 a tree yielding three or four pounds4 ,it is a brittle substance1 sometimes in the form of yellowish-white tears and called1 from that circumstance1 almond benzoin4 ,besides a resinous substance1 it contains an acid1 called the benzoic or flowers of benzoin1 a substance similar to balsam of ,peru1 being a peculiar aromatic principle1 soluble in alcohol and water4 ,by heating it1 or by combustion1 it evolves a very agreeable smell1 and is1 therefore1 used in those fire-works which are exhibited in rooms1 theatres1 c4 and also in the composition of odoriferous fire-works4 ,besides being in itself inflammable1 it produces a peculiar smell1 arising1 in all probability1 from an essential oil1 aided1 in some degree1 by the separation of benzoic acid4 ,it has been examined by ,bucholz and ,brande4 ,its general properties are3 that it is insoluble in water1 although hot water takes up a part of it1 said to be the benzoic acid4 ,it is soluble in alcohol1 from which it is separated by muriatic and acetic acids1 but not by the alkalies4 ,it is also soluble in ether4 ,the benzoic acid1 or flowers of benzoin1 are obtained from it by sublimation4 ,a quantity of the powdered gum1 put into an earthen basin1 a thick paper cone being tied round the rim1 and heat applied1 the acid will leave the resin1 and be condensed on the inner side of the cone4 ,bucholz 7,bulletin de ,pharmacie1 v4 p4 #agg7 has given a process for obtaining it by means of alcohol1 and some others have been adopted4 ,by boiling four ounces of the gum in powder in a sufficient quantity of water1 with three drachms of carbonate of soda1 the acid will unite with the alkali1 and form a benzoate of soda1 which1 when filtered and decomposed by sulphuric acid1 will yield the benzoic acid4 ,five drachms of acid will be thus obtained4 ,lime has been used in the same manner as soda1 and the acid separated by the addition of muriatic acid4 ,flowers of benzoin may be used in the place of the gum2 using1 however1 but a small quantity4 ,they will communicate the same odour to fire as the benzoin4 ,the flowers1 or acid of benzoin1 are so inflammable1 as to burn1 with a clear yellow flame1 without the assistance of a wick4 ,it is soluble in ardent spirits1 in oils1 and in melted tallow4 ,the compounds1 which it forms with them1 are also inflammable4 ,benzoic acid is considered to be an oily acid1 and contains1 no doubt1 a very large proportion of hydrogen4 ,sect4 ,,xvii4 ,of ,storax ,calamite4 ,storax is the most fragrant of all the balsams4 ,it is afforded by the styrax officinalis1 a tree which grows in the ,levant4 ,it is sometimes in red tears4 ,common storax is in large cakes1 and brittle and soft to the touch4 ,this is more fragrant than the other sort1 but is frequently adulterated with saw-dust4 ,it is soluble in alcohol1 and is said to yield some benzoic acid4 ,styrax is a different substance2 a semi-liquid juice obtained from the liquidambar styraciflua4 ,its odour is less agreeable than that of storax calamite4 ,it is used in odoriferous fire1 in pastes1 in the composition for scented vases1 and the like4 ,sect4 ,,xviii4 ,of ,essential ,oils4 ,essential or volatile oils1 as well as the raspings of red cedar1 dried rosemary1 and other fragrant plants1 are all used in the preparation of odoriferous fire4 ,in some preparations1 the oil of roses is employed2 in others1 the essence of bergamot1 of lemon1 c4 which1 being very volatile1 evaporate in a moderate heat1 and1 being also inflammable1 may assist in the combustion4 ,in the case of the raspings of cedar in particular1 it also communicates a peculiar appearance to the flame4 ,oils1 whether essential or fixed1 when passed through ignited tubes1 are decomposed1 and furnish an inflammable gas called olefiant gas4 ,wax1 tallow1 c4 produce the same gas1 the hydroguret of carbon4 ,messrs4 ,taylor and ,martineau contrived an ingenious apparatus for generating gas from oil on the great scale1 as a substitute for candles1 lamps1 and coal gas1 it being much preferable for burning1 as it contains no sulphur1 and does not injure furniture1 books1 plate1 paint1 c4 ,oil gas contains more hydroguret of carbon than coal gas1 which is a great advantage1 enabling one cubic foot of oil gas to go as far as four of coal gas4 ,an elegant apparatus was erected by ,taylor and ,martineau at the ,apothecaries' ,hall1 ,london1 a drawing of which may be seen in the #aeth number of the ,journal of ,science and the ,arts4 ,it is to be observed1 that odoriferous fire-works are intended for exhibition in close apartments2 so that the smell of certain gases1 produced by the nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 according to the preparation used1 will be more or less destroyed4 ,such preparations are1 nevertheless1 expensive1 and for that reason seldom used4 ,sect4 ,,xix4 ,of ,mastich4 ,this resin1 obtained1 from the pistacia lentiscus1 by making transverse incisions in the tree1 is first in a fluid state1 and gradually concretes into yellowish semi-transparent brittle grains4 ,in ,turkey1 great quantities of it are used for sweetening the breath1 and strengthening the gums4 ,it is from the use of the resin as a masticatory1 that its name is said to be derived4 ,it is not completely soluble in alcohol1 a soft elastic substance separating from the solution4 ,when exposed to heat1 it melts1 and exhales a fragrant odour3 for which reason1 principally1 it enters into the composition of some fire-works1 as the scented paste4 ,in ordinary fumigations1 mastich is commonly used4 ,sect4 ,,xx4 ,of ,copal4 ,gum copal1 by which name it is known1 is a resin1 obtained from a tree1 called thus copallinum4 ,it is often in the form of a beautiful white resin2 but sometimes it is more or less coloured4 ,it is frequently opaque4 ,it may be dissolved in alcohol1 spirit of turpentine1 and oils1 by a peculiar management1 7by using camphor1 previously melting it1 and the like17 and then it forms the various copal varnishes1 which are more or less perfect1 as the copal is transparent1 and the solution properly formed4 ,when heated1 it melts like other resins1 and in this1 and many other properties1 it partakes of the character of resins in general4 ,it is used in some of the formul for fire-works4 ,sect4 ,,xxi4 ,of ,myrrh4 ,myrrh is obtained from a plant1 supposed to belong to the genus mimosa1 which1 as ,bruce informs us1 7,travels1 c47 grows in ,abyssinia and ,arabia4 ,it is in the form of tears1 of a reddish-yellow colour2 sometimes transparent1 and at other times opaque4 ,it possesses a peculiar odour1 and a bitter and aromatic taste4 ,it burns with difficulty1 and does not melt when heated4 ,with water1 it forms a yellow opaque mixture4 ,it dissolves in alcohol1 and the solution is decomposed by the addition of water1 the whole becoming opaque4 ,according to ,braconnot1 myrrh is composed of #bc resin1 and #gg gum1 in the #ajj parts4 ,pelletier1 whose analysis differs from ,braconnot's1 observes1 that1 besides resin1 it contains some volatile oil1 to which1 no doubt1 its fragrance is owing4 ,the gum1 extracted from it1 had the character common to all gums1 with the exception1 that1 instead of forming the mucous or saclactic acid1 by the action of nitric acid1 it produced only oxalic acid4 ,that myrrh burns with difficulty1 is owing entirely to the presence of so much gum1 and1 comparatively speaking1 the small quantity of resin1 which enters into its composition4 ,but1 notwithstanding this property1 as it partakes of a fragrant oil1 it is used in some compositions for fire-works4 ,the gummy part may retard1 as is sometimes required in particular preparations1 the rapidity of the combustion1 and therefore have a two-fold effect when employed in fire-works4 ,sect4 ,,xxii4 ,of ,sugar4 ,refined sugar is sometimes used in pyrotechno-mixtures4 ,as it is a vegetable oxide1 7composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen71 which is decomposed by heat1 and has the property of decomposing nitric acid1 and some of its combinations2 its operation in such mixtures may be readily perceived4 ,we have seen1 when treating of chlorate of potassa1 that1 when this salt and sugar are mixed together1 and sulphuric acid poured on the mixture1 a rapid combustion ensues1 which is owing as well to the decomposition of the sugar1 as to that of the salt4 ,the matches1 likewise1 which inflame by immersion in sulphuric acid1 are covered with a similar mixture4 ,that sugar1 therefore1 has the property of decomposing those salts1 which are composed of acids1 that have their oxygen but feebly combined1 and thereby producing combustion1 according to the temperature employed1 or other agents made use of1 is evident from a variety of experiments4 ,by its action1 then1 in such cases1 the products of combustion1 arising from the elementary parts of the sugar alone1 uniting with oxygen1 must be carbonic acid and water4 ,sugar1 submitted to destructive distillation1 affords a variety of new substances2 among which we may notice caromel1 or that peculiar odour1 which is recognised in the burning of sugar4 ,sugar may1 therefore1 besides assisting in part in the decomposition of saline bodies1 and particularly nitre1 and perhaps giving rise to new products1 with which we are unacquainted1 have another effect1 that of destroying the offensive smell of other substances1 by means of the caromel formed4 ,sugar1 also1 when mixed with various bodies1 and struck with a hammer1 will produce detonations4 ,sugar1 when used in compositions of fire1 should be pure2 and it may be known to be so1 by producing invariably a phosphorescence in the dark1 when two pieces are rubbed together4 ,at a red heat1 it bursts into flame with a kind of explosion4 ,this flame is white1 with blue edges4 ,sugar is obtained from the sugar-cane2 from the sap of the sugar-maple2 from beets and grapes2 and from various other saccharine bodies4 ,it is formed also artificially1 by the action of sulphuric acid on starch4 ,mr4 ,kirchoff1 a ,russian chemist1 accidentally discovered that starch may be changed into sugar by diluted sulphuric acid4 ,one hundred parts of starch yield one hundred and ten of sugar4 ,it appears1 that1 by the abstraction of a little hydrogen and carbon1 starch will be converted into sugar4 ,potatoes1 digested with diluted sulphuric acid1 ,dr4 ,ure found1 would also form sugar1 and very abundantly4 ,the sulphuric acid may be removed by the addition of chalk1 and1 as the sulphate of lime is but slightly soluble1 the pure saccharine fluid may be obtained by filtration4 ,the sugar is procured in a solid state by evaporation1 and may be clarified like other sugar4 ,dr4 ,ure observes1 that good beer has been made from starch-sugar1 but recommends potato-sugar4 ,to obtain the latter1 the potatoes are washed1 grated down1 and treated with the dilute acid for a day or two1 at a temperature of #bab4 ,the observations of ,braconnot are interesting4 ,he has succeeded in converting a variety of vegetable substances into gum and sugar4 ,the conversion of wood into sugar1 however remarkable it may seem1 has been effected2 and a pound weight of rags will1 by the same process1 make more than a pound weight of sugar4 ,rice1 as it contains a large quantity of fecula1 may1 we have no doubt1 be converted1 in the same manner1 into saccharine matter4 ,when sugar is first obtained1 it is impure1 containing a variety of foreign substances1 and more or less brown1 as the ,muscovado of the ,west ,india islands4 ,it is refined1 and formed into loaves1 by treating its solution in water with bullocks' blood1 the serum of which coagulates by heat2 and1 finally1 by pouring the sugar1 when sufficiently boiled1 into conical earthen moulds1 where it concretes4 ,it is clayed1 by putting a mixture of white clay and water on the sugar in each of the cones2 the water from which passes through1 and renders it beautifully white4 ,the same process may be repeated2 hence the single and double refined sugar4 ,the molasses passes out from the sugar at the apex of the cone1 and is received in vessels4 ,from twenty to thirty-five per cent4 of molasses are separated in the refining of raw sugars2 and it is supposed1 that a considerable part of it1 probably two-thirds1 are formed by the high heat used in the concentration of the sirup4 ,in order to prevent so great a quantity of molasses1 different plans have been recommended4 ,that of ,howard is highly spoken of4 ,it consists in surrounding the sugar-boiler with oil or steam at a high temperature1 instead of exposing it1 as heretofore1 or the mode usually adopted1 to the naked fire4 ,the boiler is covered at top1 and1 by means of an air-pump1 the air is exhausted1 and the pressure of the atmosphere being removed1 ebullition takes place at a lower temperature4 ,no blood is used in ,mr4 ,h4's process1 instead of which1 the clarification is performed by means of canvass filters1 adding previously a pasty mixture of gypsum and alumina1 made by saturating a solution of alum with quicklime4 ,he does not employ clay1 as is done in whitening the sugar2 but1 in its place1 makes use of very pure saturated sirup4 ,he uses animal charcoal1 7bone black71 which has the property of destroying vegetable colouring matter4 ,wilson's process for refining sugar possesses some advantages4 ,it will be found in the #cdth volume of the ,repertory of ,arts4 ,the patent filtering apparatus of ,sutherland is highly approved4 ,the chemical properties of sugar are the following3 ,it is very soluble in water1 both hot and cold2 it forms with water a sirup1 which on standing will crystallize1 forming the candied sugar4 ,it is not acted upon by oxygen gas4 ,it is capable of combining with1 and1 according to some chemists1 of neutralizing acids and alkalies4 ,it is decomposed by nitric acid with effervescence1 being converted into oxalic and malic acids4 ,tartaric1 acetic1 and oxalic acids prevent it from crystallizing4 ,it unites with lime and strontian1 but is partially decomposed by barytes4 ,it combines also with oxide of lead1 which it precipitates from its solution1 forming1 as it is called1 a saccharate of lead4 ,alcohol has some action on it1 and also hydrosulphurets1 sulphurets1 and phosphurets of alkalies and alkaline earths4 ,on the application of heat1 it melts1 swells1 becomes brownish-black1 and exhales a peculiar odour1 which we have mentioned1 and1 at a red heat1 takes fire4 ,lastly1 though possessed of some general and specific characters1 it differs1 in some of its properties1 according to the substance from which it is obtained4 ,sect4 ,,xxiii4 ,of ,sal ,prunelle4 ,this salt is nothing more than nitrate of potassa1 melted in a crucible1 and poured into moulds1 whence it receives the form under which it is found in the shops4 ,the saltpetre1 when merely fused1 is not decomposed1 as it is when exposed to a red heat in an iron retort4 ,in the former case1 the water only which it contains is separated2 but1 in the latter1 the salt itself is decomposed1 and oxygen gas evolved4 ,sal prunelle1 therefore1 is fused saltpetre4 ,combustible bodies1 as charcoal1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 oils1 resins1 c4 have the same effect on it as on ordinary nitre4 ,the only advantage it has over the common refined saltpetre1 in the preparation of some fire-works1 is1 that it is free from water1 and more readily acted on by combustible substances4 ,in preparing it1 care must be taken in the application of the heat2 which1 if too powerful1 would1 besides fusing it1 decompose1 and convert it into nitrite of potassa4 ,it may be readily pulverized and sifted4 ,for the properties of nitre1 see that article4 ,sect4 ,,xxiv4 ,of ,alcohol4 ,alcohol1 or rectified spirit of wine1 is used for a variety of purposes in pyrotechny1 and1 when it cannot be procured1 strong brandy is substituted4 ,in assisting the pulverization of some substances1 as camphor1 in forming the mixture of certain pastes1 and in acting as a vehicle for the intimate union of some bodies1 it is considered a necessary article4 ,alcohol may be made to form variously coloured flames1 by mixing with it certain saline substances4 ,thus1 boracic acid will form a green flame2 muriate of strontian1 a carmine red2 muriate of lime1 an orange2 nitrate of copper1 an emerald green2 nitre1 common salt1 and corrosive sublimate1 a yellow1 c4 ,as alcohol has the property of dissolving essential oils1 camphor1 c4 it may be used as a menstruum for certain oils in the preparation of odoriferous fire-works4 ,see ,articles on coloured flame1 and odoriferous fire4 ,alcohol constitutes a part of all ardent spirits1 wine1 cider1 beer1 c4 in which it is combined with water1 or with water and mucilaginous and colouring matter4 ,it is formed in the vinous fermentation1 and always results from the union of carbon and hydrogen4 ,during the process1 carbonic acid gas is liberated4 ,fermented liquors1 therefore1 or those which have passed through the vinous fermentation1 always contain alcohol in more or less abundance1 but mixed with water in many instances4 ,in some it is accompanied with water1 and saccharine1 mucilaginous1 and extractive matter4 ,the different kinds of beer is an example of this fact4 ,when liquors1 which contain spirit1 are submitted to distillation1 the product is alcohol and water2 for the volatile parts evaporate1 and the fixed substances remain in the still4 ,the spirit partakes1 more or less1 of a peculiar taste and flavour1 by which liquors are distinguished from each other4 ,on this subject1 however1 it will be sufficient to add1 that brandy is procured by the distillation of wine2 rum1 from the fermented juice of the sugar-cane2 gin1 from fermented grain and juniper-berry2 whiskey1 from the fermented mash of grain1 cider1 c4 and1 generally1 the ardent liquors1 from pears1 peaches1 and other substances1 by the same process4 ,alcohol1 therefore1 exists in all these distilled liquors1 in a greater or smaller quantity1 combined with water2 and the proportion it bears to the water is known by a standard1 as either proof1 above proof1 or under proof1 according as its strength is shown by the hydrometer4 ,the process of obtaining alcohol in a pure state1 7usually called rectified spirit of wine71 by which the water is separated from the alcohol1 consists in repeated distillations1 either alone1 or mixed with certain substances1 which have the property of uniting with1 and keeping down the water1 in the act of distillation4 ,these substances are usually potash1 and dry muriate of lime1 both of which substances have a great affinity for water4 ,the specific gravity of highly concentrated alcohol1 at #fj is 4#hbj1 but that of common alcohol1 only 4#hcg1 at the same temperature4 ,the properties of alcohol are the following3 ,it is a transparent liquor of an agreeable flavour1 and may be changed in this particular1 by essential oils4 ,it may be exposed to a low temperature without freezing4 ,it boils at #ajf1 when of the specific gravity 4#hbj1 and in a vacuum at #ef4 ,it has a strong affinity for water1 with which it combines in any proportion2 and the specific gravity varies according to the proportion of the mixture and the temperature1 on which are founded the tables of ,blagden1 ,gilpin1 and others4 ,neither common air1 nor oxygen1 has any action on alcohol at moderate temperatures1 whether in a liquid or aeriform state4 ,on hydrogen1 carbon1 and charcoal1 it has little or no action1 but on phosphorus it acts1 a portion of which it dissolves4 ,with sulphur1 it may be made to unite1 as also with the alkalies1 but not with the earths1 except strontian and barytes4 ,it is decomposed by sulphuric and nitric acids1 with both of which it forms ether4 ,it dissolves some salts1 and has scarcely any effect upon others4 ,lastly1 it dissolves resins and essential oils2 but it neither acts upon gums1 properly so called1 nor on fixed oils4 ,it is a compound of hydrogen1 carbon1 and a small proportion of oxygen1 and may be decomposed1 by passing its vapour through an ignited porcelain tube4 ,alcohol1 by its combustion1 as it is used in spirit-lamps for chemical and other purposes1 produces no smoke1 in consequence of the carbon it contains being totally converted1 during that process1 into carbonic acid2 and its hydrogen1 uniting with another portion of the oxygen of the atmospheric air1 passes off in the form of aqueous vapour4 ,alcohol1 used in this way1 is preferable to oil2 for the latter produces a large quantity of smoke1 unless it is burnt in the ,argand lamp4 ,alcohol is inflamed1 when it is brought in contact with an ignited body4 ,the combustion is rapid without any residue1 and the flame white4 ,as to the strength of alcohol1 the best means of determining it1 is with the hydrometer2 but usually its proof is ascertained by means of gunpowder4 ,a portion of powder1 put into a cup1 and alcohol poured on it and inflamed1 will1 if the latter be strong1 be set on fire2 if1 however1 the powder should not take fire1 but the flame of the alcohol be extinguished1 we infer the existence of water1 and that the alcohol is not of the proper strength4 ,this experiment is founded on this circumstance1 that1 if the alcohol contains water1 after the alcoholic portion is all consumed1 the water will not only extinguish the flame1 but also prevent the inflammation of the powder4 ,the hydrometer1 however1 is the best experiment1 as it determines at once the fact of the strength of the liquor4 ,alcohol is used in the preparation of certain fulminating substances1 as fulminating mercury and silver in particular2 the preparation of which1 we will give in the two next sections4 ,it may not be improper to mention another application of alcohol1 that of forming the aphlogistic lamp1 or lamp that burns without flame4 ,the following description of it1 is given by ,accum1 in his ,chemical ,amusements1 ,am4 ,ed4 p4 #cee4 ,in a common lamp1 with a wick of about half a dozen common threads of cotton wick1 used for lamps1 put some good spirit of wine4 ,dispose the threads of wick1 not intertwined1 but straight and parallel to each other4 ,take platina wire of the thickness of #a_/ajjth part of an inch2 coil it round the wick1 about nine coils below1 and six coils standing above the top of the wick2 the diameter or width of the coils should not be more than #c_/bjth1 or #a_/gth of an inch wide4 ,light the wick2 and1 when the coil of platina above the wick is red-hot1 blow out the flame4 ,there will then be a current of pure alcohol1 gradually rising from the reservoir below1 through the wick1 sufficient to keep the upper coil of platina red-hot1 until the whole of the alcohol is consumed4 ,this lamp has kept constantly lighted during sixty hours4 ,by means of it1 a match1 a bit of spunk1 or candle may be lighted when wanted4 ,the quantity of alcohol consumed is not much3 about an ounce1 or an ounce and a half during the night1 from bed-time until morning will suffice4 ,this article was added to ,accum by ,dr4 ,cooper4 ,a figure of the lamp is in ,brande's ,chemistry4 ,dr4 ,comstock has a paper on the aphlogistic or flameless lamp1 in ,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #cbh1 of ,silliman's ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 which contains some judicious and useful remarks4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy 7,journal of the ,royal ,institution7 has discovered1 that the vapour of camphor answers the same purpose as alcohol4 ,if a platinum wire be heated and laid upon camphor1 it will continue to glow as long as any remains1 and the wire will frequently light it up into flame4 ,davy found1 that1 in the slow combustion of alcohol1 c4 an acid was generated1 to which he gave the name of ,lampic acid4 ,faraday and ,daniel 7,journal of ,science and the ,arts7 have confirmed his conclusions4 ,dr4 ,marcet has proposed a method of producing an intense heat1 by causing a current of oxygen gas to pass through the flame of alcohol4 ,the construction of the lamp and gas-holder may be found in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 ,vol4 vii1 p4 #fa4 ,sect4 ,,xxv4 ,of ,fulminating ,mercury4 ,as the fulminating mercury of ,howard consists principally of the oxalate of mercury1 the oxalate of this metal may be employed for the same purpose4 ,oxalic acid does not act on mercury1 but dissolves its oxide1 and forms with it a white powder4 ,i formed various fulminating metallic powders1 7,see ,coxe's ,medical ,museum71 and prepared one in particular by merely digesting a solution of the salt of sorrel 7superoxalate of potassa7 on red precipitate4 ,the effect is that the oxalic acid unites with the oxide of mercury1 and forms an oxalate of mercury1 which1 when struck with a hammer1 produces a detonation4 ,oxalate of mercury1 possessing the same effects1 may be formed1 very expeditiously1 by pouring the oxalate1 or the superoxalate of potassa into a solution of nitrate of mercury4 ,the oxalate of mercury will be precipitated1 which is to be caught on a filter1 washed1 and dried in a gentle heat4 ,howard's fulminating mercury is less dangerous than either fulminating silver1 or fulminating gold4 ,the extreme force of detonation which it possesses is remarkable4 ,the temperature required for its explosion is #cfj degrees4 ,friction1 percussion1 electricity1 and the flint and steel will produce this effect4 ,it gives rise to a stunning disagreeable report1 and its force is sufficient to indent both the hammer and the anvil4 ,four or six grains are sufficient for an experiment4 ,it is rather singular1 as ,mr4 ,cruikshank first observed1 that this powder will not inflame gunpowder2 as may be shown by spreading some of the former on paper1 and shaking gunpowder over it1 and then firing the mercurial powder4 ,the grains of the gunpowder may be collected entire after the explosion4 ,from the experiments of ,howard1 it appears1 that this powder is composed of oxalate of mercury1 and nitrous etherised gas4 ,fourcroy1 however1 has shown1 that it varies in its nature1 according to the mode of its preparation4 ,there is also a preparation of mercury1 which is likewise explosive1 discovered by ,fourcroy4 ,this compound may be formed by digesting the red oxide of mercury in liquid ammonia for the space of eight or ten days4 ,the oxide assumes a white colour1 and at last appears in crystalline scales4 ,upon ignited coals1 it detonates loudly like fulminating gold1 which see below4 ,in a few days1 however1 it loses its fulminating property1 and undergoes spontaneous decomposition4 ,exposed to a low heat1 the ammonia is disengaged1 and an oxide of mercury remains4 ,as ammonia forms several detonating compounds with metallic oxides1 the theory of their explosive effects is the same2 viz4 that1 while the hydrogen of the ammonia unites with the oxygen of the oxide1 forming water1 the azote is disengaged in the state of gas4 ,the process for preparing ,howard's fulminating mercury is the following1 dissolve one hundred grains of mercury in an ounce and a half 7by measure7 of common nitric acid1 assisting the solution by heat4 ,when cold1 pour the solution upon two ounces 7by measure7 of strong alcohol1 and apply a moderate heat1 until the mixture begins to effervesce4 ,a white fume then begins to undulate on the surface of the liquor1 and a white powder precipitates1 which is the fulminating mercury4 ,this powder is to be immediately washed with cold water1 and dried at a heat1 not much exceeding that of boiling water4 ,one hundred grains of mercury1 will give1 on an average1 one hundred and twenty-five grains of the powder4 ,the products of its combustion are carbonic acid gas1 azotic gas1 water1 and mercury4 ,besides by percussion1 it is inflammable when brought in contact with sulphuric acid4 ,it is supposed1 that fulminating mercury sometimes contains ammonia1 and that the products of combustion1 according to the mode of preparation1 are therefore different4 ,the reader may consult some interesting observations on this powder in the ,journal de l',ecole ,polytechnique4 ,m4 ,bayen1 an apothecary1 in #aggi1 7,journal de ,physique71 announced a process for preparing fulminating mercury4 ,his process1 however1 is different from that described4 ,a solution of mercury is made in nitric acid1 and precipitated by caustic alkali4 ,the precipitate 7oxide of mercury7 is then caught on a filter1 washed1 and dried4 ,thirty grains of this powder1 mixed with four or five grains of sulphur1 and struck with a heavy hammer1 or heated on an iron1 will explode with violence4 ,the oxide of mercury1 obtained from its solution by lime-water1 has the same effect1 when treated in the same manner4 ,another process recommended is1 to precipitate a solution of the perchloride of mercury 7corrosive sublimate7 by lime-water1 and treat the precipitate with sulphur1 as above described4 ,sect4 ,,xxvi4 ,of ,fulminating ,silver4 ,this compound1 which is more powerful than fulminating mercury1 is prepared also with alcohol4 ,descostils 7,annales de ,chimie1 ,,lxii4 p4 #aih17 ,cruikshank1 and ,brugnatelli1 have all written upon it4 ,fulminating silver explodes without much heat4 ,by the slightest friction it is inflamed1 and detonation follows4 ,hence it is used in the form of toys1 in fulminating balls1 bombs1 crackers1 c4 which explode by falling on the ground4 ,torpedoes1 pulling crackers1 c4 are formed of this powder4 ,the fulminating balls are made of glass1 and contain a grain or two of fulminating silver1 mixed with sand4 ,the same mixture1 put on the ends of two strips of paper1 and the ends pasted1 forms the pulling crackers2 for the moment they are pulled asunder1 the friction produced sets the fulminating silver on fire1 and causes a detonation4 ,the same preparation placed on a wafer1 and the wafer put between paper1 as in the sealing of a letter1 will explode1 when the paper or the wafer is broken4 ,fulminating bombs are balls of the size of a hazle nut1 containing about three grains of the fulminating silver4 ,their explosive effects are said to be violent4 ,see ,detonating ,works4 ,this powder1 in consequence of its powerful action1 is dangerous2 and1 as it explodes so readily1 it should never be put into a phial1 nor should it be touched or handled in any way that can produce friction4 ,even when made to approach the flame of a candle1 it will explode with extreme violence4 ,the preparation of ,brugnatelli's fulminating silver consists in reducing #ajj grains of nitrate of silver 7lunar caustic7 to powder2 and1 when put into a basin1 pouring over it one ounce of alcohol1 and the same quantity of nitric acid4 ,the mixture will become hot1 effervescence will ensue1 while the whole will assume an opaque or milky appearance4 ,when the gray powder of the nitrate has become white1 and the mixture acquires consistency1 distilled water is to be added1 to suspend the action4 ,the white precipitate is then to be washed by repeated affusions of cold water1 and dried in the open air1 but in a dark place1 so as to seclude it from the light4 ,in fact1 this process is similar to that for preparing fulminating mercury2 for it is nothing more than treating silver with nitric acid and alcohol4 ,cruikshank employs forty parts of silver1 sixty parts of nitric acid1 and sixty parts of alcohol1 from which sixty parts of the powder are obtained4 ,berthollet considers this powder to be composed of ammonia1 and oxide of silver1 and the theory of its detonation to be the same as that of fulminating gold4 ,in its explosion1 the oxygen of the oxide of silver unites with the hydrogen of the ammonia1 and the nitrogen is disengaged4 ,berthollet's fulminating silver1 which he discovered in #aghh1 is another preparation1 which fulminates powerfully4 ,it is prepared by precipitating nitrate of silver by lime-water4 ,the precipitate is placed on filtering paper1 which absorbs the water1 and the nitrate of lime4 ,pure caustic ammonia is then added1 which produces an effect somewhat similar to that attending the slaking of lime4 ,the ammonia dissolves only a part of this precipitate4 ,it is left at rest for ten or twelve hours1 and at the expiration of this time1 there is formed1 on the surface1 a shining pellicle1 which is re-dissolved with a new portion of ammonia1 but which does not appear1 if a sufficient quantity of ammonia has been added at the first4 ,the liquid is then separated1 and the black precipitate1 found at the bottom1 is put1 in small quantities1 on separate papers4 ,this powder explodes even when moist1 if struck with a hard body4 ,when dry1 the slightest friction will explode it4 ,its detonation is owing to the same cause as that producing the explosion of the other preparation of this metal1 as it is also composed of oxide of silver and ammonia4 ,the fulminating silver of ,chenevix explodes only by a slight friction in contact with combustible substances4 ,it is nothing more than chlorate of silver4 ,it is formed by passing chlorine gas through alumina1 diffused in water1 and afterwards digesting1 in the liquor1 some phosphate of silver4 ,the whole is to be evaporated slowly4 ,a single grain of this powder1 with three grains of sulphur1 will explode by the slightest friction4 ,for the preparation of fulminating silver1 the formula given by professor ,silliman of ,yale ,college1 appears to possess some advantages4 ,to an ounce of alcohol and as much nitric acid1 he adds #ajj grains of pulverized lunar caustic4 ,a gentle heat is applied to excite the action between them1 which must be removed1 the moment they begin to act4 ,when a thick white precipitate appears1 cold water must be added to check the action4 ,the precipitate is then to be collected1 washed1 and carefully dried4 ,a grain or two will explode over a candle4 ,sect4 ,,xxvii4 ,of ,fulminating ,gold4 ,the preparation1 called by some aurate of ammonia1 is formed by dissolving gold in nitromuriatic acid1 diluting the solution with water1 and adding gradually liquid ammonia1 until the precipitation ceases4 ,the precipitate is then to be caught on a filter1 well washed with water1 and dried in the air4 ,the fulminating gold1 thus produced1 exceeds the weight of the original gold employed by thirty-three per cent4 ,three or four grains of this powder1 heated on a knife1 will explode with a loud report4 ,the temperature required for its explosion is between #bcj and #cjj4 ,ten or twelve grains will penetrate a copper-plate1 of the thickness of a playing card4 ,the facility with which this powder explodes1 is increased by drying4 ,if it be heated until it becomes black1 the slightest touch will cause a detonation4 ,this powder is composed of oxide of gold1 ammonia1 and a portion of chlorine2 and1 during its detonation1 water1 nitrogen and chlorine are evolved1 the gold being revived4 ,the presence of ammonia is necessary to give to gold the property of fulminating4 ,fulminating gold accordingly loses this property1 the moment the ammonia is separated4 ,concentrated sulphuric acid1 melted sulphur1 fat oils1 and ether have this effect4 ,the discoverer of fulminating gold was a ,german ,benedictine ,monk1 who lived about the year #adac4 ,basil ,valentine has described the preparation of it very accurately4 ,he recommends1 however1 mixing sal ammoniac with aqua fortis1 the old mode of making aqua regia1 and distilling the mixture2 then putting in the gold in leaf4 ,after the acid is saturated1 he adds oleum tartari1 or sal tartari 7carbonate of potassa7 dissolved in water2 and the precipitated calx1 thus obtained1 when collected1 washed1 and dried in the open air1 will fulminate4 ,in this process1 it is evident1 that the aqua regia1 prepared with sal ammoniac1 contains ammonia1 and1 when the gold is dissolved1 and the potash added1 the oxide of gold separates1 and1 from the composition of the powder1 must combine with a portion of ammonia1 and hence produce fulminating gold4 ,he remarks1 that distilled vinegar digested on fulminating gold1 destroys its fulminating properties1 and observes also1 that care must be taken to prevent its explosion4 ,he also knew that sulphur would have the same effect4 ,bergman 7,treatise on ,pulvis ,fulminans7 describes the process employed by ,valentine2 and ,beckman 7,history of ,inventions1 v4 iii4 p4 #acb17 observes1 that1 after the time of ,valentine1 ,crollius1 who lived in the last half of the #afth century1 was well acquainted with fulminating gold1 and made its preparation more generally known4 ,in the ,oswaldi ,crollii ,basilica ,chymica1 #dto1 p4 #baa1 published at ,frankfort1 in #afji1 the process is also to be found4 ,he calls it aurum volatile1 and speaks of its being useful in medicine4 ,beguin1 however1 appears to have given it the appellation of aurum fulminans1 if we judge from his ,tyrocinium ,chymicum1 #abmo1 printed in #afjh4 ,sect4 ,,xxviii4 ,of ,fulminating ,platinum4 ,while noticing explosive compounds1 it may not be improper to mention that of platinum1 lately discovered by ,mr4 ,e4 ,davy4 ,it explodes1 when heated to #djj degrees1 with a sharp report1 similar to that produced by fulminating gold2 but neither friction nor percussion will decompose it4 ,it is formed by making a solution of platinum in nitromuriatic acid1 and passing through it1 sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 until no further precipitation ensues4 ,this precipitate1 when collected1 and digested in nitric acid1 is converted into sulphate of platinum4 ,this is dissolved in water1 and liquid ammonia then added4 ,the precipitate1 now formed1 is washed1 and boiled in a solution of potassa1 and1 after having freed it from the adhering potassa1 is suffered to dry4 ,all fulminating ammoniacal compounds are analogous2 and fulminating platinum1 being composed of oxide of platinum1 ammonia1 and water1 is decomposed in the same manner as these compounds4 ,fulminating platinum is composed as follows3 ,peroxide of platinum #hb4e nearly #b primes4 ,ammonia #i4j #a ---- ,water #h4e #b ---- ,sect4 ,,xxix4 ,of ,detonating ,powder from ,indigo4 ,that indigo produces a detonating powder by treating it with nitric acid1 is evident from experiment4 ,as it produces a purple light1 it might1 perhaps1 be used advantageously in small fire-works4 ,the process described by ,dr4 ,thomson1 7,system of ,chemistry1 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #hj1 ,amer4 edit47 is to boil one part of indigo in four parts of nitric acid4 ,the solution will become yellow1 and a resinous matter appear upon its surface4 ,the boiling is to be stopt1 and the liquor cooled4 ,the resinous matter is then to be separated2 and the solution evaporated to the consistence of honey4 ,this is to be re-dissolved in hot water1 and filtered1 and a solution of potassa added1 which will throw down yellow spicular crystals1 consisting of bitter principle1 combined with potassa4 ,when the resin is again treated with nitric acid1 the same bitter principle is produced4 ,the spicular crystals1 when wrapped up in paper1 and struck with a hammer1 detonate with a purple light4 ,sect4 ,,xxx4 ,of the ,fulminating ,compound1 called ,iodide of ,azote4 ,iodine is a particular substance1 which has the property not only of combining with oxygen and hydrogen1 forming iodic and hydriodic acid1 but also with various bases constituting a class of bodies1 called iodides4 ,its union with azote produces a singular substance1 which detonates with great violence1 when slightly touched or heated4 ,it may be formed1 by putting a quantity of iodine into the water of ammonia4 ,it will be gradually converted into a brownish-black matter1 which is the iodide of azote4 ,it is formed in this process by the iodine1 in the first instance1 decomposing a part of the ammonia2 the hydrogen of which combines with a portion of the iodine1 and produces hydriodic acid1 which then unites with the undecomposed part of the ammonia1 and forms the hydriodate of ammonia2 whilst the azote the other constituent of the ammonia1 unites with another portion of the iodine1 and forms the compound in question4 ,when exposed to the air1 iodide of azote gradually flies off in vapour1 without leaving any residue4 ,the products of its detonation are iodine and azotic gas4 ,the iodide of azote was discovered by ,m4 ,courtois1 and subsequently examined by ,m4 ,colin4 ,iodine1 brought in contact with ammoniacal gas1 a combination taking place1 produces a viscid shining liquid of a brownish-black colour1 which1 as the saturation goes on1 loses its lustre4 ,this liquid does not detonate1 and is considered to be an iodide of ammonia2 but1 when it is added to water1 it is decomposed1 as well as the water1 and we obtain two new compounds1 as before observed1 the hydriodate of ammonia1 and iodide of azote4 ,this iodide detonates4 ,hence it is evident1 that hydrogen united with azote1 in ammonia1 prevents explosion2 for the moment it is taken away1 by the formation of hydriodic acid1 and the azote itself combines with the iodine1 a fulminating compound is formed4 ,the elements of this powder are feebly united4 ,it is found1 that hydriodate of ammonia has the property of dissolving a large quantity of iodine1 and1 if suffered to remain with the iodide of azote1 of decomposing it also1 and setting the azote at liberty4 ,water is said to have the same effect1 although feebly4 ,iodate of potassa1 a salt composed of iodic acid and potassa1 when mixed with sulphur1 and struck with a hammer1 will detonate1 in consequence of the decomposition of the iodic acid4 ,the iodate of potassa may be formed very readily by agitating iodine with a solution of caustic potassa4 ,the water is decomposed1 and the hydriodate of potassa is also formed1 which1 being very soluble1 remains in solution1 whilst the iodate separates1 on concentrating the liquor1 and suffering it to stand4 ,chlorate1 as well as nitrate of silver1 form with sulphur fulminating powders4 ,iodic acid1 called also oxy-iodine1 7prepared by exposing iodine to the action of euchlorine17 when heated in contact with inflammable substances1 and the more combustible metals1 will produce detonations4 ,it appears1 however1 that sulphur has a stronger affinity for oxygen than iodine has1 and iodine a stronger affinity than chlorine for the same element4 ,hence chloric acid is more readily decomposed by inflammable bodies than iodic acid1 and iodic acid1 sooner than sulphuric acid4 ,the acids1 which chlorine1 iodine1 and sulphur form respectively with oxygen1 ,gay-,lussac remarks1 have their elements more strongly condensed1 than the same substances united with hydrogen4 ,sect4 ,,xxxi4 ,of ,detonating ,oil1 or ,chloride of ,azote4 ,this oil is produced by the action of chlorine on ammonia1 by using some of the salts of this alkali4 ,a small jar of chlorine gas is transferred into a basin1 containing a solution of nitrate or muriate of ammonia1 a little heated3 an absorption will gradually take place1 and the gas be condensed4 ,an oily film will now appear on the surface of the ammoniacal solution1 which1 as it increases1 will form globules and fall through the liquor4 ,this substance is the detonating oil1 composed1 according to analysis1 of chlorine1 azote1 and hydrogen4 ,it is supposed by ,messrs4 ,wilson1 ,porret1 and ,kirk1 that the hydrogen serves as a medium of union between the chlorine and azote1 and that1 in detonation1 the powerful effect is owing to the chlorine4 ,detonating oil explodes violently at #bab degrees2 and even when touched with cold inflammable substances1 as a portion of olive oil1 about the size of a pin's head1 the detonation is also violent1 and the vessel1 in which the experiment is made1 will1 in most cases1 be broken into fragments4 ,detonating oil is considered1 however1 a chloride of azote4 ,in order to prevent the decomposition of the chloride by the ammoniacal salt1 a thin stratum of muriate of soda1 put into the bottom of the vessel1 is recommended4 ,its specific gravity is #a4fec4 ,warm water1 put into a vessel containing it1 will change it to an aeriform fluid of an orange colour4 ,i attempted1 says ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 to collect the products of the new substances1 by applying the heat of a spirit-lamp to a globule of it1 confined in a curved glass tube over water3 a little gas was at first extricated2 but1 long before the water had attained the temperature of ebullition1 a violent flash of light was perceived1 with a sharp report2 the tube and glass were broken into small fragments1 and ,i received a severe wound in the transparent cornea of the eye1 which has produced a considerable inflammation of the eye1 and obliges me to make this communication by an amanuensis4 ,this experiment proves what extreme caution is necessary in operating on this substance2 for the quantity ,i used was scarcely as large as a grain of mustard seed4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahac1 ,part ,i4 ,in vacuo1 it expands into vapour1 which still possesses the power of exploding by heat4 ,in water1 it gradually disappears1 the water becoming acid1 and azote being evolved4 ,mercury decomposes it1 and a white powder 7calomel7 is formed1 while the azote is set at liberty4 ,dr4 ,ure 7,chemical ,dictionary1 ,art4 ,nitrogen17 observes1 that the mechanical force of this compound1 seems superior to that of any other known substance1 not even excepting the ammoniacal fulminating silver4 ,the velocity of its action appears to be likewise greater4 ,the ,doctor touched a minute globule of it1 in a platina spoon1 resting on a table1 with a fragment of phosphorus at the point of a pen-knife1 and the blade was instantly shivered into fragments by the explosion4 ,messrs4 ,porret1 ,wilson1 and ,kirk 7,nicholson's ,journal1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv17 employed #abe different substances1 by bringing them in contact2 and out of that number the following caused it to explode3 ,supersulphuretted hydrogen1 ,phosphorus1 ,phosphuret of lime1 ,phosphuretted camphor1 ,camphoretted oil1 ,phosphuretted hydrogen gas1 ,caoutchouc1 ,myrrh1 ,palm oil1 ,ambergris1 ,whale oil1 ,linseed oil1 ,aqueous ammonia1 ,olive oil1 ,sulphuretted oil1 ,oil of ,turpentine1 ---- ,tar1 ---- ,amber1 ---- ,petroleum1 ---- ,orange peel1 ,naphtha1 ,soap of silver1 ---- ,mercury1 ---- ,copper1 ---- ,lead1 ---- ,manganese1 ,fused ,potassa1 ,nitrous gas4 ,see ,detonating ,works4 ,according to ,mr4 ,davy1 chloride of azote contains #d vols4 of chlorine #aj or #d primes #ah4j #a ---- azote #j4igbb #a ---- #a4ge1 or very nearly #aj by weight of chlorine to #a of azote4 ,sect4 ,,xxxii4 ,of ,pyrophorus4 ,pyrophorus is a black substance1 which takes fire spontaneously1 when brought into contact with air4 ,it is the luft-zunder1 or air-tinder of the ,germans4 ,it first emits sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 and in a few seconds becomes red-hot1 burning with a bluish flame4 ,pyrophorus consists of alumina1 charcoal1 and sulphuret of potassa1 and also1 according to some1 of potassium1 which is alleged to be formed in its preparation4 ,be this as it may1 it seems1 that water is decomposed in its combustion1 that sulphuretted hydrogen gas is emitted1 which is inflamed by the oxygen gas of the atmosphere1 and that1 during the combination of oxygen1 a degree of heat is produced1 which causes the ignition of the charcoal1 as well as the inflammation of the remaining sulphur4 ,pyrophorus may be formed in several ways1 all of which produce the same result4 ,the usual process is the following3 ,take equal parts of brown sugar and alum1 and melt them in a ladle4 ,continue the heat1 stirring them constantly until a spongy black mass is formed4 ,let this mass be reduced at once to powder1 and introduced into a common green glass phial1 of the capacity of about six ounces1 previously coated outside with a mixture of pipe-clay and solution of borax4 ,immerse the phial in a crucible1 filled with sand1 closing the mouth of the former with a piece of charcoal1 or a glass tube inserted in it4 ,upon the crucible being exposed to a red heat1 an inflammable gas will escape1 which will take fire4#ba ,when this effect ensues1 the heat must be continued for about twenty minutes longer1 at the expiration of which time1 the crucible must be removed from the fire1 and the phial taken out and closely stopt4 ,the pyrophorus is to be preserved in a ground stoppered bottle4 ,the addition of one-sixteenth part of sulphate of soda1 or ,glauber's salt1 to the alum and sugar1 is said to make the pyrophorus with more certainty4 ,various vegetable substances1 besides sugar1 as flour1 starch1 c4 may be used4 ,three parts of alum1 and one part of wheat flour will make a good pyrophorus4 ,homberg discovered this substance1 in the year #afhj4 ,hence it is sometimes called ,homberg's pyrophorus4 ,he was operating upon a mixture of human excrement and alum2 and1 when he examined the contents of his vessel1 in three or four days after1 he was surprised to see it take fire spontaneously1 when brought to the air4 ,soon after ,lemery1 the younger1 discovered1 that honey1 sugar1 flour1 or almost any animal or vegetable matter1 could be used in lieu of human fces2 and1 as ,macquer informs us1 ,m4 ,lejoy de ,suvigny showed1 that other salts1 containing sulphuric acid1 may be substituted for alum4 ,mr4 ,scheele 7,treatise on fire1 c47 found by experiment1 that1 when alum was deprived of potassa1 it was incapable of forming pyrophorus1 and that vitriolated tartar 7sulphate of potassa7 may be used in the place of alum4 ,the experiments of ,mr4 ,proust prove1 that a number of neutral salts1 composed of vegetable acids and earths1 when submitted to heat1 leave a residuum that inflames spontaneously4 ,this statement agrees with the experiments of ,m4 ,chenevix4 ,from the experiments and observations of sir ,h4 ,davy1 and ,dr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,coxe1 late professor of chemistry1 but now of materia medica1 c4 in the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 it is rendered very probable1 that pyrophorus owes its property of inflaming spontaneously to a small portion of potassium1 which is formed in the process4 ,the preparation of pyrophorus is explained on the principle1 that the vegetable matter is first decomposed2 that the hydrogen and a part of the carbon decompose the sulphuric acid of the alum1 by uniting with its oxygen2 that water1 carbonic oxide1 and carburetted hydrogen are disengaged1 along with a part of the sulphur2 and that1 while the excess of charcoal remains intimately mixed or divided with the alumina1 the sulphur and the sulphuret of potassa1 form together a compound1 which has the property of inflaming spontaneously in the open air4 ,some suppose1 as alum is a triple salt1 having potassa1 as well as alumina1 for its base1 that the potassa is decomposed in the process1 and potassium1 as we remarked1 produced2 to the presence of which they ascribe the singular property of inflaming in the open air4 ,the spontaneous combustion of charcoal1 in several instances1 is supposed by some to have been owing to the presence of pyrophorus1 by others to phosphorus1 and by others again to nascent hydrogen4 ,to the presence of this substance1 is attributed the explosion of gunpowder mills4 7,see ,gunpowder47 ,several different mixtures1 and torrefied substances1 form a kind of imperfect pyrophori1 and have more than once occasioned fires1 from no suspicion of their properties being entertained4 ,besides pyrophorus1 other compositions1 which1 in like manner1 take fire on exposure to the open air1 have been by degrees made known to us3 #a4 ,the scoria of the martial regulus of antimony1 or antimony freed from sulphur by the intervention of iron and nitre1 as well crude as also after being dissolved1 have been observed to take fire spontaneously1 when laid upon a hot stone1 or in the sun4 ,of the truth of the latter case1 ,wiegleb says1 he is assured by his own experience4 #b4 ,the residuum of the acetate of copper is another pyrophorus4 #c4 ,some assert1 that they have observed an inflammation ensue from honey and flour1 calcined according to the rules laid down4 #d4 ,according to ,geoffroy1 a calcined mass of three parts of black soap1 and one of diaphoretic antimony1 has been known to take fire spontaneously4 #e4 ,meuder has observed1 that a pyrophorus is obtained1 when equal parts of orpiment and iron-filings are sublimed together1 and ten parts of this sublimate are triturated in a mortar along with twelve of nitrate of silver4 #f4 ,a pyrophorus is produced1 according to ,penzky1 when two drachms of white sand1 three of common salt1 one of sulphur1 two of sulphuric acid1 and half an ounce of muriatic1 are mixed together and distilled in a glass retort4 ,in this operation1 a sublimate is said to be obtained1 which bursts out in flames1 as soon as it comes into contact with the air4 #g4 ,the spontaneous precipitate of osteocolla1 from a solution of it in sulphuric acid1 after having been separated by means of a filter1 and dried1 took fire in a warm place4 ,s4 ,pott observed the same phenomenon in the earth of the residuum1 after the distillation of urine1 that had been putrid for a considerable time4 #i4 ,to these may also be referred1 a mass composed of equal parts of sulphur and iron-filings2 which1 when thoroughly moistened with water1 after some time1 grows hot1 swells1 and at last breaks out into vapour1 smoke1 and flame4 7,see ,artificial ,volcano47 ,cadet's fuming liquor1 prepared by distilling equal parts of acetate of potassa1 and arsenious acid1 emits a very dense1 heavy1 fetid1 noxious vapour1 which inflames spontaneously in the open air4 ,black wadd1 an ore of manganese1 when dried by the fire1 and mixed with linseed oil1 gradually becomes hot1 swells1 and then bursts into flame4 ,m4 ,chenevix 7,annales de ,chimie1 tom4 ,,lxix17 remarks that almost all the metallic residuums1 which are formed by the distillation of acetates per se1 are pyrophoric1 after cooling2 which ,mr4 ,c4 attributes to the presence of finely divided charcoal1 mixed with the metallic part4 ,he experimented on several acetates1 with the view of ascertaining the quantity of pyroacetic spirit they would yield1 and found1 in every instance1 that charcoal existed in the residue1 sometimes with reduced metal1 and at other times with metallic oxide4 ,a table of these experiments may be seen in ,ure's ,chemical ,dictionary4 ,the residuum of acetate of copper has long been known to possess pyrophoric properties4 ,sect4 ,,xxxiii4 ,of ,sal ,ammoniac4 ,this salt enters into the composition of fire-works1 to give1 more particularly1 a peculiar colour to flame1 which is that of green1 or yellowish-green4 ,sal ammoniac is a salt1 composed of muriatic acid and ammonia1 and1 when pure1 is white1 and capable of being sublimed without decomposition4 ,its purity may be known by its complete volatilization4 ,it is readily pulverized4 ,the experiment1 showing the formation of sal ammoniac by a direct union of its component parts1 may be made by bringing in contact1 in a glass receiver1 muriatic acid gas and ammoniacal gas4 ,white clouds will form1 a condensation take place1 and muriate of ammonia be deposited on the sides of the vessel4 ,sal ammoniac was altogether made1 at one period1 from the soot of camels' dung1 or of other animals1 which feed on saline plants4 ,the excrement was burnt1 the soot collected1 and sublimed4 ,this was the process practised in ,egypt4 ,the composition of sal ammoniac being known1 the process for obtaining it was improved2 so that1 instead of using the soot of dung1 it is now formed by the distillation of bones4 ,the impure ammoniacal liquor1 thus obtained1 is combined with sulphuric acid1 by an easy process1 and the resulting sulphate of ammonia is then decomposed by muriate of soda1 by which sulphate of soda and muriate of ammonia are produced4 ,they are separated1 and the latter is formed into heads by sublimation4 ,in this state1 it occurs in commerce4 ,it was made in great quantity in the vicinity of the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon2 and hence its name4 ,mr4 ,minish1 according to the ,english writers1 is entitled to this method of converting impure liquid ammonia into sal ammoniac4 ,the following is an outline of his process4 ,he suffered the impure ammoniacal liquor to percolate through a stratum of bruised gypsum1 and as carbonate of ammonia is contained in the liquor1 the fluid1 which filters1 would contain sulphate of ammonia1 the carbonate of lime being insoluble4 ,this sulphate he evaporated1 and the dry mass1 mixed with muriate of soda1 was sublimed4 ,if ,i am not greatly mistaken1 however1 although ,i have not the work to refer to1 this process is described in ,dr4 ,john ,pennington's ,chemical ,essays1 a work published in ,philadelphia1 about #agib4 ,dr4 ,pennington's work1 we may observe1 is the first chemical book which was published in the ,united ,states1 and contains numerous important facts and observations4 ,that this process was known in ,philadelphia1 and used at the ,globe works1 or rather ,glaub works1 7from the circumstance that ,glauber's salt was made there17 is within the recollection of many4 ,i heard the late professor ,wistar speak of this process1 and of the economy in using gypsum4 ,mr4 ,lebanc 7,annales de ,chimie1 vol4 ,,xix47 invented a process1 by which he brought the ammoniacal gas and muriatic acid gas in contact1 in a chamber lined with lead4 ,in one pot1 he put common salt and oil of vitriol2 in another pot1 animal matter4 ,being conducted by pipes into the chamber1 the gases united1 and sal ammoniac was formed4 ,other improvements have been made1 as obtaining ammonia from coal soot1 c4 ,ammonia is generated in artificial nitre beds1 and is at first united with nitric acid2 which compound is subsequently decomposed1 as the process of putrefaction goes on1 by the potassa1 calcareous earth1 c4 present in nitre beds4 ,see ,nitrate of ,potassa4 ,sal ammoniac is ready formed in the soot of animal feces1 twenty-six pounds of which yield six of the salt4 ,according to ,siccard1 who published1 in #agaf1 an account of the fabrication of sal ammoniac in ,egypt1 which ,geoffroy1 in the same year1 proved to be a compound of the spirit of sea salt and volatile alkali1 sea salt and urine were used in that country4 ,the account1 however1 given by ,lemery1 in #agai1 makes no mention of either sea salt or urine4 ,sal ammoniac is found native4 ,it occurs in the vicinity of burning beds of coal1 both in ,scotland and ,england1 and is met with in volcanic countries4 ,when triturated with quicklime1 it exhales ammonia1 which is a characteristic of all ammoniacal salts4 ,sal ammoniac is often found in crusts of lava4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton observes1 that1 in the fissures formed by the lava1 this salt sublimes4 ,he found1 in the same locality1 common salt4 ,sal ammoniac is decomposed by a variety of substances4 ,sulphuric acid will disengage the muriatic acid from it1 while lime1 potassa1 c4 liberates the ammoniacal gas1 which1 when combined with water by distillation or other means1 forms the common spirit of sal ammoniac1 or water of ammonia4 ,mixed with carbonate of lime and sublimed1 it produces the carbonate of ammonia1 usually called mild volatile alkali1 or pungent smelling salts4 ,ammonia1 in a separate state1 unites with some metallic oxides1 giving rise to certain fulminating powders1 which have been already noticed4 ,that iodine decomposes ammonia1 we have shown1 when on the preparation of iodide of azote1 or fulminating powder4 ,sal ammoniac enters into the composition of candles1 to prolong their duration4 ,the process recommended in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes is the following3 ,dissolve1 in half a pint of water1 a quarter of an ounce of sal ammoniac1 two ounces of common salt1 and half an ounce of saltpetre1 and add the solution to three pounds of mutton tallow1 and eight pounds of beef tallow1 previously melted4 ,continue the heat until all the water is evaporated4 ,it is then suffered to cool1 and1 when used1 is to be melted with a quarter of an ounce of nitre1 and formed into candles in the usual manner4 ,this preparation of tallow is highly recommended on account of its economy1 as well as the improvement itself4 ,a candle1 made of this tallow1 will burn two hours longer than one of the ordinary kind4 ,another process for making candles1 in which sal ammoniac is used1 is mentioned in the ,annales des ,arts et ,manufactures1 ,nos4 #adb and #adf4 ,eight pounds of suet are melted1 and a pint of water is added4 ,the tallow is again submitted to heat1 and the same quantity of water1 holding in solution half an ounce of saltpetre1 half an ounce of sal ammoniac1 and one ounce of alum1 is added4 ,it is then suffered to stand1 and when used is re-melted4 ,the wick is first dipped in a mixture of camphor and wax4 ,care must be taken1 before the tallow is used1 to evaporate the water4 ,equal parts of beef and mutton tallow are recommended4 ,sect4 ,,xxxiv4 ,of ,corrosive ,sublimate4 ,corrosive sublimate1 known in chemistry by the names of corrosive muriate1 and perchloride of mercury1 is made use of in some preparations of fire-works1 and particularly in the composition of stars1 in which it is mixed with a variety of substances1 such as steel filings and antimony1 in order to vary the appearance of the flame1 and to communicate to it particular colours4 ,corrosive sublimate is formed by various processes1 among which we may enumerate the following3 ,take five parts of sulphuric acid1 four parts of mercury1 four parts of muriate of soda1 and one part of black oxide of manganese4 ,boil the mercury in the sulphuric acid1 until it forms a dry sulphate1 which is to be reduced to five parts4 ,mix the sulphate thus formed1 with the muriate of soda1 previously dried1 and the oxide of manganese1 and sublime the mixture4 ,by this process the sulphuric acid of the sulphate unites with the soda1 and forms sulphate of soda2 while the muriatic acid of the muriate of soda combines with the oxide of mercury1 7which receives an addition of oxygen from the oxide of manganese17 and forms the perchloride1 called by ,thenard the deutochloride of mercury4 ,the same process is used without the addition of manganese4 ,by exposure to heat1 the sublimate sublimes1 and the sulphate of soda forms the residuum4 ,the same salt1 if re-sublimed with an addition of crude mercury1 will be changed into the protochloride of mercury1 or calomel4 ,or1 if the sulphate of mercury and muriate of soda be mixed with crude mercury1 and sublimed1 calomel will be formed at one operation4 ,it is sufficient to observe1 that corrosive sublimate is one of the most virulent of poisons when swallowed2 and therefore should be used with caution4 ,it is soluble in water1 and capable of crystallizing4 ,it is also soluble in alcohol1 to the flame of which it communicates a yellow colour1 and in sulphuric1 nitric1 and muriatic acids4 ,it is decomposed by alkalies1 forming with ammonia a triple salt1 7,sal ,alembroth17 by the alkaline earths1 and the metals or their sulphurets2 and1 when distilled with arsenic1 bismuth1 antimony1 or tin1 the mercury is separated4 ,the proper antidote for corrosive sublimate1 is the white of egg or albumen1 which converts it into calomel4 ,sulphuretted hydrogen water may also be employed along with emetics4 ,the effect of albumen1 in this way1 may be relied on4 ,sect4 ,,xxxv4 ,of ,orpiment4 ,orpiment1 or the yellow sulphuret of arsenic1 which is either native or artificial1 is principally used in fire-works for the composition of stars4 ,orpiment is divided by some into two kinds2 viz4 the red1 called realgar1 and the yellow1 called yellow arsenic4 ,arsenic combines readily with sulphur4 ,when they are mixed together1 and put into a crucible and fused1 the product will be a red vitreous mass4 ,this red sulphuret may also be formed1 by melting sulphur with arsenious1 or arsenic acid4 ,sulphurous acid gas will be evolved1 evidently showing that a portion of the sulphur unites with the oxygen of acid employed4 ,when arsenious acid1 known in commerce by the name of white arsenic1 and called by some oxide of arsenic1 is dissolved in muriatic acid1 and a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen in water is added1 a yellow precipitate will be obtained which is orpiment4 ,the hydrogen1 in this case1 unites with the oxygen of the arsenious acid1 by which the metal is reduced1 and the sulphur then combines with it4 ,a mixture of sulphur and arsenic1 exposed to a heat not sufficient to melt them1 will sublime into a yellow sulphuret4 ,both the yellow and red sulphurets are employed in fire-works4 ,they are not1 however1 required1 except in particular cases4 ,in the composition of ,bengal lights1 given in the ,bombardier or ,pocket ,gunner1 by ,r4 ,w4 ,adye1 orpiment is used4 ,according to the same author1 it is also used in ,chinese white lights4 ,both the yellow and red sulphuret of arsenic will detonate with chlorate of potassa4 ,sect4 ,,xxxvi4 ,of ,antimony4 ,the antimony1 which enters into the composition of many fire-works1 is not to be understood to be the metallic1 or regulus of1 antimony1 unless so expressed2 but the crude antimony of the shops4 ,crude antimony is a combination of antimony and sulphur1 and is usually met with in fine powder4 ,that both antimony and its sulphuret have a powerful effect in modifying the flame of gunpowder1 and all compositions1 in which nitre and inflammable substances form a part1 is evident from the many cases1 in which it is employed1 and from the effects that thereby result4 ,the different substances in any inflammable compound1 intended to produce particular colours1 should be so mixed1 as that1 from a knowledge of the proportions which produce such colours1 the effect may be retained1 even when it is mixed with other bodies4 ,for this reason1 the artist should know the different effect of each ingredient4 ,some may show themselves in the flame1 some in sparks1 some in stars1 others in fire-rain1 and the like1 as the case may be4 ,antimony1 for instance1 produces a reddish flame1 if it be in a proper proportion1 and not altered by the presence of other substances4 ,hence1 when antimony is mixed with nitre1 the flame will be more or less a whitish-green4 ,this modification1 or change in the appearance of flame1 is apparent in certain compounds1 of which antimony constitutes a part4 ,thus1 antimony is used in the preparation of the common rocket stars1 in drove stars1 in the fixed pointed stars1 in some of the gold and silver rains1 in the slow and dead fire for wheels1 in tourbillons for crowns or globes1 in the composition of serpents1 lances for illumination1 ,bengal lights1 and many other kinds of fire-works4 ,according to ,adye1 7,pocket ,gunner17 it enters into the composition of carcasses1 ,chinese lights1 c4 ,when it is as one to sixteen of nitre1 the gunpowder being as four1 and the sulphur1 eight1 the composition will produce a white flame2 but when it is in the proportion of eight to sixteen of nitre1 without any addition1 the flame will be blue4 ,by substituting1 in its place1 eight of amber to sixteen of nitre1 with sixteen of sulphur1 and eight of meal powder1 this change will produce a yellow flame4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that these and similar changes are owing to the proportions1 as well as to the substances used4 ,antimony1 in the state of a sulphuret1 when mixed with chlorate of potassa1 c4 will form detonating compounds4 ,antimony is a grayish-white metal1 more or less brilliant and laminated4 ,it is brittle1 and may be easily reduced to powder4 ,it melts at a red heat1 and evaporates at a higher temperature3 on cooling1 it crystallizes4 ,it undergoes no change by exposure to the air1 except the loss of its lustre4 ,when steam is made to pass over ignited antimony1 the decomposition of the water is so rapid1 as to produce a violent detonation4 ,at a white heat1 it burns1 and forms a white coloured oxide1 called the argentine flowers of antimony4 ,its oxides are various1 some of which1 possessing acid properties1 are called acids4 ,the protoxide is gray1 the antimonious acid1 white1 and antimonic acid1 of a straw colour4 ,the crocus of antimony1 and the glass of antimony are oxides of this metal1 but in particular states of combination4 ,it unites with several of the acids4 ,its oxide1 with tartaric acid1 and tartrate of potassa1 forms tartar emetic4 ,with chlorine1 it constitutes the butter of antimony4 ,the artificial sulphuret may be formed1 by melting sulphur and antimony together4 ,the native sulphuret is almost the only ore of antimony1 and is the mineral from which the regulus is obtained4 ,it unites with the metals1 forming alloys of different kinds4 ,sect4 ,,xxxvii4 ,of ,carbonate of ,potassa4 ,potassa1 either pure or carbonated1 retards the progress of combustion2 and1 therefore1 may prevent1 according to the proportion employed1 the action of combustible bodies on nitre4 ,combustion may be retarded by using those substances1 which are not in themselves inflammable1 and which1 if used in too large a quantity1 would effectually prevent it4 ,clay1 wood ashes1 c4 as in the blind fuse1 act on this principle2 and serve1 also1 in particular cases1 to produce that succession of explosions1 which renders the effect of some fire-works1 more grand and impressive4 ,rope1 soaked in a solution of saltpetre and dried1 would burn rapidly1 were it not for the after immersion in potash ley1 or urine1 either of which acts by retarding the progress of combustion4 ,the same thing may be said of other bodies1 the use of which will claim our attention hereafter4 ,potassa1 although not generally used for the purposes mentioned1 as it is apt to deliquesce1 or absorb water1 and thus destroy the effect altogether1 may be more advantageously employed in a liquid state1 as in the preparation of slow match in the way stated under that head4 ,but as match rope is now generally superseded by the port-fire1 as a more certain method of firing cannon1 it would be unnecessary1 as it is irrelevant1 to enlarge on this head4 ,the use1 also1 of the priming fuse1 which conveys the fire to the powder in the gun1 with certainty and with rapidity1 is an improvement of no small moment4 ,alum has also been used for the purpose of checking the rapidity of combustion1 in some particular fire-works4 ,in one of the formul for the preparation of fire-balls1 to be thrown with the hand1 or fired from a gun1 given in the ,memoir on ,military ,fire-works1 as taught at ,strasburg1 in #agfd1 there is1 besides sulphur1 mutton suet1 saltpetre1 and antimony1 nitre of alum1 equal to one-fourth of the weight of the compound4 ,that this salt1 the supersulphate of alumina and potassa1 is used to make paper1 as cartridge paper1 c4 incombustible1 is a fact1 with which every one is acquainted4 ,we might1 also1 enumerate the uses of glue1 isinglass1 gum arabic1 c4 for similar purposes2 and also of wood-ashes1 in the composition of the1 so called1 blind fuse4 ,light twisted white rope1 when soaked in strong ley1 or a strong solution of potash1 we are informed1 will form a slow match that will burn only three feet in six hours4 ,potash is obtained from wood-ashes1 by lixiviation with water1 and evaporation4 ,it contains more or less impurities2 and always carbonic acid1 from which it is separated by quicklime1 the alkali being rendered caustic4 ,some of the foreign ingredients are burnt off by exposing it to heat in an oven4 ,it then assumes a white1 somewhat pearly appearance1 and takes the name of pearl-ash1 but is still the same alkali4 ,wood-ashes1 when mixed with quicklime1 and lixiviated1 produce caustic ley1 the strength of which depends on the quantity of alkali held in solution4 ,it is this ley1 when boiled with oils1 fat1 c4 that produces soft soap4 ,hard soap is a combination of oil or fat1 and soda4 ,the quantity of real alkali in potash may be known by the proportion of acid required to saturate a given weight of it4 ,potash1 pearl-ash1 salt of tartar1 and salt of wormwood are all carbonates of potassa4 ,this alkali is called the vegetable alkali1 because it is obtained from vegetables4 ,it is considered to be the hydrated deutoxide of potassium1 and when decomposed will furnish potassium4 ,table of the saline or soluble products of one thousand pounds of ashes of the following vegetables4 ,,saline ,,products4 ,stalks of ,turkey wheat1 #aih lbs4 ,stalks of sun-flower1 #cdi ,vine branches #afb4f ,elm #aff ,box #gh ,sallow #ajb ,oak #aaa ,aspen #fa ,beach #bai ,fern1 cut in ,august1 #aaf1 or #abe according to ,wildenheim4 ,wormwood #gdh ,fumitory #cfj ,heath #aae ,the observations of ,mr4 ,kirwan on potash may be seen in ,aikin's ,chemical ,dictionary4 ,when a piece of hydrated potassa is placed between two disks of platinum1 which are brought in contact with the poles of a galvanic battery1 consisting of upwards of #bjj pairs of plates1 four inches square1 the oxygen will separate at the positive surface1 and small metallic globules of potassium will be formed at the negative surface4 ,the potassa1 in the mean time1 will undergo fusion4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy discovered potassium1 in #ahjg4 ,it may be obtained by means of iron turnings1 in the following manner3 ,heat the iron turnings to whiteness in a curved gun barrel1 and suffer potassa1 in a state of fusion1 to fall upon them very gradually1 air being excluded3 potassium will form1 and collect in the cool part of the tube4 ,for the different facts respecting this metal1 consult ,sir ,h4 ,davy's communications on the subject1 and the memoirs of ,gay-,lussac and ,thenard1 ,curadeau1 c4 ,see also1 ,davy's ,chemical ,philosophy1 and ,thenard's ,trait de ,chimie4 ,potassa unites with1 and neutralizes1 acids1 and forms salts2 the principal of which are the sulphate1 muriate1 and nitrate of potassa4 ,it unites also with sulphur1 phosphorus1 c4 ,potassa1 in the state of carbonate1 is very soluble in water1 for which it has so strong an affinity1 that1 when exposed to the atmosphere1 it deliquesces and becomes fluid4 ,caustic potassa undergoes the same change1 in a more remarkable degree4 ,it is on account of its great avidity for water1 that the carbonate is used in the preparation of alcohol from spirituous liquors2 it retaining the water1 while the alcohol may be distilled over4 ,potassa has a stronger affinity for the acids1 than either the earths or metals2 hence it decomposes earthy and metallic salts1 the earth or metallic oxide being precipitated1 while it unites with the acid of the salt4 ,it is on the same principle1 that earthy and metallic salts decompose soap2 and waters which are hard1 and owe that property to the presence of earthy salts1 will curdle1 or1 in other words1 decompose soap4 ,such waters1 for this reason1 are called hard4 ,acids have the same effect in decomposing soap4 ,the use of potassa is very apparent in the manufacture of saltpetre4 ,when the nitric acid is combined with an earthy base1 as in the calcareous nitre of the nitre caves of the western country1 potassa from wood-ashes will decompose it1 on the principle already stated2 and1 by combining with the nitric acid1 form nitrate of potassa4 ,it is used also in refining saltpetre1 where earthy salts are present1 besides common salt4 ,the effect of this alkali1 for that purpose1 will be more obvious1 by referring to the processes for the extraction and refining of saltpetre1 in the article on that subject4 ,potassa acts as a flux for siliceous substances and forms glass4 ,these are its prominent characters4 ,sect4 ,,xxxviii4 ,of ,wood-,ashes4 ,wood-ashes1 the product of the combustion of wood1 contain potassa1 some foreign salts1 and earthy and sometimes metallic substances1 insoluble in water4 ,the quantity of alkali1 which ashes1 obtained from different woods1 furnish1 is greater or less1 according to the nature of the wood4 ,the ashes of the oak are generally used in pyrotechny2 but it seems to us1 that ashes in common will have the same effect4 ,the ashes1 for this purpose1 should be dry1 and passed through a fine sieve4 ,they enter into the composition of blind fuse4 ,in some instances1 the leached1 or lixiviated ashes might be used4 ,the residue1 after the separation of alkali and saline matter by the action of water1 is nothing more than the insoluble part of the ashes4 ,caustic ley is always obtained from wood-ashes1 by mixing them with about a fiftieth part of quicklime1 and putting them into a barrel or tub1 and adding water4 ,the lime takes up the carbonic acid1 and the ley comes off in a caustic state4 ,if the solution should not contain a sufficient quantity of potassa1 or not bear an egg1 as that is the usual criterion of its strength1 7which depends on its specific gravity17 its strength may be increased by evaporation2 and1 if too strong1 simple dilution with water1 is all that is necessary4 ,while the ashes of some plants1 as the upland plants1 generally yield potassa2 others1 as many marine plants1 the salicornia europea1 salsola tragus1 salsola kali1 c4 afford soda by incineration4 ,it will be sufficient1 however1 to observe1 that the ashes of all plants contain alkali1 in more or less quantity1 which depends on various circumstances2 and that the alkali may be extracted by lixiviation1 and1 in some instances1 may even be seen among the ashes1 in a semivitrified mass4 ,the white ashes1 which are formed by the combustion of animal matter1 as osseous or bony substances1 we may remark1 do not afford potassa or soda1 but only phosphate of lime1 and some uncombined earths4 ,bones1 nevertheless1 may1 like wood1 be carbonized1 although the charcoal formed is of a different nature4 ,for the preparation of phosphorus from bone-ash1 see the article ,phosphorus4 ,sec4 ,,xxxix4 ,of ,clay4 ,clay is an argillo-siliceous substance1 of a colour more or less yellow1 and containing a variable quantity of silica and alumina1 with oxide of iron4 ,there are a variety of clays2 the common potter's clay1 pipe clay1 porcelain clay1 c4 ,some contain1 and others are free from iron4 ,those that contain this metal burn red2 while those which remain1 or become white in the process of burning1 are free from it4 ,the use of clay in fire-works is confined nearly altogether to rockets4 ,in the driving of sky-rockets1 c4 the charge must always be driven one diameter above the piercer1 and on it there is sometimes rammed one-third of a diameter of clay1 through the middle of which a hole is bored to the composition1 so that1 when the charge is burnt to the top1 it may communicate its fire through the hole1 to the stars in the head4 ,this1 however1 is not always the case4 ,see ,rockets4 ,the clay for fire-works1 is usually prepared of the common kind1 which contains neither stones nor sand4 ,it must be first baked in an oven1 until perfectly dry1 and then pulverized1 and sifted through a common hair sieve4 ,in ,china1 the ,chinese mostly employ1 for this purpose1 their white porcelain clay4 ,sec4 ,,xl4 ,of ,quicklime4 ,lime1 as it is found in nature1 is combined with carbonic and sulphuric acids1 and less frequently with some of the other acids1 as the nitric1 fluoric and phosphoric4 ,calcareous carbonates are the most abundant2 in which we include marble1 limestone1 and chalk2 and the sulphate1 or gypsum1 may be considered the next4 ,lime constitutes the basis of marine shells2 for1 when burnt1 they furnish quicklime4 ,its union with nitric acid is well known1 forming the calcareous nitre of the saltpetre caves of ,kentucky1 c4 ,we have mentioned this combination under the head of nitre4 ,without enumerating all the chemical properties of lime1 it will be sufficient to remark1 that it is composed of calcium and oxygen1 and1 when slaked with water1 will evolve caloric in a free state1 while the water solidifies or combines with the lime2 that it forms with water1 a solid hydrate1 an example of which combination is afforded by the preparation of mortar2 that it dissolves in water1 and forms lime-water1 and is slaked by exposure to the air1 absorbing1 at the same time1 carbonic acid2 that it unites with acids1 like other salifiable bases1 and forms salts1 some of which are soluble in water1 and others not2 that it deprives the alkalies of carbonic acid1 and renders them caustic1 being itself changed into a carbonate2 and1 that it unites with sulphur and phosphorus1 forming a sulphuret and phosphuret1 and1 also1 with hydroguretted sulphur1 and sulphuretted hydrogen1 forming a hydroguretted sulphuret1 and a hydro-sulphuret4 ,when limestone1 marble1 c4 are burnt in a kiln1 the carbonic acid is expelled1 and quicklime formed4 ,quicklime and lime1 chemically speaking1 are synonimous terms4 ,the fluor1 or ,derbyshire spar1 is a fluate of lime4 ,when this substance is distilled in a leaden retort1 with sulphuric acid1 we have sulphate of lime1 and fluoric acid gas1 called by some hydro-fluoric acid4 ,this acid1 when received in water1 is used to etch on glass1 in the same manner as nitric acid on copper2 and while applied in a liquid state1 or in that of gas1 it acts on the glass1 by combining with the silicon1 and is changed from the hydrofluoric1 into the silicated fluoric acid4 ,if1 instead of employing a leaden vessel1 we make use of a glass retort1 or introduce powdered glass or silica1 into the leaden vessel1 in either case1 we obtain another acid1 which we have just mentioned1 the silicated fluoric acid2 in consequence of the union of silicon with the supposed radical of the fluoric acid1 known by the name of fluorine4 ,quicklime is occasionally1 though but rarely1 employed in fire-works4 ,that it increases the strength of powder1 is asserted by ,dr4 ,bayne4 ,see ,gunpowder4 ,its use in making slow match1 along with other substances1 is given in the article on that subject4 ,sec4 ,,xli4 ,of ,lapis ,calaminaris4 ,that some of the ores of zinc are employed in fire-works1 is evident from the use of lapis calaminaris1 or calamine stone1 which is an impure carbonate of zinc4 ,calamine should be finely pulverized and sifted4 ,as zinc gives a particular colour to flame1 7see zinc71 its carbonate may also communicate a colour1 and1 under particular circumstances1 may produce a great variety1 and1 therefore1 in such cases1 be preferable to the zinc itself4 ,it is one of the ingredients in the dead fire for wheels1 which is composed of lapis calaminaris1 saltpetre1 brimstone1 and antimony4 ,the modifications1 to which particular bodies are subject1 as to their respective effects1 depend very greatly on the presence of other bodies1 and frequently on the chemical action1 which ensues throughout2 so that1 as we had occasion to observe1 the effect which one body would produce on the flame1 maybe completely changed1 modified1 or varied by the presence of a second1 third1 or fourth substance4 ,the art1 therefore1 of uniting various bodies1 in kind1 as well as in proportion1 so as to produce a given effect1 can be acquired only by a series of experiments4 ,zinc1 as a metal1 when finely divided1 produces a peculiar effect2 when mixed with other metals1 and with certain salts1 as sal ammoniac1 another2 and1 when combined with some acids1 as the carbonic in lapis calaminaris1 a third effect2 and these effects may be governed1 as it appears1 by the presence or absence of certain bodies4 ,this fact will appear more striking1 when we consider the various mixtures1 and their respective properties4 ,for the uses of zinc1 see that article4 ,sec4 ,,xlii4 ,of ,zinc4 ,zinc1 commonly called spelter1 is a metal1 obtained from blende1 or sulphuret of zinc1 and calamine1 or carbonate of zinc4 ,the ore is first roasted1 and then mixed with some carbonaceous flux1 and submitted to the action of heat in close vessels4 ,the metal is volatilized1 and passes over1 and is usually caught in water4 ,it is then fused1 and cast in moulds4 ,zinc possesses many remarkable properties1 some of which are the following4 ,it is of a brilliant white colour1 with a shade of blue1 and is composed of a number of thin plates1 adhering together4 ,its specific gravity is more than six times that of water4 ,it is brittle1 but1 when heated to #bab degrees1 may be hammered out1 or made into sheets4 ,at #djj it becomes very brittle4 ,its tenacity is so feeble1 that a wire of #a_/ajth of an inch in diameter1 will support a weight of only #bf pounds4 ,at #fhj it melts1 and above that temperature1 evaporates4 ,it soon oxidizes1 and its lustre is therefore tarnished4 ,at common temperatures1 it soon decomposes water2 and1 when the vapour of water is passed over it at a high temperature1 the decomposition is very rapid1 the oxygen of the water being absorbed4 ,zinc is soon oxidized when melted and exposed to the air1 forming a gray oxide4 ,at a red heat1 zinc inflames1 and the product of combustion is the white oxide of zinc1 or flowers4 ,the oxide of zinc is reduced by mixing it with charcoal1 and exposing the mixture to a strong heat in close vessels4 ,zinc will burn in chlorine gas1 and forms a chloride of zinc4 ,if the perchloride of mercury and zinc-filings be heated together1 the same compound will result4 ,this chloride melts at #bab1 and rises1 in the gaseous form1 at a heat much below ignition4 ,it was formerly called the butter of zinc1 and muriate of zinc4 ,with iodine1 zinc forms a compound1 called iodide of zinc4 ,with phosphorus and sulphur1 zinc also combines1 and with the latter1 it forms the native sulphuret1 known by the name of blende4 ,it unites1 also1 with acids1 and forms salts4 ,of these1 the sulphate of zinc1 or white vitriol1 is the most common4 ,it unites with various metals1 forming alloys4 ,of these1 that with copper1 called brass1 is the most known4 ,zinc1 with copper1 forms galvanic batteries4 ,with tin and mercury1 it constitutes amalgam for electrical machines4 ,it forms1 besides brass1 the yellow copper1 or laiton2 commonly called pinchbeck4 ,acetic acid readily dissolves zinc4 ,the acetate formed is not altered by exposure to the air1 is soluble in water1 and burns with a blue flame4 ,it may be used1 therefore1 in fire-works1 to communicate that colour to flame4 ,it may be formed very expeditiously1 by mixing about equal parts of sulphate of zinc1 and acetate of lead1 both being in solution4 ,the sulphate of lead1 which is formed1 will precipitate1 and acetate of zinc remain in solution4 ,by evaporation1 it is obtained in crystals4 ,this salt cannot injure any composition of fire-work1 in which it enters2 as it does not deliquesce1 and1 for that reason1 may be advantageously employed4 ,when zinc is used in fire-works1 it should be remarkably fine4 ,the powder may be very readily formed1 by heating it1 until it is about to fuse1 and pulverizing it while hot1 in a warm mortar4 ,it is generally considered1 however1 that the best method of obtaining the powder of zinc1 although a longer time is required1 is by filing it2 but the filings are more or less coarse1 according to the file which is used4 ,they may be sifted1 and thus obtained of any degree of fineness4 ,in various blue lights1 in the blue flame of the parasol and cascades1 and other descriptions of fire-works1 it is used4 ,it gives a more brilliant light than any other substance used for this purpose4 ,it is frequently mixed with other substances2 but1 as to its peculiar properties1 they remain the same4 ,by the combustion of zinc1 which follows in fire-works1 it always produces an oxide4 ,in this state1 it is expelled1 or thrown off4 ,acetate of zinc appears to possess advantages over zinc-filing1 especially as it produces the same colour1 may be more readily mixed1 and with more accuracy1 and does not deliquesce or absorb moisture1 a circumstance which must always be guarded against in artificial fire-works4 ,sec4 ,,xliii4 ,of ,brass4 ,this is a mixed metal1 composed of copper and zinc4 ,this alloy1 according to the proportion of the metals1 is more or less yellow1 or reddish-yellow4 ,the yellow copper1 or laiton of the ,french1 the similor1 ,manheim gold1 prince ,rupert's metal1 c4 are alloys of the same metals4 ,zinc readily unites with copper2 and the usual manner of forming brass by brass-founders1 is to make a direct union between the two metals4 ,the process1 however1 generally consists in mixing together granulated copper1 calamine1 or carbonated oxide of zinc1 and charcoal in powder1 and melting them in a crucible4 ,the charcoal reduces the zinc1 which then unites with the copper4 ,the heat is kept up for five or six hours1 and towards the last of the process1 is raised4 ,zinc1 in small proportion1 renders copper pale1 and in the proportion of one-twelfth1 inclines its colour to yellow4 ,the yellow colour increases in intensity with the zinc1 until the weight of this metal in the alloy equals that of the copper4 ,an increase of zinc1 afterwards makes the alloy white4 ,english brass contains one-third of its weight of zinc4 ,in ,germany and ,sweden1 the proportion of zinc varies from one-fifth to one-fourth of the copper4 ,twenty to forty parts of zinc1 with eighty to sixty parts of copper form the cuivre jaune1 laiton1 or yellow copper of the ,french4 ,dutch metal1 or ,dutch gold1 is a fine kind of brass1 and comes in leaf1 which is about five times as thick as gold leaf4 ,this brass is made by the cementation of copper plates with calamine1 and hammered out into leaves4 ,according to ,thenard 7,trait de ,chimie1 tome i1 p4 #dgh71 the ,french use #ej parts of calamine1 mixed intimately with #bj parts of charcoal1 and stratified in a crucible with #cj parts of laminated1 or granulated copper4 ,british brass consists of two parts of copper1 and #a-a_/h parts of zinc1 by weight4 ,the filings of brass are much employed in fire-works4 ,they communicate to stars1 rains1 c4 a flame between a blue and green4 ,in some1 the filings of copper alone are used4 ,a beautiful green fire1 for instance1 is produced by #af ounces of gunpowder1 and #c-a_/d ounces of copper-filings4 ,verdigris is also employed for the same purpose2 but the effect is not so striking1 as in that preparation1 the copper is already oxidized4 ,the effect of copper in fire-works1 it is to be recollected1 depends1 like that of other metals1 on its combustion1 and consequent oxidizement4 ,the product of the combustion of brass1 is oxide of copper1 and oxide of zinc4 ,sec4 ,,xliv4 ,of ,bronze4 ,the union of copper with tin1 in various proportions1 forms gun-metal1 bell-metal1 the mirrors of telescopes1 and bronze4 ,the ductility of the copper is diminished by the tin2 but its hardness1 and tenacity1 as well as its fusibility and sonorousness are increased4 ,to form a complete union of the two metals1 they should be continued in fusion for some time1 and constantly stirred4 ,the tin is apt to rise to the surface1 unless this precaution is used4 ,bronze is usually composed of #ajj parts of copper1 and #h to #ab parts of tin4 ,it is yellow1 brittle1 heavier than copper1 and has more tenacity4 ,the same metals1 and in the same proportion1 constitute gun-metal4 ,in the brass ordnance made at ,woolwich1 the proportion of tin varies from #h to #ab1 to the #ajj parts of copper4 ,the purest copper requires the most4 ,that the alloy is more sonorous than iron1 is evident from the report of brass pieces1 being louder than that occasioned by iron guns4 ,when the alloy is #gh of copper and #bb of tin1 it is chiefly used for clocks4 ,there is1 in the ,english metal1 about five per cent4 of zinc1 and four per cent4 of lead4 ,the proportion of tin1 in bell-metal1 varies4 ,in church bells1 less tin is used than for small bells4 ,in the latter1 zinc is sometimes added4 ,the ,tam-tam1 or gong of the ,chinese1 used for cymbals1 clocks1 mirrors1 c4 contains1 according to analysis1 #hj parts of copper1 and #bj parts of tin4 ,the proportions1 however1 are not always the same4 ,the ancients made cutting instruments of an alloy of copper and tin4 ,a dagger1 analyzed by ,mr4 ,hielm1 consisted of #hc-g_/h copper1 and #af-a_/h tin4 ,vessels of bronze were frequently covered with silver4 ,some of this kind were found in the ruins of ,herculaneum4 ,pliny observes1 that ancient mirrors were made with a mixture of copper and tin2 but that1 in his time1 those of silver were so common1 that they were even used by the maid servants4 ,the quantity of tin1 to make the most perfect speculum1 depends on the quality of the copper4 ,if the proportion of tin be too small1 the composition will be yellowish2 if it be too great1 the composition will be of a grayish-blue colour4 ,mr4 ,edwards casts the speculum in sand with its face downwards2 takes it out while red-hot1 and places it in hot wood-ashes to cool1 otherwise it would break in cooling4 ,the mixture is first granulated1 by pouring it into water1 and then fused a second time for casting4 ,mr4 ,little recommends the following proportions3 #cb parts of the best bar copper1 #d parts of brass1 or pin wire1 #af-a_/b of tin1 and #a-a_/d of arsenic4 ,whether for speculum metal1 bronze1 or gun-metal1 the metals must be mixed exactly1 and for this purpose be kept a long time in fusion1 and constantly stirred2 otherwise1 the alloy will not be of a uniform quality1 as the greater part of the copper will sink to the bottom1 and the greater part of the tin rise to the surface4 ,when we speak of brass guns1 as that name is generally applied to them1 we are to understand1 that they are not made1 like brass1 of an alloy of copper and zinc4 ,the ancient metallic mirrors1 which were in use before the present mirrors1 or the discovery of glass1 and the mode of applying to its surface an amalgam of tin1 were composed of two parts of copper and one part of tin4 ,mr4 ,mudge asserts1 that the best proportion for mirrors is #cb parts of copper and #ad4e parts of tin4 ,klaproth found a specimen of ancient mirror to consist of #cb of tin1 #h of lead1 and #fb of copper4 ,the alloys of copper and tin may be decomposed by dissolving them in an acid1 the muriatic for instance1 and immersing a sheet of iron1 which will precipitate the copper4 ,the tin may then be separated by immersing a plate of lead1 or zinc1 by either of which metals1 it will be precipitated4 ,bronze1 being a mixed metal1 in which the copper forms the principal ingredient1 is sometimes used in fire-works1 in lieu of copper or brass2 for its effects are similar4 ,by the combustion of bronze filings1 we have an oxide of copper and an oxide of tin4 ,sec4 ,,xlv4 ,of ,mosaic ,gold4 ,this name1 or aurum musivum1 was given to a preparation of tin1 composed of tin and sulphur4 ,it is considered to be a persulphuret of tin4 ,several methods are recommended for preparing this substance4 ,the oldest process is to sublime a mixture of #ab parts of tin1 #g parts of sulphur1 #c parts of mercury1 and #c parts of sal ammoniac4 ,it may be formed by heating together in a retort1 a mixture of equal parts of sulphur and oxide of tin4 ,it is used principally for rubbing the cushions of electrical machines1 and for bronzing wood4 ,in fire-works1 it is sometimes employed under the name of gold-powder4 ,it was supposed to be a combination of sulphur with the oxide of tin4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,davy 7,phil4 ,trans4 #ahab1 p4 #aii7 and ,berzelius1 7,nich4 ,jour4 xxxv1 #afe71 have proved1 however1 that it is nothing more than metallic tin and sulphur2 the proportions of which1 according to the former1 are #ajj of tin #ef4be of sulphur4 ,mosaic gold is of a yellow colour1 resembling that of gold4 ,it is insoluble in water1 and is not acted upon by muriatic or nitric acid4 ,the nitromuriatic1 however1 decomposes it4 ,a solution of caustic potassa dissolves it1 forming a green solution1 which is decomposed by acids1 letting fall a hydrosulphuret of tin4 ,it deflagrates with nitre4 ,when it is used in fire-works1 it is pulverized1 and sifted4 ,it is more generally employed as a pigment to impart a golden colour to small statues of plaster-paris4 ,when mixed with melted glass1 it is said to imitate lapis lazuli4 ,sec4 ,,xlvi4 ,of ,iron and ,steel4 ,both iron and steel are used abundantly in fire-works4 ,it would be unnecessary to detail the preparations1 in which they are employed1 which may be seen by a reference to the different kinds of fire1 and to their respective formul4 ,cast iron is more employed in artificial fire than forged iron or steel1 at least in the preparation of some1 as gerbes1 white fountains1 and ,chinese fire4 ,the filings of iron and steel may be sifted through sieves4 ,a fine hair sieve will answer for common purposes4 ,their fineness depends1 in the first instance1 on the file1 which is used4 ,steel or iron filings are more commonly employed in the compositions for brilliant fire4 ,the sparks produced by cast-iron are very brilliant2 but the reduction of the iron to powder1 or to a degree of fineness sufficient for use1 is a difficult operation4 ,it is of too hard a nature to be cut by a file4 ,this operation is generally performed in the following manner3 ,procure from an iron foundry1 some thin pieces of cast iron1 such as generally run over the mould at the time of casting1 and pound them on a block1 made of cast iron1 with an iron hammer of four pounds weight1 putting1 under the block1 a cloth to catch the pieces of iron1 which fly off4 ,they are beaten with the hammer in this manner1 until the whole is reduced to grains1 which are more or less small4 ,it is then thrown into a sieve1 which should be fine1 and the dust separated4 ,this is used1 in the place of steel dust1 in small cases of brilliant fire4 ,the remainder is then put into a sieve1 a little coarser1 and again sifted4 ,this portion is preserved separately4 ,the same operation is repeated1 but with sieves of different sizes1 till the iron passes through about the bigness of small bird shot4 ,the pulverization may be effected in an iron mortar1 with a steel pestle1 having the mortar covered in the usual manner1 to prevent the escape of the finer particles of the iron4 ,according to a writer in the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 vol4 iii1 p4 #cd1 the ,chinese prepare their iron-sand for fire-works by igniting iron1 and plunging it in cold water4 ,they then pulverize the scales thus formed1 and pass the powder obtained1 through different sized sieves1 which is then called ,no4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 c4 as it is very fine or coarse4 ,this cannot be a good method1 and we doubt whether it is at present employed2 because it is obvious1 that the scales1 in this case1 consist of the metal in the state of protoxide4 ,d',incarville1 a missionary at ,pekin1 obtained the process for making ,chinese fire2 and observes1 that the pulverized cast iron they employ is called iron-sand1 of which they have six numbers or varieties4 ,as the goodness of iron or steel dust1 in fire-works1 depends greatly on its being dry1 and not oxidized or rusted2 its preservation must be accordingly attended to4 ,the usual preservative is to put it in a box1 lined with oiled paper1 and covered with the same1 or in tin cannisters1 with their mouths well closed4 ,when it is to be used1 it is taken according to its size1 and in proportion to the cases1 for which the charge is intended4 ,large gerbes1 of #f or #h lbs4 require only the coarse sort4 ,as the brilliancy of the sparks1 produced by the iron and steel dust1 is a desideratum in the formation of some fire-works1 and as this brilliancy depends upon the nature and quality of the metal1 it may not be improper to offer some remarks on these subjects4 ,that iron1 when finely divided is capable of producing sparks of fire1 is a well known fact2 and we see it daily in the operations of the smith1 when ignited iron is hammered on the anvil4 ,the scintillation produced by the steel1 when struck with a flint1 is of the same character4 ,in the latter case1 the metal is actually fused1 and1 when caught on a paper1 and examined with a microscope1 will appear globular1 and partly oxidized4 ,hence it is1 that gunpowder is inflamed by this spark1 which is nothing more than highly ignited1 and inflamed iron1 possessing a temperature more than sufficient to inflame gunpowder4 ,the effect1 therefore1 that results from the inflammation of fire-works1 in which iron or steel forms a constituent part1 is nothing more than a vivid combustion of the metal2 and during that process it becomes oxidized1 as it does not form an acid with oxygen1 like arsenic1 antimony1 and some other metals4 ,the combustion of iron or steel may be shown by a very brilliant experiment1 that of burning it in oxygen gas4 ,a steel wire1 harpsichord wire for instance1 formed into a spiral1 with a small piece of wood dipped in sulphur1 stuck on its end and then set on fire1 upon being immediately introduced into a bottle1 containing pure oxygen gas1 will burn with great brilliancy1 emitting a number of sparks or scintillations1 which fall like rain4 ,in making the experiment1 some sand should be put into the bottle to prevent the sparks from breaking it4 ,this experiment illustrates the rapid combustion of iron1 or steel4 ,for the oxygen gas supports the combustion2 and while the oxygen is actually taken up by the metal1 which becomes oxidized1 and therefore increased in weight1 in the same manner as it does when inflamed in fire-works1 the caloric1 the other constituent of oxygen gas1 is given out in a free state1 and1 with the light at the same time evolved1 produces the phenomena of combustion4 ,many other experiments might be mentioned1 in which the same effects take place1 and from which the same conclusions may be drawn4 ,but with respect to the effect1 whether it be dull1 brilliant1 or very brilliant1 depends more on the quality of the metal1 than perhaps1 on its subsequent mixture with the other materials4 ,crude iron1 usually called cast iron1 seems to possess this property in an eminent degree2 but in the experiment with oxygen gas1 steel is always preferable1 as the combustion is more rapid1 and the effect more striking4 ,the difference1 which we will not attempt to explain1 may depend on the state1 as well as the proportion of carbon1 which enters into crude iron1 as well as steel4 ,in one case1 the combustion ensues in contact with nitre1 and in atmospheric air2 in the other1 in contact only with oxygen gas4 ,be this as it may1 this inference is conclusive1 that1 in all cases of the combustion of iron in fire-works1 the metal itself unites with oxygen1 and the result of the combustion is an oxide of iron2 and with respect to the carbon1 in both instances1 it is converted alike into carbonic acid4 ,so that whether the iron receives its oxygen from the nitre1 or from the air1 or from both1 is immaterial1 as the products are the same4 ,when iron is exposed to the atmosphere1 it tarnishes1 and is gradually changed into a brown or yellow powder1 called rust4 ,this change is owing to its combination with oxygen2 and its affinity for oxygen is such1 that1 when the vapour of water is made to pass through an ignited gun-barrel1 it is decomposed1 the metal becoming oxidized1 and the hydrogen1 the other constituent of the water1 being liberated in the form of gas4 ,gun barrels are browned by a process of oxidizement4 ,there are several processes recommended4 ,one of which is1 to rub the barrel over with diluted nitric or muriatic acid1 and then1 to lay it by for a week or two1 until a complete coat of rust is formed4 ,a brush1 made of iron wire1 is then applied2 afterwards1 oil and wax1 and the barrel is finished by rubbing it with a cloth4 ,the gunsmiths in ,philadelphia use a mixed solution of sulphate of copper1 tincture of the muriate of iron1 and sweet spirit of nitre4 ,this they apply by means of a cloth4 ,the object is to form a rust1 and to render it permanent on the barrel by hard friction along with wax4 ,when sulphate of copper is employed1 metallic copper is precipitated on the barrel4 ,a coat of rust1 put on in this manner1 prevents effectually the oxidizement of the iron2 and in point of utility1 and the saving of labour in polishing and keeping muskets in order1 the browning of barrels is certainly advantageous in the land service4 ,at sea1 in particular1 where iron is more readily oxidized1 this plan ought always to be adopted4 ,with regard to the use of dragon's blood1 it is entirely too temporary in its effect to be depended on4 ,i was informed by an intelligent gunsmith1 who followed the practice of browning barrels in ,europe1 that he has known the browning to remain very perfect for years1 and that the best mode of insuring its durability is to use the steel brush1 which carries in1 as he expressed it1 the rust4 ,the oxides1 which are formed by the union of oxygen with iron1 are two2 namely1 the black and the red2 the first being the protoxide1 and the last the peroxide4 ,the black oxide1 which is formed by the combustion of iron1 and by other processes1 contains #ef iron #af oxygen4 ,the common rust of iron is the peroxide of this metal1 combined with carbonic acid4 ,it may be formed by exposing the protosulphate of iron1 or green vitriol1 in solution1 to the atmosphere1 and then adding an alkali4 ,this oxide contains more oxygen than the preceding2 it consisting of #ef iron #bd oxygen4 ,the tempering of cutting instruments1 an operation which requires great delicacy and exactness1 after that of hardening1 is intended to obtain a fine and durable edge2 and as this subject may be interesting in a military point of view1 we deem the following remarks of use4 ,the hardening of steel instruments is performed by heating them to a cherry-red1 and then immersing them in cold water4 ,the tempering is another process1 calculated1 as we observed1 to obtain a fine and durable edge4 ,this is performed by heating oil to a certain temperature1 and plunging the instrument into it1 where it remains until the colour appears1 indicative of the particular kind of temper which is intended to be given4 ,the experiments of ,stoddart1 7,nicholson's ,quarto ,journal1 iv1 #abi17 are conclusive on this subject2 for his experiments prove1 that1 between #dcj and #dej the instrument assumes a pale yellowish tinge3 at #dfj the colour is a straw-yellow1 and the instrument has the usual temper of pen-knives1 razors1 and other fine edge tools4 ,the colour gradually deepens as the temperature rises1 and at #ejj becomes a bright brownish metallic yellow4 ,as the heat increases1 the surface is successively yellow1 brown1 red1 and purple1 to #ehj1 when it becomes of a uniform deep blue1 like that of watch springs4 ,before the instrument becomes red-hot1 the blue changes to a water colour1 which is the last distinguishable colour4 ,these different shades are owing to the oxidizement of the surface of the metal2 and the art of ornamenting sword-blades1 knives1 c4 long practised in ,sheffield1 depends on this principle4 ,the general process is1 that an oily composition is used1 with which flowers and various ornaments are painted4 ,on the application of the heat required for tempering it1 that part which was covered with the composition1 is not altered1 whereas1 the uncovered parts of the blade are changed4 ,these ornaments1 when the paint is removed1 have the natural colour of polished steel4 ,when steel is heated in hydrogen gas1 no appearance of the kind takes place1 a fact which shows1 that it is owing to the oxidizement of the metal4 ,iron is soluble in the acids4 ,by the assistance of water1 it is acted upon by sulphuric acid2 the metal being oxidized1 and the oxide dissolved1 while hydrogen gas is evolved4 ,the salt1 formed in this case1 is the sulphate of iron1 green vitriol1 or copperas4 ,with muriatic1 nitric1 acetic and other acids1 it forms various salts2 and with gallic acid1 when the iron is peroxidized1 it forms the pergallate of iron1 or common writing ink1 and also the bases of black dye4 ,iron unites with carbon1 sulphur and phosphorus4 ,of the sulphurets1 there are two kinds1 the protosulphuret and persulphuret4 ,the former is the magnetic pyrites1 and the latter1 cubic pyrites1 from both of which1 green vitriol is obtained by decomposition4 ,pyrites1 we may observe1 was the original fire-stone1 or the feuer-stein of the ,germans1 which was used in the place of flint4 ,see ,beckman's ,history of ,invention4 ,iron also unites with some of the metals1 forming alloys4 ,the white iron of the ,french1 7,fer blanc17 or tin plate of the ,english1 is found to be any alloy of tin with iron1 as well as a covering of tin on iron4 ,sheet tin1 or tinplate which is necessary in the construction of the apparatus for some fire-works1 for canister shot1 c4 is made by immersing sheets of iron1 previously freed from rust1 into melted tin4 ,the number of dippings it undergoes1 determines1 in some measure1 its quality and character4 ,the union of carbon and iron1 forming very important modifications of this metal1 is not only interesting in the military art1 as concerns the metal for cannon1 small arms1 and fire-works1 but also in relation to the many and highly useful compounds which result4 ,all the varieties of iron1 which are distinguished by artists1 under particular names1 we may consider under the following heads3 namely2 cast iron1 wrought or soft iron1 and steel4 ,cast or pig iron is the name of this metal1 when first obtained from the ore4 ,the ores of iron are various1 and contain a greater or less quantity of iron1 which is either combined with oxygen1 or found with clay1 giving rise to two important classes of iron ore1 the calciform and the argillaceous4 ,the reduction of the ore merely requires the presence of charcoal1 and occasionally some addition1 as limestone1 when the clay iron ores are to be reduced4 ,on the application of heat in furnaces1 constructed for the purpose1 the charcoal unites with the oxygen of the oxide1 reducing it to the metallic state1 and escapes in the form of carbonic acid2 and the lime1 if the ore be argillaceous1 unites with the clay1 forming a kind of glass1 which floats on the melted metal4 ,when the iron is suffered to run into moulds1 prepared for its reception1 it usually takes the name of pig iron4 ,manufacturers distinguish cast iron by its colour and other qualities4 ,the white cast iron is hard and brittle1 and can neither be filed1 bored1 nor bent4 ,gray mottled iron1 so called from its colour1 is of a granulated texture1 softer1 and may be cut1 bored and turned on the lathe4 ,cannon are made of this iron4 ,black cast iron is the most unequal in its texture1 but the most fusible4 ,cast iron melts at #acj of ,wedgwood4 ,its specific gravity varies from #g4b to #g4f4 ,it is converted into malleable1 usually called soft iron1 by a process called refinement4 ,several modes have been adopted for this purpose4 ,it was formerly done by keeping it in fusion in a bed of charcoal and ashes1 and afterwards forging it4 ,the hammering makes the particles of iron approach each other1 and expels some impurities4 ,among the various improvements for expeditiously and effectually converting crude into malleable iron1 the process of ,mr4 ,cort seems to possess advantages4 ,the cast iron is melted in a reverberatory furnace1 and the flame of the combustible is made to act upon the melted matter4 ,it is stirred during this operation1 by which means1 every part is exposed to the air4 ,a lambent blue flame begins to appear in about an hour1 and the mass swells4 ,the heat is continued about an hour longer2 and1 by this time1 the iron acquires more consistency1 and finally congeals4 ,while still hot1 it is next hammered by powerful tilt-hammers4 ,this is called the puddling process4 ,iron1 obtained in this way1 is not however pure2 for it contains either some of the other metals1 or oxygen1 carbon1 silicon1 or phosphorus4 ,when small pieces of iron are stratified in a crucible with charcoal powder1 and exposed to a strong heat for eight or ten hours1 they are converted into steel4 ,steel is brittle1 resists the file1 cuts glass1 and affords sparks with flint4 ,it loses its hardness by ignition and cooling4 ,it is malleable at a red heat4 ,it melts at #acj degrees of ,wedgwood4 ,by being repeatedly ignited in an open vessel1 it becomes1 by hammering1 wrought iron4 ,natural steel is that which is formed1 by converting the ore first into cast-iron1 and exposing it to the action of a strong heat1 while the melted scori float on its surface4 ,this steel is inferior to the others4 ,steel of cementation is formed1 on a large scale1 by stratifying bars of iron with charcoal1 in large earthen troughs or crucibles1 the mouths of which are closed with clay4 ,these troughs are put in furnaces1 and1 in eight or ten days1 the process is finished4 ,this is also called blistered steel1 on account of the appearance of its surface4 ,the tilted steel is that which is beaten out into small bars by the hammer4 ,when broken1 and the pieces again united by welding in a furnace1 and made into bars1 it is then called ,german or shear steel4 ,cast steel is considered the most valuable of all the varieties2 and is used for the manufacture of razors1 surgeons' instruments1 c4 ,it is1 besides1 more fusible than common steel1 and for that reason1 cannot be welded with iron4 ,it is made by melting the blistered steel1 in a close crucible1 along with pounded glass1 and charcoal powder4 ,it may also be formed by melting together #cj parts of iron1 #a part of charcoal1 and #a part of glass4 ,equal parts of chalk and clay1 put with iron in a crucible1 will also produce it4 ,the ,celtiberians in ,spain had a singular mode of preparing steel4 ,diodorus and ,plutarch both say1 that the iron was buried in the earth1 and left in that situation1 till the greater part of it was converted into rust4 ,what remained1 without being oxidized1 was afterwards forged and made into weapons1 and particularly swords1 with which they could cut asunder bones1 shields1 and helmets4 ,this process is used in ,japan1 however improbable it may seem2 and ,swedenbourg1 among the different methods of making steel1 has introduced it4 ,bishop ,watson1 7,chemical ,essays #hvo4 i1 p4 #bbj17 speaks of the same process4 ,the fact has been verified at ,gottingen2 for an anvil1 which had been buried in the ground for many years1 was found to be extremely soft2 and a part of it1 which appeared in steel-like grains1 possessed the properties of steel4 ,the sabres made in ,japan1 according to ,thunberg1 are incomparable4 ,without hurting the edge1 they can be made to cut through a nail at one blow4 ,the art of hardening steel by immersion in cold water is very old4 ,homer 7,odyssia ix1 #cja17 says1 that1 when ,ulysses bored out the eye of ,polyphemus with a burning stake1 it hissed in the same manner as water1 when the smith immerses in it a piece of red-hot iron1 in order to harden it4 ,sophocles1 ,salmasius1 ,pliny1 ,justin and others mention the use of water in hardening iron2 but the most delicate articles of that metal were not quenched in water1 but in oil4 ,as to the opinion of the peculiar virtue of any particular water1 for the purpose of hardening iron1 which many have believed1 it is altogether fallacious1 although ,vasari asserts1 that the archduke ,cosmo1 in #aeee1 discovered a water1 that would harden instruments1 to cut1 like the ancient tools1 the hardest porphyry4 ,the art of working porphyry1 however1 was known in every age4 ,beckman assures us1 when treating of the processes of making steel1 that the invention and art of converting bar iron into steel1 by dipping it into other fused iron1 and suffering it to remain there several hours1 although ascribed to ,reaumur1 7,art de ,convertir le ,fer en ,acier1 p4 #ade71 are mentioned by ,agricola1 ,imperati1 and others1 as a thing well known and practised in their time4 ,pliny1 ,diamachus1 and other ancient writers mention various countries and places1 which1 in their time1 produced excellent steel4 ,the ferrum ,indicum and ,sericum were the dearest kinds4 ,the former is the same as the ferrum candidum1 a hundred talents of which were given1 as a present1 to ,alexander in ,india4 ,beckman thinks1 that the ancient ferrum candidum is the same kind of steel still common in ,india1 and known under the name of wootz2 some pieces of which were sent from ,bombay in #agie to the ,royal ,society4 ,its silver coloured appearance1 when polished1 he thinks1 may have given rise to the epithet of candidum4 ,mr4 ,faraday of the ,royal ,institution has lately examined wootz1 and imitated it very accurately4 ,the experiments may be seen in ,ure's ,chemical ,dictionary1 article ,iron4 ,it appears that the presence of silex and alumina distinguishes this kind of steel from the ,english4 ,four hundred and sixty grains of wootz gave #j4c of a grain of silex1 and #j4f of a grain of alumina4 ,it is highly probable1 that the much admired sabres of ,damascus1 are made from this steel4 ,a small portion of silver1 melted with steel1 improves the latter very considerably4 ,one part of silver and five hundred parts of steel were melted together1 and every part of the alloy formed1 when tested1 indicated silver4 ,the alloy forged remarkably well1 although very hard1 and was pronounced to be superior to the very best steel4 ,this excellence is undoubtedly owing to its combination with the silver1 however small4 ,the alloy has been repeatedly made1 and with the same success4 ,various cutting tools have been made from it of the best quality4 ,the silver is found to give a mechanical toughness to the steel4 ,platinum and steel1 equal parts by weight1 form a beautiful alloy1 which takes a fine polish1 and does not tarnish4 ,this alloy is said to make the best speculum4 ,steel1 for edge tools1 is improved by this metal4 ,the proportions1 which appear to be most proper1 are from one to three per cent4 ,an alloy of #aj platinum with #hj of steel1 after exposure for many months1 had not a speck on its surface4 ,would not this alloy1 as it is not oxidized1 be very useful for making points for lightning rods1 in lieu of iron1 gold1 silver1 or platinum alone8 ,the experiment is worth a trial2 for nothing adds more to the safety of a magazine1 or building1 against the effect of lightning1 than a conductor4 ,iron and carbon1 it appears1 are capable of uniting in different proportions2 hence the variety of crude iron1 and the different kinds of steel4 ,when the carbon exceeds the iron1 as in plumbago1 or black lead1 it forms a carburet4 ,when the iron exceeds1 such compounds are properly speaking sub-carburets2 under which name1 we may rank all the varieties of cast iron and steel4 ,the hardness of iron1 according to the experiments of ,mushet1 7,phil4 ,mag4 xiii1 p4 #ach71 increases with the proportion of charcoal1 with which it combines1 until the carbon amounts to about #a_/fjth of the whole mass4 ,this is the maximum1 the metal acquiring the colour of silver4 ,more carbon diminishes the hardness1 according to its quantity4 ,the difference in iron1 whether it be the cold-short1 or hot-short iron1 a matter of some consequence to the workers in this metal1 was found to be owing to phosphoric acid in the cold-short1 which exists with the iron4 ,but the substance1 called siderum by ,bergman1 is a phosphuret1 and not a phosphate of iron4 ,we have gone into this subject more fully1 on account of its importance1 and intimate connection with the casting of guns1 and the different qualities of iron4 ,in fire-works1 it will appear obvious1 that the various properties exhibited by iron are owing to the iron and carbon1 to the changes which they undergo1 to the combustion which necessarily ensues1 and to the production of oxide of iron1 and carbonic acid gas2 effects that invariably take place1 whether cast iron or steel be used1 provided it is exposed to the action of agents1 under the same circumstances and conditions4 ,sec4 ,,xlvii4 ,of ,glass4 ,glass1 in the form of powder or dust1 is used in fire-works4 ,the pulverization of glass is easily performed4 ,it may be done in an iron mortar1 and passed though fine wire or brass sieves4 ,it is used in the composition for wheels1 in water balloons1 cones1 fire-pumps1 slow white fire1 c4 ,glass is nothing more than fused silica1 made by exposing a mixture of silica and other substances to the action of a violent heat4 ,the quality of the glass depends on the proportion of silica1 and the fluxes which are used in promoting its fusion2 for the various kinds of glass1 as white glass1 green glass1 bottle glass1 c4 are all1 in one respect1 the same1 though they differ in these particulars4 ,the glass of ,saint-,gobin in ,france is made by fusing white sand1 lime1 soda1 and broken inferior glass4 ,the white goblet-glass is made of sand1 potash1 lime1 and old glass2 the quantity of potash is about fifty per cent4 ,if green1 or yellow1 the colour is destroyed by the addition of black oxide of manganese2 and hence that oxide is named glass makers' soap4 ,the common plate glass1 for electrical machines1 c4 is formed of sand1 crude soda1 old glass1 and oxide of manganese4 ,the bottle glass1 made with the soda of marine plants1 consists of sand1 soda1 common ashes1 and old glass4 ,another bottle glass is made by melting common sand1 black or yellow1 with soda1 wood-ashes1 clay1 and broken glass4 ,it appears from the use of the substances which enter into1 and compose1 glass1 that its quality is owing to the materials employed4 ,the crystal or flint glass is a finer kind4 ,the substances1 with the proportions in which they are used1 are the following3 ,parts4 ,white sand1 #ajj ,red lead1 #hj to #he ,calcined potash 7pearl-ash17 #ce to #dj ,refined nitre1 #b to #c ,black manganese1 #j4jf ,to this composition1 there are sometimes added3 ,parts4 ,white arsenic1 #j4je to #j4a ,crude antimony1 #j4je to #j4a ,the specific gravity of this glass is #c4b4 ,goblets1 lustres1 c4 are made of it4 ,flint glass1 according to the ,english formula1 is made of ,purified ,lynn sand #ajj parts4 ,litharge or red lead #fj ,purified pearlash #cj ,to this is added black manganese1 to correct the colour1 and sometimes nitre and arsenic4 ,plate glass is formed of ,pure sand1 #dc4j parts4 ,dry carbonate of soda1 #bf4e ,pure quicklime1 #d4j ,nitre1 #a4e ,broken plate glass1 #be4j ------ #ajj4 ,crown1 or fine window glass1 is composed of ,fine sand1 #bjj lbs4 ,best kelp1 ground1 #ccj lbs4 ,to this is added1 if the vitrification is not complete1 some muriate of soda4 ,good glass1 according to ,pajot des ,charmes1 may be made by fusing equal parts of carbonate of lime1 sand1 and sulphate of soda4 ,the glass is clear1 solid1 and of a pale yellow4 ,professor ,scheweigger found1 that the following proportions were the best3 ,sand1 #ajj ,dry sulphate of soda1 #ej ,dry quicklime in powder1 #ag to #bj ,charcoal1 #d ,broad glass is made of a mixture of soap-boilers' waste1 kelp1 and sand4 ,two of waste1 one of kelp1 and one of sand are the proportions generally employed4 ,common bottle glass is usually made of waste and river sand1 to which lime1 and clay1 and common salt are occasionally added4 ,the coloured glasses are produced by various metallic oxides4 ,the colour and beauty of precious stones are thus imitated4 ,these colours are communicated by sundry metallic preparations1 as the following3 ,the purple powder of ,cassius1 with oxide of manganese1 will give a red or purple according to the proportions used2 zaffre1 an oxide of cobalt1 a blue2 a mixture of oxide of cobalt1 muriate of silver1 or glass of antimony1 a green2 and oxide of manganese1 a violet1 c4 ,the basis of all artificial precious stones1 is composed of what is called glass-paste1 a compound of silica1 potash1 borax1 red lead1 and sometimes arsenic4 ,these substances are melted together4 ,the glass1 which forms the body of the artificial gem1 is pulverized1 and the colouring substances are blended with it by sifting2 and then the whole must be carefully fused1 being left on the fire for from #bd to #cj hours1 and cooled very slowly4 ,the following proportions are used for this purpose3 ,pastes4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,rock crystal1 #djef gr4 ---- #cdef #cfj ,minium1 #fcjj ---- #ecbh ---- ,potash1 #baed #abfj #aidd #abfj ,borax1 #bgf #cfj #baf #cfj ,arsenic1 #ab #ab #f ---- ,ceruse of clichy1 -- #hejh ---- #hejh ,sand1 -- #cfjj ---- ---- ,topaz4 ,no4 #a1 ,no4 #b4 ,very white paste1 #ajjh #cdef ,glass of antimony1 #dc ---- ,cassius purple1 #a ---- ,peroxide of iron1 7saffron of ,mars17 -- #cf4 ,ruby4 ,paste #bhhj1 oxide of manganese #gb4 ,emerald4 ,paste #dfjh1 green oxide of copper #db1 oxide of chrome #b4 ,sapphire4 ,paste #dfjh1 oxide of cobalt #fh1 fused for #cj hours4 ,amethyst4 ,paste #dfjh1 oxide of manganese #cf1 oxide of cobalt #bd1 purple of ,cassius #a4 ,beryl4 ,paste #cdef1 glass of antimony #bd1 oxide of cobalt #a-a_/b4 ,styrian garnet1 or ancient carbuncle4 ,paste #eab1 glass of antimony #bef1 ,cassius purple #b1 oxide of manganese #b4 ,the following recipes are given by ,m4 ,lancon3 ,paste4 ,litharge #ajj1 white sand #ge1 potash #aj4 ,emerald4 ,paste #ibaf1 acetate of copper #gb1 peroxide of iron #a4e4 ,amethyst4 ,paste #ibaf1 oxide of manganese from #ae to #bd1 oxide of cobalt #a4 ,the ancient coloured glass has been much admired4 ,the art was carried to a very great extent4 ,even in ,pliny's time1 the highest price was set upon glass entirely free from colour4 ,he1 as well as others1 mentions that hyacinths and sapphires were imitated very exactly4 ,the emperor ,adrian received as a present from an ,egyptian priest1 several glass cups richly ornamented with various coloured glass4 ,seneca speaks of the knowledge of ,democritus in this art4 ,porta1 ,neri1 and others1 in modern times1 have treated the subject in a more enlarged manner4 ,coloured glass was used for ornament2 but ,pollio relates1 that ,gallenius punished an impostor for selling to his wife a piece of glass for a jewel4 ,in the ,museum ,victorium at ,rome1 are several ancient artificial gems1 such as the chrysolite and emerald4 ,what materials the ancients used for colouring glass is not known4 ,gmelin1 however1 observes1 that it is probable they made use of iron1 by which1 he adds1 not only all the shades of red1 violet and yellow1 but even a blue colour might be communicated4 ,cassius discovered the powder which bears his name4 ,he was a physician1 and resided at ,lubec4#bb ,this powder was employed by the ,german artists4 ,while noticing this subject1 it may be proper to state1 that ,libavius 7,alchemy1 #afjf17 gives a process for making ruby glass4 ,neri1 7ars vitraria by ,kunkel17 was acquainted with the gold-purple and its use4 ,glauber 7,furnus ,philosophicus1 #afdh7 mentions the use1 and gives the preparation of the powder4 ,kunkel made artificial rubies in great abundance1 and a cup of ruby glass for the elector of ,cologne4 ,in #afgi1 he was inspector of the glass houses at ,potsdam2 and1 in perfecting the art1 he expended #afjj ducats1 which the elector of ,brandenburgh gave him for the purpose4 ,m4 ,brongniart has lately made many experiments on the subject of staining glass4 ,the colours1 however1 are the same as we noticed4 ,a green glass may be made by putting on one side of the glass a blue1 and on the other a yellow4 ,a black glass may be made by a mixture of blue with the oxides of manganese and iron4 ,painting on glass is an ancient art4 ,when pieces of old painted glass are examined1 they have always on one side a transparent red varnish burnt into them4 ,the moderns1 however1 excel in this art4 ,glass is not acted upon by the acids1 except the fluoric or hydrofluoric4 ,hence the acid of ,derbyshire spar1 which is a fluate of lime1 is used for etching on glass1 in the same manner as nitric acid is1 on copper4 ,fluoric acid1 a compound of fluorine and hydrogen1 is decomposed during this action1 and is changed1 by the union of its fluorine with silicon1 into the silicated fluoric acid4 ,when a quantity of alkali is used just sufficient to fuse silica1 glass is the result2 but when the quantity is greater1 as three or four to one1 the fused mass is soluble in water1 and then forms the silicated alkali1 or liquor of flints4 ,from this the silica is obtained in a pure state1 by the addition of an acid4 ,glass1 when melted and dropped into water1 assumes an oval form1 with a slender projection1 called a tail4 ,this is called ,prince ,rupert's drop4 ,if a small part of this tail be broken off1 the whole bursts into powder1 with a kind of explosion4 ,the ,bologna1 or philosophical phial1 is a small cylindrical vessel of glass1 rounded at the bottom1 but open at the upper end4 ,it is made thick at the bottom1 so as not to be easily broken2 but if a pebble be dropped into it1 it immediately cracks1 and the whole falls into pieces4 ,in both these1 7the drop and the bottle17 the glass is unannealed4 ,when the external part of glass is suddenly cooled1 the inner part is kept1 as it were1 contracted4 ,now annealing1 the process of tempering glass in an oven1 renders the glass uniformly alike1 and capable of sustaining the variations of temperature1 without breaking4 ,by a crack or fissure1 the internal parts which remained in a state of tension1 endeavour to recover the full state of expansion1 and consequently the glass is rent asunder4 ,sec4 ,,xlviii4 ,glue and ,isinglass4 ,both glue and isinglass are animal products4 ,they are used in fire-works1 but always in the state of solution1 as vehicles to mix up compositions in order to make them unite1 and to preserve them from falling to powder4 ,the quantity1 however1 is never large1 or either would destroy the effect4 ,the proportions are generally prescribed4 ,a solution of glue is employed in the old process for refining saltpetre4 ,see ,nitre4 ,in making priming paste1 isinglass dissolved in brandy is sometimes used4 ,glue and isinglass owe their adhesive quality to the presence of gelatin2 the most remarkable property of which is1 that it unites with1 and precipitates the tanning principle from its solution in water4 ,for this reason1 the use of oak bark and other astringent substances1 in the tanning of leather1 is obvious1 the gelatin of the hide or skin1 uniting with the tannin and forming tanned leather4 ,gelatin exists in bones1 muscles1 tendons1 ligaments1 membranes and skins4 ,skins1 especially those of old animals1 furnish the best and strongest glue4 ,for the preparation of glue1 the parings and offals of hides1 pelts1 and the hoofs and ears of horses1 oxen1 calves1 sheep1 c4 are first digested in lime-water to clean them2 then steeped in fresh water1 which is suffered to run off2 and being previously inclosed in a strong linen bag1 are boiled in a copper cauldron with pure water4 ,the impurities are removed as they rise4 ,to the solution1 alum1 or finely powdered lime1 is added4 ,it is then strained through baskets and allowed to settle2 after which1 the clear fluid is again boiled4 ,when it becomes thick1 or of a proper consistence1 it is poured into moulds or frames1 when it concretes into jelly4 ,it is cut into pieces by a spade1 and then into thin slices by means of wire1 and finally dried on coarse net-work4 ,the goodness of glue is known by its brittleness1 and equal degree of transparency1 without black spots4 ,it swells up in cold water1 and becomes gelatinous1 but does not dissolve4 ,it is a mark of want of strength1 when glue dissolves in cold water4 ,size is also a gelatinous substance1 and is colourless and transparent4 ,eel skins1 vellum1 parchment1 c4 are used in its preparation4 ,they are treated in the same manner as hides4 ,isinglass1 or fish glue1 is a finer kind of gelatin1 obtained from the air bladder and sounds of different kinds of fish of the accipenser genus2 as the sturio stellatus1 huso ruthenses1 c4 ,the bladder1 when taken from the fish1 is washed and stripped of its exterior membrane1 and then cut lengthwise and formed into rolls1 or cut into strips4 ,isinglass dissolves in water with more difficulty than glue4 ,a coarser kind of fish glue is made from sea wolves1 porpoises1 sharks1 cuttle fish1 the sturgeon1 c4 ,the head1 tail1 fins1 c4 are boiled in water1 and the solution evaporated4 ,isinglass is used for a variety of purposes1 as the making of court plaster and size1 the clarification of liquors1 c4 ,isinglass is almost wholly gelatin4 ,one hundred grains give ninety-eight of soluble matter4 ,gelatin constitutes the greater part of the solid parts of animals1 such as bone1 ligament1 muscle1 membrane1 skin1 c4 and is always extracted by boiling them in water4 ,we need hardly remark1 that it constitutes the chief part of soup1 which owes its nutritive qualities principally to its presence4 ,the portable soup is nothing more than concrete gelatin1 with other substances1 as spices1 salt1 c42 for it contains1 in a small compass1 the nutritive parts of beef1 veal1 and other animal substances1 from which it may have been prepared4 ,besides the use of water for extracting1 or otherwise separating1 the gelatin from bone1 we may separate the phosphate of lime entirely from the latter1 7as these two substances constitute the greater part of bone71 by the action of dilute muriatic acid1 which will dissolve the phosphate of lime1 and leave the gelatin4 ,sect4 ,,xlix4 ,of ,wood4 ,of the kinds of wood1 used for the preparation of coal1 for the purpose of gunpowder1 those should be preferred1 which are light1 and will give a tender charcoal4 ,this subject was fully considered under that head4 ,but our intention1 in noticing wood at this time1 is1 that it is employed in the composition of some fire-works in the form of saw-dusts1 or raspings4 ,its use in fire-works may be considered1 #ast1 as producing a particular coloured flame3 #b;dly1 as varying the character of the flame1 and likewise the degree of the combustion2 and #c;dly1 as communicating an agreeable odour along with other substances2 as in odoriferous fire-works4 ,to this1 we may add its use in smoke-balls along with nitre and sulphur4 ,the raspings of wood are sometimes required to be extremely fine4 ,this can only be done by employing sieves of different degrees of fineness4 ,they should be preserved from the action of moisture4 ,in the composition of the new priming powder1 of which chlorate of potassa is the basis1 very fine raspings of a particular kind of wood are employed4 ,so is also lycopodium for the same purpose4 ,by the distillation of wood1 as in the process of carbonization in iron cylinders1 we obtain some volatile products1 the chief of which is the pyroligneous1 now called the pyroacetic acid1 while the ligneous fibre is converted into coal2 but1 in the combustion of wood1 all the volatile products are expelled1 some being consumed in the flame1 and others1 with some carbon1 condensed in the form of soot1 while the residue is an ash which furnishes common potash4 ,ovid in his ,metamorphoses1 fable xvi1 says--,adomitis ,athamanis aquis accendere lignum narratur2 minimos cum luna recessit in orbes4 ,this idea we know is groundless2 for it is impossible1 that wood1 sprinkled with water1 whether the waters of ,athamanis1 or any other1 should be kindled when the moon is in the decrease1 or at any time of the moon's age4 ,to prevent the action of fire on wood1 marine salt1 vitriol1 and alum have all been used4 ,various ways of employing them have been adopted2 but they do not absolutely prevent wood taking fire in an active heat4 ,for the same purpose1 7,coll4 ,academ4 tome xi1 p4 #dhg17 a mixture of green vitriol1 and quicklime is recommended1 by which we form sulphate of lime and oxide of iron4 ,the ,journal de ,paris of #agha contains various processes4 ,at ,vienna1 saline substances are employed4 ,the combustion of wood is the same1 in all cases1 in which oxygen is concerned2 but the products in some particulars may vary4 ,hence saw-dust1 when mixed with nitrate of potassa1 and inflamed1 will burn1 and produce little or no smoke1 because the combustion is rapid and perfect2 but when employed with sulphur and nitre1 it produces much smoke4 ,here the oxygen is furnished by the nitre1 and carbonic acid gas is formed4 ,the same thing takes place1 when a mixture of saw-dust and nitre is used in artificial fire2 and1 according as the decomposition is more or less rapid1 the combustion will be so likewise4 ,the particular applications of saw-dust will be noticed hereafter4 ,with respect to lycopodium or puff ball and various species of agaric1 or the medullary excrescences of trees1 which are used in some preparations of artificial fire1 we may observe1 that the first is confined principally to theatrical fire-works1 and the second to the preparation of spunk1 or tinder1 called also pyrotechnical sponge4 ,see ,pyrotechnical ,sponge4 ,as to the substance usually called lightning wood1 found in the hollow of the stumps of trees1 and sometimes on the surface1 which1 from having lost its compactness and other characters of ligneous fibre1 is called rotten wood1 it is in fact the solid part of the wood in a state of decomposition1 in consequence of which1 it becomes a solar phosphorus4 ,it appears to owe its phosphorescent property1 i4 e4 its power of shining in the dark1 to the previous absorption of light1 and not1 as some have suggested1 to the presence of phosphorus1 or the emission of any gaseous compound1 which contains it4 ,the process of animal putrefaction will produce such appearances1 but1 in this case1 the cause is different4 ,turf or peat1 a substance found1 and employed as fuel1 in some countries1 and found in boggy situations1 is partially decomposed vegetable matter1 consisting of a congeries of fibres or roots4 ,but black mould is the result of a decomposition of vegetable substances1 in which the ligneous fibre is carbonized1 and mixed with earth4 ,the formation of mould1 however1 is owing more to the decay of leaves c4 7,see ,coal47 ,dr4 ,shaw 7,travels to the ,holy ,land7 observes1 that when they were either to boil or bake1 camel's dung was their common fuel2 which1 after being exposed a day or two in the sun1 catches fire like touch-wood2 and burns as light as charcoal4 ,sec4 ,l4 ,of ,linseed ,oil4 ,linseed1 or flaxseed1 oil is obtained by expression from flaxseed4 ,it is a thick mucilaginous oil1 when first extracted1 called raw oil1 and in this state1 is seldom used4 ,the preparation1 it undergoes before it is used as drying oil for mixing with paints1 is nothing more than boiling it with litharge1 or some oxide of lead1 which separates the mucilage1 and unites with the oil4 ,by this treatment1 it acquires the property of drying with facility1 when exposed to the atmosphere4 ,linseed oil unites with great ease with oils1 tallow1 fat1 wax1 c4 ,some of these compositions are used in fire-works4 ,a preparation of pitch1 mutton suet1 and linseed oil is used1 for instance1 in preventing the access of moisture to fuses2 and in military fire-works1 it is employed in combination with pitch1 rosin1 mutton suet and turpentine for incendiary works4 ,wax1 and tallow1 we may here add1 are also used in the preparations of similar works4 ,sec4 ,,li4 ,of ,gum arabic1 and ,gum ,tragacanth4 ,gum arabic1 which exudes from a tree that grows in ,egypt and ,arabia 7,mimosa nilotica7 when pure is transparent1 and nearly colourless4 ,there are several varieties of this gum2 the gum senegal1 for instance1 which is of a reddish colour1 and occurs in larger pieces4 ,other mucilaginous substances1 the peach tree gum1 the cherry tree gum1 c4 which exist only in small quantities1 are analogous to the gum of the ,mimosa4 ,gum arabic is brittle1 and for that reason may be easily reduced to powder4 ,it is readily dissolved in water1 with which it forms mucilage4 ,in this state1 it is employed in fire-works1 chiefly as a vehicle for the mixing of pastes1 matches1 c4 ,gum is a vegetable oxide1 composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,it does not crystallize4 ,it is precipitated by some metallic salts1 as acetate of lead4 ,it is insoluble in alcohol1 which distinguishes it from resins4 ,nitric acid decomposes it1 and changes it into the saclactic or mucous acid4 ,with sugar1 the same acid produces oxalic acid4 ,gum tragacanth1 or gum dragon1 is the produce of a thorny shrub1 which grows in ,candia1 and other islands of the ,levant1 called astragalus tragacantha4 ,the gum obtained from this shrub has many properties in common with gum arabic1 and is1 therefore1 used as a paste4 ,it dissolves readily in boiling water2 but is insoluble in alcohol1 or ether4 ,it consists1 almost entirely1 of a peculiar vegetable principle1 which is called cerasin by ,dr4 ,john4 ,cerasin has the adhesive qualities of gum arabic1 but in a greater degree4 ,it is said to constitute a part of the gummy matter1 that exudes from the prunus cerasus1 prunus avies1 prunus domestica1 c4 ,sec4 ,,lii4 ,of ,cotton4 ,the soft down1 which envelopes the seeds of different species of gossypium1 or cotton plant1 is the cotton of commerce4 ,these plants are natives of warm climates4 ,cotton when bleached is perfectly white4 ,it is extremely combustible1 and burns with a clear lively flame4 ,the ashes left behind contain potash4 ,cotton is the substance1 usually employed in making match rope1 for the communication of fire4 ,it has also other uses in pyrotechny4 ,cotton match is much used in fire-works for exhibition1 not only for single cases1 but also for a series of cases of artificial fire1 either for fixed or moveable pieces2 and serves to communicate fire1 either singly1 or from one case to another1 or to the whole piece at one time4 ,matches1 so used1 are called leaders1 and are generally confined in paper tubes4 ,cotton is one of the best applications to recent burns4 ,applied to the part1 it will1 in a surprising manner1 abate the violence of the pain1 and remove the inflammation4 ,cotton is soluble in alkaline ley4 ,for some of the earths1 it has a strong affinity1 particularly alumina2 as also for several metallic oxides1 and tannin4 ,the action of mordants1 in dying of cotton-goods1 depends on these affinities4 ,nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid4 ,cotton wick for lamps1 candles1 c4 is rendered very inflammable by spirit of turpentine4 ,by dipping the end of the wick in turpentine1 the candle will inflame at once1 the moment flame is applied4 ,for candle-making1 the wick is sometimes dipped in a solution of camphor in spirits1 or in a melted mixture of camphor and wax4 ,see ,candle4 ,sec4 ,,liii4 ,of ,bone and ,ivory4 ,bone1 which is considered to be a combination of phosphate of lime1 gelatinous matter1 animal oil1 c4 is used occasionally in fire-works4 ,by destructive distillation1 bones1 or osseous matter1 afford ammonia1 ,dippel's animal oil1 c42 and1 when consumed by fire1 leave a white ash1 which is composed principally of phosphate of lime4 ,bone-ash is the result of the combustion of bone2 for1 while all the gelatinous substance1 oil1 c4 are burnt off1 that1 which composes the basis of bone1 and which distinguishes it from gristle1 remains in the form of ash4 ,bone-ash furnishes phosphorus by a certain process4 ,see ,phosphorus4 ,diluted muriatic acid will take up the phosphate of lime of bone and leave the gelatin4 ,this mode is recommended for the separation of gelatin from bone4 ,bones1 when carbonized in the same manner as wood1 furnish what is called bone-black1 but commonly known by the name of ivory-black4 ,it is nothing more than animal charcoal4 ,in ,pyrotechny1 bone1 in the form of raspings1 is employed to communicate a lustre to the flame of gunpowder2 but1 for this purpose1 the most compact1 and that1 which contains the least gelatin1 is usually employed4 ,hence ivory is preferred4 ,ivory1 in the form of raspings1 communicates to flame a bright silver colour2 and1 on that account1 is preferred to all other kinds of bone4 ,the compositions1 into which it enters1 will be mentioned in a subsequent part of the work4 ,ivory is the tusk1 or tooth of defence1 of the male elephant1 and is an intermediate substance between bone and horn1 not capable of being softened by fire4 ,the finest and whitest ivory comes from the island of ,ceylon4 ,the tooth of the sea-horse is said to approach to ivory1 properly so called4 ,it is1 however1 harder1 and1 for that reason1 preferred by dentists for making artificial teeth4 ,the coal of ivory is remarkably black2 but the so called ivory-black1 sold in the shops1 is nothing else than bone-black4 ,bone and ivory may be stained of various colours4 ,one hundred parts of ivory contain1 ,gelatin1 #bd ,phosphate of lime1 #fd ,carbonate of lime1 #j4a ,one hundred parts of ox-bone gave ,gelatin1 #ea ,phosphate of lime1 #cg4g ,carbonate of lime1 #aj ,phosphate of magnesia1 #a4c ,berzelius1 however1 detected in bone-fluate of lime1 muriate of soda1 and uncombined soda4 ,albumen is most generally present4 ,one hundred parts of bone are reduced by calcination to sixty-three4 ,one hundred parts of human bone afforded ,berzelius #ha4i phosphate of lime1 #c fluate of lime1 #aj lime1 #a4a phosphate of magnesia1 #b soda1 and #b carbonic acid4 ,sec4 ,,liv4 ,of ,galbanum4 ,galbanum is a gum-resin1 obtained from the bubon galbanum1 a plant peculiar to ,africa4 ,it is at first a juicy fluid1 which exudes when the plant is cut above the root1 and hardens by exposure to the air4 ,alcohol dissolves about three-fifths of it4 ,it contains some volatile oil4 ,the only instance we know of1 in which galbanum has been used in fire-works1 is in the composition of rain-fire1 employed as an incendiary1 before the present fire-stones were invented4 ,the rain-fire1 which may be found in the fourth part of this work1 it is said1 gave rise to the composition of fire-stone4 ,there is no advantage1 however1 in using galbanum for this purpose2 since pitch1 tar1 turpentine1 and many other substances are more inflammable1 and1 therefore1 better adapted for such compositions4 ,we mention it merely because it was one of the ingredients in that once celebrated incendiary preparation1 the fire-rain of ,siemienowicz4 ,sec4 ,,lv4 ,of ,tow and ,hemp4 ,in military fire-works1 tow and hemp are much used1 and principally for the preparation of incendiary works4 ,both tow and hemp are employed in forming match4 ,although old rope1 c4 are used for immersion in the tourteaux1 carcass1 or fire-stone composition1 which is readily imbibed1 if the rope is untwisted and beaten2 yet tow or hemp is a better material1 and receives more of the composition4 ,the manner of using it may be seen by referring to the composition for fire-stone4 ,for very nice purposes1 the tow or hemp should be well dressed4 ,flax is1 therefore1 to be preferred in such cases4 ,sec4 ,,lvi4 ,of ,blue ,vitriol4 ,different preparations of copper are used in fire-works1 to communicate colour to the flame2 and besides copper filings1 brass filings1 verdigris1 and the oxides of copper1 the sulphate of copper1 or blue vitriol1 has been employed4 ,we may observe here1 that there are three sub-species of this salt2 the bisulphate1 sulphate1 and sub-sulphate1 the first properly speaking being the blue vitriol of commerce4 ,the sulphate1 although recommended in some of the old formul for coloured fire1 is not1 however1 preferable to some other preparations of copper4 ,the use and application of copper1 and its preparations1 will be seen in the article on coloured fire4 ,when sulphate of copper is heated1 it is converted into a bluish-white powder4 ,if the heat be increased1 the acid is expelled1 and the black oxide of copper remains4 ,before it is used1 it is exposed to heat to expel the water of crystallization4 ,it ought to be in the state of impalpable powder4 ,it is composed of #cc acid1 #cb oxide1 and #ce water4 ,it is decomposed by the alkalies and earths1 the alkaline carbonates1 borates1 and phosphates1 and several metallic salts4 ,the oxide may be obtained very readily from this salt1 for the purpose of fire-works1 by dissolving it in water1 and adding a solution of caustic potassa2 collecting the precipitate1 and drying it in a moderate heat4 ,this will expel the water that may be contained in it2 as metallic precipitates1 made in this way1 are more or less in the state of hydrates4 ,when metallic copper is required1 it may be obtained in fine powder1 and very expeditiously1 by immersing a plate of iron in a solution of any of the salts of copper1 as the sulphate4 ,it will precipitate on the iron1 and gradually fall to the bottom of the vessel4 ,this metallic copper will be found to be much more impalpable than the filings1 however fine1 and1 for that reason1 may be mixed more accurately with different substances4 ,copper burns with a beautiful green flame1 and deposites a loose greenish-gray oxide4 ,the ammonia-oxalate of copper1 of which there are three sub-species1 burns with flame4 ,sec4 ,,lvii4 ,of ,nitrate of ,copper4 ,this preparation of copper is used in some fire-works4 ,it communicates a green colour to flame4 ,when combined with carbonaceous substances1 the combustion is vivid4 ,this is owing to the decomposition of the nitric acid1 7in the same manner as the acid of nitrate of potassa and other nitrates is decomposed71 during which carbonic acid and deutoxide of azote are produced4 ,nitrate of copper has been more particularly recommended for the preparation of match stick1 similar to that of ,m4 ,cadet1 and of match rope4 ,it is used in the same manner as the nitrate of lead4 ,m4 ,proust used it in lieu of nitrate of lead when repeating some experiments of ,m4 ,born4 ,it is more expensive than the acetate1 or even the nitrate of lead4 ,its effect1 however1 is the same4 ,nitrate of copper attracts the moisture of the atmosphere1 and deliquesces4 ,acetate of lead1 on the contrary1 by exposure to the air gradually effloresces1 and in time is decomposed4 ,the preparations of lead1 for that reason1 are preferable to the nitrate of copper4 ,nitrate of copper is formed by dissolving copper in nitric acid2 and1 when the acid is saturated1 the requisite quantity of water may be added4 ,the salt may be obtained in a dry state by evaporation2 and1 after being dissolved in water1 the wood or rope may be soaked in it4 ,dry nitrate of copper1 wrapped up in tin-foil1 will produce no action2 but1 if water be added1 sufficient to moisten it1 and then the foil closed tightly1 combustion will take place4 ,the water promotes chemical action by dissolving the nitrate of copper1 which is then decomposed by the tin1 and the quantity of caloric1 put in a distributable state1 is sufficient to inflame the tin4 ,the details of the rationale will be given hereafter4 ,the ammonia-nitrate of copper is fulminating copper4 ,the chlorate of copper is a deflagrating salt4 ,ammonia added to nitrate of copper1 first separates an oxide1 and then dissolves it4 ,it is more than probable1 that nitrate of ammonia causes the ammonia-nitrate to explode4 ,sec4 ,,lviii4 ,of ,strontia4 ,the earth called strontia or strontian1 is found abundantly in different parts of the world1 in combination with carbonic and sulphuric acids4 ,the carbonate of strontia or strontianite1 effervesces with acids1 and burns with a purple flame4 ,it contains about #fj or #gj per cent4 of earth4 ,the sulphate of strontia1 or celestine1 contains about #eg of strontia4 ,when carbonate of strontia is mixed with charcoal powder1 and exposed to a heat of #adj of ,wedgwood's pyrometer1 the carbonic acid will be expelled1 and pure strontia remain4 ,the earth may be obtained in a pure state1 by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid1 and evaporating the solution until it crystallizes1 and exposing the crystals1 in a crucible1 to a red heat1 until the nitric acid is driven off4 ,if the carbonate cannot be had1 the sulphate may be employed4 ,for this purpose1 it is to be pulverized and mixed with an equal weight of carbonate of potassa1 and boiled in water4 ,the carbonate of strontia1 thus obtained1 which exists in the form of a powder1 is to be treated with nitric acid as already described4 ,strontia1 like the other earths1 is a compound body1 having a metallic basis1 called strontium1 which1 united with oxygen1 forms the earth4 ,the specific gravity of strontia approaches that of barytes4 ,like pure barytes1 it is soluble in water1 forming strontia water4 ,it requires rather more than #afj parts of water at #fj to dissolve it2 but much less of boiling water4 ,the solution of strontia in water1 when evaporated1 will crystallize in thin1 transparent1 quadrangular plates1 generally parallelograms1 seldom exceeding a quarter of an inch in length4 ,these crystals contain about #fh per cent4 of water2 and are soluble in little more than twice their weight of boiling water1 and in #ed4d times their weight of water at #fj4 ,when dissolved in alcohol1 they give a blood-red colour to its flame4 ,the solution of strontia changes vegetable blues to green4 ,strontia differs from barytes in being infusible1 much less soluble1 of a different form1 weaker in its affinities1 and not poisonous4 ,the metallic base of strontia1 which was discovered by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 in #ahjh1 when exposed to the air1 or when thrown into water1 rapidly absorbs oxygen1 and is converted into strontia4 ,as strontia communicates a red colour to flame1 it has been used in certain compositions of artificial fire4 ,the brilliant red fire1 sometimes used in theatres1 owes its colour to this earth4 ,see ,theatrical fire-works4 ,muriate and nitrate of strontia will give a red or purple colour to the flame of alcohol4 ,see coloured flame of alcohol4 ,if a piece of cloth be dipped in a solution of muriate1 nitrate1 or acetate of strontia1 or in strontia water1 and then immersed in alcohol1 it will burn with a red flame4 ,m4 ,fourcroy1 7,systme des ,connaissances ,chimiques1 c4 tome iii17 mentions the use of nitrate and muriate of strontia1 in artificial fire-works1 for the purpose of communicating a red colour to the flame of combustible bodies4 ,since that time1 the nitrate1 in particular1 has been recommended and used4 ,one of the characters of the salts of strontia1 is1 that they give a red flame to burning bodies2 whereas the salts of barytes or of lime1 used in the same manner1 communicate a yellow flame4 ,the saline combinations of strontia were examined with particular attention by ,dr4 ,hope4 ,see ,edinburg ,philosoph4 ,transactions for #agij4 ,nitrate of strontia may be formed by dissolving carbonate of strontia1 or the sulphuret obtained by decomposing the sulphate by charcoal1 in nitric acid1 filtering the solution1 evaporating it1 and suffering it to crystallize4 ,nitrate of strontia deflagrates on ignited coals4 ,dr4 ,hope pointed out1 that if nitrate of strontia be exposed to a red heat1 and a combustible substance be1 at this time1 brought in contact with it1 a deflagration1 with a very vivid red flame1 will be produced4 ,when a crystal of this salt is put into the wick of a candle1 it communicates a beautiful purple flame4 ,it does not deliquesce in the air1 and1 therefore1 the compositions1 into which it enters1 cannot spoil on that account4 ,nicholson 7,chemical ,dictionary17 observes1 that nitrate of strontia may be used in the art of pyrotechny4 ,for this purpose1 however1 it is mixed with sulphur1 chlorate of potassa1 and sulphuret of antimony2 and sometimes with the addition of sulphuret of arsenic and charcoal1 as in the red fire for theatrical uses4 ,the muriate of strontia has similar properties4 ,davy first observed1 that when strontia was heated in chlorine gas1 it gave out oxygen gas1 and a chloride of strontium was formed4 ,muriate of strontia is formed very readily1 by dissolving the carbonate or sulphuret of strontia in muriatic acid1 and evaporating the solution in order to obtain crystals4 ,these crystals are very soluble in water4 ,they are soluble1 also1 in twenty-four times their weight of pure alcohol1 at the temperature of #fj4 ,this alcoholic solution1 we remarked1 burns with a fine purple colour4 ,these crystals suffer no change when exposed to the air1 except they be very moist2 in which case1 they deliquesce4 ,when heated1 they first undergo the watery fusion1 and are then reduced to a white powder4 ,fourcroy recommends the muriate of strontia for fire-works4 ,carbonate of strontia1 when thrown in powder on burning coals1 produces red sparks4 ,acetate of strontia1 another salt used in fire-works1 is formed by dissolving strontia1 or its carbonate1 in acetic acid4 ,it will crystallize4 ,the crystals are not affected by exposure to the air4 ,when heated1 its acid is decomposed1 as happens to all the other acetates4 ,sec4 ,,lix4 ,of ,boracic ,acid4 ,borate of soda1 or borax1 is a salt1 which has long been known1 and is used chiefly in the arts as a flux for the fusion of bodies1 and for soldering4 ,boracic acid is a compound body1 consisting of a newly discovered substance1 called boron1 and oxygen4 ,homberg obtained the acid from borax in #agjb1 by distilling a mixture of borax1 and sulphate of iron4 ,he supposed that it was a product of the latter2 and hence it was called the volatile narcotic salt of vitriol1 or sedative salt4 ,boracic acid forms two salts with soda2 the borate1 properly so called1 and borax4 ,it is supposed to be our borax1 that ,pliny mentions under the name crysocolla1 so called by the ancients4 ,others1 however1 assert1 that their crysocolla was nothing more than the rust of copper1 triturated with urine4 ,the impure borax in the ,east ,indies1 is called tincal4 ,when borax is melted1 and exposed for some time to heat1 it loses its water1 and is changed into what is known by the name of calcined borax4 ,the easiest process for obtaining boracic acid is to make a concentrated solution of borax in hot water1 and add by degrees1 sulphuric acid1 which will unite with the soda2 and1 as the fluid cools1 the boracic acid will separate in shining laminated crystals4 ,no more acid should be added than is sufficient to make the solution slightly sour4 ,the crystals are to be washed with cold water1 and drained upon brown paper4 ,one of the principal characters of boracic acid is1 that it is very soluble in alcohol1 to the flame of which it communicates a green colour4 ,paper dipped in this solution1 burns in the same manner4 ,in consequence of this property of imparting a green colour to flame1 ,i made some experiments with it1 for the purpose of preparing green fire2 and found1 that1 by employing it in the proportion of one-eighth1 the flame was always green1 provided that the flame of the combustible used1 was not tinged of any other colour4 ,nitre1 charcoal1 and boracic acid will give a green2 also nitre1 lamp oil1 and boracic acid2 nitre1 alcohol1 and boracic acid1 along with charcoal2 and chlorate of potassa1 charcoal1 and boracic acid1 with or without the addition of alcohol4 ,but1 although boracic acid communicates a lively green1 its expense will prevent its use in that way1 especially as many other preparations1 as those of copper1 will have the same effect1 and are more economical on account of their price4 ,see the ,coloured ,flame of ,alcohol1 and ,coloured ,fire4 ,oils1 when assisted by heat1 will dissolve boracic acid4 ,in naphtha1 it is very soluble4 ,with oils1 it yields fluid and solid products1 which give a green colour to the flame of alcohol4 ,it is not a combustible acid1 but only imparts colour to the flame of combustible bodies4 ,boron will unite with fluorine1 the radical of fluoric acid4 ,when one part of vitrified boracic acid1 two of fluate of lime or fluor spar1 and twelve of sulphuric acid are distilled1 an acid gas will be obtained1 called fluo-boric gas4 ,for the properties of boron1 consult ,thenard's ,trait de ,chimie4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,instruments1 ,,tools1 ,,and ,,utensils4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,of ,,the ,,laboratory4 ,the laboratory for pyrotechny may consist of a building1 furnished with furnaces1 boilers1 c4 for the preparation or refining of saltpetre1 and other substances for use2 but according to its present acceptation1 it is a place where all kinds of fire-works are prepared1 both for actual service and for exhibition2 such as1 besides the ordinary works for show1 quick matches1 fuses1 port-fire1 grape-shot1 case-shot1 carcasses1 hand granades1 cartridges1 c4 ,it should have tables1 benches1 and closets1 where the tools1 paper1 thread1 c4 may be commodiously placed1 and an adjoining room to contain a supply of materials for two days' work4 ,the chief artificer takes the weight of the materials made use of1 attends to the weighing of the different substances1 and sees that the mixtures are made properly1 c4 ,he also keeps an account of the number and kinds of fire-works4 ,the prepared fire-works ought to be removed daily to the magazine4 ,if they are made up in the field1 under a tent1 7denominated the ,laboratory tent17 they should be packed in barrels or in caissons4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,laboratory ,tools and ,utensils4 ,the following constitute the furniture and equipments of a laboratory3 ,copper rods1 to load port fires1 and the fuses of shells1 howitzers1 c4 ,wooden formers1 on which to roll the paper cases of the port fires4 ,wooden formers1 to roll the cases of rockets4 ,balances1 large and small1 with weights1 c4 ,buckets to carry water4 ,boxes for loading priming tubes4 ,barrels with leather tops1 that draw1 in order to keep grained and meal gunpowder4 ,rods1 or rammers for charging rockets4 ,brushes to wipe the tables and sweep the compositions together4 ,frames to dry priming tubes4 ,copper calibers to regulate the size of priming tubes4 ,penknives4 ,needles for piercing priming tubes in the direction of their length4 ,fuse drivers4 ,coopers' adzes4 ,a copper kettle4 ,scissors for cloth and paper4 ,paper cutters4 ,priming wires4 ,skimmers for skimming the froth of boiling saltpetre4 ,funnels for charging port-fires1 howitzers1 shells1 c4 ,square ruler4 ,fuses for shells1 c4 7or a lathe to make them47 ,large and small wooden bowls4 ,small axes4 ,ladles for charging the fuses of shells1 port-fires1 c4 ,mallets to hammer the fuses4 ,glue pots and brushes4 ,heavy mallets to beat the powder4 ,tin measures1 of different sizes4 ,hand mortar4 ,foot rules4 ,rat-tail files to cleanse the interior of the reeds of priming tubes4 ,wooden rasps4 ,iron rulers1 #a_/b foot long4 ,leather bags1 in which gunpowder and charcoal are reduced to powder4 ,pocket saws4 ,pallet knives for saltpetre4 ,tables1 small ones to mix the composition2 large ones with a ledge to meal the powder on4 ,sieves1 fine and common2 of silk1 and of hair4 ,fuse drawers4 ,tools for rolling cartridges4 ,gimblets of different sizes4 ,the materials required more particularly for military fire-works1 are3 ,gunpowder4 ,saltpetre4 ,sulphur4 ,charcoal4 ,camphor4 ,beeswax4 ,glue1 rosin4 ,cotton yarn for quick match4 ,brandy or other spirits4 ,gum arabic4 ,linseed oil4 ,spirits of turpentine4 ,pitch4 ,reeds or quills for priming fuses4 ,mutton tallow4 ,vinegar4 ,thread for tying quick match4 ,cartridge paper4 ,thread1 tow and spun yarn1 to make match rope4 ,cordage1 to make tourteaux4 ,flour to make paste4 ,the characters used to express certain substances employed in fire-works1 are the following3 7,james's ,mil4 ,dict4 p4 #aja47 ,m4 means meal powder1 4 ,saltpetre4 ,c4 ,z4 ,crude sulphur4 ,c4 ,s4 ,sea coal4 ,s4 x ,steel or iron filings4 ,g4 x ,glass dust4 ,c4 ,i4 ,cast iron4 ,x4 ,camphor4 ,b4 ,l4 ,lampblack4 ,l4 ,s4 ,lapis ,calaminaris4 ,w4 ,spirits of wine4 ,p4 ,o4 ,oil of spike4 4 ,corn powder4 ,z4 ,brimstone4 ,c4 ,charcoal4 ,b4 ,r4 ,beech raspings4 ,b4 x ,brass dust4 ,t4 x ,tanners' dust4 ,c4 ,a4 ,crude antimony4 ,a4 ,y4 ,yellow amber4 ,g4 ,i4 ,isinglass4 4 ,gum4 ,s4 ,t4 ,spirits of turpentine4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,mandrils and ,cylinders for forming ,cartridges and ,cases4 ,the rollers or rods1 on which cartridges are formed1 ought to be solid1 and perfectly straight and round4 ,very dry1 sound wood should be selected1 and when turned1 the rod should be perfectly cylindrical2 one extremity being concave1 and the other convex4 ,mandrils may be made of copper1 which is preferable to wood1 as this is apt to warp and crack2 and in both cases1 should be longer than the cartridge1 so as to be drawn out easily4 ,they are of different lengths and diameters1 according to their respective uses4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,rammers1 ,chargers1 and ,mallets4 ,the rammers which are used for compression1 are cylindrical like the preceding4 ,they have a head much larger in dimensions than the part that enters the tube4 7,see ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e of ,fig4 #a4 in the ,plate74 ,besides being made of wood1 which should be of the hardest kind1 as lignum vit1 they may be formed of copper or brass4 ,in this case1 they are first cast of the requisite size and shape1 and finished in a lathe4 ,wooden heads are sometimes put to them1 but with little advantage2 as they frequently split and require to be renewed4 ,the wooden rammer may be struck with metal2 but when the rammer is of copper or brass1 wooden mallets must be always employed4 ,we may here remark1 that in charging rockets1 it has been customary to employ several rammers4 ,the first drift must be six diameters from the handle1 and this1 as well as all other rammers1 ought to be a little thinner than the former1 to prevent the tearing of the paper1 when the charge is driven in4 ,in the end of this rammer is a hole to fit over the piercer4 7,see ,b4 ,fig4 #a47 ,the line marked on this rammer1 as will be explained hereafter1 when it appears at the top of the case1 indicates that a second rammer must be used4 ,this second rammer1 from the handle1 is four diameters1 having a hole for the piercer1 #a-a_/b diameters long4 7,c4 ,fig4 #a47 ,when the case is filled as high as the top of the piercer1 a short and solid drift is used4 7,e4 ,fig4 #a474 ,rammers must have a ferrule1 or collar of brass at the bottom1 to keep the wood from spreading1 or splitting4 ,with regard to the handles of the rammers1 if their diameter be equal to the bore of the mould1 and two diameters long1 the proportion is a good one4 ,the shorter they can be used1 the better4 ,the longer the drift1 the less of course1 will be the pressure on the composition1 by the blow given by the mallet4 ,we may observe here1 that rockets may either be driven over a piercer1 or driven solid1 and afterwards bored4 ,as much of the effect of rockets depends upon the manner they are driven1 whether lightly or compactly1 or uniformly throughout1 circumstances which affect their quality2 it is necessary1 in using the rammer1 to employ an equal force for driving the composition4 ,the mallet1 therefore1 should be of a given weight2 and a certain number of strokes with the same force1 on each new charge1 must be accurately followed1 until the driving is completed2 taking care1 at the same time1 that the rocket stands firm on a solid body4 ,dry beech is the best wood for mallets4 ,a writer very judiciously observes1 in the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 7vol4 xv1 #fie71 that1 if a person uses a mallet of a moderate size1 in proportion to the rocket1 according to his judgment1 and if the rocket succeeds1 he may depend on the rest1 by using the same mallet2 yet it will be necessary1 that cases of different sorts1 be driven with mallets of different sizes4 ,in all cases1 under one ounce1 the charge may be rammed with an ounce mallet4 ,there is an advantage1 also1 by having the handle of the mallet turned out of the same piece as the head1 and made in a cylindrical form4 ,if their dimensions are regulated by the diameters of the rockets2 then1 for example1 if the thickness of the head be three diameters1 and its length four1 the length of the handle will be five diameters1 whose thickness must be in proportion to the hand4 ,bigot 7,artifice de ,guerre1 p4 #aah7 speaking of the flying fuses1 or sky-rockets1 observes1 that the mallet used for driving the composition1 is proportionably large1 according to the rockets1 and that it is five inches in length1 and four in breadth1 when the diameter of the rocket is from #ab to #ah lines4 ,the mallets for larger rockets are stronger and heavier1 and1 in some instances1 where a great force is required1 as in driving war-rockets1 a machine similar to the pile-engine1 is used4 ,see ,congreve ,rockets4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of ,utensils necessary for constructing of ,signal ,rockets4 ,a detailed account of the tools used in making signal rockets1 may be seen in ,ruggeri1 ,pyrotechny1 p4 #adc2 but ,m4 ,bigot has enumerated them as follows3 ,one mandril for forming the cartridge1 or case4 ,one pair of curved compasses to determine the exterior diameter4 ,three conical mandrils4 7,see fig4 #c1 plate47 ,one solid1 or massive cylinder4 ,one mould for garnishing4 ,two moulds for the capitals1 or heads1 one of which is for the rockets with1 and the other for the rockets without1 the garnish1 or furniture4 ,one piercer and block 7,see plate1 fig4 #a1 ,i ,h47 ,one scoop4 ,one punch4 ,one mallet4 ,one press4 ,one large knife4 ,one pair of scissors4 ,all the wooden utensils ought to be made of hard and sound wood1 without knots4 ,the rammers should be furnished with rings or ferrules1 and the first bored with a hole of sufficient length to receive the piercer4 ,the second should be bored deep enough to receive two-thirds of the piercer1 and the third1 to receive one-third1 while the fourth should be solid4 ,these rammers are all furnished with heads4 7,see section iii47 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of the ,rolling1 or ,plane ,board4 ,this board is furnished with a handle1 and is used for rolling rocket cases1 c4 and is of different dimensions1 according to its application4 ,it is made of hard wood1 such as oak or walnut4 ,when the paper is wrapped round the mandril or former1 the rolling board is used to compress the paper1 and make it round and smooth4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of the ,driver for charging large ,rockets4 ,this contrivance is similar to a pile driver in construction2 and1 by means of a weight falling upon the rammer1 the charge is sent home with great force4 ,its use is confined to the largest kind of rockets4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of ,mortars and ,pestles4 ,mortars are employed for the pulverization of substances1 and1 according to their use1 may be either of wood1 marble1 brass1 or cast-iron1 which last costs less than the others4 ,large mortars have covers1 in order to confine the finer particles4 ,the pestles should be of very hard wood2 because1 in that case1 no danger would be apprehended of an explosion of the materials1 an occurrence which might take place1 if iron were used4 ,this1 however1 depends on the substances submitted to the pestle4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of the ,choaker or ,strangler4 ,the choaker is nothing more than a contrivance1 usually made of rope1 by which the closing of the end of the rocket is effected1 so as to form a kind of cup or mouth4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of the ,table and ,sack for mealing ,gunpowder4 ,this table may be either square or an octagon1 and made of hard wood4 ,there is a rim1 a few inches high1 raised round it1 and a gutter at one end to allow the powder to pass out1 when the operation is finished4 ,see plate1 fig4 #g and #h4 ,this mode of mealing powder is by no means to be preferred4 7,see ,gunpowder47 ,a sack is also used for crushing powder4 ,it should be made of strong elastic leather1 and sewed together in such a manner as to prevent the impalpable powder from passing through its seams4 ,they are of an oblong shape1 and contain from #bj to #be pounds4 ,fifteen pounds are generally put in at a time4 ,this method of crushing powder is preferred1 as it is less liable to accidents4 ,it is hardly necessary to add1 that the bag is beaten with a cylindrical stick4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,of ,sieves4 ,there are several kinds of sieve4 ,the common sieve has neither a cover nor a receiver1 and may be either formed of horse hair1 or of brass or copper wire4 ,it is necessary to have some sieves of a finer kind4 ,for this purpose1 silk and gauze are generally used4 ,the cover is merely leather1 fixed in a frame1 which fits on the top4 ,the receiver is formed nearly in the same manner1 having a skin stretched over a frame1 which fits on the under part of the sieve4 ,sec4 ,,xi4 ,of the ,paper ,press4 ,a press1 for the purpose of pressing paper1 is formed of two pieces of wood1 which are brought together by means of one1 or several screws4 ,this press is sometimes1 though seldom1 used4 ,if pasteboard is made1 when it cannot be had ready prepared1 then the press is actually necessary4 ,the intention is to unite the several sheets1 which have been pasted1 by using the pressure of the screw1 and to remove any extraneous paste1 so that the paper may have no inequalities on its surface4 ,in lieu of the screw-press1 heavy weights laid on the paper for several hours1 will answer the same purpose4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,preliminary operations in the preparation of fire-works1 and observations on the preservation of gunpowder1 and sundry manipulations4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of the ,workshop4 ,we have already noticed the principal furniture of a laboratory1 and1 therefore1 can add nothing new on this head4 ,there are1 however1 some utensils employed for particular works1 which we may here describe4 ,in the disposition of the workshop1 the tables1 utensils1 c4 are arranged1 according as the judgment may dictate for convenience and use4 ,care must be taken to prevent the access of fire1 and to prevent1 as far as possible1 the presence of moisture4 ,lanterns1 if light is required1 are always to be preferred2 but the best manner of communicating light is through a window1 placing the lights outside of the building1 or apartment1 as is done in powder mills4 ,other precautions may be necessary1 which will readily suggest themselves4 ,in conducting the work1 the workmen are to be so arranged1 as that1 while some are employed in the preliminary operations1 others are making and finishing the preparations4 ,the compositions may be ready prepared1 and well preserved in jars or other vessels4 ,this is named by the ,french1 ,cabinet de composition4 ,it is a place1 also1 where the substances are weighed1 and mixed4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of the ,magazine4 ,the magazine is a place of deposite for gunpowder1 to preserve it from fire1 and moisture4 ,we have already mentioned the preservation of gunpowder in the article on that subject2 but it may not be improper to offer some remarks1 respecting the construction of magazines4 ,authors differ in opinion1 both in regard to their situation and construction2 but they all agree1 that they ought to be arched1 and bomb-proof4 ,the first powder magazines were made with gothic arches3 ,vauban constructed them in a semicircular form1 to make them stronger4 ,their dimensions were1 sixty feet long1 within1 and twenty-five broad4 ,the foundations were eight or nine feet thick1 and eight feet high1 to the spring of the arch4 ,the floors were two feet from the ground1 for the purpose of keeping the magazine free from dampness4 ,it is observed1 that the centres of semicircular arches will settle at the crown1 and their sinking must break the cement4 ,a remedy was applied for this inconvenience1 by the arch of equilibration1 as described in ,hutton's work on bridges4 ,as1 in powder magazines1 the ill effect of the breaking of the cement is particularly felt1 ,mr4 ,hutton proposed to find an arch of equilibration for them in particular1 and to construct it1 when the span is twenty feet1 the pitch or height1 ten1 7which are the same dimensions as the semicircle71 the inclined exterior walls at top1 forming an angle of #aac degrees1 and the height of their angular point1 above the top of the arch1 equal to seven feet4 ,a wall built round a magazine1 gives it an additional security4 ,the roof should be slated1 or covered with lead or copper1 and it ought to be furnished with a lightning rod1 placed ten or fifteen yards from the building4 ,the points of the rods may be either gilt1 or of solid gold4 ,silver1 however1 is generally used2 but1 above all1 platinum is to be preferred4 ,the advantage of these points is1 that they do not rust like iron1 or become oxidized1 an occurrence which would diminish their powers as conductors of the electric fluid4 ,to prevent the access of moisture1 or rather to absorb it1 some have recommended the inner walls to be covered with a composition of powdered coal1 c4 ,lining of magazines with sheet lead1 appears to have some advantages4 ,st4 ,pierre observes1 that a ,prussian officer informed him1 that1 having remarked that vapour was attracted by lead1 he had employed it for drying the atmosphere of a powder magazine1 constructed under ground1 in the throat of a bastion1 rendered useless from its humidity4 ,he ordered the concave ceiling of the arch to be lined with lead1 where the gunpowder was deposited in barrels3 the vapour of the wall collected in drops on the leaden roof1 ran off1 and left the gunpowder barrels perfectly dry4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of the ,driving or ,ramming of ,sky-rockets4 ,we purpose in the present article to give some general directions for the driving of rockets4 ,rockets may be driven solid1 or over a piercer4 ,in the latter case1 they must not have so much composition put in them at a time4 ,the piercer1 accompanying a greater part of the bore of the case1 would cause the rammer to rise too high2 so that the pressure of it would not be so great on the composition1 nor would it be driven equally4 ,for rockets rammed over a piercer1 let the ladle1 or copper scoop1 hold as much composition1 as1 when driven1 will raise the drift one-half the interior diameter of the case2 and1 for those driven solid1 let it contain as much as will raise the drift one-half the exterior diameter of the case4 ,ladles are generally made to go easily into the case1 and the length of the scoop is about one and a half of its own diameter4 ,the charge of rockets must always be driven one diameter above the piercer1 and1 on it1 must be rammed1 one-third of a diameter of clay2 through the middle of which a small hole must be bored to the composition1 so that1 when the charge is burnt to the top1 it may communicate its fire1 through the hole1 to the stars in the head4 7,see plate1 fig4 #ad47 ,great care must be taken to strike1 with the mallet1 with an equal force1 giving the same number of strokes to each ladleful of composition2 otherwise the rocket will not rise with a uniform motion1 or burn equally and regularly1 for which reason1 they cannot carry a proper tail4 ,it will break1 in this case1 before the rocket has ascended to its extreme height1 where the rocket should break and disperse the stars1 rain1 or whatever is contained in the head4 ,when in the act of ramming1 the drift or driver must be kept constantly turning or moving2 and when the hollow rammers are used1 the composition is to be knocked out every now and then1 or the piercer will split them4 ,to a rocket of four ounces1 give to each ladleful of charge1 #af strokes2 to a rocket of #a lb4 #bh2 to a #b pounder1 #cf2 to a #d pounder1 #db2 to a #f pounder1 #ef4 ,but rockets of a larger sort cannot be driven by hand1 and must be rammed with a machine similar to a pile-driver4 ,the method of ramming wheel cases1 or any other sort1 in which the charge is driven solid1 is much the same as that used for sky-rockets2 for the same proportion may be observed in the ladle1 and the same number of strokes given1 according to their diameters1 all cases being distinguished by their diameters4 ,in this manner1 a case1 whose bore is equal to that of a rocket of four ounces1 is called a four ounce case2 and one which is equal1 in bore1 to an eight ounce rocket1 an eight ounce case1 c4 ,the method of ramming cases1 without moulds1 will answer for strong pasted cases1 and save the expense of making so many moulds4 ,in filling any case1 it must be placed on a perpendicular block of wood1 in order to keep it firm and solid2 otherwise the composition would be rammed unequally4 ,when cases are to be filled without moulds1 procure some nipples1 made of brass or iron1 in proportion to the cases1 to screw or fix in the top of the driving block4 ,when the nipple is fixed in1 make1 at about one and half inches from it1 a square hole in the block1 six inches deep1 and one inch in diameter4 ,then have a piece of wood1 six inches longer than the case intended to be filled1 and two inches square4 ,on one side of it1 cut a groove1 almost the length of the case1 whose breadth and depth must be sufficient to cover near one-half the case4 ,then cut the other end1 to fit the hole in the block2 but take care to cut it1 so that the groove may be at a proper distance from the nipple4 ,this half mould being made1 and fixed tight in the block1 cut1 in another piece of wood1 nearly of the same length as the case1 a groove of the same dimensions as that in the fixed piece4 ,then put the case on the nipple1 and1 with the cord1 tie it1 and the two half moulds together2 and the case will be prepared for filling4 ,the dimensions of the above half moulds are proportionable for cases of eight ounces2 but they differ in size in proportion to the cases4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of the ,boring of ,rockets4 ,the machine1 for boring rockets1 is similar1 in some respects1 to a lathe4 ,the rocket is confined in a box1 and1 by means of a wheel1 which is made to turn a second one1 an auger rammer is put in motion4 ,the rammer must be of a size1 proportionate to the rocket1 and of the same diameter1 as the top of the bore intended1 and continue of that thickness1 a little longer than the depth of the bore required4 ,the thick end of each rammer must be made square1 and all of the same size4 ,the rammer is made to move backward1 and forward1 so that1 after the rammer is marked three and a half diameters of the rocket1 from the point1 set the guide1 allowing for the thickness of the front of the rocket box1 and the neck and mouth of the rocket4 ,when the rocket is fixed in the box1 it must be pushed forward against the rammer1 and1 when the scoop of the rammer is full1 draw the box back1 and knock out the composition4 ,a little oil is sometimes used1 to prevent the friction from setting fire to the rocket4 ,having bored a number of rockets1 taps must be used4 ,these taps are similar to the common spicket4 ,when employed1 it is necessary to mark them three and a half diameters from the point1 allowing for the thickness of the rocket's neck4 ,there are several contrivances for the boring of rockets4 ,the operation is sometimes done1 by confining the rocket in a box1 and boring it with a borer1 fixed in a brace1 using1 at the same time1 a proper director4 ,this brace is like the common brace1 used by carpenters1 or formed on that principle1 and made of iron4 ,the motion1 given by the hand1 performs the operation4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of the ,preservation of ,steel or ,iron ,filings4 ,when treating of iron1 we mentioned1 that it has the property of oxidizing rapidly1 when exposed to the air and moisture2 and that its effects in fire-works1 in that case1 would be either destroyed1 or considerably diminished4 ,and even fire-works1 in which iron enters as a component part1 will1 if kept long1 lose some of their effect1 in consequence of the change1 which the iron suffers2 for1 instead of producing brilliant sparks1 which is their intention1 it would impart a dull red appearance4 ,two methods are recommended for the preservation of iron4 ,the one is to melt a portion of sulphur1 and throw the filings into it1 and afterwards to separate the extraneous sulphur4 ,the other consists in wrapping them up in oiled paper4 ,as to the first method1 we may apprehend the effect of the sulphur1 combining with some of the iron1 instead of coating it1 forming thereby a sulphuret1 which1 besides1 is readily decomposed by the contact of air and moisture1 producing sulphate of iron4 ,the second method1 of wrapping them in oil1 or1 in fact1 covering them with oil1 is certainly a greater preventive from rust1 for where the oil is in contact1 no oxidizement can take place4 ,there are several methods recommended to preserve iron-work from rusting4 ,the use of paint and varnish for this purpose is familiar4 ,in ,sweden1 they cover iron-work with a mixture of pitch1 tar1 and wood soot1 which acquires a gloss1 similar to that of varnish1 and is said to prevent the oxidizement of the metal very effectually4 ,fat-oil varnish1 mixed with four-fifths of rectified spirit of turpentine1 has been recommended4 ,it is applied with a brush1 or sponge4 ,articles1 varnished with this preparation1 are said to retain their metallic brilliancy1 and never contract any spots of rust4 ,another composition1 for the same purpose1 is highly recommended4 ,it consists in applying a mixture of one pound of hogs' lard1 free from salt1 one ounce of camphor1 two drachms of black lead in powder1 and two drachms of dragon's blood4 ,at ,sheffield and ,birmingham1 sundry articles1 made of steel and iron1 are preserved from rust1 when sent to foreign markets1 by wrapping them in coarse brown paper1 prepared first with oil4 ,among the different preparations1 recommended at various times to prevent iron from contracting rust1 we may mention one1 which has been used with success1 and which gives a lead colour4 ,it is nothing more than taking some litharge1 and heating it in an iron pot1 and scattering over it some sulphur4 ,the litharge will change its colour1 forming a kind of sulphuret of lead1 which is then ground with drying oil1 and applied like paint4 ,we are told1 that this preparation gets remarkably hard1 and resists the weather more effectually than any other lead colour4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of the making of ,wheels and other ,works incombustible4 ,it is usual to give a coat of paint to the wood-work of wheels1 c4 which are designed to carry a number of cases4 ,to prevent their taking fire1 paint1 in some measure1 has the effect4 ,the following composition is recommended3 ,take brick dust1 coal-ashes1 and iron filings1 of each an equal quantity1 and mix them with a double size1 made hot4 ,apply this to the wood1 and when dry1 give it another coat4 ,several methods have been adopted for the same purpose2 but wood may be made to resist1 in a great degree1 the action of fire1 and rendered almost incombustible1 by soaking it in a solution of the supersulphate of potassa and alumina1 7alum71 in sulphate of iron1 7green vitriol71 and in other salts1 which are incombustible4 ,with respect to the use of alum as a preservative against fire1 it is certain1 that1 although its use in this way is very ancient1 it was not often recommended2 for writers on the art of war1 such1 for example1 as ,anas1 mentions the use of vinegar1 in the following quotation from his ,poliorcet4 cap4 #bd3 ,majus juverit1 si prius ligna aceto linantur2 nam a materia aceto illita1 ignis abstinet4 ,the use of alum1 to prevent substances from taking fire1 is not a new invention2 notwithstanding we find it recommended in modern works1 not only for wood1 but also for paper1 and linen and cotton dresses1 c4 ,aulus ,gellius relates1 that ,archelaus1 one of the generals of ,mithridates1 washed over a wooden tower with a solution of alum1 and thereby rendered it so much proof against fire1 that all ,sylla's attempts to set it in flames proved abortive4 ,a writer in the ,anthologia ,hibernica1 vol4 iii1 for #agid1 observes1 that the use of alum to prevent the action of fire1 on wood1 or other combustible bodies1 is not new1 and those1 who lay claim1 are not entitled to originality on that head4 ,another mode to prevent wood from taking fire may also be adopted4 ,it consists in mixing together1 one ounce of sulphur1 one ounce of red ochre1 and six ounces of green vitriol4 ,the wood work is covered with joiners' glue1 and the mixture is then put over it4 ,this process is to be repeated three or four times1 allowing the glue to dry before a new coat is applied4 ,there are several other preparations for the same purpose1 not only for the covering of wood1 but also paper4 ,but ,m4 ,ruggeri is of opinion1 that they cannot be depended upon1 when used on paper2 for the paper will1 in part1 be consumed4 ,the formula for one of these compositions1 is thus given by that gentleman3 ,to a pound of flour1 mix a handful of powdered alum1 and add to it strong glue-water1 and bring it to a proper consistence with clay4 ,flour and glue-water1 mixed together1 with the addition of a small quantity of muriate of soda1 7common salt71 is also recommended for the same purpose4 ,wood1 steeped in a solution of common salt1 so as to be thoroughly impregnated with it1 is very difficult of combustion4 ,in ,persia1 salt is used to prevent timber from the attack of worms4 ,the practice of salting ship timber is highly recommended4 ,wood1 in fact1 may be rendered incombustible by several processes1 some of which we have given4 ,earl ,stanhope1 among others1 made some interesting experiments on this subject4#bc ,having thus given some of the modes1 usually adopted to render wood incombustible1 or to prevent its taking fire so instantaneously1 we purpose to add some remarks respecting the processes for colouring it4 ,an excellent preservation against moisture1 which communicates a colour at the same time1 is formed of #ab lbs of rosin1 #c lbs of sulphur1 and #ab pints of whale oil1 melted and mixed with a sufficient quantity of red or yellow ochre1 and applied by means of a brush4 ,pulverized black lead may be substituted for the ochre4 ,several coats of this mixture may be put on1 allowing each coat to dry before another is applied4 ,this composition is particularly well adapted for wheel work1 c4 and for aquatic fire-works4 ,chaptal advises1 for the same purpose1 a mixture of equal parts of white turpentine1 bees' wax1 and maltha1 or1 in the place of maltha1 coal tar4 ,wood1 covered with three coats of this composition1 and immersed for two years in water1 was found to be quite dry4 ,it would be well1 however1 to cover it with some of the preparation1 to render wood incombustible4 ,with respect to the staining of wood of various colours1 several preparations may be used4 ,to communicate a green colour1 a hot solution of acetate of copper may be used2 or verdigris1 alum1 and vinegar1 boiled together4 ,a decoction of brazil wood1 with alum and cream of tartar1 will impart a red2 indigo1 dissolved in sulphuric acid1 7liquid blue dye71 a blue2 a decoction of logwood1 nut-galls1 and copperas1 a black2 a solution of dragon's blood1 or of alkanet wood1 in turpentine1 a mahogany colour1 c4 ,the imitation of bronze on wood may be effected1 by covering it first with isinglass size1 then suffering it to dry1 and putting on a coat of oil gold size1 and covering it with bronze powder1 a preparation sold for that purpose4 ,a solution of aloes in spirits1 which communicates a greenish-black1 is a great preservative of wood against worms4 ,m4 ,ollivier 7,archives des ,dcouvertes1 v1 p4 #chf7 has given a variety of recipes for imitating bronze1 stone1 c4 ,he recommends the following for the imitation of ancient bronze1 which may be applied to wood-work4 ,melt together #aej lbs of fine sand1 #agj lbs of lead ore1 7,galena71 and #cj lbs of manganese1 and add one-sixth part of brass4 ,this compound is then pulverized4 ,it is applied on the usual ground4 ,black earth1 as it is called1 made of green earth1 oxide of manganese1 oxide of iron1 and oxide of copper1 is also recommended for covering wood-work4 ,the composition for imitation marble1 is #a part of green earth1 #a_/b a part of sand1 and #a_/hth of a part of bol4 armen4 ,by adding #a_/adth part of yellow burnt copper1 the colour will approach to green4 ,the same composition1 with #a_/afth part of copper1 and #a_/cb;d iron1 will give a black4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of the formation of ,rocket1 and other ,cases4 ,the cases for rockets1 as a general rule1 are to be made #f-a_/b times their exterior diameter in length2 and all other cases1 that are to be filled in moulds1 must be as long as the moulds1 within a half of the interior diameter4 ,rocket cases1 from the smallest1 to #d or #f pounds1 are generally made of the strongest sort of cartridge paper1 and rolled dry2 but the large sort are made of pasted pasteboard4 7,see observations on that subject47 ,as it is very difficult to roll the ends of the cases quite even1 the best way is to keep a pattern of the paper for the different kinds of cases4 ,these patterns should be longer than the case they are designed for1 and the number of sheets required should be marked1 which will prevent any paper being cut to waste4 ,cut the paper of a proper size1 and the last sheet for each case1 with a slope at one end2 so that when the cases are rolled1 it may form a spiral line round the outside2 and that this slope may always be the same1 let the pattern be so formed for a constant guide4 ,before you begin to roll1 fold down one end of the first sheet so far1 as that the fold will go two or three times round the former2 then1 in the double edge1 lay the former with its handle off the table1 and after rolling two or three turns1 lay the next sheet on that which is loose1 and roll it all on4 ,the smoothing board1 which is about twenty inches long1 is now to be applied2 and after rolling the paper three or four times1 lay on1 in the same manner1 another sheet of paper1 and smooth it in the same manner4 ,this operation is to be repeated till the case is sufficiently thick4 ,when the last sheet is rolled1 we must observe1 that the point of the slope is placed at the small end of the roller4 ,the case being made1 the small end of the former is put in1 to about one diameter of the end of the case1 and the end piece is inserted within a little distance of the former4 ,then give the pinching cord one turn round the case1 between the former and the end piece4 ,at first1 pull easy1 and keep moving the case1 which will make the neck smooth1 and without large wrinkles4 ,this operation is called by the ,french strangling1 or choaking4 ,when the cases are hard to choak1 let each sheet of paper 7except the first and last in that part where the neck is formed7 be a little moistened with water4 ,immediately after you have struck the concave stroke1 bind the neck of the case round with small twine1 which must not be tied in a knot1 but fastened with two or three hitches4 ,having thus pinched and tied the case1 so as not to give way1 put it into the mould without its foot1 and1 with a small mallet1 drive the former hard on the end piece1 which will force the neck close and smooth4 ,when this is done1 cut the case to its proper length1 allowing1 from the neck to the edge of the mouth1 half a diameter1 which is equal to the height of the nipple4 ,then take out the former1 and drive the case over the piercer with the long rammer1 and the vent will be of a proper size4 ,wheel cases are sometimes driven on a nipple1 with a point to close the neck1 and make the vent of the size required2 which1 in most cases1 is generally #a_/dth of their interior diameter4 ,as it is very often difficult1 when the cases are rolled1 to draw the roller out1 a hole must be made in its handle1 and a pin1 as a purchase1 put in4 ,the machine for pinching cases consists of a treadle1 which1 when pressed hard with the foot1 will act upon a cord1 and draw it tight4 ,the cord runs over a small pulley1 and is fixed to an upright piece4 ,it is wound once round the case1 between the former and end piece2 and when the cord is drawn1 the case is brought together4 ,cases are commonly rolled wet for wheels and fixed pieces2 and when they are required to contain a great length of charge1 the method of making these cases is thus3 ,the paper must be cut as usual1 except the last1 which ought not to have a slope4 ,having it ready1 paste each sheet on one side1 and then fold down the first sheet as before directed2 but be careful that the paste does not touch the upper side of the fold4 ,if the roller be wetted1 it will tear the paper in drawing it out4 ,in pasting the last sheet1 observe not to wet the last turn or two in that part where it is to be pinched2 for if that part be damp1 the pinching cord will stick to it1 and tear the paper4 ,therefore1 in choaking those cases1 roll a bit of dry paper once round the case1 before the pinching cord is used4 ,this paper is to be taken off after the operation4 ,the rolling board1 and all other methods1 according to the former directions for the rolling and pinching of cases1 must be used for these1 as well as other cases4 ,see ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 vol4 xv1 p4 #fib4 ,morel1 in a practical work1 7,trait ,practique des ,feux d',artifice7 speaking of rocket cases1 observes1 that the rule is1 to give to their thickness1 half the interior diameter1 or half the diameter of the roller4 ,if the roller1 for instance1 were half an inch1 the case should be #a_/dth of an inch in thickness4 ,a rocket is divided into three equal parts2 two for the interior diameter1 and one for the thickness of the case4 ,as to the length of sky-rockets1 it is regulated by the length of the piercer1 if they are pierced in the charging4 ,one-third more than this length is allowed for the choak1 and the rest1 of course1 for the composition4 ,with respect to other cases1 ,morel remarks1 that the cases for turning pieces are usually six inches in length1 and1 for fixed pieces1 seven and eight inches4 ,the cases of ,roman candles1 are of the same thickness as those of rockets4 ,in length they are1 as well as the ,mosaic candle1 fifteen inches4 ,they are choaked and cut4 ,those of serpents are made with one or two cards1 which are rolled upon a former of wood1 or metal1 #a_/dth of an inch in diameter1 and four inches in length4 ,when made1 the case measures three inches4 ,dry rolling is considered sufficient for these cases4 ,the fixed stars are made of common pasteboard1 #c-a_/b inches long1 on a mandril1 #a_/b an inch in diameter4 ,they are pasted with ordinary paste1 but mixed with clay1 and choaked1 and bound as usual4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,tourbillon ,cases4 ,this kind of case is generally made #h diameters long2 but1 if very large1 seven will be sufficient4 ,from four ounces to two pounds1 will succeed perfectly1 but1 when larger1 there is no certainty4 ,they are best rolled wet with paste1 and the last sheet must have a straight edge1 so that the case may be all of a thickness4 ,after rolling them in the same manner as wheel cases1 pinch them close at one end2 then1 with a rammer1 drive the ends down flat1 and1 afterwards1 ram in about one-third of a diameter of dried clay4 ,the diameter of the former for these cases1 must be the same as for sky-rockets4 ,tourbillons are to be rammed in moulds1 without a nipple1 or in a mould without its foot4 7,ency4 ,brit47 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of ,balloon ,cases1 or ,paper ,shells4 ,first1 prepare an oval former1 turned out of smooth wood2 then paste a quantity of brown1 or cartridge paper1 and let it lie until the paste is quite soaked through4 ,this being done1 rub the former with soap or grease1 to prevent the paper from sticking to it4 ,next1 lay the paper on in small slips1 until you have made it one-third the thickness of the shell intended4 ,having this done1 set it to dry2 and when dry1 cut it round the middle1 and the two halves will easily come off3 but1 observe1 when you cut1 to leave about one inch not cut1 which will make the halves join much better than if quite separated4 ,when you have some ready to join1 place the halves even together1 and paste a slip of paper round the opening1 to hold them together1 and let them dry4 ,then lay on paper1 all over as before1 every where equally1 excepting that end which goes downward in the mortar1 which may be a little thicker than the rest2 for that part1 which receives the blow from the pounder in the chamber of the mortar1 consequently requires the greatest strength4 ,when the shell is perfectly dry1 burn a vent at the top1 with an iron1 large enough for the fuse4 ,this method will answer for balloons from #d inches #b_/eths1 to #h inches in diameter2 but1 if they are larger1 or required to be thrown to a great height1 let the first shell be turned of elm1 instead of being made of paper4 ,for balloons #d inches #b_/eths1 let the former be #c inches #a_/hth1 in diameter1 and #e-a_/b inches long4 ,for a balloon of #e-a_/b inches1 the diameter of the former must be #d inches1 and #h inches long4 ,for a balloon of #h inches1 let the diameter of the form be #e inches and #ae_/afths1 and #aa inches #g_/hths long4 ,for a #aj inch balloon1 let the form be #g inches #c_/afths1 in diameter1 and #ad-a_/b inches long4 ,the thickness of a shell for a balloon of #d inches #b_/eths1 must be #a_/b an inch4 ,for a balloon of #e-a_/b inches1 let the thickness of the paper be #e_/hths1 of an inch2 for an #h inch balloon1 #g_/hths1 of an inch2 and for a ten inch balloon1 #a inch and #a_/hth of an inch4 ,shells1 that are designed for stars only1 may be made quite round1 and the thinner they are at the opening1 the better2 for if they are too strong1 the stars are apt to break at the busting of the shell4 ,when making the shell1 employ a pair of callipers1 or a round gage2 so that you may not lay the paper thicker in one place than other1 and also that you may be able to know1 when the shell is of a proper thickness4 ,balloons must always be made to go easy into the mortars4 7,see ,encycl4 ,brit4 ,art4 ,balloon cases47 ,sect4 ,x4 ,of ,cases for ,illumination ,port-fires4 ,these must be made very thin1 of paper1 and rolled on formers2 from #b to #c_/hths of an inch in diameter1 and from #b to #f inches long3 they are pinched close at one end1 and left open at the other4 ,when they are to be filled1 put in but a little composition at a time1 and ram it lightly1 so as not to break the case4 ,three or four rounds of paper1 with the last round pasted1 will be sufficiently strong for these cases4 7,ibid47 ,sect4 ,,xi4 ,of ,cases and ,moulds for ,common ,port-fires4 ,common port-fires1 are intended purposely to fire the works1 their fire being very slow1 and the heat of the flame so intense1 that1 if applied to rockets1 leaders1 c4 it will fire them immediately4 ,when used1 they are held in copper sockets1 fixed in the end of a long stick4 ,these sockets are made like port-crayons1 only with a screw instead of a ring4 ,port-fires1 or lances of service of the ,french1 may be made of any length1 but are seldom more than #ba inches long4 ,the interior diameter of port-fire moulds should be #aj_/afths1 of an inch1 and the diameter of the former half an inch4 ,the cases must be rolled wet with paste1 and one end pinched or folded down4 ,the moulds should be made of brass1 and to take in #b pieces lengthwise3 when the case is in the two sides1 they are held together by brass rings or hoops1 which are made to fit over the outside4 ,the bore of the mould must not be quite through1 so that there will be no occasion for a foot4 ,the ,french make the cases of five thicknesses of paper1 and form the moulds upon rollers of #c_/hths of an inch in diameter4 ,port fire1 according to the full acceptation of the term ,porte-feu of the ,french1 means a porter1 or carrier of fire1 and implies all sorts of fuses or matches1 by which fire is communicated4 ,in a treatise on ,military ,fire-works1 as taught at ,strasburg in #agfd1 an extract of which was translated and published by order of the ,war ,department in #ahjj1 there are some observations on port-fires1 which1 as the mode of making them according to these directions appears to have been adopted1 may be useful to notice in this place4 ,port-fires may be made in two ways4 ,the first is made and beaten in a mould2 the other simply rolled on a ramrod1 and filled lying on the table4 ,to make port-fires of the first kind1 the mould must be made of dry wood1 such as pear-tree1 nut or box wood4 ,the height of the mould is #ac4he inches2 its diameter at the bottom1 #c4b inches2 its diameter above1 #b4ac inches2 diameter of the hole or caliber1 4#fb inches2 height of the base1 #b4ac inches2 its diameter1 #c4b inches4 ,the base of the mould has in the middle a nob1 which the turner leaves there1 the diameter of which is equal to the whole of the mould1 and one inch high1 including the circle1 which should be rounded like a hemisphere4 ,there must be three rods1 one of which1 of hard wood to roll the cartridge upon2 the two others of iron to ram down with4 ,the one to roll upon1 or the form1 is to be of the length of the mould1 exclusive of the handle1 which is #c4b inches longer4 ,the diameter of this rod is 4#de parts of an inch4 ,the first1 or greater one to charge with1 is the same length with that to roll upon2 the second is but half the length1 and both are 4#dd parts of an inch in diameter4 ,to make good cartridges1 you must have good paper1 well sized1 cut according to the length of the rolling rod or form1 which must be rolled very tightly round the form1 so that the vacancy left may be exactly equal to the size of the mould1 and that the paper should exactly fill the space between the form and the mould4 ,then the form is drawn out1 after having tied it at the end with packthread4 ,to fill it1 it must be replaced in the mould4 ,a cupful of composition is then put in1 and five or six strokes given with the large ramrod4 ,the ramrod is then withdrawn1 and a new charge is put in1 which is beaten like the first1 until the cartridge is filled to the height of the mould4 ,it is then drawn out1 and primed with priming powder4 ,the port-fire is filled with ease1 in using a tunnel placed at the end of the cartouch1 through which you pass the rod4 ,composition of ,port-fires of the first kind4 ,saltpetre #d lbs4 #b oz4 ,sulphur #a #ab ,priming powder #j #ab ,after having mixed these materials well together with the hand1 and then with a rolling pin1 you pass them through a hair sieve1 and fill your wooden bowls4 ,the second kind of ,port-fires1 are made in rolling strips of paper #c inches wide1 and #a4bgh inches long1 on a form of hard wood1 about #ad inches long1 and 4#ce parts of an inch in diameter4 ,when about two-thirds of the paper is rolled1 the remainder of it is to be pasted over with paste made of flour and glue4 ,you then finish it1 by passing your hand along the extremity of the pasted paper4 ,having finished the number required1 you place them in the sun1 or near a stove1 and turn them from time to time1 to prevent them from sticking together1 or bending4 ,cartridges being well dried1 you must fill them with the following composition4 ,fold the paper at one of the ends1 and at the other1 pour in the composition1 placing your cartridge against the composition2 and having placed it perpendicularly on the table1 you give it several strokes1 to drive down the composition4 ,then you take your iron rod1 which is 4#ec parts of an inch longer than the one which you use to roll with1 and a little less in thickness at the top4 ,there should be a ring1 that it may hang to the finger1 and move the more easily4 ,having laid your cartridges on the table1 you introduce the rod1 and with it compress the composition4 ,having withdrawn it1 more is put in1 it is pressed again1 and so on until entirely full4 ,you will take care to press the last layer of the composition more than the other1 to prevent its falling out by moving4 ,the port-fire cartridges being finished1 they are laid by for use1 putting ten in a packet as before4 ,composition of ,port-fires of the second kind4 ,saltpetre #f ounces4 ,sulphur #b do4 ,priming powder #c do4 ,these three articles being mixed1 you will put them in a wooden bowl1 and moisten them with linseed oil1 until you find the composition 7being pressed well7 is sufficiently hard4 ,it may be sufficient to observe1 that the present improved process of making port-fires is preferable4 7,see ,port-fires47 ,sec4 ,,xii4 ,of ,pasteboard1 and its ,uses4 ,the pasteboard1 used in pyrotechny1 is made of fine white paper1 by joining together five1 and sometimes six1 seven1 and eight sheets of paper4 ,that which is generally employed1 is made of five sheets1 and the other descriptions are employed for large cases4 ,sized paper is preferable1 having more firmness than the other4 ,pasteboard is made in the following way3 ,a paste of flour is first prepared with hot water1 and passed through a hair sieve1 to separate the lumps4 ,a sheet of paper is stretched upon a table1 and covered1 by means of a brush1 with paste1 and a sheet is then laid over it4 ,this is compressed1 and another coat of paste applied2 then another sheet1 then paste1 and the number is added according to the thickness required4 ,after five or more sheets are thus pasted together1 a dry sheet is laid over1 and the operation is repeated1 till five more are joined4 ,then a dry sheet is put on1 and the pasting is renewed4 ,by this means1 every five sheets are joined together1 and the sheet1 thus formed1 is kept apart from the rest1 by the dry sheet4 ,a pile of pasteboard1 consisting of some hundred sheets1 may be made in this manner at one time4 ,they are then put into a press for the space of five or six hours1 by which they become firmly united1 and all the extraneous paste is pressed out4 ,when a press cannot be had1 they may be put between boards1 and heavy weights laid on4 ,the pasteboard is then hung up in the air to dry1 and again submitted to the press1 to remove any inequalities1 and to make it smooth4 ,when glazed paper is used for making pasteboard1 we may employ1 alternately1 a sheet of brown paper4 ,it is better1 however1 to use more of the glazed paper1 than of the brown paper4 ,pasteboard of three thicknesses will be sufficient for most purposes4 ,it is this kind1 which is used for the heads of rockets4 ,several kinds of paper1 however1 are used in fire-works4 ,for small preparations1 common white paper is sufficient4 ,for port-fire cases1 the common brown paper2 for the joints1 guarding places from fire1 and covering tubes of communication1 any kind of gray paper2 and for covering marrons1 the most indifferent kind may be used4 ,cartridge paper1 as known by that name1 may be used for a variety of purposes4 ,paper may be rendered incombustible1 or nearly so1 by soaking it repeatedly in a strong solution of alum4 ,in the ,literary ,journal of #aghe1 of ,petersburg1 there is a discovery mentioned of a kind of pasteboard1 which neither fire can consume1 nor water soften4 ,it appears that alumina1 and its salt 7alum7 were used in this preparation4 ,in the ,journal des ,arts et ,manufactures1 tom4 ii1 p4 #bje1 is an account of the manufacture of pasteboard at ,malmedy2 and in the ,transactions of the ,society of ,stockholm for #aghe1 is a description of the process for making the ,swedish stone paper1 which resists equally fire and water4 ,stone paper is manufactured in ,france1 7,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 article ,carton71 by taking two parts of martial earth1 7ochre1 for instance71 and mixing them with one part of animal oil1 and two parts of vegetable matter1 previously made into a pulp4 ,the ,british ,repository of ,arts contains several specifications of patents for the preparation of the same paper4 ,although paper may be rendered very difficult of combustion by the process already mentioned1 that of soaking it in a strong solution of alum1 yet to make a paper completely indestructible by fire1 it must be made of amianthus4 ,the process for manufacturing paper with this mineral1 was announced in the ,gazette de ,france in #aggh4 ,professor ,carbury received a medal for the invention4 ,incombustible paper1 for cartridges1 ought to have the property1 not of inflaming1 but of simply carbonizing1 when exposed to heat4 ,m4 ,brugnatelli 7,bulletin des ,neustin7 recommends the paper to be prepared with silicated alkali1 commonly called the liquor of flints4 ,muriate of potassa1 and supersulphate of alumina-and-potassa are both used for a similar purpose4 ,paper made according to ,brugnatelli's process1 is merely carbonized by fire1 and reduced to powder4 ,m4 ,hermbstaedt 7,bulletin des ,dcouvertes17 observes1 that paper1 made with silicated liquor1 attracts humidity1 and proposes simply a solution of green vitriol1 which has not that property4 ,paper may be stained1 or coloured1 in a variety of ways1 as is the case with the portable ,chinese fire-works1 that are brought to this country4 ,thus1 a red paper may be formed by dipping it in a decoction of brazil wood and alum2 yellow1 by using fustic2 a green1 by a mixed bath of blue and yellow dye1 or a solution of copper1 c4 ,coloured paper may be glazed with weak size1 rubbing it afterwards with a polished stone4 ,the ,chinese are in possession of several processes1 as well for making1 as for ornamenting paper4 ,their silver paper1 which is sometimes put on their fire-works1 is variously figured4 ,the art is very simple4 ,two scruples of glue1 and one scruple of alum1 are dissolved in a pint of water4 ,this is evaporated1 and put on the paper1 where they want it1 and finally pulverized silvery talc 7a magnesian stone7 is sifted over it4 ,it is then exposed to the sun1 and the extraneous talc is brushed off4 ,the glue1 it is obvious1 causes the talc to adhere4 ,the ,abb ,raynal 7,histoire ,philosophique des deux ,indes t4 iii1 p4 #bbe7 has some interesting facts respecting ,chinese paper4 ,some useful remarks on paper hangings1 paper for decorations1 tapestry paper1 c4 may be found in the ,journal de ,paris1 #aghe1 the ,lyce des ,arts #agie1 and the ,encyclopedie ,method4 ,arts et ,metiers1 t4 iv1 p4 #cic4 ,on the formation of paper vases1 in imitation of ,japan vases1 consult the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 article vases4 ,the different patents1 respecting paper1 may be seen in the ,british ,repertory of ,arts1 and the manufacture of paper generally1 in ,rees's ,cyclopedia1 and the ,artist's ,manual4 ,the ,american improvements are noticed in the latter4 ,beckman 7,history of ,inventions7 has a variety of remarks on the same subject2 and1 in his article on paper hangings1 c4 vol4 ii1 p4 #afa1 says1 that artists employed the silver-coloured glimmer 7isinglass7 for the covering of paper1 and that the nuns of ,reichtinstein ornamented with it1 the images1 which they made2 as the nuns in ,france1 and other catholic countries1 ornamented their agni ,dei1 by strewing over them a shining kind of talc4 ,the quality of the paste1 which is employed in making pasteboard1 ought to be attended to4 ,the flour should be of rye1 and well boiled1 after mixing it uniformly with cold water4 ,strong bookbinder's paste has the addition of a fourth1 fifth1 or sixth of the weight of the flour1 of powdered alum4 ,the patent paste is prepared by extracting starch from potatoes1 in the usual manner1 by means of cold water1 and mixing it with mashed potatoes1 after they have been boiled1 and boiling the whole in water4 ,the ,japanese cement1 or rice-glue1 may be advantageously used in many cases4 ,it is formed by mixing rice flour intimately with cold water1 and then boiling it very gently4 ,it is beautifully white1 and dries almost transparent4 ,we are told1 that it is preferable1 in every respect1 to the paste made with flour2 and its strength is such1 that paper1 pasted together with it1 will sooner separate in their own substance than at the joining4 ,the ,chinese1 to prevent accidents1 and in order that they may fire their works without injury1 and particularly their cases which are charged with brilliant fire1 have a process1 for preparing a paste of a different kind4 ,with the exception of the clay1 the same substances have been employed elsewhere for the like purpose4 ,it consists of one pound of rye flour1 boiled in water2 to which is added1 a small handful of common salt1 the whole being thickened with finely pulverized white clay4 ,the pasteboard1 we are informed1 which is made with this paste1 is not only very solid1 but not so susceptible of inflammation1 as that prepared in the usual way4 ,a ,chinese paste is announced in the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',encouragement1 #ahae1 which is very economical1 and used with success4 ,it is made by mixing ten pounds of bullock's blood1 with one pound of quicklime1 and occasionally flour4 ,sec4 ,,xiii4 ,of the ,pulverization of ,substances4 ,various substances are employed either in grain1 lamin1 filings1 or impalpable powder4 ,when treating of nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 and other bodies1 we mentioned the processes for reducing them to powder4 ,it will be sufficient here to remark1 that cannon powder1 when it is converted into fine powder1 takes the name of meal-powder2 the conversion being effected1 by beating it in a leather sack1 already described1 by rolling it upon the mealing-table1 or by the action of a wooden pestle in a mortar4 ,it is then passed through a fine sieve4 ,the sack is said to be a preferable mode1 as nearly the whole of it becomes pulverized4 ,saltpetre1 sulphur1 charcoal1 antimony1 c4 may be reduced to powder in a mortar of cast-iron1 marble1 or wood4 ,the best method of pulverizing saltpetre is given under that article1 which consists in boiling it in a copper1 and stirring it continually at the end of the process4 ,the best mode of pulverizing1 or bringing cast-iron to a state of fineness1 is mentioned in the article on ,iron4 ,some of the metals1 as iron1 zinc1 the alloy of copper and zinc1 7brass17 c4 are brought to a sufficient fineness by the file4 ,the filings1 if so required1 may be afterwards sifted4 ,zinc1 when in small pieces1 may be pulverized1 by means of a steel mortar and pestle4 ,it may be granulated1 by suffering it to run1 when melted1 through an iron cullender into water4 ,for the pulverization of camphor1 see that article4 ,sec4 ,,xiv4 ,of ,mixtures4 ,all compositions for fire-works1 are generally made at first in mortars1 and the mixture is then finished by passing it through a sieve2 it being returned to the sieve1 and again sifted4 ,this operation is sometimes repeated several times4 ,of all compositions1 that for sky-rockets requires to be most intimately blended4 ,to receive the sifted matter1 leather or parchment is used2 but1 in lieu of either1 pasteboard1 or several sheets of paper1 cemented or glued together will answer4 ,it is obvious1 that1 in preparing mixtures1 of two1 three1 or four articles1 they should not only be very fine1 but uniformly and intimately mixed4 ,several receivers1 made by stitching leather over a rim1 in the manner of a sieve1 would be found very convenient2 but wooden bowls1 and copper basins1 are generally used4 ,some ingredients must be passed through a lawn sieve1 after having been previously incorporated4 ,a receiver1 with a top1 is the kind of sieve to be preferred4 ,the composition for wheels1 and common works1 need not be so fine as for rockets4 ,but in all fixed works1 from which the fire is to play regularly1 the ingredients must be very fine1 and great care taken in mixing them together2 and in those works1 into the composition of which1 iron and steel enter1 the hands must neither touch them1 nor moisture be suffered to come in contact4 ,in either case1 they would be apt to rust4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,fire-,,works ,,in ,,general4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,observations ,,on ,,fire-,,works4 ,in ,europe1 the invention of fire-works is of a recent date1 and ascribed to the ,italians4 ,in ,china1 however1 fire-works have been known for centuries4 ,some recent exhibitions at ,pekin prove1 that the ,chinese have attained to a degree of perfection1 not surpassed by the artists of ,france1 ,italy1 or ,england4 ,the observations of ,mr4 ,barrow1 7,travels in ,china71 on this subject are worthy of notice4 ,the fire-works1 in some particulars1 says he1 exceeded any thing of the kind ,i had ever seen4 ,in grandeur1 magnificence1 and variety1 they were1 ,i own1 inferior to the ,chinese fire-works1 we had seen at ,batavia1 but infinitely superior in point of novelty1 neatness1 and ingenuity of contrivance4 ,one piece of machinery ,i greatly admired2 a chest five feet square1 was hoisted up by a pulley1 to the height of fifty or sixty feet from the ground3 the bottom was so constructed as then1 suddenly1 to fall out1 and make way for twenty or thirty strings of lanterns1 enclosed in a box1 to descend from it1 unfolding themselves from one another by degrees1 so as1 at last1 to form a collection of full #ejj1 each having a light of a beautifully coloured flame1 burning brightly within it4 ,this devolution and development of lanterns was several times repeated1 and1 at every time1 exhibited a difference of colour and figure4 ,on each side1 was a correspondence of smaller boxes1 which opened in like manner as the others1 and let down an immense net-work of fire1 with divisions and compartments of various forms and dimensions1 round and square1 hexagons1 octagons1 c4 which shone like the brightest burnished copper1 and flashed like prismatic colours1 with every impulse of the wind4 ,the diversity of colours1 with which the ,chinese have the secret of clothing fire1 seems one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny4 ,the whole concluded with a volcano1 or general explosion and discharge of suns1 stars1 squibs1 crackers1 rockets1 and granadoes1 which involved the gardens for above an hour in a cloud of intolerable smoke4 ,thevenot 7,travels in the ,levant7 says1 that during the bairam1 or carnival1 which takes place with a great deal of ceremony1 the sultan causes fire-works to be played off all night2 the sultan and sultanas diverting themselves with these and other amusements4 ,dr4 ,pococke 7,travels through ,egypt71 says1 that at ,cairo1 when the ,nile is high1 besides aquatic excursions1 concerts of music1 and other diversions1 fire-works form a part of those pleasures and recreations4 ,in a ,description of the ,east ,indies1 fire-works are stated to be often exhibited at the marriage of the ,banians or ,gentoos4 ,with respect to the arrangement and display of sundry pieces of fire-works1 either alone or combined1 the effect depends1 as well upon the ingredients1 which compose the several sorts of fire1 as on the taste displayed in their exhibition4 ,it would be altogether unnecessary to notice1 at this time1 the order of exhibition usually adopted1 reserving this subject until we have gone into the various preparations1 which constitute1 as it is called1 a system of fire-works4 ,in order1 however1 to become familiar with the manner of arranging them1 as well as with their composition and preparation1 whether designed for a general or a partial display1 for the open air or for rooms1 we purpose to appropriate distinct chapters for their consideration4 ,the variety of preparations1 which become necessary where a full exhibition is intended1 the accuracy of the different mixtures1 and the adjustment of cases to wheels1 whether vertical or horizontal1 and the arrangement of the leaders1 or communicators of fire1 from one part to another of the work1 with many other circumstances1 in relation to stars1 rain1 c4 all require1 from the artist1 particular care and attention4 ,for the mere exhibition of one or two pieces1 as a plain rocket1 rocket with serpents1 or the like1 and likewise for some exhibitions1 on water1 called aquatic fire-works1 in rooms or apartments1 with scented fire1 or on the stage2 the preparations are by no means extensive4 ,it is1 therefore1 our design to present a view of the whole subject in detail1 and to speak of the different combinations of arrangement1 which are made according to fancy and taste1 and calculated1 as we have remarked1 either for small or extensive exhibitions4 ,we have1 in a preceding part of this work1 made some observations on certain preliminary operations2 on the various sizes and charges for cases2 on the paper1 necessary to be used1 for different kinds of cases2 and1 generally1 on sundry manipulations1 connected with the making1 filling1 and preparation of sundry descriptions of fire-works4 ,it remains1 therefore1 in the course of this subject1 to give the several formul1 with such observations as immediately concern the subject2 and for this purpose we will pursue the following order3 ,frazier is of opinion1 that the arrangement of fire-works1 which have been exhibited with effect1 may1 on particular occasions1 be established as a guide4 ,for this reason1 ,morel introduces an account of the celebrated fire-works at ,versailles and ,paris1 in #agci1 which we shall here notice4 ,exhibition of fire-works at the city house of ,paris1 on occasion of the peace in #agci4 ,the theatre was a building1 forty feet square1 with a pyramid of eighty feet in height1 on which was placed a globe1 containing artificial fire1 and accompanied with sixteen large vases of different forms4 ,all the edifice was ornamented with a variety of decorations1 combined with figures and emblems of peace1 and painted on marble4 ,after several guns were fired1 as a signal1 the exhibition commenced1 with the discharge of a large number of honorary rockets1 fired three and three at a time4 ,nearly five hundred lances1 and saucissons garnished1 lighted the four sides of the body of the works4 ,thirty cases of artificial fire1 furnished with fuses1 and double marquises1 were placed upon the large terrace1 with #abjj pots feu 7fire-pots72 and upon the ballustrade of the same terrace1 forty jets1 twenty of which were aigrettes1 and eight1 revolving suns1 four in the middle1 and four on the angles4 ,four large fixed suns were placed above the four which revolved1 and four pattes d'oies1 7geese feet17 were situated before the grand pedestal of the pyramid1 with jets1 and pots with aigrette4 ,at the foot of the pyramid1 on the steps1 were placed #abjj fire-pots1 and upon the pedestal of the pyramid1 twelve large pots of aigrette1 on the extremity of which1 were arranged aigrettes in groups1 and three large luminous stars1 formed of two hundred fire lances4 ,the four faces of the pyramid were lined with about fifty other jets2 after which there were cascades1 or fountains of fire4 ,the first horizontal wheel was composed of1 or furnished with1 six cases1 and contained also two hundred and forty double marquises4 ,the second wheel contained two hundred and forty fire-pots1 and six cases1 with upwards of three hundred fuses1 all in stars1 twelve air balloons in the middle1 but placed at the bottom of the fire-work4 ,to this was added1 twelve artificial bombs1 fixed in mortars1 and placed near the cannon1 which pointed to the works4 ,this outline of the brilliant exhibition of fire-works in #agci1 will give the reader some idea of the taste and magnificence of the work at that period4 ,we may here add1 however1 that the improvements1 which have since taken place1 both in the composition of artificial fire1 and its arrangement1 are such as to place the modern exhibitions of this kind far above that we have just spoken of4 ,but the following account of the execution of fire-works1 performed on the ,pont ,neuf1 in ,august of the same year1 is more extensive1 as the exhibition appears to have been more grand4 ,the theatre1 which represented the temple of ,hymen1 was an edifice of the doric order4 ,it was square4 ,a gallery of five hundred feet in length was supported by thirty-two columns1 four feet in diameter1 and thirty-three feet in height4 ,in the interior1 were two solid bodies1 and also one or more stair cases4 ,at the two sides of this temple1 along the parapets of the ,pont ,neuf1 were thirty-six pyramids1 eighteen of which were forty feet high1 and the others1 twenty-six feet4 ,they were joined by what is called1 in architecture1 a corbil1 and carried vases on their summits4 ,the signal for the exhibition was given by the firing of cannon4 ,immediately1 were seen1 rising into the air from each side of the temple1 three hundred rockets1 fired twelve at a time4 ,they were discharged from the eight towers of the ,pont ,neuf1 which face the ,tuileries1 and were succeeded 7upon the same towers17 by one hundred and eighty pots of aigrette4 ,the ,chinese trees were disposed in such a manner1 as to form a pyramid4 ,a succession of ,chinese trees now appeared1 immediately on the tablet of the cornice of the bridge2 then followed a great fixed sun1 sixty feet in diameter1 which appeared in all its splendour1 in the midst of surrounding objects4 ,under this1 was placed a large illuminated cypher1 thirty feet in height1 which consisted of different colours1 in imitation of jewels4 ,at the sides1 between the pillars of the temple1 were also two other artificial cyphers1 six feet high1 and composed of blue fire1 which had a surprising effect4 ,there were placed upon the two walks of the bridge1 on the right and left of the temple1 beyond the illuminated pyramids1 two hundred cases of fuses de partement1 of five or six dozen each4 ,these cases were fired1 five at a time1 and succeeded the rockets4 ,they began1 on each side1 from the first near the temple1 and in succession1 as far as the extremities to the right and left4 ,there appeared then cascades of red fire1 issuing from the five arches of the bridge1 which seemed to pierce the illumination1 and so vivid was the light1 that the eye could scarcely sustain it4 ,the combat of the dragons next ensued2 and the water-fire1 or aquatic fire-works1 covered almost the whole surface of the river4 ,eight boats1 containing works for the display on water1 were arranged in symmetrical order1 with the boats of illumination4 ,there were also thirty-six cascades or fountains of fire1 about thirty feet high1 which appeared to rise out of the water4 ,this exhibition of the cascades1 was preceded by a revolving water-sun1 and a discharge of stars from one hundred and sixty pots of aigrettes1 which were placed at the lower part of the terrace4 ,four large boats1 containing aquatic fire-works1 were moored near the arches of the bridge1 and four others were disposed on the side next to the ,tuileries4 ,the fire-works1 which they contained1 consisted of a great number of large and small casks1 charged with gerbes and pots1 which1 when discharged1 filled the air with serpents1 stars1 c4 ,there was1 also1 a large number of hand gerbes1 and revolving water-suns4 ,when the exhibition of the cascades was finished1 the grand chandelier1 composed of six thousand fuses1 and resting on the top of the temple1 was lighted4 ,both extremities were set on fire at the same time4 ,this was followed by two smaller chandeliers1 previously placed on each side of the foot-way of the bridge1 and containing five hundred fuses each4 ,the fire-works1 exhibited at ,versailles1 in the same year1 and on the same occasion1 were also magnificent4 ,the account we have of them is the following3 ,there was a large building erected1 representing the temple of ,hymen1 nine hundred feet in length1 and one hundred and twenty in height1 in the gardens of ,versailles1 in front of the grand gallery4 ,it was in the form of a portico1 with re-enterings and salients at the two extremities1 which faced the two great basins2 and1 in the centre1 were illuminated works4 ,the forges of ,vulcan1 in the grottos1 commenced with the sound of the hammers of the ,cyclops4 ,the sparks1 then produced1 covered1 in a few instants1 the two basins1 provided for the purpose1 with an apparent sheet or volume of fire4 ,from the summit of a rock1 came out a jet of brilliant fire1 more than thirty feet in height1 accompanied with four others of less elevation1 representing torrents of fire as from volcanoes4 ,to this succeeded a great jet of water1 forty-five feet in height1 leading with it1 as it were1 seventeen other jets1 which surrounded the rocks1 and rushing forth with avidity1 produced1 in appearance1 a mixture of flame and water1 which1 in the end1 consumed entirely the two grottos4 ,after this1 the fire-works1 behind the decoration1 were exhibited4 ,two hundred and fifty boxes1 and as many caissons1 arranged on both sides of the turf1 which descended to the grass1 were first exhibited4 ,this1 however1 was less brilliant than the fire from the ,cyclops4 ,to this succeeded a brilliant fire1 placed before the illumination4 ,this composition1 elevating itself to a mean height1 pleased equally by its form1 as by its brilliant whiteness4 ,this fire composed three distinct decorations1 which succeeded as the one replaced the other1 following the same order4 ,the spouting waters1 which decorated the gardens1 together with the artificial fire1 appeared in the form of cascades and fountains4 ,the first decoration1 at the head of the two great basins1 exhibited two handsome cascades1 in the form of a white sheet1 and surmounted with an aigrette twenty-five feet in height4 ,this was accompanied with two pattes d'oies 7geese feet7 of seven jets each1 and accompanied also with fifty jets playing from each of the sides1 twenty feet in height1 and occupying the fore ground4 ,the second appeared under the form of the pattes d'oies1 of eleven jets each1 of which four1 at the head of the basins1 were large1 and all projected a body of fire1 fifty feet in height4 ,they were intermixed1 however1 with the pots of aigrettes1 twenty feet in height1 which threw a crown1 composed of stars1 c4 to the height of fifty feet1 which produced in the atmosphere a lively and brilliant light4 ,the third represented thirteen fountains of fire1 twenty-five feet in height1 and thirty feet in diameter1 with an aigrette in each4 ,in these1 there were six circular1 and six spiral fountains4 ,the largest was placed between the two basins1 with four others on the right and left4 ,the fountains1 which represented the combat of animals1 had in each of them two4 ,the animals threw1 at the same time1 jets of water and fire1 and1 between each of the fountains1 large brilliant jets or spouts4 ,this part of the exhibition was finished1 by throwing into the air the garnishing or furniture of the pots1 which produced crowns1 c4 of great splendour4 ,to these three decorations1 succeeded the exhibition of twelve ,italian pots1 placed six in a row1 and in the middle of two great basins1 which produced repeated discharges4 ,the whole was then closed by setting fire to two great chandeliers1 which were placed behind the grand decoration1 and contained more than three thousand fuses4 ,it appears from history1 that when ,henry ,,ii1 entered ,rheims1 there was a representation of several figures in fire2 and in #afjf1 the duke of ,sully made an exhibition of fire-works at ,fontainbleau2 and in #afab1 ,morel1 commissary of artillery1 prepared a splendid exhibition of the same kind4 ,it appears1 also1 that the art of communicating fire from one piece of fire-work to another1 as in the combined piece of nine mutations1 and the pyric-piece 7which will be noticed hereafter7 was discovered by ,ruggeri1 artificer to the king1 at ,boulogne1 in ,france1 in #agdc4 ,it may not be improper1 in concluding this article1 to notice1 in a general manner1 the exhibition of the works of fire by the ancients4 ,the fire-works of the ancients consisted1 for the principal part1 of illuminations1 and the use of some particular descriptions of fire4 ,they were1 however1 very imperfect4 ,since the invention of gunpowder1 its effects as well as its modifications1 in this particular1 became known2 and1 so far as respects the various preparations of artificial fire1 gunpowder itself has produced a new era in pyrotechny1 and the various modifications1 to which it is subject1 have occasioned a great variety of fire-works4 ,according to the authority we have on the subject1 it appears1 that the ancients1 in exhibiting their preparations of fire1 set them off by the hand1 and directed them among the people1 which produced great eclat4 ,another description of fire-work was designed expressly for the theatre1 part of which was exhibited in the form of man or beast4 ,of their theatrical works1 our accounts are imperfect4 ,their works1 generally1 were formed of lardons1 stars1 and fire-balls1 in imitation of grenades1 and flying fuses or rockets4 ,that they neither had a system in arranging1 nor regularity in exhibiting their works1 is evident from a variety of circumstances2 for1 although the number of their pieces1 such as they were1 was great2 yet1 they so crowded them upon each other1 as that1 when they were fired1 they frequently destroyed the persons in their vicinity4 ,an author of antiquity observes1 that he has seen a great many artificial machines1 but1 to speak the truth1 few which have succeeded2 and it is commonly after acclamations of joy1 that the spectacle is finished by the destruction of some1 and the wounding of a great number4 ,this fact is not at all surprising2 because their works were prepared in wooden tubes1 at least among the more modern1 as paper cases were not then known4 ,these tubes1 moreover1 were not secured by any covering1 and were the more likely to burst1 and hence accidents were common4 ,the moderns1 however1 have rejected altogether the use of wood1 in the formation of cases1 and have availed themselves of the use of paper1 which can be made of any size or thickness4 7,see ,pasteboard47 ,notwithstanding wood is not employed by experienced fire-workers1 partly in consequence of the reasons just given1 and partly because paper furnishes a material in every way adapted to the purpose2 yet1 within a few years past1 reed has been used in ,spain1 which1 however1 is secured by cloth and pack thread4 ,such substitutes1 nevertheless1 besides being more or less dangerous1 have nothing to recommend them4 ,it is a fact1 that the ,chinese1 who undoubtedly excel in the manufacture of fire-works1 if we believe the authority of the ,english embassy1 use altogether paper cases2 but in the war-rocket1 employed by the natives against the ,british at ,seringapatam1 which did1 according to the ,english account1 great execution1 their cases were formed entirely of sheet-iron4 ,in their smaller works1 which are prepared expressly for sale1 paper cases are altogether made use of4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,fire-,,works ,,for ,,theatrical ,,purposes4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,puffs1 or ,bouffes4 ,the bouffe1 according to the term used in ,french1 signifies a species of fire1 which exhibits itself in puffs1 or in alternate appearances1 more or less brilliant4 ,it is also called the flambeaux of the furies4 ,this description of artificial fire is used in theatres1 and frequently in ordinary fire-works4 ,it is fired from1 and exhibited with1 a funnel of tin1 or sheet iron1 having a hole at the apex of the cone4 ,the hole is to be sufficiently large to admit the fire from a quick match4 ,it is particularly calculated1 when a gulf1 crater1 or the caves of the ,cyclops1 intended to eject flame1 are to be exhibited4 ,although many compositions may be used for this purpose1 yet the following1 which is employed in ,france1 is considered preferable3 ,composition for ,bouffes4 ,saltpetre #af oz4 ,meal-powder #d oz4 ,charcoal #h oz4 ,when the materials are well mixed1 a piece of silk paper is prepared in a round shape1 by pressing it on the end of a roller1 in the same manner as the ordinary cases4 ,about one ounce of the composition is put into it1 on which is placed very lightly two drachms of meal-powder4 ,a double quick-match is now put on the meal-powder1 and the paper is closed by pressing it between the fingers4 ,it is then tied with twine4 ,the quick-match is left sufficiently long to pass through the hole at the apex of the cone1 in which is introduced the puff1 being pressed a little at the bottom4 ,the excess of the quick-match1 should there be any1 is cut off within an inch of the extremity of the funnel4 ,when used1 it is inflamed by a lance or port fire4 ,the effect of the puff1 in the first place1 is to throw out of the funnel1 by the meal-powder1 a volume of fire1 which will cause the appearances before mentioned4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,eruptions4 ,if the appearance of a volcano1 or the effect of a mine is required in a piece1 the following method is commonly followed3 a tin1 sheet-iron1 or brass box is provided1 either round or square1 of nine inches in height1 and three inches and a half in diameter1 and placed on a wooden stand1 sufficiently large to prevent it from overturning4 ,three1 four1 or five ounces of the composition1 mentioned in ,sec4 i4 of this chapter1 is put into it1 according to the effect intended to be produced4 ,the composition is pressed a little with the hand1 and a piece of quick-match is used4 ,this match projects out of the case1 and is secured with a piece of paper1 pasted over its circumference4 ,when the fire is presented to the quick-match1 it communicates with rapidity to the inside of the box1 or case1 which produces an eruption1 from twelve to fifteen feet in height4 ,the effect may be made more or less great1 by making the boxes of a proportional size1 or by using several of them at the same time4 ,if a mine is the subject of representation1 it is necessary to employ some large marrons1 which should communicate with the boxes1 and in such a manner1 as that they may operate at the same time4 ,this exhibition1 it is obvious1 may be varied according to circumstances1 either by employing a larger quantity of the composition in several cases1 or by using one or more marrons1 or some other descriptions of fire-works1 the effect of which is calculated to increase the flame1 and to produce the necessary variations4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of the ,flames4 ,if a flame is to be represented1 as for example1 the effect of an incendiary1 and its appearance is to be prolonged1 the fire from tow being too transient1 small iron kettles1 of four inches in diameter1 and depth1 may be used4 ,in these are put three or four ounces of the composition of the lances of service1 which is moistened with the oil or spirit of turpentine4 ,when set on fire1 they will produce a blaze three or four feet in height1 and one and a half in diameter4 ,several may be used1 according to the effect required4 ,see the composition for the lances of service4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of the ,fire-rain4 ,a variety of compositions for fire-rain are used1 which will be noticed1 when we speak of the garnishing of rockets1 and other fire-works4 ,cases are prepared of seven-twelfths of an inch in diameter1 and ten inches long1 which are choaked in such a manner1 as that the hole of communication should be one-third of the diameter of the interior case4 ,they are then charged with the following composition3 ,composition of the fire-rain4 ,saltpetre #h ounces4 ,sulphur #d do4 ,meal powder #af ounces4 ,charcoal of oak #b do4 ,pitcoal #b do4 ,when the cases are charged and primed1 they are tied upon a rod1 having a groove cut in its length4 ,in the inside of the groove1 is a port-fire1 or leader1 which is tied to the cases with twine1 and the groove is then covered with several pieces of paper1 in the shape of a band4 ,this precaution is thus taken for the theatre1 in order to prevent the inflamed port-fire from falling on the stage4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of other ,compositions for ,fire-rain1 in ,chinese fire4 ,the composition of ,chinese fire1 which we will have occasion to mention more fully hereafter1 is calculated to exhibit a more brilliant fire1 with a steady and uniform effect4 ,it is used principally on the ,french stage1 in large operas4 ,it is charged and used1 in all respects1 like the preceding4 ,composition of ,chinese ,fire4 ,saltpetre1 #h ounces ,meal powder1 #af ,sulphur1 #d ,charcoal1 #b ,powdered cast iron1 #aj ,the elegance of the flame1 produced by this mixture1 depends entirely upon the effect1 which cast iron possesses2 and1 by its combination with charcoal1 sulphur1 meal powder1 and nitre1 while an oxide of iron results from the combustion1 we have1 likewise1 other products1 arising from the decomposition of the nitre1 and the union of carbon and sulphur respectively with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid of the nitre4 ,the gunpowder decomposes itself by reason of the nature of its own composition2 but the sulphur1 charcoal1 and iron1 decompose the nitric acid of the nitre1 in the act of combustion4 ,so that1 to produce the effect1 an additional quantity of nitre to that which is in the gunpowder1 is required in this preparation4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of ,thunderbolts4 7,foudres ,f47 ,the thunderbolts are charged in cases of two-thirds of an inch in diameter1 in the same manner as cases for wheels and rockets4 ,they are primed1 whitened1 well pasted1 and left to dry4 ,some preliminary operations are required in their exhibition1 as the use of the piercer1 the tying of one end of the case1 which is to descend first from the top of the theatre1 c4 ,a port-fire is used for setting them off4 ,composition of ,thunderbolts4 ,meal powder1 #f ounces4 ,saltpetre1 #f ---- ,sulphur1 #c ---- ,antimony1 #d drachms4#bd ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of ,dragons and other ,monsters4 ,in certain pieces1 exhibitions of this kind are made4 ,they are formed in such a way1 as to make them throw fire from the mouth1 nose1 and ears1 which is blown out into the air4 ,cases1 charged with brilliant fire1 are so arranged that their fire may act all at the same time4 ,puffs may also be produced to go out at the mouth1 by means of a tube or funnel1 placed behind the monster4 ,these preparations and exhibitions are so susceptible of variations1 that1 having a previous knowledge of the composition and effect of the fire-work1 it may be so arranged as to produce a variety of appearances4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,lightning4 ,the effect of lightning may be shown by several preparations4 ,lycopodium1 or puff-ball1 is the substance most commonly employed4 ,when it cannot be procured1 rosin may be substituted2 and1 generally1 as the latter is cheaper1 it is used4 ,rosin1 reduced to an impalpable powder1 and thrown upon a flame1 will produce the effect in a remarkable degree1 and when blown through a tube1 the effect is more striking4 ,several fluid substances1 when ejected from a syringe on a lighted candle1 have the same appearance4 ,alcohol has this effect4 ,the difficulty of preparing and employing them1 has given the lycopodium a preference4 ,a tin or brass tube1 larger at one end than the other1 and covered at the former end1 with a cover1 perforated with holes1 similar to the branch of a watering pot1 is used for holding the composition1 or substance made use of4 ,through this cover1 or lid1 a cotton wick is put1 which1 before lighting1 is well soaked in alcohol or spirits of wine4 ,when lighted1 the torch or tube1 containing the lycopodium1 or rosin1 is shaken at the smaller extremity2 when these substances will pass through the holes in small quantities1 and be successively inflamed4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of the ,artifice of ,destruction4 ,when1 in any exhibition1 palaces1 castles1 or forts are to be demolished1 or thrown down1 there are about twenty petards fixed on rods4 ,petards1 for this use1 are made with cases1 and sometimes with wheels4 ,the cases are generally three-quarters of an inch in diameter1 charged with grain powder1 and choaked at both ends4 ,they are arranged in a zigzag direction4 ,this series of crackers has a fine effect4 ,it is obvious1 that1 in all these exhibitions1 intelligent artizans may employ various descriptions of artificial fire1 where1 in particular1 it often seems1 that there is something yet to be wished for4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,of the ,spur-fire4 ,the spur-fire is so called1 because its fire or sparks resemble the rowel of a spur4 ,it is used in theatres and in rooms4 ,it is the most beautiful of any yet known1 and was invented by the ,chinese1 but greatly improved in ,europe4 ,it requires great care to make it properly4 ,care ought to be taken that all the ingredients are of the best quality1 that the lampblack is neither damp nor clodded1 that the saltpetre is the best refined1 and the sulphur perfectly pure4 ,this composition is generally rammed into one or two ounce cases1 about five or six inches long1 but not driven very hard2 and the cases must have their concave stroke struck very smooth1 and the choak or vent not quite so large as the usual proportion3 this charge1 when driven1 and kept a few months1 will be much better than when rammed4 ,if kept dry1 it will last many years4 ,as the beauty of this composition cannot be seen at so great a distance as brilliant fire1 it has a better effect in a theatre or room1 than in the open air2 and may be fired in a chamber1 without danger4 ,its effect is of so innocent a nature1 that it has been called cold fire2 and so extraordinary is the fire produced from this composition1 that if well made1 the sparks will not burn a handkerchief when held in the midst of them4 ,the hand1 brought in contact with the spark1 will feel only a sensation similar to that occasioned by the falling of rain4 ,when any of these spurs are fired singly1 they are called artificial fire-pots2 but some of them1 placed round a transparent pyramid of paper1 and fired in a large room1 make a very elegant appearance4 ,composition of ,spur-,fire4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #d lbs4 ,sulphur1 #b lbs4 ,lampblack1 #a lbs4 or1 #b4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,sulphur1 lb4 ,lampblack1 #d quarts4 ,the saltpetre and sulphur must be first mixed together1 and sifted1 and then put into a marble mortar1 and the lampblack with them1 which are to be worked by degrees1 with a wooden pestle1 till all the ingredients appear of one colour1 which will be a gray1 approaching to black4 ,it is then to be tried by driving a little of it into a case1 and fired in a dark place2 and if the sparks1 which are called stars1 or pinks1 come out in clusters1 and afterwards spread well1 without any other sparks1 it is a criterion of its goodness4 ,if any drossy sparks appear1 and the stars are not full1 it is then not mixed sufficiently3 but1 if the pinks are very small1 and soon break1 it is a proof that it has been rubbed too much2 for1 in this case1 few stars will appear4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the mixture is not rubbed sufficiently1 the combustion will be too weak1 and lumps1 resembling dross1 with an obscure smoke1 but without stars1 will be emitted4 ,the peculiar effect of this composition is owing to the carbon of the lampblack1 one part of which is inflamed1 its combustion being supported by the oxygen gas of the atmosphere4 ,sec4 ,,xi4 ,of the coloured ,flame of ,alcohol4 ,we have already remarked1 in treating of alcohol1 that its flame may be changed of various colours1 by using certain native substances4 ,see ,alcohol4 ,alcohol1 thus mixed1 or combined with substances1 may be exhibited on certain occasions2 for even cotton1 when immersed in it1 and set on fire1 will show the same appearances4 ,morel remarks1 that1 if vinegar1 a small portion of crude tartar1 and common salt1 and a still smaller quantity of saltpetre1 be mixed together1 and distilled1 a liquid will be obtained1 which burns with great brilliancy4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if we judge from analogy1 whether either tartar1 the salt1 or saltpetre1 will communicate any peculiar property to the distilled vinegar2 for these saline substances will remain unaltered in the distilling vessel4 ,the vinegar1 nevertheless1 may be obtained in a more concentrated state1 being deprived of its colouring and other matter1 and the greater part of its water1 and1 therefore1 approach to the state of acetic acid4 ,with respect to alcohol1 it is known to dissolve a variety of saline substances1 most of which have the property of changing the colour of its flame4 ,although we have not made any experiments with the spirits of turpentine1 yet we are of opinion1 that it may be used with resins1 c4 in the same manner4 ,in all cases1 it is evident1 that the fluid made use of must be inflammable4 ,macquer 7,memoirs of the ,turin ,academy7 made a number of experiments on the solubility of salts in alcohol1 and on the different coloured flames1 which they produced4 ,the principal results of his experiments1 are the following3 ,quantity in grains4 ,salts soluble in #bjj ,peculiar phenomena grains of spirit4 of the flame4 ,flame1 larger1 higher1 #d ,nitrate of potassa1 more ardent1 yellow1 and luminous4 #e ,muriate of potassa1 ,large1 ardent1 yellow1 and luminous4 #j ,sulphate of soda1 ,considerably red4 #ae ,nitrate of soda1 ,yellow1 luminous1 detonating4 #j ,muriate of soda1 ,larger1 more ardent1 and reddish4 #j ,sulphate of ammonia1 ,none4 #ajh ,nitrate of ammonia1 ,whiter1 more luminous4 #bd ,muriate of ammonia1 ,none4 #bhh ,nitrate of lime1 ,larger1 more luminous1 red1 and decrepitating4 #bhh ,muriate of lime1 ,like that of nitrate of lime4 #hd ,nitrate of silver1 ,none4 #bjd ,muriate of mercury1 ,large1 yellow1 luminous1 and decrepitating4 #d ,nitrate of iron1 ,red and decrepitating4 #cf ,muriate of iron1 ,more white1 luminous1 and sparkling4 ,more white1 luminous1 #dh ,nitrate of copper1 and green1 much smoke4 ,the saline residuum became black and burnt4 #dh ,muriate of copper1 ,fine green1 white and red fulgurations4 ,the alcohol1 he employed1 had a specific gravity of #j4hdj4 ,sec4 ,,xii4 ,of ,red fire4 ,dr4 ,ure 7,chemical ,dictionary7 informs us1 that the beautiful red1 which is now frequently used at the theatres1 is composed of the following ingredients3 #dj parts of dry nitrate of strontia2 #ac parts of finely powdered sulphur2 #e parts of chlorate 7hyperoxymuriate7 of potassa1 and #d parts of sulphuret of antimony4 ,the chlorate of potassa and sulphuret of antimony1 should be powdered1 separately1 in a mortar1 and then mixed together on paper2 after which they may be added to the other ingredients1 previously powdered and mixed4 ,no other kind of mixture than rubbing together on paper is required4 ,sometimes a little realgar is added to the sulphuret of antimony1 and frequently1 when the fire burns dim and badly1 a very small quantity of very finely powdered charcoal or lampblack will make it perfect4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,of ,,portable ,,fire-,,works4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of exhibitions on ,tables4 ,fire-works1 it is obvious1 may be employed in a variety of ways1 either large or small1 in the open air1 or in apartments1 according to circumstances4 ,fire-tables are composed of a great many works1 the same as is exhibited upon a large scale2 but of a size corresponding with small exhibitions4 ,as fire-tables are used only in apartments1 and the works are shown from tables1 on which they are arranged1 it is necessary that the cases which contain them should be of a small caliber1 and their fire less extensive4 ,the cases or cartridges are made of one-eighth of an inch in diameter1 and charged with the best pistol powder1 which produces less smoke than cannon powder4 ,these small works are usually exhibited on pasteboard1 differently arranged4 ,among the works are frequently figures1 resembling fruit contained in gerbes and even small caprices4 ,pinks1 which are also used1 are generally modified1 or accompanied with other decorations1 and furnished with illuminated suns4 ,fire-pots of one inch in diameter1 filled with small bombs and various devices1 are employed1 when a surprise is intended4 ,the fire-table is arranged1 although upon a small scale1 in the same manner as other works4 ,their arrangement1 therefore1 is the same as for other kinds of fire-works1 only proportioning them accordingly4 ,brilliant fire4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,fine filings of steel4 #b do ,jessamine4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 -- ,sulphur1 -- ,fine steel filings1 #b -- ,aurora4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,gold powder1 #b -- ,white4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 #f -- ,sulphur1 #aj -- ,rays4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,needle filings1 7or filings of the best steel17 #a -- ,silver rain4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 -- ,sulphur1 -- ,needle filings1 7or filings of the best steel17 -- ,chinese silver rain4 ,meal powder1 #ah oz4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,powder of cast iron1 of the best1 #e -- ,as to aquatic fire-works1 some of which are frequently shown in rooms1 the reader will find in the article on that subject1 a full account of the manner of forming them4 ,he may also consult a treatise on ,artificial fire-works by ,perrint ,d',orval1 published in #agde4 ,this work gives ample instructions for performing all kinds of fire-work on water4 ,in the article alluded to will be found several formul for preparing odoriferous fire1 which may be used for exhibitions on the table4 ,the succeeding chapter1 however1 is sufficiently comprehensive on that subject4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,table ,rockets4 ,table rockets are not calculated for exhibition4 ,they are designed merely to show the truth of driving1 and the judgment of a fire-worker4 ,they have no other effect1 when fired1 than spinning round in the same place where they began1 till they are burnt out1 and showing a horizontal circle of fire4 ,the method of making these rockets1 is the following3 ,have a cone1 turned out of solid wood1 #b-a_/b inches in diameter1 and of the same height1 and1 round its base1 draw a line4 ,on this line1 fix four spokes1 two inches long each1 so as to stand one opposite the other2 then fill four nine-inch one pound cases with any strong composition1 within two inches of the top4 ,these cases are made like tourbillons1 and must be rammed with the greatest exactness4 ,the rockets being filled1 fix their open ends on the short spokes2 then1 in the side of each case1 bore a hole near the clay4 ,all these holes or vents must be so made1 that the fire of each case may act the same way2 and from these vents carry leaders to the top of the cone1 and tie them together4 ,when the rockets are to be fixed1 set them on a smooth table1 and light the leaders in the middle1 and all the cases will fire together1 and spin on the point of the cone4 ,these rockets may be made to rise1 like tourbillons1 by making the cases shorter1 and boring four holes in the under side of each1 at equal distances4 ,this being done1 they are called double tourbillons4 ,all the vents in the under sides of the cases1 must be lighted at once2 and the sharp point of the cone cut off1 at which place1 it is to be made spherical4 ,sect4 ,,iii4 ,of the ,transparent ,illuminated ,table ,star4 ,the table star is usually twelve feet in diameter1 and1 from the nearest extremity to the frame1 four feet4 ,this proportion1 observed on each side1 will make the centre frame four feet square4 ,in this square1 a transparent star is fixed4 ,this star may be painted blue1 and its rays made like the flaming stars4 ,the wheels for this star may be composed of different coloured fires1 with a charge or two of slow fire4 ,the wheels1 on the extremities1 may be clothed with any number of cases2 so that the star-wheel consists of the same4 ,the illuminated fires1 which must be placed very near each other on the frames1 in order to have a proper effect1 ought to burn as long as the wheels1 and be lighted at the same time4 ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,of ,detonating ,works4 ,we have noticed various fulminating preparations in different parts of our work1 such as the ordinary fulminating powder1 ,higgins's fulminating powder1 fulminating oil1 and several metallic powders4 ,we have also given some preparations made with fulminating silver1 the making of which we have noticed4 ,besides the torpedo1 c4 prepared with fulminating silver1 there are some other preparations made with the same substance1 which we purpose to give in this place4 ,waterloo crackers4 ,take a slip of cartridge paper1 about three-quarters of an inch in width1 paste and double it4 ,let it remain till dry1 and cut it into two equal parts in length1 7,no4 #a and #b71 according to the following pattern4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,no4 #a4 ,glass4 ,s4 ,glass4 ,no4 #b4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,take some of the glass composition1 and lay it across the paper as in the pattern1 and put about a quarter of a grain of fulminating silver in the place marked ,s42 and1 while the glass composition is moist1 put the paper1 marked ,no4 #b1 over the farthest row of glass4 ,over all1 paste1 twice over the part that covers the silver1 a piece of paper2 let it dry4 ,by pulling both ends apart1 the friction by the glass1 will cause the fulminating silver to explode4 ,detonating ,girdle4 ,procure a piece of girth1 from #ab to #ah inches in length4 ,double it1 and fold it down about #a-a_/b inches1 similar to the fold of a letter1 and then turn back one end of the girth1 and it will form two compartments4 ,then dissolve some gum arabic in water1 and thicken it by adding coarsely powdered glass4 ,place two upright rows of the glass composition1 in the inside of one of the folds1 about a quarter of an inch in width1 and1 when they are dry1 sow the first fold together on the edge1 and then the second at the opposite end2 so that one end may be open4 ,then in the centre of the two rows1 put about a grain of fulminating silver1 and paste a piece of cotton or silk over it4 ,make a hole at each end of the girdle1 and hang it to a hook in the door post1 and the other hook on the door2 observing to place the silk part1 so that it may come against the edge of the door upon being opened1 which will occasion a report4 ,detonating ,tape4 ,this is made of binding1 about #c_/hths of an inch in width4 ,the same directions are to be attended to1 as those we have just given for making the girdle4 ,it may be exploded by taking hold of each end1 and rolling the ends from each other sharply1 or by two persons pulling at opposite ends4 ,detonating ,balls4 ,these are made in several ways1 either by enclosing a shot in paper with fulminating silver1 which is exploded by throwing it on the ground1 or made of small glass globes4 ,for the latter1 procure some small glass globes1 between the size of a pea and a small marble1 in which there must be a small hole2 put into it half a grain of fulminating silver1 and paste a piece of paper over the hole4 ,when this ball is put on the ground1 and trod upon1 it will go off with a loud noise4 ,if put under the leg of a chair1 and pressed by the weight of the body1 the same effect will take place4 ,detonating ,cards4 ,take a piece of card1 about three fourths of an inch in breadth and #ab in length2 slit it at one end1 and place in the opening a quarter of a grain of fulminating silver1 close the end down with a little paste1 and when dry light the end in a candle4 ,fulminating silver may be used in several other ways1 affording a variety in the effect1 as the following3 ,fold a letter in the usual manner1 and along with the wafer introduce the fulminating silver mixed with some glass3 when the wafer is broken1 in the act of opening the letter1 a violent explosion will take place4 ,by placing a quarter of a grain of the powder in the midst of some tobacco in a pipe1 or between the leaves of a segar1 and closing the end again to prevent the powder from falling out2 it need hardly be stated1 that on lighting it1 an explosion ensues4 ,such experiments should be made with caution4 ,one-third of a grain of fulminating silver1 folded in a small piece of paper1 and wrapped in another piece1 then pasted round a pin1 which is to be stuck in the wick of a candle1 will make a loud report4 ,as fulminating silver explodes by heat1 or friction1 it is obvious1 that various contrivances may be used for this purpose4 ,if1 for instance1 half a grain be put on a piece of glass paper1 7paper covered with a mixture of powdered glass and gum71 then inclosed in a piece of tin foil1 and put in the bottom or side of a drawer2 on opening or shutting it1 the powder will immediately explode4 ,the same effect takes place by putting a quarter of a grain into a piece of paper1 and placing it in the snuffers4 ,when the candle is snuffed1 it will go off4 ,two figures1 one of which blows out and the other relights a candle1 are sometimes exhibited in rooms4 ,this is performed by making two figures of any shape or material1 and inserting in the mouth of one1 a small tube1 at the end of which is a piece of phosphorus1 and in the mouth of the other1 a tube containing at the end a few grains of gunpowder2 observing that each be retained in the tube by a piece of paper4 ,if the second figure be applied to the flame of a taper1 it will extinguish it1 by reason of the gunpowder1 and the first will light it again4 ,candle bombs4 ,these are usually called candle crackers1 and are made of glass4 ,they are blown in small bubbles1 having a neck about half an inch long1 with very slender bores1 by means of which a small quantity of water or spirit of wine is introduced4 ,the orifice is then closed4 ,when they are stuck into a candle1 the heat converts the water or alcohol into vapour1 which breaks the glass with a loud report1 extinguishing the flame at the same time4 ,detonations by ,electricity4 ,the electric fluid1 it is known1 will inflame combustible bodies1 and1 for the purpose of experiment1 several contrivances have been used4 ,that of placing the substance1 gunpowder for instance1 on a small insulated stand1 and passing the spark through it by means of conductors1 will cause its inflammation4 ,the electrical house is also an exemplification of the effect of the electric fluid4 ,detonations by ,galvanism4 ,substances1 placed on a glass plate1 and brought in contact with the positive and negative poles of a galvanic battery1 are readily inflamed4 ,hence phosphorus1 gunpowder1 the metals1 c4 may be inflamed in this manner4 ,the deflagrator of professor ,hare of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 is a powerful apparatus for the purpose2 for the construction of which1 and the details of its effects1 see the ,american ,journal of ,science by professor ,silliman1 of ,yale ,college4 ,among the means of producing heat that of compression is well known4 ,the common condensing syringe1 for inflaming spunk or touch paper1 is on this principle4 ,this syringe is now made very portable1 not more than six inches in length and about three-eighths of an inch in diameter4 ,the end of the piston1 which fits tight in the cylinder1 has a small cavity1 in which the spunk is put1 so that1 when the piston is suddenly compressed1 the air is condensed1 and a temperature produced1 sufficient to inflame it4 ,the air1 in the cylinder1 is condensed in the ratio of about one to forty4 ,the calculations on the degree of compression1 which atmospheric air must undergo to produce fire by this kind of percussion1 with observations on the subject1 may be seen in ,m4 ,biot1 7,trait de ,physique ,experimentale1 c4 tome ii1 p4 #ag71 with other remarks concerning the sources of caloric4 ,to account for certain phenomena in the atmosphere1 some of which are accompanied with detonations1 ,mr4 ,nicholson 7,chemical ,dictionary1 article ,air1 atmospherical71 conceives that the lower atmosphere consists chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen1 together with moisture1 and the occasional vapours or exhalations of bodies4 ,the upper atmosphere seems to be composed of a large proportion of hydrogen1 a fluid of so much less specific gravity than any other1 that it must naturally ascend to the highest place2 where1 being occasionally set on fire by electricity1 it appears to be the cause of the aurora borealis and fire-balls4 ,it may easily be understood1 that this will only happen on the confines of the respective masses of common atmospherical air1 and of the inflammable air2 that the combustion will extend progressively1 though rapidly1 in flashings from the place where it commences2 and that1 when1 by any means1 a stream of inflammable air1 in its progress towards the upper atmosphere1 is set on fire at one end1 its ignition may be much more rapid than what happens higher up1 where oxygen is wanting2 and at the same time more definite in its figure and progression1 so as to form the appearance of a fire-ball4 ,detonations frequently accompany combustion4 ,there are many interesting experiments on this subject1 some of which we will notice in this place1 viz4 ,experiment #a4 ,if a small portion of fulminating powder be placed on a fire-shovel over a hot fire1 it will become brown1 then melt1 and swell up1 and finally explode4 ,see ,fulminating powder4 ,experiment #b4 ,iron filings and sulphur1 made into a paste with water1 and buried in the ground for a few hours1 will unite1 decompose the water1 and inflame2 throwing up the earth with violence and noise4 ,see ,artificial ,volcano4 ,experiment #c4 ,if nitrate of copper be spread on tin foil and wetted1 and the foil immediately wrapped up1 scintillations of fire will follow1 accompanied with slight detonations4 ,experiment #d4 ,five or six grains of sulphuret of antimony1 with half its weight of chlorate of potassa1 when struck with a hammer will cause a loud detonation4 ,experiment #e4 ,two grains of chlorate of potassa1 and one grain of flowers of sulphur1 when rubbed together1 will produce a detonating noise2 and the same mixture1 struck with a hammer1 will give a loud report4 ,see ,chlorate of ,potassa4 ,experiment #f4 ,one grain of phosphorus and two grains of chlorate of potassa1 struck in the same manner1 will produce a violent explosion4 ,see ,phosphorus4 ,experiment #g4 ,mix ten grains of chlorate of potassa with one grain of phosphorus1 and drop the mixture into sulphuric acid2 detonation and flame will be the consequence4 ,experiment #h4 ,make a mixture of arsenic and chlorate of potassa4 ,on presenting a lighted match1 combustion1 accompanied with a detonation1 will ensue2 and1 if a train of gunpowder be laid1 and both inflamed at the same time1 the arsenical mixture will burn with the rapidity of lightning1 while the other burns with comparative slowness4 ,experiment #i4 ,if one grain of dry nitrate of bismuth be mixed with one grain of phosphorus1 and rubbed together in a metallic mortar1 a loud detonation will be produced4 ,experiment #aj4 ,if a globule of potassium be thrown upon water1 an instantaneous explosion will be produced4 ,experiment #aa4 ,a grain of fulminating gold1 struck gently with a hammer1 will produce a loud explosion4 ,experiment #ab4 ,a few grains of fulminating mercury1 struck in the same manner1 will produce a loud detonation4 ,experiment #ac4 ,when a grain or two of potassium are mixed with the same quantity of sodium1 no effect will take place2 but if the mixture be brought in contact with a globule of mercury1 and agitated1 combustion1 with a slight detonation1 will follow1 showing the vivid combustion of three metals1 when brought in contact with each other4 ,experiment #ad4 ,if to six grains of chlorate of potassa1 we add three grains of pulverized charcoal1 and rub the two in a mortar1 no effect will ensue2 but if we add to this mixture two grains of sulphur1 and continue the rubbing1 inflammation1 accompanied with a report1 will take place4 ,see ,gunpowder of chlorate of potassa4 ,experiment #ae4 ,chlorate of potassa and sulphur1 rubbed in a mortar1 will produce a crackling noise1 similar to that of a whip4 ,these reports will follow in succession as the pestle is pressed on the mixture4 ,experiment #af4 ,combustion1 with a slight detonation1 takes place during the melting of coin in a nut-shell4 ,for this purpose1 make a mixture of three parts of nitre1 one part of sulphur1 and one of very fine dry saw dust2 press a small portion of this powder into a walnut shell1 and put on it a small silver or copper coin1 rolled up1 and fill the shell with the mixture4 ,if the mixture be now inflamed1 it will melt the coin in a mass1 while the shell will be only blackened4 ,experiment #ag4 ,introduce1 into an inflammable air pistol1 a mixture of hydrogen gas with oxygen gas1 or1 in the place of the latter1 atmospheric air1 and apply a lighted taper3 a violent detonation will be produced4 ,see ,inflammable air works4 ,experiment #ah4 ,mix some fine musket powder with pulverized glass1 and strike the mixture with a hammer on an anvil2 the gunpowder will explode4 ,see ,gunpowder4 ,experiment #ai4 ,take a small portion of fulminating platinum1 and place it on the end of a spatula1 or on the blade of a knife1 and hold it over the flame of a candle2 a sharp explosion will take place4 ,see ,fulminating platinum4 ,experiment #bj4 ,if soap bubbles be formed of a mixture of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air1 and touched with a lighted taper1 they will detonate in the air4 ,experiment #ba4 ,if a portion of detonating oil1 7,chloride of azote7 be heated to #bab1 a violent explosion will ensue2 or1 ,experiment #bb4 ,if a portion of the same oil1 of the size of a pin-head1 be brought in contact with olive oil1 the effect will be still more violent4 ,see ,detonating oil4 ,experiment #bc4 ,take ten or fifteen grains of ,higgins's fulminating powder1 and expose it to heat on a shovel3 detonation will follow4 ,see ,higgins's ,fulminating powder4 ,experiment #bd4 ,if oxalate of mercury1 to the amount of three or four grains1 be struck with a hammer1 a detonation will ensue1 in the same manner as with the nitrous etherized oxalate of mercury1 or ,howard's fulminating mercury4 ,see ,mercury4 ,experiment #be4 ,take some of the detonating powder1 prepared from indigo1 and wrap it up in paper1 and strike the paper with a hammer3 an explosion will ensue4 ,see ,detonating powder from indigo4 ,experiment #bf4 ,if some gunpowder be placed on the stand of an electrical discharger1 and the electric spark passed through it1 combustion1 with a detonation1 will be produced4 ,experiment #bg4 ,if some gunpowder be wrapped in tin foil1 and placed on a glass plate1 and the two wires of a galvanic battery brought in contact with the foil2 the foil will inflame and explode the powder4 ,experiment #bh4 ,mix in a mortar one part of sulphuret of potassa with two parts of nitrate of potassa1 and expose the mixture to the action of heat in the same manner as fulminating powder3 a violent detonation will take place4 ,the sulphuret of potassa is recommended1 in lieu of potassa and sulphur in a separate state2 and although called ,bergman's fulminating powder1 this compound is in fact1 according to the theory of its explosion1 the same as the ordinary fulminating powder4 ,experiment #bi4 ,if1 says ,morey1 7,silliman's ,journal ii1 #ba71 a given quantity of strongly compressed boiling water1 be suddenly discharged into about an equal quantity of oil or rosin1 at or near the boiling point1 it will explode1 to every appearance1 as quickly and violently as gunpowder4 ,experiment #cj4 ,if zinc or iron filings1 or pulverized antimony1 be mixed with chlorate of potassa1 and struck with a hammer1 violent detonations will ensue4 ,if sulphuret of iron be used1 the same effect will ensue4 ,see ,,mm4 ,fourcroy and ,vauquelin's communication to the ,socit ,philomatique1 in their ,transactions4 ,experiment #ca4 ,if oxide of mercury1 obtained from its solution in nitric acid by means of caustic potassa1 be dried1 and mixed with flowers of sulphur1 and struck with a hammer1 a detonation will be produced4 7,see ,journal de ,physique1 #aggi47 ,experiment #cb4 ,if alcohol or ether be mixed with chlorate of potassa1 into a thick paste1 and the mixture struck with a hammer1 an explosion will be the consequence3 or1 ,experiment #cc4 ,if1 instead of alcohol or ether1 we make use of fixed or volatile oils1 and proceed in the same manner1 the same effect will ensue4 ,experiment #cd4 ,if a small portion of chloride of azote 7,detonating oil7 be dropped into a solution of phosphorus in ether or alcohol1 a violent explosion will take place3 or1 ,experiment #ce4 ,if in the place of phosphorized ether1 other oils1 as camphorated oil1 palm oil1 whale oil1 linseed oil1 sulphuretted oil1 oil of turpentine1 naphtha1 c4 be brought in contact1 the same effect will ensue4 ,experiment #cf4 ,chloride of azote will also detonate with sundry gaseous and solid substances1 as supersulphuretted hydrogen1 sulphuretted hydrogen1 phosphuretted hydrogen1 nitrous gas1 aqueous ammonia1 phosphuret of lime1 ambergris1 fused potassa1 and sundry metallic soaps4 ,messrs4 ,porret1 ,wilson1 and ,kirk1 brought one hundred and twenty-five substances in contact with it1 and twenty-eight of the number produced detonations4 7,nicholson's ,journal1 vol4 #cd47 ,experiment #cg4 ,if a small quantity of ammoniacal nitrate of copper be wrapped in paper1 or in a piece of tin foil1 and struck with a hammer1 a detonation will ensue4 ,experiment #ch4 ,if a small portion of arsenic and chlorate of potassa be mixed1 and smartly struck1 a flame will be produced1 accompanied with an explosion2 or1 ,experiment #ci4 ,if the same mixture be touched with a lighted match1 it will burn with considerable rapidity2 or1 ,experiment #dj4 ,if it be thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid1 at the instant of contact1 a flame will rise into the air like a flash of lightning4 ,experiment #da4 ,heat a portion of deutoxide of chlorine3 when the temperature arrives at #bab1 an explosion will take place1 and chlorine and oxygen be evolved4 ,experiment #db4 ,if prussine gas1 otherwise called cyanogen1 or carburet of azote1 be mixed with atmospheric air1 in the proportion of about one to four in volume1 and the electric spark made to pass through the mixture2 a violent detonation will result1 leaving a mixture of carbonic acid gas and azotic gas4 ,experiment #dc4 ,if a mixture of equal parts of nitrate of potassa1 and titanium1 be thrown into a red-hot crucible1 detonation will follow4 ,experiment #dd4 ,melt some nitrate of potassa in a crucible1 and bring it to the state of ignition3 now throw in a small quantity of pulverized zinc1 and a very violent detonation will take place4 ,experiment #de4 ,if one part of zinc filings and two parts of dry arsenic acid be distilled in a retort1 or exposed to heat in a crucible1 the moment it becomes red1 a detonation will be produced4 ,experiment #df4 ,if a few drops of deutoxide of hydrogen1 or the oxygenized water of ,thenard1 be let fall on dry oxide of silver1 a violent action will follow1 accompanied with an explosion4 ,several other oxides have the same effect4 ,experiment #dg4 ,if a portion of black wadd1 an ore of manganese found in ,derbyshire1 ,england1 be brought in contact with linseed oil2 the oil will take fire1 producing sometimes slight detonations4 ,experiment #dh4 ,take a portion of the brown oxide of tungsten1 formed by transmitting hydrogen gas over tungstic acid1 in an ignited glass tube2 mix it with chlorate of potassa1 and strike the mixture with a hammer3 a loud detonation will ensue2 or1 ,experiment #di4 ,heat some of the brown oxide in the air4 ,it will take fire1 and burn like tinder1 passing to the state of the yellow oxide1 or tungstic acid4 ,experiment #ej4 ,if one measure of oxygen gas1 and two measures of hydrogen gas be mixed in the explosive eudiometer1 and the electric spark passed through them1 a detonation will ensue1 and a complete condensation take place4 ,experiment #ea4 ,when equal volumes of protoxide of azote1 or gaseous oxide of azote1 7called also nitrous oxide71 and hydrogen gas1 are treated in the same manner1 the mixture will explode1 leaving a residuum1 consisting of azotic gas4 ,experiment #eb4 ,if two measures of carbonic oxide or gaseous oxide of carbon1 and one measure of oxygen1 be submitted to the action of the electric spark1 a detonation will ensue1 and the carbonic oxide will be changed into carbonic acid4 ,experiment #ec4 ,if one measure of carburetted hydrogen gas1 either the heavy or light carburetted hydrogen1 called also the hydroguret and bi-hydroguret of carbon1 7the former being sometimes called olefiant gas71 be mixed with two or three measures of oxygen gas1 and the electric spark transmitted through them2 a detonation will ensue1 forming water and carbonic acid4 ,experiment #ed4 ,if one measure of cyanogen1 7carburet of azote71 be mixed with two and a half measures of oxygen gas1 and treated with the electric spark1 the mixed gases will explode very loudly4 ,the cyanogen burns1 in this case1 with a blue flame2 although it is usually of a purple colour4 ,the products of combustion are carbonic acid and azote4 7,see ,experiment #db47 ,experiment #ee4 ,if one measure of arsenuretted hydrogen gas1 7obtained from an alloy of three parts of tin and one of arsenic1 by treating it with muriatic acid71 and two measures of oxygen gas are mixed together1 and the electric spark is passed through the mixture2 a detonation will ensue1 and water and arsenious acid be formed4 ,experiment #ef4 ,if potassium be made to act upon a compound of chlorine and sulphur1 called chloride of sulphur1 an explosion will immediately ensue2 but1 ,experiment #eg4 ,if potassium be dropped into chlorine gas1 inflammation only will take place1 accompanied with a vivid light1 forming chloride of potassium1 7dry muriate of potassa47 ,experiment #eh4 ,if sulphuret of potassium be heated in the air1 it will burn with great brilliancy1 forming sulphate of potassa2 but1 if mixed with chlorate of potassa1 and struck with a hammer1 a violent detonation will be produced4 ,experiment #ei4 ,if potassium be heated in sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 it takes fire1 and burns with a vivid flame1 and pure hydrogen is set free2 thus proving that sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 although inflammable itself in oxygen gas1 is a supporter of combustion for potassium4 ,experiment #fj4 ,if phosphuret of potassium be exposed to the air1 it will inflame spontaneously1 forming phosphate of potassa2 but if it be dropped into water1 it will produce a violent explosion1 in consequence of the immediate disengagement of phosphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,experiment #fa4 ,if potassium be moderately heated in the air1 it inflames1 burns with a red light1 and emits alkaline fumes4 ,experiment #fb4 ,if potassium be thrown upon water1 it acts with great violence1 burning with a beautiful light1 of a red colour1 mixed with purple1 the water becoming a solution of potassa4 ,experiment #fc4 ,when sodium is heated strongly in oxygen or chlorine1 it burns with great brilliancy2 but it does not inflame1 when thrown into water4 ,it is converted1 however1 into soda4 ,if it be heated in oxygen gas in excess1 it burns1 and is converted into the peroxide of sodium1 which1 when mixed with combustible bodies1 and exposed to the action of heat1 deflagrates with violence1 giving off its excess of oxygen1 and becoming changed into soda1 or protoxide of sodium4 ,experiment #fd4 ,when sulphuret of sodium is mixed with chlorate of potassa1 and struck with a hammer1 a detonation will ensue2 and when sodium is heated nearly to fusion1 in contact with sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 it will unite with the sulphur2 flame will be produced1 and hydrogen gas set at liberty4 ,a sulphuret of sodium is thus formed1 which is usually combined with some sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,experiment #fe4 ,when a mixture of ammoniacal gas1 in a dry state1 and oxygen gas1 is submitted to the influence of the electric spark1 in the explosive eudiometer1 explosion will take place1 and water and azotic gas result4 ,experiment #ff4 ,if potassium or sodium be heated in fluoric gas1 a rapid combustion takes place1 in all respects as brilliant as in oxygen gas4 ,experiment #fg4 ,if gallic acid be placed on a red-hot iron1 it burns with flame1 and emits an aromatic smell1 similar to that of benzoic acid2 but1 if mixed with chlorate of potassa and struck with a hot hammer1 a detonation will ensue4 ,various vegetable acids1 as the benzoic1 which is highly inflammable1 produce similar effects4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,of ,,scented ,,fire-,,works4 ,there is a variety of scented fires1 all partaking1 in a greater or lesser degree1 of a peculiar flavour1 according to the substances1 which enter into their composition4 ,it is a fact1 that1 in the ordinary odoriferous fire1 into which1 either the so called scented gums1 or essential oils1 enter as a component part1 these substances are not only decomposed in the act of combustion1 but evolve1 during that process1 a part of their respective odours1 to which we attribute the scent imparted to the atmosphere4 ,in those instances1 in which gunpowder forms a part of the composition1 it is to be remarked1 that the peculiar smell of fired gunpowder is scarcely recognized1 owing to the preponderance of the scent in the composition4 ,hence it is1 that scented fire-works are more calculated for confined places than for the open air4 ,scented fires are various both in their nature and composition1 and may always be so modified1 as1 in their effect1 to produce1 not only the particular flame1 or appearance of the fire1 but the extrication1 along with the gaseous products1 of the odour of the essential oil1 or other substance made use of4 ,linnus1 in a dissertation on the odours of different substances1 endeavoured to classify them4 ,m4 ,lorrey 7,mmoires de la ,socit ,royale de ,medicine #aghd7 divided them into five classes2 viz4 camphors1 narcotics1 ethers1 volatile acids1 and alkalies2 but it is obvious1 that it is an impossibility to class all the odours which exist1 and may be formed by the mixture1 or combination of various substances4 ,we may consider them either pleasant1 or unpleasant to the sense of smelling4 ,but as we recognize bodies very frequently by their odour1 with which we become familiar1 as camphor and assaftida1 for instance2 so the olfactories may be affected by other odours4 ,aromatic and fetid odours are opposite to each other4 ,some of the gases1 as the olefiant1 have a fragrant smell1 and others1 as hydrogen1 and sulphuretted hydrogen1 either alone or mixed1 are extremely unpleasant4 ,the intestinal gas 7gas intestinaux of the ,french7 is a particular instance of the odour of a compound gas1 or mixture of gaseous fluids4 ,the experiments of ,m4 ,jurine of ,geneva1 of ,,mm4 ,chevreul and ,magendie1 7,ann4 de ,chim4 et de ,phys4 t4 ii1 #bid71 of ,m4 ,vauquelin1 7,journal de ,pharmacie1 t4 iii1 p4 #bje71 and of ,,mm4 ,lameyran and ,fremy1 7,bulletin de ,pharmacie1 t4 #a1 p4 #ceh71 are interesting on this subject4 ,intestinal gas differs in its composition4 ,it always contains carbonic acid gas1 and azotic gas1 and hydrogen gas1 either pure1 or combined with carbon and sulphur4 ,thenard 7,trait de ,chimie1 iii1 p4 #egf7 contains some observations on this subject4 ,in the camphor odour1 ,lorrey includes not only camphor itself1 but various species of laurel1 myrrh1 and turpentine4 ,in the narcotic odour1 he embraces opium1 various gum-resins1 roses1 lillies1 jessamine1 c4 and musk1 amber1 and castor4 ,in the ethereal odour1 different kinds of ether4 ,under the odour of volatile acids1 he considers that of fruits1 aromatic barks1 citron2 and under the alkaline odour1 the acrid1 and1 in general1 the antiscorbutic plants4 ,fourcroy1 in treating of the aroma of plants1 or the spiritus rector of ,boerhaave1 7,bulletin de la ,socit ,philomatique1 an4 #f1 p4 #eb17 has some interesting facts on this subject4 ,it is evident1 that perfumes1 so called1 owe their peculiar fragrance to an essential oil1 which characterizes each kind2 for the essential oil obtained by distillation1 partakes of the odour of the plant4 ,hence the oils of mint1 roses1 thyme1 cinnamon1 cloves1 c4 c4 all of which are peculiar in this respect4 ,odoriferous fire-works owe their particular properties to the presence of some gum1 resin1 or oil4 ,as to the expansibility1 or rather the divisibility of odour1 several interesting facts are known4 ,in a work1 entitled l',existence de ,dieu1 par les merveilles de la ,nature1 we are informed1 that1 if we take the one-fourth of a drachm of benzoin1 and place it in the four corners of a room1 the odour will be recognised in an instant4 ,the chamber in which the experiment was made1 the author states1 was #bd feet by #af1 and contained #ibab cubic feet of air1 which1 multiplied by #ajjj1 would give #ibafjjj inches1 and #ajjjjjj parts of an inch were rendered appreciable4 ,therefore1 he infers1 that #ibafjjjjjjjjj are equally perceptible in the chamber4 ,prevot 7,bulletin de la ,socit ,philomatique1 an4 #f7 has some observations of the same nature1 respecting camphor4 ,if such are the effects with benzoin1 what1 we may ask1 would be those of the more powerful perfumes1 such as musk8 ,one grain1 or perhaps the tenth part of a grain of musk1 would scent the atmosphere of a room very perfectly4 ,de ,laval 7,description of the ,maldiva ,islands7 mentions the use of scented fire by the inhabitants1 in the celebration of their festivals4 ,on the day of every new moon1 they place at the entrance of the churches1 and the gates of their houses1 cocoa shells cut in the middle1 and filled with white sand and burning coals1 upon which they burn1 almost all night1 sweet scented gums and woods2 and at the nocturnal festival1 called maulude1 the night on which ,mahomet died1 their halls are illuminated with a multitude of lamps1 and the air is filled with the smoke of perfumes4 ,the use of scented fire appears to form a principal part of their devotional exercises4 ,perfumes are even burnt on the graves of deceased persons4 ,having mentioned the use of odoriferous plants in scented fire1 we may add1 that all plants possess some peculiar character1 if aromatic1 which1 as one of their characters1 serves to distinguish them4 ,the qualities of plants are said to be similar1 when they have the same taste and odour4 ,the odours of plants1 ,richard divides into #a4 ,fragrant1 #b4 ,aromatic1 #c4 ,ambrosiac1 or resembling amber1 #d4 ,alliaceous1 or resembling garlic1 #e4 ,fetid1 #f4 ,nauseous4 ,the three first are innoxious4 ,in the composition of scented fire-works1 it is also to be observed1 that gunpowder does not always form a part2 and hence their character is various1 according to the purposes they are applied to1 or their uses4 ,in the odoriferous water balloons1 7for which1 see aquatic fire-works71 we have1 for instance1 along with saltpetre and other substances1 in the different compositions1 either amber and flowers of benzoin2 or frankincense1 myrrh1 and camphor2 or amber1 cedar raspings1 and the essential oils of roses and bergamot2 or the saw-dust of juniper1 cypress1 camphor1 myrrh1 dried rosemary1 cortex elaterii1 and oil of roses4 ,these are the substances1 therefore1 which enter into the different compositions1 in the order here given1 and which impart to the fire an odoriferous character4 ,the relative proportions may be learnt1 by referring to the chapter on ,aquatic fire-works4 ,scented fires are1 however1 little used4 ,their effect is nevertheless agreeable in close rooms2 but in the open air they lose this property1 or rather it is not perceptible1 owing to its extreme division4 ,the vases of scent were greatly employed in the public feasts and ceremonies at ,rome1 ,athens1 and1 above all1 in ,egypt4 ,in temples1 palaces1 c4 they were mostly used4 ,the vessels1 which contained the composition1 were placed by the ,athenians in sculptured or painted vases1 as well to hide their appearance1 as to serve for ornament4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,pastilles4 ,pastilles1 or fire crayons1 are small conical troches1 in the form of a loaf1 of one and a quarter inches in height1 and about an inch thick4 ,they are made of the following composition1 which is moistened with rose-water1 having some gum arabic previously dissolved in it4 ,the paste is made neither too thick nor too thin1 but of a sufficient consistence to work with the hand4 ,composition of ,pastilles4 ,storax calamite1 #b oz4 ,benzoin1 #b -- ,gum ,juniper1 #b -- ,olibanum1 #a -- ,mastich1 #a -- ,frankincense1 #a -- ,white or yellow ,amber1 #a -- ,camphor1 #a -- ,saltpetre1 #c -- ,charcoal of the linden1 or willow1 #d -- ,the pastilles are burnt upon a plate1 and communicate to the air an agreeable odour4 ,odoriferous paste4 ,gum ,benzoin1 oz4 ,storax calamite1 #d scruples4 ,peruvian balsam1 7dried7 oz4 ,cascarilla1 #d scruples4 ,cloves1 drachm4 ,charcoal1 #a oz4 ,nitre1 #a drachm4 ,oil of ,lemon1 do4 ,tincture of ,amber1 do4 ,the dry substances are pulverized very fine1 and mixed intimately together1 and the oil of lemon and tincture of amber then added4 ,the whole is then made into a thick paste with common mucilage1 and formed into pieces as before mentioned4 ,these pieces ought to be conical4 ,when used1 they are placed on a stone1 or a piece of metal1 and inflamed4 ,this composition is said to burn with scintillations1 and to exhale a very fragrant and agreeable odour4 ,see ,dictionnaire de l',industrie4 ,perfume for ,apartments4 ,orrisroot1 #a oz4 ,benzoin1 -- ,charcoal1 -- ,ess4 ,bergamot1 #a drachm4 ,these ingredients are mixed into a paste in the usual manner1 with orange flower water1 and a small quantity of gum4 ,a small portion1 when dry1 thrown on ignited coals1 will exhale an agreeable odour4--,ibid4 ,m4 ,brillat-,savarin 7,archives des ,dcouvertes iii1 p4 #cbh7 has invented a machine1 which he calls the irrorateur1 for perfuming apartments4 ,he objects to the ordinary mode of perfuming by fire1 and sprinkling odoriferous fluids in a room4 ,his irrorateur consists of a small fountain1 which1 by compression1 forces out the odour required1 and may be conveyed to any place4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,vases of ,scent4 ,we observed1 that these vases were much in use at the public feasts and ceremonies of the ,athenians1 ,romans1 and ,egyptians4 ,composition for the ,vases4 ,storax1 #d oz4 ,benzoin1 #d -- ,frankincense1 #d -- ,camphor1 #b -- ,gum ,juniper1 #a -- ,charcoal of the willow1 #a -- ,these substances are pulverized1 and intimately mixed1 and oil of juniper is added4 ,the mixture is put in an earthen vessel1 having a cotton1 similar to a wick1 supported by means of a wire4 ,among the ancients1 the earthen vessels were afterwards placed in sculptured1 or otherwise ornamented vases4 ,by using stone-ware vessels1 and mixing the composition with the spirit or oil of turpentine1 the combustion will be more rapid1 and the flame more enlarged4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,remarks on ,spontaneous ,accension4 ,the spontaneous accension of spirit of turpentine by the addition of nitric acid1 might furnish also a means of preparing a scented fire extemporaneously2 by putting into the vessel1 previously to the spirit of turpentine1 the composition above mentioned4 ,see ,nitric ,acid1 in the article ,nitre4 ,an extemporaneous fire may also be prepared1 by placing1 on the scented mixture1 the following composition1 namely1 chlorate1 or hyperoxymuriate1 of potassa and sugar1 and touching the mixture with a glass rod dipped in sulphuric acid1 or oil of vitriol4 ,the fire will then communicate to the other materials4 ,see ,chlorate of ,potassa and the article on ,pyrophori4 ,camphor1 which imparts an agreeable odour1 may be readily inflamed in this manner1 and the experiment even be made on snow or ice4 ,see ,camphor4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of ,torches1 and ,odoriferous ,flambeaux4 ,flambeaux are usually wax torches4 ,odoriferous flambeaux may be formed by melting with the wax1 camphor and frankincense1 and mixing with the whole1 when fluid1 some of the essence of bergamot4 ,although there are no directions given on that subject2 yet1 judging from analogy1 a mixture of that kind would be an improvement on the flambeau1 when it is to be used in rooms or for particular occasions4 ,they may be made either large or small1 with a wick of a proportionate size4 ,torches are principally used for military purposes1 to give light1 when an army is marching at night1 during sieges1 c4 ,they ought not to be extinguished by wind or rain4 ,the ,torches inextinguibles1 of the ,french1 are of this character4 ,torches are made in the following manner3 ,take four large cotton matches1 three or four feet long2 boil them in a solution of saltpetre1 and arrange them round a pine stick4 ,afterwards1 cover them with priming powder and sulphur1 made into a thin paste with brandy4 ,when dry1 they are to be covered with the following composition3 ,composition for torches4 ,yellow wax1 #b lbs4 ,white turpentine1 #b -- ,sulphur #ab oz4 ,camphor1 #f -- ,pitch1 #d -- ,ibid4 ,white pitch1 #cb parts4 ,hard turpentine1 #d do4 ,yellow wax1 #cb do4 ,sulphur1 #ab do4 ,camphor1 #f do4 ,ibid4 ,black pitch1 #bd parts4 ,white pitch1 #bd do4 ,turpentine1 #d do4 ,the second composition is that which is used in ,france1 and1 therefore1 in all likelihood1 is the best formula4 ,the flame may be more or less scented1 by using1 at the same time1 some of the aromatic substances before noticed4 ,this1 however1 is unnecessary for common purposes4 ,see ,fire-works used in war4 ,the flambeau1 invented by ,petitpierre1 7,bulletin de la ,socit d',encouragement1 ,no4 #ajb71 is intended to give light to apartments4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,remarks concerning ,odoriferous and ,fetid ,fire4 ,fire-works may be made extremely unpleasant to the olfactory nerves1 by mixing with their compositions1 sundry substances of an opposite quality to odoriferous oils and aromatic gums4 ,it will be sufficient1 however1 to remark1 that this effect is communicated more particularly1 as in the stink-balls of service1 by using sulphur1 rasped horses' and asses' hoofs1 burnt in the fire1 assaftida1 seraphim gum1 and sundry fetid herbs or plants4 ,the addition of the acid of amber1 called succinnic acid1 and1 in the shops1 the salt of amber1 will give to the atmosphere in the vicinity of the fire1 the peculiar property of causing a continual sneezing and coughing4 ,such are some of the opposite effects1 which different substances produce in conjunction with fire-works4 ,some of these substances1 it is obvious1 would1 if used in too large a proportion1 retard1 if not entirely prevent the combustion2 and for that reason1 they bear only a given proportion to the powder1 nitre and charcoal1 which forms the basis of some1 as1 for instance1 the stink-ball composition4 ,but in such cases1 the combustion being in itself rapid1 and the degree of heat consequently proportionate1 these fixed1 and otherwise incombustible bodies1 in a general sense1 are acted upon by the fire1 already created2 and1 therefore1 the smoke that results must necessarily possess1 and partake of the fetid qualities of the substances employed4 ,on the same principle1 we may account for the effect of the scented paste1 and the scented vases2 but with this difference1 that many of those substances are themselves inflammable1 and1 during their decomposition1 emit the odour peculiar to each of them4 ,we know1 that the elementary principles of these bodies are carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 variously combined1 some of which are1 and some are not inflammable2 and that1 in combustion1 when it takes place1 they are decomposed and new products necessarily ensue from a new arrangement of the elementary principles4 ,it is difficult1 however1 to give the precise order in which decompositions by fire result2 since the substances made use of are numerous and employed in given proportions2 and since their action upon each other1 depends frequently on external agents1 anomalous circumstances1 and causes which do not follow at all times the same order of succession4 ,generally speaking1 however1 we may obtain such a datum1 all things being considered1 a datum derived from the known laws of chemical decomposition1 as will furnish a rationale to explain both the cause and effect4 ,see ,general ,theory of ,fire-works4 ,there is no doubt1 that1 by the action of fire on fetid1 and particularly animal1 substances1 as hoofs1 c4 products may be formed in the very act of combustion1 which would increase the fetid properties of the smoke4 ,zimome1 obtained from the gluten of wheat by alcohol1 which takes up the gliadine1 when thrown upon red-hot coals1 exhales an odour1 similar to that of burning hair or hoofs1 and burns with flame4 ,the pyro-products are the immediate consequences of the decomposition of the substance2 the elements of which either separate entirely1 or recombine under some other form1 as we find in the process of destructive distillation4 ,bones1 and other hard parts of animals1 when subjected to distillation1 furnish several products1 as impure ammonia1 animal oil1 and the like4 ,wood also1 we remarked1 when treating of its carbonization for the formation of coal1 produces1 besides gaseous and other volatile products1 the result of its decomposition1 a quantity of acid liquor1 formerly called the pyroligneous1 but now the pyroacetic acid4 ,by separating the empyreumatic flavour1 which at first constitutes a part of the acid1 the acetic acid is obtained in a state of purity4 ,the pyro-tartaric acid is also the result of the action of heat2 and we know1 when animal substances are calcined with potash1 they produce cyanogen1 the basis of the hydrocyanic and ferrocyanic acids1 the latter of which when united with the peroxide of iron1 forms the perferrocyanate of iron1 commonly called ,prussian blue4 ,caromel also1 that peculiar substance which is disengaged from sugar and various saccharine substances1 when submitted to the action of heat1 is a product1 resulting from the decomposition of the sugar4 ,the empyreumatic1 or burnt flavour of certain distilled liquors1 which is corrected by redistillation with charcoal1 or passing the liquor through a filter of charcoal1 is owing to the same cause4 ,the changes1 that bodies undergo by partial roasting1 are familiar to every one2 as1 for instance1 the torrefaction of barley1 after germination1 in the preparation of malt1 the degree of which determines the colour and taste of the beer2 the roasting of rye and coffee1 before they can be employed to form a beverage2 and the torrefaction of the cocoa1 before it can be made into chocolate1 the sweet taste and brown colour of which are acquired in the process1 are all examples of the effect of heat on bodies4 ,the action of heat1 according to its temperature1 produces1 therefore1 effects of a particular kind2 and1 as we regulate the heat in such cases1 we form products of different kinds4 ,destructive distillation1 however1 would again change the character of these products4 ,of this kind1 we may consider the effect of the heat1 produced in the combustion of inflammable substances4 ,in a word1 the action of heat may be so graduated1 in the same manner as the tempering of steel1 as to produce only partial changes1 which must ensue at certain temperatures2 or1 by an increment of heat1 in which a total decomposition takes place1 the effect is regulated1 by the force of affinities1 exerting their influence under modified circumstances4 ,hence we perceive1 by reasoning a priori1 that as substances are altered by the action of heat1 so they produce new compounds1 according to the circumstances of the action1 and with or without the agency of foreign bodies4 ,these facts are so far applicable to the subject under consideration1 as to enable us to explain1 or account for the effects that result on the mixture1 or combustion1 of bodies1 a knowledge of which is undoubtedly necessary to form a theory of fire-works in general4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,of ,,matches1 ,,leaders1 ,,and ,,touch ,,paper4 ,we purpose1 in the fourth part of our work1 to go into the detail of the manufacture of various kinds of matches1 which belong more particularly to military pyrotechny1 adding1 at this time1 that fire matches are differently formed1 and are called the quick and slow match4 ,the former is commonly made of three cotton strands1 drawn into lengths1 and put into a kettle1 and just covered with vinegar1 7usually white wine vinegar71 a quantity of saltpetre and meal powder being added1 and the whole boiled together4 ,some put only saltpetre into water1 and1 after soaking the cotton1 place it1 while hot1 in a trough with some meal powder1 moistened with some spirits of wine1 or brandy1 which are thoroughly worked into the cotton1 by rolling it backwards1 and forwards with the hands4 ,when this is done1 they are taken out separately1 and1 after being drawn through meal powder1 dried upon a line4 ,another mode is to steep the cotton first in vinegar1 and then rub into it the following composition3 ,composition for quick-match4 ,vinegar in which matches are soaked1 #b quarts4 ,brandy1 #a do4 ,saltpetre1 lb4 ,priming powder1 #a do4 ,as much cotton as will take up all the above1 which will be about1 #a do4 ,to the proportions of one pound and three-quarters of cotton1 one pound of saltpetre1 two quarts of spirits of wine1 one pound of meal powder1 and three quarts of water1 some recommend the addition of four ounces of isinglass1 dissolved in three pints of water4 ,another method is to steep the matches in brandy1 and then rub them well with priming powder4 ,slow match is made of hemp1 or tow1 spun on a wheel like cord1 but very slack1 and is composed of three twists1 which are afterwards again covered with tow1 so that the twists do not appear4 ,it is finished by boiling in the lees of old wine4 ,this1 when lighted at the end1 burns gradually1 without going out4 ,there are several modes of preparing slow match4 ,there is also1 a kind of slow match1 which is slower in carrying fire than the preceding quick match4 ,the quick match1 for this purpose1 is drawn through the following composition1 which is melted1 and the operation is continued until it attains the size of a small candle2 it is then hung up to dry4 ,composition for a slow match4 ,gum mastich1 #a lb4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,rosin1 lb4 ,yellow wax1 lb4 ,charcoal1 #b oz4 ,when these matches are used1 they are to be lighted1 and then blown out4 ,if well made1 they will burn a long time4 ,they may be used for communicating fire from one work to another4 ,another slow match1 used for common purposes1 is made by soaking hempen cord in the following ley3 ,lixivium for slow match4 ,oak ashes1 #c lbs4 ,quicklime1 #a lb4 ,liquor of horse dung1 #b lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,water1 a sufficient quantity4 ,the cords are put into a pot1 and boiled for two or three days1 renewing the lixivium from time to time1 as it evaporates4 ,they are then taken out and dried4 ,good match makes a hard coal4 ,its duration depends upon the quality of the materials2 but1 generally1 four inches will last an hour4 ,further remarks on this subject1 will be found in the fourth part of this work1 in which the various modern improvements are given4 ,the preparation of touch paper1 for capping of serpents1 crackers1 c4 may be here noticed4 ,the directions of artists are3 ,to dissolve in spirits of wine1 or vinegar1 a little saltpetre1 and immerse into the solution1 some purple or blue paper1 and dry it for use4 ,there is no advantage gained by using either spirits of wine1 or vinegar3 for the simple solution of the saltpetre in water1 will be sufficient4 ,in the former case1 it may dry sooner1 but neither of these fluids can add to the effect of the saltpetre4 ,in using this paper1 care must be taken to prevent the paste which is made use of1 from touching any part1 that is to burn4 ,the method of using it1 is by cutting it into slips1 sufficiently long to go once round the mouth of a serpent1 cracker1 c4 ,when they are pasted on1 be careful to leave a little above the mouth of the case not pasted2 then prime with meal powder1 and twist the paper to a point4 ,the mode of threading and joining leaders1 and placing them on different works1 we shall here describe4 ,the observations of a writer in the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 vol4 xv1 p4 #gac1 are pointed on this subject1 which we will briefly notice4 ,joining and placing leaders1 is a very essential part of fire-works2 as it is on the leaders that the performance of all complex works depends4 ,the works being prepared1 and ready to be clothed1 the pipes must be cut of a sufficient length to reach from one case to the other2 and then put in the quick match1 which must always be made to go in very easy4 ,when the match is in1 cut it off within about an inch of the end of the pipe1 and let it project as much at the other end2 then fasten the pipe to the mouth of each case1 with a pin1 and put the loose ends of the match into the mouths of the cases1 with a little meal powder4 ,this being done1 paste over the mouth of each case1 two or three bits of paper4 ,this method is used for large cases4 ,the practice adopted for small cases1 and for illuminations1 is the following3 ,first1 thread a long pipe2 then lay it on the tops of the cases1 and cut a bit of the under side over the mouth of each case1 so that the match may appear1 and then pin the pipe to every other case1 observing1 before the pipes are put on1 to put a little meal powder in the mouth of each case4 ,if the cases1 thus clothed1 are port-fires on illuminated works1 cover the mouth of each case1 with a single paper2 but if they are choaked cases1 situated so1 that a number of sparks from other works1 may fall on them before they are fired1 secure them with three or four papers1 which must be pasted on very smooth1 that there may be no creases for the sparks to lodge in1 which often set fire to the works before their time4 ,avoid1 as much as possible1 placing the leaders too near1 or one across the other1 so as to touch2 as it may happen1 that the flash of one will fire the other4 ,if the works should be so formed that the leaders must cross1 or touch1 they must be made very strong1 and well secured at the joints1 and at every opening4 ,when a great length of pipe is required1 it must be made by joining several pipes1 in the following manner3 ,having put on one length of match1 as many pipes as it will hold1 paste paper over every joint2 but1 if a still greater length is required1 more pipe must be joined1 by cutting about an inch off one side of each pipe near the end1 laying the quick-match together1 and tying them fast with a small twine2 after which1 cover the joining with pasted paper4 ,leaders1 or pipes of communication1 are formed of paper1 which is cut into slips three or four inches broad1 so that1 when it is rolled on the mandril or form1 it may go three or four times round4 ,when they are very thick1 they are too strong for the paper which fastens them to the works1 and will sometimes fly off without leading the fire4 ,the forms for these leaders are made from two to six-sixteenths of an inch in diameter2 but four-sixteenths is the size generally made use of4 ,the forms are made of smooth brass wire2 and1 when used1 they are to be rubbed over with grease1 or wet with paste1 to prevent their sticking to the paper1 which must be pasted all over4 ,in rolling of pipes1 make use of a rolling board1 but press it lightly4 ,having rolled a pipe1 draw out the form with one hand1 holding the pipe as light as possible with the other1 and avoiding any unnecessary pressure4 ,leaders are made of different lengths2 and1 in cutting them1 as is often the case1 care must be taken to do it with as little waste as possible4 ,leaders for marron batteries must be made of strong cartridge paper4 ,the ,etoupille of the ,french is the same as the former match2 it being nothing more than a kind of quick-match1 prepared by soaking three threads of cotton in a paste1 composed of the best priming gunpowder and brandy4 ,it is designed to communicate fire with promptness1 from one part of a fire-work to another1 and1 therefore1 has the same effect as the common cotton quick-match4 ,the cotton is usually soaked1 or steeped in a paste of gunpowder and brandy1 neither too thick nor too thin1 for the space of two hours1 adding more of the brandy as it evaporates4 ,in the ,french preparation1 gum arabic is used1 in the proportion of one ounce to a pound of powder4 ,in the ,english preparation1 isinglass1 or fish glue is employed1 in the proportion of four ounces dissolved in three pints of water4 ,gummy and gelatinous substances are calculated for no other purpose1 than to make the powder adhere to the cotton1 the quantity not being sufficient to retard the combustion of the match4 ,pipes or leaders of communication1 are an essential part of fire-works1 and hence great care and attention are required in preparing them4 ,cotton1 prepared in the manner already described1 is the substance generally made use of4 ,it has the property of imbibing fluids with facility2 and when spirit of wine1 or brandy1 or even water1 is used1 it absorbs1 and mechanically combines with the gunpowder1 the impregnation with which determines the quality of the match4 ,alcohol1 deprived of as much water as possible1 or1 in other words1 the most concentrated1 appears to have an advantage over brandy or water4 ,if it be used merely as a vehicle1 in order to suspend the gunpowder1 and likewise to carry it1 as it were1 into the fibres of the cotton1 which appears to be its modus operandi1 then it is undoubtedly preferable to either brandy or water4 ,the former1 as it never exceeds fourth proof1 contains always a considerable quantity of water2 and1 therefore1 as water decomposes gunpowder1 by dissolving the nitre1 and separating the sulphur and charcoal1 on which it has no effect1 it is obvious1 that the gunpowder itself1 when mixed with brandy1 is more or less injured4 ,it is true1 however1 that the cotton in that case would be more effectually saturated with the nitre2 but it does not follow1 that it would be saturated with the gunpowder2 as two of its component parts1 viz4 the charcoal and sulphur1 would be separated4 ,we have seen1 that touch paper is nothing more than paper1 soaked in a solution of1 and consequently impregnated with1 nitre2 but1 in order to render a match more combustible1 and convey fire with more rapidity1 which is required in many cases1 gunpowder is the only substance1 that possesses this property in any degree4 ,the cotton1 which is used for this purpose1 is the same as that for candle wick1 and1 with respect to thickness1 may be from one to six threads1 according to the pipe1 it is intended for4 ,the pipe must always be large enough for the match1 so that the match may be pushed in easily without breaking it4 ,after it is doubled into as many strands as required1 it is usually put into a flat bottomed copper1 or earthen pan1 and there boiled in a solution of saltpetre4 ,it is then taken out1 and coiled into another pan1 and the remaining solution is poured on4 ,meal-powder is then put in1 and pressed down1 till it is quite wet4 ,it is then wound upon a reel1 keeping the hands moistened with the powder and fluid of the last kettle1 and suffered to remain a short time2 when it is taken down1 and meal-powder sifted on both sides of it1 till it appears quite dry4 ,when dry1 it is cut1 and secured in skins4 ,there is one advantage in this process1 that the cotton in the first place is saturated with nitre2 and1 in the second place1 while still wet1 is combined mechanically with the meal-powder4 ,the match ,i apprehend1 is in all respects equal to the etoupille of the ,french4 ,the priming paste1 as it is called1 consisting of meal-powder and brandy1 may be preserved in close vessels for a length of time2 and1 when used1 may be brought to a proper degree of consistency1 to be worked1 by the addition of more brandy4 ,the preparation of the etoupille1 or match for communicating fire1 will be given at large1 when we treat of military fire-matches4 ,it will be sufficient to remark1 that its preparation1 according to ,bigot1 7,trait d',artifice de ,guerre1 p4 #gd71 consists in macerating the cotton in vinegar1 then pressing it1 and steeping it in brandy1 and afterwards working it in a paste1 composed of meal-powder1 gum arabic1 camphor1 and brandy1 and then rolling it on a table with meal-powder4 ,in preparing all kinds of matches1 we may increase or lessen their effect by increasing or diminishing the quantity of gunpowder4 ,by combining powder and sulphur with one or more parts of melted wax and rosin1 in the manner before mentioned1 and immersing the cotton into it1 a match will be formed1 which1 for some purposes1 is considered preferable to the ordinary kind4 ,the following proportions are given for preparing #ajj1jjj priming fuses1 or matches3 ,cotton1 #ej lbs4 ,meal-powder1 #cj lbs4 ,vinegar1 #ab galls4 ,brandy1 #g galls4 ,gum arabic1 #b lbs4 ,camphor1 #a lb4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,of ,,the ,,furniture1 ,,or ,,decorations ,,for ,,fire-,,works4 ,by the term garniture1 used by the ,french1 we understand the furniture1 equipage1 embellishments1 or decorations for sundry fire-works1 as rockets1 bombs1 batteries1 fire-pots1 c4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,serpents4 ,the directions1 given for the formation of serpents1 are the same in ,morel and ,bigot4 ,paper is rolled lengthwise on a mandril1 or form1 which is a quarter of an inch in diameter1 of three thicknesses1 according as it is stout1 and the last turn of the paper is pasted4 ,they are made tight and strong1 and strangled first at one end4 ,they are then put upright in a square or round box1 called a bushel1 for the purpose of charging them4 ,for this end we must have a small mallet1 and a rammer of brass1 of a smaller diameter than the form4 ,the composition is put in and rammed1 proportioning the number and force of the blows to the size of the case4 ,the petard is formed1 with extremely fine powder1 then rammed1 and the case choaked4 ,to prime them1 we open the ends with a piercer1 and by means of a spatula introduce a portion of priming paste1 or priming powder1 in order that the fire may communicate4 ,we may here remark1 that large cases for serpents1 as well as wheel cases1 are driven solid4 ,there is usually a mould1 in which is a nipple1 with a point at top1 that serves1 when the case is filling1 to stop the neck1 and prevent the composition from falling out4 ,the air1 in that event1 would get into the case1 and cause it to burst4 ,these sorts of moulds are made of any length or diameter1 as the cases are required2 but the diameter of the form must be equal to half the caliber1 and the rammers solid4 ,lardons are of much the same nature as serpents1 but are made stronger4 ,they are charged in the same manner4 ,to prime them1 they are first pierced about five or six lines 7or half an inch17 in depth1 which presents a greater surface to the fire1 and produces1 when inflamed1 more scintillations than serpents4 ,composition of ordinary serpents4 #ast proportion1 #bnd proportion4 ,meal powder1 #af parts4 ,saltpetre1 #c do4 #ae parts4 ,sulphur1 #b do4 #d do4 ,charcoal1 do4 #b do4 ,mine pots1 or ,serpents4 ,meal powder1 #a lb4 ,charcoal1 #a oz4 ,ibid4 ,meal powder1 #i oz4 ,charcoal1 #a -- ,serpents for ,pots de ,brins4 ,meal powder1 #a lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #ab oz4 ,charcoal1 #b -- ,the serpents or snakes for pots of aigrettes1 small mortars1 skyrockets1 c4 are made from two and a half inches1 to seven inches long4 ,their formers are from three-sixteenths to five-eighths of an inch in diameter2 but the diameter of the cases must always be equal to two diameters of the former4 ,they are rolled and choaked like other cases1 and filled with composition1 five-eighths of an inch to one and a half inches high1 according to the size of the mortars or rockets1 they are designed for4 ,the remainder of the cases are charged or bounced with grained powder1 and their ends pinched and tied close4 ,before they are used1 their mouths must be primed with wet meal powder or priming paste as before-mentioned4 ,serpents1 or snakes1 in fire-works1 are so called from the particular appearance1 and the effect which ensues1 namely1 a hissing and spitting4 ,this peculiar character is given by the charcoal2 for1 while one part is actually consumed1 in immediate contact with the substances that enter into the composition2 another part is thrown out with violence in the state of ignition1 in the form of sparks1 and receives1 for the support of its combustion1 the oxygen of the air1 in consequence of which carbonic acid is produced4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,crackers4 ,crackers are made in the following manner2 cut some cartridge paper into pieces1 three and a half inches broad1 and one foot long4 ,one edge of each paper fold down lengthwise1 about three-quarters of an inch broad4 ,then fold the double edge down one quarter of an inch1 and turn the single edge back half over the double fold4 ,open it1 and lay all along the channel1 which is formed by the folding of the paper1 some meal powder4 ,it must now be folded over and over till all the paper is doubled up1 rubbing it at every turn4 ,it is now to be bent backwards and forwards1 two and a half inches or more1 as often as the paper will allow4 ,these folds are to be held flat and close2 and1 with a small pinching cord1 give one turn round the middle of the cracker1 and pinch it close4 ,bind1 as usual1 with pack thread1 in the place where it was pinched4 ,prime one end of it1 and cap it with touch paper4 ,when these crackers are fired1 they will give a report at every turn of the paper4 ,if there are to be a great number of bounces1 the paper must be cut longer1 or be joined after they are made4 ,if1 however1 they are made very long before they are pinched1 there must be a piece of wood1 having a groove sufficiently deep to let in half the cracker1 which will hold it straight1 while it is pinching4 ,the report1 produced by crackers1 is on the same principle as the report of a gun4 ,the reports1 which succeed each other1 in crackers1 formed in this manner1 depends1 as we remarked1 on the turn of the paper1 each turn producing that effect4 ,every part of the cracker1 by this division1 represents in fact a gun2 and hence1 as the combustion of one part necessarily succeeds that of another1 we have1 according to the number of turns1 successive explosions4 ,crackers1 formed in this way1 may furnish a variety in exhibitions4 ,they may be either hung on a board1 or set off on the ground4 ,as to the report itself1 it may be increased or diminished by enlarging or diminishing the size of each cracker1 or division4 ,crackers1 as they are usually called1 are nothing more than small cases charged with gunpowder4 ,the ,chinese squibs are crackers of this description4 ,some are four ounce cases2 but the squibs1 so named1 hold about half a thimble full of powder4 ,a piece of twisted match paper is inserted in the mouth of each of them4 ,they are made of five or six turns of paper1 and the last one is pasted and formed of red paper4 ,the interior diameter is about a quarter of an inch4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,single ,reports4 ,cases for reports are generally rolled on one or two ounce formers1 and seldom made larger1 except on particular occasions4 ,they are from two to four inches in length1 and are formed of thick paper4 ,having rolled a case1 pinch one end1 quite close1 and drive it down4 ,then fill the case with grain powder1 leaving sufficient room to pinch at the top4 ,before it is pinched1 a piece of paper is to be put on the powder at the top4 ,reports are fired by a vent bored in the middle1 or at one end4 ,among the portable ,chinese fire-works1 reports form usually a large number4 ,they are closed with clay1 which is perforated to admit the match and priming4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of ,serpent ,stars4 ,there are a variety of compositions1 used to produce the appearance of stars4 ,thus1 there are stars of different colours1 which also produce tails of sparks1 scintillations1 more or less vivid1 c4 and are calculated for particular exhibitions4 ,the serpent stars1 however1 have a different object1 namely1 to imitate a star at first1 and afterwards a serpent4 ,the cases for serpent stars are choaked half an inch lower than the common kind2 and1 after filling the hole with meal powder1 the following composition is put in4 ,it is finished1 but without the operation of choaking1 by adapting a piece of quickmatch1 and adding more priming powder4 ,composition for serpent stars4 ,saltpetre1 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #h -- ,meal powder1 #d -- ,antimony1 #a -- ,this is the formula1 given by ,morel2 but the formul of ,bigot are in some respects different1 namely3 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #h -- ,meal powder1 #e -- ,antimony1 #b -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 #ai -- ,sulphur1 #h -- ,antimony1 #b -- ,charcoal1 #j -- ,serpent stars are of two kinds4 ,the one is intended as the furniture for rockets1 c4 and the other1 when moulded1 to be employed in the ,roman candles4 ,when required to be moulded1 or made into cakes1 the composition is mixed with gum and brandy1 into a paste1 which is spread upon a table1 having previously covered the table with meal powder4 ,small cubical or other shaped pieces are cut out1 sprinkled with meal powder1 and dried in the shade4 ,the meal powder serves as a priming1 so that they may all take fire at the same time4 ,the composition may be formed into balls4 ,serpent stars1 being designed to produce a combined effect1 it appears1 that1 while charcoal1 7and1 in some instances1 the sulphur1 according to the formula1 but more especially the charcoal71 imparts the serpentlike appearance1 the antimony1 in its turn1 diversifies the flame by giving to it an asteroid character4 ,the antimony1 used in these compositions1 is not the regulus1 but the crude1 or common sulphuret4 ,metallic antimony1 however1 would produce the effect in a greater degree3 but as sulphur enters into their composition1 and also into the crude antimony1 there would be but little1 if any1 advantage1 gained in the use of the regulus4 ,besides the ordinary products of the combustion of gunpowder1 or similar products1 by employing nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 the antimony1 by its combustion1 would be changed into an oxide1 or1 if the combustion is sufficiently rapid1 and the quantity of oxygen absorbed proportionate thereto1 it would form the antimonic acid4 ,that it is oxidized1 however1 and that during its oxidizement1 the appearance we have mentioned takes place1 there can be no doubt4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of ,whirling ,serpents4 ,serpents1 prepared in the following manner1 have a peculiar effect1 by which they are characterized4 ,they form in the air a kind of whirling sun2 and1 as they revolve by reason of their fire issuing out at the opposite sides of their extremities1 they resemble the sun turning on its axis4 ,barker's hydraulic machine1 described in ,gregory's ,mechanics1 which is put in motion by two opposite currents of water1 acting from the two extremities of an oblong box1 supported by a perpendicular hollow shaft1 through which the water first passes1 acts upon the same principle as this revolving sun4 ,the ascension of rockets is also to be accounted for in the same way4 ,see ,general ,theory of ,fire-works4 ,the whirling serpents are charged entirely with composition4 ,no grain powder is used4 ,a small paper stopper is rammed on the top of the composition4 ,near the two chokes1 but in opposite sides1 the cases are pierced with small holes1 which are made to communicate with each other1 and with the composition1 by means of a short leader or match4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of ,chinese ,flyers4 ,somewhat similar to whirling serpents are the ,chinese flyers4 ,cases for flyers may be made of different sizes1 from one to eight ounces4 ,they are formed of thick paper1 and are eight interior diameters long4 ,they are rolled in the same manner as tourbillons1 with a straight pasted edge1 and pinched close at one end4 ,the case1 being put in a mould1 whose cylinder1 or foot1 must be flat at top1 without a nipple1 is to be filled within half a diameter of the middle4 ,then ram in half a diameter of clay1 and1 on that1 as much composition as before2 and again put in half a diameter of clay4 ,pinch the case then close1 and drive it down flat1 and afterwards bore a hole exactly through the centre of the clay in the middle4 ,in opposite sides1 at both ends1 make a vent1 and1 in that side1 intended to be fired first1 a small hole to the composition1 near the clay in the middle1 from which carry a quickmatch1 covered with a single paper1 to the vent at the other end4 ,then1 when the charge is burnt on one side1 it will1 by means of the quickmatch1 communicate to the charge on the other1 which may be of a different sort4 ,the flyers being thus prepared1 put an iron pin1 that must be fixed in the work1 in which they are to be fired1 and on which they are to run1 through the hole in the middle4 ,on the end of this pin1 must be a nut to secure it4 ,if they are required to turn back again1 after they are burnt1 make both the vents at the ends in the same side1 which will alter its course the contrary way4 ,these flyers are intended to revolve on an axis1 and to discharge at different periods4 ,for this purpose1 a communication is made from one vent to the other4 ,it is evident1 that the clay1 which occupies the middle of the case1 is intended to prevent any communication of fire1 in the tube1 from one end to the other1 as this is effected on the outside4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of ,simple ,stars4 ,the stars1 which are not made upon the former1 or roller1 serve to furnish bombs and rockets4 ,they are made in the following manner3 ,the composition being well mixed1 and passed through a fine sieve1 is made into a paste1 with gum arabic and brandy4 ,the proportion of the gum to the composition1 is as one to sixteen4 ,the composition is spread equally on a table1 about the thickness of a finger1 and cut into small square pieces4 ,they are then covered with meal-powder1 which will serve for priming1 and are dried in the shade4 ,composition for ,simple ,stars4 ,saltpetre1 #b lbs4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,meal-powder1 -- ,antimony1 #c_/af -- ,this is the general composition1 however1 for stars4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,rolled ,stars4 ,it will be sufficient to remark1 that rolled stars are formed of the same composition as the simple stars4 ,the composition is mixed with gum and brandy1 formed into a paste1 spread upon a table1 and cut1 by a circular instrument1 into pieces of the size of the ,roman candle1 of which we shall speak hereafter4 ,they are primed with the best pistol powder1 and dried in the shade4 ,see ,roman ,candle4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of ,cracking ,stars4 ,cracking stars are nothing more than small marrons4 ,they are primed1 and covered afterwards with star-paste1 in the same manner as meteors4 ,they are employed as furniture for serpents and stars4 ,they are rolled in meal-powder1 before they are used4 ,they are the toiles pet of the ,french4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,of ,sundry ,compositions for ,stars designed for ,various ,purposes4 ,we purpose1 in this section1 to present a connected view of the different star-compositions1 by merely introducing the formul for their preparation4 ,their application will claim our attention hereafter1 when we treat of rockets and other works4 ,rocket ,stars4 ,white4 ,meal-powder1 #d oz4 ,saltpetre1 #ab -- ,sulphur vivum1 #f -- ,oil of spike1 #b -- ,camphor1 #e -- ,blue stars4 ,meal-powder1 #h oz4 ,saltpetre1 #d -- ,sulphur1 #b -- ,spirit of wine1 #b -- ,oil of spike1 #b -- ,variegated4 ,meal-powder1 #h drachms4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,sulphur vivum1 #b -- ,camphor1 #b -- ,brilliant4 ,saltpetre1 #c -- ,sulphur1 #a -- ,meal powder1 -- ,worked up with spirit of wine only4 ,common4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,sulphur1 -- ,antimony1 #d oz4 ,isinglass1 -- ,camphor1 -- ,spirit of wine1 -- ,tailed4 ,meal-powder1 #c oz ,sulphur1 #b -- ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,charcoal1 coarsely ground1 -- ,drove4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #c lbs4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,brass filings1 fine1 -- ,antimony1 #c oz4 ,or #b4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,antimony1 -- ,sulphur1 -- ,fixed pointed4 ,saltpetre1 #h oz4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,antimony1 #a oz4 #aj dr4 ,fine colour4 ,sulphur1 #a oz4 ,meal-powder1 #a -- ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,camphor1 -- ,spirits of ,turpentine1 -- ,composition of stars of different colours4 #a4 ,meal-powder1 #d oz4 ,saltpetre1 #b -- ,sulphur1 #b -- ,steel-filings1 #a -- ,camphor1 oz4 ,white amber1 -- ,corrosive sublimate1 -- ,antimony1 -- #b4 ,roche-petre1 #aj oz4 ,sulphur1 -- ,charcoal1 -- ,antimony1 -- ,meal-powder1 -- ,camphor1 -- ,oil of ,turpentine1 sufficient to moisten them4 ,these compositions are made into stars1 by being first worked into a paste with brandy1 in which has been dissolved some gum1 usually gum arabic1 or gum tragacanth4 ,after being rolled in powder1 a hole is made through the middle of each1 and they are then strung on quick-match1 leaving about two inches between each4 #c4 ,saltpetre1 #h oz4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,amber1 #a -- ,antimony1 #a -- ,meal-powder1 #c -- #d4 ,sulphur1 #b oz4 ,saltpetre1 #f -- ,frankincense1 #d -- ,mastich1 #d -- ,corrosive sublimate1 #d -- ,meal-powder1 #e -- ,white and yellow amber1 of each1 #a -- ,camphor1 #a -- ,antimony and orpiment1 each1 -- #e4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,sulphur1 -- ,meal-powder1 -- ,oil of petroleum1 sufficient to moisten them4 #f4 ,meal-powder1 lb4 ,sulphur1 #d oz4 ,saltpetre1 #d -- #g4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,meal-powder1 #a -- ,the composition of stars1 which carry tails of sparks1 is the following3 #a4 ,sulphur1 #f oz4 ,antimony1 #b -- ,saltpetre1 #d oz ,rosin1 #d -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 rosin1 and charcoal1 of each1 #b oz ,sulphur1 #a -- ,pitch1 #a -- ,these compositions are sometimes melted in a pan1 and1 before they are made into stars1 mixed with chopped cotton match4 ,they may be worked in the usual manner4 ,the composition for stars1 which yield some sparks1 is the following4 ,to be made into stars1 it must be wetted in gum-water1 and spirits of wine1 that the whole may have the consistence of a thick fluid4 ,one ounce of lint is put into the composition2 where it remains1 until it has taken up enough to be rolled into stars4 #a4 ,camphor1 #b oz4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,meal-powder1 #a -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 #a oz4 ,sal prunelle1 -- ,camphor1 #b -- ,the composition for stars of a yellowish colour is to be incorporated1 and made into stars after the common method4 ,composition for ,yellow ,stars4 ,gum arabic1 finely pulverized1 #d oz4 ,camphor1 dissolved in brandy1 #b -- ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,sulphur1 -- ,glass1 in coarse powder1 #d oz4 ,white amber1 #a -- ,orpiment1 #b -- ,the composition for another kind of star1 is the following3 ,the ingredients to be well mixed1 and then rolled into stars1 proportionable to the rockets they are intended for4 ,camphor1 dissolved in spirit of wine by heat1 #a lb4 ,gum arabic1 dissolved in water1 #a -- ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,sulphur1 #f oz4 ,meal-powder1 #e -- ,we will have occasion hereafter1 to notice the different modes of fixing1 and arranging stars2 the formation of strung stars1 rolled and drove stars1 c4 ,great care must be taken in making stars1 that the several ingredients are reduced to a fine powder1 and the composition is well worked and mixed4 ,the instructions for rolling of stars1 are the following3 ,before we begin to roll1 take a pound of the composition1 and wet it with the following liquid1 sufficient to make it stick together1 and roll easy1 viz3 ,spirit of wine one quart1 in which dissolve #a_/d of an ounce of isinglass4 ,if a great quantity of composition be wetted at once1 the spirit will evaporate1 and leave it dry1 before all the stars are rolled4 ,having rolled one portion1 shake the stars in meal-powder1 and set them to dry1 which will require three or four days2 but1 if wanted for immediate use1 they may be dried in an earthen pan1 over a slow heat1 or in an oven4 ,it is very difficult to make the stars all of an equal size1 when the composition is taken up promiscuously with the fingers2 but1 by the following method1 they may be made very exact3 ,when the mixture is moistened properly1 roll it on a flat smooth stone1 and cut it into square pieces1 making each square large enough for the stars required4 ,there is another method used by some1 which consists in rolling the composition in long pieces1 and then cutting off the stars2 so that each star will be of a cylindrical form4 ,this method1 however1 is not so good as the former2 for1 in order to make the composition roll in this manner1 it must be made very wet1 which makes the stars heavy1 as well as weakens their effect4 ,all stars must be kept as much from the air as possible2 otherwise they will lose their properties4 ,what are called1 in pyrotechny1 the flaming stars1 with brilliant wheels1 the moon and seven stars1 the transparent stars with illuminated rays1 the transparent table star1 the projected star1 and the illuminated star wheel1 are all particular exhibitions1 which are produced by disposing the works in a certain form and order4 ,they have1 therefore1 no relation to those preparations1 or compositions1 which produce stars4 ,they will be considered1 however1 in their respective places1 when we treat of the disposition and arrangement of fire-works4 ,as a general theory of stars1 we may remark1 that while combustion ensues1 as in other fire-works1 in the manner explained in our chapter on that subject1 some substances are always employed1 which have1 for their object1 two effects in particular2 viz4 that of modifying the appearance of the flame1 by producing certain colours1 and increasing or diminishing the degree of combustion1 and that of throwing out1 at the same time1 scintillations or sparks4 ,the latter effect1 however1 is not so great in stars1 as in some other preparations1 which are designed especially for the purpose4 ,that certain substances have a particular effect1 which uniformly ensues1 under the same circumstances1 is a fact obvious to all4 ,hence1 we see in all the numerous formul for stars1 for those that produce a red1 a blue1 a yellow1 or any other flame1 and those which form tails1 sparks1 c4 being modified according to circumstances1 that the effect is owing to the presence of one1 and sometimes to the action of two1 three1 and more substances1 co-operating together4 ,that combustion may be greater or less2 that it may be accelerated1 retarded1 and otherwise modified2 that the flame of inflammable bodies may be varied1 as to colour1 by the presence of foreign substances2 that the action of one substance upon another1 in certain elevated temperatures1 may produce results which would not take place at a reduced temperature2 that1 for the support of combustion1 the oxygen of the nitre1 or the oxygen gas of the atmosphere1 may1 singly1 or jointly1 produce that effect1 as in instances of rapid combustion1 and in the combustion of bodies actually thrown out in the state of ignition2--these are so many considerations1 all necessary to be attended to1 in establishing a theory of stars1 as well as of fire-works in general4 ,sec4 ,,xi4 ,of the ,fire-rain1 7filamentous47 ,fire-rains are generally two inches long1 and formed on a small copper1 iron1 or wooden roller1 two and a half lines in diameter4 ,two turns of the paper are considered sufficient for them4 ,they are twisted at their extremities1 and struck afterwards on a table1 to flatten and close them in the same manner as common cases4 ,using a small funnel1 they are charged with the following composition1 in the same manner as serpents4 ,grained powder1 however1 is not employed4 ,when charged1 they are primed with paste1 having also1 a piece of cotton-match attached to them4 ,composition4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 ,fine oak charcoal1 #c -- ,six ounces of charcoal to a pound of powder1 is the formula of ,bigot4 ,the one given is that of ,morel4 ,sec4 ,,xii4 ,of ,sparks4 ,the second kind of rain-fire1 called sparks1 is made in the following manner3 ,the composition is formed into a thick liquid paste with brandy2 and eight ounces of flax are immersed in it1 and kept there for some time4 ,the flax is then rolled into small balls1 about the size of peas4 ,they are then rolled in dry meal-powder1 and hung up in the open air1 in the shade to dry4 ,composition4 ,saltpetre1 #h oz4 ,meal-powder1 #h -- ,camphor1 #af -- ,flax1 #h -- ,sec4 ,,xiii4 ,of ,gold ,rain4 ,we purpose to enumerate1 in the following section1 all the compositions which have been used for forming gold1 as well as silver rain4 ,the recipe here given1 it may be proper to remark1 appears to have been preferred to all others2 as some ,french authors1 and particularly ,morel1 have given it a distinct place4 ,composition for ,gold ,rain4 ,meal-powder1 #h oz4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,gum arabic1 -- ,pulverized soot1 -- ,lampblack1 -- ,saltpetre1 -- ,these substances are mixed1 treated1 cut1 and primed in the same way as simple stars4 ,they must be cut all of the same size4 ,in the furnishing of rockets and bombs1 the effect they produce1 is very striking4 ,with respect to the scintillated rain-fire1 or that which appears in sparks1 the effect is owing to the flax1 which1 being soaked in a mixture of meal-powder1 saltpetre1 camphor1 and brandy1 in the same manner as before stated1 produces1 when inflamed1 a succession of fire1 under the form we have mentioned4 ,the camphor seems to add to the brilliancy of the flame4 ,there is no doubt but a part1 at least1 if not the whole1 is burnt1 in consequence of the oxygen of the air1 the inflammation of the gunpowder bringing it to the state of ignition4 ,the powder itself produces at first the combustion4 ,the flax is1 therefore1 consumed1 which seems to be the last of the process1 filaments1 at the same time1 being produced1 and the combustion accelerated by the nitre4 ,the fire-rain owes its effect to the charcoal1 which is thrown out in the state of ignition4 ,in the gold fire1 the effect is owing to the presence of lampblack1 soot1 and nitre4 ,there are several methods of producing both gold and silver rains1 which we will notice in the following section4 ,sec4 ,,xiv4 ,of ,rains in ,general1 for ,sky-,rockets1 c4 ,the following compositions are also used in the formation of fire-rain2 ,gold rain1 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,meal powder1 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #d -- ,brass filings1 #a -- ,sawdust1 #b -- ,pulverized glass1 -- #b4 ,meal powder1 #ab oz4 ,saltpetre1 #b -- ,charcoal1 #d -- #c4 ,saltpetre1 #h oz4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,glass dust1 #a -- ,antimony1 -- ,brass filings1 -- ,sawdust1 #a -- ,silver-rain4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,meal-powder1 #b -- ,antimony1 #b -- ,sal prunelle1 -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 lb4 ,sulphur1 #b oz4 ,charcoal1 #d -- #c4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,sulphur1 -- ,antimony1 #f oz4 #d4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,powder1 #b -- ,steel dust1 -- ,for ,calibers above two-thirds of an inch4 #e4 ,meal-powder1 #af parts4 ,saltpetre1 #a ---- ,sulphur1 #a ---- ,steel filings1 #d ---- ,sec4 ,,xv4 ,of ,rain-,falls1 and ,stars1 double and single4 ,the cases which contain the gold and silver rain composition1 are pinched close at one end4 ,if they are rolled dry1 four or five rounds of paper will be sufficient2 but1 if they are pasted1 three rounds will be strong enough4 ,the thin sort of cartridge paper is best for those small cases1 which1 in rolling1 must not have the inside edge turned down1 as in other cases1 for a double edge would be too thick for so small a caliber4 ,the moulds for rain falls should be made of brass1 and turned very smooth in the inside2 or the cases1 being very thin1 would tear in coming out4 ,the charge must be driven in light1 and the better the case fits the mould1 the more driving it will bear4 ,these moulds have no nipple1 but are made flat4 ,it is necessary to have a funnel made of thin tin1 to fit on the top of the case1 by the help of which1 they may be filled very fast4 ,for single rain-falls for four ounce rockets1 let the diameter of the former or roller be two-sixteenths of an inch1 and the length of the case two inches2 for eight-ounce rockets1 four-sixteenths1 and two diameters of the rocket long2 for two-pound rockets1 five-sixteenths1 and three and a half inches long2 for four-pound rockets1 six-sixteenths1 and four and a half inches long2 and for six pounders1 seven-sixteenths1 in diameter1 and five inches long4 ,there are two kinds of double rain-falls described3 some appear first like a star1 and then as rain2 and some appear first as rain1 and then like a star4 ,these different appearances may be produced in the following manner3 ,when stars are to be formed first1 the cases must be filled within half an inch of the top1 with rain composition1 and the remainder with star composition2 but when it is intended that the rain should be first1 we must drive the case half an inch with star composition1 and the rest with rain4 ,by this method1 they may make many changes of fire2 for in large rockets1 they may be made to burn first as stars1 then as rain1 and again as stars2 or1 they may first show rain1 then stars1 and finish with a report4 ,when they are thus managed1 cut open the first rammed end1 after they are filled and bounced1 at which place they are to be primed4 ,the star composition for this purpose1 must be a little stronger than that for rolled stars4 ,sec4 ,,xvi4 ,of ,substances which show in ,sparks4 ,there are many substances1 which show in sparks1 when rammed in choaked cases4 ,the set colours are produced by regular charges4 ,other charges are called compound and brilliant4 ,set colours1 produced by sparks1 are divided into four sorts1 which are denominated1 the white1 black1 gray1 and red4 ,the charges1 to produce these several effects1 are composed of various ingredients4 ,thus1 meal-powder and charcoal compose the black charges2 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 the white2 meal powder1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 the gray2 and saltpetre1 charcoal1 and sawdust1 the red4 ,with respect to compound and brilliant charges1 the former is composed of many ingredients2 such as meal-powder1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 charcoal1 sawdust1 sea-coal1 antimony1 glass-dust1 brass-dust1 steel dust1 cast-iron1 tanner's dust1 c4 or any thing that will yield sparks2 all which must be managed with discretion1 or judgment4 ,brilliant charges1 on the contrary1 are composed of meal-powder1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and steel-filings1 or of meal-powder and steel-filings only1 and sometimes of ,chinese fire4 ,sec4 ,,xvii4 ,of ,italian ,roses1 or ,fixed ,stars4 ,we prepare cases for these works1 in the same manner as described in the article respecting fixed stars4 ,half a spoonful of clay is put into them1 which is rammed tightly1 with twelve blows of a mallet of a moderate size4 ,the height of the clay is then marked upon the case1 which is then charged with four spoonfuls of the composition1 ramming each spoonful with twelve blows of the mallet4 ,these four charges should occupy about two fingers in height4 ,after this we add another spoonful of earth2 and divide1 on the outside of the case1 from the point we marked1 five equal parts4 ,we then apply the quick-match and paste4 ,one end of the match is of a sufficient length1 in order that it may turn round1 and come out above the other choke4 ,we afterwards roll the case in white paper1 which must go twice round1 and extend beyond each extremity about one and a half inches4 ,this is called the covering4 ,the lower end is twisted4 ,the other end1 the side of which is twisted1 resembles a goblet1 and serves to inflame the rose4 ,the composition of the rose is given in the table for those of revolving and fixed pieces4 ,their effect is1 that they will produce as many streams of flames as there are holes1 and consequently form the roses or stars4 ,the composition is six parts of powder1 eight saltpetre1 five sulphur1 and half a part of antimony2 or two powder1 four saltpetre1 and one sulphur4 ,sec4 ,,xviii4 ,of ,lances of ,illumination1 white1 blue1 and yellow4 ,we have already given the caliber1 and the manner of forming the lances4 ,they are charged by using the funnel and rammer1 in the same manner as serpents1 but without any grain-powder4 ,they are filled within two-twelfths of their end1 and primed with the paste without the match4 ,the blue and yellow lances are loaded in the same manner4 ,the yellow are made one-third of an inch in diameter1 and one inch and a third in length2 so as not to be of a longer duration in burning than the others4 ,composition of lances4 ,white lances4 ,blue lances4 ,yellow lances4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,saltpetre #af oz4 ,saltpetre #af oz4 ,saltpetre #af oz4 ,sulphur #h oz4 ,antimony #h oz4 ,sulphur #af oz4 ,powder #d oz4 ,powder #h oz4 ,antimony #a oz4 ,amber #h oz4 ,lances1 or port-fires of illumination1 may be made also without antimony1 as follows3 ,port-fire composition for ,illuminations4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 ,sulphur1 #f oz4 ,meal-powder1 #f oz4 ,the composition of the lance feu of the ,french1 which is used chiefly to throw occasional light across the platform1 whilst artificial fire-works are preparing1 and like port-fires and matches1 to communicate fire1 is given as follows3 7uvres ,militaires1 tom xi1 p4 #bjh47 ,composition of the lance feu4 ,saltpetre1 #c parts4 ,sulphur1 #b ---- ,antimony1 #b ---- ,the lance feu puant is of a different kind4 ,it is the stink-fire lance1 used for military purposes1 and prepared in the same manner as stink-pots4 ,they are used principally in the mine1 and produce so powerful an exhalation1 as to render it impossible to approach the quarter for three or four days1 and occasion also1 even to the miners1 an apparent suffocation4 ,the lance de feu1 however1 is a different preparation from either4 ,it is a species of squib1 which is used by the garrison of a besieged town against a scaling party4 ,for the preparation of fire lances1 see the subsequent part4 ,sec4 ,,xix4 ,of ,slow ,white-flame ,lances4 ,the composition of this lance1 or port-fire1 is such1 that it will burn longer than the ordinary lance4 ,there are two formul given for it4 ,both compositions1 when driven one and a quarter inches in an ounce case1 will burn one minute1 which is considered by some a much longer time than an equal quantity of any composition1 yet known1 will last4 ,composition of slow ,fire4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #b lbs4 ,sulphur1 #c lbs4 ,antimony1 #a lb4 #b4 ,saltpetre1 #c lbs4 ,sulphur1 #b lbs4 ,meal-powder1 #a lb4 ,antimony1 lb4 ,glass-dust1 lb4 ,brass-dust1 #a oz4 ,sec4 ,,xx4 ,of ,lights4 ,we purpose hereafter to treat particularly of the ,chinese lights1 ,bengal lights1 amber lights1 blue lights1 c4 ,we will merely mention in this place1 the composition of some of them4 ,composition for ,lights4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #c lbs4 ,sulphur1 #a lb4 ,meal-powder1 #a lb4 ,antimony1 #aj oz4 ,oil of ,spike1 sufficient to mix them4 ,composition for common fire4 ,saltpetre1 #c lbs4 ,charcoal1 #aj oz4 ,sulphur1 #b oz4 ,composition for red ,fire4 ,meal-powder1 #c lbs4 ,charcoal1 #ab oz4 ,sawdust1 #h oz4 ,common fire for a caliber of one-third of an inch4 ,meal-powder1 #af parts4 ,charcoal1 pulverized1 #c ---- ,idem1 for a caliber half an inch4 ,meal-powder1 #cb parts4 ,charcoal1 #g ---- ,idem1 for a caliber above half an inch4 ,meal-powder1 #d parts4 ,charcoal1 #a ---- ,brilliant fire for ordinary calibers4 ,meal-powder1 #d parts4 ,iron-filings1 #a ---- ,idem1 more brilliant4 ,meal-powder1 #d parts4 ,steel-filings1 #a ---- ,brilliant fire for all calibers4 ,meal-powder1 #i parts4 ,sulphur1 #a ---- ,steel1 #b ---- ,grand brilliant fire1 for calibers of three-quarters of an inch1 and upwards4 ,meal powder1 #af parts4 ,sulphur1 #a ---- ,saltpetre1 #a ---- ,steel filings1 #g ---- ,idem1 clear and brilliant for any caliber4 ,meal powder1 #af parts4 ,saltpetre1 #a part4 ,filings of the best steel1 #c ---- ,idem1 large jessamine for any caliber4 ,meal powder1 #af parts4 ,saltpetre1 #a ---- ,sulphur1 #a ---- ,best steel1 #f ---- ,idem1 small jessamine for any caliber4 ,meal powder1 #af parts4 ,saltpetre1 #a ---- ,sulphur1 #a ---- ,best steel1 #e ---- ,white fire for any caliber4 ,meal powder1 #h parts4 ,saltpetre1 #d ---- ,sulphur1 #a ---- ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,some ,,other ,,compositions4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,parts ,,of ,,compositions4 ---------------------------------- ,meal ,salt- ,sul- ,char-,filings powder petre phur coal c4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,white fire for any caliber1 #af #j #c #j #j ,blue1 for parasols and cascades1 #d #b #c #j #c ,zinc4 ,do4 for calibers1 half an inch #d #h #d #j #ag ,zinc4 and above1 ,do4 for any caliber1 #f #b #h #j #j ,sparkling1 or shining fire for #af #j #j #j #c ,brass4 any caliber1 ,green fire1 for any caliber1 #af #j #j #j #c ,brass4 ,aurora colour1 #af #j #j #j #c ,gold powder ,chinese fire1 for calibers under #h #h #b #b #g ,ct4iron an inch1 ,do4 for calibers above an inch1 #af #j #c #c #g ,do4 ,do4 for palmtrees and cascades1 #h #f #d #b #e ,do4 ,do4 in white for two-thirds and #h #h #d #j #f ,do4 five-sixths of an inch cal41 ,do4 for gerbes1 of ten1 eleven1 #h #a #a #a #h ,do4 and twelve lines in diam41 ,bengal lights1 #j #cb #i #j #e ,ant'y4 ,amber lights1 #i #j #j #j #c ,amber4 ,water squibs1 #a #j #j #a #j ,do4 #a #j #j #j #j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,sec4 ,,xxi4 ,of ,lances for ,petards4 ,lances for petards are a kind of port-fire1 used in war1 but not very often4 ,as they will be noticed hereafter1 it may be sufficient to remark1 that they are formed of cartridge paper1 and the case is strangled in the usual manner2 that a small portion of bran is put in1 and then about as much good priming pistol powder in grains2 that the case is then strangled1 or choaked1 about two-thirds of its length1 the remaining one-third serving for a handle2 and1 in using it1 that the twisted end is cut off1 so that the fire may communicate to the petard4 ,sec4 ,,xxii4 ,of ,lances of ,service4 ,these lances serve for setting fire to works1 c4 ,they are commonly made fifteen inches long1 upon a former or roller1 one-fourth of an inch in diameter4 ,four turns of the paper are sufficient for the case4 ,they are charged in the same way as the petard lances1 and also in the manner described for port-fires4 ,they are primed with the match and paste4 ,composition for the lances of service4 ,saltpetre1 #b lbs4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,meal powder1 #e oz4 ,sec4 ,,xxiii4 ,of ,marrons4 ,marrons are made in several ways4 ,we shall first describe those in cases4 ,formers for marrons are from three-fourths of an inch1 to one and a half in diameter4 ,the paper for the cases must be cut twice the diameter of the former2 broad1 and sufficiently long to make three revolutions4 ,when a case is rolled1 paste down the edge1 and tie one end close2 and to remove the wrinkles1 and make it flat at bottom1 put in the former and drive it down4 ,the case is then to be charged with granulated powder1 one diameter and a quarter high1 and the rest of the case1 folded down tight on the powder4 ,the marrons being thus made1 wax some strong pack-thread with shoemaker's wax1 and wind it up in a ball4 ,then unwind two or three yards of it1 and that part1 which is near the ball1 make fast to a hook4 ,now take a marron1 and stand as far from the hook as the pack-thread will reach1 and wind it lengthwise round it1 as close as possible1 till it will hold no more in that direction2 then turn it1 and wind the pack-thread on the short way2 then lengthwise again1 and continue this winding until the paper is all covered4 ,make fast the end of the pack-thread1 and beat down both ends of the marron to bring it in shape4 ,the method of firing marrons is by making a hole at one end with an awl1 and putting in a piece of quickmatch4 ,then take a piece of strong paper1 in which wrap the marron with two leaders1 put down to the vent1 and tie the paper tight round with small twine4 ,these leaders are bent on each side1 and their loose ends tied to other marrons1 and nailed1 in the middle1 to the rail of the stand4 ,marron batteries are made of several stands1 with a number of cross rails for the marrons1 which are regulated by leaders1 by cutting them of different lengths1 and nailing them tight or loose4 ,this arrangement1 however1 is only intended for a certain purpose4 ,for as marrons1 if well managed1 will keep time to a march or a piece of music2 so1 by regulating them in that way1 that is to say1 by cutting the leaders of different lengths and nailing them tight or loose1 we may adjust the time of their explosion by the time of the music4 ,in forming batteries with marrons1 the large and small kinds must be used1 and the nails for the leaders1 or pipes of communication must have flat heads4 ,the marrons for service are a different kind2 they resemble the incendiary bombs4 ,see ,fourth ,part of the work4 ,the other kind of marron for fire-works1 as described by ,morel1 7,trait ,practique des ,feux ,d',artifice p4 #cg17 and ,bigot1 7,trait d',artifice de ,guerre p4 #ada17 are of a cubical form and of a suitable size for the pot1 in which it is to enter1 or of any dimensions1 if it be fired alone1 or without being employed as a decoration4 ,these cubes are filled with grain powder1 and are covered with two layers of pack-thread1 which is bound very tightly1 and over this1 a coat of pitch or tar4 ,they are pierced to the powder1 and a match is adapted in the usual manner4 ,port-fire has been used1 but is considered to possess no advantages4 ,the cubical marrons are formed in the following manner3 ,divide a piece of strong pasteboard in such a manner1 as that each division will form one of the sides of the cube1 as represented in the following figure4 k ----- k k d ----- c b ----------------- c b 7,a7 b c ----------------- b c ----- ,pasteboard1 formed in the above manner1 it is evident1 when put together1 will make a cube4 7,a7 will be the base1 and b c respectively1 will form the sides1 and d the top1 k k k will come in contact with the edge of three sides4 ,in d1 7the cover71 is a hole1 in order to charge it1 and1 if necessary1 to hold the match and priming4 ,this1 however1 may be attached to either side4 ,all the angles are well secured with paper pasted over them4 ,the pack-thread must be well waxed with shoemakers' wax1 before it is wound on it4 ,sec4 ,,xxiv4 ,of ,shining ,marrons4 ,shining marrons are cubes of an inch at least on each surface1 and prepared in the same manner as the preceding4 ,the excess of the match1 which is cut off in the former marron1 is sufficient for these smaller marrons4 ,cotton is macerated1 or soaked in a paste of the star composition1 in the usual manner1 viz3 by mixing the composition with brandy1 and a small portion of gum1 or a solution of isinglass4 ,the marron is then covered1 about a finger in thickness1 with this cotton2 or more may be used1 according to circumstances4 ,it is afterwards rolled in meal powder1 which serves for priming1 and then dried in the shade4 ,shining marrons are used in furnishing bombs1 fire-pots1 and rockets4 ,they produce a brilliant effect2 a vivid white light1 which finishes with a report4 ,sec4 ,,xxv4 ,of ,saucissons4 ,saucissons differ from marrons only in form4 ,they are intended1 like them1 for simple detonations4 ,they are generally fired out of large mortars without chambers1 the same as those for aigrettes1 only somewhat stronger4 ,saucissons are made of one or two-ounce cases1 five or six inches long1 and choaked in the same manner as serpents4 ,half the number which the mortar contains must be driven one and a half diameters with composition1 and the other half1 two diameters2 so that1 when fired1 they may give two vollies of reports4 ,but1 if the mortars are very strong1 and will bear a sufficient charge to throw the saucissons very high1 there may be three vollies of reports1 by dividing the number of cases into three parts1 and making a difference in the height of the charge4 ,after they are filled1 pinch and tie them at the top of the charge1 almost close2 only leaving a small vent to communicate the fire to the upper part of the case1 which must be filled with grain powder very near the top4 ,the end then is to be pinched close and tied1 and the case1 bound very tightly with waxed pack-thread1 from the choak1 at the top of the composition1 to the end of the case4 ,this will strengthen the case1 and cause the report to be very loud4 ,saucissons should be rolled a little thicker of paper than the common proportion4 ,when they are to be put in the mortar1 they must be primed in their mouths1 and fired by a case of brilliant fire1 fixed in their centre4 ,the charge for these mortars should be #a_/fth or #a_/hth more than for pots d'aigrettes of the same diameter4 ,for flying saucissons1 the ,french make use of cases of three-quarters of an inch in exterior diameter4 ,they are charged1 to the height of half an inch1 with the composition for mosaic tourbillons1 which see4 ,they are then choaked and bound at this place1 and four fingers of grain powder are put into each1 which is then covered with a stopper of paper4 ,they are then again choaked and bound1 and the excess of the case is cut off4 ,they are primed with a piece of match1 using the priming paste at the same time4 ,when the saucissons are required to make a louder report1 the part of the case1 in which the powder is1 should be wrapped round with pack-thread1 much in the same manner as already described1 and then covered with glue or pitch4 ,these saucissons are usually put in the pots of the mosaics1 some times in the place of them1 and are arranged for exhibition on the same frame4 ,we may1 if we wish to vary the effect1 put a saucisson in one pot1 and a mosaic in another4 ,when thrown in the air1 their effect is to occasion a report4 ,they first1 however1 form a tail of fire1 and finish with an explosion4 ,bigot gives the difference between their internal and external diameters at four lines1 or one-third of an inch4 ,saucissons may either be used in the manner we have mentioned or thrown by hand4 ,according to their size1 and the strength of the case1 so will be the report4 ,they resemble a thick and short sausage1 hence their name4 ,sec4 ,,xxvi4 ,of ,fire-,pumps4 ,fire-pumps are intended for a particular use1 which we will describe hereafter4 ,the composition is the following3 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #e lbs4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,meal powder1 #a -- ,glass-dust1 #a -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 #e lbs4 #h oz4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,meal powder1 #a -- #h -- ,glass-dust1 #a -- #h -- ,cases for fire-pumps are made like those for tourbillons1 except that they are pasted1 instead of being rolled dry4 ,in charging them1 first put in a little meal powder1 and then a star2 then a ladleful or two of the above composition1 which ram tightly2 then a little meal powder1 on that a star1 and then composition again1 and so on until the case is filled4 ,stars for fire-pumps should not be round2 but must be made either square1 or flat and circular1 with a hole through the middle4 ,the quantity of powder for throwing the stars must increase as we come near the top of the case2 for1 if much powder be put at the bottom1 it will burst the case4 ,the stars must differ in size in this manner3 ,let the star1 which is first put in1 be about one-fourth less than the caliber of the case2 but let the next star be a little larger1 and the third star a little larger than the second1 and so on for the rest4 ,let them increase in diameter till within two of the top of the case1 which two must fit in tight4 ,as the loading of fire-pumps requires some skill1 it will be necessary to make two or three trials before depending on their performance4 ,when a number of pumps are filled1 care must be taken not to put in each an equal quantity of charge between the stars2 so that1 when they are fired1 they may not throw up too many stars together4 ,cases for fire-pumps should be made very strong1 and rolled on four or eight-ounce formers1 each ten or twelve inches long4 ,for the composition and preparation of stars1 see stars4 ,sec4 ,,xxvii4 ,of the ,volcano of ,lemery4 ,the artificial earthquake1 or volcano of ,lemery1 is formed by mixing into a paste with water1 about equal parts of sulphur and steel or iron filings1 and burying the mixture in the earth4 ,the composition in a short time1 will grow hot1 and burst out2 the earth will break1 and open in several places4 ,baum mixed #ajj pounds of iron filings and the same quantity of sulphur together1 with water1 and rammed the mixture into an iron pot4 ,after ten hours1 the mass swelled up and grew warm1 aqueous vapours arose1 and the mass burst4 ,ten hours afterwards1 the heat1 vapours1 c4 greatly increased1 and a flame issued forth1 lasting only from #b to #c minutes4 ,finally1 the mass became red-hot1 and the burning and heat continued #dj hours longer2 but without flame4 ,we may merely remark1 that this effect is produced by the chemical union1 which takes place between the sulphur and iron1 forming a sulphuret of iron1 analogous in composition to the native martial pyrites4 ,the water is at the same time1 decomposed1 during which the mixture swells1 becomes hot1 and throws up the earth1 producing at the same time a large quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,this gas is formed by the combination of a part of the sulphur with the hydrogen of the water2 whilst the oxygen1 the other element of the water1 goes to oxidize the metal and to acidify the remaining sulphur4 ,hence sulphate of iron1 or green vitriol is produced4 ,the experiment may be made in a common basin4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that spontaneous combustion1 which takes place without the application of an ignited body1 ensues in a variety of instances2 and new facts daily occur1 which show1 that cases of this kind are more numerous than we had reason to suspect4 ,besides the old and well known effect of quicklime1 pyrites1 pyritous schist1 c4 in producing spontaneous combustion1 it is found1 that ashes and oil1 oil and cotton1 and a number of substances have set fire to cotton mills1 and other works4 ,it is known1 that1 in the slaking of quicklime1 a considerable degree of heat is produced4 ,this is owing to the solidification of the water1 or its union with the lime in the form of a hydrate1 and the consequent change1 which the caloric undergoes from a latent to an uncombined state4 ,hence inflammable substances1 in contact with lime1 under these circumstances1 are necessarily set on fire4 ,spontaneous combustion arises simply from a play of chemical affinities4 ,the following general observations on this subject are given by ,nicholson1 7,chemical ,dictionary72 and an enumeration of the effects may lead to cautions of importance for preventing serious accidents3 ,if quicklime1 in any quantity1 be laid in contact with any combustible1 as wood1 and be wetted by accident1 or to make it into mortar1 a sufficient quantity of heat may be extricated to set fire to the wood4 ,animal or vegetable substances1 laid together damp in large heaps1 undergo a fermentation1 which often excites combustion1 as in the case of hay-ricks4 ,woollen cloth1 not freed from the oil used in dressing it1 and laid up damp in large heaps1 has been known to take fire2 and so has painted canvass4 ,flowers and herbs boiled in oil1 as is done by druggists1 and then laid in heaps1 sometimes do the same4 ,the mixture of linseed oil and lampblack1 or of linseed oil and black wad1 is very liable to inflame4 ,torrefied vegetables1 as malt1 coffee1 or bran1 put while hot1 into coarse bags1 are apt to take fire4 ,the spontaneous combustion of phosphorus1 and various pyrophori1 is well known4 ,it is suspected to be owing to the presence of one or other of these1 that charcoal sometimes takes fire without any apparent cause2 and the charcoal of peat is said to be particularly liable to this4 ,hyperoxygenated muriate of potassa1 mixed with sulphur1 or with sulphur and charcoal1 is apt to detonate spontaneously4 ,many cases of spontaneous combustion taking place in the human body too are on record3 and it has been observed1 that all the persons1 who thus suffered1 were much addicted to the use of spirituous liquors4 ,sec4 ,,xxviii4 ,of the blue and green ,match1 for ,cyphers ,devices1 and ,decorations4 ,we had occasion to mention1 that blue and green flame may be produced by employing sundry substances1 which have the property of changing the colour of flame4 ,this is effected in the present instance4 ,for the preparation of the match1 we melt one pound of roll brimstone in a glazed earthen vessel1 over a slow fire1 and add one ounce of finely pulverized verdigris1 and half an ounce of antimony4 ,the cotton for the match1 may be of any length and thickness1 as we judge proper2 and is to be immersed1 and well soaked1 in the wetted sulphur1 having previously put in the verdigris1 and antimony4 ,sulphur alone will form a blue light4 ,the matches are afterwards tied to a rod of iron1 which is bent according to the design we purpose to form1 and to which they are fastened with a very fine iron wire1 called the carcase4 ,they are covered with priming paste1 and a quick match is tied along the whole length4 ,they are then covered with bands of gray paper1 and a piece of port-fire is fixed on the end1 to communicate fire4 ,sec4 ,,xxix4 ,of the ,purple or ,violet ,match4 ,the design is made1 and the match is attached1 in the same manner as described in the last section2 but without bending it4 ,the preparation is as follows3 ,make a decoction of jujubes1 which have been peeled1 and stoned1 and thicken it by adding as much of the flour of sulphur1 as will bring it to a proper consistence4 ,the cotton is then covered with this mixture1 in the manner before stated2 its thickness to be determined1 according to the time required for it to burn4 ,while hot1 the match is primed by rolling it in meal powder4 ,it is then suffered to dry4 ,the design1 it is to be observed1 ought to be supported at the distance of four or five inches from the rods which hold it1 by small cross pieces of iron1 to prevent it taking fire2 a circumstance necessary to be guarded against4 ,sec4 ,,xxx4 ,of ,meteors4 ,artificial fire-works1 to resemble meteors in the atmosphere1 have1 if properly prepared and exhibited1 a brilliant appearance4 ,the composition must be projected to a great height1 which is either done by rockets1 or from mortars4 ,meteors are made in the same manner as shining marrons1 which we have already described1 except1 however1 that they are of a very large size and usually weigh ten pounds4 ,the larger they are made the better1 and the more grand is their effect4 ,see ,shining ,marrons4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,of ,,rockets ,,and ,,their ,,appendages4 ,a rocket is a flying fuse1 7,fuses ,volantes of the ,french71 formed with paper1 of a cylindrical shape1 and filled with a composition of certain inflammable substances1 being pierced in the diameter of its length4 ,it is furnished with a stick1 serving as a counter-weight1 or balance1 to guide it vertically in its ascension4 ,it carries generally different garnishes1 or furniture2 as stars1 serpents1 fire-rains1 marrons1 meteors c4 which are thrown off1 and produce an elegant appearance1 when it terminates its flight4 ,rockets have been applied to several uses4 ,thus1 the war-rocket1 as an incendiary1 improved by ,congreve1 and the signal rocket1 are some of its applications4 ,these1 however1 are modified for the purpose1 and will be spoken of hereafter4 ,the ,indian rockets1 called ,fougette 7,baguette feu of the ,french7 will also be noticed4 ,although as a fire-work for exhibition1 the rocket may be considered the most grand1 and1 especially when furnished with various decorations1 the most brilliant1 yet its utility for ,military and ,naval purposes is acknowledged by all4 ,when treating of sundry preliminary operations in the second part of this work1 we had occasion to introduce the subject of rockets1 as respects the formation of their cases1 the manner of charging and driving them1 with the tools required1 and the boring of rockets1 when they have been driven solid4 ,these subjects may be found in sections iv1 v1 and viii4 ,we purpose1 however1 to make such observations as may1 with the remarks heretofore offered1 furnish the reader with a general knowledge of the making1 decorating1 and discharging of rockets4 ,on the theory of the ascension of rockets1 motion of fire-wheels1 c4 and observations on the rocket principle1 consult the chapter in the first part of the work1 concerning the theory of particular fire-works4 ,for the manner of uniting sheets of paper of several thicknesses1 for cases1 see ,pasteboard4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of the ,caliber and ,proportion of ,rockets4 ,sky-rockets are generally made of seven calibers1 from half an inch to three inches4 ,different opinions have been entertained respecting the proper proportions4 ,some contend that the height should be always regulated by their exterior diameter4 ,on this subject1 several experiments1 it seems1 have been made by an experienced artist1 ,m4 ,morel1 not only to determine the length1 which is best calculated to produce the maximum of ascension1 but also with respect to the length compared with the caliber of the case4 ,the following tables are necessary in the formation of rockets4 ,the first shows the size of the caliber of the mould1 for rockets of a pound weight1 and below2 and the second points out the size required for the caliber of moulds1 from one pound to fifty pounds4 ,a lb4 rocket1 it must be observed1 is that which is just capable of admitting a leaden bullet of a pound weight1 and so of the rest4 ,,table ,i4 ,size of the caliber of moulds of a pound weight1 and below to an ounce4 -------------------- ,weight of ,rockets in ,diameters ounces4 in lines4 -------------------- #af #ai #ab #ag #h #ae #g #ad #f #ad #e #ac #d #ab #c #aa #b #i #a #f -------------------- ,here1 it is evident1 that the mould of a rocket of twelve ounces in weight1 ought to be seventeen lines 7#ab lines to the inch7 in diameter2 and one of five ounces1 will require a mould of thirteen lines in diameter4 ,hence1 we derive an easy method of finding the size1 when the weights are given3 and1 if the diameter of the rocket be given1 it will be equally easy to find the weight of the ball1 corresponding to the weight of that caliber4 ,,table ,,ii4 ,size of the caliber of moulds1 of from one to fifty pound ball4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,pounds ,caliber ,pounds ,caliber ,pounds ,caliber ,pounds ,caliber ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a #ajj #ad #bda #bg #cjj #dj #cda #b #abf #ae #bdg #bh #cjd #da #cdd #c #add #af #beb #bi #cjg #db #cdg #d #aeh #ag #beg #cj #caj #dc #cej #e #aga #ah #bfb #ca #cad #dd #cec #f #aha #ai #bfg #cb #cag #de #cee #g #aia #bj #bga #cc #cbj #df #ceh #h #bjj #ba #bge #cd #cbc #dg #cfa #i #bjh #bb #bhj #ce #cbf #dh #cfc #aj #bae #bc #bhd #cf #ccj #di #cff #aa #bbb #bd #bhh #cg #ccc #ej #cfh #ab #bbh #be #bib #ch #ccf #ac #bce #bf #bif #ci #cci ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,by this second table1 if the weight of the ball be given1 the size of the mould may be found3 suppose it be eighteen pounds2 opposite to it is the number #bfb4 ,then we say1 by the rule of proportion1 7as #ai-a_/b1 see ,table #a1 is supposed to be divided into a hundred parts7 #ajj 3 #ai-a_/b 3 3 #bfb to the fourth term sought1 viz4 #ea4ji2 which gives for the required caliber #eb lines nearly1 or four inches and four lines4 ,but if the caliber be given in lines1 the weight of the ball may be found3 suppose the given caliber be #cf lines1 then as #ai-a_/b 3 #ajj 3 3 #cf 3 #ahd4 ,the nearest number in the table to this is #aha1 which shows that the weight of the ball will be rather more than #f lbs2 or1 in other words1 that a rocket1 the diameter or caliber of which is thirty-six lines1 is a rocket of a #f lb4 ball4 ,see ,congreve ,rocket4 ,as to moulds to prevent the rockets from splitting in the act of charging them1 ,morel observes1 that he has never used them4 ,he remarks1 that a case which will not resist the force of the charge1 cannot resist the violence of the fire4 ,on the subject of compositions1 he observes1 that he has only employed one formula1 and1 of course1 but one standard proportion for all sized calibers2 and is of opinion1 that it is useless to employ an inferior composition1 or one with which we are unacquainted1 when we have a formula1 on which we may rely4 ,this opinion1 however1 does not agree with that of others4 ,certain rockets1 it is to be remarked1 show tails of fire in their flight1 and others again do not4 ,this depends entirely upon the charcoal2 for1 if we use charcoal1 made from tender and light wood1 it burns rapidly1 without producing a tail of fire2 but if we use the charcoal of oak or of beech1 or of other hard wood1 the rocket will form a brilliant tail of fire1 during the whole period of its ascension4 ,it is said1 however1 that the charcoal of light wood1 is lighter and more inflammable1 and for that reason1 better calculated for rockets2 but1 so far from producing the effect1 we have mentioned1 a quick combustion ensues1 leaving no ignited coal to be acted upon by atmospheric air4 ,it is found by experiment1 that even a little more or a little less powder1 gives to or takes from1 the composition its effective power2 and1 therefore1 that the rockets1 in their flight1 ascend to a greater or less height4 ,some writers have asserted1 that powder ought not to enter into the composition of rockets2 but in lieu thereof1 only its component parts4 ,where1 we may inquire1 is the difference8 ,the reason1 however1 assigned1 is1 that rockets made with gunpowder and the other substances1 will not keep any time1 owing to the powder becoming damp1 and the composition spoiled4 ,but rockets which have been made in ,france and carried to the ,east ,indies1 and brought back1 were found1 on trial1 not to have lost any of their effect4 ,different opinions have also been entertained1 respecting the composition for the charging of rockets4 ,some1 it appears1 would employ a composition for each rocket1 according to its caliber1 pre-supposing1 that the inflamed matter acquired force by the increase of its volume2 without considering1 that a large rocket has more weight than a small one1 and requires more power to raise it4 ,experience has demonstrated1 that a composition which will completely raise a rocket of three-quarters of an inch1 will raise1 under the same circumstances1 a rocket of three inches2 and1 on the contrary1 that the last will ascend more slowly1 in consequence of having to encounter a greater resistance in the air1 owing to its size4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of the ,composition of ,sky-rockets1 and ,observations on its ,preparation1 and on other ,subjects respecting ,rockets4 ,the formul we here give1 which we notice separately from the others1 are on the authority of ,morel1 who1 by experience1 has found them to excel all others4 ,nevertheless1 we purpose to enumerate other formul for the information of the reader4 ,composition of ,sky-,rockets1 according to ,morel4 ,for ,summer4 ,another4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #ag oz4 #b4 ,saltpetre1 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #c -- ,sulphur1 #d -- ,meal-powder1 #a -- ,charcoal1 #g -- ,charcoal of oak1 #h -- ,for ,winter4 ,another4 #c4 ,saltpetre1 #ag oz4 #d4 ,saltpetre1 #dd oz4 ,sulphur1 #c -- ,sulphur1 #d -- ,meal-powder1 #d -- ,charcoal1 #af -- ,charcoal of oak1 #h -- ,another4 ,another4 #e4 ,saltpetre1 #af oz4 #f4 ,sulphur1 #c oz4 ,sulphur1 #b oz4 #c drachms4 ,saltpetre1 #bj -- ,charcoal1 #f oz4 ,charcoal1 #h -- ,chinese ,composition for rockets of honour4 ,saltpetre1 #e ounces4 ,sulphur1 #a ---- ,charcoal1 #b ---- ,meal powder1 #a ---- ,pulverized cast iron1 #b ---- ,two compositions for rockets of any caliber are given by ,bigot2 7p4 #abb72 viz4 ,rockets of ,honour4 ,meal powder1 #b parts4 ,saltpetre1 #aj ---- ,sulphur1 #b ---- ,charcoal1 #e ---- ,cast iron1 pulverized1 #e ---- ,particular ,composition4 ,saltpetre1 #af parts4 ,sulphur1 #d ---- ,charcoal1 #i ---- ,antimony1 #b ---- ,in the old authors on fire-works1 there are a variety of formul for sky-rockets1 which will be found in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,kinds of ,rockets4 ,meal ,salt- ,char- ,steel ,sul- ,,remarks4 powder petre coal phur ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- lb4oz4lb4oz4lb4oz4lb4oz4lb4oz4 ,rockets1 #d oz4 #a #d #j #d #j #b #j #j #j #j ,do4 #h oz4 #a #j #j #d #j #a #j #j #j #c ,do4 do4 #a #h #j #j #j #d #j #j #j #j ,do4 #a lb4 #b #j #j #h #j #b #j #a #j #d ,do4 in general1 #j #j #d #j #a #h #j #j #a #j ,do4 do4 #j #b #d #j #a #ab #j #j #a #h ,do4 large fly1 #a #j #d #j #j #j #j #j #a #j ,do4 of a middling #c #j #h #j #j #j #j #j #c #j size ,do4 do4 #a #j #c #j #a #j #j #j #b #j ,do4 water1 #f #j #d #j #e #j #j #j #c #j ,the proportion of charcoal is cer- tainly too great4 ,do4 do4 #j #j #a #j #j #f #j #j #j #d ,do4 do4 #j #j #a #j #j #ab #j #j #j #d ,do4 do4 #j #j #d #j #a #ab #j #j #a #h ,do4 do4 #d #j #d #j #j #j #j #j #b #j ,do4 do4 #j #d #a #j #j #b #j #j #j #h ,do4 do4 #a #j #c #j #j #h #j #j #a #j ,sea-coal1 #a oz4 saw-dust1 oz4 coarse char4 oz4 ,do4 do4 #a #ab #c #j #j #ab #j #j #a #h ,sawdust1 #b oz4 ,do4 do4 sinking #j #h #j #j #j #ab #j #j #j #j charge1 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the charcoal ought not to be pulverized very fine4 ,it should be passed through a coarse wire sieve1 and the impalpable powder then separated1 by submitting the sifted charcoal to the same operation in a finer sieve4 ,the fine charcoal may be used for small fire-works4 ,the instructions1 heretofore given1 for the mixture of compositions must be attended to2 as1 for instance1 when we have weighed the powder1 nitre1 and sulphur1 the whole are to be incorporated in a mortar1 and then passed three times through a large sieve4 ,afterwards add the charcoal1 which is mixed thoroughly with the hand4 7,see the ,mixture of ,substances1 part second74 ,with respect to the rammers1 the mode of charging1 c4 see section iii1 of part second4 ,in charging cases of half an inch caliber1 fifteen blows with the mallet must be given2 for three-quarters of an inch1 twenty blows2 for one inch1 twenty-five blows2 for one and a quarter inches1 thirty blows2 one and a half inches1 thirty-five blows2 for two inches1 forty blows2 and for three inches1 fifty blows2--that is to say1 the number of blows must be given to each charge put in1 which ought to occupy half the interior diameter of the case4 ,the rammer must be frequently taken out1 and struck1 so as to disengage any of the composition1 which may adhere to it4 ,respecting the accuracy of the charge1 see ,table rocket1 in the chapter on ,table fire-works4 ,the garnishing1 or furniture1 should not exceed1 in any case1 one-third the weight of the rocket4 ,the head is made of pasteboard1 first moistened1 and then rolled round a conical former4 ,it must enter the mould1 and1 when inserted1 ought to be pasted round the juncture with paper4 7,see sec4 iii1 and iv47 ,with respect to rocket sticks1 as they are used for counter-weights1 ,morel remarks1 that1 for rockets up to an inch and a quarter1 they may be formed of the branches of light wood1 as hazle1 elder1 c4 and for rockets above that caliber1 heavy wood1 but perfectly straight and without knots1 may be used4 ,as a general rule1 the sticks are made ten or twelve times the length of the rocket1 and in thickness about one-third of the exterior diameter of the case4 ,in the large end of the stick1 there is a gutter or groove1 formed to receive the rocket4 ,when branches are used1 they must also lie straight1 and cut flat at the large end1 about half their thickness1 so that they may be joined to the rockets with a pack-thread1 or fine iron wire4 ,if the stick is too weighty1 it may be shaved off the whole length4 ,rockets1 we may remark1 that are not well balanced by the stick1 will not ascend regularly4 ,if the stick be too light1 they will rise in a zigzag direction2 but1 if too heavy1 their accelerated force will be diminished1 their motion slow1 and1 when they arrive at a certain height1 they will fall in a semicircular position4 7,see section v1 of this chapter1 on the ,dimensions and ,poise of rocket sticks47 ,we may further remark1 that all rockets are formed and proportioned by the diameter of their orifice4 ,when the height is six and two-thirds diameter1 the foot should be one diameter and two-thirds4 ,the choak of the mould1 if used1 is one diameter and one-third in height1 which must be made out of the same piece as the foot1 and fit tight in the mould4 ,there must be an iron pin to keep the foot fast4 ,the nipple is half a diameter high1 and two-thirds thick1 and made of the same metal as the piercer4 ,the height of the piercer is three and a half diameters1 and at the bottom one-third of a diameter thick1 and from thence tapering to one-sixth of a diameter4 ,the best mode of fixing the piercer in the cylinder1 is to make that part below the nipple sufficiently long to go entirely through the foot1 and rivet at the bottom4 ,the former or roller1 for the cases1 is seven and a half diameters from the handle1 and its diameter is two-thirds of the bore4 ,the end of the former is one diameter and two-thirds long1 and of the thickness given above4 ,the small part1 which fits in the hole in the end of the roller1 when the case is pinched1 is one-sixth and one-fourth of the diameter of the mould thick4 ,the first drift1 or rammer1 must be six diameters from the handle2 and this1 as well as all other rammers1 must be a little thinner than the former1 to prevent the sacking of the paper1 when the charge is driven4 ,in the end of this rammer must be a hole to fit over the piercer4 ,several hollow rammers are used in completing the charge4 7,see our remarks in part second on ,charging of cases47 ,the diameter of the nipple should always be equal to that of the former4 ,with regard to the thickness of moulds1 it is immaterial1 provided they are substantial and strong4 ,solid driving is more expeditious than charging over a piercer2 but great labour and attention is required in boring them1 an account of which1 with the apparatus required1 may be seen in ,part second4 ,the following table of the dimensions of rocket-moulds1 if the rockets are rammed solid1 may be useful4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,length of their ,weight of moulds without ,internal diameter,height of the rockets4 their feet4 of the moulds4 nipples4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- lbs4 oz4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #f #j #cd4g #c4e #a4e #d #j #ch4f #b4i #a4d #b #j #ac4ce #b4a #a4j #a #j #ab4be #a4g #j4he #j #h #aj4abe #a4ccc c4 #j4f #j #d #g4ge #a4abe #j4e #j #b #f4b #j4i #j4de #j #a #d4i #j4g #j4ce #j #j #c4i #j4ee #j4be #f drachms4 #c4e #j4e #j4bbe #d drachms4 #b4a #j4c #j4b ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of the ,heading of ,rockets4 ,the heads for sky-rockets must always bear a given proportion to the rockets4 ,a pointed cap1 adapted to the summit1 will make a rocket ascend to a greater height1 as it serves to facilitate its passage through the air4 ,to these rockets may be added several other things2 as a petard1 which is a box of tin plate1 filled with fine gunpowder1 placed on the summit4 ,the petard is put on the composition1 at the end1 when it has been filled1 and the remaining paper of the cartridge is folded down over it1 to keep it firm4 ,the petard produces its effect1 when the rocket is in the air1 and the composition is consumed4 ,we have already remarked1 that the upper parts of rockets1 that is to say1 their heads1 are generally furnished with some composition1 which takes fire1 when it has reached its greatest height1 emits a considerable blaze1 or produces a loud report and whizzing noise4 ,of this kind are saucissons1 marrons1 stars1 showers of fire1 c4 ,the heads of sky-rockets1 are1 therefore1 furnished with a variety of compositions4 ,when a rocket is five diameters1 and one-sixth in length1 the case being cut to this length1 after it is filled1 the head should be two diameters high1 and one diameter #a_/fth1 and #a_/b in breadth4 ,the perpendicular height of the cone1 or cap of the head1 must be in diameter1 one1 and one-third4 ,there is a circular collar1 to which the head is fixed1 turned out of any light wood2 its exterior diameter must be equal to the interior diameter of the head4 ,one-sixth is sufficient for its thickness1 and round the outside must be a groove4 ,the interior diameter of the collar should not be quite so wide as the exterior diameter of the rocket4 ,when it is to be glued on the rocket1 two or three rounds of paper are to be cut off1 which will make a shoulder for it to rest upon4 ,two or three rounds of paper well pasted1 will be sufficient for the head4 ,put the collar on the mandril1 or former1 which must fit the inside of the cone when formed2 then1 with a pinching cord1 pinch the bottom of the head into the groove1 and tie it with small twine4 ,to make the caps1 cut the paper in round pieces1 equal in diameter to twice the length of the cone1 which is to be made4 ,these pieces1 being cut into halves1 will make two caps each4 ,paste over the caps a thin white paper1 which must be a little longer than the cone1 so as to project about half an inch below the bottom3 this projection of paper being matched and pasted1 serves to fasten the cap to the head1 ,a conical former is used to shape the head4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of the ,decorations for ,rockets1 and the ,manner of filling their ,heads4 ,having1 in the preceding section1 shown the mode of forming heads1 or conical caps1 for rockets1 we may now remark1 that the furniture or decorations for rockets consist of stars of different kinds1 such as tailed1 brilliant1 white1 blue1 yellow1 c4 or gold and silver rain2 or serpents1 crackers1 fire-scrolls1 or shining marrons1 or small rockets2 the kind of the decoration depending entirely upon taste and fancy4 ,in loading the heads of rockets1 a ladleful of powder must be put into each head1 along with the decorations4 ,this is absolutely necessary in order to burst the head and disperse the stars1 c4 ,various experiments have been instituted1 to make rockets1 by employing sundry compositions for charging the cases1 along with the rocket composition1 to produce1 like the heads of rockets1 when they burst1 different appearances4 ,m4 ,morel informs us1 that he made several experiments with that view1 but did not succeed4 ,he ascribes the failure to several causes2 and1 in substance1 concludes1 that such figures have a greater weight than rockets are able to carry2 that their irregular forms and movements produce1 in the ascension1 a contrariety of effects1 which impedes their flight2 and that1 if they were to succeed1 the rapidity1 with which the fuse passes through the air1 would prevent any thing being distinguished4 ,as such exhibitions are shown with effect1 by the bursting of the head of the rocket1 after it has ceased to burn2 we are of opinion1 that the only mode1 which can be adopted1 with success1 is the one already described4 ,for after the rocket has ceased1 or finished1 the last portion of fire is communicated to the head1 containing the decorations1 which is blown off1 and its contents are inflamed and dispersed4 ,it is true1 however1 that1 in some compositions1 stars1 previously made1 and therefore not mixed with the composition1 are put in the cases along with the charge3 ,we have an instance of this in the fire-pump1 ,roman candle1 c4 ,the cases for these are filled in the following order3 first with gunpowder to a certain extent1 then a star1 then composition2 then powder again1 then another star1 and so on alternately1 until the charge is completed2 but1 in this instance1 the star1 as well as the gunpowder1 is distinct from the composition1 which forms the fire-pump4 ,for1 while the composition performs one part1 the gunpowder acts another1 by throwing the stars out1 which1 by their combustion1 give the appearance they are intended to produce4 ,stars may be formed1 or rather exhibited1 in this way1 which1 in fact is much after the manner1 in which they are used for the heads of rockets4 ,but the experiments of ,morel appear to have been made1 with a view to produce that effect from the rocket itself1 and altogether by the composition1 by varying or otherwise modifying it4 ,star-composition1 it must be observed1 is of a greater specific gravity than any ordinary composition1 in consequence of the weight1 and quantity of metallic and other substances1 which enter into it4 ,by arranging stars in cases1 in the mode described for the fire-pump1 the effect1 we have spoken of1 always takes place4 ,in rockets1 however1 which require to be driven with considerable force1 and over a piercer1 they could not be used4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of the ,dimensions and ,poise of ,rocket-sticks4 ,although we have made some observations on the size1 as well as the use of rocket-sticks1 in a general way2 yet the subject being very important1 as rockets1 however well made1 cannot take a vertical direction without them1 we subjoin the following table1 which exhibits1 at one view1 the length1 c4 of the stick1 compared with the weight of the rocket1 and the poise it must necessarily have from the point of the cone4 ,the centre of gravity is a necessary consideration4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,weight ,poise from of the ,length of ,thickness ,breadth ,square at the point of rocket4 the stick4 at top4 at top4 bottom4 the cone4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- lbs4 oz4 ,ft4 ,in4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,ft4 ,in4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #f #j #ad #j #a4e #a4he #j4ge #d #a4e #d #j #ab #aj #a4be #a4dj #j4fbe #c #i4 #b #j #i #d #a4abe #a4 #j4ebe #b #i4 #a #j #h #b #j4gbe #j4hj #j4cge #b #a4 #j #h #f #f #j4e #j4gj #j4be #a #aj4e #j #d #e #c #j4cgej #j4ee #j4ce #a #h4e #j #b #d #a #j4c #j4de #j4ae #a #c4 #c #a #b #f #j4be #j4ce #j4aj #aa #j4 #j #j #b #d #j4abe #j4bj #j4af #h #j4 #j #j #a #aj #j4a #j4ae #j4e #e #j4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- 9999 ,transcriber ,note3 the last three rows of this table have many typos4 ,the rows were probably intended to be as follows3 #j #a #b #f #j4be #j4ce #j4aj #a #a4 #j #j #b #d #j4abe #j4bj #j4af #j #h4 #j #j #a #aj #j4a #j4ae #j4e #j #e4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- 9999 end of ,transcribers ,note 9999 ,the last column expresses the distance from the top of the cone1 where the stick1 when tied on1 should balance the rocket1 so as to stand in equilibrium on the edge of a knife4 ,having given the method of preparing sticks1 nothing more is necessary on that head1 except that they should be cut and planed according to the dimensions in the table4 ,a groove must be made the length of the rocket1 and as broad as the stick will allow4 ,two notches may be cut on the opposite flat side1 for the cord which ties on the rocket4 ,the top of the stick should always touch the head4 ,in fixing on the stick1 care must be taken to secure it well4 ,it is the stick which gives a proper counterpoise1 without which the rockets would not ascend2 and1 unless they were of a proper length and weight1 instead of taking a vertical or perpendicular direction1 they would describe a parabola1 or take an oblique course1 and fall to the ground4 ,a rocket stick may be made for any sized rocket1 although not expressed in the table1 by assuming the data there given1 taking care to find the centre of gravity4 ,for the sticks for war-rockets1 see ,congreve ,rocket4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of the ,mode of ,discharging ,rockets4 ,having completely prepared the rockets with all their appendages1 we consider in the next place the manner of discharging them2 in performing which some care is to be observed4 ,the old and heretofore common manner1 of setting them off by hanging them on nails and hooks1 has many objections4 ,the best mode is to have a ring made of strong iron wire1 large enough for the stick to go in1 as far as the mouth of the rockets4 ,then let this ring be supported by a small iron1 at some distance from the post or stand1 to which it is fixed2 and have another ring fixed in the same manner1 to receive and guide the small end of the stick4 ,rockets1 thus suspended1 will have nothing to obstruct their flight4 ,the upright1 to which the rings are fixed by the small iron1 must be exactly vertical4 ,two1 three1 or more sky-rockets may be fixed on one stick1 and fired together4 ,their appearance1 in this case1 is very striking4 ,their tails will seem but as one of immense size1 and the discharge from so many heads1 at the same time1 will resemble more the effect of an air balloon4 ,rockets1 for this purpose1 must be made alike in every particular4 ,if the rockets are half-pounders1 whose sticks are six and a half feet long1 then two1 or three1 or six of these are to be fixed to one stick1 the length of which must be nine feet and three-quarters4 ,cut the top of it into as many sides as there are rockets1 and let the length of each side be equal to the length of one of the rockets without its head2 and in each of these sides1 let a groove be made4 ,from this groove1 plane it round1 down to the end4 ,the rule is1 that the stick at top must be sufficiently thick1 when the grooves are cut1 for all the rockets to lie as near as possible1 without pressing each other4 ,when only two rockets are to be fixed on one stick1 let the length of the stick be the last given proportion1 but shaped after the common method1 and the breadth and thickness1 double the usual dimensions4 ,when several rockets are placed upon one stick1 there will be some danger of their flying up without the stick4 ,cases1 when tied on all sides of the stick1 cannot be secured to it by rope passing over notches as before mentioned4 ,instead of which1 drive a small nail in each side of the stick1 between the necks of the cases2 and let the cord1 which goes round their necks1 be brought close under the nails4 ,a quick match1 without a pipe1 is to be fixed to the mouth of one rocket1 and carried to another4 ,this match will communicate fire at one and the same time4 ,there is a mode of discharging sky-rockets without sticks1 which consists in using balls of lead tied to a wire two or three feet long1 and fixing the other end of the wire to the neck of the rocket4 ,these balls answer the purpose of sticks1 when made of a proper weight1 which is about #b_/c;ds the weight of the rocket4 ,they will balance the rocket at the usual point4 ,to fire rockets1 thus equipped1 a different mode must be adopted4 ,they are hung1 one at a time1 between the tops of wires placed for that purpose1 letting their heads rest on the wire1 and the balls hang down between them4 ,the wires are about three feet long1 and inserted in a circle1 in a block of wood1 which must lie level1 and the wires perfectly vertical4 ,the diameter of the circle is two and a half inches2 it is divided into three equal parts1 and at each one is a rod or wire4 ,we may introduce here a description of the stands for sky-rockets1 and the girandole chests for the flights of rockets4 ,the first is formed of two rails of wood1 of any length1 supported at each end by a perpendicular leg1 so that the rails lie horizontal2 and let the distance from one to the other be almost equal to the length of the sticks of the rockets1 intended to be fired4 ,then in the front of the top rail1 drive square hooks at eight inches distance1 with their points turning sidewise2 so that1 when the rockets are hung on them1 the points will be below the sticks1 and keep them from falling or being blown off by the wind4 ,at the front of the rail at the bottom must be staples1 driven perpendicularly under the hooks at top4 ,through these staples put the small ends of the rocket-sticks4 ,they are fired by applying a lighted port-fire to their mouths4 ,two or three seconds will expire before they ascend4 ,the girandole chest is composed of four sides of equal dimensions2 but may be made of any size1 according to the number of rockets to be fired4 ,its height must be in proportion to the rockets1 and higher than the rockets with their sticks4 ,when the sides are joined1 fix in the top1 as far down the chest as the length of one of the rockets with its cap on4 ,on this top1 make as many square or round holes1 to receive the rocket-sticks1 as the number of rockets to be fired2 but let the distance between them be sufficient to prevent their touching each other4 ,from one hole to another cut a groove of a sufficient size for a quick match to lie in4 ,the top being thus fixed1 put in the bottom1 at about #a-a_/b feet distance from the feet of the chest4 ,in this bottom1 make as many holes as at the top1 and all to correspond1 but not so large as those in the top4 ,to prepare the chest1 a quick match is laid in all the grooves1 from hole to hole4 ,then take the sky-rockets1 and prime them with meal-powder1 or priming paste1 as before-mentioned1 and put a bit of match up the cavity of each1 which should project out4 ,put the sticks of the rockets through the holes in the top and bottom of the chest1 so that their mouths may rest on the quick match in the grooves4 ,the rockets will then be fired at once4 ,there should be a door in the side of the chest1 and also a cover1 to secure the rockets until they are required4 ,the fountain of rockets1 an exhibition which frequently accompanies a display of works1 is nothing more than a number of rockets discharged at the same time4 ,there are some improvements on the girandole chest1 and on the different modes of discharging a series of rockets4 ,we may mention one contrivance for this purpose1 as described by ,morel4 ,it is an oblong box furnished with a double lid1 which1 when shut1 resembles the roof of a house4 ,this box is sixty inches in length1 ten inches in breadth1 and nine inches in height4 ,it rests upon a frame1 and has a bottom in which are one-hundred holes1 to receive the same number of rocket-sticks1 the rockets resting on the bottom of the box4 ,the lid serves to prevent the access of moisture1 and to secure the rockets4 ,no part of the rocket is seen in the box4 ,they are set off by first strewing meal-powder on the bottom1 which is then in contact with their mouths1 and applying a lighted port-fire4 ,they rise out of the box all together1 and at the same time4 ,when fired together1 so as to form a flight of rockets1 the ,french use them of three-quarters of an inch caliber4 ,the girandole may be considered an assemblage of a large number of rockets of various calibers1 arranged in gradation2 the largest1 occupying the first range1 c4 ,the girandole constitutes1 as a fire-work1 in the language of ,morel1 the feux de gouvernement4 ,similar to this is a contrivance for the same purpose1 but not so extensive1 and rather differently formed4 ,it consists of a case1 in which there are holes to receive the sticks and support the rockets4 ,the case is supported by legs2 two of which1 working upon a joint1 may be extended1 and thus the rockets be made to move in any angular direction4 ,the inclination given is hardly ever more than #ee degrees4 ,the legs are pointed1 so as to retain their position4 ,if the rockets are to ascend vertically1 the two legs1 which move in a joint1 are closed4 ,they are stuck in the ground at the same place4 ,for the mode of discharging the ,congreve ,rocket1 see the article on ,congreve ,rockets4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of the ,appendages1 and ,combinations of ,rockets4 ,we purpose to notice1 in this section1 some of the modes of arranging1 combining1 and also of varying the effects of rockets4 ,when a sky-rocket is fixed with its stick on the top of another1 a fresh tail of fire will be observable1 when the second rocket takes fire1 which will mount to a great height4 ,the preparation of these rockets consists in filling a two pounder only half a diameter above the piercer1 7which must be observed in this instance17 and its head with not more than ten or twelve stars2 adapting a stick as usual1 which must be made a little thicker than customary4 ,this stick must be cut in half the way flat1 and in each half a groove1 so that1 when joined together1 they will receive1 and be large enough to hold the stick of a half pound rocket4 ,the heading is then performed as before described4 ,the stick of this small rocket is to be fixed in the hollow of the large one1 so far that the mouth of the rocket may rest on the head of the two pounder2 and1 from the head of the two pounder1 a leader is to be carried into the mouth of the small rocket4 ,when sky-rockets are fixed one on the top of another1 they are called towering rockets1 on account of the great height to which they ascend4 ,they are made in the following manner3 ,fix on a pound rocket1 a head without a collar2 then take a four-ounce rocket1 which may be headed or bounced1 and rub the mouth of it with priming paste1 or meal-powder and spirits of wine4 ,put it into the head of a large rocket with its mouth downwards1 previously1 however1 inserting a bit of quick match in the hole made through the clay of the pound-rocket1 which match should be of a sufficient length to go a small distance up the bore of the small rocket1 to fire it when the large one is burnt out4 ,the four-ounce rocket being too small to fill the head of the other1 roll round it as much tow as will make it stand upright in the centre of the head4 ,then paste a single paper round the opening of the top of the head of the large rocket4 ,the large rocket must have only half a diameter of charge rammed above the piercer2 for1 if filled to the usual height1 it would turn before the small one takes fire1 and entirely destroy the intended effect4 ,when one rocket is headed with another1 there will be no occasion for any blowing powder2 for the force with which it flies off will be sufficient to disengage it from the head of the first fired rocket4 ,the sticks for these rockets must be a little longer than for those headed with stars1 rain1 c4 ,the caduceus rockets are formed of two rockets4 ,when attached1 one on each side at the top of the stick1 they form a right angle1 their mouths being equidistant from the stick4 ,the sticks1 for this purpose1 must have all their sides alike1 which should be equal to the breadth of a stick1 proper for a sky-rocket of the same weight as those intended to be used1 and to taper downwards as usual4 ,they must be long enough to balance them1 and one length of a rocket from the cross-stick4 ,the cross-stick is that to which the cases are tied1 and serves to preserve them steady in that position4 ,each rocket1 when tied on1 should form either an angle of #de1 or #fj degrees with the large stick1 or both together an angle of #ij or #abj degrees4 ,the last1 however1 is considered a preferable angle4 ,when tying on the rockets1 attention ought to be paid to place their heads on the opposite sides of the cross-stick1 and their ends on the opposite sides of the long stick4 ,quick-match is then to be carried from the mouth of one into that of the other4 ,when these rockets are to be fired1 suspend them between two hooks or nails1 and apply fire to the leader in the middle1 and both will take fire at the same time4 ,the particular effect of this rocket is1 that1 in rising1 it forms two spiral lines1 or double worms1 in consequence of their oblique position2 and the counterpoise in the middle 7the stick7 causes them to ascend vertically4 ,rockets1 for this purpose1 must have their ends choaked close1 without either head or bounce2 for a weight at top would be an obstruction to their mounting4 ,they do not rise so high as single rockets1 because of their serpentine motion1 and the resistance they meet with in passing through the air4 ,this resistance is greater than two rockets of the same size fired singly4 ,honorary rockets are nothing more than sky-rockets1 except that they carry neither head nor report4 ,they are closed at top1 to which is attached a cone4 ,on the case1 close to the top of the stick1 a two-ounce case is tied4 ,this last is filled with a strong charge1 and is usually about five or six inches in length1 and pinched close at both ends4 ,at the opposite sides1 at each end1 a hole must be bored1 in the same manner as in tourbillons2 and from each hole1 a leader must be carried into the top of the rocket4 ,when the rocket is fired1 and has arrived at its proper height1 it will communicate fire to the case at the top1 which will cause the rocket and stick to descend very fast to the ground1 and1 in its descent1 will represent a worm of fire4 ,there are several modes of placing the small case1 so as to produce the best effect4 ,one is by letting the stick rise a little above the top of the rocket1 and tying the case to it1 so as to rest on the rocket4 ,these rockets are not furnished with cones4 ,another method is also recommended2 namely1 in the top of the rocket1 fix a piece of wood1 in which drive a small iron spindle2 then make a hole in the middle of the small case1 through which put the spindle1 and fix1 on the top of it1 a nut1 to keep the case from falling off4 ,the case1 by this means1 will turn very fast1 without the rocket4 ,this method1 however1 is not preferred4 ,one-pound rockets are considered the best size for this purpose4 ,chained rockets1 as they are sometimes called1 are another modification of the manner of fixing rockets2 for the intention is to make several sky-rockets rise in the same direction1 and equally distant from each other4 ,this effect is produced in the following manner3 ,take six1 or any number of sky-rockets1 of any size2 then cut some strong pack-thread into pieces of three or four yards long1 and tie each end of these pieces to a rocket in this way2--after tying one end of the pack-thread round the body of one rocket1 and the other end to another1 take a second piece of pack-thread1 and make one end of it fast to one of the rockets already tied1 and the other end to a third rocket2 so that all the rockets1 except the outside1 will be fastened to two pieces of pack thread4 ,the length of thread1 from one rocket to the other1 is indeterminate4 ,they must all be of a size1 and their heads filled with the same weight of stars1 or other decorations4 ,in the mouth of each rocket1 a leader is to be fixed of the same length1 and when fixed1 they may be hung almost close4 ,tie the ends of the leaders together1 and prime them3 ,when this is fixed1 all the rockets will mount at the same time1 and separate as far as the strings will admit4 ,they will preserve the same order and distance1 if they are rammed alike1 and equally well made4 ,the manner of dividing the tail of a sky-rocket1 so as to form an arch when ascending1 is thus performed4 ,having some rockets made1 and headed according to fancy1 and tied on their sticks1 get some sheet tin1 and cut it into round pieces of about three or four inches in diameter4 ,then1 on the stick of each rocket1 under the mouth of the case1 fix one of these pieces of tin1 sixteen inches from the head of the rocket1 and support it by a wooden bracket as strong as possible4 ,the use of this is1 that1 when the rocket is ascending1 the fire will play with great force on the tin1 which will divide the tail in such a manner1 as to form an arch4 ,if there is a short piece of port-fire1 of a strong charge1 tied to the end of the stick1 it will add greatly to the appearance2 but this must be lighted before fire is put to the rocket4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,swarmers1 or ,small ,rockets4 ,although swarmers are nothing more than rockets of a smaller size1 as from two ounces downwards1 and are charged with the usual rocket composition1 which we have described2 yet it may be necessary to make some remarks respecting them4 ,swarmers are sometimes fired in flights1 or in a volley1 and in large aquatic fire-works4 ,they are bored in the same manner as large rockets1 or pierced in the act of charging them4 ,this is the case with those of one and two ounces4 ,all rockets1 however1 under one ounce1 are not bored1 but must be filled to the usual height with composition4 ,the number of strokes for ramming these small swarmers is not material1 provided they are rammed true and moderately hard4 ,the necks of unbored rockets must be in the same proportion as in common cases4 ,the composition1 with which small swarmers are charged1 generally consists of ,meal-powder1 #d oz4 ,charcoal1 or steel-dust1 oz4 ,as to the swarmers which are pierced1 or bored1 viz4 those of one and two ounces2 they are made1 we observed1 in the same manner as large rockets1 with the exception1 that1 when headed1 their heads must be put on without a collar4 ,the number of strokes for driving one-ounce cases must be eight1 and for two-ounce1 twelve4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of ,scrolls for ,sky-,rockets1 and of ,strung1 ,tailed1 ,drove1 and ,rolling ,stars4 ,we have given1 in a preceding chapter1 the composition of various stars1 which are used for the decoration of sky-rockets1 and other species of fire-works4 ,we shall1 therefore1 confine ourselves to their application1 and the different modes of preparing them for this purpose4 ,scrolls are used as furniture1 or decorations for sky-rockets1 and are so named from the spiral form they assume1 when fired very quick in the air4 ,we may put into the head of a rocket1 as many of the cases as it will contain4 ,cases for scrolls should be four or five inches in length1 and their interior diameter1 three-eighths of an inch4 ,one end of these cases must be pinched quite close before it is filled2 and1 when filled1 the other end must also be closed4 ,then1 in the opposite sides1 make a small hole at each end1 in the same manner as in tourbillons1 and prime them with priming paste1 or meal-powder and brandy4 ,strung ,stars1 so named from having a cotton quick match run through them1 are formed by taking some thin paper1 and cutting it into pieces of about one and a half inches square1 and laying on each piece1 as much dry star composition as the paper1 when folded1 will easily contain4 ,the paper1 with its contents1 is then twisted up as hard as possible4 ,when done1 rub some paste between the hands1 and roll the stars between them1 and afterwards dry them4 ,they are then covered with tow1 and primed with a paste composed of meal powder1 and brandy1 in which they may be rolled in the same manner as described when treating of stars4 ,they are then dried and strung on cotton quickmatch1 by piercing a hole through them1 taking care to put but ten or twelve on each match1 and placing them at the distance of three or four inches apart4 ,tailed stars are those which produce a great many sparks1 representing a tail like that of a comet4 ,of these1 there are two kinds1 the rolled and the drove4 ,the operation for the rolling of stars1 we have sufficiently explained2 it consists in mixing the composition with brandy1 or1 if it can be had1 with spirit of wine1 and either weak gum water1 or isinglass size1 sufficient to make a thick paste2 and then rolling it4 ,when tailed stars are to be driven1 the composition must be moistened with spirit of wine1 or if it cannot be had1 with fourth proof brandy1 without the gum1 or gelatin1 and not made so wet as for rolling4 ,one or two-ounce cases1 rolled dry1 are best for this purpose2 and when they are filled1 unroll the cases within three or four rounds of the charge1 and all that is unrolled must be cut off4 ,then paste down the loose edge2 and in two or three days afterwards1 cut them in pieces of five or six-eighths of an inch in length2 then melt some wax1 and dip one end of each piece into it1 so as to cover the composition4 ,the other end must be covered with priming paste4 ,drove stars are so designated1 because the composition is always drove1 and used in cases4 ,they are seldom put in rockets1 but are chiefly used for air-balloons4 ,they are put in cases1 to prevent the composition from being broken1 by the force of the blowing powder in the shell4 ,see ,air-,balloons4 ,with respect to rolling stars1 we gave1 in our chapter on star compositions1 not only the proportion of their constituent parts1 but ample instructions for preparing them for use4 ,they are usually about the size of a musket ball2 but sometimes they are made an inch in diameter4 ,when very small1 they are called sparks4 ,see ,stars4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,of ,line-,rockets and their ,decorations4 ,line-rockets are the same as the courantines of the ,french1 or rockets that fly along a rope4 ,if a rocket be attached to an empty case1 and a rope passed through the latter1 and stretched horizontally2 and if the rocket be then set on fire1 it will run along the rope1 without stopping till the matter it contains is exhausted4 ,line-rockets do not differ materially from sky-rockets1 as they are made and driven like them2 but they are without heads1 and the cases are cut close to the clay4 ,they are sometimes made with six or seven changes4 ,four or five1 however1 are the most common4 ,we must first have a piece of light wood1 turned round1 about two and a half inches in diameter1 with a hole through the middle1 lengthwise1 and sufficiently large for a wire to go easily through4 ,if four changes are required1 four grooves must be cut in the swivel1 one opposite the other1 to lay the rockets in4 ,having rubbed the mouths of the rockets with wet meal powder1 lay them in the grooves1 head to tail1 and tie them fast4 ,from the tail of the first rocket1 carry a leader to the mouth of the second1 and from the second to the third1 and so on to as many as there are on the swivel1 making every leader very secure2 but in fixing these pipes1 care must be taken1 that the quick match does not enter the calibers of the rockets4 ,the rockets being fixed on the swivel and ready to be fired1 have a line1 #ajj yards long1 stretched1 and fixed up tight1 at any height from the ground1 but placed perfectly horizontal4 ,this length of line will answer for half-pound rockets1 but1 if larger1 the line must be longer4 ,one end of the line1 before it is put up1 is to be put through the swivel2 and when the line-rocket is fired1 let the mouth of that rocket1 which is set off first1 face that end of the line where the operator stands1 and the effect will follow in succession1 viz3 the first rocket will carry the rest to the other end of the line1 the second will bring them back1 and they will continue running out and in1 according to the number of rockets4 ,at each end of the line1 there must be a piece of wood for the rocket to strike against1 to prevent injury to the line4 ,let the line be well soaped1 and the hole in the swivel very smooth4 ,in order to vary the appearance1 different decorations may be used with the line-rockets2 of these1 flying dragons1 ,mercuries1 c4 are the most conspicuous4 ,another motion may be given to them1 that of revolving1 in the following manner3 ,have a flat swivel1 made very exact1 and tie on it two rockets obliquely1 one on each side2 which will make it turn the whole length of the line1 and form a circle of fire4 ,the charge for these rockets1 should be a little weaker than that usually employed4 ,it is apparent1 that a variety of figures may be put in motion1 and consequently new appearances formed1 by different contrivances4 ,to represent1 for instance1 two fighting dragons1 we must have two swivels1 made square2 and on each swivel1 tie three rockets together1 on the under side4 ,then having two flying dragons1 made of tin1 fix one of them on the top of each swivel1 so as to stand upright1 and in the mouth of each dragon1 put a case of common fire2 and another at the end of the tail4 ,two or three port-fires may also be put on the sides of their bodies to illuminate them ,put them on the line1 one at each end2 but let there be a swivel in the middle of the line1 to keep the figures from striking together4 ,before the rockets are fired1 light the cases on the dragons1 and1 if care be taken in firing both at the same time1 they will meet in the middle of the line4 ,they will then turn1 and run back with great violence4 ,the line for these rockets1 must be very long4 ,sec4 ,,xi4 ,of ,signal ,sky-,rockets4 ,signal rockets seldom exceed a pound in weight4 ,those which are employed in the land and sea service1 are sometimes capped1 or headed1 and contain stars1 serpents1 c4 ,two sorts of signals are used when artificial works are to be exhibited2 namely1 one with serpents1 and the other without4 ,rockets which are to be bounced1 must have their cases made one and a half or two diameters longer than the common proportion1 and1 after they are filled1 a small quantity of clay is put in4 ,then bounce and pinch them in the usual manner1 and fix on each a cap4 ,signal sky-rockets1 without bouncers1 are only sky-rockets closed and capped4 ,these are very light1 and1 therefore1 do not require such heavy sticks as those with loaded heads4 ,signal rockets1 with reports1 are fired in small flights2 and are often1 as well as those without reports1 used for signals of the commencement of an exhibition of fire-works4 ,signal rockets may be seen at a great distance1 and observed instantly1 when neither flags nor telegraphs could be observed without glasses2 and may be so formed1 as even to communicate particular orders or intelligence1 by varying their decorations1 their mode of ascension1 as in the caduceus rocket1 and by several other means4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,of ,,sundry ,,fire-,,works1 ,,denominated ,,air-,,works4 ,before we notice the various kinds of wheel-works1 and their appendages1 we purpose to consider the formation of gerbes1 air-balloons1 mortars1 bombs1 tourbillons1 aigrettes1 and some other works4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of the ,composition and ,mode of forming large and small ,gerbes4 ,in preparing cases for gerbes1 it is necessary that they should be made strong2 as they would be liable to burst1 on account of the strength of the composition1 which comes out with great velocity4 ,they should be of the same thickness at top and bottom1 and the paper well pasted4 ,their necks should be long1 in which case1 the iron would have more time to be heated1 by meeting with more resistance in its disengagement1 than if the neck was shorter2 for then it would be burnt too wide before the charge was consumed4 ,long necks will throw the stars to a greater height1 which will not fall before they are spent4 ,they should rise and spread in such a manner as to resemble a wheat-sheaf4 ,gerbes are generally made about six diameters long1 from the bottom to the top of the neck4 ,their caliber must be one-fifth narrower at top than at bottom4 ,their neck is one-sixth diameter1 and three-fourths long4 ,there is a wooden foot or stand1 on which the gerbe rests4 ,this may be made with a choak or cylinder1 four or five inches long1 to fit the inside of the case1 or with a hole in it to put in the gerbe3 both these methods will answer the same end4 ,in the charging of gerbes1 there will be no need of a mould1 the cases being sufficiently strong to support themselves4 ,before this operation is commenced1 we must be provided with a piece of wood made to fit in the neck4 ,if this precaution is not used1 the composition will fall into the neck1 and occasion a vacancy in the case1 which will inevitably burst it1 the moment the fire reaches the air4 ,a weak composition should be put in at first1 to the quantity of one or two ladles full4 ,after the case is filled1 take out the piece of wood1 and fill the neck with slow charge4 ,small gerbes1 or white fountains1 as they are sometimes called1 are usually made of four1 eight1 or sixteen ounce cases1 of any length1 taking care to paste1 and otherwise make them very strong4 ,before they are filled1 however1 drive in clay one diameter of their orifice high4 ,when filled1 bore a hole through the centre of the clay to the composition4 ,the ordinary proportion will answer for the vent1 which must be primed with a slow charge4 ,large gerbes are made by their diameters1 and their cases at bottom one-fourth thick4 ,the interior diameter of a gerbe is found1 by supposing the exterior diameter of the case1 when made1 to be five inches1 by taking two-fourths for the sides of the case1 and there will remain two and a half inches for the bore4 ,gerbes produce a brilliant fire1 and appear remarkably beautiful1 when a number of them are fixed in front of a building4 ,the composition of gerbes is similar to that of the ,chinese fire4 ,it is to the cast-iron1 which enters into it1 that its beautiful effects are to be ascribed4 ,in fact1 the composition of ,chinese fire differs considerably1 as we shall notice1 when we treat of it1 according to the purpose for which it is employed4 ,it is adapted1 for instance1 in various proportions of its constituent parts1 to calibers of different diameters1 cascades1 representation of palm trees1 as well as for large and small gerbes4 ,the old formula for gerbes is the following4 ,composition for ,gerbes4 ,meal-powder1 #f lbs4 ,beat cast-iron1 #b lbs4 #a oz4 ,the present formula1 as we remarked when speaking of compositions for calibers from three-quarters of an inch to an inch1 is saltpetre #a oz1 sulphur #a oz1 meal-powder #h oz1 charcoal #a oz1 and pulverized cast-iron #h oz4 ,the vivid and rapid combustion which ensues1 when this composition is inflamed1 cannot be accounted for in any other way1 than that the nitre is acted upon by the sulphur1 the charcoal1 and the iron2 that the gunpowder1 during its combustion1 raises the temperature to the degree necessary for the decomposition of the nitre by the substances mentioned2 that sulphurous and probably sulphuric acid1 as well as carbonic acid1 are generated1 by the union of the sulphur and carbon with a part of the oxygen of the nitre2 that the iron undergoes a combustion1 both in contact with the nitre and with atmospheric air2 and1 lastly1 that the effect1 which characterizes this composition1 and other similar compositions1 into which cast-iron enters1 as in the celebrated ,chinese fire1 is to be attributed to the iron2 and the appearance which iron assumes1 when in a state of combustion1 is owing to no other cause than its rapid combination with oxygen1 by which the metal is oxidized4 7,see ,iron1 in ,part ,i47 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,paper ,mortars4 ,it may not be improper1 in this place1 to give the manner of forming paper mortars4 ,these mortars are necessary for a variety of exhibitions1 as will appear hereafter4 ,mortars are made of stout paper2 or several sheets are pasted together1 and made into pasteboard1 in the manner before described4 7,see ,pasteboard47 ,the preparations are various according to the size required4 ,for a coehorn mortar1 which is #d inches and #b_/eths in diameter1 roll the pasteboard on the former1 on which it is made1 #a_/fth of its diameter thick1 and1 when dry1 cut one end smooth and even2 then nail and glue it on the upper part of the foot4 ,afterwards cut off the pasteboard at the top1 allowing for the length of the mortar1 two and a half diameters from the mouth of the powder chamber4 ,the mortar is then bound round with a strong cord1 wetted with glue4 ,the bottom of the foot1 it being turned out of elm1 is one diameter and two thirds broad1 and one diameter high1 and the part which goes into the mortar is two-thirds of its diameter in height4 ,the copper chamber for the powder1 which is separate from this1 is made in a conical form1 and is one-third of the diameter wide1 and one and a half of its own diameter long4 ,in the centre of the bottom of this chamber1 make a small hole1 a short distance down the foot2 this hole must be met by another of the same size1 made in the side of the foot4 ,if these holes are made true1 and a copper pipe fitted into both1 the mortar1 when loaded1 will prime itself2 for the powder will naturally fall to the bottom of the first hole4 ,by putting a piece of quick match to the side1 it will be prepared for firing4 ,when mortars of a larger size than ten inches in diameter are required1 it is better to have them made of brass4 ,see further observations on this subject in section seventh of this chapter1 in the article on fire-pots4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,mortars to throw ,aigrettes1 c4 ,shells are filled with a variety of pyro-preparations1 as stars1 rains1 serpents1 c4 ,these are put in first1 and then the blowing powder1 as it is called2 but the shells must not be quite filled4 ,they must be introduced into the shells through the fuse hole4 ,some substances1 however1 as marrons1 being too large to go through the fuse hole1 must be put in before the shell is closed4 ,when the shells are loaded1 glue and drive in the fuses very tight4 ,with respect to the diameter of the fuse hole2 for a coehorn balloon1 let the diameter be seven-eighths of an inch2 for a balloon1 five and a half inches in diameter1 make the fuse hole one inch and one-sixth in diameter2 for an eight-inch balloon1 one inch and three-eighths2 and for a ten-inch balloon1 one inch and five-eighths4 ,air-balloons are divided1 according to the substances they contain1 or the effect they are to produce1 and are usually of four kinds2 namely1 #a4 ,illuminated air-balloons1 #b4 ,balloons of serpents1 #c4 ,balloons of reports1 marrons1 and crackers1 #d4 ,compound balloons4 ,balloons and shells1 in fire-works1 are the same4 ,in the following view of the different balloons1 we have given the number and quantity of each article for the different shells1 designating their kind and character3 ,coehorn balloon ,illuminated4 ,meal-powder1 #a oz4 ,grain1 do4 -- ,powder for the mortar1 #b -- ,length of the fuse composition1 three-quarters of an inch3 #a oz4 drove or rolled stars1 as many as will nearly fill the shell4 ,coehorn balloon of ,serpents4 ,meal-powder1 #a oz4 ,grain1 do4 -- ,powder for the mortar1 #b -- ,length of the fuse composition #ac_/afths of an inch3 half-ounce cases1 driven three diameters1 and bounced three diameters1 and half-ounce cases1 driven two diameters and bounced four diameters1 of each1 an equal quantity2 and as many of them as will fit in easily1 placed head to tail4 ,coehorn balloons of ,crackers and ,reports4 ,meal-powder1 #a oz4 ,grain1 do4 do4 ,powder for the mortar1 #b do4 ,length of the fuse composition #c_/d of an inch2 reports #d1 and crackers of six bounces1 as many as will fill the shell4 ,compound ,coehorn ,balloons4 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #a #d ,corn1 do4 #j #ab ,powder for the mortar1 #b #d ,length of the fuse composition #ac_/afths of an inch3 #a_/b oz4 cases driven #c-a_/b diameters1 and bounced #b1 #af2 #a_/b ounce cases driven #d diameters and not bounced1 #aj2 rolled stars1 as many as will complete the balloon4 ,balloons illuminated 7,republican74 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #a #h ,grain1 do4 #j #ab ,powder for the mortar1 #c #j ,length of the fuse composition #ae_/afths of an inch2 #b oz4 strung stars1 #cd2 rolled stars1 as many as the shell will contain1 allowing for the length of the fuse4 ,balloon for ,serpents1 7,republican74 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #a ,grain1 do4 #a #h ,powder for the mortar1 #c #h ,length of the fuse composition1 #a inch2 #a oz4 cases driven #c-a_/b and #d diameters1 and bounced #b1 of each an equal quantity1 sufficient to load the shell4 ,balloons with crackers and ,marrons4 7,rep47 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #a #h ,corn powder1 #a #d ,powder for the mortar1 #c ,length of the fuse composition #ad_/afths of an inch2 reports #ab2 to be completed with crackers of #h bounces4 ,compound balloons 7,republican74 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #a #e ,corn powder1 #a #f ,powder for the mortar1 #c #ab ,length of the fuse composition1 one-inch2 #a_/b ounce cases driven and bounced #b diameters1 #h2 #b oz4 cases filled #c_/hths of an inch with star-composition1 and bounced #b diameters1 #h2 silver rain falls1 ten2 #b oz4 tailed stars1 #af2 rolled brilliant stars1 #cj4 ,if this should not be sufficient to load the shell1 it may be completed with gold rain falls4 ,eight-inch balloons ,illuminated4 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #b #h ,grain powder1 #a #d ,powder for the mortar1 #i ,length of the fuse composition1 one inch and #a_/hth2 #b oz4 drove stars1 #dh2 #b oz4 cases1 driven with star composition1 #c_/hths of an inch1 and bounced #c diameters1 #ab2 and the balloon completed with #b oz4 drove brilliant stars4 ,eight-inch ,balloons of ,serpents4 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #b #j ,corn powder1 #b #j ,powder for the mortar1 #i #h ,length of the fuse composition1 #a inch and #c_/afths2 #b oz4 cases driven one and a half diameters1 and bounced #b1 and one-ounce cases driven #b diameters1 and bounced #b-a_/b2 of each an equal quantity1 sufficient for the shell4 ,we may remark1 that the star composition1 driven in bounced cases1 must be managed in the following manner3 ,first1 the cases must be pinched close at one end1 then the corn-powder put in for a report1 and the case pinched again close to the powder1 only leaving a small vent for the star-composition1 which is driven at top1 to communicate to the powder at the bounce end4 ,compound eight-inch ,balloon4 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #b #h ,corn powder1 #a #ab ,powder for the mortar1 #i #d ,length of the fuse composition1 #a_/hth of an inch2 #d oz4 cases1 driven with star composition1 #c_/hth of an inch1 and bounced #c diameters1 #af2 #b oz4 tailed stars1 #af2 #b oz4 drove brilliant stars1 #ab2 silver rain falls1 #bj2 #a oz4 drove blue stars #bj2 and #a oz4 cases driven and bounced1 two diameters1 as many as will fill the shell4 ,another of eight-inches4 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #b #h ,corn1 do4 #a #ab ,powder for the mortar1 #i #d ,length of the fuse composition1 #a inch and #a_/hth2 crackers of six reports1 #aj2 gold rains1 #ad2 #b oz4 cases driven with star composition1 #c_/afths of an inch1 and bounced #b diameters1 #af2 #b oz4 tailed stars1 #af2 #b oz4 drove brilliant stars1 #ab2 silver rains1 #aj2 #a oz4 drove blue stars1 #bj2 and #a ounce cases1 driven with brilliant charge1 #b diameters1 and bounced #c1 as many as the shell will hold4 ,a compound ten-inch ,balloon4 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #c #d ,corn powder1 #b #h ,powder for the mortar1 #ab #h ,length of the fuse composition #ae_/afths of an inch2 #a oz4 cases driven and bounced #c diameters1 #af2 crackers of eight reports1 #ab2 #d oz4 cases1 driven #a_/b an inch with star composition1 and bounced #b diameters1 #ad2 #b oz4 cases driven with brilliant fire #a and #a_/dth diameters1 and bounced #b diameters1 #af2 #b oz4 drove brilliant stars1 #cj2 #b oz4 drove blue stars1 #c2 gold rains1 #bj2 silver rains #bj4 ,after all these are put in1 fill the remainder of the case with tailed and rolled stars4 ,ten inch balloons of three charges4 oz4 dr4 ,meal-powder1 #c #j ,corn-powder1 #c #b ,powder for the mortar1 #ac #j ,length of the fuse composition1 #a inch3 the shell must be loaded with #b oz4 cases1 driven with star composition #a_/dth of an inch1 and on that one diameter of gold-fire1 then bounced three diameters2 or with #b oz4 cases1 first filled one diameter with gold fire1 then one and one-fourth diameters of brilliant fire4 ,these cases must be well secured at top of the charge1 lest they should take fire at both ends3 but their necks must be larger than the common proportion4 ,for the manner of forming balloon cases of paper1 consult the article on that subject1 in a preceding chapter4 ,balloons1 the bombs of some1 may be formed of different sizes1 and made proportionably strong4 ,bombs may be formed of wood by turning it round1 and hollow1 of a sufficient thickness1 and in two parts1 which fit each other like a common snuff box4 ,the inferior or lower part must be made thicker than the upper1 as it rests upon the powder2 and for the same reason1 that iron bombs are cast thicker at their bottom4 ,one-twelfth of the diameter is considered a sufficient thickness for the under part1 and one-fifteenth for the upper part1 which is pierced with a hole to receive the fuse4 ,this hole is called the eye of the bomb4 ,when balloons1 or bombs1 are to be charged1 the decorations may be varied in the same manner as for sky-rockets4 ,stars1 golden rain1 and meteors1 are considered the best1 as they produce the most brilliant effect4 ,after the addition of the furniture or decorations1 we finish the charge by putting in coarse grain powder1 which is introduced through the eye4 ,the fuse is then driven in4 ,it is glued1 in order to secure it4 ,the bomb is now covered with three or four turns of canvass1 and over this some paper1 to secure it4 ,in this state1 it ought not to be more than #a_/aath of an inch smaller than the caliber of the mortar4 ,this leaves what is denominated the windage4 ,when the bombs are well dried1 the fuse is primed with a double match1 and priming paste4 ,a cup1 made with two turns of paper1 is then attached to the fuse1 which receives the double match4 ,the bomb1 thus prepared1 is then placed in a cone made of pasteboard1 which contains the powder of the charge1 or that required for its ascension1 and is put into the mortar4 ,one of the matches above described1 communicates the fire to the fuse1 and the other at the same time to the powder in the cone4 ,the match1 it is to be observed1 comes out of the mouth of the mortar1 and serves to fire it4 ,this mode of discharging the mortar1 differs from the one we have previously given4 ,the following table exhibits the calibers for bombs1 the length of the fuse for each caliber1 and the weight of the powder required for the charge4 ,caliber for bombs4 ,length of the fuse4 ,weight of the charge4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,bombs of #d in4 diam4 #a inches4 #b oz4 cannon powder4 ---- #f do4 -- #a do4 #e oz4 do4 ---- do4 ---- #i do4 -- #b do4 #f oz4 do4 ---- do4 ---- #ab do4 -- #b do4 #i oz4 do4 ---- do4 ,having made some remarks respecting bombs1 we will now offer a few observations concerning mortars2 and although we have1 on a former occasion1 mentioned something respecting them1 yet we deem a few remarks on this head not improper at this time4 ,mortars1 from five to six inches bore1 are usually made of pasteboard and canvass4 ,the canvass is first soaked in a gelato-amylaceous paste1 or paste composed of half glue and half flour2 and1 when put on1 is covered with sheets of pasteboard1 which are glued or pasted4 ,for various kinds of paste1 see ,pasteboard4 ,when the case1 or mortar is to be formed1 cylinders of wood as formers are employed4 ,they are of different diameters1 according to the size of the mortars1 that are to be made4 ,for four-inch mortars1 inch formers2 for six-inch1 one and a half inch formers1 c4 ,after they are rolled and pasted on the former1 they are dried on it4 ,as to their strength1 this depends on the thickness of the case4 ,a mortar of four inches in interior diameter1 ought to be six inches in exterior diameter1 and those of six in interior1 should be nine1 exterior4 ,the cases being formed1 we next have turned as many cylinders of walnut1 as cases or pots4 ,these cylinders are short4 ,in each is formed a conical chamber1 in the shape of the letter ,v1 which is afterwards lined with tin or brass1 to prevent the action of the powder4 ,they are then glued and put into the end of each pot1 about the length of an inch1 and further secured by nails4 ,the chamber is designed to receive the powder1 and its conical form enables it to act with all its force immediately on the bomb4 ,a flat bottom would not have this advantage1 as the powder in that case would have more room1 and consequently its force be divided4 ,they are sometimes1 however1 made flat4 ,the charge for these mortars1 as a general rule1 is #a_/cjth part of the weight of the bomb4 ,when mortars are to be larger than the sizes we have mentioned1 it is necessary to have them of metal1 and for this purpose copper is generally employed4 ,its thickness should be one-fourth of an inch1 for a nine-inch mortar2 and half an inch1 for twelve-inch mortars4 ,a cone of copper is to be made in the same way as above mentioned4 ,this is secured1 and made solid by means of lead4 ,in experiments and exhibitions1 the powder1 we may observe1 must be of the same strength4 ,we find then1 that mortars1 for the discharge of bombs1 or balloons1 are differently made from those which are used for throwing iron-shells4 ,in fire-works1 the design of mortars is to project the balloon in a vertical direction1 which1 being furnished with a fuse as in ordinary shells1 receives the fire from the gun-powder2 and at a given time1 according to the length of the fuse1 the fire is communicated to the balloon1 which bursts and scatters its contents in the atmosphere4 ,the furniture for balloons being various1 and in a larger quantity than could be contained in the heads of rockets1 7except the ,congreve17 the appearance is more grand and impressive4 ,it is obvious1 that1 when they burst1 fire is communicated to the whole at the same time2 and the quantity of powder is usually sufficient1 not only to burst the shell1 but also to throw the contents to some distance4 ,the height1 to which balloons ascend1 depends1 of course1 on the quantity of gunpowder put in the mortar4 ,the quantity is generally regulated4 ,we find1 also1 that two modes are used for discharging the mortars4 ,the one consists in having a communication from without to the bottom of the cone1 which contains the powder1 and applying the match to this vent1 on the same principle as that for firing a cannon1 or common mortar4 ,the other1 by firing a quick-match in the conical cavity1 and putting in the charge with the balloon2 letting the match1 however1 be of a sufficient length to come out of the mouth of the mortar1 and fall over its side4 ,this match1 when fired1 will communicate fire to the powder in the cone1 and produce the same effect4 ,metallic cylinders1 and especially copper1 however small1 are certainly preferable to those made in the usual manner4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of making ,balloon ,fuses4 ,wood1 particularly beech1 is generally employed for forming fuses1 which is turned of the shape required4 ,if made with pasted paper1 they will answer for the purpose of fire-works4 ,the diameter of the former for fuses for coehorn balloons must be half an inch2 for a republican fuse1 five-eighths of an inch2 for an eight-inch fuse1 three-fourths of an inch2 and for a ten inch fuse1 seven-eighths of an inch4 ,having rolled the cases1 pinch and tie them almost close at one end2 then drive them down1 and let them dry4 ,before they are filled1 mark on the outside of the case1 the length of the charge required1 allowing for the thickness of the bottom2 and when the composition is rammed in1 take two pieces of quick-match about six inches long1 and lay one end of each on the charge1 and then a little meal-powder1 which is to be rammed down loose4 ,the loose ends of the match1 double up1 and place in the top of the fuse4 ,this top must be covered with a proper cap to keep it dry4 ,when the shells are put into the mortars1 uncap the fuses1 and pull out the loose ends of the match1 and let them hang on the sides of the balloon4 ,the use of the match is to receive the fire from the powder in the chamber of the mortar1 in order to light the fuse4 ,when the shell is put in the mortar1 its fuse must be uppermost1 and exactly in the centre4 ,some meal-powder is usually sprinkled upon it4 ,fuses of wood are longer than those of paper1 and not bored through1 but left solid about #a_/b an inch at bottom2 so that1 when used1 this end is cut off4 ,they are sawed1 however1 at a proper length1 measuring the charge from the cup at top4 ,on the subject of ,fuses1 see the last part of the work4 ,fuses for bombs1 ,morel remarks1 are formed of five thicknesses of paper1 or of pasteboard1 made of that thickness2 and the former1 on which the fuse case is rolled1 should be one-third diameter4 ,the composition is put in with a spoon1 and each charge is driven with twenty strokes of a moderate size mallet4 ,composition for the fuses of bombs or balloons4 #a4 ,meal powder1 #ab oz4 ,sulphur1 #d -- ,charcoal1 #f -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 #aj -- ,sulphur1 #h -- ,meal powder1 #a lb4 #f -- #c4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 #h -- ,sulphur1 #h -- ,meal powder1 #a lb4 #h -- ,sec4 ,v4 ,of the ,mosaic and ,common ,tourbillon4 ,the tourbillon de feu of the ,french1 or whirlwind of fire1 is the same as the soleil montant2 because it ascends in full illumination1 and scatters fire in various directions4 ,the tourbillon1 therefore1 receives its name from the effect it produces4 ,it raises itself very high1 and forms a whirl of fire and terminates in two coronal figures1 or crowns1 which descend in what are called parasols4 ,it does not1 however1 produce crowns1 except when it is charged with ,chinese fire4 ,there are two kinds of tourbillons1 which we will describe1 namely1 the mosaic and the common4 ,the mosaic produces a tail of some length1 and after whirling round1 finishes with a report4 ,this effect is owing to its particular structure and formation1 as it differs from the common tourbillon4 ,in preparing the cases for mosaic tourbillons1 pasteboard1 formed of five sheets of paper1 is used4 ,they are made seven inches in length upon a roller or former #e_/abths of an inch in diameter4 ,their thickness1 when rolled1 is #a_/hth of an inch4 ,they are choaked in the usual manner1 and the excess of the string is cut off4 ,after having put a quarter of an inch of earth into a case1 and beating it with ten or twelve blows with the mallet1 we mark the height of the earth on the outside of the case4 ,we then load it to the height of #g_/abths with the composition heretofore mentioned4 ,another quarter of a spoonful of earth is then put in4 ,we then choak1 and bind the case in this place4 ,two fingers of grain powder are now added2 we again choak1 and bind it above this4 ,we put in the same composition1 after the last operation1 to the height of #g_/abths of an inch4 ,the choaking1 it is to be observed1 must not wholly close the case2 so that the composition can set fire to the powder4 ,we now introduce a spoonful of earth1 and choak and bind as before4 ,it is then finished by charging it with #g_/abths of an inch of composition4 ,the remainder of the case is cut1 and the composition primed4 ,cases1 thus prepared1 are afterwards treated in the following manner3 ,we pierce three holes in the sides of each1 one a little above the last choak1 another through1 or into the case1 to penetrate the last charge1 and the third through the first charge4 ,these holes have a communication with each other by means of quickmatch2 so that1 when the match is set on fire1 the two extremes are inflamed at the same time1 and being opposed to each other1 give a rotary motion to the tourbillon1 which1 when the powder inflames1 terminates by an explosion4 ,the holes ought to be covered with three or four turns of pasted paper4 ,it is then ready to be put into the pots de chasse4 ,when completed1 the tourbillon should not exceed #aj_/abths of an inch in diameter4 ,the pots de chasse 7mortars somewhat similar to those described7 should be made of pasteboard1 prepared with eight thicknesses of paper1 and moulded upon a roller of #aa_/abths of an inch in diameter4 ,they are mounted in the same manner as fire-pots1 and are also primed in the same way4 ,into each pot there is put four drachms of broken grain powder1 and a slip of pasteboard1 pierced with five or six holes1 which is introduced by means of a stick4 ,a little meal-powder is then put into the pot1 and afterwards the tourbillon1 the primed end of which must be above the chasse4 ,it is then closed with paper1 made into a wad or ball1 and the pot is secured with a slip of pasteboard1 pasted on it4 ,composition of ,mosaic ,tourbillons4 #a4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,charcoal1 #c or #d dr4 #b4 ,meal powder1 #af parts4 ,charcoal1 #c ---- ,common tourbillons differ in many respects from the mosaic1 although their motion is the same4 ,there are two methods of forming them as well as their appendages1 both of which we purpose to describe4 ,the first is the following3 ,having filled some cases within about #a-a_/b diameters1 drive in a handful of clay1 prepared1 of course1 in the manner described in the first part of the work2 then pinch their ends close1 and drive them down with a mallet4 ,then find the centre of gravity of each case2 where you nail and tie a stick1 which should be #a_/b an inch broad at the middle1 and run a little narrower to the ends2 these sticks must have their ends turned upwards1 so that the cases may turn horizontally on their centres4 ,at the opposite sides of the cases1 at each end1 bore a hole close to the clay1 with a gimblet the size of the neck of a common case of the same nature4 ,from these holes1 draw a line round the case1 and1 at the under part of the case1 bore a hole with the same gimblet1 within half a diameter of each line1 towards the centre2 then from one hole to the other1 draw a right line4 ,this line divide into three equal parts1 and bore a hole near to each of the ends2 then from these holes to the other two1 lead a quick-match1 over which paste a thin paper4 ,it is to be observed1 that there is a stick about the length of the case1 which goes across it1 and is securely fastened by a cord1 that the whole lies flat upon a table before it is fired1 and hence1 it is sometimes named the table tourbillon2 and1 that the leader should be carried from one side hole to the other1 the holes being made at the opposite sides1 as before mentioned4 ,when tourbillons are fired1 they must lay upon a smooth table1 with their sticks downwards1 the leader being set on fire in the middle with a port fire4 ,they should spin two1 three1 or four seconds round the table1 before they rise1 which is about the time the composition will be burning from the side holes to those at the bottom4 ,reports1 or detonating cases1 may be fixed to tourbillons1 if so required4 ,in this case1 we make a small hole in the centre of the case at top1 and in the middle of the report make another4 ,then place them together1 and tie on the report1 and1 with a single paper1 secure it from fire4 ,by this method1 small cases of stars1 rains1 c4 may be fixed on tourbillons1 being careful1 nevertheless1 that they are not overloaded4 ,one-eighth will be a sufficient thickness for the sticks1 and their length equal to that of the cases4 ,the other mode of forming common tourbillons1 is the following3 ,they are made with cases of an inch1 which are choaked and bound in the usual manner4 ,in filling1 we make two wads of paper of the same size1 and put one of them into the case1 and ram it with fifteen or twenty blows4 ,we then mark upon the case1 the height of this wad1 which is afterwards driven with the composition1 given at the end of this section4 ,to each charge1 thirty strokes of a moderate size mallet1 will be required2 and each charge should not be more in height in the case than nine exterior diameters4 ,we mark1 on the outside of the case1 the height of this charge1 and put in a wad of the same kind and size as the former one4 ,we drive this in the same manner as the first1 and then choak and bind the case4 ,after cutting off the excess of the ligature1 with which we bound the case1 we again introduce the rammer1 and give it eighteen blows with the mallet1 in order to flatten the choak4 ,we afterwards divide the case parallel to each end1 into four equal parts1 and mark the height of the wads4 ,that of the middle1 which becomes in fact the bottom of the case1 7from the manner it is fixed for ascension71 we divide into five equal parts from one point to the other1 and pierce a hole in each division to the composition4 ,we then make1 on a level with the wads1 upon the lateral lines1 two similar holes2 one upon one side1 and the other on the other side1 at the opposite ends4 ,these holes are so made as that the case has four holes on one line1 and one upon each of the other two4 ,each hole is then primed with a piece of quick match1 and priming paste4 ,one of these matches must pass over all the other holes2 so that the fire may be communicated from one to the other at the same time4 ,the matches are then covered with a band of pasted paper4 ,to hold the tourbillon in a horizontal position1 we procure a hoop of the same thickness and diameter as the length of the case2 and on the plate1 we make a groove for the match of communication1 which is supported between the four holes with an iron wire4 ,if the case whirls round with a uniform motion1 it is well balanced4 ,the four holes beneath1 serve to raise it in the air1 and the two lateral apertures give it a revolving motion4 ,when tourbillons are to be set off1 they must be balanced either by a cross stick1 as in the first instance1 or some other contrivance4 ,the effect is the same as before described4 ,composition for ,tourbillons1 or ,table ,fuses1 of different ,calibers4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,substances4 ,calibers of d ,of ds of an inch ,of ths of an inch of an inch4 with ,chinese fire4 with ,chinese fire4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,saltpetre1 #h oz4 #af oz4 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #d oz4 #h oz4 #h oz4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 #ah oz4 #af oz4 ,charcoal1 #a oz4 ,pulverized cast iron1 #aj oz4 #ab oz4 ,another composition for a caliber of half an inch1 of common fire4 ,saltpetre1 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #d -- ,meal-powder1 #g -- ,charcoal1 #d -- ,the following formul are sometimes used2 ,for four-ounce tourbillons4 ,meal-powder1 #b lbs4 #d oz4 ,charcoal1 -- #d -- ,for eight-ounce tourbillons4 ,meal powder1 #b lbs4 ,charcoal1 #d oz4 ,for large tourbillons4 ,meal-powder1 #b lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #a do4 ,sulphur1 #h oz4 ,beat-iron1 #h oz4 ,as a general rule1 we may remark1 that the larger tourbillons are made1 employing1 if necessary1 different coloured fires1 the weaker must be the charge2 and1 on the contrary1 the smaller1 the stronger their charge4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of ,mortars for throwing ,aigrettes1 and the manner of loading and firing them4 ,pots of aigrette1 when inflamed1 exhibit the appearance of an aigrette1 or cluster of rays1 such as are produced by diamonds1 when they are arranged in a particular way4 ,the aigrette takes its name from a bird1 whose feathers serve to make up an ornament for the head4 ,it was given in diamonds1 as a particular mark of distinction1 by the ,grand ,signior1 to ,lord ,nelson1 after the battle of the ,nile4 ,there are aigrettes made of glass4 ,for the purpose of throwing aigrettes1 the mortars are generally made of pasteboard1 of the same thickness as balloon mortars1 and two and a half diameters long in the inside from the top of the foot4 ,the latter must be made of elm without a chamber1 but flat at top1 in the same proportion as those for balloon mortars4 ,these mortars must be bound round with a cord as before mentioned4 ,sometimes eight or nine of these mortars1 of about three or four inches in diameter1 are bound altogether1 so as to appear as one2 but when they are prepared for this purpose1 the bottom of the foot must be of the same diameter as the mortars1 and only one-half a diameter high4 ,having bound the mortars together1 fix them on a heavy solid block of wood4 ,to load them1 place over the inside bottom of each1 a piece of paper1 and spread on it one and a half ounces of meal and grain powder mixed2 then tie the serpents up in parcels with quickmatch1 and put them in with their mouths downwards4 ,care must be taken1 that the parcels do not fit too tight in the mortars1 and that all the serpents have been well primed1 or wetted with the paste of meal powder and spirit of wine4 ,on the top of the serpents1 in each mortar1 lay some paper or tow2 then carry a leader from one mortar to the other1 and from all the outside mortars to that in the middle4 ,these leaders are to be put between the cases and the sides of the mortar1 down to the powder at bottom4 ,in the centre of the middle mortar1 fix a fire pump1 or brilliant fountain1 and sufficiently long to project out of the mouth of the mortar4 ,then secure the mortars1 by pasting paper over their tops4 ,the nest of serpents 7as mortars thus prepared are called7 is fired by lighting the fire-pump1 which1 when consumed1 will communicate to all the mortars at once by means of the leaders4 ,single mortars are called pots des aigrettes4 ,if the mortars1 when loaded1 are sent to any distance1 or liable to be much moved1 the firing powder should be secured from getting amongst the serpents1 which would endanger the mortars1 as well as injure their performance4 ,to prevent this accident1 the mortars are to be loaded in the following manner2 ,first1 put in the firing powder1 and spread it equally2 then cut a round piece of blue touch paper1 equal to the exterior diameter of the mortar1 and draw a circle on it equal to its interior diameter1 and notch it as far as that circle3 then paste that part1 which is notched1 and put it in the mortar close to the powder1 and stick the pasted edge to the mortar4 ,this will secure the powder at the bottom1 so that it may be moved and carried without receiving any damage4 ,for mortars of six1 eight1 or ten inches diameter1 the serpents should be made in one and two-ounce cases1 six or seven inches long1 and fired by a leader1 brought out of the mouth of the mortar1 and turned down the outside2 its end being covered with paper1 to prevent the sparks of the other works from setting it on fire4 ,for a six-inch mortar1 let the quantity of powder for firing be two ounces2 for an eight-inch1 two ounces and three-quarters2 and for a ten-inch1 three ounces and three-quarters4 ,care must be taken in these1 as well as small mortars1 not to put the serpents in tight1 for fear of bursting the mortars4 ,these mortars may be loaded with stars1 crackers1 c4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of ,making1 ,loading1 and ,firing ,pots des ,brins4 ,these are formed of pasteboard1 and must be rolled pretty thick4 ,they are usually made three or four inches in diameter1 and four diameters long2 and pinched at one end like common cases4 ,a number of these are placed on a plank in the following manner3 ,having fixed on a plank two rows of wooden pegs1 cut1 in the bottom of the plank1 a groove the whole length1 under each row of pegs4 ,then through the centre of each peg1 bore a hole down to the groove at bottom1 and1 on every peg1 fix and glue a pot1 whose mouth must fit tight on the peg4 ,through all the holes1 run a quick-match1 one end of which must go into the pot1 and the other into the groove1 having a match laid in the groove from end to end1 and covered with paper2 so that1 when lighted at one end1 it may discharge the whole almost at the same instant4 ,in all the pots1 put about one ounce of meal and grained powder4 ,then in some put stars1 and in others rains1 snakes1 serpents1 crackers1 c4 ,when they are all loaded1 paste paper over their mouths4 ,two or three hundred of these pots being fired together1 make a brilliant appearance by affording so great a variety of fires4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,remarks respecting ,fire ,pots4 ,fire pots1 called also pots of ordnance1 in pyrotechny1 are nothing more than vessels used in1 as well as for1 the exhibition of artificial fire-works4 ,they are generally formed of thick pasteboard1 made by pasting together six or eight sheets of paper1 of two inches interior diameter1 three inches exterior diameter1 and fifteen inches long4 ,they are always placed upon a solid block or plank1 and preserved in a firm position4 ,there is a stopper or plug made of wood1 which goes one inch into each case or pot1 and is there glued and secured by nails4 ,this plug is turned with a screw1 which enters the plank1 and preserves the pot in a steady position4 ,the plank1 on which the pots rest1 is usually three inches wide1 an inch and a half thick1 and sufficiently long to receive twelve pots1 placed at the distance of half an inch apart4 ,before the pots are fixed on1 a hole is made through each plug in its centre1 to receive a quick match1 which passes through to the composition4 ,a groove is also made in the plank1 in its length1 one-third of an inch square2 and in such a manner1 that the holes1 which communicate to the interior of the pots through the plugs1 must come in the middle of the groove4 ,when the quick-match is put through the plugs1 to communicate with the interior of the pots1 we must leave about two inches on the outside4 ,at each hole1 also1 we put some priming paste1 and then permit it to dry4 ,if it is required to discharge them all at once1 this may be done by making a communication through the groove1 by means of leaders in the manner before mentioned2 and covering the leaders with four or five bands of paper1 and setting the match or leader on fire4 ,if1 on the contrary1 they are to go off in succession1 the groove is filled with bran1 which is pressed with the fingers1 and is then covered with paper4 ,the match of communication with the pots must1 however1 be preserved4 ,the bran causes the fire to communicate gradually from one to the other4 ,pots are charged in the following manner3 ,we first make the sacs of powder4 ,for this purpose1 we have as many squares of paper as there are pots1 which are made into cylinders on the same roller that formed the pots4 ,into each is put about an ounce of the charge-composition1 hereafter mentioned1 with two pieces of match1 sufficiently long to come out an inch4 ,they are then closed and tied1 and the excess is cut off4 ,one of these sacs is put into each pot1 having previously pierced it with several small holes1 and sprinkled it with meal powder4 ,after this1 the garnishing1 furniture1 or decoration is added1 always observing to put the primed part downwards4 ,a wad of paper is then put over the whole1 and the mouth is closed with pasted paper4 ,composition of the charge for fire pots4 ,gunpowder1 in broken grains1 #af oz4 ,charcoal1 #c -- ,fire pots are discharged in the way we have described1 which is considered the best and most certain2 or they may be fired by communicating the fire with a match1 passing out of the mouth1 and hanging over the sides4 ,another mode may be used1 similar to that for discharging balloons or bombs1 but on a scale proportionate thereto4 ,pots may be discharged in any direction2 hence two pieces1 or sets1 may be fired adversely1 like rockets from the regulated rocket case4 ,their effect depends1 as we have frequently observed1 on their furniture or decorations4 ,the strength of fire pots is also to be considered4 ,if they are made three inches in interior diameter1 it is prudent to cover them with stout canvass1 or small cord1 wrapped round and covered with a coat of glue1 in the same manner as for tourbillons4 ,fire pots are calculated to throw serpents1 c4 in the air4 ,mortars1 it will be recollected1 are designed to discharge shells or balloons1 which are thrown to a considerable height1 by the powder placed in the conical cavity2 whereas fire pots1 although their contents are thrown out by blowing powder1 are differently made at the bottom1 and merely designed to project serpents1 stars1 c4 to a small distance4 ,being primed1 they take fire as they pass out of the pot4 ,the charge is sometimes gunpowder1 and1 as above1 composed of gunpowder and charcoal1 to lessen the power of the former4 ,the principle1 on which they are discharged1 is the same4 ,fire pots are called pots of ordnance1 because they are used for discharging sundry substances1 by means of gunpowder4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,of ,,particular ,,compositions4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,fire-,jets1 or ,fire-,spouts4 ,fire-jets are produced by certain compositions1 which are employed in cases1 and are charged solid4 ,they are formed and used according to taste or fancy4 ,the jets are made with a caliber of from one-third of an inch1 to one inch and one-third1 in interior diameter4 ,they are seven or eight exterior diameters in length1 and are charged in the usual manner with the composition1 hereafter mentioned1 driving each charge with twenty blows with a small mallet4 ,the first charge must be the common fire composition4 ,some of the compositions in the following table have already been mentioned1 when treating of certain fire-works2 but we deem it of importance to notice them in a connected manner1 so that we may have the formul in one view4 ,fire-jets1 it must be remembered1 are calculated as well for turning1 as for fixed pieces4 ,common ,fire for calibers of one-third of an inch4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 ,charcoal1 #c -- ,common ,fire for calibers of five-twelfths to half an inch4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 ,charcoal1 #c -- #d dr4 ,common fire for calibers above half an inch4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 ,charcoal1 #d -- ,brilliant fire for ordinary calibers4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 ,filings of iron1 #d -- ,another1 more beautiful4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,filings of steel1 #d -- ,another1 more brilliant1 for any caliber4 ,meal powder1 #ah oz4 ,saltpetre1 #b -- ,filings of steel1 #e -- ,another1 very brilliant1 for two-thirds of an inch caliber1 and above4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,sulphur1 #a -- ,filings of steel1 #g -- ,brilliant fire1 more clear1 for any caliber4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,filings of needles1 or of needle steel1 #c -- ,silver-rain for calibers above two-thirds of an inch4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,sulphur1 #a -- ,filings of steel1 fine1 #d -- #d dr4 ,grand jessamine1 for any caliber4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre #a -- ,sulphur1 #a -- ,filings of spring steel1 #f -- ,small jessamine1 idem4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,sulphur1 #a -- ,filings of steel1 the best1 #e -- ,white fire1 idem4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 #h -- ,sulphur1 #b -- ,white fire1 idem4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #c -- ,blue fire1 for parasols and cascades4 ,meal powder1 #h oz4 ,saltpetre1 #d -- ,sulphur1 #f -- ,zinc1 #f -- ,another blue fire1 for calibers of half an inch1 and upwards4 ,saltpetre1 #h oz4 ,meal powder1 #d -- ,sulphur1 #d -- ,zinc1 #ag -- ,the cases charged with this composition are only employed for furnishing the centre of some pieces1 the movement of which depends on other cases2 for these1 having no force1 would not move the piece4 ,blue ,fire1 for any caliber4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 #b -- ,sulphur1 #h -- ,radiant ,fire1 idem4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,filings of pins1 7d'epingles7 #c -- ,green ,fire1 idem4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,filings of copper1 #c -- #b dr4 ,aurora ,fire1 idem4 ,meal powder1 #af oz4 ,gold powder1 7,poudre d'or7 #c -- ,for ,italian roses or fixed stars4 ,meal powder1 #b oz4 ,saltpetre1 #d -- ,sulphur1 #a -- ,another1 for the same4 ,meal-powder1 #ab oz4 ,saltpetre1 #af -- ,sulphur1 #aj -- ,antimony1 #a -- ,the jets of fire1 which are various according to the composition employed1 may appear under several forms1 sometimes in one and sometimes in another2 and hence they may put on an asteroid appearance1 or that of a fountain1 or water spout1 or the form of rain4 ,the effect1 however1 is very elegant2 and1 in conjunction with other species of fire-works1 cannot fail to change the general appearance1 by modifying the whole1 or rendering it more various4 ,these compositions are generally used in the manner before mentioned1 in cases of different sizes2 but they may1 under particular circumstances1 be employed otherwise4 ,in fact1 the forms which may be given to the flame of gunpowder1 or the substances which compose it1 either by increasing or retarding its combustion1 or changing the appearance of the flame1 and giving it the form of jets1 stars1 rain1 c4 are so numerous1 that it furnishes alone an important branch of ,pyrotechny4 ,these effects will be detailed1 when we treat of the formation of compound works4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,priming and ,whitening ,cases1 and ,remarks concerning ,spunk and ,touch ,paper4 ,when the cases are charged1 we pierce them with a small awl1 or make a hole with a gimblet in the end1 if it should be stopped with clay1 or probe them with a drill1 as fire-workers call it1 in the hole which had been filled1 in which we put some more of the composition4 ,this precaution is considered necessary1 in order that the earth should not cover internally the hole of the piercer4 ,a piece of match is then introduced1 which extends on the outside1 and is secured there with a plug of wood4 ,brown paper1 made either of linen or cotton1 but not of woollen cloth1 when soaked in a concentrated solution of saltpetre1 is1 we have said1 rendered very combustible1 and will convey fire for small works with much facility4 ,it is this paper1 called touch1 or more properly match1 paper1 that is used for capping1 c4 ,paper of this kind may sometimes be used1 as for crackers1 serpents1 c4 ,cotton quick-match1 however1 is used more generally2 and1 for large works1 when employed as a leader1 it is usually confined in a proper tube1 the better to preserve it entire1 and to keep it dry4 ,spunk1 made by soaking certain species of fungus in a solution of saltpetre1 takes fire very readily by the least spark1 and1 therefore1 is used for collecting and preserving the fire from flint and steel4 ,this spunk1 when well made1 and particularly of the proper kind of fungus1 may be cut into slips1 and employed advantageously in some fire-works4 ,in all cases1 however1 the object is the same1 to communicate fire with facility to the powder1 or composition2 and this object may be attained by all those methods1 which we have had occasion frequently to mention4 ,see ,pyrotechnical ,sponge4 ,to whiten cases is an operation1 which merely consists in covering them with paper1 and is performed in the following manner4 ,we procure as many half-sheets of paper as we have cases1 and put them on a table one upon another4 ,we paste the paper1 and roll each case in one of these sheets1 which is named the covering4 ,the paper is cut in such a manner1 that it passes over the end of each case an inch and a half4 ,there is no particular use in this covering1 the case being made sufficiently strong without it2 it makes1 however1 a handsome finish4 ,in the ,chinese fire-works1 their cases are covered with different coloured papers1 and frequently ornamented with gilding4 ,in all that ,i have seen1 with some of which ,i have made experiments1 the match of communication is nothing more than twisted match-paper4 ,the figures are made of paper1 painted1 and ornamented in the same way2 some resembling animals1 c4 but on a small scale4 ,the leaders are fixed in the usual manner1 and the works are fired in the same way4 ,tourbillons1 serpents1 and crackers are chiefly the kind which we have seen4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,chinese ,fire4 ,the composition for producing this fire1 as it is peculiar1 and therefore distinct from all others1 was invented by the ,chinese1 and hence bears that name4 ,the substance1 which produces the peculiar effect is cast or crude iron4 ,see ,iron4 ,it was the brilliant light1 produced when iron filings are thrown into the fire1 that gave rise to an improvement in the fire of rockets1 rendering it much more beautiful1 than when gunpowder1 or the substances of which it is composed1 are alone employed4 ,the ,chinese have long been in possession of a method of rendering fire brilliant1 and variegated in its colours4 ,cast-iron1 reduced to a powder more or less fine1 is called iron-sand1 because it answers to the name given to it by the ,chinese4 ,they use old iron pots1 which they pulverize1 till the grains are not larger than radish seed2 and these they separate into sizes or numbers1 for particular purposes4 ,it should be observed1 that rockets1 into the composition of which1 iron-filings and iron-sand enter1 cannot be long preserved1 owing to the change which the iron undergoes in consequence of moisture4 ,it may be proper to introduce here two tables1 which exhibit the proportions of the different ingredients for rockets of this kind from #ab to #cc lbs4 ,for ,red ,chinese ,fire4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,calibers4 ,saltpetre4 ,sulphur4 ,charcoal4 ,pulv4 cast iron4 ,no4 #a4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- lbs4 lbs4 oz4 oz4 oz4 dr4 #ab to #ae #a #c #d #g #j #ah -- #ba #a #c #e #g #h #bd -- #cf #a #d #f #h #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,for ,white ,chinese ,fire4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,calibers4 ,saltpetre4 ,meal-powder4 ,charcoal4 ,pulv4 cast iron4 ,no4 #b4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- lbs4 lbs4 oz4 oz4 dr4 oz4 dr4 #ab to #ae #a #ab #g #h #aa #j #ah -- #ba #a #aa #h #j #aa #h #bd -- #cf #a #aa #h #h #ab #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,these substances are incorporated together in the manner already stated4 ,the cast-iron1 we observed1 is reduced to a fine powder1 or rather sand1 as the ,french fire-workers call it1 and is then passed through a sieve4 ,for the method of reducing it to powder1 consult the article on ,iron4 ,that the brilliancy of the fire is owing to the iron in its crude state1 without being converted into soft or malleable iron1 a process which carries off a large quantity of carbon1 oxygen1 c4 and increases its specific gravity1--is very evident from the effect produced4 ,wrought iron will occasion scintillations1 somewhat of the same appearance1 and steel1 also1 in greater abundance2 and hence both are employed in sundry compositions4 ,but the particular character1 beauty1 and brilliancy of ,chinese fire must be attributed1 first to the iron1 and secondly to its peculiar state of combination with carbon and oxygen2 for1 we have said1 that malleable iron1 7which is deprived in a great measure of these substances in the operation required for its preparation71 produces an effect far inferior to cast iron4 ,this difference then can only arise from the quality1 character1 composition1 or properties of these two kinds of iron4 ,steel1 on the contrary1 having a more vivid effect than wrought iron1 owes its properties to another state of combination of the iron and carbon4 ,hence we account for the difference in the appearance of the flame1 and consequently the effect1 in the different mixtures of crude iron1 malleable iron1 and steel4 ,we have already remarked1 in treating of iron1 and in explaining the action of bodies in the process of combustion1 in the section on the theory of fire-works1 that the effect of some substances was to produce sparks1 stars1 c4 ,in the present instance1 namely1 the effect of the composition of the ,chinese fire by combustion1 the iron is first ignited by the powerful heat created by the combustion of the powder1 nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 and in this state1 is thrown out with violence1 and is itself consumed4 ,the combustion of iron is nothing more than its oxidizement1 during which a brilliant fire1 which characterizes so pre-eminently the ,chinese fire1 is produced4 ,this oxidizement of the metal1 in proportion as it is more rapid1 necessarily gives rise to the phenomena of combustion1 which1 in this1 and the generality of instances1 presupposes a combination with oxygen4 ,the fire is1 therefore1 more brilliant1 as the combustion is more rapid1 and the metal may be oxidized in a greater or lesser degree1 but not to a maximum4 ,from the effect taking place in the air1 as it does not ensue1 or is not seen1 in the case1 it follows1 that the iron receives for the support of its combustion the oxygen of the air4 ,we have said1 that the substances which compose cast-iron1 are iron1 carbon1 and oxygen1 in a peculiar state of combination4 ,we may also conclude1 therefore1 that1 as carbon1 by combustion in oxygen gas1 or in atmospheric air1 which contains about twenty-two per cent4 produces carbonic acid1 the carbon of the iron during its combustion1 is changed1 by its union with oxygen1 into this acid4 ,the products1 then1 are oxide of iron1 and carbonic acid1 the latter existing in the gaseous state4 ,with respect to the other products of combustion1 arising from the gunpowder1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 we have before noticed them4 ,see ,gunpowder1 and the ,general ,theory of ,fire-,works4 ,we may remark1 at the same time1 that the intense heat1 produced as well by the combustion of the gunpowder1 as by the combustion of charcoal and sulphur1 in contact with the nitrate of potassa1 brings the metal almost to a state of fusion2 which1 being thrown off in this state1 and considerably divided1 is acted upon by the oxygen on all sides1 causing the effect to be uniform and general4 ,the quantity of iron1 it will be seen1 which enters into the different compositions1 is various1 according to the particular purpose to which the composition is applied4 ,the effect1 therefore1 may be varied1 as we employ more or less of the iron2 and the state of ignition may be affected1 as the proportions of nitre and charcoal are increased or diminished4 ,these facts are obvious1 by referring to the respective formul1 and the application of the several compositions4 ,it is1 besides1 no less true1 that as much care is required in selecting pure materials for every kind of artificial fire1 as scrupulous accuracy1 in following the proportions prescribed4 ,nor is this all2 the mixture must be intimately made1 or the effect would be doubtful and uncertain4 ,there is a particular manner required for preparing the composition of ,chinese fire4 ,all the substances must be passed three times through a sieve1 except the sulphur1 and the pulverized cast-iron4 ,these are mixed by themselves1 and afterwards with the other substances4 ,they are turned over frequently with the hand4 ,cases are filled with it in the same manner as other compositions4 ,in order to make the mixture of the sulphur with the iron more intimate1 the latter may be wetted occasionally with spirit of wine1 which should contain no water1 as water would tend to rust the metal1 and injure its effect4 ,the sulphur would then mix with more freedom1 and the composition be more perfect4 ,the spirit of wine1 acting merely as a vehicle1 afterwards evaporates2 and1 as it has no chemical action on either the sulphur or the metal1 they would remain unaltered4 ,by proceeding in this manner2 namely1 first mixing the other substances by themselves1 and afterwards the iron and sulphur1 and then the whole1 we form an intimate mixture throughout4 ,the composition1 prepared in this way1 makes the fire more brilliant2 giving it a greater lustre than by proceeding in a contrary manner4 ,we are informed1 that spontaneous combustion has frequently taken place1 by suffering the iron and alcohol1 or spirit of wine1 to remain in contact2 and1 although this appears an anomaly1 which we will not attempt to explain1 yet that it is a fact1 and that it has occurred at ,paris1 we have the authority of ,m4 ,morel4 ,when the cast-iron is reduced to powder1 or sand1 it is divided into several sorts1 which are proportioned to the caliber employed4 ,these sorts are marked or numbered1 and are used as follows3 ,for calibers under #g_/abths of an inch in diameter1 ,no4 #a2 for those of #g_/abths to #aj_/abths1 ,no4 #b2 and for larger calibers1 ,no4 #c4 ,in charging with the composition1 care must be taken to turn it over repeatedly at every other ladle full2 because the iron1 which is the heaviest substance1 is liable to fall to the bottom4 ,if the composition be not equally diffused1 the fire would be irregular1 and go out by puffs4 ,this is a defect which ought to be guarded against4 ,the mixture of the composition for ,jessamine is made in the same manner4 ,chinese fire1 in cases1 is commonly employed in garnishing1 as it is called1 the circumference of a decoration1 or in forming pyramids1 galleries1 yew trees1 cascades1 palm trees1 or in short1 in producing a variety of figures1 according to taste and fancy4 ,they are often employed in turning pieces for their last fire1 in consequence of the brilliancy of their effect4 ,we are told1 that nothing is more elegant than ,chinese fire2 and that it forms1 in its descent1 flowers of variegated beauty1 which1 being scattered about by the rotation of the piece1 resemble the hydraulic girandole in the rays of the sun4 ,chinese fire1 however1 has little force2 and hence1 when it is used1 it is accompanied with other fire1 as two or more jets of white fire4 ,the latter is only employed1 when the ,chinese fire is to be exhibited on wheels1 or turning pieces4 ,when it is on fixed pieces1 there is no occasion for them4 ,cases of ,chinese fire1 when burnt alone1 will not turn a wheel4 ,as the effect of ,chinese fire on wheels depends greatly on the motion of the wheel1 its velocity should therefore be accelerated2 which1 although the duration of its effect would be shorter and more brilliant1 may be produced by employing several cases of white fire1 and communicating their fire one to the other by leaders in the usual manner4 ,there is no doubt1 that the accelerated motion of the wheel causes the composition to burn more rapidly1 in the same way as a bellows excites the heat of a blast-furnace2 and1 therefore1 the increased brilliancy of the fire may be attributed to the greater rapidity of the combustion1 which necessarily produces1 in a shorter time1 the oxidizement of the iron1 and1 at the same time1 the combustion of the other substances4 ,with respect to the comparative force of compositions1 or that power by which cases1 as rockets1 c4 ascend1 or which gives motion to vertical and horizontal wheels1 we may observe generally1 that these effects depend on the compositions employed2 and that the recoil1 in such instances1 is proportionate to the impelling power2 for the resistance with which the fire meets from the air1 in the immediate vicinity of the caliber of the case1 causes a reaction1 which produces the recoil1 and consequently the motion of the wheel4 ,that this effect depends1 in a greater or less degree1 on the composition we use1 and the manner the case is charged1 is very evident4 7,see ,general ,theory of ,fire-,works4 ,part #a47 ,composition of ,chinese ,fire for calibers under ten-twelfths of an inch4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 ,saltpetre1 #af -- ,sulphur1 #d -- ,charcoal1 #d -- ,pulverized cast iron1 #ad -- ,another of the same4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #c -- ,charcoal1 #c -- ,pulverized cast iron1 #g -- ,another1 for ,palm-trees and ,cascades4 ,saltpetre1 #ab oz4 ,meal-powder1 #af -- ,sulphur1 #h -- ,charcoal1 #d -- ,pulverized cast iron1 #aj -- ,another1 white1 for calibers of eight and ten-twelfths of an inch4 ,saltpetre1 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #h -- ,meal-powder1 #af -- ,pulverized cast iron1 #ab -- ,another1 for ,gerbes of ten1 and eleven-twelfths and one inch caliber4 ,saltpetre1 #a oz4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,meal-powder1 #h -- ,charcoal1 #a -- ,pulverized cast iron1 #h -- ,it may be proper to remark1 that the above formul are all approved2 as they have been used in ,france1 and are given on the authority of ,morel and ,bigot4 ,we are informed1 indeed1 that these proportions produce the most perfect fire1 which surpasses the fire of the ,chinese4 ,from the many experiments made in ,france1 instituted with the view of determining the best proportions1 and leading1 in fact1 to the improvement of the original composition1 we do not hesitate to give them the preference over all others4 ,in the composition of wheel-cases1 ,chinese fire is sometimes used1 and then only for decoration2 but in nearly all the compositions employed1 in wheel-works1 for standing or fixed cases1 sun-cases1 c4 steel-dust forms a constituent part4 ,the proportion it bears to other substances is various3 viz4 to meal-powder1 as one to five1 one to ten1 c4 ,in one of the formul for brilliant fire1 the proportion is still greater1 and in another less2 but by mixing seven and a half ounces of steel-dust with meal-powder1 saltpetre1 and sulphur in the proportion of eleven pounds1 one pound two ounces1 and four ounces respectively1 a composition is formed1 calculated to produce a brilliant fire4 ,but as this subject will be considered1 when we treat of wheel-works1 standing pieces1 c4 and the different compositions appertaining thereto1 we would only observe1 that ,chinese fire should always be preferred1 where the object is decidedly appearance1 with brilliancy and splendour4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of ,bengal ,lights4 ,we have had occasion to mention heretofore1 that metallic as well as the crude1 or sulphuret of1 antimony1 entered as a component part into some compositions1 in order to vary the effect and appearance of the flame4 ,that this is the effect1 in the composition1 which constitutes the ,bengal lights1 is a fact well known1 and to which its particular character is owing4 ,bengal lights1 in consequence of the whiteness and brilliancy of their flame1 are considered as highly important in fire-works4 ,the composition was a long time kept secret1 and artists were at a loss to compound it1 for those who possessed the secret1 it appears1 would not divulge it4 ,simple as it is1 it was not known1 until many experiments were made1 which proved its identity with the original ,bengal composition2 and1 since that time1 it has been confirmed by the original formula4 ,morel assures us1 that he purchased the secret4 ,composition of ,bengal ,lights4 ,saltpetre1 #c lbs4 ,sulphur1 #ac oz4 #d dr4 ,antimony1 #g oz4 #d dr4 ,they are pulverized and mixed in the usual manner1 and passed three times through a hair sieve4 ,any quantity may be made at one time4 ,the composition is usually put in earthen vessels1 without decorations4 ,they may be of different sizes1 and1 in fact1 as broad as they are high1 sufficiently large1 however1 to contain the composition4 ,a small quantity of dry meal-powder is scattered over its surface1 and a sheet of paper is tied on to secure it4 ,it is primed with port fire match4 ,the effect of this mixture is evidently that of the combustion of the sulphuret of antimony1 as well as of the sulphur4 ,the nitre furnishes the oxygen to both1 and1 as the combustion is rapid1 the metal is oxidized1 probably forming the antimonic acid1 as the antimony may be oxidized to the maximum4 ,there is another view1 in which this combustion may be considered4 ,according to the present theory of the formation of sulphuric acid1 by the combustion of sulphur1 and nitre in leaden chambers1 it appears1 that sulphurous acid is first produced1 and nitric oxide gas1 7deutoxide of azote71 is also formed2 and that the latter by uniting with the oxygen of the air is changed into nitrous acid1 which is then acted upon by the sulphurous acid1 and is decomposed4 ,part of its oxygen combines with the sulphurous acid1 changing it into the sulphuric1 and deutoxide of azote is reproduced4 ,in all probability1 then1 in the combustion of the composition of ,bengal lights1 the nitric oxide itself may affect the combustion of the antimony1 which1 as it would be enveloped in nitrous acid vapour1 arising from the union of nitrous gas and oxygen1 may present1 in a measure1 one of those cases of combustion1 in which nitric oxide acts as a supporter1 affording on that account a particular phenomenon4 ,reasoning a posteriori1 this may be affected again by the formation of sulphuric acid2 for a part of the sulphurous acid may be changed into sulphuric1 not by its immediate union with the oxygen of the nitre1 according to the old theory1 but by the decomposition of the vapour of nitrous acid4 ,this conclusion1 however1 is sufficient1 that the nitre is decomposed1 and during its decomposition1 the sulphur and antimony are brought into action2 that a large quantity of caloric and light is evolved1 whether from the oxygen gas of the atmosphere1 or the substances themselves we will not stop to inquire2 and1 that1 in the act of combustion1 the sulphur and antimony are acidified1 forming new products4 ,it will be seen1 by examining the formul for the composition of the white and blue-lances1 that they both contain antimony1 but in different proportions3 thus1 in the white lance1 the proportion of antimony is as one to eight of sulphur1 as one to sixteen of saltpetre1 and as one to four of meal-powder2 and in the blue-lance1 as it is composed only of saltpetre and antimony1 the proportion of the latter to the former is as eight to sixteen4 ,in the composition of ,italian roses1 or fixed stars1 the proportion of antimony is still smaller1 and is as one to ten of sulphur1 one to sixteen of saltpetre1 and one to twelve of meal-powder4 ,now1 by comparing these proportions with those which constitute the ,bengal light composition1 they will be found to differ from those compositions1 into which the same substances enter2 for1 in the ,bengal lights1 the proportion of the antimony to the sulphur is as five to nine1 and to the saltpetre1 as five to thirty-two1 or thereabout4 ,the inference we draw1 therefore1 is1 that the white lance composition differs from the blue1 in containing meal-powder and sulphur1 and the latter from the former1 in containing no sulphur1 but eight times as much antimony2 that the white-lance composition varies from the ,bengal light1 by containing one-half less of saltpetre1 one-fifth less of antimony1 and one-ninth less of sulphur2 and that the ,bengal composition differs from the blue lance composition1 in having double the quantity of saltpetre1 nine parts of sulphur1 7the blue-light having none17 and nearly one-third less of antimony4 ,if we attend to these proportions of the antimony1 with the other ingredients1 in the respective preparations1 we will find1 that the difference1 in the proportions of the antimony1 produces1 with the presence or absence of the meal-powder and sulphur1 and the difference also in the quantity of the latter1 the phenomena or effects which characterise them4 ,it is thus1 therefore1 with this1 as with other preparations2 only vary the proportions1 and institute new equivalents1 as it were1 in any particular preparation1 and adopt some and reject other substances1 and the effects are varied agreeably thereto2 and1 if improvements are to be made in any composition1 they can only be effected by experiment1 and the investigation of the effects of new proportions1 a comparison of which1 with the effect of any particular composition1 prepared according to a given formula1 can alone determine the relative value of any new formula4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of ,roman ,candles4 ,roman candles are formed on a roller seven-twelfths of an inch in diameter1 and are generally fifteen inches in length4 ,they are choaked at one end1 and tied in the usual manner4 ,according to the nature of the charge1 which we shall mention1 their effect is to throw out brilliant stars1 to the height of one hundred and more feet1 and when arranged with marrons1 they finish with a report4 ,after the cases are formed1 and ready to be filled1 the operation is performed with expedition1 by tying a number of them together1 and charging them in that manner4 ,the cases are charged with the rocket composition1 heretofore described1 in the following way3 ,a ladleful of composition is put in1 and rammed1 using seven or eight blows with the mallet2 a small spoonful of powder is then added1 and afterwards a moulded star4 ,this star should fit the caliber of the case4 ,more of the composition is then added1 then meal-powder1 and afterwards a star1 and these are repeated in the same order1 till the case is completely charged4 ,care must be taken in observing this order1 otherwise the effect would be destroyed4 ,in striking with the mallet1 attention must also be paid1 that the blows are not too violent1 or the star might be destroyed4 ,when the cases1 or candles1 are charged1 we untie them1 and roll some coarse paper round each end of them1 at the extremity1 and round the choak4 ,we may remark1 that in the charging of ,roman candles1 as their effect depends greatly on the appearance of the stars1 which issue out in succession1 too much care cannot be used in preserving the star composition entire4 ,to do this1 much art is required in putting in1 and ramming1 the rocket composition1 so as not to injure or break it4 ,the quantity of gunpowder to each star must be small1 otherwise it might burst the case4 ,roman candles may be fired singly or several at a time1 according to the effect required4 ,to fire one in a chandelier1 for instance1 it is only necessary to prime it with priming paste2 but1 if we wish to form batteries in an artificial fire-work1 in order to produce a variety1 or to mount them on fixed or moveable pieces1 we may1 if necessary1 terminate their effect with marrons1 which may be effected by uniting them in such a way as to make the fire of the one1 at a given time1 communicate to the other4 ,this communication is usually made through the choak1 by attaching a match1 which is carried to the mouth of the marron2 so that1 when the candle has burnt out1 the last portion of the fire may pass to the marron1 the effect of which is instantaneous4 ,if necessary1 priming paste may be used to facilitate the communication of the fire4 ,the marron may be fixed directly under the bottom of the candle1 by making the whole solid by a paper cylinder1 which fits over the ends of both4 ,the mosaic candles1 as well as mosaic simples1 are formed in cases of the same thickness as sky-rockets1 from which they differ in the introduction of stars along with the composition4 ,we may remark1 also1 that they are rolled without pasting2 and although ,morel recommends choaking the cases1 yet a writer of more recent date1 ,m4 ,bigot1 whose practical knowledge must be great1 recommends plugging them on the stick or roller4 ,this is done by merely turning the end down about half an inch1 and then beating it4 ,before the composition is added1 he advises1 also1 the introduction of two or three fingers' thickness of clay1 which is rammed very solid4 ,this answers for a base1 and supersedes the necessity of choaking4 ,if1 as we before remarked1 it is necessary to communicate fire from this end to a marron or any other case1 the clay must be bored to the composition1 and quickmatch inserted2 or1 instead of this1 the case itself1 above the clay1 may be perforated1 and a communication in this way made4 ,besides the ordinary ,roman candles1 intended expressly for exhibition1 there is another preparation1 which goes under the name of the incendiary ,roman candle1 used for the purposes of war4 ,this preparation is composed of three parts of sulphur1 four parts of saltpetre1 one part of antimony1 and half a part of meal-powder2 but this1 together with the incendiary stars1 we purpose to consider when we treat of ,military ,fire-works4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of ,mosaic ,simples4 ,mosaic simples are in reality nothing more than a variety of the ,roman candle1 being formed in the same manner1 and of the same composition1 except that the moulded stars are different1 and produce another effect4 ,the mosaic simples produce merely a tail1 or spout of fire2 whereas the ,roman candle throws out a brilliant star4 ,they may be used with marrons in the same manner as the ,roman candle4 ,the length of the case is fifteen inches1 and seven-twelfths of an inch in diameter4 ,mosaic simples are very appropriate to terminate a piece4 ,a number of cases may be used by placing them in such a manner1 that their fires may cross each other1 an effect more striking than the ordinary mode of exhibition4 ,this may be accomplished by arranging them1 two and two1 to a horizontal stick1 observing that their mouths are up1 and that they cross each other4 ,they are lashed to the stick1 and leaders are carried from the mouth of one to the mouth of another4 ,this communication is so managed1 that two pieces discharge at the same time4 ,they may be employed in a variety of ways1 according to fancy4 ,sometimes pyramids forty or fifty feet high are furnished on each side1 with cases of mosaic simples1 with a star at the summit1 and white and coloured lances differently dispersed4 ,the curtain of fire1 produced by so many cases1 the height to which it rises1 the appearance of the star with the variegated and diversified effect of the coloured lances1 all contribute to the splendour of this arrangement4 ,composition of the ,mosaic ,moulded ,stars4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #d dr4 ,meal-powder1 #af oz4 ,charcoal1 #c -- ,or in proportional parts3 saltpetre1 four parts2 sulphur1 half a part2 meal-powder1 sixteen parts2 and charcoal1 three parts4 ,these substances1 being finely pulverized1 and intimately mixed in the usual manner1 are combined with gum-water1 c4 as directed for preparing stars1 and cut into lozenges1 which are then rolled in priming powder1 and dried in the shade4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of ,mosaic ,tourbillons4 ,we may merely remark1 as we have mentioned tourbillons heretofore1 that the cases for the mosaic tourbillons1 by which name they are designated1 are seven inches in length1 five-twelfths of an inch in interior diameter1 and nine-twelfths in exterior diameter2 and that the composition with which they are charged1 is composed of sixteen parts of meal-powder1 and three and a half parts of pulverized charcoal4 ,see ,tourbillon4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,hydrogen ,gas in ,fire-,works4 ,m4 ,diller1 some years since1 exhibited at the pantheon of ,paris1 artificial fire produced by the combustion of hydrogen gas4 ,from the short account we have of this exhibition in the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 vol4 iii1 p4 #ci1 it seems1 that he employed three different airs1 or gases1 and produced three different flames3 viz4 white1 blue1 and green1 which were made by the mixture of the three gases2 and that he represented very perfectly1 suns1 stars1 triangles1 the cross of ,malta1 and sundry figures of animals in motion4 ,we may remark1 that1 if hydrogen gas be pure1 the flame is of a yellowish-white2 but this1 however1 is seldom the case1 as the gas is always more or less impure1 and1 according to the substances it may hold in solution1 so is the flame tinged4 ,it is most usually reddish1 because the gas holds in solution a little charcoal4 ,in ,cartwright's fire1 ether is always mixed with the whole1 or a part of the gas1 which is brought to the state of vapour by the application of a gentle heat1 or even by immersing the bladder of gas1 which contains the liquid ether1 in hot water4 ,when combined with arsenic1 in the form of arsenuretted hydrogen gas1 hydrogen burns with a blue flame2 combined with phosphorus it takes fire spontaneously1 producing a white flame with a beautiful corona1 caused by the formation of water2 and when combined with sulphur1 forming sulphuretted hydrogen or hepatic gas1 it burns with a bluish-red flame1 and a quantity of sulphur is deposited4 ,various mixtures of hydrogen with other gases1 in due proportions1 will produce different coloured flames2 so that1 by paying attention to this circumstance1 the same variety of appearances may be produced1 as in ,diller's exhibition4 ,bladders1 7or sacks made of oiled silk1 which are preferable71 when filled with gas1 and connected with tubes1 revolving jets1 c4 bent in different directions1 and formed into various figures1 and pierced with holes of different sizes1 will1 when pressure is applied1 allow the gas to pass through the different tubes1 jets1 c4 which1 when inflamed1 will represent the sun and stars4 ,if to this be added1 triangular tubes1 tubes in the form of the cross of ,malta1 or any other figure1 they being pierced in their sides with a great number of holes not larger than the point of a pin2 it is obvious1 that fixed pieces may be represented1 as well as revolving ones4 ,in this manner1 ,diller must have made his exhibition4 ,hydrogen gas is usually made1 by pouring on zinc1 or iron filings1 in a gas bottle1 sulphuric acid diluted with six times its weight of water4 ,the latter is decomposed2 its oxygen unites with the metal1 and while the oxide is taken up by the acid1 the hydrogen passes off in the form of gas4 ,the gas may be received directly in the bladder or bag4 ,the inflammable air pistol is nothing more than a hollow metallic cylinder1 or an instrument in the shape of two cones joined base to base1 and furnished with a touch-hole1 and handle4 ,this pistol is filled with a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases1 or in lieu of the latter1 atmospheric air2 a plug or stopper is put in the caliber1 and1 when the touch-hole is brought in contact with a lighted taper1 an explosion will take place1 and the plug be sent out with much force4 ,the same effect may be shown by passing the electric spark over the touch-hole1 and hence1 on an insulated stool1 a person1 charged with electricity1 may set it off by the finger or nose4 ,this pistol is usually called the ,voltaic pistol1 from ,volta1 who is said to have invented it4 ,m4 ,biot 7,trait de ,physique ,experimentale1 c4 tome ii1 p4 #dce7 describes the ,voltaic pistol as a metallic vessel of a spheroid shape1 furnished with an aperture and pipe1 and with a conductor for the electric fluid1 which passes through the middle of the vessel4 ,this conductor is insulated1 as it goes through a glass tube1 and extends to within an eighth of an inch of the middle2 and directly opposite to this conductor is a metallic wire1 having1 like the first conductor1 a small metallic ball on its end4 ,this conductor is placed a short distance from the first2 so that1 when the electric fluid is conducted1 it passes from one ball to the other within the pistol1 and hence inflames the hydrogen gas4 ,with respect to the form of the pistol1 it is of no moment whether it be cylindrical1 conical1 or globular1 as the effect is the same1 provided that it contain a sufficient quantity of gas1 and the spark is conveyed through the gas1 or the gas is inflamed by a vent4 ,the air pistol described by ,brande 7,brande's ,chemistry7 is cylindrical1 or rather in the shape of a cannon1 and1 where the touch-hole should be1 there is an insulated conductor1 which conveys the spark to the interior4 ,the ,voltaic lamp is also a contrivance by which hydrogen gas is inflamed by the electric spark1 which sets fire to a taper4 ,the original lamp has been greatly improved1 and simplified4 ,the eudiometer of ,volta is another contrivance by which hydrogen gas is burnt1 in a strong tube1 by the electric spark4 ,the detonation of inflammable air may be shown over a pneumatic tub1 by filling metallic gas-holders with a mixture of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air4 ,when flame is brought in contact with the mouth of the gas-holder1 an explosion will immediately take place4 ,soap-bubbles1 blown with hydrogen gas1 mixed with atmospheric air1 will take fire1 on presenting a lighted taper1 and give a slight explosion4 ,the ascension of these bubbles demonstrates1 that the gas is lighter than atmospheric air1 and it is its extreme levity that fits it for the purpose of filling balloons4 ,it may be made twelve times specifically lighter than atmospheric air1 by passing it over dry muriate of lime1 in order to absorb the moisture it may contain1 provided the gas be free from carbon1 or carbonic acid4 ,light carburetted hydrogen gas1 or fire-damp of miners1 is that gas1 which so often formerly produced many dreadful accidents by its explosion4 ,the invention1 by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 of the safety-lamp prevents this effect4 ,the principle of this most valuable discovery1 appears to be altogether in the fine metallic gauze case1 which surrounds the flame of the lamp2 so that1 as it is found by numerous and repeated experiments1 the inflammable air1 if present1 cannot take fire outside of the gauze2 in other words1 the flame1 in the interior of the case1 is prevented from setting fire to the exterior atmosphere1 however explosive it may be4 ,hydrogen gas1 in combination with carbon1 is not only generated in mines and coal pits1 7in the latter of which1 it is the most abundant71 but is frequently found on the surface of springs in the form of bubbles1 usually however combined with sulphur2 and in many places on the surface of the earth4 ,it may be inflamed by a candle4 ,the burning springs consist of this gas which is set on fire1 and the combustion is kept up by a constant supply of gas from the same source4 ,in the ,east1 this gas is very often conveyed under ground through hollow reeds1 and is constantly kept burning4 ,at other times1 it is conveyed to the sacred temples1 as with the ,zoroasters1 and burnt as holy fire2 and in some countries1 it is so abundant1 that the natives employ it as fuel for boiling their pots4 ,it is found in different parts of the ,united ,states4 ,a striking incident1 showing its effects1 occurred lately near ,cincinnati1 in the state of ,ohio4 ,it appears1 that1 in making an excavation1 and boring for salt water1 the workmen penetrated their augur into a cavity1 which contained an abundance of gas1 and which1 with the water1 made its way to the excavation4 ,not suspecting that the gas was inflammable1 or being unacquainted with it1 and apprehending no danger1 they brought a lighted taper2 and the gas1 being mixed with atmospheric air1 exploded with a noise so considerable1 that it was heard several miles in the neighbourhood4 ,the men were much burnt1 some of them dangerously4 ,the gas was afterwards inflamed by applying a taper1 as it rose in bubbles from the surface of the water4 ,the philosophical candle is nothing more than hydrogen gas set on fire as it proceeds from a capillary tube1 being formed in a bottle to which the tube is attached4 ,the most brilliant flame1 however1 is produced by hydroguret of carbon1 or olefiant gas4 ,inflammable air is often generated in the stomachs of dead persons1 for1 on applying a lighted candle1 the vapour has been known to take fire4 ,dr4 ,swediaur relates some instances of the same kind1 but in living persons1 in which the urine of the by standers was made use of4 ,according to several authorities1 combustion has been known to take place spontaneously in living persons4 ,lair1 however1 is of opinion1 that1 in these cases1 it must have occurred by some slight external cause1 such as the fire of a candle1 taper1 or pipe4 ,there can be no question as to the developement of hydrogen gas4 ,morse1 7,universal ,geography1 article ,persia1 p4 #ehh71 after mentioning the ,persian guebres1 the disciples and successors of the ancient magi1 and followers of ,zoroaster1 speaks of a combustible ground about ten miles distant from ,baku1 a city in the north of ,persia1 as the place for their devotion4 ,this ground contains several old temples1 and is remarkable for the quantity of inflammable air it emits1 which is employed to produce the sacred flame of universal fire4 ,if the ground be penetrated with a stick1 there will issue out such a prodigious quantity of inflammable air1 as1 when lighted1 will burn for a considerable time4 ,this gas1 we remarked1 is employed there for lighting1 cooking1 and other purposes4 ,the naphtha districts1 in ,persia1 furnish this gas in abundance4 ,see ,naphtha4 ,a ,sandusky 7,ohio7 paper states1 that1 about one mile and a quarter from ,milan1 is a place just in the edge of the water of ,huron river1 where there is a current of inflammable gas1 that burns with a clear bright blaze1 and is in sufficient quantity to light ten houses4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,of ,,the ,,manner ,,of ,,fixing ,,and ,,arranging ,,fire-,,works ,,in ,,general ,,for ,,exhibition4 ,having already treated of the formation of various kinds of fire-works1 we come now to consider their arrangement in fixed and moveable pieces4 ,it is obvious1 that the order of arrangement1 the manner of disposing the work1 or establishing pieces for exhibition1 may be greatly varied according to taste and fancy4 ,the great variety of fixed and moveable pieces1 consisting of suns1 moons1 stars1 c4 which may be either made permanent1 or to revolve on1 or round a centre2 or of wheels1 double1 single1 or treble1 either moving round other wheels1 or by themselves in a vertical or horizontal order1 together with the arrangement of fire-pots1 and coloured lights1 the management of rockets1 the formation of aerial stars1 serpents1 tourbillons1 c4 and the imitation of cascades1 girandoles1 and water-falls1 all depend on the taste and fancy of the artist4 ,it is our intention1 therefore1 in the different sections of this chapter1 to give the order and arrangement of pieces1 as adopted in ,europe1 and particularly in ,france2 so that the manner of fixing any one piece1 or combination of pieces1 to produce effects of different kinds1 may be seen at one view4 ,the moveable pieces are generally made of wheel-work1 the wheel always turning upon an axle1 which may pass entirely through and be kept on by a nut or pin4 ,they should revolve without much friction1 and1 for this reason1 the spindle should be of metal1 and oiled or greased4 ,black lead1 along with tallow1 will diminish the friction very considerably4 ,as to the formation of the wheel1 whether it be solid1 or formed of spokes and a band or hoop1 or made with several concentric bands1 placed at given distances apart1 c4 the observations on this head will be found under the respective articles1 and1 generally1 on all other pieces for exhibition4 ,we purpose1 in a subsequent chapter1 to notice particularly the works1 made in and on water1 usually denominated aquatic fire-works2 as their arrangement1 in many respects1 differs from those on the land4 ,aquatic works furnish a variety1 both in character and effect1 and1 therefore1 are calculated to produce1 in conjunction with land works1 a brilliant spectacle4 ,of this1 we have an instance1 mentioned in the introduction to this part of our work1 in the splendid exhibition at the ,pont ,neuf in ,paris4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of the ,composition of ,wheel-,cases1 standing and fixed4 ,it may not be improper1 before noticing the arrangement of wheel-cases1 to give in this place the compositions1 which are used for charging them1 reserving1 however1 the notice of some preparations1 when we treat of such works1 in which they are particularly employed4 ,wheel-cases from two ounces to four pounds4 #a4 ,meal-powder1 #b lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,iron-filings1 #g -- #b4 ,meal-powder1 #b lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #ab oz4 ,sulphur1 #d -- ,steel-dust1 #c -- #c4 ,meal-powder1 #d lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,sulphur1 #h oz4 ,charcoal1 #d -- #d4 ,meal-powder1 #h oz4 ,saltpetre1 #d -- ,sawdust1 #a -- ,sea-coal1 -- #e4 ,meal powder1 #a lb4 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #d -- #aj dr4 ,saltpetre1 #h -- ,glass-dust1 #b -- #f4 ,meal-powder1 #ab oz4 ,charcoal1 #a -- ,sawdust1 -- #g4 ,saltpetre1 #a lb4 #i oz4 ,sulphur1 #d -- ,charcoal1 #d -- #h4 ,meal-powder1 #b lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,sulphur1 -- ,sea-coal1 #b oz4 #i4 ,saltpetre1 #b lbs4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,meal-powder1 #d -- ,glass-dust1 #d oz4 #aj4 ,meal-powder1 #a lb4 ,saltpetre1 #b oz4 ,steel-dust1 #c -- #aa4 ,meal-powder1 #b lbs4 ,steel-dust #b oz4 ,beat iron1 #b -- #ab4 ,saltpetre1 #b lbs4 #ac oz4 ,sulphur #h -- ,charcoal1 #d -- ,slow fire for wheels4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,meal-powder1 #a -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,antimony1 #a -- #f dr4 #c4 ,saltpetre #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,meal-powder1 #a -- ,dead fire for wheels4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #a oz4 ,sulphur1 -- ,lapis calaminaris1 7prepared calamine17 -- ,antimony1 #b dr4 ,standing1 or fixed cases4 #a4 ,meal-powder1 #d lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #b lbs4 ,sulphur and charcoal1 7together17 #a -- #b4 ,meal-powder1 #b lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,steel-dust1 #h oz4 #c4 ,meal-powder1 #a lb4 #d oz4 ,charcoal1 #d oz4 #d4 ,meal-powder1 #a lb4 ,steel-dust1 #d oz4 #e4 ,meal-powder1 #b lbs4 ,sulphur1 #d oz4 ,seacoal1 #f -- #f4 ,meal-powder1 #c lbs4 ,charcoal1 #e oz4 ,sawdust1 #a -- ,sun cases4 #a4 ,meal-powder1 #h lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- #b oz4 ,steel-dust1 #b -- #aj -- ,sulphur1 #d -- #b4 ,meal-powder1 #c lbs4 ,saltpetre1 #f oz4 ,steel-dust1 #g -- ,crowns or globes4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #f oz4 ,sulphur1 #b lbs4 ,antimony1 #d oz4 ,camphor1 #b -- ,this view of the compositions used in fixed and turning pieces1 exhibits the various compounds which have been employed1 and1 therefore1 may be relied upon4 ,notwithstanding they are considered the standard formul2 yet we must observe1 that in some1 particularly in the turning sun1 with variations1 changes are required1 in order to produce a variety in the effect4 ,this is accomplished1 by making1 in the first place1 a particular composition1 and mixing a given quantity of it with meal-powder1 which forms the second change4 ,of this second composition1 combined in a given proportion1 with meal-powder1 we form a third change2 and1 in like manner1 we employ the third along with more powder1 to form a fourth1 and the fourth to form a fifth4 ,the particular manner of making these changes will be described in a future section4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,single1 ,vertical1 ,horizontal1 ,spiral1 and other wheels4 ,of the different kinds of vertical wheels1 we may mention1 that some have their fells of a circular form1 others1 in the form of a hexagon1 octagon1 or of a figure of a greater number of sides1 according to the length of the cases designed for the wheels4 ,the spokes being fixed in the nave1 nail slips of tin1 with their edges turned up1 so as to form grooves for the cases to lie in1 from the end of one spoke to another4 ,then tie the cases in the grooves head to tail1 in the same manner as those on the horizontal water-wheel2 so that the cases successively taking fire from one to another1 will keep the wheel in an equal rotation4 ,two of these wheels are very often fired together1 one on each side of a building1 and both lighted at the same time1 and all the cases filled alike to make them keep time together4 ,this may be accomplished in the following manner4 ,in all the cases of both wheels1 except the first1 and on each wheel1 drive two or three ladles full of slow fire1 in any part of the cases1 but be careful to ram the same quantity in each case2 and in the end of one of the cases on each wheel1 one ladle full of dead-fire composition1 which must be very lightly driven4 ,many charges of fire may be made by the same method4 ,the hole in the nave of the wheel may be lined with brass1 and made to turn on a smooth iron spindle4 ,on the end of this spindle1 let there be a nut to screw off and on4 ,when we have placed the wheel on the spindle1 screw on the nut1 which will keep the wheel from flying off4 ,let the mouth of the first case be a little raised4 ,vertical wheels are made from ten inches1 to three feet in diameter1 and the size of the cases must vary accordingly4 ,four-ounce cases will be sufficient for wheels of fourteen or sixteen inches in diameter1 which is the proportion generally used4 ,the best wood for wheels of all kinds1 is the light and dry beech4 ,horizontal wheels are more perfect1 when their fells are made circular4 ,in the middle of the top of the nave must be a pintle1 turned out of the same piece as the nave1 two inches long1 and equal in diameter to the bore of one of the cases of the wheel4 ,there must be a hole bored up the centre of the nave1 within half an inch of the top of the pintle4 ,nail at the end of each spoke1 of which there should be six or eight1 a piece of wood with a groove1 cut in it to receive the case4 ,fix these pieces in such a manner1 that half the cases may incline upwards1 and half downwards1 and that1 when they are tied on1 their heads and tails1 or extremities1 may come very near together4 ,from the tail of one case to the mouth of the other1 carry a leader1 which is necessary to be secured with pasted paper4 ,besides these pipes1 a little meal-powder must be placed in the inside of the pasted paper1 to blow off the pipe1 that there may be no obstruction to the fire from the cases4 ,by means of these pipes1 the cases will successively take fire1 burning one upwards1 and the other downwards4 ,on the pintle1 fix a case of the same sort as those on the wheel4 ,this case must be fired by a leader from the mouth of the last case on the wheel1 which case must play downwards4 ,instead of a common case in the middle1 we may put a case of ,chinese fire1 sufficiently long to burn a given time1 or as long as two or three cases on the wheel4 ,horizontal wheels are often fired two at a time1 and made to keep time1 like vertical wheels1 only they are prepared without any slow or dead-fire4 ,ten or twelve inches will be sufficient for the diameter of wheels with six spokes4 ,with respect to spiral wheels1 we may remark1 that they are only double horizontal wheels1 made in the following manner3 ,the nave must be thicker than that of the single sort2 and1 instead of the pintle at top1 a hole is usually made for the case to be fixed in4 ,there are two sets of spokes1 one set put near the top of the nave1 and the other1 near the bottom4 ,at the end of each spoke1 cut a groove1 in which the cases are to be tied1 there being no fell4 ,the spokes should not be more than three and a half inches long from the nave1 so that the wheel may not be more than eight or nine inches in diameter4 ,the cases are placed in such a manner1 that those at top play down1 and those at the bottom play up2 but let the third or fourth case burn horizontally4 ,the case in the middle may begin with any of the others4 ,six spokes will be sufficient for each set2 so that the wheel may consist of twelve cases1 besides that on the top2 the cases six inches each4 ,plural wheels are different from the former4 ,they are made to turn horizontally1 and consist of three sets of spokes1 placed six at top1 six at bottom1 and four in the middle1 which must be a little shorter than the rest4 ,let the diameter of the wheel be ten inches4 ,the cases must be tied on the ends of the spokes1 in grooves1 cut on purpose1 or in pieces of wood1 nailed on the ends of the spokes1 with grooves cut in them as usual4 ,in clothing these wheels1 make the upper set of cases play obliquely downwards1 the bottom set obliquely upwards1 and the middle set1 horizontally4 ,in placing the leaders1 we must so arrange them1 as that the case may turn thus3 namely1 first up1 then down1 then horizontally1 and so on with the rest4 ,but another change may be made1 by driving in the end of the eighth case two or three ladles full of slow fire1 to burn till the wheel has stopt its course4 ,then let the other cases be fixed the contrary way1 which will make the wheel run back again4 ,for the case at top1 we may put a small gerbe1 and the cases on the spokes may be short1 and filled with the strong brilliant charge4 ,for forming the illuminated spiral wheel1 we must proceed thus3 ,first have a circular horizontal wheel1 made two feet in diameter1 with a hole quite through the nave2 then take three thin pieces of light board1 three feet long each1 and three-fourths of an inch broad4 ,one end of each of these pieces1 nail to the fell of the wheel1 at an equal distance from one another2 and the other end1 nail to a block with a hole in its bottom1 which must be perpendicular to that in the block of the wheel1 but not so large4 ,plane a hoop down very thin and flat1 and nail one end of it to the end of the wheel1 and wind it round three sticks in a spiral line1 from the wheel to the block at top4 ,on the top of this block1 fix a case of ,chinese fire4 ,on the wheel may be placed any number of cases1 which must incline downwards1 and burn two at a time4 ,if the wheel should consist of ten cases1 we may let the illuminations and ,chinese fire begin with the second cases4 ,the spindle for this wheel must be a little longer than the cone1 and made very smooth at top1 on which the upper block is to turn1 and the whole weight of the wheel to rest4 ,for making the double spiral wheel1 the block1 or nave1 must be as long as the height of the worms1 or spiral lines2 but must be very thin1 and as light as possible4 ,in this block fix several spokes1 which must diminish in length from the wheel to the top1 so as not to exceed the surface of a cone of the same height4 ,to the ends of these spokes nail the worms1 which must cross each other1 several times4 ,these worms clothe with the same illuminations as those on the single wheels1 but the horizontal wheel may be clothed according to fancy4 ,at the top of the worm1 place a case of slow fire1 or an amber light4 ,balloon wheels turn horizontally4 ,they are usually made two feet in diameter without any spokes1 and very strong1 with any number of sides4 ,on the top of the wheel1 range and fix in pots of three inches in diameter1 and seven inches high each1 as many as there are cases on the wheel4 ,near the bottom of each pot1 make a small vent2 and into each of these vents1 carry a leader from the tail of each case4 ,some of the pots may be charged with stars and some with serpents1 crackers1 c4 ,as the wheels turn1 the pots will be fired in succession1 and throw into the air a great variety of fires4 ,fruiloni wheels are made with a nave1 nine inches long1 and three inches in diameter4 ,near the bottom of this nave1 fix eight spokes with a hole in the end of each1 sufficiently large to receive a two or four-ounce case4 ,each of these spokes may be fourteen inches long from the block4 ,near the top of this block1 fix three more of the same spokes1 exactly over the others1 but not so long by two inches4 ,as this wheel is to run horizontally1 all the cases in the spokes1 must play obliquely upwards1 and all those in the spokes at bottom1 obliquely downwards4 ,this being accomplished1 have a small horizontal wheel1 made with eight spokes1 each five inches long from the block4 ,on the top of this wheel1 place a case of brilliant fire4 ,all the cases on this wheel must play in an oblique direction downwards1 and burn two at a time2 and those on the large wheel1 four at a time2 i4 e4 two of those on the top set of spokes1 and two of those in the bottom set of spokes4 ,the four first cases on the large wheel1 and the two first on the small1 must be fired at the same time1 and the brilliant fire at the top1 at the beginning of the last cases4 ,the cases of the wheels may be filled with a gray charge4 ,when these wheels are completed1 we must have a strong iron spindle1 four feet six inches long2 and fixed perpendicularly on the top of a stand4 ,on this1 we put the large wheel1 whose nave must have a hole quite through from the bottom to the top4 ,this hole must be large enough to turn easy round the bottom of the spindle1 at which place there must be a shoulder1 to keep the wheel from touching the stand4 ,at the top of the spindle1 put the small wheel1 and join it to a large one with a leader1 in order that they may be fired both together4 ,pin wheels1 as they are called1 are formed by rolling some paper into pipes of about fourteen inches in length4 ,the paper should be thin1 and rolled of three thicknesses4 ,when they are thoroughly dried1 procure a tin tube1 twelve inches long1 to fit easy into the pipes4 ,at one end of this tube1 fix a small conical cup1 which cone is called a funnel2 then bend one end of one of the pipes1 and put the funnel in at the other1 as far as it will reach1 and fill the cup with composition4 ,draw out the funnel gently1 shaking it up and down1 and it will fill the pipe1 as it comes out4 ,having filled some pipes1 procure some small blocks1 about one inch in diameter and half an inch thick4 ,round one of these blocks1 wind and paste a pipe1 and to the end of this pipe1 join another1 which must be done by twisting the end of one pipe to a point1 and putting it into the end of the other with a little paste4 ,in this manner1 join four or five pipes1 winding them one upon another1 so as to form a spiral line4 ,having wound on the pipes1 paste two strips of paper across them to hold them together4 ,the pipes must also be pasted together4 ,the other method of making these wheels is described thus3 wind on the pipes without paste1 and stick them together with sealing wax at every half turn2 so that1 when they are fired1 the end will fall loose1 every time the fire passes the wax1 by which means the circle of fire will be considerably increased4 ,the formers for these pipes are made from #a-a_/b to #d_/afths of an inch in diameter4 ,they may be fired on a large pin1 and held in the hand with safety4 ,composition for ,pin-,wheels4 ,meal-powder1 #h oz4 ,saltpetre1 #b -- ,sulphur1 #a -- ,steel-filings1 or the powder of cast-iron1 -- ,the ingredients are to be well mixed1 and dry4 ,the mixture need not be very fine1 or it will adhere to the funnel4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,revolving ,suns4 ,from what has been said in the preceding section1 it is obvious1 that revolving or turning suns may be formed1 or any piece put in motion1 in the manner already described4 ,the most common mode of forming a sun1 is to attach to three naves1 which proceed from a hub1 that revolves on a spindle1 from three to six cases1 placing them in such a way1 that they may be fired successively4 ,the jets1 or spouts1 proceeding from the cases1 constitute the rays1 the sun being in the centre1 which revolves with the cases on an axis4 ,the arrangement of these cases should be such1 as that the six 7as that number is usually employed17 might form the perimeter4 ,the cases may be charged with one1 or with different compositions1 given in the following table4 ,they are attached in such a way1 that the head of the first is nearly in contact with the ray of the second1 and that to the third1 c4 ,when the first case is finishing1 it must1 therefore1 communicate fire to the second1 that to the third1 and so on in succession4 ,these cases must be attached firmly by wire2 and leaders are used to communicate the fire1 as in other works4 ,the end must be enclosed in the neck of the first case1 and the other end in that of the second1 c4 ,they are secured in their respective positions1 by tying them securely to the cases4 ,with respect to the composition employed1 it may be varied according to pleasure4 ,in most instances1 however1 the ordinary sun-composition is used2 but1 in other instances1 this is varied according to circumstances4 ,morel has adopted the following composition for a sun of six cases1 the cases being eight-twelfths of an inch in diameter4 ,these cases are mounted on the arms of the sun in the same manner as before described4 ,composition for a sun with variations1 the cases of which are eight-twelfths of an inch in caliber4 ,no4 #a1 first change1 ,saltpetre1 #af oz4 ,sulphur1 #f -- ,meal-powder1 #c -- ,no4 #b1 second change1 ,composition ,no4 #a1 #b oz4 ,meal-powder1 #b -- ,no4 #c1 third change1 ,composition ,no4 #b1 #a oz4 ,meal-powder1 #a -- ,no4 #d1 fourth change1 ,composition ,no4 #c1 #a oz4 ,meal-powder1 #a -- ,no4 #e1 fifth change1 ,composition ,no4 #d1 #a oz4 ,meal-powder1 #a -- ,no4 #f1 sixth change1 ,meal-powder alone1 for two changes4 ,it appears evident1 that the changes thus produced are owing to the diminution of the quantity of saltpetre and sulphur1 or1 in other words1 to the increase of the quantity of powder2 and that the fourth change must contain but a small quantity of each1 whilst the sixth or last change contains none1 except that which is in the composition of the powder4 ,the effect1 therefore1 must be proportionate2 for1 it must be apparent1 that this diminution of nitre and sulphur1 and the increase of powder1 must render each charge more explosive1 or1 in other words1 the combustion more instantaneous1 and that this effect characterizes each of the changes in succession1 is a result which necessarily follows4 ,the instructions given by ,morel for employing these changes1 in the charging of cases1 are thus3 ,we take the above composition for the third case of the sun4 ,the first case is of common fire2 the second of silver rain2 the third of two charges of common fire1 and afterwards a charge of ,no4 #a1 the second two charges of ,no4 #b1 the third three charges of ,no4 #c1 the fourth four charges of ,no4 #d1 the fifth four charges of ,no4 #e1 and two charges of ,no4 #f4 ,the fourth case is composed of brilliant fire2 the fifth the same as the third1 and the sixth of large or grand jessamine4 ,we may merely remark1 that the sun must be supported very firmly1 and that it ceases to revolve at the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth numbers4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of ,fixed ,suns4 ,fixed suns are so called1 because they remain stationary1 and exhibit the appearance of a sun with innumerable rays4 ,a fixed sun is formed by putting eight or more strips of board across each other1 so that each arm may proceed from a common centre1 in which a sun is painted on silk4 ,to the extremities of these arms are attached1 to each one in succession1 a case of brilliant fire1 which1 by means of bodies fixed in the usual manner1 go off together4 ,the two arms below1 forming right angles with each other1 are longer than the rest2 so is also the upper and vertical arm4 ,this1 however1 depends upon fancy4 ,the cases are tied to these arms2 and1 after the leaders are fixed from the mouth of one case to that of the other1 they terminate at the bottom and hang below the vertical arm4 ,fire is first communicated to the hanging match4 ,fixed suns are usually employed as a decoration for other works4 ,they are sometimes sixty feet in diameter1 and variously decorated4 ,they are commonly1 however1 ten feet4 ,the fire extends a considerable distance1 sometimes1 it is said1 to the distance of thirty feet2 but this must depend on the size of the cases4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of ,fixed ,suns with ,transparent ,faces4 ,fixed suns may be made with transparent faces in the following manner3 ,two rows of cases must be fixed in radii from the face of the sun1 the sun being in the centre2 and these cases1 being placed alternately one above the other1 and preserving the same distance all round1 present what is called a double glory1 and make the rays strong and full4 ,the frame or sun-wheel is made thus3 ,have a circular flat nave1 made very strong1 #ab inches in diameter1 and fix six strong flat spokes1 proceeding from the circle that contains the sun's face to the extremity of the wheel1 and also two other hoops1 placed between it and the sun4 ,to these1 and the external wheel1 the cases are tied4 ,when the cases are tied on1 leaders are attached from the upper to the under cases4 ,the front of these spokes supports a circular fell1 five feet in diameter4 ,within this is another fell1 smaller in diameter by the length of one of the sun cases2 and within this also is a third fell1 whose diameter must be less than the second by the length of one case and one third4 ,the fells are divided into as many equal parts as we employ cases1 which may be from twenty-four to forty-four4 ,at each division1 fix a flat iron staple4 ,these staples must be made to fix the cases and hold them fast on the wheel4 ,the staples must be so placed1 that one row of cases may lie in the middle of the intervals of the other4 ,there is a spindle in the centre of the block of the sun1 to which a small hexagonal wheel is put4 ,the cases of this wheel must be filled with the same charge as the cases of the sun4 ,two cases must burn at a time1 and begin with them on the fells4 ,the pipes of communication are to be carried from one to the other1 and from one side of the sun to the wheel in the middle1 and from thence to the other side of the sun4 ,they will hold the wheel steady1 when the sun is fixing up4 ,a sun thus made is called a brilliant sun1 as there appears nothing but sparks of brilliant fire1 the wood-work being covered with fire from the wheel in the middle4 ,a transparent face is usually made with pasteboard1 by cutting out the eyes1 nose1 and mouth1 for the sparks of the wheel to appear through4 ,a face may be painted on oiled paper1 or ,persian silk1 put over a hoop1 and supported by three or four pieces of wire at six inches distance from the wheel in the centre4 ,the silk may be painted according to fancy4 ,as to the size of cases for a sun of five feet in diameter1 half-pound cases1 filled ten inches with composition1 is considered a good proportion4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of the ,rose-,piece and ,sun4 ,this exhibition may be made in such a manner as to produce a pleasing effect4 ,a rose-piece may be used for a mutation1 or change of a regulated piece1 or fixed by itself4 ,it makes the best appearance1 when made large4 ,if its exterior diameter be six feet1 it will be a good size4 ,let the exterior fell be made of wood1 and supported by four wooden spokes4 ,all the other parts1 on which the illuminations are fixed1 must be made of strong iron-wire4 ,on the exterior fell1 place as many half pound cases of brilliant charge1 as will be sufficient2 but the more1 the greater will be the effect1 for the nearer the cases are placed1 the stronger will be the rays of the sun4 ,the illuminations should be placed within three inches of each other4 ,they must all be fired together1 and burn some time before the sun is lighted1 which may be done by carrying a leader from the middle of one of the illuminations to the mouth of one of the sun cases4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of the ,manner of changing a ,horizontal to a ,vertical ,wheel1 and representing a ,sun in front4 ,in order to produce this change1 the wheel for this purpose should be about three feet in diameter1 and its fell circular1 on which tie sixteen half-pound cases1 filled with brilliant charge4 ,two of these cases must burn at a time4 ,on each end of the nave is to be a tin barrel of the same construction as those on the regulated piece4 ,we must then have a stand1 made of any height1 about three or four inches square1 and saw off from the top a piece two feet long4 ,this piece is then to be joined again1 at the place where it was cut1 with a hinge on one side1 so that it may lift up and down in the front of the stand4 ,then fix on the top of the bottom part of the stand1 on each side1 a bracket1 which must project1 at right angles with the stand1 one foot from the front1 for the short piece to rest on4 ,these brackets are to be placed a little above the joint of the post1 so that1 when the upper stand falls1 it may lie between them at right angles with the bottom stand2 which may be done by fixing a piece of wood one foot long between the brackets1 and even with the top of the bottom stand4 ,then1 as the brackets rise above the bottom stand1 they will form a channel for the short post to lie in1 and keep it steady without straining the hinge4 ,on the side of the short post1 opposite the hinge1 nail a piece of wood of such a length1 that1 when the post is perpendicular1 it may reach about one and a half feet down the long post2 to which1 being tied1 it will hold the short stand upright4 ,the stand being thus prepared1 in the top of it1 fix a spindle ten inches long4 ,on this spindle put the wheel2 then fix on a brilliant sun1 with a single glory4 ,the diameter of this sun must be six inches less than that of the wheel4 ,when we fire this piece1 attention must be paid to light the wheel first1 and let it run horizontally till four cases are consumed4 ,then1 from the end of the fourth case1 carry a leader into the tin barrel that turns over the end of the stand4 ,this leader must be met by another1 brought through the top of the post1 from a case filled with a strong port-fire charge1 and tied to the bottom post1 with its mouth facing the pack thread1 which holds up the stand2 so that1 when this case is lighted it will burn the pack thread and let the wheel fall forward1 by which means it will become vertical4 ,then from the last case of the wheel1 carry a leader into the barrel1 next the sun1 which will begin as soon as the wheel is burnt out4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,caprices and ,fire-,wands4 ,caprices are so called from the particular motion they assume1 and are regulated according to the order and manner of their firing4 ,a perpendicular shaft1 or post1 is first provided1 in which are placed two sets of spokes at some distance from each other4 ,at the extremities of these spokes1 joints are made1 on which the cases are fixed4 ,these cases communicate with each other by leaders4 ,the first which takes fire1 discharges upwards2 the second1 vertically2 the third1 horizontally2 and the fourth1 fifth1 sixth1 and seventh1 go off at the same time2 viz4 the fourth1 upwards2 the fifth1 vertically1 a little inclined2 the sixth1 horizontally2 and the seventh1 vertically4 ,the match of communication is fixed by a port-fire4 ,the arrangement of this piece1 to produce the effect1 depends on the construction of the wood work4 ,the great falling caprice differs from the foregoing in the following particular1 that it separates itself in the midst of its fire into three parts4 ,it is formed of three wheels1 which appear as one2 but at a certain time after the fire is communicated1 they separate and occupy certain positions4 ,mercury's ,wand1 as it is called1 is formed by placing1 across each other1 two pieces of wood1 and at the extremity of each four lances parallel to each other1 and one obliquely4 ,these lances of illumination must be connected by leaders4 ,circular bands are attached to the extremity of each leg1 which terminates in the centre1 and the wings or legs move in opposite directions4 ,the double crescents1 thus formed1 produce1 in turning1 a variety of figures4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of ,palm and other ,trees4 ,the representation of trees is considered an elegant fire-work4 ,palm trees are shown by fixing an upright piece1 which serves as a trunk1 and attaching to it a number of pieces1 resembling in effect the branches of a tree4 ,the extremities or branches are decorated with gerbes1 and sometimes with marrons1 arranged in such a manner that they may go off together4 ,for ,yew trees1 cases of brilliant fire1 jessamine1 or ,chinese are used4 ,in making this representation1 the upright piece is usually four feet in length1 two inches in breadth1 and one inch thick4 ,at the top we fix1 on the flat side1 a hoop fourteen inches in diameter1 and round its edge and front1 place illuminations1 and in its centre a five-pointed star4 ,at a foot and a half from the edge of the hoop1 two cases of brilliant fire are usually placed1 one on each side4 ,these cases should be one foot long each4 ,below these are usually fixed two more cases1 at such a distance that their mouths may almost meet those at top4 ,two other cases are sometimes added1 which ought to be parallel with the last4 ,the cases are then clothed with leaders1 so that they1 with the illuminations and stars at top1 may all take fire together4 ,fire trees may be formed by placing cases at an angle of #de degrees1 inclining upwards from the trunk1 and at certain distances from each other4 ,the two last cases may incline downwards4 ,cases may also be placed on the trunk itself1 so that the whole will resemble a body of fire4 ,fire trees are commonly made about six feet long and three inches in diameter4 ,the cases are generally fixed to pegs4 ,at the top of the tree1 a four-inch mortar is fixed1 which is loaded with stars1 rains1 or crackers4 ,in the middle of this mortar1 we may place a case filled with any sort of charge1 which must be fired with the other cases4 ,brilliant fire is generally employed4 ,the fire is communicated1 as in other works1 by means of leaders1 which are fired at the bottom4 ,there is also another exhibition often made with the so called illuminated yew-tree4 ,the middle piece or stem on which the branches are placed1 is generally eight feet six inches high4 ,the branches all incline downward1 and shorten as they go up4 ,the number of branches on each side is six1 and their length is determined according to judgment4 ,when the branches are fixed1 place illuminating port-fires on the top of each1 as many as are required4 ,behind the top of the stem1 fasten a gerbe or fountain of ,chinese fire1 which must be fired at the beginning of the illuminations on the tree4 ,fires are often made to intersect each other1 which has a good effect4 ,for this purpose a perpendicular post is provided1 of any thickness1 so that it is sufficiently strong to hold the cases4 ,there are two pieces of wood which go across the post1 two feet six inches apart and two feet in length4 ,on the end of each of these pieces there is usually a five-pointed star4 ,six stars are mostly employed4 ,pegs are fixed to the post in such a way that two of them incline upwards and two downwards1 both forming an angle of ninety degrees1 or forty-five degrees with the post4 ,to these pegs are fixed half pound cases of brilliant fire4 ,all the cases and stars must be fired at once4 ,it is obvious that by this arrangement of the cases1 the fires must cross1 and thus by intersecting each other afford a greater variety4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,of the ,pyramid of ,flower ,pots4 ,this piece is formed by attaching to a post1 ten or twelve feet high1 and placed perpendicularly in the ground1 four rails or pieces1 two feet apart1 which must diminish in length1 so as to represent a pyramid4 ,the bottom rail must be six feet long4 ,on the bottom rail fix five paper mortars1 each three and a half inches in diameter4 ,let one be opposite the post1 and the other four equally distant on each side4 ,load these mortars with serpents1 crackers1 stars1 c4 ,in the centre of each mortar fix a case of spur-fire4 ,on the second rail fix four mortars so as to stand exactly in the middle of the intervals of those on the bottom rail4 ,on the third rail1 place three mortars1 on the fourth1 two2 and on the top of the post1 one4 ,all the mortars must incline a little forwards1 that they may easily discharge2 and the spur-fire rammed exactly alike1 that the mortars may all be fired at the same time4 ,the pipes of communication being prepared1 carry them from one spur-fire to the other4 ,sec4 ,,xi4 ,of the ,dodecaedron4 ,the piece1 required in forming a twelve sided figure1 is prepared in the following manner3 ,a ball must be turned out of solid wood1 fourteen inches in diameter1 and its surface is to be divided into fourteen equal parts4 ,in each division bore holes of a half inch in diameter1 perpendicular to the centre1 so that they may all meet in the middle4 ,in the inside of each hole1 let there be turned a female screw4 ,to all the holes but one must be made a round spoke1 five feet long1 with four inches of the screw at one end to fit the holes4 ,in the screw end of all the spokes1 bore a hole five inches up1 which must be bored slanting so as to come out at one side a little above the screw4 ,from these holes cut a small groove along the spoke1 within six inches of the other end1 where another hole through to the other side of the spoke is made4 ,to this end fix a spindle1 on which put a small wheel of three or four sides1 each side six or seven inches long2 these sides must have grooves cut in them1 large enough to receive a two or four-ounce case4 ,when these wheels are clothed put them on the spindles1 and at the end of each spindle attach a nut to keep the wheel from falling off4 ,the wheels being thus fixed1 carry a pipe from the mouth of the first case on each wheel through the hole in the side of the spoke1 and from thence along the groove and through the other hole1 so as to hang out at the screw end about an inch4 ,the spokes being all prepared in this manner1 a post must be provided on which the piece is to be fired1 having an iron screw in the top of it to fit one of the holes in the ball4 ,on the screw attach the ball and then in the top hole of the ball put a little meal-powder1 and some loose quick-match4 ,after this1 screw in all the spokes1 and in one side of the ball bore a hole1 in which put a leader and secure it at the end4 ,by this leader the powder and match in the centre are fired1 which will light the match at the end of the spokes all at once1 and by which all the wheels will be lighted at the same time4 ,there may be an addition to this piece by fixing a small globe on each wheel1 or one on the top wheel only4 ,gray charge may be used for the wheel cases4 ,sec4 ,,xii4 ,of ,cascades of ,fire4 ,cascades of fire may be made of any size1 and with cases from a half pound to a pound1 or more4 ,half pound cases are usually the size employed4 ,cascades may be made either fixed1 or turning4 ,the former are an assemblage of pieces of wood1 furnished with cases charged with ,chinese fire1 and placed one above the other4 ,the distance may be more or less2 sometimes from eight to fifteen feet4 ,the latter1 or turning cascades1 are constructed about four feet in diameter4 ,the wheel is made to turn on a pivot1 and is put in motion by attaching to it1 in the usual manner1 cases of white fire4 ,these play horizontally4 ,the cases of ,chinese fire1 which play downwards1 are fixed to the wheel1 or to another wheel below this1 or above it1 according to fancy1 and are placed with their mouths downwards4 ,sometimes in fact they play upwards1 and for that purpose are made to incline outwards4 ,in the centre1 there is a case or two of brilliant fire4 ,it is obvious1 that this arrangement not only gives a motion to the wheel1 and to the cases of ,chinese fire1 but produces in effect a circular sheet1 which falls like a cascade4 ,by having an upright piece1 stuck in the ground1 on which are fixed three or more horizontal wheels1 or segments of a circle1 made permanent1 and at about three feet from each other1 diminishing1 however1 as they go up1 and also in their diameter1 a frame will be formed capable of holding a great number of cases4 ,the first segment may be four feet in diameter4 ,the top pieces may be of any length1 so as to hold the cases at a little distance from each other4 ,all the cross pieces are to be fixed horizontally1 and supported by brackets4 ,the bottom cross piece1 or segment1 should be about one foot six inches broad in the middle2 the second1 one foot2 the third1 nine inches2 and the top piece1 four inches4 ,the cases may be made of any length1 but must be filled with a brilliant charge4 ,bits of wood ought to be nailed on the edges of the cross pieces1 having a groove cut in each piece1 and sufficiently large for a case to lie in4 ,these bits of wood are fixed1 so as to incline downwards1 and that the fire from one tier of cases may play over the other4 ,leaders are carried from one to the other1 as before mentioned4 ,let there be a pipe1 hung from the mouth of one of these cases1 covered at the end with a single paper1 which is burnt to fire the cascade4 ,nine cases generally form the first tier2 seven1 the second1 four1 the third2 and three1 the last4 ,these cases play downwards1 except the three at top1 one of which is vertical and the other two inclining at an angle of about forty-five degrees4 ,the arrangement may be varied at pleasure4 ,the only thing to be attended to is1 to fix the cases in such a way1 that the fire which proceeds from them may pass over the tier immediately underneath1 that the effect may be general and uniform4 ,chinese fire may be used1 as in the former instance4 ,sec4 ,,xiii4 ,of ,chinese ,fountains1 and ,parasols4 ,the manner of constructing the wood work of a ,chinese fountain is as follows3 ,procure a perpendicular piece of wood1 seven feet long1 and two and a half inches square4 ,at sixteen inches from the top1 fix on the front a cross piece1 one inch thick1 and two and a half inches broad2 with the broad side up4 ,below this1 fix three more pieces of the same width and thickness1 at sixteen inches from each other4 ,let the bottom rail be five feet long1 and the others of such a length as to allow the fire-pumps to stand in the middle of the intervals of each other4 ,the pyramid being thus made1 fix in the holes1 made in the bottom rail1 five fire-pumps1 at equal distances3 on the second rail1 place four pumps2 on the third1 three2 on the fourth1 two2 and on the top of the post1 one4 ,place them all1 however1 to incline a little forward1 so that when they throw out the stars1 they may not strike against the cross rails4 ,the fire-pumps are to be clothed with leaders1 in order that they may all be fired together4 ,cases for ,fire-pumps are made in the same manner as those for tourbillons4 ,see ,fire-pump1 and also ,fire-pots of various kinds4 ,the effect of these cases depends entirely on the star-composition4 ,stars1 previously moulded1 are introduced into them along with meal-powder4 ,parasols are also formed with ,chinese fire4 ,a horizontal wheel is provided1 and its circumference is clothed with eight or ten cases of that fire4 ,these cases may be five-sixths of an inch in diameter1 and1 when inflamed1 should throw their fire horizontally4 ,the fire1 in this instance1 is made to resemble a sheaf2 but the ordinary composition is generally used4 ,the cases1 however1 should play horizontally4 ,to make the wheel turn on its pivot1 two cases of white fire are attached to it4 ,the parasol1 produced by the fire1 is from twenty-five to thirty feet in diameter4 ,it is formed in consequence of the fire coming in contact1 and producing a concave sheet in its fall1 resembling a parasol when extended4 ,sec4 ,,xiv4 ,of ,wings or ,cross ,fire4 ,nearly similar to one of the pieces described1 that of the representation of a tree1 is the cross-fire1 or wings1 a name given to it1 because it resembles the sails1 or wings of a windmill4 ,in forming this piece1 two sticks1 eight feet in length1 are provided1 and through the centre of each1 a square hole is made1 to receive a piece of iron of the same size1 through which is a hole to admit a pivot4 ,when these sticks are put together1 there must be a sufficient distance between them to prevent their rubbing each other4 ,five cases1 charged with the composition of brilliant fire1 are fixed to each extremity1 proceeding towards the centre1 at a short distance apart1 and making in all twenty cases4 ,four of these cases are placed at each end1 nearly horizontally1 resembling the rounds of a ladder1 the sticks being nearly vertical2 and the one nearest the centre is placed almost vertically1 or rather obliquely4 ,the cases1 being connected with leaders1 when fired1 turn with the sticks in an opposite direction to each other4 ,when three wheels are each furnished with two rounds of white and coloured fire1 and are so arranged1 that the periphery of each should pass over in succession at the distance of ninety degrees of the perimeter1 this piece is then called by the whimsical name of the love-knot4 ,sec4 ,,xv4 ,of ,galleries of ,fire1 and ,batteries of ,roman and ,mosaic ,candles4 ,galleries of fire are formed by attaching1 to long strips of wood1 at convenient distances from each other1 cases of ,chinese fire1 which go off together4 ,at the end of each case1 is put a marron1 which1 when the case is burnt1 ends with an explosion4 ,to form batteries with marrons1 in connection with ,roman candles1 they are tied at two feet distance from each other1 on long sticks1 leaders being attached4 ,these batteries1 like the fire gallery1 usually accompany other fire-works4 ,we may here remark1 that thunder is imitated by marrons1 which are fixed in the same way two feet apart4 ,to produce the effect1 and increase the report1 it is necessary to use them of different sizes1 from a quarter of an inch to three inches caliber4 ,they should be preceded by flashes of lightning1 which is imitated either with powdered rosin1 or lycopodium1 in the manner described in our chapter on ,theatrical ,fire-,works4 ,sec4 ,,xvi4 ,of ,girandoles1 and their ,modifications4 ,girandoles1 for the purpose here noticed1 are nothing more than wheels which turn on a pivot4 ,they are made of light wood1 with a rim similar to that of a sieve1 and are clothed with cases4 ,two cases are fired at a time1 which burn in an opposite direction4 ,girandoles may be made to imitate a parasol1 by placing1 horizontally1 cases charged with the blue-fire composition1 or with that of the ,chinese fire4 ,cascades may be formed1 by arranging them vertically1 horizontally1 and some at an angle of ten or fifteen degrees from the horizon4 ,the bunch of flowers is represented by using1 at the same time1 cases of #aj_/abths1 #aa_/abths1 and one inch1 charged with ,chinese composition1 as given in the table for calibers of that diameter4 ,see ,chinese ,fire4 ,crackers are formed by attaching ,roman candles and ,mosaic simples1 and the sheaf is shown by fixing in the centre some empty cases1 on which are strung small rockets1 which are fired by the last case4 ,there are different modes of varying the effect of the girandole4 ,they may imitate the fire-rain1 by employing cases charged with that composition1 which is given in the chapter on ,theatrical ,fire-,works4 ,sec4 ,,xvii4 ,of ,cracking ,caprices4 ,for this piece1 a circular table is formed about twenty inches in diameter1 and one inch and a quarter thick4 ,there is a hole made in the centre1 which is furnished with a pivot4 ,twelve inches from the circumference1 and at equal distances1 eight holes are to be bored1 to receive the same number of pots1 of two inches caliber2 and1 in the immediate vicinity of the centre hole1 which receives the pivot1 four more are made1 for four other pots4 ,eight arms1 three inches long1 project from the table at equal distances1 on which is fastened a hoop one inch in width4 ,the fire-pots are now put in the different apertures1 which are made sometimes to screw in2 and the frame1 of which we have spoken1 is furnished with cases of brilliant fire4 ,it is necessary that this piece should go off at three fires2 but the order of firing may be varied according to circumstances4 ,sec4 ,,xviii4 ,of the ,projected ,regulated ,piece of ,nine ,mutations4 ,a regulated piece1 if well executed1 is considered as curious in its effect as any other in pyrotechny4 ,it consists of fixed and moveable pieces on one spindle1 representing various figures1 which take fire successively one upon another1 without any assistance after lighting the first mutation4 ,i4 ,names of the mutations1 with the colour of fire1 and size of the case1 belonging to each4 ,first ,mutation4--,this is a hexagon vertical wheel1 illuminated in front with small port-fires1 tied on the spokes4 ,this wheel must be clothed with two-ounce cases1 filled with black charge4 ,the length of these cases is determined by the size of the wheel1 but each must burn singly4 ,second ,mutation4--,this is a fixed piece1 called a golden glory1 by reason of the cases being filled with spur fire4 ,the cases must stand perpendicular to the block1 on which they are fixed1 so that1 when burning1 they may represent a glory of fire4 ,this mutation is generally composed of five1 or seven two-ounce cases4 ,third ,mutation4--,this is moveable1 and is only an octagon vertical wheel1 clothed with four-ounce cases1 filled with brilliant charge4 ,two of these cases must burn at a time4 ,in this wheel1 we may make changes of fire4 ,fourth ,mutation4--,this is a fixed sun of brilliant fire1 consisting of twelve four-ounce cases4 ,the necks of these cases must be a little larger than those of four-ounce wheel cases4 ,in this mutation1 may be made a change of fire1 by filling the cases half with brilliant charge1 and half with gray4 ,fifth ,mutation4--,this is a fixed piece called the porcupine quills4 ,this piece consists of twelve spokes1 standing perpendicular to the block in which they are fixed4 ,on each of these spokes1 near the end1 must be placed a four-ounce case of brilliant fire4 ,all these cases must incline either to the right or left1 so that they may all play one way4 ,sixth ,mutation4--,this is a standing piece called the cross fire4 ,this mutation consists of eight spokes fixed in a block4 ,near the end of each of the spokes1 must be tied two four-ounce cases of white charge1 one across the other2 so that the fires from the cases on one spoke may intersect the fire from the cases on the other4 ,seventh ,mutation4--,this is a fixed wheel with two circular fells1 on which are placed sixteen eight-ounce cases of brilliant fire1 in the form of a star4 ,this piece is called a fixed star of wild fire4 ,eighth ,mutation4--,this is a beautiful piece1 called a brilliant star piece4 ,it consists of six spokes1 which are strengthened by two fells of a hexagon form1 at some distance from each other4 ,at the end of each spoke1 in the front1 is fixed a brilliant star of five points2 and on each side of every star is placed a four-ounce case of black or gray charge4 ,these cases must be placed with their mouths sidewise1 so that their fires may cross each other4 ,ninth ,mutation4--,this is a wheel piece4 ,it is composed of six long spokes1 with a hexagon vertical wheel at the end of each4 ,these wheels run on spindles in front of the spokes4 ,all the wheels are lighted together4 ,two-ounce cases will be sufficient for these wheels1 and may be filled with any coloured charge4 ,,ii4 ,with respect to the proportion of these mutations1 with the method of conveying the fire from one to the other1 and the distance they stand from each other on the spindle1 the following general remarks will be sufficient4 ,the first mutation must be a hexagon vertical wheel fourteen inches in diameter4 ,on one side of the block1 whose diameter is two and one-fourth inches1 is fixed a tin barrel4 ,this barrel must be a little less in diameter than the nave4 ,let the length of the barrel1 and block be six inches4 ,having fixed the cases on the wheel1 carry a leader1 from the tail of the last case1 into the tin barrel1 through a hole1 made on purpose1 two inches from the block4 ,at the end of this leader1 let there be about one inch1 or two1 of loose match2 but be careful to secure the hole1 in which the pipe is put1 to prevent any sparks falling in1 which would light the second mutation before its time1 and confuse the whole4 ,the second mutation is thus made4 ,have a nave1 turned two and a half inches in diameter1 and three long2 then let half an inch of that end1 which faces the first wheel1 be turned1 so as to fit easy into the tin barrel of the first mutation1 which must turn round it without touching4 ,on the other end of the block1 fix a tin barrel ,no4 #b4 ,this barrel must be six inches long1 and only half an inch of it to fit on the block4 ,round the nave1 fix five spokes1 one inch and a half long each4 ,the diameter of the spokes must be equal to a two-ounce former4 ,on these spokes1 put five seven-inch two-ounce cases of spur-fire1 and carry leaders from the mouth of one to the other1 that they may all light together4 ,then1 from the mouth of one of these cases1 carry a leader through a hole bored slantwise in the nave1 from between the spokes to the front of the block1 near the spindle hole4 ,the end of this leader must project out of the hole into the barrel of the first mutation2 so that1 when the pipe1 which comes from the end of the last case on the first wheel1 flashes1 it may take fire and light the second mutation4 ,to communicate the fire to the third mutation1 bore a hole near the bottom of one of the five cases to the composition2 and from thence carry a leader into a hole1 made in the middle of the barrel4 ,this hole must be covered with pasted paper4 ,the third mutation may be either an octagon or hexagon wheel1 twenty inches in diameter4 ,let the nave be three and a quarter inches in diameter1 and three and a half in length4 ,one and a half inches of the front of the nave must be made to fit in the barrel ,no4 #b4 ,on the other end of the block1 fix a tin barrel ,no4 #c4 ,this barrel must be six and a half inches in length1 one inch of which must fit over the block4 ,the cases of this wheel must burn two at a time1 and1 from the mouths of the two first cases1 carry a leader through holes in the nave1 into the barrel of the second mutation1 after the usual manner4 ,but besides these leaders1 let a pipe go across the wheel from one of the first cases to the other4 ,then1 from the tail of one of the last cases1 carry a pipe into a hole in the middle of the barrel ,no4 #c3 at the end of this pipe1 let there be some loose quick match4 ,fourth and ,fifth ,mutations4--,their naves are made of one piece1 which1 from the barrel of the fourth1 to the commencement of the sixth1 is fourteen inches4 ,the block of the fourth is four inches in diameter1 having ten or twelve short spokes1 on which are fixed eleven inch eight-ounce cases4 ,the front of this block must fit easy in the barrel of the third wheel4 ,clothe the cases1 so that they may all light together2 and let a pipe be carried through a hole in the block into the barrel ,no4 #c1 in order to receive the fire from the leader1 brought from the last case on the wheel4 ,the nave of the fifth mutation must be four and a half inches in diameter1 and furnished with ten or twelve spokes1 eighteen inches in length each4 ,these spokes must stand seven inches distant from the spokes of the fourth mutation1 and1 at the end of each spoke1 tie a four-ounce case as ,no4 #e4 ,all these cases are to be lighted together1 by a leader brought from the end of one of the cases on ,no4 #d4 ,sixth and ,seventh ,mutations4--,the blocks of these two mutations are turned out of one piece of wood1 whose length from the barrel of the fifth wheel1 to the block of the eighth wheel1 is fifteen inches4 ,the block of the sixth wheel is five inches in diameter1 having eight spokes1 each two feet four inches long4 ,at the end of each spoke1 tie two four-ounce cases1 as in ,no4 #f4 ,all these cases must be fired at the same time1 by a pipe brought from the end of one of the cases on the fifth mutation4 ,let the distance between the spokes of the sixth1 and those in the fifth mutation1 be seven inches4 ,the nave of the seventh mutation must be five and a half inches in diameter1 and furnished with eight spokes4 ,on the front of them1 two circular fells1 one of four feet eight inches in diameter1 and the other1 three feet eleven inches1 are to be fixed4 ,on these fells1 tie sixteen eight-ounce cases1 or pound cases1 as in ,no4 #g1 and carry leaders from one to the other1 so that they may be fired at the same time4 ,this mutation must be fired by a leader1 brought from the tail of one of the cases on the sixth mutation4 ,eighth and ,ninth ,mutations4--,the blocks of these may be turned out of one piece1 whose length from the barrel of the seventh mutation to the block of the ninth1 must be twelve inches4 ,the block of the eighth1 six inches in diameter1 must contain six spokes1 each three feet in length1 and strengthened by an hexagon fell1 within three or four inches of the ends of the spokes4 ,close to the end of each spoke1 in the front1 fix a five-pointed brilliant star1 and seven inches below each star1 attach two ten-inch eight-ounce cases1 so that the upper ends of the cases may rest on the fells1 and their ends on the spokes4 ,each of these cases must be placed parallel to the opposite fell4 ,ninth ,mutation4--,the block of the ninth mutation is seven inches in diameter1 and holds six spokes1 six feet long each1 with holes and grooves for leaders1 as those in the dodecaedron4 ,at the end of each spoke in the front1 fix a spindle for a hexagon vertical wheel1 ten inches in diameter1 as in ,no4 #i4 ,when these wheels are on1 carry a leader from each into the block1 so that they may all meet4 ,then lead a pipe from the end of one of the cases of the eighth mutation1 through a hole bored in the block of the ninth1 to meet the leaders from the vertical wheels1 in order that they may be fired together4 ,having thus given a brief description of this complicated work1 the performance of which depends so much on the accuracy of its parts1 we will now add a few remarks respecting the formation of spindles4 ,for the larger pieces1 the spindles should be made very strong and exact4 ,the instructions on this head are1 that for a piece of nine mutations1 let the spindle be1 at the large end1 one inch in diameter1 and continue that thickness as far as the seventh mutation1 and from thence to the fifth1 let its diameter be three-quarters of an inch4 ,the other proportions1 then1 are1 from the fourth to the second1 half an inch2 and from the second to the end1 three-eighths of an inch4 ,at the small end must be a nut1 to keep on the first wheel1 and at the thick end1 a large nut2 so that the screw part of the spindle being put through a post1 and a nut screwed on tight1 the spindle will be held fast and steady4 ,the wheels1 however1 ought to run easy and without sticking4 ,the fixed pieces are made on different blocks1 and the leaders must be joined1 after they are fixed on the spindle4 ,the best method of preventing the fixed mutations from moving on the spindle1 is to bore a hole a little larger than the diameter of the spindle2 and1 at each end of the block1 over the hole1 fasten a piece of brass1 with a square hole in it to fit the spindle4 ,similar to this piece of nine mutations is the ,pice ,pyrique of the ,french1 which consists of a great variety of fixed and moving pieces1 that are fired alternately1 but in regular succession4 ,this piece we purpose to describe in the following section4 ,sec4 ,,xix4 ,of the ,pyric or ,fire-,piece4 ,this1 we have remarked1 is a combination of pieces1 calculated1 like the one we have described1 to produce a variety of fires1 variously arranged and distributed4 ,the pyric piece commonly commences with a turning sun4 ,this sun consists of three cases1 fixed to three arms proceeding from the centre4 ,they are attached by means of a string1 and have leaders which go from one to the other of the cases4 ,see ,sun4 ,this sun communicates its fire to a fixed sun1 formed of eight or nine strips of board1 crossing each other1 or as many spokes from a hub1 to which are attached1 lengthwise1 as many cases1 whose mouths are made to communicate fire by means of leaders2 so that each case presents the appearance we have before described4 ,then follows a wheel consisting of two or more concentric circles1 and round which are placed eight cases1 with their mouths inclining a little upwards4 ,these cases are generally charged with brilliant fire4 ,they communicate with each other in the usual manner1 and afterwards with a fixed star1 placed on a stick1 proceeding from the horizontal axis4 ,this star is made of two cases1 charged with ,chinese fire1 with their mouths upwards1 and forming1 with each other1 an angle of forty-five degrees4 ,this fire is then communicated to another wheel1 and from that to one1 on which1 at certain distances1 are fixed six smaller wheels1 furnished with six cases each2 so that the whole are put in motion at one time1 the fire being communicated at the same period4 ,the appearance of these smaller wheels1 as the cases may be charged with the coloured fire-composition1 is such as to exhibit the motion of a screw2 which1 however1 depends on the structure of the wheel4 ,the fire from this may then communicate to other wheels of the same kind1 to cases of brilliant fire1 to marrons and the like1 differently arranged according to fancy4 ,cylinders of copper or tin1 called barrels by some1 are used in the arrangement1 in the manner already described4 ,in fact1 the remarks we have before made on the regulated piece of nine mutations1 the manner of forming as well as of executing it1 will apply to the ,pyric-piece4 ,sec4 ,,xx4 ,of ,sundry ,illuminated ,figures4 ,there are various illuminated pieces1 some of which we purpose to notice in this section4 ,the illuminated pyramid1 with ,archimedean screws1 a globe1 and vertical sun1 may be exhibited in the following manner3 ,let a pyramid be made twenty-one feet in height1 and the height of the pedestal six feet1 and breadth nine feet1 having a space between the rails of six inches4 ,they must be made as thin as possible1 and in all put port-fires at intervals of four inches4 ,the ,archimedean screws are placed on the pedestal4 ,they are nothing more than double spiral wheels1 on which the cases are placed1 but horizontally instead of obliquely4 ,the vertical sun1 placed four feet below the top of the pyramid1 may consist of twelve rays4 ,the globe on the top may be made in proportion to the pyramid4 ,the leaders must be prepared and arranged in such a manner1 that all the illuminating port-fires1 or lances1 screws1 globe1 and sun may take fire together4 ,transparent stars with illuminated rays are formed1 by making a strong circular block or body for the star1 two feet in diameter1 and attaching to it illuminated rays4 ,in the centre of the front of the body1 fix a spindle1 on which put a double triangular wheel1 six inches in diameter1 clothed with two-ounce cases of brilliant charge4 ,the cases on this wheel must burn only one at a time4 ,round the edge of the body1 nail a hoop made of thin wood or tin1 which must project in front six or seven inches4 ,in this hoop1 cut three or four holes to let out the smoke from the wheel4 ,the star may be cut out of strong pasteboard or tin in the following manner3 ,cut a round piece of pasteboard1 two feet in diameter1 on which draw a star1 and cut it out4 ,over the vacancy1 paste ,persian silk1 and paint the letters yellow2 and also four of the rays yellow1 and four red4 ,this transparent star is to be fixed to the wooden hoop by a screw1 to take off and on4 ,the illuminated rays are made of thin wood1 with tin sockets1 fixed on their sides1 within four inches of each other4 ,in these rockets1 put the illuminating port-fires1 or lances2 and behind the point of each ray1 attach a half pound case of gray1 black1 or ,chinese fire4 ,the illuminated rays are to be lighted at the same time as the triangular wheel1 or after it is burnt out4 ,this may be done by a tin barrel1 in the manner described in the regulated piece4 ,into this barrel1 carry a leader from the illuminated rays1 through the back of the star1 which must be met by another leader1 brought from the tail of the last case on the wheel4 ,the regulated illuminated spiral piece1 with a projected star wheel1 also illuminated1 is made by procuring a block1 eight inches in diameter1 and putting in six iron spokes1 which serve for spindles for the spiral wheels4 ,these wheels are made one and a half feet in diameter1 and three feet in height4 ,the spindles must be of sufficient length to keep the wheels four or five inches from one another4 ,at the end of each spindle1 put a screw nut4 ,on these spindles1 the wheels1 that hang downwards1 are to run4 ,on the spindles1 which stand upwards1 must be a shoulder1 for the blocks of the wheels to run on4 ,the projected star wheel turns on the same spindle on which the large block is fixed4 ,this spindle must be long enough to admit the star-wheel to project a little before the spiral wheels4 ,the exterior diameter of the star wheel is five feet five inches4 ,on this wheel1 three circles of iron wire are to be fixed1 to which attach either port1 or other illuminating fires4 ,on the block1 place a transparent star1 or a large five-pointed brilliant star4 ,the cases on this wheel may burn four at once4 ,the cases on the spiral wheels must be placed parallel to their fells and burn two at a time4 ,in order to make a figure-piece1 with five-pointed stars1 illuminated1 all that is necessary is to have a vertical wheel about one foot in diameter1 and furnished with six four-ounce cases of different coloured charge1 which must burn double4 ,on the frame of the figure piece1 fix five-pointed brilliant or blue stars1 rammed four inches with composition4 ,let the space between each star be eight inches1 and1 at each point1 fix a gerbe or case of ,chinese fire4 ,the gerbe1 stars1 and wheel are to be lighted at the same time4 ,the illuminated star wheel may be formed by procuring a fell about four feet in diameter1 and placing1 within this fell1 three circles of iron wire1 one smaller than the other1 so that the diameter of the least may be about ten inches4 ,place the port1 or other fires on these fells1 with their mouths inclining outwards1 and the port-fires on the points of the star1 with their mouths projecting in front4 ,the exterior fell must be clothed with four-ounce cases of gray charge4 ,they must burn four at a time and be lighted at the same time with the illuminations4 ,the illuminated regulating piece as it is called1 consists of flat wooden spokes1 each five feet long1 and at the end of each1 a vertical wheel1 ten inches diameter1 and clothed with six four-ounce cases of brilliant fire4 ,these cases burn one at a time4 ,on two of the spokes of each wheel1 two port-fires are attached1 which must be lighted with the first case of the wheel4 ,on each spoke1 behind the wheels1 place six cases of the same size with those on the wheels4 ,these cases must be tied across the spokes with their mouths in one direction1 and be made to take fire in succession4 ,the diameter of the large wheel must be two and a half feet1 and its fell made of wood1 which is to be fixed to the large spokes4 ,twenty-four cases of the same kind are fixed on this wheel1 and burn four at a time4 ,on the circles of iron-wire1 already mentioned1 illuminating port-fires are attached4 ,the star-points on the large spokes may be made of thin ash-hoops4 ,the diameter of these points1 close to the centre wheel1 is usually eleven inches4 ,on these1 port-fires are placed1 three and a half inches distant from each other4 ,the illuminated double cone-wheel is nothing more than a double cone1 formed of a number of hoops1 and supported by three or four pieces of wood1 in the manner of the spiral wheels4 ,the wheel to which the cones are attached1 base to base1 is two feet six inches in diameter1 and the height of each cone is three feet six inches4 ,port-fires1 or lances1 are tied to each of the hoops1 in a horizontal direction1 with their mouths outwards4 ,the cases are eight-ounce1 and play horizontally1 two at a time4 ,the spindle for this piece must rise three feet above the point of the cone at top2 so that its length will be ten feet four inches from the top of the post1 in which it is fixed1 allowing four inches for the thickness of the block of the wheel4 ,the whole weight of the wheel and cones must be made to bear on a shoulder in the spindle1 on which the block of the wheel is to turn4 ,on the top of the spindle1 fix a sun1 composed of sixteen four-ounce cases of brilliant fire4 ,these cases must be stuck into a block1 six inches in diameter4 ,in the front of this sun1 put a circular vertical wheel1 sixteen inches in diameter4 ,on the front of this wheel1 form a spiral with wire1 to which attach illuminations in the usual manner4 ,this wheel is to be fired1 when the cones are burnt out1 which may be done as before described4 ,the sun must not be fired1 until the vertical wheel is burnt out4 ,three vertical wheels illuminated1 which turn on their own naves upon a horizontal table1 is a piece readily formed4 ,it consists in having a table1 three feet in diameter fixed horizontally on the top of a post1 with three wheels that turn round on it4 ,there are three spokes1 joined to a triangular flat piece of wood1 in the middle of which1 a hole is made to fit easily over a spindle placed in the centre of the table4 ,there are three pieces of wood four or five inches long1 and two inches square1 fixed on the under sides of the spokes4 ,in these pieces1 holes are made lengthwise1 to receive the thin parts of the blocks of the wheels1 which1 when in1 are prevented from coming out by a small iron pin that runs through the end of each4 ,the three vertical octagon wheels1 each eighteen inches in diameter1 have blocks sufficiently long1 for three or four inches to rest on the table4 ,round these a number of sharp points of wire are driven1 7which must not project out of the blocks more than #a_/afth of an inch71 and the clothing is affixed in the usual manner4 ,the use of the points is this1 that1 when the blocks turn round1 they will stick in the table and assist in giving a uniform motion to the wheel4 ,on the front of the wheels1 make four or five circles of strong wire1 or flat hoops1 and tie1 on these circles1 as many illuminations1 as they will hold1 at two inches from each other4 ,spiral lines may be made instead of circles4 ,when illuminations are fixed in a spiral line1 in the front of a wheel1 they ought to be placed on the slant4 ,the cases for these wheels may be filled with any coloured charge1 but must burn only one at a time4 ,a globe1 or spiral wheel may be put on the spindle1 so that its fire may play over the vertical wheels4 ,the wheels must be lighted at the same time1 and the illuminations1 after two cases of each wheel are consumed4 ,the vertical scroll wheel is formed by taking a block of a moderate size1 and fixing in it four flat spokes1 and1 on them1 a flat circular fell of wood4 ,round the front of this fell1 port-fires are placed2 and on the front of the spokes a scroll is formed either with a hoop or strong iron-wire4 ,on this scroll1 tie cases of brilliant fire in proportion to the wheel1 head to tail4 ,when the first case near the fell is lighted1 the fire is communicated in succession4 ,the grand volute1 with a projected wheel in front1 is made in the following manner3 ,two hoops are formed of strong iron wire1 one of six feet in diameter1 and the other of four feet two inches4 ,these hoops must be joined to scrolls1 formed according to fancy1 of the same kind of wire4 ,on these1 tie1 with iron wire1 as many illuminating port-fires1 as they will carry1 at two inches distance4 ,prepare then a circular wheel of four spokes1 three feet six inches in diameter1 and1 on its fell1 tie as many four-ounce cases1 head to tail1 as will complete the circle1 only allowing a sufficient distance between the cases1 that the fire may pass free4 ,on each spoke1 fix a four-ounce case1 about three inches from the fell of the wheel4 ,these cases are to burn one at a time1 and the first of them to begin with those on the fell1 of which four are to burn at a time4 ,on the front of the wheel1 form a spiral line with strong wire1 on which tie port-fires1 with their mouths to face the same way as the cases on the wheel4 ,all these port-fires must be fired with the second cases on the wheel4 ,the spokes of the wheel must be formed of wood1 and made to screw into a block in the centre1 and each spoke should be four feet six inches in length4 ,in the top of each1 fix a spindle1 and1 in each spindle1 put a spiral wheel of eight spokes4 ,the blocks of these wheels must have a hole at top for the centre cases1 and the spindle must be furnished with nuts1 screwed on their ends1 which should fit in the holes at the top of the blocks4 ,the cases of these wheels are to burn double2 and the method of firing them1 is by carrying a leader from each down the spokes into the block in the centre1 as in the dodecaedron2 but the centre cases of each wheel must begin with the two last cases as usual4 ,the large circular wheel in front ought to have a tin barrel on its block2 into which a pipe must be carried from one of the second cases on the wheel4 ,this pipe1 being met by another from the large block1 in which the eight spokes are screwed1 will fire all the spiral wheels1 and the illuminating port-fires at the same time4 ,the cases of the projected wheel may be filled with a white charge1 and those of the spiral wheels with a gray4 ,sec4 ,,xxi4 ,of the ,spiral or ,endless ,screw1 and ,waved ,fire4 ,this piece is formed in the same manner as the single and double cones2 and1 in fact1 is the same as the ,archimedean screw1 which we have already described4 ,the serpentine form which characterizes the spiral piece1 is given to it by the particular arrangement of the lances of illumination4 ,the cone receives its motion from the cases of white-fire2 the fire of which is communicated by leaders to the cases of port-fire1 or lances of illumination4 ,they must burn the same length of time4 ,the waved fire is produced by having two wheels of a similar size1 turning in a contrary direction on the same axis1 and furnished with cases1 which are inclined about #de degrees from the level of the table4 ,these wheels carry four cases each1 and burn at the same time4 ,they have been made to carry forty-eight cases1 and furnished1 at their centres1 with lances1 bent in a particular manner1 so as to represent the motion of serpents4 ,sec4 ,,xxii4 ,of the ,decoration of ,wheels4 ,wheels1 we have seen1 may be made of different dimensions1 according to the purpose to which they are applied4 ,the most common are three or four feet in diameter1 with a nave of hard wood1 and spokes of light wood4 ,they are sometimes surmounted with a fell1 and frequently by several concentric hoops1 placed at different distances from each other4 ,wheels1 in general1 are furnished with cases1 and various decorations4 ,some have two1 three1 four1 and more fires2 but1 if they are finished too much1 the weight they thus acquire would retard the velocity of the wheel4 ,their centres may be finished in several ways2 as1 for instance1 by attaching1 to the inner fells or circles1 cases filled with white lance-composition1 placed at the distance of two inches from each other1 or alternately1 white1 blue1 and yellow1 or ,chinese gerbes1 or cases of blue fire4 ,we may also attach small turning suns1 the axes of which being placed upon the spokes4 ,they may also be made to resemble a mirror1 by furnishing all the spokes with white lances2 and for the last fire1 we may attach four cases to the centre1 or in its vicinity1 placed in such a manner1 that their fire may issue from the interior of the wheel4 ,to this1 we may add1 two other cases1 which may cross the former4 ,leaders are fixed1 and they are lighted at the same time4 ,automatons with all their joints1 or articulations1 have been added to exhibitions of this kind1 and with particular effect4 ,they are clothed with cases after the usual manner4 ,sec4 ,,xxiii4 ,of ,globes1 with their ,various ,decorations4 ,the first we purpose to treat of are the illuminated globes with horizontal wheels4 ,the hoops for these globes may be made of wood1 tin1 or iron wire1 about two feet in diameter4 ,for a single globe1 take two hoops and tie them together1 one within the other1 at right angles2 then have a horizontal wheel made1 whose diameter must be a little wider than the globe1 and its nave six inches long2 on the top of which1 the globe is fixed so as to stand three or four inches from the wheel4 ,on this wheel may be put any number of cases1 filled with any of the ordinary charges1 as the white fire composition4 ,two of these cases must burn at a time4 ,they may be placed horizontally1 or inclining downwards4 ,when the wheel is clothed1 fix on the hoops as many illuminations as will stand1 within two and a half inches of each other1 which are fastened on the hoops with small iron wire4 ,attach the pipes of communication1 and arrange them so as to carry the fire to all at the same time1 with the exception of one or two1 which are to receive their fire for the last4 ,the spindle1 on which the globe is to turn1 must go through the block of the wheel up to the inside of the top of the globe2 at this place must be fixed a bit of brass or iron1 with a hole in it1 to receive the point of the spindle1 on which the whole weight of the wheel is to bear4 ,when the globe is to be stationary and the wheel to run by itself1 the block of the wheel must not be so long1 or the spindle any longer than to raise the globe a little above the wheel4 ,we may remark1 that1 while the cases of white fire composition give to the piece a rotary motion1 those of the lance or illuminating port-fire produce the effect1 which characterizes in particular this fire-work4 ,with respect to fire globes1 there are two kinds2 namely1 one with projected cases1 and the other with concealed cases4 ,if we have a globe made of wood1 of any diameter1 and divide its surface into twenty-four equal parts1 and bore a perpendicular hole in each of these divisions to the centre1 we may then represent this piece in the following manner3 ,in every hole1 except one1 put a case filled with brilliant or any other charge1 and let the mouths of the cases be even with the surface of the globe4 ,then cut in the globe a groove from the mouth of one case to that of another for leaders1 which must be carried from case to case1 so that they may all be fired together4 ,the globe is then covered with a single paper and painted4 ,fire globes with projected cases are made in the following way3 ,prepare a globe with fourteen holes1 and fix in every hole except one1 a case1 and let each case project from the globe two-thirds of its length4 ,then clothe all the cases with leaders4 ,it must be supported by a spindle made to fit the hole in which there is no case4 ,the bursting-globe is nothing more than a globe prepared in a particular way4 ,it turns on a pivot1 and is made by uniting four segments4 ,these segments or parts are fixed to hinges1 which open on the inside1 and1 when brought together1 are kept in their place by a match which goes round the globe4 ,the globe1 it is to be observed1 is furnished in the inside with several steel springs1 which1 unless the globe itself were tied1 would force it open4 ,when the match is burnt1 this effect follows and the globe separates into four parts4 ,it is furnished with lances and cases in the same manner as those already described4 ,the last effect is that we have noticed4 ,globes1 which leap or roll on the ground1 may be formed by procuring a wooden globe1 furnished with a cylinder2 and1 having loaded it with the composition hereafter mentioned1 introduce into it four or more petards loaded with grain powder to their orifices1 which must be well stopped with paper or tow4 ,if a globe prepared in this manner be fired by means of a match at the mouth of the cylinder1 it will leap about as it burns on a smooth horizontal plane1 according as the petards are set on fire4 ,the petards may be affixed to the exterior surface of the globes1 which they will cause to roll and leap as they catch fire4 ,composition4 ,grained powder1 #a lb4 ,saltpetre1 #cb -- ,sulphur1 #h -- ,scraped ivory1 #a oz4 ,sawdust1 7boiled in saltpetre and dried17 #h lbs4 ,sec4 ,,xxiv4 ,of the ,representation of the ,moon and ,stars4 ,the moon and stars are represented in the following manner3 ,make a wheel eighteen inches in diameter1 by fixing eight or more spokes in the nave2 and then adapt a fell to it4 ,to the fell fasten eight cases of the black or gray composition1 and let the fire communicate from one to the other4 ,these cases give motion to the wheel4 ,furnish the spokes of this wheel with cases charged with the white lance composition4 ,make now a crescent of iron and attach it to the spokes1 or a little before the spokes of the wheel4 ,in order to fix stars to this piece1 eight strips of wood1 seven feet in length1 are made to cross each other at equal distances1 and nailed to each other in the middle2 so that when this frame is put behind and secured to the moon-piece1 its arms will extend some distance beyond the perimeter of the wheel4 ,these projections are furnished with five-pointed stars1 eight inches apart1 and there is usually in all thirty-two4 ,they are made to communicate with each other by means of the cotton match1 as before described4 ,the light of the lances renders the moon very apparent1 and the fixed stars resemble those in the firmament4 ,the representation of the moon and seven stars may be performed by procuring a smooth1 circular board1 six feet in diameter4 ,out of the middle of it cut a circular piece twelve or fourteen inches in diameter1 and cover the hole formed with ,persian silk1 on which is to be painted a moon's face4 ,also cut out of the board stars of four or five inches in diameter4 ,these stars are cut out with five points and covered with oiled silk4 ,on the front of the large circular board draw a seven-pointed star1 as large as the circle will admit1 and on the lines which form this star1 make several perforations1 in which six-pointed stars are to be fixed4 ,a wheel of brilliant fire is placed behind the moon1 which renders the moon and stars transparent4 ,they will disappear when the wheel is burnt out2 but then in consequence of the communication of the fire to the large star in front1 which is formed of pointed stars1 the appearance of this star succeeds1 and finishes the piece4 ,a large fixed star may be made thus4 ,to each extremity of the pieces of wood1 arranged so as to cross each other1 attach two cases of the black charge4 ,their fire must communicate4 ,near these cases1 on each arm1 place a turning sun of three cases4 ,these five suns are fixed at the same time1 and when they cease1 the cases commence4 ,these cases form the star4 ,the representation of flaming stars1 with brilliant wheels1 is made in the following manner4 ,after procuring a circular piece of wood1 about one inch thick1 and two feet in diameter1 fix round it eight points1 each two feet and a half long1 four of which must be straight and four waved1 or flaming4 ,these points being joined on very strong1 and even with the surface of the wood1 nail tin or pasteboard on their edges1 from the wood to the end of each1 where they must be joined4 ,this tin is to project in front eight inches1 and be joined where they meet at the block4 ,round the front of the wood1 fix four pieces of thick iron wire1 eight inches long each1 equally distant from each other4 ,cut a piece of pasteboard round1 two feet in diameter1 and draw on it a star2 then cut out this star1 and on the back of it1 place oiled paper4 ,paint half red and half yellow1 lengthwise4 ,the body of the star must be left open in which must be seen a brilliant wheel4 ,this wheel is formed by having a block turned nine inches long1 and fixing in it six spokes4 ,at the end of each spoke1 put a two-ounce case of brilliant fire4 ,the length of these cases is made in proportion to the wheel1 and the diameter of the wheel1 when the cases are on1 must be less than the diameter of the body of the small star4 ,the cases on the spokes in front must have their mouths inclined outwards1 and those on the inside spokes1 placed so as to form a vertical circle of fire4 ,carry the first leader1 from the tail of one of the cases in front1 to the mouth of one of the inside cases1 and from the tail of that to another in front1 and in the same order to all of them4 ,put on a spindle in the centre of the star4 ,this spindle must be furnished with a shoulder at bottom1 to keep the wheel at a little distance from the block1 which is kept on the spindle by a nut at the end4 ,having fixed on the wheel1 fasten the transparent star to four pieces of wire4 ,when fired1 a common horizontal wheel will only be seen2 but when the first case is burnt out1 it will fire one of the vertical cases1 which will show the transparent star and fill the large flames and points with fire4 ,it will then appear like a common wheel1 and represent the same appearance for twelve changes4 ,with respect to the formation of stars for regulated pieces1 we may remark1 that they are made of different sizes according to the work for which they are intended4 ,they are prepared with cases from one ounce to one pound2 but1 in general1 with four-ounce cases1 four or five inches long4 ,the cases should be rolled with paste1 and twice as thick of paper as a rocket of the same caliber4 ,having rolled a case1 let one end of it be pinched quite close2 then drive in half a diameter of clay1 and1 when dry1 fill it with composition to two or three inches of the length of the case4 ,at the top of the charge1 drive some clay2 as the ends of these cases1 being seldom pinched1 would be likely to take fire4 ,divide the case1 when filled1 at the pinched end close to the clay1 into five equal parts2 then bore five holes with a gimblet1 about the size of the neck of a common four-ounce case1 into the composition4 ,from one hole to another1 carry a quick match1 and secure it with paper1 in the same manner as the ends of wheel cases2 so that the hollow part1 which projects from the end of the case1 may serve to receive a leader from any other work1 to give fire to the points of the stars4 ,these stars may be made with any number of points4 ,sec4 ,,xxv4 ,of the ,representation of ,sundry ,figures in ,fire4 ,animals and various figures may be represented in fire by the following method3 ,take sulphur1 reduced to a very fine powder1 and1 having formed it into a paste with starch1 cover the figure of the thing to be represented1 with this mixture1 having first coated it with clay to prevent it from being burnt4 ,after the figure is covered with paste1 it must be sprinkled1 while moist1 with gunpowder2 and1 when the whole is perfectly dry1 arrange about it several small matches1 that the fire may be speedily communicated to it on all sides4 ,in this way1 all sorts of garlands1 festoons1 and other ornaments may be imitated by fire of different colours4 ,a shower of fire may be connected with this representation1 by using cases of one-third of an inch in diameter1 charged with any of the following compositions4 ,these cases should be two inches and a half in length4 ,they must not be choaked1 it being sufficient to twist the end of the cartridge4 ,the effect of these cases is to fill the surrounding air with an undulating fire4 ,the compositions are similar to those already noticed2 viz4 for ,chinese ,fire1 take gunpowder one pound1 sulphur two ounces1 pulverized cast-iron of ,no4 #a4 five ounces2 for ancient fire1 meal-powder one pound1 charcoal two ounces2 and for brilliant fire1 meal-powder one pound1 and iron filings four ounces4 ,sparks are also sometimes employed4 ,these are made in the usual manner4 ,besides the common mode of forming sparks1 as they differ from stars only in their size and duration1 7being formed into small balls about the size of peas71 they may be made by the following method3 ,take sawdust of fir1 poplar1 c4 and boil it in water1 in which saltpetre has been dissolved4 ,when the water has boiled some time1 it is to be poured off1 that the sawdust may remain in the vessel4 ,when nearly dry1 spread it out on a table1 and sprinkle it with sulphur1 sifted through a very fine sieve1 to which may be added a little meal-powder4 ,if it be required to accompany the exhibition with bearded rockets1 7fuses chevelues of the ,french71 so called from the circumstance1 that1 when they fall1 they make small undulations in the air like frizzled hair1 we may form them in the following manner3 ,fill the barrels of some goose-quills with the composition of sky-rockets1 and place upon the mouth of each a little moist gunpowder1 both to keep in the composition1 and to serve as a match4 ,if a flying-rocket be then loaded with these quills1 they will produce1 at the end1 a beautiful shower of fire4 ,sec4 ,,xxvi4 ,of the ,representation of ,flat ,stars1 with a large ,body of ,fire4 ,a star of five points1 about two feet from point to point1 is to be made1 and1 in its centre1 is placed a turning sun1 composed of three cases1 and altogether not more than six or eight inches in diameter4 ,to this star five branches are fixed1 each of which is three feet in length2 and1 to the extremity of each1 are attached seven cases1 with their mouths outwards1 and inclining about thirty-five degrees4 ,one case is then attached lengthwise1 and forms the very extremity of each projection4 ,on each leg or branch1 nearer1 however1 the centre of the star1 must be three cases1 fixed in an hexangular form4 ,the border of the large star is decorated with ,italian or fixed stars4 ,the fire is communicated to the star by means of a leader1 then to the sun and the cases on the branches4 ,sec4 ,,xxvii4 ,of the ,single1 ,double1 and ,triple ,table ,wheel4 ,we have spoken of an arrangement of fire-works1 which moves a wheel on a circular board4 ,that contrivance is similar to the one we now purpose to describe4 ,the table-wheel is a kind of girandole1 which turns circularly on a round table1 by having its axis connected with a perpendicular pin1 fixed in the table2 so that its motion is vertical1 while it moves in a circular position round the table4 ,the table1 as well as the wheel1 may be of any size1 according to fancy4 ,eight or nine cases are usually attached to the fell of the wheel1 and in the direction of the fell4 ,these cases turn it with great velocity4 ,the centre of the wheel may be decorated with lances1 or illuminating port-fires4 ,when double or treble wheels are to be arranged on the same table1 this is done by having the iron so lengthened1 as to extend over the table1 and receive another wheel of the same size2 and by using a contrivance of iron1 having three projections1 at equal distances apart1 and turning in the same manner on a pivot1 or pin1 fixed in the centre of the table1 three wheels may be put in motion at the same time4 ,when two wheels are employed1 we may decorate one with blue lances1 and the other with yellow4 ,when three wheels form the same piece1 it is usual to illuminate them1 severally1 with white1 blue1 and yellow lances4 ,the wheels of coloured fire augment the beauty of the exhibition4 ,in the centre of the table1 may be placed a pyramid1 decorated in the usual manner4 ,spiral wheels1 globes1 c4 may be attached1 if so required4 ,sec4 ,,xxviii4 ,of ,decorations1 ,transparencies1 and ,illuminations4 ,cut-work1 as it is called1 is often employed in decorations4 ,various figures1 letters1 garlands1 c4 may be represented4 ,this may also be accomplished in tambour-work4 ,several methods have been used to produce the same effect4 ,cut-work1 made in pasteboard1 and the pasteboard blackened and suspended in a frame1 will1 by the aid of lights placed behind it1 exhibit the design very perfectly4 ,a figure of a sun cut out of pasteboard1 either fixed or made to revolve in the manner before described1 and illuminated by fixed lights or revolving cases1 is considered to be the best mode of forming such pieces4 ,in all instances1 the more brilliant the fire1 the more perfect is the representation4 ,tambour decorations are variously arranged2 and1 frequently1 in the termination of an exhibition1 six or more are shown at once1 and sometimes with cascades1 and turning suns4 ,in the place of cut-work1 painted transparencies1 made with fine colours1 and on ,florence ,taffeta1 are usually employed4 ,transparent paintings however1 are not preferred by some1 as the effect1 it is said1 is not so perfect as when cut-work is employed4 ,morel gives a preference to the latter4 ,transparencies may be formed with silk1 or fine linen1 and even with paper1 if previously prepared1 by means of the spirit of turpentine4 ,the colours are painted in turpentine1 and transparent varnish is then applied4 ,transparent screens may be prepared1 by spreading white wax1 dissolved in spirits of turpentine1 over thin muslin4 ,a screen1 thus prepared1 will roll up without injury4 ,a clearer screen may be produced1 by having the muslin stretched upon a rectangular frame1 and prepared with turpentine instead of wax4 ,in the uvres de ,diderot1 t4 xv1 p4 #cdi1 are observations respecting transparencies1 and the manner of preparing them4 ,the process described is nothing more than we have noticed4 ,it consists in using the oil of turpentine1 and sometimes a solution of wax in turpentine4 ,the colours are prepared mostly with turpentine4 ,canada balsam1 thinned by the addition of the spirit1 is also employed4 ,moveable transparencies were exhibited with great effect in ,paris4 ,transparent figures were made to move continually in every direction1 which had a singular appearance4 ,artificial fire-works were very accurately imitated1 by producing a variety of movements with different pieces of transparencies1 variously coloured4 ,the sun1 moon1 and stars1 revolving wheels1 c4 composed a part of this exhibition4 ,with respect to decorations in white and coloured lances1 we may observe1 that artificial fire-works are usually terminated by some decoration1 which corresponds with the subject4 ,for this purpose1 triumphal arches1 fronts of palaces1 colonades1 rocks1 c4 are formed1 and represented in wood-work4 ,these are usually clothed1 and painted in water-colours4 ,from the rocks1 water is made to issue1 forming cascades1 and a number of figures are put in motion4 ,the jets of water are terminated by jets of ,chinese fire1 or brilliant fire-rain4 ,the furniture1 or decorations1 may be various1 either with white or coloured lances of illumination1 hung four inches apart1 and attached to different parts of the figure1 or building4 ,if it is in front of a temple1 the columns are ornamented with emblems1 c4 the fire-work being thus arranged3 viz4 blue lances are attached to the columns1 white lances to their entablature1 and to the emblems1 yellow lights4 ,this however1 depends on taste4 ,decorations are also made with matches2 but this mode is not preferred1 because so much smoke is thereby produced4 ,figures1 cut in paper1 are illuminated in the manner before described4 ,but for this purpose1 muslin is first stretched on a frame1 and its sides are covered with two or three thicknesses of paper1 which are pasted on4 ,it is then blackened4 ,after tracing the design1 or the subject of the illumination1 and cutting it out with exactness1 the frame is put in a case1 sufficiently deep to contain a number of lights4 ,illuminations1 as an expression1 of public feeling for some event or memorable occasion1 are by no means a recent thing4 ,various modes have been adopted to render such exhibitions more elegant1 as well as more expressive4 ,hence1 with the usual display of lights1 arranged according to taste and fancy1 transparencies1 decorations1 such as we have described1 c4 have been more or less customary4 ,we mentioned1 in the first part of our work1 something in relation to the antiquity of illuminations2 but1 as this subject may be interesting1 we deem the following brief remarks not irrelevant4 ,beckman assures us1 7,history of ,inventions71 that the origin of illuminations is very ancient4 ,the feasts1 or holy-days were celebrated in the days of antiquity1 in various ways1 among which1 that with lamps was very common in ,egypt4 ,it was called the feast of the lamps1 7,fte des ,lampes71 and the inhabitants of some cities in ,egypt were obliged to illuminate1 with a great number of lamps1 placed before their houses4 ,herodotus 7lib4 ii1 chap4 #fb71 remarks1 that1 at a particular festival of the ,egyptians1 lamps were placed before all the houses throughout the country1 and kept burning the whole night4 ,during the festum encniorum1 the ,feast of the ,dedication of the ,temple1 which1 according to common opinion1 was celebrated in ,december1 and continued eight days1 a number of lamps were lighted before each of their houses4 ,such illuminations were used1 also1 in ,greece and ,rome1 and were called ,lampadaria4 ,an infinite number of lamps were burnt in honour of ,minerva1 ,vulcan1 ,prometheus1 ,bacchus1 c4 ,on the last occasion1 the illumination was called ,lampteric4 ,it seems that the lighting of streets had not been adopted at that period4#be ,at ,rome1 the forum was lighted1 when games were exhibited in the night-time2 and ,caligula1 on a like occasion1 caused the whole city to be lighted4 ,as ,cicero was returning home late at night1 after ,cataline's conspiracy had been defeated1 lamps and torches were lighted in all the streets1 in honour of that great orator4 ,the emperor ,constantine caused the whole city of ,constantinople to be illuminated with lamps and wax candles on ,easter-eve4 ,the first christians often illuminated their houses on idolatrous festivals1 in a more elegant manner than the heathens4 ,this was dictated by policy4 ,the houses of the ancients were illuminated on birth-days1 by suspending lamps from chains4 ,for illuminations at the present day1 tallow is chiefly used4 ,it is clarified1 for the making of candles1 by means of alum4 ,m4 ,olaine in #agaj presented to the academy of sciences an apparatus for the manufacture of candles4 ,the bougie economique of the ,french is described in the ,journal de ,paris for #aghb4 ,the outline of the process for preparing them is as follows3 ,take eight parts of suet1 and melt it with one quart of water2 and after straining it1 and returning it to the same boiler1 add the same quantity of water1 in which was dissolved half an ounce of saltpetre1 as much sal ammoniac1 and one ounce of alum4 ,the boiling is continued to evaporate the water4 ,the wick is made of cotton or flax1 and rolled in a solution of camphor in petroleum1 and afterwards covered in the usual manner with the above composition4 ,in using tallow generally1 quicklime is recommended to be added to it in fusion4 ,when the quicklime subsides1 it is poured off4 ,another mode recommended is to melt the tallow with vinegar1 and to add to it a decoction of rosemary1 sage1 laurel1 and a small quantity of turmeric2 the whole being boiled until the water is evaporated4 ,this communicates1 it is said1 an agreeable odour1 and a yellow colour4 ,different modes of preparing tallow for candles have been used4 ,see sal ammoniac4 ,with respect to ancient lamps1 some account of them has been published in the ,antiquities1 by ,montfaucon and by ,passeri2 and the ,journal des ,savants #afhb and #afhe mentions the two lamps of ,boyle and ,sturmius1 and some account of the celebrated lamp of ,callimacus in the temple of ,minerva4 ,on the formation of lamps1 and the purification of oil1 sundry patents have been granted both in ,france and ,england4 ,the argand lamp for burning its own smoke1 which it effects by a glass cylinder placed over the flame1 is one of the best improvements of the kind4 ,the principle of these lamps is the same1 although variously modified in shape and structure4 ,for chemical purposes1 an iron cylinder is substituted for glass4 ,a lamp1 for the burning of tar and turpentine1 with steam1 has lately been invented by ,mr4 ,morey1 7see ,silliman's ,journal ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,mr4 ,e4 ,clarke obtained a patent for a lamp calculated to burn tallow2 the principle of which is1 that by the heat of the flame1 the caloric is conducted to the tallow by means of a piece of iron1 which is heated by it1 and the tallow melts as it is wanted4 ,this lamp may be economically used1 when common lamp oil is scarce and high in price4 ,a lamp is described in the ,repository of ,arts1 to burn tallow4 ,as a wick1 besides cotton1 several substances have been recommended4 ,the filaments of amianthus1 for instance1 while they perform the office of a wick1 are incombustible4 ,the ,journal de ,verdun for #agdh1 announced incombustible wick by sieur ,lespar4 ,touch wood1 the tussilago sarfara1 and the verbascum tapsus of ,linnus1 are also recommended4 ,in #aghc1 ,leger announced1 in the ,journal de la ,blancherie1 that he had invented a match which would burn without smoke and odour4 ,lamps have been furnished with fixed and moveable mirrors1 to throw the light forward by reflection4 ,the reverberatory lamps1 revolving lights for light houses1 c4 are of this kind4 ,many patents have been obtained for such contrivances1 which we have not room to notice4 ,the inflammable air lamp for the table1 described in the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 is nothing more than a spirit of wine lamp1 and used in lieu of hot bricks1 or vessels filled with boiling water for the warming of dishes1 c4 ,in #aghj1 ,m4 ,ehrman1 in his ,description et usage de quelques lampes air inflammable1 describes a chafing dish with inflammable air1 invented by ,nevet1 which operates by the combustion of hydrogen gas4#bf ,fixed illuminations are more brilliant and more magnificent2 as the lights are more numerous1 as well as more diversified4 ,wax1 spermaceti1 or tallow candles1 or oil burnt in tin lamps1 or in glass cups suspended by wire1 are all used for the purpose4 ,if the wick be dipped in spirit of turpentine1 it will take fire instantaneously4 ,it is unnecessary to make any remarks as to the arrangement of lights4 ,large dishes containing melted tallow1 and a wick proportionally thick and suspended by means of a simple contrivance of tin1 are recommended for the same purpose4 ,coloured lights afford a variety4 ,the appearance of coloured flame may be produced by burning the oil in coloured glasses1 so disposed as to let the light pass through the glass1 or by placing lamps behind bottles filled with coloured water4#bg ,the coloured glasses which are sold in ,paris for the purpose1 are formed with facets on the outside1 which not only produce the appearance of coloured flame1 but also1 according to the number of facets1 the refraction and reflection of the light4 ,arches1 pyramids1 obelisks1 c4 are lighted up in this manner4 ,the ,pont ,neuf1 and the ,seine in #agci1 were illuminated at the time of the splendid exhibition of fire-works4 ,it is unnecessary1 however1 to particularize on this head4 ,we all remember the splendid illuminations in all our cities during the late war1 which were indeed a true expression of our national and individual feeling4 ,illuminations1 in this country1 before that time were very rare2 none we think since the peace of #aghc1 and the union under the federal compact4 ,phosphuret of lime1 of the size of peas1 thrown into water1 will afford1 at short intervals1 a brilliant flame of fire2 for the phosphuretted hydrogen gas thus produced has the property of inflaming spontaneously in atmospheric air4 ,alcohol1 containing sundry salts in solution1 will give a flame of various colours1 according to the salt it holds in solution4 ,see ,alcohol4 ,illuminated works are much admired by the ,italians1 and particularly the ,illuminated chandelier1 which is considered a great addition to a collection of works4 ,an illuminated chandelier is formed of thin wood with arms extending on each side4 ,holes are bored in the front of the branches and in the body1 and also in the eagle 7if it be added17 at top1 and distant from each other about three inches4 ,in these holes1 we put illuminations1 filled with white1 blue and brilliant charge4 ,having fixed in the port-fires1 they must be clothed with leaders1 so that the chandelier and eagle may light together4 ,we may also observe1 that1 for the speedy lighting of a number of lamps1 at one and the same time1 quick-match enclosed in paper tubes has been used4 ,this quick-match is sometimes made to communicate its fire to a sulphur match1 prepared by dipping strands of cotton in melted sulphur1 and from this to the lamp4 ,several methods are recommended for this purpose2 one of which consists in dipping cotton wick in the oil of spike1 and arranging it along the wicks of the different lamps1 so that when inflamed the fire may pass rapidly from one lamp to another4 ,in #aggb1 ,m4 ,renault1 a ,parisian1 announced in the public papers1 that he possessed a secret1 by which he could light #bjjj lamps in five minutes1 by means of a match of communication4 ,we have some experiments and observations on coloured flame1 by ,mr4 ,morey1 in his essay on heat and light1 in the second volume of ,silliman's ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 p4 #abj4 ,the experiments are curious1 and worthy of remark4 ,if water1 he observes1 be put into one cylinder1 and made to boil1 and the steam be led to the bottom of another included cylinder1 containing spirits of turpentine1 the steam1 when let out under a moderate pressure1 carries off with it a sufficient quantity of the spirit to burn with a pleasant white flame1 free from smoke2 but if the pressure be increased1 the flame will become in part or wholly blue4 ,here1 he adds1 as in many other experiments1 ,i have noticed1 that different coloured flames may be produced from the same materials--are the products of combustion different8 ,he further observes1 that if the steam of water1 containing a small proportion of the vapour of rosin1 be driven against iron1 at or below a red heat1 it burns with a pleasant blue flame1 which will be extended some way back into the column of the vapour1 intermixed with innumerable sparks of very white flame1 evidently particles of the rosin4 ,if the vapours1 when the proportion of the rosin is very small1 are made to pass between two plates of iron1 at or near a red heat1 they can be inflamed on the opposite sides of the plates1 and will then1 sometimes1 burn with an entirely blue flame1 although the vapour can not be inflamed1 without the intervention of the plates4 ,he states other experiments1 made with tallow and steam1 producing a blue flame4 ,the blue colour seems to be owing to the pressure made use of2 for1 in his second communication1 7page #abb1 of the same volume71 he mentions white flame being produced by the vapour of water2 and when it is in a sufficient quantity1 there is no smoke4 ,if too great1 combustion ceases4 ,speaking of the colour of the flame1 produced by mixed vapours1 7of the combustible and water71 such as blue1 blue and white1 white and intense white1 he adds1 that they may be imitated1 at pleasure1 with the patent lamp stove1 by burning tar1 pitch pine1 or mineral coal and water4 ,newly made charcoal will take up about three times its weight of water4 ,sand1 ashes1 or fine clay1 he observes1 answers well for mixing with the tar1 c4 ,if the latter be made into a paste with equal parts of spirit of turpentine and water1 and cold lumps of it1 of a conical form1 be placed on a table1 and a flame applied1 the vapours burn without smoke for a short time1 c4 ,if enclosed in a tin cylinder1 and the vapour be made to issue through small holes at the top1 placed as before stated1 or on a plate over a chafing dish of coals1 it burns with a very bright light1 free from smoke4 ,if the cylinder be tight at the top and the vapour be led from the inside at the top1 down and through the bottom1 and there be made to issue in an oblique direction1 and from a number of small openings1 it will burn with a beautiful flame and supports and regulates1 very accurately1 its own evaporation4 ,the oblique direction carries the heat1 in part1 beyond the cylinder1 when the evaporation is too great4 ,every effect may be produced in consuming the smoke1 and giving an intense white flame1 by using a certain proportion of water1 intimately blended or mixed with these vapours1 that can be from an access of oxygen furnished1 by creating a very strong current of air1 with a high flue4 ,the description of ,morey's lamp stove1 may be seen in the same work4 ,the steam1 he observes1 may be furnished by a small tin boiler1 and directed to or near the bottom of the tar4 ,an intense white flame free from smoke1 may be thus produced from tar1 rosin1 rough turpentine or the spirit1 alcohol1 oil1 fat1 tallow1 mineral coal1 pitch pine wood1 and the knots1 birch bark1 and pumpkin1 sun-flower1 flax1 and other seeds4 ,with regard to pine wood1 he adds1 it is the easiest managed1 evaporates at a lower temperature1 consumes a greater proportion of water in its combustion1 contains the water within itself1 and gives a brighter light than common candles or lamps1 and without smoke4 ,the more volatile parts are evaporated at a temperature below that of boiling water1 and burn well with three parts of the vapour of water2 the flame then1 however1 is nearly blue4 ,observations on the application of this mode of producing light and heat1 may be seen in ,silliman1 p4 #aca1 c4 ,it appears1 that ,gay-,lussac 7,annales de ,chimie1 for ,june1 #ahai17 has commented on ,mr4 ,morey's plan4 ,professor ,hare 7,silliman's ,journal1 vol4 #b;d1 p4 #agb7 also observes1 that the flame of hydrogen gas is rendered luminous1 like that of oil1 by adding a small quantity of oil of turpentine to the usual mixture for generating this gas2 and that the addition of #a_/ag of the same fluid to alcohol1 will give it the property of burning with a highly luminous flame2 and there is a certain point in the proportions1 at which the mixture burns without smoke1 like a gas light4 ,in the first instance1 he observes1 when the ingredients are at the proper temperature1 the light is greater than that produced by carburetted hydrogen gas4 ,speaking of this application of spirits1 the professor judiciously adds3 ,it might be serviceable to morals1 if the value of this article could be enhanced by a new mode of consumption4 ,we find1 also1 that the effect of vapour on flame has been noticed by ,dr4 ,dana1 in the same ,journal1 vol4 #a1 p4 #dj2 by which it appears1 that when a jet of steam is made to pass into a charcoal fire1 the vividness of the combustion is increased1 and also the low attenuated flame of the coal2 that it prevents the smoke of a common oil lamp1 and makes the flame brighter2 that the flame of spirit of turpentine1 which is usually dull and reddish1 is rendered bright1 and no smoke is formed2 or when the vapour of both are made to issue together from the same orifice1 and inflamed1 no smoke appears2 that a jet of steam1 thrown into the flame of a spirit of wine lamp1 or into flames which evolve no smoke or carbonaceous matter1 produces the same effect as a current of air2 but that1 in all flames which evolve smoke1 steam produces an increased brightness and a more perfect combustion4 ,dr4 ,dana further suggests1 that steam might be introduced into the flames of street lamps1 which might be so contrived as to keep water boiling1 to produce the steam1 and thereby cause a more perfect combustion1 and a greater quantity of light from the same materials4 ,count ,rumford has shown1 that the quantity of light1 emitted by a given portion of inflammable matter in combustion1 is proportional1 in some high ratio1 to the elevation of temperature2 and that a lamp1 having many wicks near each other1 so as mutually to increase their heat1 burns with infinitely more brilliancy than the ,argand lamps in common use4 ,to measure the proportional intensities of two or more lights2 place them a few inches asunder1 and at the distance of a few feet or yards from a screen of white paper1 or a white wall4 ,on holding a small card near the wall two shadows will be projected on it1 the darker one by the interception of the brighter light1 and the lighter shadow1 by the interception of the duller light4 ,bring the fainter light nearer to the card1 or remove the brighter one further from it1 till both shadows acquire the same intensity4 ,measure now the distances of the two lights1 from the wall or screen1 square them1 and you have the ratio of illumination4 ,thus1 if an ,argand flame and a candle1 stand at the distances of #aj feet and #d feet1 respectively1 when their shadows are equally deep1 we have #ajb and #db1 or #ajj and #af1 or #f-a_/d and #a1 for their relative quantities of light4 ,the author of the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 vol4 iii1 p4 #cfe1 in treating on the subject of illumination1 mentions different modes of illuminating1 both with and without transparencies4 ,we know that various mixtures will produce different coloured flame4 ,thus1 arsenic will burn with a beautiful white flame in oxygen gas2 iron and steel will burn also1 affording a brilliant light2 phosphorus and charcoal with a white1 and sulphur with a beautiful blue flame2 zinc with a green colour1 c4 ,again1 we know that a mixture of nitrate of strontia and charcoal will burn with a rose coloured flame2 one part of boracic acid1 and three of charcoal1 with a green flame2 one of nitrate of barytes1 and four of charcoal1 with a yellow flame2 and equal parts of nitrate of lime and charcoal powder1 with an orange flame4 ,we also know1 that cotton dipt in oil of turpentine1 or ardent spirit1 rosin1 camphor1 c4 will burn extremely vivid and beautiful4 ,the author1 whom we have just quoted1 gives some remarks on the various coloured flames1 that may interest the reader4 ,felt 7,feutre1 ,fr47 he remarks1 if put in the fire1 will give most beautiful colours1 a golden yellow and a brilliant blue4 ,and this1 he adds1 may be proved by throwing pieces of old hats into the fire2 for these colours depend on the substances used in dying the hat4 ,he further remarks1 that green oak wood gives a yellow flame1 and alcohol with sedative salt1 7boracic acid71 a blue1 and that1 by uniting the flame of both1 the product1 as to colour1 will be a green4 ,the flame of alcohol is changed of various colours1 according to the salt it holds in solution4 ,of this circumstance1 ,schatt was apprised1 when he gave some formula many years ago1 on the manner of forming coloured flame4 ,reaumur remarked also1 the different colours which some metals assume1 when submitted to the action of heat1 which is known now to be the effect of oxidizement4 ,as respects the phenomena with felt1 we are told1 that1 if we throw into the fire the cuttings of hats1 we will perceive at first a white flame1 and then in succession a blue1 green1 and violet colour2 all which1 our author observes1 proceeds from the verdigris and other substances1 employed in the composition of the dye stuff4 ,there is one fact1 which he has asserted1 which may probably be explained on the materiality of light1 so far as regards the formation of colour1 7not considering1 however1 the theory of ,bancroft1 given in his ,philosophy of ,permanent ,colours1 or the more philosophical one of ,dr4 ,samuel ,conover1 of ,philadelphia1 in the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society71 and this fact is1 that the flame carries the colour to the object which it illuminates1 and that the object itself actually partakes of the colour1 in order to produce any particular appearance4 ,that colours1 as visible to the eye1 are all formed in the solar light1 and their appearance depends upon the absorption of some of the rays of light1 and the reflection of others1 is a doctrine which followed the discoveries of ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,we have not room to notice this subject1 however interesting it may be in a philosophical point of view4 ,there can be no doubt1 that the art of colouring flame was known for a long time4 ,we are told1 that the philosopher ,anaxilaus even pretended1 that1 by putting ink with the oil of a lamp1 or the liquor of the cuttle fish1 the faces of the bystanders will appear black by the light of this lamp6 ,sulphur has the effect of rendering the visage pale and cadaverous4 ,other persons1 as ,simon ,sethe1 advanced an opinion1 that1 if we moisten the wick of a lamp with ink1 or in a mixture of the rust of copper1 and having lighted the wick1 and placed other lights around it1 the faces will appear1 some black1 and some of a brass colour4 ,others1 such as ,cardan1 say1 that1 by making a mixture of wine and salt1 and then reducing it two-thirds by evaporation1 the flame1 which the wine will then give1 will make the living put on a cadaverous appearance1 if they remain in one posture4 ,malina also observes1 that1 by burning a piece of woollen cloth well soaked in a solution of salt in vinegar1 the visage will appear frightful by the light of the flame4 ,but the process of ,j4 ,b4 ,porta is not less worthy of note4 ,if good old wine1 he observes1 be put into a bowl with a handful of salt1 and set on live coals1 but not in the flame1 and as soon as it begins to boil1 is set on fire1 7the other lights in the room being extinguished71 the figure of each person will appear so hideous1 as to produce a mutual dread4 ,the author of the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 iii1 p4 #dcc1 observes1 that he has repeated this experiment1 sometimes with brandy1 and at other times with alcohol1 with perfect success4 ,a cadaverous appearance is said to be given1 by mixing common salt with alcohol1 in which some saffron had been infused4 ,when set on fire1 and the other lights extinguished1 the effect1 we are told1 is very striking4 ,the so called miraculous luminaries1 are nothing else than solar phosphori1 which are very numerous4 ,their effect is to emit light in the dark1 but not heat4 ,almost every thing in nature possesses this property in a greater or less degree1 which depends on the absorption and subsequent transmission of light4 ,the eyes of various animals have this property2 cats and owls in particular4 ,snow possesses it in a considerable degree4 ,putrid animal matter1 fish1 for example1 rotten wood1 c4 partake also of this property4 ,it may not be improper to notice1 in a general way1 some of the substances1 which are denominated solar phosphori4 ,the ,bolognian phosphorus is the calcined baroselenite1 7sulphate of barytes71 which1 when exposed a few minutes to the light1 shines when taken into the dark like burning coals4 ,in water it emits the same light4 ,this property1 as is the case with all other solar phosphori1 it loses gradually2 but by heating it again1 imbibes light4 ,canton's phosphorus is calcined oyster shells4 ,it is used in the same manner4 ,baldwin's phosphorus is fused nitrate of lime4 ,various saline and other bodies1 as diamonds and precious gems1 possess the same property4 ,expressed oils and animal fats1 when heated to #dej1 become phosphorescent4 ,hanzelet 7,trait des ,feux d',artifice7 remarks1 that a stone may be made to give light by water1 if prepared in the following manner4 ,take quicklime1 tutty1 and saltpetre1 of each one part2 reduce them to powder1 and expose them to the action of heat4 ,on the addition of water1 light is said to be given out4 ,when quicklime is mixed with essential oil1 and brought in contact with water1 spontaneous combustion is said to take place4 ,fluor or ,derbyshire spar1 7fluate of lime71 when pulverized and heated to #bab ,fahr41 and then removed to the dark1 is very luminous4 ,if writing be made on a copper or iron plate1 with thin mucilage or white of egg1 and powdered fluor spar1 sprinkled on it2 when the plate is removed to a gentle coal fire1 the delineated objects will become luminous1 and opaque again when the plate becomes cold4 ,the lapis lazuli has the same effect4 ,the phosphoric substances1 which become luminous by attrition or percussion1 are numerous4 ,homberg's phosphorus1 which is nothing more than calcined muriate of lime1 is of this character4 ,when struck it emits light4 ,without either light or fire1 a number of bodies will give out light4 ,flints1 and other siliceous stones1 struck against one another1 appear luminous in the dark4 ,various other minerals have the same property4 ,wedgwood 7,phil4 ,trans4 #agi17 ,coates 7,nich4 ,jour4 #agii17 ,westrumb 7,crell's ,chem4 ,annals1 #aghd17 have written on this subject2 to which enumeration we may add the interesting remarks of ,dr4 ,hulme1 7,phil4 ,trans4 #ahjj17 and the observations of ,cabarris1 in his ,memoir1 read before the ,national ,institute4 ,it may be sufficient to remark1 that the shell-fish called pholas2 the meduca phosphorea1 and other molluscs2 several insects of the species fulgora1 or lantern-fly2 the lampyris1 or glowworm2 the scolopendra electrica2 the cancer fulgens2 the medullary substance of the human brain1 c4 are all phosphorescent4 ,m4 ,dessaignes 7,bulletin de la ,socit ,philomatique1 ,octobre1 #ahaj7 made a number of experiments on solid1 liquid1 and aeriform bodies1 relative to the disengagement of light by compression4 ,among other conclusions1 he adds1 that water is the cause of the spontaneous phosphorescence of bodies1 such as quicklime1 ,canton's phosphorus1 dry muriate of lime1 c4 all which1 when brought in contact with water1 emit light1 which he attributes to the consolidation of that fluid4 ,the absorption of moisture1 and its subsequent consolidation1 may1 in some instances1 give rise to luminous appearances4 ,the lapis solaris1 ,bolognian stone1 or the present sulphate of barytes1 was discovered in #afjb1 by ,casciorolus1 a shoemaker of ,bologna4 ,he came to ,scipio ,begatello1 who at that time was particularly known by his attachment to the art of gold-making1 and showed him this stone1 under the mystical name of lapis solaris1 on account of its attracting the golden light of the sun1 and its boasted fitness for converting the semi-metals into gold1 the sol of the alchemists6 ,dr4 ,brewster 7,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal7 made a number of experiments on the colour and intensity of light1 evolved by different minerals1 by which it appears1 that the yellow sulphate of barytes gives a pale light1 while fluate of lime1 a blue and green light4 ,cellini 7,treatise on ,jewelry1 published near the beginning of the #afth century7 was the first who observed the phosphorescence of minerals2 it does not appear that he knew of the ,bolognian stone4 ,grimshire 7,nicholson's ,journal1 #hvo4 vols4 #ae1 #af1 #ai17 made a number of experiments on the emission of light by bodies1 when subjected to the electrical influence2 and1 when thus treated1 sulphate of barytes gave a brilliant green light4 ,the cawk of the miners1 as it is also a sulphate of barytes1 phosphoresces when previously exposed to heat4 ,there are two water fountains1 both set in motion by the action of heat on confined air1 which1 as it expands1 forces the water from an under vessel in jets4 ,the first is called the illuminated fountain1 and plays when the candles are lighted1 stopping when they are extinguished4 ,the other is a fountain1 which acts on the same principle1 but by the heat of the sun4 ,the effect of the first is more or less considerable according to the pressure of the air upon the water1 and consequently1 to the degree of rarefaction which the air undergoes4 ,the chemical illumination of some writers1 by using oil of vitriol1 iron filings1 and water1 and inflaming the vapour as it proceeds from a bottle1 is nothing else than the inflammation of hydrogen gas4 ,the white vapours1 which they describe1 is the gas in question4 ,having noticed the use of candles and lamps for illumination1 we purpose1 in concluding this article1 to give the result of some experiments on the relative intensities of light1 and duration of different candles1 made by ,dr4 ,ure1 which we extract from his ,dictionary of ,chemistry4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,number ,duration ,weight ,consump4 ,propor- ,economy ,candles in a of a in per hour3 tion of of equal one pound4 candle4 grains4 grains4 light4 light4 argand4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aj mould #e h4 #i m4 #fhb #acb #ab #fh #e4g #aj dipped #d #cf #fgb #aej #ac #fe #e4be #h mould #f #ca #hef #acb #aj #ei #f4f #f do4 #g #b #aafj #afc #ad #ff #e4j #d do4 #i #cf #aghg #ahf #bj #hj #c4e ,argand ,oil ,flame #eab #fi4d #ajj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the doctor remarks1 that #a_/hth of a gallon of good seal-oil1 weighs #fjaj gr4 or #ac and #a_/ajth oz4 avoirdupois1 and lasts1 in a bright argand lamp1 #aa hours #dd minutes4 ,the weight of oil it consumes per hour1 is equal to four times the weight of tallow in candles1 #h to the pound1 and three and one-seventh times the weight of tallow in candles1 #f to the pound4 ,but its light being equal to that of #e of the latter candles1 it appears1 from the above table1 that #b lbs4 weight of oil1 in an argand1 are equivalent1 in illuminating power1 to three pounds of tallow candles4 ,the larger the flames in the above candles the greater the economy of light4#bh ,sec4 ,,xxix4 ,of ,imitative ,fire-,works4 ,imitative fire-works are nearly of the same character as the transparencies and illuminations mentioned in the last section2 but1 as this subject may be interesting to some of our readers1 we thought proper for that reason to appropriate a section to its consideration4 ,imitative fire-works are formed in the following manner3 ,take a paper that is blacked on both sides1 or instead of black1 let it be coloured on each side with a deep blue1 which will be still better for such as are to be seen through transparent papers4 ,it must be of a proper size for the figure intended to be exhibited4 ,in this paper1 cut with a pen-knife several spaces1 and with a piercer make a great number of holes1 rather long than round1 and at no regular distance from each other4 ,to represent revolving pyramids and globes1 the paper must be cut through with a pen-knife1 and the space cut out between each spiral should be three or four times as wide as the spirals themselves4 ,they must be so cut1 that the pyramid or globe may appear to turn on its axis4 ,the columns that are represented in pieces of architecture1 or in jets of fire1 must be cut in the same manner as if they are to be represented as turning on their axis4 ,in like manner may be exhibited a great variety of ornaments1 cyphers1 and medallions1 which1 when properly coloured1 cannot fail of producing a most pleasing effect4 ,there should not be a very great diversity of colours1 as that would not produce the most agreeable appearance4 ,when these pieces are drawn upon a large scale1 the architecture or ornaments may be shaded2 and to represent different shades1 pieces of coloured paper must be pasted over each other1 which will produce an effect that would not be expected from transparent paintings4 ,five or six pieces of paper1 pasted over each other1 will be sufficient to represent the strongest shades4 ,to give these pieces the different motions they require1 we must first consider the nature of each piece3 if1 for example1 we have cut out the figure of the sun1 or of a star1 we must construct a wire wheel of the same diameter with those pieces4 ,over this wheel a very thin paper is to be pasted1 on which is drawn with black ink the spiral figure4 ,the wheel thus prepared1 is to be placed behind the sun or star1 in such a manner that its axis may be exactly opposite the centre of either of those figures4 ,this wheel may be turned by any contrivance4 ,now1 the wheel being placed directly behind the sun1 for example1 and very near to it1 is to be turned regularly round and strongly illuminated by candles placed behind it4 ,the lines that form the spiral will then appear through the spaces cut from the sun1 to proceed from its centre to its circumference2 and will resemble sparks of fire that incessantly succeed each other4 ,the same effect will be produced by the star1 or by any other figure1 where the fire is not to appear as proceeding from the circumference to the centre4 ,these two pieces1 as well as those that follow1 may be of any size1 provided we observe the proportion between the parts of the figure and the spiral1 which must be wider in large figures than in small4 ,if the sun1 for example1 have from six to twelve inches diameter1 the width of the strokes that form the spiral need not be more than one-twentieth part of an inch1 and the spaces between them that form the transparent parts1 about two-tenths of an inch4 ,if the sun be two feet in diameter1 the strokes should be one-eighth of an inch1 and the space between1 one quarter of an inch2 and if the figure be six feet in diameter1 the strokes should be one-fourth of an inch1 and the spaces1 five-twelfths of an inch4 ,these pieces have a pleasing effect1 when represented of a small size2 but the deception is more striking when they are of larger dimensions4 ,it will be proper to place these pieces1 when of a small size1 in a box quite close on every side1 that none of the light may be diffused in the chamber2 for which purpose it will be convenient to have a tin door behind the box1 to which the candlesticks may be soldered1 and the candles more easily lighted4 ,the several figures cut out should be placed in frames1 that they may be put alternately in a groove in the forepart of the box1 or there may be two grooves1 that the second piece may be put in before the first is taken out4 ,the wheel must be carefully concealed from the eye of the spectator4 ,where there is an opportunity of representing these artificial fires by a hole in the partition1 they will doubtless have a much more striking effect1 as the spectator cannot then conjecture by what means they are produced4 ,it is easy to conceive1 that1 by extending this method1 wheels may be constructed with three or four spirals1 to which may be given different directions4 ,it is manifest1 also1 that1 on the same principle1 a great variety of transparent figures may be contrived1 which may be all placed before the same spiral lines4 ,in representing cascades of fire1 it is necessary to observe1 that1 in cutting out the cascades1 care must be taken to preserve a natural inequality in the parts cut out2 for if to save time1 all the holes are made with the same pointed tool1 the uniformity of the parts will produce a disagreeable effect4 ,to produce the apparent motion of these cascades1 instead of drawing a spiral1 a slip of strong paper is to be provided1 in which there must be made a great number of holes near each other1 and made with pointed tools of different dimensions4 ,at each end of the paper1 a part1 of the same size with the cascade1 must be left uncut2 and towards those parts the holes must be made a greater distance from each other4 ,when the cascade that is cut out is placed before the scroll of paper just mentioned1 and it is entirely wound upon the roller1 the part of the paper that is then between1 being quite opaque1 no part of the cascade will be visible2 but1 as the wheel is turned gently and regularly round1 the transparent part of the paper will give to the cascade the appearance of fire that descends in the same direction2 and the illusion will be so strong1 as to appear as a real cascade of fire4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,of ,,aquatic ,,fire-,,works4 ,fire-works1 which are exhibited on water1 have a very pleasing effect4 ,water rockets1 in particular1 are much admired4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,water ,rockets4 ,water rockets are generally small1 from four ounces to two pounds4 ,when large1 they are difficult to be kept above water without a cork float4 ,when this is used1 it is tied to the neck of the case4 ,they will not dive as well with as without floats4 ,the cases for water rockets are made in the same proportion as for sky-rockets1 but the paper is thicker4 ,for those which are driven solid1 put in at first a ladle full of slow-fire1 and then two of the proper charge1 and on that1 one or two ladles of sinking charge2 then the proper charge1 then the sinking charge again2 and so on till the case is filled within three diameters4 ,then drive on the composition one ladleful of clay1 through which make a small hole to the charge4 ,fill the case within half a diameter with corn powder1 on which turn down two or three rounds of the case in the inside2 then pinch and tie the end very tight4 ,having thus filled the rockets1 dip their ends in melted rosin or sealing wax1 or secure them with grease4 ,when they are fired1 six or eight may be thrown in at once2 but if they are all to swim or sink at the same time1 they must all have an equal quantity of composition and be fired together4 ,in the rockets which burn in the water1 there must be a considerable variation in the construction of the mould1 and also in the materials of which they are composed4 ,the composition should consist of three materials mixed together1 viz4 three ounces of meal-powder1 one pound of saltpetre1 and eight ounces of sulphur4 ,if the rocket is to appear on the water with a beautiful tail1 the composition must consist of eight ounces of gunpowder1 one pound of saltpetre1 eight ounces of sulphur1 and two ounces of charcoal4 ,when the composition has been prepared according to these proportions1 and the rocket been filled1 apply a saucisson to the end of it1 and having covered the rocket with wax1 pitch1 c4 as before mentioned1 attach it to a small rod of white willow1 about two feet in length1 that the rocket may conveniently float4 ,cork may be used1 as we observed1 for the same purpose4 ,a certain quantity of meal-powder1 without any mixture1 put at certain distances1 must be used1 if it is required that these rockets should plunge down and again rise up4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,pipes of ,communication4 ,the pipes of communication which are used under water1 must be made of thick paper1 and when dry covered with drying oil1 which must then be thoroughly dried4 ,in oiling them leave about one and a half inches dry for joints2 as the parts would not adhere where the oil was applied4 ,the whole1 however1 is completely oiled after the leaders are joined1 and the paste dry4 ,these pipes will remain under water for some time without injury4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,horizontal ,wheels for ,water4 ,an octagon wheel is to be provided1 made of flat boards eighteen inches in diameter1 so that the length of each size will be near seven inches4 ,in all the sides1 cut a groove for the cases to lie in4 ,procure a wooden bowl without a handle1 and on the top nail the wheel2 then take four eight-ounce cases1 filled with a proper charge1 each about six inches in length4 ,when the wheel is to be clothed with these cases1 get some whitish-brown paper1 and cut it into slips of four or five inches broad1 and seven or eight long4 ,these slips being pasted all over on one side1 take one of the cases1 and roll one of the slips of paper about one and a half inches on its end1 so that there will remain about two and a half inches of the paper hollow from the end of the case4 ,this case is to be tied on one of the sides of the wheel1 near the corners of which holes must be bored1 through which the pack thread is put to tie the cases4 ,having tied on the first case at the neck and end1 put a little meal-powder in the hollow paper2 then paste a slip of paper on the end of another case1 the head of which put into the hollow paper of the first1 allowing a sufficient distance from the tail of one to the head of the other for the pasted paper to bend without tearing4 ,the second case is to be tied on in the same manner as the first1 and so on with the rest except the last1 which must be closed at the end2 unless it is to communicate to any thing on the top of the wheel1 such as fire-pumps1 or brilliant fires1 fixed in holes cut in the wheel1 provided they be not too heavy for the bowl4 ,before the cases are tied on1 the upper part of all their ends except the last should be cut shelving1 that the fire from one may play over the other1 without being obstructed by the case4 ,wheel cases have no clay driven in their ends1 nor are they pinched1 but always left open2 only the last1 or those which are not to lead fire1 which must be well secured4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of ,water ,mines4 ,a bowl and wheel1 as above described1 are necessary for this exhibition2 but with this difference that in the wheel there must be a hole large enough to receive the mine4 ,these mines are tin pots1 with strong bottoms1 and a little more than two diameters in length4 ,the mine must be fixed in the hole in the wheel1 with its bottom resting on the bowl2 then loaded with serpents1 crackers1 stars1 small water rockets1 c4 in the same manner as pots of aigrettes2 but in the centre fix a case of ,chinese fire1 or a small gerbe1 which must be lighted at the beginning of the last case on the wheel4 ,these wheels are to be clothed as usual4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of ,fire ,globes for the ,water4 ,bowls for water globes must be very large1 and the wheels on them of a decagon form4 ,on each side of the wheels1 nail a piece of wood four inches long2 and on the outside of each1 cut a groove1 wide enough to receive about one-fourth of the thickness of a four-ounce case4 ,these pieces of wood must be nailed in the middle of each face of the wheel1 and fixed in an oblique direction2 so that the fire from the cases may incline upwards4 ,the wheel being thus prepared1 tie in each groove a four-ounce case1 filled with a gray charge4 ,then carry a leader from the tail of one case to the mouth of another4 ,globes for these cases are made of two tin hoops1 with thin edges outwards1 fixed one within the other1 at right angles4 ,the diameter of these hoops must be somewhat less than that of the wheel4 ,having made a globe1 drive in the centre of the wheel1 an iron spindle1 which must stand perpendicular1 and be in length four or six inches more than the diameter of the globe4 ,the spindle serves as an axis1 on which the globe is fixed1 which1 when done1 must stand four or six inches from the wheel4 ,round1 on one side of each hoop1 must be soldered small bits of tin1 two and a half inches distant from each other4 ,these pieces must be two inches in length each1 and only fastened at one end1 the other ends being left loose1 on which to turn round the small port-fires1 to hold them on3 ,these port-fires must be made of such a length1 as will last out the cases on the wheel4 ,there need not be any port-fires at the bottom of the globe1 within four inches of the spindle2 for1 if there were1 they would have no effect1 but only burn the wheel4 ,all the port-fire must be placed perpendicular from the centre of the globe1 with their mouths outwards2 and must all be clothed with leaders1 so as all to take fire with the second case of the wheel2 which cases must burn two at a time opposite to each other4 ,when two cases of a wheel begin together1 two will end together2 therefore the two opposite end cases must have their ends pinched1 and secured from fire4 ,the method of firing such wheels is1 by carrying a leader from the mouth of one of the first cases to that of the other2 which leader1 being burnt through the middle1 will give fire to both at the same time4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of ,odoriferous ,water ,balloons4 ,odoriferous works are generally fixed in rooms1 and1 when speaking of scented fire1 we noticed such compositions as would communicate an agreeable odour to the air4 ,water balloons are made in the same manner as air balloons1 but very thin of paper1 and in diameter #a-c_/d inches1 with a vent1 #a_/b an inch in diameter4 ,the shells being made1 and quite dry1 are filled with odoriferous composition1 which must be rammed in tight4 ,these balloons are fired at the vent1 and put into a bowl of water4 ,water rockets may also be made of any of the following compositions1 with a little alteration to make them weaker or stronger4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #b oz4 ,sulphur1 -- ,camphor1 -- ,yellow ,amber1 -- ,charcoal dust1 -- ,flowers of benzoin1 -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 #b oz4 ,sulphur1 -- ,antimony1 -- ,amber1 -- ,cedar-raspings1 -- ,oil of roses1 #aj drops4 ,oil of bergamot1 #dj drops4 #c4 ,saltpetre1 #ab oz4 ,meal-powder1 #c -- ,frankincense1 #a -- ,myrrh1 -- ,camphor1 -- ,charcoal1 #c -- ,oil of ,spike1 a small quantity4 #d4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,sulphur1 #a -- ,sawdust of ,juniper1 -- ,sawdust of ,cypress1 #a -- ,camphor1 -- ,myrrh1 -- ,dried rosemary1 -- ,cortex elaterii1 -- ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of ,water ,balloons4 ,having made some thin paper shells1 fill some with the composition for water balloons1 and some after this manner3 ,having made the vent of the shells pretty large1 fill them almost full with water-rockets1 marrons1 squibs1 c4 ,then put in some blowing powder1 sufficient to burst the shells1 and afterwards fix in the vent a water-rocket1 long enough to reach the bottom of the shell1 and its neck to project a little out of the vent4 ,this rocket must be opened at the end1 to fire the powder in the shell1 which will burst the shell1 and disperse the small rockets1 c4 in the water4 ,when the large rocket is well secured in the vent of the shell1 take a cork float with a hole in its middle1 which fits over the head of the rocket1 and fasten it to the shell4 ,this float must be large enough to keep the balloon above water4 ,composition for ,water-,balloons4 #a4 ,saltpetre1 #d lbs4 ,sulphur1 #b -- ,meal-powder1 #b -- ,antimony1 #d oz4 ,sawdust1 #d -- ,glass-dust1 #a -- #b4 ,saltpetre1 #i lbs4 ,sulphur1 #c -- ,meal-powder1 #f -- ,rosin1 #ab oz4 ,antimony1 #h -- ,the following composition is given for ,water-,globes4 ,grain1 or ,corn-powder1 #a lb4 ,saltpetre1 #cb -- ,sulphur1 #h -- ,scraped ivory1 #a oz4 ,sawdust 7previously soaked in saltpetre and dried7 #h lbs4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,water ,squibs4 ,these are generally made of one-ounce serpent cases1 seven or eight inches long filled two-thirds with charge1 and the remainder bounced4 ,the common method of firing them is this3 ,take a water-wheel1 with a tin mortar in its centre1 which load with squibs after the usual method2 but the powder in the mortar must be no more than will throw the squibs out easily into the water4 ,the cases may be placed on the wheel1 either obliquely or horizontally1 and on the top of the wheel1 round the mortar1 fix two cases of brilliant fire perpendicularly to the wheel4 ,these cases must be fired at the beginning of the last case of the wheel1 and the mortar at the conclusion of the same4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of the ,water ,fire-,fountain4 ,a float made of wood1 three feet in diameter is to be provided4 ,in the middle1 a perpendicular post1 four feet high and two inches wide must be inserted4 ,three circular wheels1 made of thin wood1 but without spokes1 are fixed round this post4 ,the largest of these wheels must be placed within two or three inches of the float1 and must be nearly of the same diameter4 ,the second must be #b feet #b inches in diameter1 and fixed at the distance of two feet from the first4 ,the third wheel must be #a foot #d inches in diameter1 and fixed within six inches of the top of the post4 ,the wheels being arranged1 take #ah four or eight-ounce cases of brilliant fire1 and place them round the first wheel1 with their mouths outwards1 and inclining downwards4 ,on the second wheel1 place thirteen cases of the same1 and in the same manner as those on the first4 ,on the third1 place eight more of these cases1 in the same manner as before1 and on the top of the post1 fix a gerbe4 ,then clothe all the cases with leaders1 so that they and the gerbe may take fire at the same time4 ,the float should be tried first in the water1 to see if the fountain stands upright4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,of ,swans and ,ducks1 to discharge ,rockets in ,water4 ,this experiment may be made1 by forming swans1 or ducks of paper1 leaving a cavity within4 ,they are to be filled with small water-rockets1 with some blowing powder to throw them out4 ,having made and painted some swans1 fix them on floats4 ,then in the place where their eyes should be1 bore holes two inches deep1 inclining downwards1 and wide enough to receive a small port-fire4 ,the port-fire case for this purpose must be made of brass1 two inches long1 and filled with a slow bright charge4 ,in the middle of one of these cases1 make a little hole4 ,then put the port-fire in the eye-hole of the swan1 leaving about half an inch to project out1 and in the other eye1 put another port-fire1 with a hole made in it4 ,then1 in the neck of the swan1 within two inches of one of its eyes1 bore a hole slantwise1 to meet that in the port-fire4 ,in this hole1 put a leader1 and carry it to a water-rocket1 that must be fixed upon its tail1 with its mouth upwards4 ,on the top of the head1 place #b one-ounce cases1 four inches long each1 driven with brilliant fire4 ,one of these cases must incline forwards1 and the other backwards4 ,they must be lighted at the same time as the water-rocket2 to do which1 bore a hole between them in the top of the swan's head1 down to the hole in the port fire1 to which carry a leader4 ,if the swan is filled with rockets1 they must be fired by a pipe from the end of the water-rocket1 under the tail4 ,when the swan is put in the water1 the two eyes are to be lighted4 ,sec4 ,,xi4 ,of ,discharging ,rockets under ,water4 ,stands must be made as usual1 only the rails must be placed flat instead of edgewise1 and have holes in them for the rocket sticks to go through2 for if they were hung upon hooks1 the motion of the water would throw them off4 ,the stands being made1 if the pond is deep enough1 sink them at the sides so deep1 that1 when the rockets are in1 their heads may just appear above the surface of the water4 ,to the mouth of each rocket fix a leader1 which must be put through the hole with the stick4 ,then a little above the water must be a board1 supported by the stand1 and placed along one side of the rockets2 and the ends of the leaders are to be turned up through holes made in this board1 exactly opposite the rockets4 ,by this means1 they may be fired singly1 or at once4 ,rockets may be fired by this method in the middle of a pond1 by a ,neptune1 a swan1 or a water-wheel4 ,a rocket1 which is fired in the water1 and1 after burning there half the time of its duration1 mounts into the air with great velocity1 may be thus constructed4 ,take a sky-rocket1 furnished with a rod1 and1 by means of a little glue1 attach it to a water-rocket1 but only at the middle1 in such a manner1 that the latter will have its neck uppermost4 ,adjust to their extremity1 a small tube1 to communicate fire from the one to the other1 and cover both with a coating of wax1 pitch1 c4 that they may not be damaged by the water4 ,then attach to the sky-rocket1 after it has been thus cemented to the aquatic rocket1 a rod1 and1 by means of a string1 support a musket bullet1 made fast to the rod by means of a needle or piece of iron4 ,when these arrangements have been made1 set fire to the match after the rocket is in the water1 and1 when the composition is in part consumed1 the fire will be communicated through the small tube to the other rocket4 ,the latter will then rise and leave the other1 which will not be able to follow it1 on account of the weight adhering to it4 ,sec4 ,,xii4 ,of the ,representation of ,neptune in his ,chariot4 ,this representation is performed by procuring a figure made of wood1 or wicker wood1 of the proper size1 and supporting it on a float1 on which must be two horses' heads and necks1 so as to appear swimming4 ,for the wheels of the chariot1 there must be two vertical wheels of black fire1 and1 on ,neptune's head1 a horizontal wheel of brilliant fire1 with all its cases to play upwards4 ,when this wheel is made1 cover it with paper1 or pasteboard1 cut and painted like ,neptune's coronet2 then let the trident be made without prongs2 but1 instead of them1 fix three cases of a very weak gray charge1 and on each horse's head1 put an eight ounce case of brilliant fire1 and on the mouth of each1 fix a short case of the same diameter1 filled with the white flame composition1 sufficient to last out all the cases on the wheels4 ,these short cases must be open at bottom1 that they may light the brilliant fires4 ,for the horses' eyes1 put small port-fires1 and1 in each nostril1 put a small case1 filled half with gray charge1 and the rest with port-fire composition4 ,if ,neptune is to give fire to any building on the water2 at his first setting out1 the wheels of the chariot and that on his head1 with the white flames on the horses' heads1 and the port-fires in their eyes and nostrils1 must be all lighted at once4 ,then1 from the bottom of the white flames1 carry a leader to the trident4 ,as the figure is to advance by the help of a block and cord1 it must be so managed as to prevent its turning about1 till the brilliant fires on the horses and the trident begin4 ,for it is by the fire from the horses 7which plays almost upright17 that the building1 or work is lighted1 which must be thus prepared4 ,from the mouth of the case1 which is to be first fired1 hang some loose quick-match1 to receive the fire from the horses4 ,when ,neptune is only to be shown by himself1 without setting fire to any other of the works2 let the white flames on the horses be very short1 and not to last longer than one case of each wheel2 and let two cases of each wheel burn at a time4 ,sec4 ,,xiii4 ,of the ,representation of a ,sea-,fight with ,small ,ships1 and the ,preparation of a ,fire-,ship4 ,having procured a number of small ships of two or three feet in length1 prepare a number of small reports1 which are to serve for guns4 ,of these1 range as many as you please on each side of the upper decks4 ,then1 at the head and stern of each ship1 fix a two-ounce case1 eight inches long1 filled with slow port-fire composition2 but take care to place it in such a manner1 that the fire may fall in the water1 and not burn the rigging4 ,in these cases1 bore holes1 at unequal distances from one another2 but make as many in each case as half the number of reports2 so that one case may fire the guns on one side1 and the other1 those on the opposite4 ,the method of firing the guns is by carrying a leader from the holes in the cases to the reports on the decks4 ,these leaders must be made small1 and care must also be taken in calculating the burning of the slow-fire in the regulating cases1 that more than two guns be fired at a time4 ,to give a broadside1 let the leader be carried to a cracker1 placed on the outside of the ship2 which cracker must be tied loose1 or the reports will be too slow4 ,in all the ships1 put artificial guns at the port-holes4 ,having filled1 and bored holes in1 two port-fires for regulating the guns in one ship1 make all the rest exactly the same4 ,then1 when the engagement has commenced1 light one ship first1 and set it a sailing2 and so on with the rest1 sending them out singly1 which will make them fire regularly1 at different times1 without confusion2 for the time between the firing of each gun will be equal to that of lighting the slow-fires4 ,the fire-ship may be of any size4 ,to prepare a ship for this purpose1 make a port-fire1 equal in size to those in the other ships1 and place it at the stern4 ,in any port1 place a large port-fire1 filled with very strong composition1 and painted in imitation of a gun1 and let them all be fired at once by a leader from the slow fire1 within two or three diameters of its bottom4 ,all along both sides1 on the top of the upper deck1 lay star-composition1 about half an inch thick and one broad1 which must be wetted with thin size1 then primed with meal-powder1 and secured from fire by pasting paper over it4 ,in the place1 where this composition is laid1 some little tacks1 with flat heads1 are to be driven1 to secure it fast to the deck4 ,this must be fired just after the sham guns1 and1 when burning1 will show a flame all round the ship4 ,at the head1 take up the decks1 and put in a tin mortar1 loaded with crackers1 which mortar must be fired by a pipe from the end of the slow fire4 ,the firing of the mortar will sink the ship1 and make a pretty conclusion4 ,having prepared all the ships for fighting1 we shall next proceed with the management of them when on the water4 ,at one end of the pond1 under the surface of the water1 fix two running blocks1 at the distance the ships are to fight apart1 and at the other end of the pond1 opposite to each of these blocks1 under water1 fix a double block4 ,on the land1 by each of the double blocks1 place two small windlasses4 ,round one of them1 turn one end of a small cord1 the other end of which is to be put through one of the blocks4 ,then carry it through the single one at the opposite end of the pond1 and bring it back through the double block again1 and round the other windlass4 ,to this cord1 near the double block1 tie as many small strings1 as half the number of ships1 at the distance required4 ,these strings1 however1 should not be more than two feet each4 ,make fast the loose end of each to a ship1 just under the bowsprit1 but if tied to the keel1 or too near the water1 it will overset the ship4 ,half the ships being thus prepared1 near the other double block1 fix two more windlasses1 to which fasten a cord1 and to it1 tie the other half of the ships as above4 ,when the ships are fired1 turn that windlass which draws them out1 and so on with the rest1 till they are all out in the middle of the pond4 ,then by turning the other windlass1 they will be drawn back again2 by which method1 they may be made to change sides1 and tack about backwards and forwards at pleasure4 ,for the fire-ship1 fix the blocks and windlass between the others2 so that1 when she sails out1 she will be between the other ships4 ,she must not advance1 however1 till the guns at her ports take fire4 ,in the exhibition of water fire-works1 it is obvious1 from the observations we have made1 and the different pieces prepared for that purpose1 that such exhibitions may be varied1 and even new pieces got up4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,of ,,the ,,arrangement ,,of ,,fire-,,works ,,for ,,exhibition4 ,jones 7,fire-works1 #hvo4 #aggf7 observes1 among other remarks1 that nothing adds more to the appearance of fire-works1 than placing them properly2 though the management of them chiefly depends on the judgment of the maker4 ,when water-works are to be exhibited1 divide them into several sets1 and fire one set after every fifth or sixth change of land and air works4 ,observe this rule in firing a double set of works2 always to begin with sky-rockets2 then two moveable pieces2 then two fixed pieces1 and so on2 ending with a large flight of rockets1 or a marron battery4 ,if a single collection1 fire a fixed piece after every wheel or two1 and occasionally some air and water works4 ,the rules1 adopted in the arrangement of fire-works for exhibition1 are the following3 ,if they are a double set1 place one wheel of a sort on each side of the building2 and1 next to each of them1 towards the centre1 place a fixed piece2 then wheels and so on1 leaving a sufficient distance between them1 for the fire to play from one1 without burning the other4 ,having fixed some of the works in front1 place the rest behind them1 in the centre of the intervals4 ,the largest piece1 which is generally a regulated or transparent piece1 must be placed in the centre of the building2 and behind it a sun1 which must always stand above all the other works4 ,a little before the building1 or stands1 place the large gerbes2 and1 at the back of the works1 fix your marron batteries1 pots des aigrettes1 pots des bins1 pots des saucissons1 air balloons1 and flights of rockets4 ,the rocket-stands may be fixed behind1 or any where else1 so as not to be in the way of the works4 ,single collections are fired on stands1 which stands are made in the same manner as theodolite stands2 only the top part must be long or short1 according to circumstances4 ,these stands may be fixed up without much trouble4 ,the following is the order of firing works1 viz3 #a4 ,two signal #b4 ,sky #c4 ,two honorary ,rockets4 #d4 ,four caduceus #e4 ,vertical #f4 ,two ,spiral ,wheels1 illuminated4 #g4 ,transparent stars4 #h4 ,a line of rockets of five changes4 #i4 ,four tourbillons4 #aj4 ,horizontal wheels4 #aa4 ,air-balloons1 illuminated4 #ab4 ,two ,chinese fountains4 #ac4 ,regulating pieces1 of four mutations each4 #ad4 ,pots des aigrettes4 #ae4 ,three large gerbes4 #af4 ,a flight of rockets4 #ag4 ,balloon wheels4 #ah4 ,two ,cascades of brilliant fire4 #ai4 ,twelve sky-rockets4 #bj4 ,illuminated yew trees4 #ba4 ,two ,air balloons of serpents1 and two compound4 #bb4 ,four tourbillons4 #bc4 ,fruiloni wheels4 #bd4 ,two ,illuminated globes with horizontal wheels4 #be4 ,one pot des saucissons4 #bf4 ,two plural wheels4 #bg4 ,marron battery4 #bh4 ,two chandeliers1 illuminated4 #bi4 ,range of ,pots des brins4 #cj4 ,twelve sky-rockets4 #ca4 ,two yew-trees of fire4 #cb4 ,nests of serpents4 #cc4 ,two double cones1 illuminated4 #cd4 ,regulating piece of seven mutations1 viz4 #a4 ,vertical wheel1 illuminated4 #b4 ,golden glory4 #c4 ,octagon vertical wheel4 #d4 ,porcupine's quills4 #e4 ,cross fires4 #f4 ,star piece with brilliant rays4 #g4 ,six vertical wheels4 #ce4 ,brilliant sun4 #cf4 ,large flight of rockets4 ,according to the arrangement1 and execution of fire-works for exhibition1 as given by ,morel 7,trait ,practique des ,feux d',artifice1 p4 #aca17 the following order is observed3 #a4 ,a salvo of artillery4 #b4 ,six dozen rockets of honour1 discharged two at a time from each side of the decoration4 #c4 ,twelve ,bengal lights1 distributed in such a manner1 as to light all parts of the decoration4 #d4 ,two batteries of ordnance1 7fire-pots47 #e4 ,four regulated cases1 each consisting of two dozen rockets of an inch caliber1 forming the mosaique at the elevation of five hundred feet4 #f4 ,eight turning suns1 with the caliber of five-sixths of an inch4 #g4 ,four caprices 7detonating47 #h4 ,two balloons of golden rain1 and two in stars4 #i4 ,the pyric piece1 complete4 #aj4 ,twelve tourbillons1 or table rockets4 #aa4 ,four girandoles2 two mosaic1 and two of ,roman candles4 #ab4 ,a large sphere4 #ac4 ,six balloons2 three in golden rain1 and three in stars4 #ad4 ,twenty-four honorary rockets1 fired four at a time4 #ae4 ,a large illuminating cut-work1 with a device1 accompanied with two ,chinese parasols1 and two wheels of coloured fire4 #af4 ,four falling caprices4 #ag4 ,twelve balloons of stars1 preceded by six dozen honorary rockets1 fired twelve at a time4 #ah4 ,the undulating fire1 accompanied with eight wings1 four on each side4 #ai4 ,a battery of two hundred mosaics1 and as many ,roman candles1 with marrons and fire-pots4 #bj4 ,illumination of the decoration1 with four mosaic tourbillons1 followed by two cases1 containing two hundred rockets each2 and a salvo of artillery1 which announces the departure of the girande1 composed of a thousand rockets1 in golden rain4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,military ,,pyrotechny4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,observations ,,in ,,general4 ,laboratory-works comprehend all the operations of the workshop1 connected with this branch of pyrotechny4 ,the tools and instruments required for the laboratory1 as well as the substances employed in the different preparations1 we have already described4 ,having noticed the origin of gunpowder1 in the first part of our work1 the following remarks in relation to that subject1 namely1 the history1 of cannon1 may be interesting4 ,for some time after the invention of artillery1 gunpowder was of a weaker composition than that at present used1 or than that described by ,marcus ,grcus4 ,the first pieces of artillery were rough and very inconvenient1 being usually framed of several pieces of iron bars1 fitted together lengthwise1 and hooped with rings4 ,these guns were first employed in throwing stone shot of a prodigious weight1 in imitation of the ancient machines1 to which they succeeded1 and were of an enormous bore4 ,when ,constantinople was besieged by ,mahomet ,,ii4 in the year #adec1 the walls were battered with stone bullets1 and some of the pieces were of #abjj lbs4 caliber2 but they could not be fired more than four times in twenty-four hours1 and sometimes were burst by the first charge4 ,as mathematical knowledge increased in ,europe1 that of mechanics gradually advanced1 and enabled artists1 by making brass cannon of a much smaller bore for iron bullets1 and capable of bearing a much greater charge of strong powder in proportion to their calibers1 to produce a very material and important change in the construction and fabric of those original pieces4 ,guicciardin 7,history1 c4 #ast book7 informs us1 that1 about #aad years after the first use made of those unwieldy pieces by the ,venetians1 in their war against the ,genoese in #achj1 the ,french were able to procure1 for the invasion of ,italy1 a great number of brass cannon1 mounted on carriages1 drawn by horses4 ,he then enumerates the advantages which these pieces possessed1 and particularly that they could be pointed with incredible quickness and expedition1 in comparison with those formerly made use of in ,italy4 ,but1 as our limits will not permit us to notice all the circumstances in connection with these pieces1 it is sufficient to remark1 that this change in the formation of artillery has as yet undergone no material alteration2 if we except the introduction of carronades1 first suggested by general ,melville1 and of ,columbiads1 by the late ,mr4 ,barlow4 ,glenie 7,history of ,gunnery1 #aggf7 appears to have been the first1 who gave the theory of projectiles in vacuo by plain geometry1 or by means of the square and rhombus1 with a method of reducing projections on inclined planes1 whether elevated or depressed below the horizontal plane1 to those which are made on the horizon4 ,the experiments1 and observations1 of ,mr4 ,robins1 on the subject of gunpowder1 c4 may be seen in the article on gunpowder4 ,besides the formation of cannon1 by uniting iron bars together1 and strengthening them by hoops1 7one or two of which were made in ,philadelphia in #aggf1 by a ,mr4 ,wheeler1 of a superior kind17 others were made of thin sheets of iron1 rolled up together and hooped2 and on emergencies1 they were made of leather1 with plates of iron or copper4 ,stone balls were used1 and a small quantity of powder4 ,in the #acth century1 cannon were used in a sea fight1 between the king of ,tunis and the ,moorish king of ,seville4 ,the ,venetians used cannon at the siege of ,claudia ,jessa1 now called ,chioggia1 in #acff1 which were brought thither by two ,germans1 with some powder and leaden balls2 as likewise in their wars with the ,genoese in #acgi4 ,at the battle of ,cressy1 in #acdf1 ,edward ,,iii made use of cannon4 ,they were also employed in the seige of ,calais1 in #acdg4 ,pieces of ordnance were made use of by the ,turks1 at the siege of ,constantinople1 then in possession of the ,christians1 in #acid1 or in that of #adeb1 that threw a weight of #ajjf lbs4 ,louis ,,xii had one cast at ,tours1 of the same size4 ,one of those cannon was taken at the seige of ,dieu1 in #aedf1 by ,don ,john de ,castra1 and is in the castle of ,st4 ,juliao de ,barra1 #aj miles from ,lisbon4 ,its length is #bj feet #g inches1 diameter at the centre1 #f feet #c inches1 and it discharges a ball of #ajjj lbs4 ,it has neither dolphins1 rings1 nor buttons1 is of a curious kind of metal1 and has a large ,indostan inscription upon it1 by which it appears it was cast in #adjj4 ,the mortars at the ,dardanelles are represented to throw shells1 or ball of an immense size and weight4 ,some do not consider cannon an ,european invention2 because it is asserted1 that authentic documents exist of their use in ,china1 many centuries before they were thought of in ,europe4 ,if they say1 the testimony of the ,chinese themselves is not sufficient on this point1 the fact of their great wall being furnished with embrasures1 fitted in such a manner for cannon1 leaves no doubt of their having been in use at the time of its erection4 ,to this1 an additional argument may be added1 from their very ancient game of chess1 in which pieces have been used from remote antiquity1 designating engines of war1 whose power was derived from gunpowder4 ,mr4 ,irvin1 7,trans4 ,royal ,irish ,academy17 in his paper on the ,chinese ,game of ,chess1 proves1 that gunpowder was in common use in ,china1 #cga years after ,confucius1 or #afa years before ,christ2 and ,du ,halde has long since given documents to show1 that the ,chinese wall was in existence #bjj years before the commencement of the ,christian era2 and consequently1 for the reason before stated1 the use of cannon must have been of at least equal antiquity4 ,the ,asiatic ,researches contain some remarks to the same point4 ,there is a strong probability then1 that the invention of guns was of a much more remote date4 ,it is not impossible1 however1 that the same thing may have been invented by different persons1 in various parts of the world4 ,we mentioned1 that it is much more probable1 that the use of gunpowder in war was derived ultimately from the ,chinese1 notwithstanding the generally received opinion1 that the ,greek fire was the progenitor of its discovery2 or that ,bacon1 or ,schwartz1 an obscure monk1 has claims to the invention4 ,the mode in which the use of gunpowder in war might have passed from ,china to ,europe1 is the most probable and simple imaginable4 ,zingis ,khan is known to have conquered the five northern provinces of ,china1 about the year #abcd4 ,he must have known the common use of gunpowder at that period1 as it had been known in ,china #adjj years before4 ,in the ,chinese annals of the ,moguls1 by ,yuen1 as translated by ,pre ,gaubil1 it is particularly stated1 that the use of cannon and mortars was familiar in the wars and sieges of ,zingis against the ,chinese1 both by them and him1 in attack and defence4 ,it is most probable1 that he used gunpowder in his wars against ,mahomet1 ,sultan of ,carisme1 whose dominions extended from the ,persian ,gulf1 to the borders of ,india and of ,turkistan4 ,it is known1 that he had a body of ,chinese engineers in his army1 who1 of course1 must have been acquainted with the use of gunpowder4 ,the conquests of ,zingis would thus have spread the knowledge of gunpowder1 c4 over the western part of ,asia2 and the ,europeans1 in their crusades1 may have had frequent opportunities of becoming acquainted with it4 ,it was just after this time1 that it became known1 and was used in the ,european wars4 ,sir ,francis ,bacon 7,moral and ,political ,essays17 observes1 that ordnance was known in the city of ,oxydraces1 in ,india1 and was that which the ,macedonians called 'thunder1 lightning1 and magic2' and it is well known1 that the use of ordnance had been common in ,china above two thousand years4 ,beckman1 7,history of ,inventions1 iii1 p4 #dcd17 in his essay on the origin of guns and gun-locks1 has given1 at some length1 the history of guns4 ,all we can add here1 is1 that the first portable fire-arms were discharged by means of a match1 which1 in the course of time1 was fastened to a cock1 and afterwards a fire stone and steel plate were used4 ,this fire stone was not a flint1 but a compact pyrites1 or marcasite1 7sulphuret of iron71 which was distinguished by that name4 ,on each new improvement1 the piece received a new name2 as1 bchse1 haken bchse1 arquebuse1 c4 ,after explaining the origin of these names1 he adds1 that the large pieces were conveyed on carriages1 called karrenbchse1 but soon after also canna1 cannon4 ,pistols are mentioned by ,beilay1 in #aedd1 in the time of ,francis ,i2 and under ,henry ,,ii1 the ,german horsemen were called pistoliers4 ,the name is derived from ,pistoia1 in ,tuscany2 because they were there first made4 ,muskets received their name from the ,latin muschetus1 which signifies a male sparrow-hawk4 ,they were first used at the seige of ,rhege1 in the year #aeba4 ,they were known in ,france in the time of ,francis ,i4 ,brantome1 however1 asserts1 that they were first introduced by the ,duke of ,alva1 in #aefg1 and used in the ,netherlands4 ,he also says1 that they were made general in ,france by ,m4 de ,strozzi1 under ,charles ,,xi4 ,the lock was invented in ,germany1 in the city of ,nuremberg1 in #aeag2 it is uncertain whether it is the present lock4 ,in the arsenal at ,hanover1 there are many ancient pieces4 ,the oldest had on the barrel1 the figure of a hen with a musket in its mouth2 because it is said they were made at ,henneberg4 ,there are three species of cannon1 the gun1 the howitzer1 and the mortar4 ,the gun is the longest piece of artillery1 employed at the present day3 the culverins1 dragons1 c4 as they were formerly called1 had calibers twice1 and even three times as long as those now used4 ,guns were originally called bombards1 and were eight calibers in length4 ,the term pieriers1 from pierre1 a stone1 were given to some guns1 because they were employed in throwing rough stones4 ,the carronades1 derived from the river ,carron1 in ,scotland1 where they were originally made1 is a short gun1 with a bore about eight diameters of the shot in length4 ,the howitzer is a species of mortar1 but longer1 and used to throw a hollow projectile1 called a howitz1 which acts at first as a ricochet ball4 ,the mortar is the shortest species of cannon1 and is used to throw bombs or shells4 ,a stone mortar is used in sieges1 to throw stones upon an enemy4 ,besides these descriptions of guns1 there is another division1 to which ,general ,lallemand 7,treatise on ,artillery1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bj17 has given the name of demi-guns1 under which he ranks the harquebus on a swivel1 the rampart gun1 and the repeating gun1 or musket1 of the ,americans4 ,he observes1 that the harquebus nearly resembles the amusette of ,marshal ,saxe1 has a barrel like that of a musket1 and carries a ball weighing half a pound or more2 that the rampart gun1 or wall piece1 is a large musket1 that was anciently much used in the defence of fortresses1 having a barrel of #e-a_/b or #f feet long1 and a ball from #aj to #ad to the pound2 and that the repeating musket is a gun1 consisting of #g barrels1 all of which discharges #cb rounds in succession1 making #bbd in all4 ,with respect to this gun1 the effect of which we have witnessed1 not only in the discharge of thirty-two rounds from a single gun1 but the combined effect of seven or more barrels1 the ,general observes1 that the diameter of the bore is three-fourths of an inch1 and the weight seventy pounds4 ,it is placed1 like the rampart guns1 upon a wooden frame1 and has a handle at the breech to point by4 ,as to its use1 he adds3--it may be advantageously employed in the defence of places at the moment of assault2 it may be useful in the field1 to defend parts of a line of battle1 or entrenchments1 with few troops1 and yet astonish the enemy by a warm fire1 when he ventures to approach4 ,its discharge does not last a minute4 ,it may be of great service in the tops of ships of war4 ,the inventor is a ,mr4 ,chambers1 of ,pennsylvania4 ,we witnessed its effect1 when the ,president of the ,united ,states visited the navy yard in ,philadelphia1 where the inventor manufactured them2 and also at ,bush-hill1 in the neighbourhood of that city4 ,having examined their construction1 and also the shot it may be sufficient to remark1 that the lead is cylindrical1 one end being flat1 and the other conical1 and of such a size as to fit the caliber of the musket2 that these rounds are pierced with a hole in the centre1 which is charged with fuse composition2 and1 after a charge of powder1 one of these cylinders is put in2 then a charge1 then a cylinder1 c4 up to #cb4 ,the lock is placed opposite the last charge1 so that when the first load is discharged1 the fire communicates successively through the cylinders4 ,a repeating gun has been invented by a gentleman of ,new ,york4 ,i have seen no description of it4 ,the ,marquis of ,worcester1 in his ,century of ,inventions1 in the #ehth to the #fdth invention1 hints at a similar contrivance2 as for instance1 7,inven4 #ehth17 ,how to make a pistol to discharge a dozen times with one loading1 and without so much as one new priming requisite1 or to change it out of one hand into the other1 or stop one's horse4 ,we may add1 that1 in #agfd1 ,m4 ,bouillet and ,sons presented1 to the ,academy of ,sciences1 at ,paris1 a musket of their invention1 which was lighter than the common kind1 and had the property of firing twenty-four times in succession1 charging and priming itself by a single circular movement of the musket upon an axis1 fixed for that purpose4 ,in the file of the ,french ,gazette1 for #aghf1 article ,linberg1 there is an account of an invention of the baron ,de ,walskohl4 ,it is the same1 it would appear from the description1 as the repeating musket4 ,being once charged1 it will fire thirty-six times in succession4 ,the experiments made with it were satisfactory4 ,many patents have been secured in this country1 and in ,england and ,france1 for improvements on the musket and rifle2 but1 in order to accommodate short-sighted persons1 ,m4 ,regnier's invention appears to be the first which consists in an optic glass fixed in the butt1 enabling persons of that description to shoot with accuracy4 ,this invention is given in the ,journal de la ,blancherie for #aggi1 p4 #aid4 ,in #agga1 ,moret1 an armourer1 announced a new constructed pistol1 which would charge itself1 c4 and in #agic1 ,m4 ,gass presented to the military committee of ,france1 a pistol of a new construction1 calculated to fire several ball in succession4 ,the ,journal des ,inventions et ,dcouv4 i1 p4 #aba1 speaking of this invention1 adds1 that the means employed depended entirely on the construction of the ball1 which1 instead of round1 was a cylinder1 pierced in its length4 ,this small canal is filled with meal-powder1 and serves as the match of communication to the charges4 ,this contrivance is much the same as the one we have described4#bi ,mr4 ,misson 7,travels through ,germany and ,italy17 says1 that in the arsenal at ,venice1 there is an engine which will light five hundred matches at once1 and some very curious arms of ancient make1 among which is a small trunk1 with six little guns1 which ,carrara1 the last lord of ,padua1 who was famous for his inhumanity1 sent as a present to a lady2 and was so contrived1 that1 upon opening of the trunk1 the guns all fired at once1 and killed her6 ,with respect to the invention of the various incendiary machines1 we may observe generally1 7as we purpose to notice them in their respective places71 that ,greek fire was employed in different ways1 and was considered a destructive composition2 that rain-fire1 bombs1 lances1 matches1 fire-balls and carcasses1 torches1 powder sacks1 petards1 c4 were all employed in more modern times for the same purpose2 and1 lastly1 that the fougette of the ,asiatics1 called ,indian rockets1 the ,congreve rocket1 the incendiary bomb of the ,french1 and the floating rocket carcass1 are embraced under the same head1 and are all used for similar purposes in war4 ,these1 and other subjects1 belonging to military fire-works1 we purpose to mention in this1 and the following chapters4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,cartridges4 ,cartridges are cases of paper1 parchment1 or flannel1 fitted to the caliber of the piece1 and holding exactly its proper charge4 ,strong paper is always used for musket and pistol cartridges1 and the ,french musket-ball-cartridges are capped with flannel or coarse cotton4 ,for heavy guns1 they are made of thick1 and as the ,english call it1 of cured paper1 with flannel bottoms4 ,those for field ordnance are all made of flannel1 and their size suited to the bore1 or chamber of pieces1 for which they are intended4 ,the ball cartridges1 for wall pieces1 muskets1 carbines1 and pistols1 are made of whitish-brown paper1 on formers of wood4 ,a sheet of paper will make six for wall pieces1 twelve for muskets1 sixteen for carbines1 and twenty-four for pistols4 ,the quantity of powder they contain respectively is1 for wall pieces ten drachms1 musket six1 carbine four1 and pistol three drachms4 ,blank cartridges1 for pistols1 carbines1 and muskets1 are made of blue paper1 to preserve a distinction between ball and blank1 and to prevent the possibility of accidents1 from the ball cartridges being mixed with the blank4 ,the charge for muskets is commonly half the weight of the ball4 ,the balls for musketry are eighteen to the pound2 and one pound of powder is sufficient for thirty-six cartridges4#cj ,forty cartridges may be used to the pound1 but forty-five would be too weak4 ,the paper1 necessary to form cartridges1 should be well sized and not too thick4 ,it is made for the purpose1 under the name of cartridge paper1 and should be of such a size as to cut to advantage4 ,it is usually fourteen inches in length1 and sixteen in breadth4 ,a sheet will form twelve cartridges1 but on account of wastage1 it makes only ten4 ,half a sheet is employed as a wrapper for every ten cartridges1 and one and a half sheets are used for ten and their wrapper4 ,six quires will make #ajjj cartridges1 and #ca reams1 #ajj1jjj4 ,five ounces of packthread are necessary for binding #ajjj cartridges1 and #ca lbs4 for #ajj1jjj4 ,musket cartridges are made in the following manner4 ,long tables are provided1 and1 at certain distances1 excavations1 or holes are made1 larger than the diameter of the ball1 and one-third of its diameter in depth4 ,these holes are designed for rounding the folds upon the ball4 ,it is necessary first to be provided with formers to roll the cartridges upon1 and measures to fill them with4 ,these formers are made of hard and dry wood1 seven inches1 or seven and a half inches in length1 and six-tenths of an inch in diameter1 one-twelfth of an inch less than the diameter of the caliber4 ,one end is rounded so as not to hurt the hand2 the other is hollow1 to receive one-third of the ball4 ,the measures are in the form of the frustrum of a cone1 open above4 ,they are made of sheet-tin1 and should contain one-fortieth part of a pound of powder1 7one-forty-ninth according to the ,strasburgh directions71 or1 when heaped1 one thirty-sixth part of a pound4 ,the height of these measures is one inch and a quarter2 their diameter at the large end one inch and one-twelfth1 and at the smaller end1 three-quarters of an inch4 ,in every squad of ten men1 six are employed to roll the cartridges1 two to fill them1 and two to pack them4 ,each squad may make #aj1jjj1 but commonly #h1jjj1 in a day4 ,to cut the paper for musket cartridges1 we begin by folding the sheet in three parts widthwise2 then each third part into two1 again into three1 and again into two1 by a diagonal line which takes from #b4b inches of a superior angle on the left1 to #b4b of the opposite inferior angle at the right2 so that every sheet of paper will cut1 without loss1 into twelve parts1 and every part will be #e4fh inches in height1 #d4ec in width at one end1 and #b4b at the other end4 ,according to ,bigot1 however1 each trapezoid thus formed is #e-a_/c inches in length1 #d-a_/d in width at one end1 and #b-a_/d at the other end4 ,the paper is cut by a person detailed for the purpose4 ,the person who rolls the cartridges1 having spread the cut paper upon a table1 takes the form with one hand1 and the ball in the other1 which he puts into the hollow of the form2 after which1 he rolls the paper round the ball and the form1 so that there remains sufficient beyond the ball1 to fold over in small folds2 then he rolls the form surrounded with the paper1 and having rounded the folds upon the ball1 in a small hole made for that purpose in the table1 he withdraws the form1 and passes the cartridge to the man who is to fill it4 ,he puts in the charge with a small tin measure1 folds the paper over upon the powder as close as possible1 and passes it on to him who is to make the packages4 ,the packer takes ten in his hand1 and arranges them on a sheet of paper folded in two1 the balls half on one side and half on the other2 and having wrapped them in the paper1 he folds over the two ends1 and ties the packets crosswise over the middle1 and lengthwise4 ,musket cartridges cannot be too tightly rolled upon the form2 and to ascertain their accuracy1 they must be calibered before they are loaded2 that is1 they must be put into the end of a musket4 ,he who fills them1 should make a charge complete in every cartridge1 and not load one more than another1 but always pour a full measure into every one4 ,the packer should tie the cartridges1 and round them as much as possible1 without tearing the paper4 ,he should take care that all the packets are of the same length2 so that they may be placed in the partitions of the ammunition chest1 which are all of one determined length1 and will not therefore contain them1 if made too long4 ,cannon cartouches should be well arranged in the ammunition chests1 and well stowed with tow1 that they may be carried without danger of injury from the road4 ,the tow is pressed down in small quantities1 by a little wooden spatula1 and cannot be pressed too hard2 for the more the chests are stuffed with tow1 the better the ammunition will be preserved4 ,musket cartridges are placed in the ammunition chests in different arrangements1 the height of which is proportioned to that of the cartridge4 ,there are three stories in height in each chest1 for musket cartridges2 and between each a small separation1 to prevent them from injuring each other4 ,the number of cartridges contained in an ammunition wagon is proportioned to the kind of wagon in use1 and to the quantity necessary for the service4 ,the common load of ammunition wagons does not exceed thirteen hundred weight1 if it is meant to take the benefit of forced marches4 ,in every ammunition wagon for cannon cartouches1 there are cartouches with ball1 grape-shot1 quick-match1 and port-fires1 staffs for port-fires1 priming wires and match-rope--so that every wagon contains all kinds of ammunition relative to its caliber4 ,in an ammunition wagon filled with musket cartridges1 a certain number of flints are contained1 to be distributed to the troops from the same chest whence they receive their ammunition4 ,we might here speak of the load of every ammunition wagon2 but this subject more particularly belongs to artillery and its suite1 than to fire-works4 ,cartridges1 used in sieges1 c4 are made of paper bags1 of the calibers of the different pieces1 and of a sufficient length to contain the requisite quantity of powder4 ,the paper should be large and strong4 ,the handle of each of the formers should have such a length and size1 as to render them convenient to hold in the hand4 ,care must be taken to pierce a small hole in the middle1 through the whole length of the form1 by which the air might enter to the cartouches1 and cause the form to be more easily drawn out1 after the cartridge is made4 ,pasted cartridges are formed in the usual manner upon a former2 and when five-sixths of the paper are rolled1 the remaining portion is pasted with a paste made of flour and glue1 mixed together4 ,the bottom is pasted over in the same manner4 ,when the cartridge is drawn off the former1 it is placed to dry in the sun1 or near a stove4 ,with regard to the cost of cartridges in ,france1 it appears1 that a pound of packthread costs twelve sous1 and workmen receive from fifteen to twenty sous per thousand for their labour4 ,the whole expense of #ajj1jjj would be1 for paper1 #aje livres2 for packthread1 #ah livres1 #ae sous2 for making #ajj livres2 total #bbc livres1 #ae sous4 ,bigot has furnished us with the following estimate3 ,for #ca reams of paper1 at #d fr4 #ej c4 the ream1 is #adj fr4 #fj c4 ,for #ca lbs4 of packthread at #hj centimes1 #bd ,labour1 #a fr4 per thousand1 #ajj ,five days work1 for the cutter1 #e ------------- ,total4 #bfi fr4 #fj c4 ,one hundred thousand cartridges1 for which the above is a calculation1 require also ,bullets of lead1 #eeef lbs4 ,powder1 #bejj lbs4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,cannon ,cartridges4 ,the gargousse of the ,french1 in artillery1 is a sack or bag of paper1 or parchment1 destined to enclose the load of a cannon4 ,when it is made of serge1 it is then called a pouch1 7sachet72 and1 when united with the ball1 it receives the name of ball-cartridge4 ,bigot remarks1 that these cartridges have been substituted for the dangerous and unsafe use of the spoon1 or ladle1 7lanternes1 ,fr4#ca71 by means of which the load was carried to the bottom of the piece4 ,they are paper bags or sacks1 of the caliber of the gun4 ,the loading is much more expeditious1 and less danger is to be apprehended4 ,it requires only1 that the piece should be well sponged1 and the priming to communicate with the load4 ,for the construction of these cases1 coarse gray paper1 and sufficiently strong1 is used2 and they should be well pasted4 ,the paper1 which is used with advantage1 and commonly employed1 is #bc inches in length1 and #bh inches in breadth4 ,it serves for all calibers1 and even proof charges1 which are stronger than the ordinary loads4 ,the paper is cut of such a size as to leave from #a-a_/d inches1 to #a-a_/b inches1 on the roller1 and a sufficiency to cover the lower extremity4 ,one of the sides1 as well as the side which is cut1 is pasted4 ,the paper is rolled upon the former1 or roller1 and is straightened1 so that the hand may be passed over the pasted part1 and the paper tightened4 ,the bottom of the bag is placed upon the roller1 and1 in folding it1 the bag is tied above that part of the paper1 which is pasted4 ,the bag is then dried1 by placing it on one end upon a table1 and exposing it to the air4 ,the rollers should be bored in their axis1 so that1 in drawing them out1 they may come out easy1 and without injuring the bag4 ,this hole admits the external air1 and prevents the formation of a vacuum in a degree1 when the roller is suddenly withdrawn4 ,the bottoms 7culots17 are cut of the same diameter as the roller4 ,the paste is made of flour and glue4 ,the table given by ,bigot1 p4 #bh1 relative to the dimensions of sacks or cartridges1 for cannon1 embraces the following particulars3 ,the diameter of the former1 or roller for a #bd pr4 is #e-a_/f inches3 for a #af1 #d-a_/b2 for a #ab1 #d2 for an #h1 #c-a_/b2 for a #f1 #c-a_/f2 and for a four pounder #b-c_/d of an inch3 the circumference of the cartridge for a #bd pr4 is #ag-b_/c inches2 for a #af1 #ae-c_/abths2 for a #ab1 #ac-a_/c2 for an #h1 #ab-aa_/ab2 for a #f1 #f-a_/b2 for a #d1 #i-b_/c;ds inches4 ,the height of the roller for a #bd pr4 is #ah inches2 for a #af1 #ae2 for a #ab1 #ad2 for an #h1 #ac2 for a #f1 #ab-a_/b1 and for a #d1 #ab4 ,the height of the paper1 including the circumference1 for a #bd pr4 is #ag-b_/c inches2 for a #af1 #ad2 for a #ab1 #ad2 for an #h1 #aa2 for a #f1 #aj-a_/b2 for a #d1 #aj4 ,the height1 which covers the cartridge1 is for a #bd pr4 #a-e_/aj inches2 for a #af1 #a-c_/ab2 for a #ab1 #a-a_/ab2 for an #h1 #aa_/ab2 for a #f1 #aj_/ab2 and for a #d1 #i_/ab4 ,the bottom 7culot17 for a #bd pr4 is #a-b_/abth inches2 for a #af1 #a2 for a #ab1 #aj_/ab2 for an #h1 #b_/c;ds2 for a #f1 #g_/ab2 and for a #d1 #a_/b inch4 ,the height of the charge for a #bd pr4 is #aa-a_/f for a #af1 #h-a_/b2 for a #ab1 #h-a_/f2 for an #h1 #g-a_/c2 for a #f1 #f-i_/aa2 and for a #d1 #f-b_/abths inches4 ,the height of the paper1 for the charges of exercise1 is for a #bd pr4 #aj inches2 for a #af1 #i2 for a #ab1 #h2 for an #h1 #g2 for a #f1 #f-a_/b2 and for a #d1 #f inches4 ,in the table of the proportions of the charge1 for different calibers1 given by ,ruggieri1 7,pyrotechnie ,militaire1 p4 #aig17 besides the weight of the ball1 and the height of the sack1 the weight of the charge is given in pounds1 and ounces1 which is thus stated by him3 for a #d pr4 #a lb4 #h oz2 an #h pr4 #b lbs4 #h oz2 a #ab pr4 #d lbs4 #h oz2 a #af pr4 #e lbs2 and a #bd pr4 #h lbs4 ,cannon ,cartouches are composed of a bag of serge1 and a shoe or base1 in which the ball was fixed by means of a tin cross1 nailed to the shoe or base4 ,the bag should be as large as the shoe1 and long enough to contain the requisite quantity of powder4 ,the shoe is a little less in diameter than the ball1 so that the tin and the bag put upon it1 do not increase its size beyond that of the ball4 ,the shoe is flat on one side1 and hollow on the other4 ,the hollow part should be a spherical concavity1 about one-third of the diameter of the ball4 ,at a small distance from the bottom of the shoe1 a groove is made sufficiently deep to contain the packthread1 with which it is fastened to the bag4 ,in the construction of cannon cartouches1 the ball must first be fixed to the base by means of two tin bands in the form of a cross1 and nailed with two small nails at the bottom and sides of the base4 ,these bands for sixteen and twelve pounders1 are at least 4#dd decimal parts of an inch in width1 and #ae inches long4 ,those for eight and four pounders1 are 4#cee decimal parts of an inch in width1 and #aa4gb inches in length4 ,the ball being fixed on this base1 it is put into a bag filled with powder1 and the bag tied above to the base4 ,then a bit of parchment soaked in water1 of from two to four inches in width1 and of sufficient length to go round the cartouch1 is placed round the bag1 half on the shoe and half on the powder4 ,then tie it with a string passing in the groove1 at about 4#bg parts of an inch below the base2 so that the cartouch is tied in three different places--the two first above in the groove of the shoe1 serves to hold the bag and it strongly together2 the third below1 is to prevent the powder from rising and slipping between the bag and the shoe4 ,the band is placed on the part where the greatest friction is1 to preserve the bag from being torn4 ,the cartouch thus made1 is to be calibered by trying it with the piece for which it is intended1 into which it must enter with ease4 ,this cannot be too strongly recommended4 ,it is of all things the most essential1 and the only way of ascertaining the goodness of ammunition4 ,a workshop of twelve workmen is divided into four classes4 ,the first class consists of two men who put the ball into the shoe2 the second of two others who fill the bag with powder2 the third1 two others who press the powder into the bag2 and the remaining six are employed in tying the bags to the shoes1 two to each4 ,these twelve workmen can1 in one day of twelve hours1 make two hundred and forty cartouches1 of sixteen or twelve pounders1 or #cbj of eight or four pounders4 ,table relative to the ,cartouch1 or ,pouch4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,for #ab #h #f #d ,light ,troops ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,height1 without ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 the folds4 #aa #aj #i #i #f ,circumference1 without the folds4 #ab-g_/ab #aj-i_/ab #i #h #e-c_/ab ,diameter of the base1 without the folds4 #d #c-e_/ab #c-a_/ab #b-i_/ab #a-h_/ab ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,to make grape shot1 we must have a bag of ticking1 in which the small balls are arranged2 also a shoe1 to which not only the bag which contains the ball is attached1 but also the serge filled with powder4 ,the shoe is made of the same wood with the ball cartridges1 and of the following dimensions1 viz4 ,the sixteen pounder should have #d4ig inches diameter2 the twelve pounders1 #d4ce2 the eight pounders1 #c4hb2 and the four pounders1 #c4a inches diameter4 ,those of the caliber of sixteen and twelve1 should be #a4f inches in thickness1 with a groove in the middle of 4#dd parts of an inch in depth1 and the same in width2 the eight and four pounders have but #a4jg inch in thickness1 with a groove in the middle of 4#cf parts of an inch in depth and width4 ,every shoe or base1 has a pin in its centre1 the size of which is in proportion to the vacancy left by the small balls of iron arranged about it4 ,the height is in proportion to the different layers of ball4--,in general thirty-six balls are put into one grape shot1 of whatever caliber it be2 that is to say1 six heights of six each4 ,the balls should be proportioned to the caliber1 so that the six balls on the base should exactly fill the circumference of it4 ,the pin in the middle of the base is exactly the size of the ball and seven times its diameter in height4 ,at the top of the pin a groove is made to tie the threads1 the width of which is one-third1 and the depth1 one-fourth of its diameter4 ,the bag in which the small balls are arranged1 layer upon layer1 should be of good strong ticking closely woven4 ,it is of the size of the shot1 and #b4ac inches in length above the top of the pin4 ,it is strongly fastened at the bottom in the groove of the base with strong pack-thread4 ,there must be #c-a_/b fathom of strong pack-thread trebled1 to tie the grape of the caliber of sixteen and twelve pounders1 and three fathom only for one of eight and four4 ,grape shot may be corded in the same manner as the carcase is corded2 with this difference1 instead of eight turns1 taking only six4 ,the best and strongest method of tying the thread in grape-shot1 is in the net-work form--one person holding1 and another tying it4 ,in a work-shop where ten men are employed1 eight are employed to wind the thread round1 and two to attach the bag to the base or shoe1 or to arrange the small balls on the shoe1 round the pin4 ,such a work-shop1 in a day of ten hours1 can complete #abj grape-shot of the largest caliber1 and as many as #adj of eight or four pounders might be made4 ,the grape shot composed of #cf iron balls1 weigh1 without their charge of powder1 as follows3 lb4 oz4 ,for a caliber of #af #ba #aj ,for do4 of #ab #af #c ,for do4 of #h #aj #ab ,for do4 of #d #f #c ,the diameters of the small balls for grape shot1 of which six exactly fill the circumference1 are as follows3 ,for #af pounders1 #a4ff inch4 ,for #h pounders1 #a4ca inch4 ,for #ab do4 #a4e do4 ,for #d do4 #j4af do4 ,m4 ,bigot has given the following ,table relative to ,cartouches1 and their ,balls4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,calibers4 #ab #h #f #d ,light ,troops ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- lbs4 oz4 lbs4 oz4 lbs4 oz4 lbs4 oz4 lbs4 oz4 ,charge of powder4 #d #j #b #b #j #a #j #ag ,weight of the cartouch and ball4 #af #aa #aa #b #h #e #ab #b #a ,height of the ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 charge of powder4 #h-c_/ab #f-i_/ab #f-c_/ab #f-a_/ab #e-a_/ab ,total height of the cartouch4 #ac #aa #aj-h_/ab #i-aa_/ab #g-h_/ab ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,of ,,matches4 ,matches1 in artillery1 are a kind of rope made of flax1 hemp1 or cotton slightly twisted1 and prepared to retain fire for the use of artillery1 mines1 fire-works1 c4 ,bigot1 7,trait d',artifice de ,guerre1 p4 #fd17 has considered this subject under three heads2 namely1 of match-rope1 priming fuses or tubes1 and quick-match4 ,we purpose1 therefore1 in the following sections1 to treat the subject in this order4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,slow ,match4 ,slow-match may be prepared by different processes4 ,when hemp or tow is spun on the wheel like cord1 but very slack1 and made into three twists and then covered with tow1 so that the twists do not appear1 and then boiled in the lees of old wine1 a slow-match will be formed which burns very gradually2 but slow-match is commonly made after the following method3 ,the rope for this match is made of flax1 or of soft well-beaten hemp1 thoroughly cleansed from the harder fibres1 and the strands are loosely spun4 ,three strands are sufficient1 which should not1 when formed into rope1 exceed one inch and two-thirds in thickness4 ,it should not be shortened in twisting more than one-fifth1 or one-fourth at most1 in order to be firm without being hard4 ,the ley or lixivium in which the rope is soaked1 is composed of wood ashes and quick lime2 and every hundred pounds of match require fifty pounds of the former1 and twenty-five pounds of the latter4 ,they are boiled for fifteen hours and are taken out of the tub1 piled in heaps and covered with tow1 in which situation they are left to ferment4 ,some recommend1 in order to improve them1 immersing them two or three times in a nitrous solution1 composed of four pounds of saltpetre in a sufficient quantity of water1 to every one hundred pounds of match4 ,the match is afterwards polished by rubbing it along a hair rope1 which removes all extraneous fibres that would spread fire too rapidly4 ,twisting the rope strongly before it is polished1 is said to be a good plan4 ,matches are finally dried in the sun1 and rolled into pieces of twenty yards each1 7weighing about two and a half pounds72 then made up into barrels or boxes1 each of which contains about twenty of these pieces4 ,match of a good quality burns uniformly at the rate of five inches per hour1 and its coal terminates in a point that resists pressure4 ,match rope may be formed by boiling the rope in water1 containing three pounds of wood ashes1 one pound of quicklime1 two pounds of the liquor of horse-dung1 and one pound of saltpetre4 ,in the small work1 called ,the ,bombardier and ,pocket ,gunner1 there are three formul given for slow-match3 ,the first consists in soaking light twisted rope in strong ley for three days4 ,it burns three feet in six hours4 ,the second or ,no4 #b1 as made at ,gibraltar1 by immersing blue paper in a solution of eight ounces of nitre in a gallon of water4 ,the ,no4 #c1 by soaking rope in a solution of three-fourths of an ounce of sugar of lead in a pint of rain-water1 using a larger quantity in the same proportion1 according to the rope4 ,the use of the acetate or sugar of lead for the formation of match-rope1 was recommended by a ,french officer in #aghb2 and since that time has been used in ,france both with and without saltpetre4 ,the tinder-wood1 if soaked alternately in solutions of saltpetre and sugar of lead1 will form a very good match4 ,m4 ,rothelet 7,archives des ,dcouvertes1 v1 p4 #bci7 has given some new observations on the use of acetate of lead for the preparation of combustible match-rope4 ,he mentions the use of liquid acetate of lead1 which may either be a solution of the oxide of lead in distilled vinegar1 or a solution of sugar of lead in water4 ,rope1 he adds1 may be made very inflammable1 by soaking it well in the liquid acetate1 and drying it thoroughly4 ,see also the ,bulletin de ,pharmacie1 ,september1 #ahab4 ,matches may be made very expeditiously by employing sugar of lead in the following manner3 ,put a quantity of rain or river water in a kettle over the fire1 and when it boils1 throw in sugar of lead in the proportion of three-fourths of an ounce to a pound of water4 ,remove the kettle when the sugar of lead is all dissolved1 and immerse the cord or rope in the solution for ten minutes1 and then take it out and dry it in the air4 ,if cold water is used1 the rope must remain longer in the solution4 ,rope of every description1 old or new1 or that made of the linden bark1 and damaged match1 may be submitted to the same process1 previously boiling them in common water to remove their old coating4 ,one pound of solution is required for each pound of cord4#cb ,ruggeri 7,pyrotechnie ,militaire1 p4 #ahe17 has a similar process4 ,the salt of saturn there recommended1 is the same as sugar of lead4 ,when matches have been made by contract1 we may determine their quality by examining their interior1 to see if they are not mixed with old matches1 or pieces of dirty hemp4 ,they should be sufficiently closed without being either too hard or too loose4 ,the lixivium should penetrate to their centre2 the difference of colour will indicate the contrary4 ,they should be well dried and partake neither of mould nor rottenness1 which are easily ascertained by the colour and smell4 ,to be good1 the match when lighted should preserve the fire1 and burn uniformly without interruption in moist weather1 so that a piece of five inches in length shall last at least one hour4 ,in #ahjh1 there appeared in our papers an article on the subject of artillery rods1 of which the following is a copy4 ,we re-published it in the ,aurora1 of ,philadelphia1 in the same year1 with comments4 ,instead of the acetate1 nitrate of lead is used4 ,m4 ,cadet1 of ,paris1 has invented artillery rods to supersede the matches in common use4 ,they may be made of birch1 elm1 poplar1 or of the linden tree4 ,they are saturated with nitrate of lead and undergo two ebullitions in spirit of turpentine4 ,they then burn very well and are not extinguished by the air4 ,a metre of each will last an hour and a half1 while the common matches burn only seven minutes4 ,general ,gassendi has made a calculation1 which proves1 that matches1 which now cost the ,french government twenty-thousand livres1 will not cost more than fifteen hundred1 if made on ,m4 ,c's new principle4 ,one pound of rope-match1 such as is used in the military academy of ,segovia1 lasts nearly thirty-five hours1 and rather more provided it be damp4 ,in that state it is generally surcharged with from six to seven per cent4 of moisture4 ,in short it would be better to dry the rods in an oven1 before they are saturated with the nitrate as well as afterwards4 ,the following table shows the difference of duration between the matches made of rope and the new invented rods2 and the quantity of nitrate1 each wood absorbs per quintal1 is specified in the last column4 ,woods4 ,durat4 per #be lbs4 lbs4 ,french ,cord-match #hej #d ,linden1 #bdjj #aj ,pine1 #bdjj #db ,cedar1 #bdjj #db ,elm1 #bdcj #ai ,oak1 #bbjj #ah ,green oak1 #adjj #ah ,walnut1 #adjj #g ,poplar1 #adjj #cg ,willow1 #bdjj #cj ,hence we find that the poplar1 pine1 cedar and willow1 exclude themselves when compared with the linden tree2 since they absorb three or four times more nitrate than the latter1 without burning longer4 ,the linden unites the advantages of economy and duration1 since it absorbs only a tenth of its weight4 ,the common oak1 elm1 walnut and green oak1 occupy but the second rank4 ,we may remark also1 that the hardest woods are not of the greatest duration2 for a rod made of green oak1 which is much harder than the common oak1 supports combustion only eight hours1 while the latter will burn for twelve hours4 ,half a kilogramme of nitrate of lead will saturate forty-five metres of elm1 seventeen of birch2 twenty-one of poplar1 and twelve of the linden tree4 ,the woods were cut in parallelepipeds and boiled in a fish-pan4 ,,mm4 ,carnot1 ,guyton ,morveau1 and ,deyeux1 were appointed to examine this invention1 who reported favorably4 ,an extract of their report may be seen in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 v1 p4 #bdj4 ,born also recommends for the same purpose1 nitrate of lead1 and used in the same manner4 ,proust1 it appears1 repeated the experiments of ,born1 and came to the same conclusion2--that it was an expeditious1 and1 on a large scale1 an economical process for making matches4 ,proust1 however1 used hazle wood4 ,he observes that the solution must be strong2 that when cold it requires three days immersion in the fluid1 and when boiling1 only one and a half hours4 ,he also found that nitrate of copper may be substituted for either the acetate or nitrate of lead4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,priming ,tubes4 ,priming tubes1 7fuses d'amorce7 serve to communicate fire to the powder in a cannon4 ,they were formerly made of tin1 but in consequence of the inconvenience of rusting they were laid aside4 ,james 7,military ,dictionary1 p4 #daf7 remarks1 that1 owing to this defect in the tin1 a colonel ,harding had invented a pewter tube in lieu of tin tubes4 ,tubes are used in quick firing4 ,when made of tin their diameter is two-tenths of an inch1 being just sufficient to enter into the vent of the piece4 ,they are about six inches long4 ,through this tube is drawn a quick-match1 the cap being primed with meal powder moistened with spirits of wine4 ,to prevent the mealed powder from falling out by carriage1 a cap of paper or flannel1 steeped in spirits of wine1 is tied over it4 ,they are composed of two distinct parts1 the cravat which contains the priming1 and the tube that enters into the touch hole4 ,small pieces of well dried reeds or of quills1 a little less than the size of the vent of the piece1 are preferred4 ,they are made thus4 ,the reeds are cut into pieces three inches in length1 square at one end and diagonally at the other1 and are passed through a caliber two and one-third lines in diameter1 7the diameter of the vent being two and one-fourth lines27 they are then rubbed clean in the inside by passing a small file several times through them1 that removes the inner skin4 ,having prepared the reeds1 they are filled1 and also quills1 or other cases1 with the composition hereafter mentioned1 made sufficiently thin to enter them4 ,this may be done with the most facility by placing the cases side by side1 with the square end up1 in a tin or wooden box five inches deep2 the composition is put into this1 and made to descend into the cases1 by knocking the box on the table4 ,when they are full1 they are taken out of the box1 wiped clean1 and laid to dry in the sun or in a warm room2 before the composition is entirely dry1 a knitting needle is passed from one end to the other1 in order that the fire may reach the bore of the piece more rapidly4 ,the match of communication 7etoupille7 is then fixed4 ,this is done by cutting a notch on each side of the reed1 near the end that is cut square1 to which two strands of a match1 two and a half inches long1 are tied with a fibre of hemp4 ,the tubes are tied up in packets of ten each1 to facilitate their distribution in service4 ,the reeds1 or other cases1 may also be filled in the following way1 viz3 ,take twine made of the strands of cotton thread1 and cut into pieces ten inches long2 fold each of these into two lengths1 and pass them through the reed from one end to the other by means of a loop of very fine thread4 ,the two inches are covered with some of the composition made thick4 ,composition of ,priming ,tubes4 ,parts of1 ,meal-powder1 ,saltpetre1 ,sulphur1 ,charcoal4 ,usual composition1 #ab #h #b #c ,very quick1 #d #a #j #j ,particular #j #ac #c #d composition1 #j #d ,the composition is to be moistened with a solution of camphor1 c4 in brandy4 ,to every pint add one ounce of gum arabic1 and half an ounce of camphor4 ,gum water retards the combustion of the match4 ,fifteen pounds of this composition will make ten thousand tubes4 ,m4 ,cadet1 7,archives des ,dcouvertes1 i1 p4 #dab7 has connected with the match a preparation of chlorate of potassa1 which is inflamed by sulphuric acid4 ,we have already spoken of the use of chlorate1 formerly called hyper-oxymuriate1 of potassa1 in this way4 ,see chlorate of potassa4 ,m4 ,cadet's invention is as follows3 ,in a glass tube or tube of elder1 is enclosed a match covered with a mixture of chlorate of potassa and sulphur2 above which is fixed a small glass bulb containing sulphuric acid4 ,this bulb has a small stem of glass similar to that of the candle cracker1 to stick it by into the composition4 ,this match is placed above the vent or touch hole1 and retained there by a socket of lead4 ,a spring1 to which a small hammer is attached1 is fixed to the gun1 and is extended and kept in that position by a hook or bolt4 ,when this is pushed1 the spring is unhooked1 and by recovering itself gives a blow with the hammer which breaks the glass ball1 and the acid falls directly on the composition4 ,this is then inflamed and the fire is communicated to the match1 and from the match to the gunpowder4 ,a small portion of sugar mixed with the chlorate of potassa and sulphur1 will ensure the composition to inflame with more certainty2 although ,m4 ,cadet mentions only the hyper-oxymuriate and sulphur4 ,if some of this composition1 after the priming fuse is charged1 be put in the cup of the fuse1 a drop of sulphuric acid will inflame the fuse4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,quick ,matches4 ,the etoupille of the ,french is the same as quick match1 which is used to communicate fire in particular in military works1 to priming tubes and other fuses4 ,we have noticed in a former article the preparation of the matches of communication used in ,fire-works1 and the mode of forming leaders for the purpose of conveying fire to the different parts of a fixed or moveable piece4 ,it will be sufficient1 therefore1 to notice the preparation of what is usually called quick match4 ,these matches are made1 according to ,bigot1 of five strands of fine cotton thread1 soaked twenty-four hours in strong vinegar1 and sometimes in brandy4 ,they are then put1 for twelve hours at least1 in a liquid paste1 made of meal gunpowder1 and spirits1 in which gum arabic and camphor are dissolved1 in proportions to be given hereafter4 ,to make them imbibe this completely1 they are pressed with a pallet knife4 ,they are then taken out and drawn gently between the fingers to discharge the excess1 spread upon a table1 and when half dry1 dusted with meal-powder4 ,the match is rolled by hand to make it round1 hung upon a frame1 furnished with pins1 to dry1 and afterwards cut into lengths of two and a half feet and tied up in bundles4 ,materials necessary to make ten thousand ,priming ,tubes4 ,cotton thread1 #e lbs4 ,meal-powder1 #c -- ,vinegar1 #e quarts4 ,brandy1 or other spirits1 #c ---- ,gum arabic1 #c ounces4 ,camphor1 #a ---- ,when matches are required to communicate fire slowly1 sulphur and beeswax1 or rosin are added to meal-powder1 in proportion to the degree of slowness required4 ,the cotton1 in this case1 must have been soaked in water instead of spirits4 ,cotton1 #a lb4 #ab ounces4 ,saltpetre1 #a -- #h ---- ,spirits of wine1 #b quarts4 ,water1 #b ---- ,isinglass1 #c gills4 ,meal-powder1 #aj lbs4 ,the cotton is then taken out and laid in a trough1 where some meal-powder1 moistened with alcohol1 is thoroughly wrought into it4 ,this done1 the cotton1 being in strands1 is taken out separately1 and drawn through meal-powder and hung upon a line to dry4 ,if worsted in the place of cotton is employed1 the proportions then are1 ,worsted1 #aj ounces4 ,meal-powder1 #aj pounds4 ,alcohol1 7spirits of wine17 #c pints4 ,vinegar1 7white wine17 #c ---- ,in the preparation of quick match1 the following method is sometimes pursued2 viz4 soak the cotton well in a hot solution of saltpetre2 then remove it and lay it in a trough with some mealed powder1 moistened with spirits of wine1 which is to be worked in by the hand4 ,it is afterwards drawn through meal-powder1 and dried upon a line or reel4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,of ,,port ,,fires4 ,port fires 7lances feu7 are a species of fuse of a slow composition1 designed for different purposes1 and particularly for guns1 when they are to fire rapidly4 ,the paper1 is first rolled in cases4 ,the rod or mandril should be of hard wood1 #af or #ah inches long1 and #e-a_/b lines in diameter4 ,two brass rods to load them1 one of #ag inches in length1 the other of only #h1 are required4 ,a wooden rammer1 with a heavy head1 may be used4 ,a small funnel with a spout #e-a_/b lines in diameter1 and a ladle to lift the composition1 are also required4 ,the instructions of ,m4 ,bigot for the formation of ,port-fire are that the paper must be cut in bands1 #c-a_/b to four inches wide1 and #ae inches long1 and six strips of this paper are to be arranged on a level table1 one above the other in such a way1 that each strip extends about half an inch beyond the next below it1 and pasting the projecting parts of it2 that the wooden rod is then placed upon the upper strip1 near the side1 and the paper is rolled several times round it2 pressing it at the same time1 and shutting the case1 thus formed1 at one end1 by bending the paper up #c or #d lines on the rod1 and striking it on the table to flatten it2 that the rod is then removed1 and the case is dried1 which is afterwards filled by introducing the composition through the funnel1 and ramming it as fast as it falls down2 which is done by alternately raising and lowering the copper rod1 without drawing it entirely out2 that in charging1 care must be taken to beat it uniformly1 with such a force1 that the paper may not be torn1 and the composition equally solid throughout2 that when the composition is within an inch of the end of the paper case1 a tow match is put over it1 of #a-a_/b inches in circumference1 the two ends of which project from the paper case1 and are covered with priming paste2 and finally1 that the port-fire is finished1 by pasting upon its end a small bit of paper1 which is torn off1 when the match is to be used4 ,port-fires are tied up in a sheet of paper1 in parcels of ten4 ,composition of ,port-fires4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,meal ,salt- ,,kinds ,,of ,,port-,,fire4 powder4 petre4,sulphur4,charcoal4,rosin4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,to last #ab min4 moistened #aj #ab #f with linseed oil4 ---- #aj do--do #ai #g ---- #g do--commonly used4 #ai #h ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the articles are pulverized1 and mixed by passing them through fine sieves at least twice4 ,after the addition of linseed oil1 the composition is again mixed with the hand4 ,if too much oil be added1 the port-fire will not keep4 ,fourteen pounds of composition1 and #b-a_/b reams of paper1 are required for #ajj port-fires4 ,port-fires are usually #af-a_/b inches1 and seldom more than #ba inches in length4 ,the paper cases must be rolled1 wet with paste4 ,the distinction1 made between what is called the wet1 and dry port-fire1 is1 that1 in the former1 linseed oil is used1 and1 in the latter1 the composition is mixed dry4 ,dry port-fire1 according to the ,british formula1 is composed of saltpetre #d parts1 sulphur #a1 meal-powder #b1 and antimony #a4 ,the following formul for port fire are given in the ,pyrotechny of the ,encyclopedia ,britannica4 #a4 ,saltpetre #ab oz4 ,sulphur #d -- ,meal-powder #b -- #b4 ,saltpetre #h oz4 ,sulphur #d -- ,meal-powder #b -- #c4 ,saltpetre #a lb4 #b oz4 ,meal-powder #a lbs4 ,sulphur #aj oz4 #d4 ,meal-powder #f oz4 ,saltpetre #b lbs4 #b -- ,sulphur #aj -- #e4 ,saltpetre #a lb4 #d oz4 ,meal-powder #d -- ,sulphur #e -- ,sawdust #h -- #f4 ,saltpetre #h oz4 ,sulphur #b -- ,meal-powder #b -- ,illuminating port-fires1 used in fire-works for exhibition1 c4 have been noticed heretofore4 ,the composition of the charge for fire-lances 7port-fire17 is thus given by ,ruggeri2 ,substances4 ,proportions4 ,saltpetre #af parts4 ,sulphur #h ---- ,powdered antimony or powdered pitcoal #d ---- ,mixed1 and passed three times through a sieve4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,of ,,fuses ,,for ,,shells1 ,,howitzes1 ,,and ,,grenades4 ,the fuse of the ,french1 is applied to various purposes1 and is differently made by different artificers4 ,fuses are intended to communicate fire to the powder with which shells1 c4 are filled1 so as to make them burst in the places to which they are thrown4 ,they are composed1 according to some1 of one pound of gunpowder1 and two or three ounces of charcoal1 well mixed together2 or of four pounds of gunpowder1 two of saltpetre1 and one of sulphur4 ,it is to be remarked that the time a bomb1 or grenade1 will take to burn1 after it has been thrown out of the mortar1 or a howitz out of a howitzer1 depends entirely upon the length and quality of the fuse4 ,fuses are made of wood turned in the form of a truncated cone1 in order to enter fairly into the eye of the shell4 ,they are perforated through the middle1 in the direction of the axis1 so as to receive the composition4 ,this channel is called the light of the fuse4 ,the wood that is employed1 should be strong1 dry1 sound1 and without knots4 ,the best kinds are the oak1 the elm1 and the linden4 ,they are filled with a slow combustible composition4 ,the materials are increased or diminished according to the nature of their application4 ,fuses are sometimes made of copper4 ,the fuses for #aj and #ab inch shells are #h-a_/b inches long2 for #h inch shells1 #g-a_/b1 for howitzes1 #e-a_/b2 and for hand grenades1 #b-a_/b4 ,the diameter of the light1 in the first is #e lines1 in the second and third1 #d lines1 and #b lines for grenades4 ,at the larger end of the fuse for shells1 and howitzes1 a cup is made from #aj to #ad lines in diameter1 and #c deep4 ,in turning them1 a solid bit1 #b-a_/b inches thick1 is left at the small end1 to prevent them from splitting1 when the composition is pressed into the canal4 ,when the fuse is to be driven into the eye of the projectile1 this piece is sawn off1 cutting the fuse diagonally4 ,the turner marks its termination by a circle upon the fuse4 ,fuses decrease nearly one inch in length1 and two lines in diameter1 according to the caliber of the bomb4 ,the diameter of the lights1 or apertures1 only diminish half a line4 ,in what is called the ,shrapnel shell1 invented by colonel ,shrapnel1 the seasonable use of the fuse constitutes one of its principal advantages4 ,with regard to the ,american elongated shell1 invented by a gentleman in the ,ordnance1 we have heard nothing4 ,see ,shrapnel shell1 c4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of the ,method of ,charging the ,fuses of ,bombs or ,shells4 ,two rammers of copper are required for each of the several calibers of #ab1 #aj1 and #h inches2 the first an inch longer than the fuse1 the second half as long4 ,these rammers are of the same size with the lights of their respective fuses1 and have a head to receive the blows of a mallet4 ,only one rod is wanted for the fuses of smaller calibers4 ,the first operation is to examine the fuses1 to see that they have no knots or flaws1 and are not wormeaten4 ,the artificers place themselves astride1 and facing each other1 upon benches of strong plank1 having1 between them1 a small vessel filled with the composition1 and each one1 a small measure4 ,each artificer takes a fuse1 inserts the small end into a hole1 made in the bench1 for the purpose of maintaining it erect1 and preventing it from splitting in the act of charging4 ,he then passes a measure of the composition into the light1 and introduces the first rod1 on which he strikes #ae strokes1 of equal force1 with the mallet4 ,between every three strokes1 he raises the rod1 to make the composition fall4 ,the ramming of this measure is therefore executed in #e vollies or blows4 ,he then withdraws the rod1 and introduces a new charge of the composition1 which he beats as before1 and so on until the fuse is half full2 after which he makes use of the second rod1 and goes on loading1 until the charge reaches within three lines of the cup4 ,he then takes two strands of quick match1 which 7after placing them in the form of a cross1 on the top of the fuse7 he presses with his rod1 pours some of the composition upon them1 and1 beating it carefully so as not to cut the match1 he fills the fuse to the top of the cup4 ,the fuses of howitzes and grenades are charged in the same way2 but the blows are not so heavy as in larger ones1 for fear of splitting the wood4 ,the fuses being thus charged1 the quick match is folded into the cup1 and the opening closed with a bit of cloth or parchment1 or very strong paper1 which is tied an inch below the top4 ,this operation is called capping the fuse4 ,all the fuses for bombs or grenades are at present furnished with matches4 ,care must be taken1 therefore1 to leave a vacancy of about 4#bg parts of an inch1 in order to fix in the match4 ,fuses of grenades are charged with the same precision as those for bombs1 only the blows1 as we remarked1 should be weaker for fear of splitting the fuse4 ,before the little end is driven into the bomb or shell1 care is to be taken to have the end cut slopingly1 without which the communication of the fire with the powder would be uncertain4 ,when fuses have been well loaded1 and the materials previously well mixed1 they will naturally burn with an equal steady fire1 preserving in general an even length of flame1 without splitting1 or irregularly shaking4 ,they may be proved by throwing them into water1 tied to a stone1 or by driving them with heavy blows into the earth4 ,they should not go out in either of these cases4 ,fuses made with the composition we shall describe1 and for #aj and #ab inch shells1 last seventy seconds4 ,according to the ,strasbourg directions1 it appears1 that fuses for shells of #ab4gh inches should last until you can count #hj or #he1 or #gj seconds4 ,those for bombs #h4eb inches1 #fe counts1 or #fj seconds1 and those for grenades #be or #cj counts4 ,before the fuse is driven into the bomb1 the thin or small end must be cut off1 in order that the fire may be easily communicated to the mass of gunpowder1 which is lodged in the bomb4 ,to fire bombs at a small distance1 the fuse must be cut on a longer slant1 so that the bomb may take effect sooner1 and may not remain a long time in the place where it falls1 without bursting4 ,the fuse must be of such a length1 as to continue burning all the time the shell is in its range1 and to set fire to the powder as soon as it touches the ground1 which occasions the shell instantly to burst into many pieces4 ,when the distance from the object is known1 the time of the shell's flight may be computed to a second or two2 which being ascertained1 the fuse may be cut accordingly4 ,by burning two or three1 and making use of a watch1 or of a string1 by way of a pendulum1 to vibrate seconds1 we may determine the length of time a fuse1 or any length of a fuse1 will take to burn4 ,in order to preserve fuses for a length of time1 and protect them from moisture1 the cap is coated with a composition1 or cement1 made of #af parts of bees' wax1 and #d of mutton tallow2 melting the wax first1 and then adding the suet4 ,some make use of two-thirds wax1 and one-third rosin4 ,the cap of the fuse is dipped in1 when the mixture is half cold1 and immediately withdrawn4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,parts ,,of ,composition for the ,fuses of ------------------------------ ,shells1 ,howitzes and ,grenades4 ,meal ,salt- ,char- powder4,sulphur4 petre4 coal4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,composition usually employed1 #e #c #b ,quicker composition1 #g #d #b ,another 7from ,ruggeri7 #ad #f #h ,do4 ,do4 #af #g #aj ,do4 7,english7 #g #c #d ,do4 7,strasbourg7 for #h4eb bombs1 #d #b #c ,do4 7from the ,pocket ,gunner7 lbs4 #b #a #c ,do4 particular 7from ,bigot7 #b #f #c #i ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the following is the quantity of composition required for fuses1 viz3 #ajjj fuses1 for #aj and #ab inch shells1 #ib lbs4 ,do4 do4 for #h inch shells1 #ec -- ,do4 do4 for #f inch howitzes1 #cc -- ,do4 do4 for hand grenades #af -- ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,loading ,shells1 ,howitzes and ,grenades4 ,the shells1 before they are loaded1 are cleansed from any foreign substances that may be in them2 and those which are split1 or have flaws in the eye are rejected2 so are also those that are not well bored1 or are eccentric4 ,they are then charged with powder1 introduced into them by means of a funnel4 ,five or six pounds of gunpowder are usually put into twelve-inch shells2 from three to five1 in ten-inch shells2 from one to one and a quarter1 into eight-inch shells2 from three-quarters to one pound1 into howitzes2 and grenades of all sorts are half filled4 ,the charge of shells is increased1 when they are to burst into a great number of pieces2 for instance1 when they are to fall among troops4 ,incendiary fire-works are added1 when buildings are to be set on fire4 ,among these are fire-stone1 and incendiary matches4 ,the charge having been put into these hollow projectiles1 a fuse is introduced into the eye1 after it has been cut diagonally at the smaller end1 and the smaller part taken off4 ,it is forced in by repeated blows of a mallet on the fuse driver1 which is laid upon the cap of the fuse4 ,it ought not to project more than eight or ten lines in shells1 and six or seven in howitzes4 ,the fuses of loaded shells1 howitzes1 and grenades are preserved from wet and fire in the field1 by dipping that part of the fuse1 which projects from the surface of the sphere1 for the same purpose as before mentioned1 into the following composition4 ,the immersion must be made1 when the composition1 after being melted1 is half cold4 ,either this1 or the formula before given1 may be used4 ,composition4 ,pitch1 #ca parts4 ,turpentine1 #af ---- ,mutton tallow1 #a ---- ,linseed oil1 #f ---- ,agreeably to the ,strasbourg ,memoir on ,military ,fire-works1 it appears1 that1 fuses being driven into the shell1 four threads of match must be neatly arranged in the cap4 ,then cap the fuse with a piece of parchment dipped in brandy2 after which1 apply round the fuse1 at the eye of the shell1 some capping wax when lukewarm4 ,then dip all the extreme part of the fuse1 down to the shell1 in melted pitch1 which you will leave to cool in the shade1 in such a manner1 that the shell may neither be exposed to moisture1 nor to the accident of fire4 ,composition of the ,pitch4 ,black pitch1 #d lbs4 ,rosin1 #d -- ,this pitch serves not only to pitch the fuses of bombs and grenades1 but also to cover the outside of fire-balls and other fire-works1 intended to be preserved4 ,another ,composition of pitch for the same ,purposes4 ,black pitch1 #f lbs4 ,linseed oil1 #ab oz4 ,see the preceding section4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,fuses with ,dead ,light4 ,the feu mort1 or dead fire fuse1 is a peculiar species of fuse4 ,the difference1 between these fuses and the ordinary kind1 consists in this1 that the eye1 instead of being pierced and hollow1 is full1 and of a hemispherical shape4 ,in both cases1 however1 the composition is introduced through the small end4 ,composition for dead light4 ,meal-gunpowder1 #af parts4 ,ashes of wood1 #i ---- ,the ashes must be dried1 and run through a sieve4 ,potters' earth1 or clay1 will produce the same effect as the ashes4 ,in proceeding to charge a bomb-fuse that is made of ordinary wood1 the eye1 or aperture1 is first closed with pipe clay1 which is well beaten and pressed against the fuse in a small platter2 the thin end of the fuse being held upwards4 ,three lines 7#c_/abths of an inch7 of this earth will be sufficient to stop the communication of any fire4 ,a tube1 or trundle1 filled with meal-powder1 for the purpose of setting fire to the composition called feu mort1 is thrust into the fuse1 by which it is finally charged4 ,if this charge of meal-gunpowder were to be omitted1 the fuse might not be susceptible of ignition2 but the quantity never ought to exceed three lines1 as the fuse would split by the explosion4 ,when the grains of gunpowder have been well pounded1 a trundle or tube1 filled with the aforementioned composition1 must be applied1 and it is finally loaded like the rest4 ,it must be recollected1 that two inches of this composition will last as long as one of the quality1 with which common fuses are charged4 ,before the fuse is driven into the bomb1 it must be pierced through with a gimblet of one line in diameter2 taking care1 that the hole is made precisely through the charge of meal-powder4 ,one end of a priming match must be forced in1 and three others be tied to it1 which three are to fall upon the bomb1 when it lies in the mortar4 ,the particular object to be obtained by this kind of fuse1 is to prevent the least trace of fire or light being visible in its projection2 so that the enemy may remain ignorant of the range1 or direction of the bomb1 and not be able1 of course1 to get out of the way when it falls1 or to avoid the effects of its explosion4 ,these fuses were made use of at the siege of ,ham in #agfa4 ,the experiments1 which were made1 in #agib1 with this composition1 by an artificer belonging to the ordnance board1 at ,douay1 have proved1 that it answers every purpose1 for which it was invented4 ,the author of the ,manuel de l',artilleur observes1 however1 that the advantages to be derived from this invention1 are not so great as they first appear4 ,he remarks1 that1 with respect to the real utility of the fuse feu mort1 if it be considered as tending materially to the defence of any beseiged place1 the argument cannot be very forcible1 when we reflect1 that to gain time constitutes one of the principal means of defence1 and that the only way to obtain it1 is by retarding the beseigers' operations4 ,these ends are gained by various expedients4 ,among others1 the common lighted fuse conduces not a little3 since1 during the whole direction of the bomb against the works of the assailants1 the attention of the workmen is diverted from their immediate labour2 and as long as it continues in its range1 much uneasiness is created1 because its ultimate explosion and concomitant destruction are unknown4 ,add to this1 that1 independent of the confusion that is occasioned among the assailants by repeated projectiles1 the bombardier1 by means of lighted fuses1 is enabled to correct his aim during the darkest night4 ,this kind of fuse has been known for many years1 and1 it is presumed from these objections to its use1 the common fuse has been hitherto adopted4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of the ,dimensions of ,fuses1 and the ,dimensions and ,charge of ,bombs1 ,howitzes and ,grenades4 ,shells1 in gunnery1 are hollow iron balls1 to be thrown out of mortars or howitzers1 with a fuse hole of about an inch in diameter1 to load them with powder1 and to receive the fuse4 ,the bottom1 or part opposite the fuse1 is made heavier than the rest1 that the fuse may fall uppermost4 ,in small elevations1 this is not always the case1 nor is it necessary4 ,shells are called hollow projectiles1 and1 besides powder1 various incendiary matters are introduced2 but in addition to shells1 properly so called1 hollow projectiles comprehend howitzes and grenades4 ,as a principle1 it is observed1 that their sides ought to be proportionably thick to the shock they receive in the piece1 and to the quantity of powder introduced for bursting them2 and their weight1 according to the objects they are to destroy4 ,we remarked1 that a shell should be thicker opposite the fuse4 ,this thickness is called by the ,french a culot1 or reinforcement of metal2 the object of which is to prevent the breaking of the shell on rocks or stone1 as well as to prevent its falling on the fuse4 ,four times as much powder may be put in the cavity as is sufficient to burst them4 ,this admits the introduction of incendiary matter4 ,howitzes are hollow balls with a culot1 or reinforcement of metal1 upon the inside1 opposite the eye1 and are calculated for ricochet1 that is1 for passing1 bounding1 over the ground1 and1 by striking and penetrating solid objects1 and finally bursting1 produce considerable havoc and devastation4 ,for ricochet1 the howitz1 in fact1 should be of the same thickness throughout4 ,grenades are also a hollow ball1 and are of two kinds2 namely1 the rampart or ditch grenades1 of the caliber of #cf1 #bd1 #ah1 and #ab pounders1 designed for rolling along a trough from the top of the rampart1 and falling into the ditch1 to annoy an enemy1 in attempting to cross it2 and the hand-grenade1 that are thrown by hand into the interior of works1 that are attacked1 into covered ways and trenches1 c4 ,they are of six and three pounder calibers1 and their splinters will fly #ce yards4 ,grenades were invented about the time that shells were1 and first used in #aeid4 ,grenades have sunk into disuse2 but they may be advantageously employed4 ,during the seige of ,cassel1 under the count de la ,lippe1 in the campaign of #agfb1 a young engineer undertook to carry one of the outworks1 with a small detachment of men by using grenades1 and in consequence succeeded4 ,message shells are nothing more than howitzer shells1 and are so called1 because they are used to carry letters or papers4 ,during the bombardment of ,flushing1 and while the communication with ,cadsand was cut off1 means were found to convey a letter from the garrison into the latter place4 ,it was inclosed in a shell without inflammable matter1 and discharged from a mortar1 planted on one of the sea batteries4 ,shrapnel shells were invented by colonel ,shrapnel of the ,british service4 ,they were used1 we are told1 with peculiar effect against the ,french1 in #ahjh1 and at the battle of ,waterloo in #ahae4 ,the fuses for these shells1 after being turned so as to fit the fuse-holes1 are bored1 and a deep thread grooved inside1 to hold the composition firm2 and1 instead of being turned with cups1 they are hollowed conical1 and roughed with a tool that cuts under1 the better to receive the priming4 ,after they are driven1 with fuse composition1 one and a half inches1 they are sawed across the top about one-fifth of an inch down1 so as not to touch the composition1 and divided into five equal parts1 of two-tenths of an inch each2 after which1 a bit of quickmatch is placed across1 and drawn tight in the same grooves4 ,they are then primed with meal-powder and spirits of wine1 capped1 and packed for service4 ,we here insert three tables1 which we have extracted from the work of ,m4 ,bigot4 ,the first table is relative to the dimensions of fuses for shells1 howitzes1 and grenades2 the second1 respecting the dimensions of bombs1 howitzes1 and grenades2 and the third1 of the charge of bombs and howitzes4 ,these tables1 taken together1 will exhibit all the particulars on this subject2 and as this kind of data is necessary1 in the practical operations of the laboratory1 their introduction in this place1 we consider important4 ,table relative to the ,dimensions of ,fuses for ,shells1 ,howitzes1 and ,grenades4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,grenades4 ,,calibers4 #ab and #h-;inch4howitzes1------------- #aj-;inch #f-;inch4 ,rampart4,hand4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- inch4 inch4 inch4 inch4 inch4 ,length1 #i #h #e #d #b ,diameter4 ,at the large end1 #a #a #a #aa_/ab ,at #c inches from the large #a #a #aa_/ab #j #j end1 ,at the small end1 #a #aa_/ab #aj_/ab ,of the light1 #e_/ab ,of the interior of the cup1 #a #aa_/ab #g_/ab #e_/ab ,depth of the cup1 #c_/ab #c_/ab #c_/ab #c_/ab #c_/ab ,height of the massive1 #e_/ab #e_/ab #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,table of ,dimensions of ,bombs1 ,howitzes1 and ,grenades4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #h-;inch1 ,,caliber4 #ab-;inch4#aj-;inch4 howitzhowitzes ,hand #h-;inch4 #f-;inch4grenades ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- inch4 inch4 inch4 inch4 inch4 lines4 lines4 lines4 lines4 lines4 pts4 pts4 pts4 pts4 pts4 ,diam4of bombs1 #aa #aj #f #aj #j #j #h #a #f #f #j #j #c #f #j of the lightexterior1 #a #d #j #a #d #j #a #j #j #j #aa #j #j #h #f interior1 #a #c #j #a #c #j #j #aa #j #j #aj #i #j #h #j ,thickness of the sides1 #a #f #j #a #f #j #j #aa #j #j #aa #j #j #d #j of the culot1 #b #b #j #a #d #j #a #c #j #j #j #j #j #e #j ,pounds4 ,pounds4 ,pounds4 ,pounds4 ,pounds4 ,weight of the bombs1 #ade to #ig to #dc to #bj to #c #aej #ajj #de #be #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the rampart grenades are variable in their dimensions1 and weigh from eight to twelve pounds4 ,table of the ,charge of ,bombs and ,howitzes4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,bombs of ,howitzes4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ab-;inches#aj-;inches #h-;inches4 #h-;inches4 #f-;inches4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,charge of full bombs1 #ag lbs4 #aj lbs4 #d lb4 #a oz4#d lb4 #a oz4#a lb4 #f oz4 sufficient to burst them4 #e #c #a #a #j #ab ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,chapter ,v4 ,,of ,,incendiary ,,fire-,,works4 ,under this head are included all artificial preparations1 designed1 as the name expresses1 to communicate fire to buildings1 shipping1 c4 and for other purposes1 connected with the operations of war4 ,at different periods1 even from the remotest antiquity1 incendiary works have been used4 ,of these preparations1 we may enumerate the following3 shells1 howitzes1 and grenades2 fire-stone to put into shells and howitzes1 intended to produce conflagration2 incendiary matches1 used in the same manner2 carcasses and fire balls1 to be thrown from a mortar1 designed to light up the works in front of a besieged fortress1 and to burn buildings2 incendiary1 or fire-balls1 to be thrown from cannon or by hand1 used in besieged fortresses to light up the enemy's works2 pitched tourteaux and fascines1 to illuminate the passage of rivers and defiles2 powder bags1 to throw upon troops mounting to the assault2 powder barrels1 to roll from the top of a breach1 or from the head of a sap from the glacis2 thundering barrel1 employed for the same purpose2 burning or illuminating barrel2 petard1 to break down the gates and barriers of small towns1 and even thin walls2 torches or flambeaux1 to give light during night marches1 and other purposes2 rockets1 fougettes1 and murdering and the ,congreve war rocket1 for various uses2 rocket carcass of ,congreve1 as an incendiary2 rocket light ball1 to illuminate the horizon near the enemy2 murdering marrons2 ,roman incendiary candles1 and incendiary stars2 tarred and pitched ropes2 fire rain2 marine fuses1 c4 to which we may add the ancient ,greek fire1 and red-hot balls4 ,in this chapter1 under the different heads1 we purpose to describe these1 and other fire-works1 used in war4 ,we may remark1 also1 that animals are sometimes used as incendiary agents4 ,rats1 for instance1 have been employed in certain enterprizes1 as for the purpose of setting fire to magazines of gunpowder4 ,on these occasions1 a lighted match is tied to the tail of the animal4 ,the courier pigeon of the ,french1 or carrier pigeon1 is not used in this way2 but only as a carrier of letters1 to which it is trained and used in ,persia and ,turkey4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,of ,fire ,stone4 ,the fire stone 7,roche feu7 is a compact1 or solid composition4 ,it is calculated to burn slowly1 and when put into shells and howitzes1 and thrown into cities1 produces conflagration4 ,this stone is composed of sulphur1 saltpetre1 meal-powder1 and sometimes grain-powder1 c4 ,the sulphur is melted in a kettle1 or glazed earthen vessel1 over a clean charcoal fire2 the saltpetre being pulverized1 is then thrown into it1 and the spirits of turpentine1 if any is used4 ,these articles are stirred with a spatula1 and the fire must be so regulated1 as to prevent the composition from boiling over1 or taking fire4 ,when these are well melted and mixed1 they are taken off the fire1 and permitted to cool a little2 the gunpowder is then thrown in1 and the composition poured upon a cold surface1 where it consolidates4 ,it is then broken into small lumps1 to be made use of when required4 ,we may here remark1 that1 as the goodness of this composition depends upon the accuracy with which the mixture is made1 too much care cannot be paid to this circumstance4 ,for the purpose of rendering this incendiary more inflammable1 it is recommended to roll the pieces in meal-powder1 before they become fully hard4 ,if the same composition be mixed with suet and spirits of turpentine1 it is used for the same purpose1 but not in the same manner4 ,the invention of the fire stone is said to have originated from the fire-rain of ,casimir ,siemienowicz1 an ingenious ,polander1 and ,chevalier of ,lithuania1 c42 and in fact1 according to ,ruggieri1 the composition was taken from his treatise4 ,incendiaries to be put into bombs or shells1 are sometimes in rolls in the form of a sausage1 which continue to burn after the shell has burst4 ,they infallibly set fire to whatever combustible substance they touch4 ,when thus made they are from 4#hh parts of an inch1 to an inch in diameter1 and from #c to #d inches long4 ,carcass composition is generally used4 ,it is run into cylinders1 which are pierced in the middle1 and the hole is filled with the composition of bomb fuse4 ,they are also furnished with cotton matches4 ,composition of ,fire ,stone4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,parts ,,of ---------------------------------------- ,sulphur4,salt- ,meal ,powder ,char- petre4 ,powder4 in coal4 grain4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,composition frequently made #af #d #d #c #j use of1 ,do do do #bh #e #d #d #j ,do for particular purposes1 #i #af #j #j ,do do do #aa #bi #j #j #a ,do do 7spirits of turpentine1 #ab oz47 and #f #a #d ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,fire stone may be considered the wild-fire2 but this term is applicable to any composition1 as the ,greek fire1 which1 when inflamed1 burns with rapidity1 and communicates its fire to surrounding objects with quickness4 ,in such cases1 the combustion is so rapid1 that buildings1 c4 are immediately wrapt in flames1 which seem almost to defy all human power to extinguish4 ,such was the nature of the ,greek fire1 of which we shall speak hereafter4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,of ,incendiary ,matches4 ,these are better for the purpose of putting into shells and howitzes1 than fire-stone alone1 which does not burn as well4 ,their preparation consists in boiling common slow match in a solution of #bj parts of saltpetre1 in six parts of water2 then drying and cutting it into pieces of two or three inches long1 and immersing it into fire-stone1 in a state of fusion4 ,before the match has become solid1 let it be rolled in meal-powder1 or in grain powder4 ,fifty pounds of fire-stone will be sufficient for #aejj matches4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,of ,carcasses and ,fire-,balls4 ,carcasses and fire-balls are made of a composition of combustible substances1 and are used to produce light1 as well as to fire buildings4 ,the difference between them is1 that the carcass has bands or hoops of iron1 that form its shell4 ,these hoops are made at right angles with each other1 in an oval form1 and fastened together with a base of iron4 ,the fire-ball is made of a sack of strong tow cloth1 or of a bag of basket work1 in an oval form1 and covered with strong cord1 to give it a body4 ,both1 however1 are well wrapped with cord1 to make them more solid4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,p4 ,coste1 in #agid1 invented a carcass composition1 which he submitted to the ,french national convention4 ,it appears that its fire was very violent1 which nothing could extinguish1 and could be thrown #hjj paces from a caliber of #bd in4 and to a greater distance1 if required4 ,an account of this carcass is given in the ,moniteur1 ,no4 #cdb4 ,oblong carcasses were formerly in use4 ,the round carcass is more applicable for mortars and howitzers4 ,the #ac-;inch round carcass weighs about #bab lbs41 #aj-;inch #if lbs41 #h-;inch #dh lbs41 and #e-a_/b-;inch #af lbs4 ,carcasses are seldom or ever fired from guns or carronades1 in the land or sea service4 ,in bomb vessels1 they are only fired from mortars4 ,after the first invention of bombs1 that of carcasses and grenades naturally followed4 ,they are said to have been first used in #aeid1 and afterwards by the bishop of ,munster1 at the siege of ,groll1 in #afgb1 where the ,duke of ,luxemburg commanded4 ,the carcass for #ab and #aj-;inch mortars has six bands of iron2 that for an #h-;inch mortar1 no more than four4 ,these bands are of an oval shape1 and fixed with nails1 either clenched or rivetted to a bottom1 of the shape of a segment of a sphere2 then to a hoop1 placed horizontally at one-third of their height2 and at top1 to another that closes the opening4 ,the sacks1 that contain carcasses and fire-balls1 are of a cylindrical form1 and their diameter and height are equal1 being the same as that of the carcass at one-third its height4 ,they are sewed upon a circular bottom1 like the woollen bags of gun-cartridges4 ,when the ball is wound with thread1 the folds will disappear4 ,the sacks of fire balls are an inch less than the caliber of the mortar1 and those of carcasses four inches more4 ,table relative to the ,dimensions of ,carcasses1 to fire from the ,mortar4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,calibers ,,of #ab-;inch4 #aj-;inch4 #h-;inch4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the spherical segment4 ,inch4 ,inch4 ,inch4 radius1 #e-e_/ab #d #a height1 #b #a #a ,diam4 of the circle1 at of the height #aj #h #g at the opening #f #e #d ,of the iron mounting #ab #aj #h ,of the charged carcass1 the #af #ad #ab ,height ear not included ,of the enveloping sacks #af #ad #ab ,the weight of the iron1 for the mounting ,pounds4 ,pounds4 ,pounds4 of the carcass1 about #bj #ah #g ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,composition of ,carcasses and ,light ,balls4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,pitch4 ,white ,pitch4 7,turpentine47 ,mutton ,tallow4 ,rosin4 ,sulphur4 ,saltpetre4 ,grain-powder4 ,meal-powder4 ,camphor4 ,charcoal4 ,carab4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,moist composition4 #bd #ab #d #j #j #j #cf #j #j #j ,idem4 #ah #j #a #j #j #j #cj #j #j #j #j ,dry composition4 #j #j #jab #a #b #j #b #j #j #j ,idem4 #j #j #jab #b #aa #j #j #j #aj ,another4 #ab #f #b #j #j #j #cj #j #j #j ,ditto4 #j #j #aab #j #b #bj #j #b #j #a ,ditto4 #ab #j #c #j #j #f #cj #j #j #j #j ,ditto4 #ae #j #c #j #j #f #cj #j #j #j #j ,ditto4 #j #b #j #a #a #a #j #b #j #j #j ,ditto1 particular1 for setting fire #j #j #j #a #d #b #jaj #j #j #j to magazines1 buildings1 c4 ,ditto1 same purpose4 #j #j #j #d #af #cb #jdh #j #a #j99 ,ditto4 do4 #g #j #a #f #f #j #j #h #j #j #j ,antim4 ,ditto4 do4 #e #j #j #h #be #ej #j #j #j #j #e ---------------------------------------- ---------------- 99 ,also1 iron or steel filings1 #b2 and fir-tree sawdust boiled in a solution of saltpetre1 #b4 ,we may remark1 that the four first formul are given by ,bigot1 and are used in the ,french service4 ,therefore1 although the others have been employed1 we may consider the proportions in these1 as best adopted for the carcass and light-ball composition4 ,about #di lbs4 of composition and two lbs4 of fine tow1 are required for a carcass of #ab inches4 ,luminous or light balls are sometimes made of the following compositions4 ,composition for ,luminous ,balls4 #a4 ,sulphur #f oz4 ,antimony #b -- ,saltpetre #d -- ,rosin #d -- ,charcoal #d -- #b4 ,saltpetre #b oz4 ,rosin #b -- ,charcoal #b -- ,antimony #a -- ,sulphur #a -- ,pitch #a -- ,in the formation of luminous1 or light balls1 whatever may be the composition1 we may remark1 that the only ingredients which appear to be essentially necessary are nitrate of potassa and inflammable substances4 ,in some preparations1 antimony is used1 for the same reason as in the ,bengal lights4 ,rosin1 pitch1 and charcoal are all inflammable2 and sulphur1 although it takes fire more instantaneously than these1 enters into the composition of such fires more on account of its flame than any other4 ,as a general rule for the preparation of carcass composition1 the following particulars must be attended to4 ,after melting the pitch1 turpentine1 rosin1 and sulphur1 add the tallow and camphor1 and then the nitre and charcoal1 in powder4 ,they are then to be stirred1 and mixed intimately4 ,care must be taken to regulate the fire1 and prevent the composition taking fire4 ,after the kettle is withdrawn from the fire1 the gunpowder is then gently added1 and stirred with a stick or spatula4 ,the kettle is then again put over the fire1 and afterwards withdrawn4 ,tow is now added in small quantities at a time1 stirring the mixture well that it may be thoroughly incorporated4 ,the preparation of the carcass1 or fire-ball1 is as follows2 observing1 that1 if it is a carcass1 the iron-frame must be first placed in the sack4 ,four cords are taken1 each four lines in diameter1 four feet long for the calibers of #aj and #ab inches1 but only #c feet for the calibers of #h inches4 ,the middle of these four cords are laid one upon the other in the form of an eight-pointed star4 ,each end of the ropes is then fixed to a nail1 and a bottom is formed1 similar to basket-work1 by interlacing a cord1 two lines in diameter1 three or four times round the central point4 ,the small cord is then tied with a knot1 and the bottom of the basket completed1 by tying the four large cords together with four half knots4 ,the bottom of the sack1 containing the iron carcass1 or of an empty sack1 if a fire-ball is to be made1 is placed upon the middle of this1 and the filling performed in the following manner1 namely3 ,a sufficient quantity of the composition is taken from the kettle to fill the empty carcass1 or sack1 three or four inches high2 a few loaded grenades1 with the fuse down1 or a howitz placed in the same way1 are laid upon this first layer4 ,the filling is continued to the top1 putting the composition and grenades1 in alternate layers4 ,when it is done1 the sack is tied with twine4 ,in order to tie up the fire-ball in its cord net1 the cords are raised from their nails1 over the sack1 and tied in such a way as to suspend it about the height of a man's head1 and to permit it to be easily turned round4 ,an artificer fixes the end of a small cord to one of the larger ones1 at the distance of #a-a_/b inches from the bottom2 he makes a half knot upon this1 and carries the small cord round to the others1 to which he ties it in the same way1 forming a spiral round the ball4 ,the large cords are kept regularly stretched in such a way1 that each turn of the spiral may be #a-a_/b inches from that beneath it4 ,when the spiral has reached the top of the ball1 he unites the small cord1 called the traverse1 with the ends of the four others1 called uprights4 ,he divides the latter into two parcels1 and forms a loop of them1 through which a lever may be passed for the convenience of carrying it4 ,at two or three inches from the upper end1 and upon two sides1 diametrically opposite to each other1 two pins of hard dry wood1 well greased1 are driven in4 ,these pins are #f inches in length1 one in diameter at the head1 and half an inch at the point4 ,they must be inclined in such a way1 as to meet in the axis of the fire ball1 at about half its height4 ,the carcass or fire-ball1 when finished1 is dipped into the following composition3 ,composition of ,pitch for ,fire-,balls4 ,pitch1 #cb parts4 ,turpentine1 #af ---- ,rosin1 #h ---- ,linseed oil1 #f ---- ,mutton ,tallow1 #a ---- ,grenades answer the purpose of dispersing the fire of the carcass in different places2 and the shell will not burst1 till the carcass has burnt for a sufficient length of time4 ,sometimes the ends of gun barrels1 or pistols1 loaded with ball1 are put in4 ,carcasses and fire-balls are primed before they are used1 by drawing out the pins1 and filling the holes with the composition for the fuses of shells2 taking care to use for ramming1 only wooden or copper rammers4 ,four cotton matches are placed in each hole1 #f4d inches long1 in order to convey the fire4 ,carcasses and fire-balls are discharged from mortars1 in the same manner as a bomb4 ,when the carcass is intended to give light to discover the enemy's works1 then the small charges are to be put into the chamber of the mortar1 and but little elevation given1 for fear it should bury itself in the ground4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the intention is to set fire to houses or magazines1 a greater elevation is given to the mortars1 in order that it may reach and destroy the buildings1 upon which it is intended to fall4 ,the composition used by the ,austrians at the siege of ,valenciennes1 which is called after it1 has the same effect as carcass4 ,it is composed of saltpetre #ej parts1 sulphur #bh1 antimony #ah1 and rosin #f4 ,an ,english writer observes1 that the best way of making light balls1 is to take thick brown paper1 and make a shell the size of the mortar1 and fill it with a composition of equal parts of sulphur1 pitch1 rosin and meal-powder4 ,before closing this article1 we may add1 that carcasses are sometimes made to weigh two hundred and thirty pounds1 and those for the naval service differ from a shell only in the composition1 and in the four holes1 from which it burns when fired4 ,sec4 ,,iv4 ,of ,incendiary ,balls1 or ,fire ,balls1 to be thrown from ,cannon or by ,hand4 ,balls of this kind are employed chiefly in beseiged fortresses to light up the enemy's works4 ,in order to burn ships1 hollow balls filled with incendiary matter and red-hot shot are preferable4 ,composition of ,incendiary ,balls4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,meal-powder4 ,saltpetre4 ,sulphur4 ,rosin4 ,tallow4 ,alum4 ,antimony4 ,charcoal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,ordinary composition1 moistened with spirits and linseed oil1 meal1 #d #d #c #j #j #j #j ,another1 #h #h #bd #j #d #b #a #j ,do4 #j #g #d #c #j #j #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the first composition is reduced to a paste with good brandy or other spirits1 in which gum arabic and camphor have been dissolved2 and after leaving it a few hours to dry1 moisten it with linseed oil1 and make it into balls a little less than the calibers of the guns1 from which they are to be fired or weighing about four pounds1 if they are to be thrown by hand4 ,they are tied up in a cloth and steeped in a bath of pitch in the same way as carcasses4 ,they are usually covered a second time with cloth and dipped in the same way4 ,if they are to be fired from guns1 they are enveloped in a netting of wire1 to prevent them from being broke by the action of the charge4 ,these balls when fired are put down over a small charge without ramming4 ,two holes are made in them in the same way as in carcasses and fire balls and they are primed in the same manner4 ,in employing the second and other compositions1 the materials must first be melted1 such as rosin1 tallow1 and sulphur1 and the powder1 alum1 and antimony1 added2 when the melted matter is removed from the fire4 ,after they are all mixed1 the mixture is then poured into wooden moulds of two pieces1 that are greased on the inside2 the ball is taken from the mould when cool1 and wrapped up in cloth or in tow4 ,it is dipped in melted pitch4 ,when it is to be used1 holes are made in it with a gimblet1 and it is primed like the others4 ,we may remark here1 that the ,congreve incendiary rocket is armed with carcass composition1 which produces all the effects of the usual carcass4 ,the rocket carcass will be considered under the head of war-rocket4 ,sec4 ,v4 ,of ,smoke ,balls4 ,smoke balls are composed of the same substances as carcasses and light balls1 with this difference1 that they contain five to one of pitch1 rosin1 and sawdust4 ,this composition is put into shells made for the purpose1 having four holes to let out the smoke4 ,smoke balls are thrown out of mortars1 and continue to smoke from twenty-five to thirty minutes4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,of ,stink ,balls4 ,stink ,balls are prepared with a composition of mealed powder1 rosin1 saltpetre1 pitch1 sulphur1 rasped horses' and asses' hoofs1 burnt in the hoof1 assaftida1 seraphim-gum1 stinking herbs1 c4 made up into balls in the same manner as light-balls1 according to the size of the mortar1 out of which they are to be thrown4 ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,of ,poisoned ,balls4 ,with respect to poisoned balls1 we are informed1 that1 although they have not been used by ,european nations1 the ,africans and the ,indians have always been very ingenious at poisoning several kinds of fire compositions4 ,at the commencement of the ,french revolution1 poisoned balls were exhibited to the people1 pretended to have been fired by the ,austrians1 particularly at the seige of ,lisle4 ,they contained glass1 small pieces of iron1 c4 and were said to be mixed with a greasy composition1 which was impregnated with poisonous matter4 ,in #agib1 they were deposited in the archives of ,paris4 ,poisoned balls1 according to authors1 are composed of meal powder four parts1 pitch six1 rosin three1 sulphur five1 assaftida eight1 extract of toads' poison twelve1 other poisonous substances twelve1 made into balls in the manner we have mentioned4 ,see ,poisoned ,arrow4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,of ,red-hot ,balls4 ,it will be sufficient to observe1 that red-hot shot1 as an incendiary1 are considered fully adequate to perform the effect which they are designed to produce4 ,the balls are ignited in a coal fire on an iron grate1 in a furnace constructed for the purpose2 and1 when thus heated1 are thrown from guns1 the space between the powder and ball being filled up with a piece of wood of the exact diameter of the gun1 or with wet hay or grass1 to prevent the ball from setting fire to the powder4 ,with respect to chain balls1 composed of two balls linked together by a chain from twelve inches to four feet in length1 and designed to destroy palisadoes1 wooden bridges1 and chevaux-de-frize of a fortification2 stang-balls1 or bar-shot1 called by some1 balls of two heads1 made by uniting1 by means of a bar1 half shot2 and anchor balls1 filled with the same composition as light-balls1 with some trifling variation in the ball itself1 c4--they are all used as destructive weapons1 which belong more particularly to the service of artillery4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,of ,pitched ,tourteaux and ,fascines4 ,tourteaux are employed to illuminate the passages of rivers and defiles4 ,they are placed in portable lanterns or in fire-grates4 ,they are used chiefly to light up the works of the beseiger1 when he approaches the covert way1 and to burn the gabions and fascines1 with which he constructs his passage to the ditch4 ,tarred links are nothing more than old junk or matches1 dipped into a composition of pitch1 suet1 linseed oil and turpentine2 the junk being cut into lengths of about five feet1 which is called a link4 ,the ,tourteaux goudronns of the ,french are the same1 and formed of old rope1 which is untwisted1 immersed in pitch or tar1 and afterwards left to dry4 ,the ,french make the ,tourteaux goudronns in the following manner3 ,take twelve pounds of tar or pitch1 six pounds of tallow1 and three pints of linseed oil2 melt them together and dip twisted pieces of rope of any length into the boiling mixture4 ,if they are required to burn slow1 six pounds of rosin and two pounds of turpentine are added4 ,sometimes to the composition of pitch1 tallow1 and linseed oil1 are added two parts of saltpetre1 one part of sulphur1 and half a part of antimony4 ,tourteaux1 according to ,bigot1 are made in the following manner3 ,old cords or pieces of match are beaten with mallets to take out the dirt1 and prepare them to receive the composition4 ,they are untwisted a little for the same purpose4 ,they are then cut into pieces about five feet in length1 and each is intertwined to form a circle of five or six inches of external diameter1 making a hole at the same time in the middle for the passage of the point of the lantern4 ,the rope1 being thus prepared1 is next boiled in the composition given below1 for the space of ten or fifteen minutes1 and then laid upon a wet plank4 ,they are a second time dipped into the composition1 and thrown into cold water1 to give them again1 by hand1 the circular figure they may have lost4 ,flower of sulphur is now put over them1 and they are dried in the shade4 ,composition for ,tourteaux4 ,pitch1 #bd parts4 ,turpentine1 #ab ---- ,rosin1 #f ---- ,mutton tallow1 #d ---- ,linseed oil1 #a ---- ,venice turpentine1 #a ---- ,another1 for ,tarred ,links and ,fascines1 according to the ,strasbourg formula4 ,pitch1 #ah parts4 ,turpentine1 #i ---- ,suet1 or tallow1 #d ---- ,linseed oil1 #a ---- ,spirits of turpentine1 #a ---- ,when a great quantity of links are to be made1 either for illumination or for lighting a city1 the oil may be omitted4 ,the links will cost less1 and they will answer the purpose equally well4 ,fascines are made of strips of wood1 or dry twigs1 or wine shoots1 which are the best1 of the length of fourteen or sixteen inches4 ,they are tied in bundles of four or five inches in diameter1 with a cord or iron wire1 and then boiled in the composition for tourteaux1 and thrown into water to cool4 ,they are principally used to give light to the works of an enemy1 and to set fire to the passage of the ditch4 ,fascines are of different kinds4 ,in fortification1 they are a kind of fagot1 made of small branches of trees or brush wood1 tied in three1 four1 five1 or six places1 and are of various dimensions1 according to the purposes intended4 ,those that are to be pitched over for burning lodgements1 galleries1 or any other work of the enemy1 should be one and a half or two feet long4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,of ,torches or ,flambeaux4 ,we have already spoken of torches1 but in connection with military pyrotechny1 we may add1 that they are used to give light during night marches1 and for other purposes4 ,they are made in the following manner4 ,boil1 in a mixture of equal parts of water and saltpetre1 old cords or old match1 well cleaned and untwisted4 ,take them out and dry them2 then cut them in pieces of four and a half feet in length1 and tie four of these pieces with twine to a cylindrical piece of wood1 of the same length1 and an inch in diameter2 so that the whole together may be from two to two and a half inches thick4 ,dip this torch into a liquid made of equal parts of meal-powder and sulphur1 mixed together with brandy1 in which some gum has been dissolved4 ,fill the intervals of the pieces of cordage1 with a paste1 composed of three parts of sulphur1 and one of quicklime4 ,dry the torch1 and when dry1 turn it gently round1 and finish it by pouring on it the following composition4 ,composition for ,flambeaux4 ,turpentine1 #cb parts4 ,venice turpentine1 #d ---- ,beeswax1 #cb ---- ,sulphur1 #ab ---- ,camphor1 #f ---- ,another4 ,pitch1 #f parts4 ,turpentine1 #f ---- ,venice turpentine1 #a ---- ,torches or flambeaux may also be made without the central piece of wood4 ,torches ought to have the quality of burning1 let the weather be what it may4 ,the following method of making them is also recommended4 ,take four large cotton matches1 three or four feet long1 boil them in saltpetre1 and arrange them round a pine stick2 after which cover them with priming powder and sulphur1 made into a thin paste with brandy4 ,when dry1 cover the matches with the following composition2 viz4 #b lbs4 of yellow wax1 as much white pitch1 #ab oz4 sulphur1 #f oz4 camphor1 and #d oz4 of turpentine3 melt the whole together4 ,sec4 ,,xi4 ,of ,powder ,bags4 ,powder bags are little sacks1 that contain four pounds of powder4 ,they are of great use in besieged places4 ,they are cast by the hand1 set fire wherever they fall1 and very much intimidate troops making an assault4 ,they are made with good coarse cloth4 ,their width and size are not determined4 ,it is sufficient that they can be easily thrown4 ,the sides only are sewed up4 ,in charging them1 we begin by tying one end with strong packthread4 ,then turn it inside out1 so that the ligature may be within1 and fill it with powder1 ramming it down with a cartridge form1 proportioned to the bag1 until it is full4 ,then put in the fuse1 the large end inwards1 and tie the bag tight4 ,afterwards the outside is covered with tar1 or pitch4 ,sec4 ,,xii4 ,of the ,powder ,barrel4 ,a powder barrel is a common barrel1 filled with powder1 to roll from the top of a breach1 or upon the head of a sap from the glacis4 ,the barrel contains from #ajj to #bjj pounds of powder1 and is covered with a cloth4 ,a hole is made at each end1 in which a fuse may be fixed1 of such a size1 that the fire may be communicated to the powder1 at the moment when the barrel1 rolled from the top of the breach1 is met by the troops mounting to the assault4 ,english writers state the diameter of powder barrels at #af inches1 and #cj or #cb inches in length1 and capable of holding #ajj pounds of powder4 ,the quantity of powder put into them is #ij lbs2 into a half-barrel1 #de lbs2 and into a quarter-barrel1 used for rifle powder1 only #bb-a_/b lbs4 ,this proportion leaves a space for the powder to separate when rolled1 or otherwise it would always be in lumps1 and liable thereby to damage4 ,sec4 ,,xiii4 ,of the ,burning or ,illuminating ,barrel4 ,this barrel differs from the thundering barrel1 which we shall describe in the following section1 only in having no grenades2 and when it is placed upon a glacis1 it lights up or discovers the works of the besieger4 ,it has a fuse in only one of its ends4 ,when shavings are boiled in the composition for links and fascines1 or of tourteaux1 and arranged layer by layer1 scattering1 over each stratum1 some priming-powder1 the combustion must be rapid1 when the barrel is set on fire4 ,fire barrels1 we may observe1 are of different kinds4 ,some are mounted on wheels1 filled with composition1 and intermixed with loaded grenades1 and their outsides full of sharp spikes4 ,some are placed under ground1 and have the effect of small mines2 and others1 as the kind we have mentioned1 are used to roll down a breach to prevent the entrance of the enemy4 ,the following composition has been used for the same purpose4 ,composition for ,fire-,barrels4 ,grained powder1 #cj lbs4 ,pitch1 #ab ---- ,saltpetre1 #f ---- ,tallow1 #c ---- ,sec4 ,,xiv4 ,of the ,thundering ,barrel4 ,this is employed for the same purpose as the preceding1 or to light up the works of the besieger at the foot of the glacis4 ,it has the same dimensions with the other1 but has no cover4 ,it is filled with chips1 7dipped into the composition of the tourteaux71 which are arranged in layers1 putting1 between each layer1 meal-powder1 and grenades1 furnished with their fuses1 or with pieces of musket barrels4 ,the first and last layers are made with tow1 boiled in the carcass composition4 ,the barrel being filled1 it is then closed and primed in the same way as the powder barrel1 with a bomb fuse at each end4 ,holes are made along the barrel to assist the combustion4 ,grenades are employed in particular to prevent the approach of persons to extinguish the flame4 ,the invention of bombs is said to be owing to ,scotland1 and to the siege of ,st4 ,andrews4 ,in the ,art of ,war 7says the ,anthologia ,hibernica1 vol4 iii1 p4 #agd7 printed at ,venice1 we are shown the representation of a hogshead1 coated with conical headed nails1 in which there is enclosed a barrel of gunpowder1 suspended in the centre by an iron tube1 which communicates at both ends with the open air4 ,this engine1 we are told by the author1 killed #eeh persons by its explosion in the fosse4 ,sec4 ,,xv4 ,of the ,petard4 ,the petard is used to break down the gates and barriers of small towns1 and even their walls1 by hanging it against them1 and setting fire to the fuse4 ,its invention is ascribed to the ,french ,huguenots in #aegi1 who1 by means of petards1 took ,cahors1 in the same year4 ,it was invented1 as others inform us1 by the celebrated ,coehorn4 ,the petard is a hollow piece of iron1 either cast or wrought1 of the figure of a truncated cone1 and usually eight inches high1 and nine and a half inches diameter at the base1 the metal being five-sixths of an inch thick at top1 and half an inch at bottom4 ,it is open at the large end2 and the small end1 which is rounded1 is pierced with a hole1 in which is placed a brass fuse1 filled with composition1 in lieu of which1 however1 an ordinary bomb-fuse1 or a quick-match may be used4 ,it is furnished with four trunnions1 7one and a half inches by one71 to receive the iron staples1 that are attached to an oaken plank1 eighteen inches square1 and two and a half inches thick1 and reinforced below by two iron bands1 in the form of a cross1 nailed and dove-tailed in4 ,it has two iron handles to carry it by1 and to hook it to a screw1 fixed in the gate intended to be broken4 ,it is filled with gunpowder4 ,when the petard is to be loaded1 it is filled with powder to within three inches of the bottom4 ,some folds of cartridge paper are then put in1 and a bed of tow well rammed4 ,it is finished with a hot cement made of one part of rosin1 and two parts of ground brick1 or ,spanish brown4 ,a plate of iron four or five lines thick is set into this1 that fits the inside of the petard at that part4 ,it is furnished with three iron points1 to be driven into the plank4 ,a petard1 ready for use1 weighs eighty-five pounds1 and contains nine pounds of powder4 ,dimensions of the ,petard4 ,inches4 ,exterior diameter of the opening4 #i ,exterior height4 #h ,at the height1 ,thickness of the metal1 ,in the middle1 ,at the bottom1 ,trunnions1 ,length1 #a ,height1 #a ,fuses1 ,length1 #d-e_/ab ,diam4 under the screw1 #aa_/ab ,diam4 of the screw1 #a ,plank1 ,length and width1 #ah ,thickness1 #b ,according to ,ruggeri1 a petard is filled1 after warming it1 with three fingers of powder1 which is moistened with brandy1 and then compressed without crushing it4 ,on this powder1 a quick match is placed1 which is also compressed2 after which1 it is filled with composition previously melted4 ,the composition is as follows3 ,composition for ,petards4 ,pitch #d parts4 ,sulphur1 #c ---- ,saltpetre1 #a ---- ,antimony1 #a ---- ,after introducing one-half of this mixture1 when melted1 we put in the iron plate1 which rests on the composition1 and then add the rest of it1 which finishes the operation4 ,sec4 ,,xvi4 ,of the ,stink-,fire ,lance4 ,this lance 7,lance feu puant of the ,french7 is prepared in the same manner as stink-pots1 and is principally used by miners4 ,when a miner or sapper has so far penetrated towards the enemy1 as to hear the voices of persons in any place contiguous to his own excavation1 he first of all bores a hole with his probe1 then fires off several pistols through the aperture1 and lastly forces in a lance feu puant4 ,he takes care to close up the hole on his side1 to prevent the smoke from returning towards himself4 ,the explosion and fetid gas and vapour1 which issue from the lance1 and remain on the side of the enemy1 infect the air so much1 that it is impossible to approach the quarter for three or four days4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 they have had such instantaneous effect1 that1 in order to save their lives1 miners1 who would persevere1 have been dragged out in an apparent state of suffocation4 ,the composition of ordinary fire-lance has been given4 ,they are sometimes used to set fire to fuses4 ,the fire-pot is a vessel made of clay1 with two handles1 in which a grenade with powder is confined1 and which is thrown against an enemy1 after the match has been lighted2 but a stink-pot is a vessel1 filled with combustible and other matter1 used in boarding ships1 c4 ,the suffocating pot is another contrivance1 as its name expresses1 to produce suffocation2 and1 as the materials consist only of sulphur and nitre1 the gas which principally produces this effect is the sulphurous acid4 ,composition for ,suffocating ,pots4 ,sulphur1 #f parts4 ,nitre1 #e ---- ,connected with this subject1 we may mention another composition1 to produce smoke1 which is used either in pots1 or balls4 ,hence1 the smoke-pot1 and smoke-balls4 ,the following is the composition4 ,composition for ,smoke-,balls4 ,grained-powder1 #aj lbs4 ,nitre1 #b -- ,pitch1 #d -- ,sea-coal1 #c -- ,tallow1 #a -- ,the coal and pitch produce the smoke1 and the gunpowder and nitre promote the combustion1 and1 with the tallow render the product of combustion more offensive4 ,sec4 ,,xvii4 ,of the ,combustible ,substances used in1 and the ,manner of preparing1 a ,fire-,ship4 ,a fire-ship is a vessel1 filled with combustible substances1 and fitted with grappling irons1 to hook1 and set fire to the enemy's ships in battle1 c4 ,with respect to the preparation required1 some knowledge may be had by considering the following particulars4 ,from the bulk-head at the fore-castle1 to a bulk-head to be raised behind the main chains1 on each side1 and across the ship at the bulk-heads1 is fixed1 close to the ship's sides1 a double row of troughs1 two feet distance from each other1 with cross troughs quite round1 at about two and a half feet distance1 which are mortised into the others4 ,the cross troughs lead to the sides of the ship1 to the barrels1 and to the port-holes1 to give fire both to the barrels and to the chambers1 to blow open the ports2 and the side troughs serve to communicate the fire all along the ship1 and the cross troughs4 ,the timbers1 of which the troughs are made1 are about five inches square2 the depth of the trough1 half their thickness2 and they are supported by cross-pieces at every two or three yards1 nailed to the timbers of the ship1 and to the wood-work1 which encloses the fore and mainmasts4 ,the decks and troughs are all well payed with melted rosin4 ,on each side of the ship1 six small port-holes are cut1 from fifteen to eighteen inches large1 7the ports opening downwards71 and are close caulked up4 ,against each port is fixed an iron chamber1 which1 at the time of firing the ship1 blows open the ports and lets out the fire4 ,at the main and fore chains1 on each side1 a wooden funnel is fixed over a fire-barrel1 and comes through a scuttle in the deck1 up to the shrouds to set them on fire4 ,both funnels and scuttles must be stopped with plugs1 and have sail-cloth or canvass nailed close over them to prevent any accident happening that way by fire to the combustibles below4 ,the port-holes1 funnels1 and scuttles1 not only serve to give the fire a free passage to the outside and upper parts of the ship and her rigging1 but also to allow the inward air 7otherwise confined7 to expand itself1 and push through those holes at the time of the combustibles being on fire1 and prevent the blowing up of the decks1 which otherwise must happen from the sudden and violent rarefaction of the air4 ,in the bulkhead behind on each side1 is cut a small hole1 large enough to receive a trough of the same size as the others1 from which1 to each side of the ship1 lies a leading trough1 one end coming through a sally port1 cut through the ship's side1 and the other fixing into a communicating trough1 that lies along the bulk head1 from one side of the ship to the other2 and being laid with quick-match1 at the time of firing either of the leading troughs1 it communicates the fire1 in an instant1 to the contrary side of the ship1 and both sides burn together4 ,having thus described this preparatory arrangement1 we shall consider1 in the next place1 the combustibles made use of in fitting up a fire-ship4 ,fire-barrel4 ,the fire-barrels for this purpose are cylindrical1 on account of that shape answering better both for filling them with reeds1 and for stowing them between the troughs4 ,their inside diameters are about #ba inches1 and their length #cc4 ,the bottom parts are first filled with double-dipt reeds1 set on end1 and the remainder with fire-barrel composition1 made of the following substances4 ,composition for fire-barrels1 for fire-ships4 ,grained ,powder #cj lbs4 ,pitch #ab -- ,saltpetre #f -- ,tallow #c -- ,there are #e holes of three-quarters of an inch in diameter1 and #c inches deep1 made with a drift of that size1 in the top of the composition1 while it is warm2 one in the centre1 and the other four at equal distances1 round the sides of the barrel4 ,when the composition is cold and hard1 the barrel is primed by well driving these holes1 full of fuse composition1 to within an inch of the top2 then fixing in each hole a strand of quick-match twice doubled1 and in the centre hole1 two strands the whole length2 all which must be well driven with meal-powder4 ,then lay the quick-match all within the barrel1 and cover the top of it with a dipped curtain1 fastened on with a hoop to slip over the head1 and nailed on4 ,bavins4 ,bavins are made of birch1 heath1 or other sort of brush wood1 that is both tough and quickly fired4 ,their length is #b-a_/b to #c feet4 ,the bush ends are all laid one way1 and the other ends1 tied with two bands each4 ,they are dipped1 and sprinkled with sulphur1 the same as reeds2 with this difference1 that the bush ends only are dipped1 and should be a little closed together by the hand as soon as done1 to keep them more compact1 in order to produce a stronger fire1 and to preserve the branches from breaking in shifting and handling them4 ,composition for ,bavins4 ,rosin #abj lbs4 ,sulphur1 coarse1 or roll #ij -- ,pitch #fj -- ,tallow #f -- ,meal-powder #ab -- ,iron ,chambers4 ,these are ten inches long1 and #c4e in diameter2 breeched against a piece of wood1 fixed across the holes4 ,when loaded1 they are almost filled with grained powder1 with a wooden tompion well driven into their muzzles4 ,they are primed with a small piece of quick-match1 thrust through their vents into the powder1 with a part of it hanging out2 and1 when the ship is fired1 they blow open the ports1 which either fall downwards1 or are carried away1 and accordingly give vent to the fire out of the sides of the ship4 ,curtains4 ,curtains are made of barras1 about three-quarters of a yard wide1 and one yard in length4 ,when they are dipped1 two men1 with each a fork1 must run the prongs through the corner of the curtain at the same end4 ,then dip them into a large kettle of composition1 7which is the same as the composition for bavins17 well melted2 and1 when well dipped and the curtain extended to its full breadth1 whip it between two sticks of about #e4e feet long1 and #a4e inches square1 held close by two other men1 to take off the superfluous composition hanging to it4 ,then immediately sprinkle sawdust on both sides1 to prevent it from sticking1 and the curtain is finished4 ,reeds4 ,they are made up in small bundles of about #ab inches in circumference1 cut even at both ends1 and tied with two bands each4 ,the longest sort are #d feet1 and the shortest #b4e1 the only lengths which are used4 ,one part of them is single dipped1 only at one end2 the rest are double dipped1 that is1 at both ends4 ,in dipping1 they must be put about #g or #h inches deep into a copper kettle of melted composition1 of the same kind as that for bavins2 and1 when they have drained a little over it1 to carry off the superfluous composition1 sprinkle them1 over a tanned hide1 with pulverized sulphur1 at some distance from the copper4 ,with respect to the stores1 required for a fire ship of #aej tons1 the following complement is given3 viz4 ,no4 ,fire barrels #h ,iron chambers #ab ,priming composition barrels #c ,quick-match barrels #a ,curtains dipped #cj ,long reeds1 single dipped #aej ,short reeds double dipped #ge single dipped #ge ,bavins1 single dipped #bji ,the quantity of composition1 for preparing the stores of a fire ship is as follows3 ,for #h barrels2 grained powder #ifj pounds1 pitch #dhj pounds1 tallow #hj pounds4 ,for #c barrels of priming composition1 saltpetre #age lbs4 sulphur #adj lbs4 grained powder #cej lbs4 rosin #ba lbs4 oil-pots #aa4 ,for curtains1 bavins1 and reeds1 and sulphur to salt them1 as artificers call it2 sulphur #bdj lbs4 pitch #cej lbs4 rosin #age lbs4 tallow #ej lbs4 tar #be lbs4 ,total weight of the composition #cjag pounds1 equal to #bf cwt4 #c qr4 #ba lbs4 ,the composition1 required for the rods and barrels1 is one-fifth of the whole of the last article1 which is equal to #afj lbs4 making in the whole1 #cagg lbs4 or #bh cwt4 #a qr4 #ac lbs4 ,adye 7,bombardier and ,pocket ,gunner7 has given two general formul for the composition1 used in fire-ships1 which we will here insert4 ,composition for dipping reeds1 bavins1 and curtains4 ,rosin1 #abj lbs ,coarse sulphur1 #ij -- ,pitch1 #fj -- ,tallow1 #f or #h ,mealed powder1 #ab -- ,composition for priming4 ,pulverized saltpetre1 #bb lbs4 #h oz4 ,rosin1 #b -- #aa -- ,sulphur1 #ah -- ,meal-powder1 #de -- ,linseed oil1 #a pint4 ,the composition put in cases1 to set fire to fascine batteries1 is sometimes used in fire-ships1 viz4 ,composition for setting fire to ,fascine ,batteries4 ,meal-powder1 #a lb4 #d oz4 ,saltpetre1 #f -- ,sulphur1 #a -- #h oz4 ,there is also another composition1 which might be used advantageously for the same purpose1 and which is employed for hoops1 fire-arrows1 and lances1 namely3 ,composition for ,hoops1 ,fire-,arrows1 c4 ,meal-powder1 #a lb4 ,saltpetre1 #c -- ,sulphur1 #h oz4 ,linseed oil1 #h -- ,the composition of kitt1 used for the last covering of carcasses1 may also be employed4 ,it must be applied when very thin and hot4 ,composition of ,kitt4 ,rosin1 #i lbs4 ,bees' wax1 #f -- ,pitch1 #f -- ,tallow1 #a -- ,sec4 ,,xviii4 ,on ,infernal ,machines4 ,the ,machines ,infernales of the ,french1 which have excited so much attention in ,europe1 we deem of sufficient importance to describe4 ,this invention is by no means new1 although it has been attributed to the ,french4 ,it appears that ,fredric ,jambelli1 an ,italian engineer1 was the first that used them1 when ,alexander1 of ,parma1 besieged ,antwerp4 ,the ,prince of ,orange likewise had recourse to the destructive effects of an infernal machine1 in order to bombard ,havre-de-,grace1 and to set it on fire4 ,the ,dutch and ,english1 in conjunction1 attempted to destroy ,st4 ,malo by the same means4 ,the first instance1 however1 upon record1 in which the ,french made use of this machine1 was when ,louis ,,xiv ordered a vessel1 carrying an enormous shell1 full of every kind of combustible matter1 to be despatched to ,algiers1 for the purpose of demolishing its harbour4 ,this1 it is supposed1 suggested the use of fire-ships1 which have frequently been used against maritime places4 ,the author of the uvres ,militaires1 tom4 xxii1 p4 #bbb1 speaking of the infernal machine1 observes1 that1 if he were to be in a situation1 which required the use of so dreadful an explosion1 especially to destroy a bridge1 he would prefer having the machine made simply with different strong pieces of wood1 joined together1 so as to be in the shape of an egg1 or of a cone reversed4 ,the whole must then be made compact with cords twisted round4 ,this method1 in his opinion1 is not only the best1 but can be executed in the most easy and expeditious manner4 ,he further adds1 that1 in order to burn or blow up wooden bridges1 and even to destroy such as are constructed upon arches1 several sorts of barges or boats might be used1 which should be filled with fire-works1 bombs1 petards1 c4 ,it would1 likewise1 be easy to construct these machines upon floating rafters1 carrying several thousand pounds weight of gunpowder1 which might be confined within strong pieces of wood1 put together in the manner already described4 ,these machines should be piled one above another1 and long iron bars must be thrown across the floats1 or be fixed like masts2 so that1 when the whole of the combustible material is beneath the centre of the bridge1 the rafters may be stopped4 ,great care must be taken to dispose the matches in such a manner1 that no fire may be communicated to the gunpowder before the machine reaches the exact spot1 which is to be destroyed4 ,in #ahjd1 an infernal machine was used at ,boulogne1 which is described as follows3 ,this machine appears to be as simple in its construction1 as it is calculated to be effectual in its operations4 ,it is composed of #b stout planks1 #ag feet long1 which form its sides1 and are distant from each other about #g feet4 ,these planks are connected by transverse timbers1 screwed to the planks2 so as to keep the whole firm and compact1 and to prevent the danger of their being separated at sea4 ,of these transverse timbers1 two are at the fore extremity1 and three behind4 ,this may be called1 the frame or hull of the machine2 the remainder of the work1 being either for the stowage of the combustible matter1 or for the accommodation of the seamen1 who row the machine4 ,along the transverse timbers1 at both extremities1 are laid parallel to the sides1 five longitudinal bars of nearly the same strength as the transverse timbers1 which form a kind of grate1 on which the coffers1 containing the combustible matter1 are placed4 ,the grate behind is double the size of the one before1 on the principle of giving facility to the motion of the whole1 by making the machine lighter at the head4 ,in the centre1 between the planks forming the sides1 from the inner extremity of the grate behind1 to the outer extremity of the grate before1 there is fixed a plank1 somewhat broader than the side planks1 which is well secured to them by three stout transverse timbers1 which pass under the centre plank1 to prevent its giving way to pressure4 ,in this plank1 two triangular apertures are cut for men who row1 to dispose of the lower extremities1 whilst they ply the machine4 ,their seats1 however1 are so contrived1 that each man's pressure is directly over that part of the plank1 which is supported by the transverse timbers4 ,the seats lie nearer to the head than to the hind part of the machine2 perhaps to be some counterpoise for the greater weight of the combustible matter behind4 ,near each seat are fastened by rings to the sides1 two oars1 one on each side1 and each man plies a pair4 ,when the machine is worked to its destination1 the men set the combustibles in a train for explosion1 and abandon their posts4 ,the whole is so regulated1 as to weight of materials1 that the machine floats1 or1 more probably1 moves under the surface of the water2 so that little more than the heads of the men are seen4 ,this secures the men and the machine from the fire of the enemy2 and as the oars must be constantly plied under water1 there is less danger of their being discovered by their noise1 as they approach4 ,infernal machines have also been made1 to be used on land4 ,such is the machine we are told1 which was intended for the destruction of ,bonaparte4 ,they may be made to explode at a given time1 by clock-work1 or by a match1 calculated to burn a certain time6 ,sec4 ,,xix4 ,of the ,catamarin4 ,the catamarin1 properly so called1 is a floating raft1 originally used in ,china1 and among the ,portuguese as a fishing-boat4 ,the ,indian catamarin consists of two logs of wood1 upon which the natives float1 and go through the heaviest surf4 ,the military or naval catamarin is a different thing4 ,it is properly a case1 filled with combustibles1 and contrived to remain so low in the water as to be almost imperceptible4 ,this1 being towed to the building1 or ship1 against which the attack is to be directed1 is left to explode1 by means of machinery within itself1 when its operation is sometimes very destructive4 ,english writers acknowledge1 that the catamarin1 submitted by the late ,mr4 ,pitt to the ,english government1 and which cost in its construction a considerable sum1 was originally invented by our countryman1 the late ,mr4 ,fulton1 of whose invention we will speak hereafter4 ,some observations on a boat1 named1 by the ,french1 ,chelingues1 and the ,indian catamarin1 may be seen in the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 article ,bateau4 ,several diving machines have been invented in ,france and elsewhere4 ,m4 ,castera 7,archives des ,dcouvertes1 iii1 p4 #ahe7 describes a plunging boat1 which resembles in figure a cone4 ,it is furnished with a reservoir1 calculated to hold water1 and may be filled or emptied by means of pumps4 ,by means of glasses and copper handles1 the navigator is enabled to see and to take hold of objects4 ,it is also furnished with tubes for the transmission of the air necessary for respiration1 that communicate from the interior of the vessel with the atmosphere2 and a double bellows1 designed as well for receiving1 as expelling air4 ,besides oars or paddles1 necessary to move it under water1 there is a contrivance for detaching the boat from the reservoir1 either wholly or in part1 according to circumstances4 ,m4 ,castera1 in a memoir on sub-marine navigation1 has noticed several applications of the plunging boat1 which may be seen in the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',encouragement1 ,no4 #ga4 ,in ,no4 #fa1 of the same work1 is the first notice of ,castera's invention1 an extract of which may be seen in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 ii4 p4 #aba4 ,a description of ,lutgendorf's boat may be seen in the ,magazin der ,erfindungen1 ,no4 #df4 ,sec4 ,,xx4 ,of the ,american ,turtle4 ,it is well known that the diving-bell1 and similar contrivances1 have been used for naval purposes1 in connection with naval warfare4 ,divers1 or those who made it a business1 by long habit and experience1 to remain under water1 and go to a great depth1 were often employed in war to destroy the works and ships of the enemy4 ,when ,alexander was besieging ,tyre1 divers swam off from the city1 under water1 to a great distance1 and1 with long hooks1 tore to pieces the mole1 with which the besiegers were endeavouring to block up the harbour4 ,the invention of the diving-bell1 the campana urinatoria of some1 is generally assigned to the sixteenth century2 but it is evident1 from the writings of ,aristotle and others1 that1 in his time1 divers used a kind of kettle to enable them to continue longer under water4 ,at the pearl fisheries1 in the ,bay of ,condalzchy1 in ,ceylon1 divers usually remain under water two minutes4 ,there are some who can stay five minutes2 and a diver from ,anjano1 engaged in this fishery in #agig1 was able to remain six minutes under water4 ,but their efforts are so great1 that1 when they come up1 blood frequently issues from their mouths1 ears1 and nostrils4 ,notwithstanding this1 they frequently dive from forty to fifty times a day1 and bring up in a bag-net a hundred oysters each time4 ,it may be proper to observe1 that the subject of sub-marine navigation was largely descanted upon by ,mersennus1 7,tractatus de ,magnetis ,proprietatibus71 and by ,bishop ,wilkins 7,mathematical ,magic1 #afdh71 who1 by the way1 is rather visionary4 ,the conveniences and advantages he enumerates1 are3 #a4 ',privacy1 as a man may thus go to any part of the world invisibly1 without being discovered or prevented4 #b4 ,safety1 from the uncertainty of tides and tempests1 c4 #c4 ,it may be used to blow up1 or undermine a navy3 #d4 ,or to relieve a blockaded place1 c4 ,but1 with regard to the use of sub-marine vessels in war1 ,mr4 ,david ,bushnel1 of ,saybrook1 ,connecticut1 appears to be entitled to the credit of the invention4 ,his account of it may be seen in the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society4 ,the intended object of this vessel was to destroy shipping1 by the explosion of a magazine of gunpowder4 ,in ,silliman's ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #id1 is a communication by ,mr4 ,griswold1 on the subject of ,bushnel's machine1 with an account of the first attempt with it1 in ,august1 #aggf1 by ,ezra ,lee1 a sergeant in the ,american army1 to destroy some of the ,british ships then lying at ,new ,york4 ,mr4 ,griswold remarks1 that1 considering the invention of ,mr4 ,bushnel as the first of its kind1 it will be pronounced to be remarkably complete throughout in its construction1 and that such an invention furnishes evidence of those resources and creative powers1 which must rank him as a mechanical genius of the first order4 ,he has given a description of it2 but the outline which we give is taken from ,nicholson's ,journal1 quarto1 iv1 p4 #bbi4 ,it is a decked boat1 to go underwater3 and several persons have gone under water many leagues4 ,the difficulty is1 to provide the persons in the boat with fresh air for respiration2 and this is contrived1 by having a reservoir of air1 of suitable dimensions to the size of the boat1 and the number of persons in it4 ,by means of a condensing pump1 the air1 in this reservoir1 is condensed about #djj times2 and by a spring1 the air is let out at intervals1 as circumstances require1 the carbonic acid produced by respiration being absorbed by quicklime4 ,within this boat are flaps1 like those of a rundle1 to move the boat1 two rudders1 one vertical1 the other horizontal1 and a pump to empty the hold1 or air reservoir4 ,the person within1 can1 at pleasure1 come to the top of the water4 ,the different experiments made by ,mr4 ,bushnel may be seen in the ,transactions referred to1 or in ,nicholson's ,journal1 quarto1 iv1 #bbi4 ,during the late war1 ,mr4 ,fulton1 ,mr4 ,mix1 and some others1 made various experiments with submarine machines2 and during the revolution1 the incendiary kegs1 well known by the name of the battle of the kegs1 excited no small attention1 and1 had it not been for some unforeseen circumstance1 they would1 in all probability1 have produced the effect for which they were intended4 ,of ,bushnel's vessel1 we may observe1 that1 in the fore part of the brim of the crown1 as it is called1 was a socket1 and an iron tube passing through the socket4 ,the tube stood upright1 and could slide up and down in the socket1 six inches4 ,at the top of the tube was a wood screw1 fixed by means of a rod1 which passed through the tube1 and screwed the wood screw fast upon the top of the tube4 ,by pushing the wood screw up against the bottom of a ship1 and turning it at the same time1 it would enter the planks4 ,when the wood screw was firmly fixed1 it could be cast off by unscrewing the rod1 which fixed it upon the top of the tube4 ,behind the submarine vessel1 was a place1 above the rudder1 for carrying a large powder magazine4 ,this was made of two pieces of oak timber1 sufficiently large1 when hollowed out1 to contain #aej lbs4 of powder1 7#acj lbs4 according to ,griswold17 with the apparatus used in firing it1 and was secured in its place by a screw1 turned by the operator4 ,a strong piece of rope extended from the magazine to the wood screw above mentioned1 and was fastened to both4 ,when the wood screw was fixed1 and to be cast off from its tube1 the magazine was to be cast off likewise by unscrewing it1 leaving it hanging to the wood screw2 it was lighter than the water1 that it might rise up against the object1 and apply itself when fastened4 ,mr4 ,griswold remarks1 that the most difficult point of all to be gained1 was to fasten this magazine to the bottom of a ship4 ,within the magazine1 was a machine1 constructed to run any proposed length of time under twelve hours4 ,when it had run out its time1 it unpinioned a strong lock resembling a gun-lock1 which gave fire to the powder4 ,this apparatus was so pinioned1 that it could not possibly move1 till1 by casting off the magazine from the vessel1 it was set in motion4 ,this skilful operator could swim so low on the surface of the water1 as to approach very near a ship in the night without fear of discovery1 and might1 if he chose1 approach the stem or stern above water1 with very little danger4 ,he could sink very quickly1 keep at any depth he pleased1 and row a great distance in any direction he desired1 without coming to the surface2 and1 when he rose to the surface1 he could soon obtain a fresh supply of air2 when1 if necessary1 he might descend again and pursue his course4 ,the projector found some time and attention to be requisite for the gradual instruction of this operator1 and1 after various attempts1 he found one1 on whom he thought he could depend4 ,he sent this man from ,new ,york to a #ej gun ship1 lying not far from ,governor's island4 ,he went under the ship1 and attempted to fix the wood screw in her bottom1 but struck1 as he supposed1 a bar of iron1 which passes from the rudder's hinge1 and is spiked under the ship's quarter4 ,had he removed a few inches1 which he might have done without rowing1 the projector has no doubt but he might have found wood1 where he might have fixed the screw2 or if the ship were sheathed with copper1 he might easily have pierced it4 ,but1 not being well skilled in the management of the vessel1 in attempting to row to another place1 he lost the ship4 ,after seeking her in vain some time1 he rowed to some distance1 and rose to the surface of the water1 but found day light had advanced so far1 that he durst not renew the attempt4 ,he says1 he could easily have fastened the magazine under the stern of the ship above the water1 as he rowed up to the stern1 and touched it before he descended4 ,had he fixed it there1 the explosion of #aej lbs of gunpowder 7the quantity contained in the magazine7 must have been fatal to the ship4 ,in his return from the ship to ,new ,york1 he passed near ,governor's island1 and thought he was discovered by the enemy on the island4 ,being in haste to avoid the danger he feared1 he cast off the magazine1 as he imagined it retarded him in the swell1 which was very considerable4 ,after the magazine had been cast off an hour1 the time the internal apparatus was set to run1 it blew up with great violence4 ,mr4 ,griswold gives an account of an attempt to destroy a ship of war2 and having received his information from ,mr4 ,lee1 one of the adventurers1 we have thought proper to introduce it from that source4 ,it was in the month of ,august1 #aggf1 when ,admiral ,howe lay with a formidable ,british fleet in ,new ,york bay1 a little above the narrows1 and a numerous ,british force upon ,staten ,island1 commanded by ,general ,howe1 threatened annihilation to the troops under ,washington1 that ,mr4 ,bushnel requested ,general ,parsons1 of the ,american army1 to furnish him with two or three men to learn the navigation of his new machine1 with the view of destroying some of the enemy's shipping4 ,general ,parsons immediately sent for ,lee1 then a sergeant1 and two others1 who had offered their services to go on board a fire ship2 and on ,bushnel's request being made known to them1 they enlisted themselves under him for this novel piece of service4 ,the party went up into ,long ,island sound with the machine1 and made various experiments with it in the different harbours along shore2 and after having become pretty thoroughly acquainted with the mode of navigating it1 they returned through the sound2 but1 during their absence1 the enemy had got possession of ,long ,island and ,governor's ,island4 ,they1 therefore1 had the machine conveyed by land across from ,new ,rochelle to the ,hudson river1 and afterwards arrived with it at ,new ,york4 ,the ,british fleet now lay to the north of ,staten ,island1 with a large number of transports1 and were the objects against which this new mode of warfare was destined to act4 ,the first serene night was fixed upon for the execution of this perilous enterprize1 and sergeant ,lee was to be the engineer4 ,after a lapse of a few days1 a favourable night arrived1 and1 at #aa o'clock1 a party embarked in two or three whale boats1 with ,bushnel's machine in tow4 ,they rowed down as near the fleet as they dared1 when sergeant ,lee entered the machine1 was cast off1 and the boats returned4 ,lee now found the ebb tide rather too strong1 and before he was aware1 had drifted him down past the men of war4 ,he1 however1 immediately got the machine about1 and by hard labour at the crank for the space of five glasses by the ship's bells1 two and a half hours1 he arrived under the stern of one of the ships at about slack water4 ,day had now dawned1 and by the light of the moon he could see the people on board1 and hear their conversation4 ,this was the moment for diving3 he accordingly closed up over head1 let in water1 and descended under the ship's bottom4 ,he now applied the screw1 and did all in his power to make it enter2 but owing probably in part to the ship's copper1 and the want of an adequate pressure1 to enable the screw to get a hold on the bottom1 his attempts all failed4 ,at each essay1 the machine rebounded from the ship's bottom1 not having sufficient power to resist the impulse thus given to it4 ,he next paddled along to a different part of her bottom1 but1 in this manuvre1 he made a deviation1 and instantly rose to the water's surface on the east side of the ship1 exposed to the increasing light of the morning1 and in imminent hazard of being discovered4 ,he immediately made another descent1 with a view of making one more trial2 but the fast approach of day1 which would expose him to the enemy's boats1 and render his escape difficult1 if not impossible1 deterred him2 and he concluded the best generalship would be1 to commence an immediate retreat4 ,he now had before him a distance of more than four miles to traverse1 but the tide was favourable4 ,at ,governor's island1 great danger awaited him2 for his compass having got out of order1 he was under the necessity of looking out from the top of the machine very frequently1 to ascertain its course1 and at first made a very irregular zigzag track4 ,the soldiers at ,governor's island espied the machine1 and curiosity drew several hundreds upon the parapet to watch its motions4 ,at last a party came down to the beach1 shoved off a barge1 and rowed towards it4 ,at that moment1 sergeant ,lee thought he saw his certain destruction1 and as the last act of defence1 let go the magazine1 expecting they would seize that likewise1 and thus all would be blown to atoms together4 ,providence1 however1 otherwise directed it3 the enemy1 after approaching within #ej or #fj yards of the machine1 and seeing the magazine detached1 began to suspect a yankee trick1 took alarm1 and returned to the island4 ,approaching the city1 he soon made a signal2 the boats came to him1 and brought him safe and sound to the shore4 ,the magazine1 in the mean time1 had drifted past ,governor's island into the ,east river1 where it exploded with tremendous violence1 throwing large columns of water1 and pieces of wood that composed it1 high into the air4 ,general ,putnam1 with many other officers1 stood on the shore1 spectators of this explosion4 ,in a few days1 the ,american army evacuated ,new ,york1 and the machine was taken up the ,north river4 ,another attempt was afterwards made by ,lee1 upon a frigate that lay opposite ,bloomingsdale4 ,his object now was to fasten the magazine to the stern of the ship1 close at the water's edge4 ,but while attempting this1 the watch discovered him1 raised an alarm1 and compelled him to abandon his enterprize4 ,he then endeavoured to get under the frigate's bottom2 but in this he failed1 having descended too deep4 ,this terminated his experiments4 ,with regard to diving bells1 several machines1 for the purpose of descending under water1 c4 have been invented4 ,some experiments have been made by the ,french with similar contrivances1 without any adequate result2 and the difficulty of carrying them into execution1 in real practice1 will prevent their introduction4 ,dr4 ,caustic1 7,terrible ,tractoration1 p4 #fe71 in a note1 in reference to ,bushnel's invention1 observes1 that if you consult the ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 you will see what ,mr4 ,d4 ,bushnel1 of ,connecticut1 has done1 and had like to have done1 by virtue of submarine explosions4 ,you will find1 that several ,english ships have been put in jeopardy1 and one schooner actually blown up and demolished by ,mr4 ,bushnel's submarine explosions4#cc ,sec4 ,,xxi4 ,of the ,torpedo4 ,the late ,mr4 ,fulton applied himself to the improvement of the ,turtle during the late war1 and brought it to such perfection1 that if it came in contact with a ship's bottom1 it would inevitably blow up the vessel4 ,from the account we have given of the turtle1 we may readily imagine the construction of the torpedo4 ,these were of several kinds2 some 7or rather the magazine attached to them17 were designed to be screwed under the bottom1 and others to explode by coming in contact with the vessel1 or any resisting body4 ,the time of explosion was so determined1 by clock-work machinery1 in the manner of ,bushnel's contrivance that it would invariably explode at the minute or second required4 ,mr4 ,fulton wrote a number of essays on this torpedo1 and other contrivances for annoying the enemy1 such as the harpoon1 c4 ,the torpedo1 at which the ,british ships1 stationed on our coast1 were so much alarmed1 is in fact a powerful weapon of destruction4 ,it is to be observed1 that the magazine1 accompanying the bell1 in some instances1 was detached2 so that the latter was removed out of danger1 when the former was fixed to the ship's bottom4 ,in order to prevent the torpedo from floating against the sides of a vessel1 the precaution of having netting spread at some considerable distance round the vessel1 and of keeping up a constant guard of boats1 which were rowed round the ship both day and night1 was used4 ,not having the writings of ,mr4 ,fulton before us1 we can give no precise description of his improvements4 ,they are described to be an apparatus1 of which the principal piece is a copper box1 and prepared with an interior spring1 which sets fire to the powder2 at the same time that the whole is enclosed in a covering of cork1 or some other light wood1 to make the torpedo float under the surface of the water4 ,it will be sufficient to remark1 that they have produced the effect of causing a constant1 and1 in our opinion1 painful anxiety to the ,british4 ,of this we have abundant proof4 ,we may add1 however1 the result of some of the experiments1 by which it will appear1 that they are eminently calculated1 like the infernal machine1 to produce death and destruction4 ,in consequence of some essays1 published by ,mr4 ,fulton1 on the practicability of destroying ships by torpedoes1 several persons turned their attention to this subject2 among whom was a ,mr4 ,mix of the navy4 ,mr4 ,mix's intention was to destroy the ship of war ,plantagenet1 of #gd guns1 lying in ,lynnhaven bay4 ,having made a torpedo1 ,mr4 ,mix1 accompanied by two gentlemen1 one of whom was a midshipman1 proceeded in a boat1 on the night of the #bdth of ,july1 #ahac1 and1 having reached within #ajj yards of the ship1 dropped the torpedo4 ,it was swept along by the side1 but exploded a few seconds before it would have come in contact with the vessel4 ,it produced1 however1 great consternation and confusion on board the vessel1 and induced several of the crew to take to their boats4 ,the ship was greatly agitated1 and some damage done by the violent motion of the water4 ,the noise1 occasioned by the explosion1 was loud and tremendous2 and the appearance of the water1 thrown up in a column of thirty or forty feet high1 awfully sublime4 ,it has not been ascertained1 that any lives were lost4 ,the case of a ,mr4 ,penny1 of ,easthampton1 ,long ,island1 is connected with the subject of torpedoes4 ,he was carried on board the ,ramilies1 and put in irons2 because his name had been entered on the books of one of the frigates1 as having been employed in a boat1 contrived for the purpose1 under the command of ,thomas ,welling1 prepared with a torpedo1 to destroy this 7,capt4 ,hardy's7 ship4 ,the affair of ,stonington1 also1 shows1 that the ,british were determined to punish the inhabitants for having1 as captain ,hardy expresses it1 prepared torpedoes2 and the captain stated1 in his reply to the deputation from the town1 that the bombardment should cease1 in case the inhabitants would engage that no torpedoes should be fitted out by them4 ,no torpedoes1 however1 were fitted out at ,stonington4#cd ,mr4 ,fulton made a number of experiments with the torpedo1 in the harbour of ,new ,york2 and one vessel was completely cut in two4 ,these experiments were very satisfactory to all who witnessed them4 ,the greatest difficulty he experienced was in giving them a proper direction1 so as to hit the vessel intended to be destroyed4 ,this he acknowledged to a friend1 professor ,eaton1 of ,troy1 who informed us of the fact4 ,he entertained no doubt whatever of the effect of the torpedo1 when once brought in contact with a vessel4 ,at ,havre1 in ,france1 ,mr4 ,fulton constructed a sub-marine boat1 sufficient to contain several men1 and air for eight hours1 and strong enough to bear submersion to the depth of one hundred feet1 if necessary4 ,in this boat1 he remained an hour under water1 made half a league of way in that time1 with his boat horizontally situated1 and at various depths1 where he found that the compass traversed exactly1 as on the surface4 ,to the boat he attached a machine1 by means of which he blew up a lighter in ,brest ,harbour4 ,while in ,france1 in the time of the ,republic1 ,mr4 ,f4 directed his attention to this subject4 ,his ,bateau-poisson1 described in the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 vol4 i1 p4 #bfe1 is of the same character4 ,a number of experiments performed with it are given4 ,sec4 ,,xxii4 ,of the ,marine ,incendiary ,kegs1 c4 ,we purpose to notice1 under this head1 two contrivances1 which have been used1 the one in the revolution1 and the other1 during the late war with ,great ,britain4 ,the piece of poetry1 called the ,battle of the ,kegs1 written by the late ,francis ,hopkinson1 ,esq4 of ,philadelphia1 narrating the incendiary kegs1 is founded on this contrivance4 ,for the purpose of destroying the shipping at ,philadelphia1 which was then in possession of the ,british1 some forty or more kegs were fitted up at ,burlington1 ,n4 ,j4 or in its neighbourhood1 containing a quantity of gunpowder4 ,these kegs were connected in such a manner1 that1 while they formed one float1 when one exploded1 the whole would go off4 ,this arrangement was also made with another1 if our information is correct1 which consisted in a trigger connected with a gun-lock1 7one or more kegs having the same72 so that1 when the triggers went off1 by the casks coming against any thing1 in floating down the tide1 the whole would explode at the same time4 ,there is one of the original kegs in the magazine of ,fort ,mifflin4 ,we apprehend1 however1 that the contrivance was more like that of clock-work1 set to a given time1 like the torpedo of ,fulton2 but of this we have no certain account4 ,these kegs were towed down the river1 within a mile or two of the city1 and were seen about sunrise opposite to it4 ,they did no execution2 but1 if they had been taken to a given spot1 instead of being left to the direction of the running current1 and then properly adjusted1 no doubt the effect would have been as the contriver calculated4 ,it excited1 however1 no small sensation at the time4 ,of the other contrivance1 we have the following account3 ,a ,mr4 ,scudder 7,history of the late ,war1 c4 p4 #ahg7 formed a design of destroying the ,british ship ,ramilies1 of #gd guns1 off ,new ,london4 ,for this purpose1 #aj kegs of powder were put into a strong cask1 with a quantity of sulphur mixed into it4 ,at the head of the cask were1 fixed two gun-locks1 with cords fastened to the triggers1 and to the under side of the barrels in the hatchway2 so that it was impossible to hoist the barrels1 without springing the locks each side of the powder4 ,on the top were placed a quantity of turpentine and spirits of turpentine1 which in all probability were sufficient to destroy any vessel that ever floated4 ,these kegs were put on board the smack ,eagle1 which sailed from ,new ,york on the #aeth of ,june1 for ,new ,london2 but which the crew abandoned1 on being pursued by the boats of the enemy4 ,it was expected1 that the vessel would be brought alongside the ,ramilies1 and1 by exploding1 destroy that ship4 ,the wind dying away1 and the tide being against them1 she could not1 very fortunately for the enemy1 be brought alongside4 ,when the ,eagle exploded1 there were four boats alongside1 and a great many men on board of her4 ,after the explosion1 there was not a vestige of the boats to be seen4 ,a body of fire rose to a vast height1 and then burst like a rocket4 ,every man1 near or about her1 was probably lost1 as the boats sent from the ,ramilies were seen to return without picking up anything4 ,in relation to similar enterprizes1 what could have been a more daring and hazardous enterprize1 than that of lieutenants ,wadsworth1 ,summers1 c4 who1 by a previous agreement1 determined1 if they were likely to be captured by the ,turks1 to blow themselves up in the fire-ship1 which they had prepared to destroy the enemy's shipping1 in the harbour of ,tripoli8 ,their fate is too well known1 lamentable as it is6 ,the marquis of ,worcester1 in his ,century of ,inventions1 inventions nine and ten1 speaks of certain contrivances for the destruction of vessels1 which seem to have been of the kind mentioned3 viz4 ,an engine1 portable in one's pocket1 which may be carried and fastened on the inside of the greatest ship1 tanquam aliud agens2 and1 at an appointed minute1 though a week after1 either of a day or night1 it shall irrecoverably sink that ship2 and a way from a mile off1 to drive and fasten a like engine to any ship1 so as it may punctually work the same effect1 either for time or execution4 ,sec4 ,,xxiii4 ,of ,sea ,lights4 ,the fanaux de mer1 or sea lights1 are so called1 from the particular application of this fire4 ,it is sometimes required at sea to throw light upon the water1 and around the vessel1 in order to perceive the approach of an enemy4 ,this is effected by the composition for sea lights4 ,a tube must be formed of not less than three inches in diameter1 and eleven inches in length4 ,a shield is then adapted1 of four times the exterior diameter of the tube or case1 which shield is to be made of wood1 and attached at about the distance of one-fourth of the length of the tube1 and near the end of the orifice4 ,the case or tube is then charged with the following composition3 ,composition for ,sea ,lights4 ,saltpetre1 #af parts4 ,sulphur1 #h ---- ,meal-powder1 #c ---- ,antimony1 #c ---- ,the tube1 which may be made of iron1 pasteboard1 or wood1 by boring it out1 after being charged1 is primed in the usual manner1 inserting in the end1 at the same time1 a piece of quick-match4 ,when dried1 it is wrapped in paper for better preservation4 ,sec4 ,,xxiv4 ,of ,signal and ,war-,rockets4 ,rockets1 we have said1 are cylindrical cases1 formed generally of pasteboard1 and filled with a peculiar composition1 made of meal-powder1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal2 or without powder1 and sometimes with the addition of pulverized cast iron4 ,in some1 as the ,congreve rocket1 iron cases are substituted for those of paper4 ,the outer diameter is usually from one and a half to two inches1 the length of the charge five diameters1 and the interior diameter two-thirds as much as the exterior4 ,the tools necessary are1 a rod or former of wood1 to mould the case upon2 an artificer's tool to roll the paper close2 a conical spit or piercer1 by means of which the rocket when loaded has a hollow through the middle1 which piercer should be four and two-thirds times as long as the outer diameter of the rocket1 one-third of this diameter at the base1 and one-sixth at the small end2 three rods for loading1 having a conical aperture to receive the piercer1 and one massive2 and a ladle or measure1 whose diameter is equal to that of the inside of the rocket1 and its length three times as much4 ,the construction of the cartouch case1 or paper cylinder1 consists in using pasteboard of three or more thicknesses1 which is rolled on the former1 until the case becomes sufficiently thick4 ,the choaking of the cylinder is performed by means of a cord1 of three lines in diameter1 one end of which is firmly fixed into a wall1 and the other tied to a stick1 against which the artificer who bestrides the cord rests4 ,the rocket is loaded or charged1 by introducing at a time1 a ladle full of composition1 first fixing the case over the piercer1 and using the appropriate rammer and mallet1 in the manner stated1 c4#ce ,signal rockets are sometimes trimmed with serpents1 stars1 and petards4 ,the serpents are made of cases in the manner already mentioned2 viz4 by rolling playing cards in the direction of their length1 upon a former1 three lines in diameter1 and covered with three coats of paper1 the last of which is pasted4 ,the cases are choaked at one end1 and in the niche is placed a strand of tow1 and a priming of meal-powder1 moistened with brandy4 ,they are loaded1 by means of a rod1 three-fourths full of the composition1 and again choaked at half their height4 ,the remainder is filled up with powder1 to make a report4 ,if a serpent with stars is to be made1 only half the case is filled with the serpent-composition1 and the rest with that for stars4 ,serpents are placed upright in the pot1 the priming down4 ,composition for ,serpents1 for trimming ,signal ,rockets4 ,meal-powder1 #af parts4 ,saltpetre1 #c ---- ,sulphur1 #b ---- ,charcoal1 ---- ,the star composition is the same as before given4#cf ,it is mixed and made into balls or cubes1 in the same manner4 ,the petards or crackers are small cubes of paper1 filled with grained gunpowder4 ,they are wrapped with two layers of good thread1 which is drawn tight in every direction4 ,they are dipped in tar to give them more consistence1 and pierced and primed with quick match4 ,we have already given the theory of the flight of rockets in the first part of this work2 and also the opinions of ,mariotte and ,dr4 ,desaguliers4 ,on this head1 therefore1 further observation seems unnecessary ,we have said1 however1 that it is necessary1 for giving the rocket a sufficient degree of motion1 that the powder within the rocket be bored with a tapering cavity from the choke1 and at the choke this cavity must be as wide as the choke itself1 and at the further end1 not more than half that width4 ,the length of this bore must be but one inner diameter of the rocket1 short of the whole height to which the rocket is rammed4 ,the use of this bore1 it is to be observed1 is to increase the surface1 that takes fire at once2 that a greater body of fire may issue out of the mouth of the rocket4 ,from the vehemence with which the fire issues out1 the rocket receives its motion4 ,we have seen1 that rockets are used in all fire-works that have motion2 for cases charged give motion to wheels of various kinds1 and act on the same principle4 ,such works as are thrown into the air after the manner of bombs1 are1 however1 an exception4 ,the rocket-stick is a necessary appendage4 ,when very heavy1 to prevent mischief by their fall1 they now bore the sticks1 and fill them with powder1 that they may shiver in the air before they fall4 ,that the stick keeps the rocket perpendicular is obvious4 ,if the rocket should begin to tumble1 moving round a point in the choke1 as being the common centre of gravity of rocket and stick1 there would be so much friction against the air1 by the stick between the centre and the point1 and the point would beat against the air with so much velocity1 that the reaction of the medium would restore it to its perpendicularity4 ,when the composition is burnt out1 and the impulse upwards has ceased1 the common centre of gravity is brought lower towards the middle of the stick4 ,hence the velocity of the point of the stick is decreased1 and that of the point of the rocket increased2 so that the whole will tumble down1 with the rocket end foremost4 ,during the combustion of the rocket1 the common centre of gravity is shifting and getting downwards1 and faster and lower as the stick is lighter4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 7vol4 xlvi1 p4 #egh7 and ,robins's ,mathematical ,tracts1 7vol4 i1 p4 #cag1 c47 are sundry experiments1 and observations concerning the flight of rockets2 and as these experiments appertain more to military purposes1 the following extracts may1 on that account1 be useful4 ,mr4 ,robins1 considering the great use that may be made of rockets1 in determining the position of distant places1 and in giving signals for naval and military purposes1 procured some1 with a view of ascertaining the height to which they rise1 and the distance at which they may be seen4 ,the greatest part of them did not rise to above four hundred yards2 one to about five hundred2 and one to six hundred yards nearly4 ,the greatest distance at which these were observed1 was from thirty-five to thirty-eight miles4 ,others were fired at a different time1 one of which rose to six hundred and ninety yards2 and it was observed1 that the largest1 which were about two and a half inches in diameter1 rose the highest4 ,in some subsequent experiments1 conducted by ,mr4 ,da ,costa1 ,mr4 ,banks1 c4 it was found1 that1 of two rockets1 of about three and a half inches in diameter1 one rose to about eight hundred and thirty-three1 and the other to #iae yards4 ,in another trial1 a rocket of four inches in diameter rose to one thousand one hundred and ninety yards4 ,in other experiments1 a rocket of one and a half inches rose to seven hundred and forty-three yards2 one of two inches to six hundred and fifty nine2 one of two and a half inches to eight hundred and eighty2 another of the same size to one thousand and seventy-one2 one of three inches to one thousand two hundred and fifty-four2 one of three and a half inches to one thousand one hundred and nine2 and one of four inches rose to seven hundred yards1 and1 turning1 fell to the ground before it went out4 ,besides these1 there was one of the rockets of twenty-four inches in diameter1#cg which rose to seven hundred and eighty four yards1 and another of the same size1 to eight hundred and thirty-three yards4 ,from these experiments1 it is inferred1 that rockets from two and a half to three and a half inches in diameter1 are sufficient to answer all the purposes for which they are intended2 and they may be made to rise to a height1 and to afford a light capable of being seen to considerably greater distances than those just mentioned4 ,before we mention the war-rockets of ,congreve1 it may not be improper to speak of the ,indian rockets1 which are used by the native troops of ,india1 and which were employed against the ,british1 with great effect1 during the seige of ,seringapatam in #agii4 ,these rockets are made of iron1 and are lashed to a bamboo cane4 ,the weight is seldom more than two pounds1 or less than one4 ,the fougette1 or ,indian rocket1 resembles in shape a sky-rocket1 whose flight is gradually brought to run along a horizontal direction4 ,by throwing several fougettes into parks of artillery1 and upon caissons1 c4 considerable damage might be occasioned from the fire1 which would inevitably be communicated to some part4 ,a fougette forces itself immediately forward1 cuts as it penetrates1 by the formation of its sides1 which are filled with small spikes1 becomes combustible1 and on fire at all its points1 and possesses within itself a thousand different means1 by which it can adhere to whatever object it is destined to set on fire or destroy4 ,a ,french writer even asserts1 that this weapon would be more effectual1 because it might be more variously applied1 to defend the mouth of a harbour against an enemy's shipping1 than red-hot balls can ever prove2 and we are also told1 that1 by means of their natural velocity1 they would do more execution1 in a less space of time1 than the most active piece of ordnance could effect2 and they would also require fewer hands1 as the only necessary operation would be to light and dart them forward4 ,the fougette1 called also in ,french the ,baguette feu1 has received improvements in ,france1 which we will notice hereafter4 ,in favour of these improvements and their application1 we are told1 that1 to do execution at a distance1 especially in sea-fights1 fougettes may be so made as that they may reach shipping at a great distance1 and with a given velocity4 ,the ,congreve rocket is a new species of war-rocket1 invented by ,sir ,william ,congreve4 ,this incendiary rocket drew the attention of the ,european nations1 after the attack of the ,british on ,copenhagen2 where1 we are informed1 they did incredible execution4 ,this rocket may be considered to be a carrier of fire4 ,their effect1 however1 in the ,chesapeake1 and elsewhere1 during the late war1 was very trifling4 ,they seemed1 in fact1 little calculated to injure and more to intimidate4#ch ,they differ from the common rocket as well in their magnitude and construction1 as in the powerful nature of their composition2 which is such1 that without the encumbrance of any ordnance1 7the rocket containing the propelling power wholly within itself71 balls1 shells1 case-shot and carcasses1 may be projected to the distance of one thousand to three thousand yards4 ,the principle of projectile force is so greatly increased1 as not only to triple the flight of small rockets so formed1 but also to allow of the construction of rockets of such dimensions1 as1 on the ordinary principles of combination1 would not even rise from the ground1 and of such powers of flight and burthen1 as have hitherto been considered altogether impracticable4 ,on the basis of this increase of power1 ,congreve has succeeded in making this rocket4 ,they are formed of various dimensions1 as well in length as in caliber1 and are differently armed1 according as they are intended for the field1 or for bombardment and conflagration2 carrying in the first instance either shells or case shot1 and in the second1 for the purpose of destroying shipping1 buildings1 stores1 c4 a peculiar species of composition1 which never fails of destroying every combustible material with which it comes in contact4 ,the latter are called carcass-rockets1 and were first used at ,boulogne in #ahje1 after many experiments1 which were made by ,congreve1 at ,woolwich4 ,the attack in #ahjf was merely desultory1 in which not more than #bjj rockets were fired4 ,the town was set on fire by the first discharge1 and continued burning for near two days4 ,after the affair at ,copenhagen1 which established their reputation1 it appears that a committee of officers1 who had witnessed their effect in that bombardment1 pronounced them to be a powerful auxiliary to the present system of artillery4 ,at the seige of ,flushing1 they appear to have been used with success1 and general ,monnet1 the ,french commandant1 made a formal remonstrance to lord ,chatham respecting the use of them in that bombardment4 ,the rocket system was also tried with success1 and the crown prince of ,sweden was the first general1 who bore testimony to their effects in this service4 ,at the memorable battle of ,leipzig1 they proved1 we are informed1 a powerful weapon1 and also1 when the ,british army under ,wellington1 crossed the ,adour4 ,in #ahad1 a rocket-corps was established in the ,british service4 ,general de ,grave transmitted1 to the ,society of ,encouragement of ,paris1 a ,congreve rocket1 or an ,english incendiary rocket1 which was found on the ,french coast4 ,m4 ,gay-,lussac examined it4 ,the case was made with gray paper1 and painted4 ,the inflammable matter was of a yellowish-gray1 and the sulphur was distinguishable with the naked eye4 ,it burnt with a quick flame1 and exhaled sulphurous acid gas4 ,according to his analysis1 7,archives des ,dcouvertes1 ii1 #cjc71 the composition gave ,nitrate of potassa1 #ge4jj ,charcoal1 #a4f ,sulphur1 #bc4d ------ #ajj ------ ,gay-,lussac1 after determining the proportions of the constituent parts1 made a composition of a similar kind1 and charged a case1 which exhibited the same properties as the ,english rocket4 ,the great general point of excellence of the rocket system1 if we may judge from the account of ,english writers1 is the facility with which all the natures of this weapon may be conveyed and applied4 ,its peculiar applicability to naval bombardment is said to rest on this property1 that there is no reaction1 no recoil in the firing of the largest rocket2 so that by this means carcasses1 equal to those projected by the largest mortars1 may be thrown from the smallest boats4 ,its peculiar fitness for land service is1 that it is a description of extremely powerful ammunition without ordnance1 so that the burthen of mortars and guns is dispensed with1 and all that is to be carried is actual available missile matter1 capable of range1 and of many of the most important effects of the heaviest artillery4 ,the rocket system1 as a system of ammunition without ordnance1 is highly extolled by ,british writers4 ,we will now speak of their construction4 ,all rockets designed for service are cylindrical1 having strong metallic cases1 and armed1 as we before observed1 either with carcass composition for bombardment and conflagration1 or with shells and case shot for field service4 ,they are1 however1 of various weights and dimensions1 from the eight-inch carcass or explosion rocket1 weighing nearly three hundred weight1 to the six pound shell rocket1 which is the smallest size1 used in the field4 ,the sticks1 which are employed for regulating their flight1 are also of different lengths1 according to the size and service of the rocket2 and which1 for the convenience of carriage1 are stowed apart from the rocket1 and so contrived as to consist of two or more parts1 which are connected to it1 and to each other1 when requisite1 with the utmost expedition4 ,the #cb pounder rocket carcass1 which is the nature hitherto chiefly used for bombardment1 will range #cjjj yards with the same quantity of combustible matter as that contained in the #aj inch spherical carcass1 and #bejj yards with the same quantity as that of the #ac inch spherical carcass4 ,the #ab pounder rocket case shot1 which is so portable that it may be used with the facility of musketry1 has a range nearly double that of field artillery1 carrying as many bullets as the #f pounder spherical case4 ,we may remark here1 that the projectile force of the rocket is well calculated for the conveyance of case shot to great distances2 because1 as it proceeds1 its velocity is accelerated instead of being retarded1 as happens with any other projectile2 while the average velocity of the shell is greater than that of the rocket only in the ratio of #i to #h4 ,independent of this1 the case shot conveyed by the rocket admits of any desired increase of velocity in its range by the bursting of powder1 which cannot be obtained in any other description of case4 ,rocket ammunition is divided into three classes1 heavy1 medium1 and light2 the former including all those above #db lbs41 which are denominated according to their caliber1 as eight-inch1 seven-inch1 c4 rockets2 the medium including all those from #db lbs4 to #bd lbs42 and the light embracing from #ah pounder to #f pounder inclusive4 ,the carcass-rockets are armed with strong iron conical heads1 containing a composition as hard and solid as iron itself1 and which1 when once inflamed1 cannot be extinguished4 ,a #cb pounder carcass rocket will penetrate #i feet in common ground4 ,they have been known to pierce through several floors1 and through the sides of houses4 ,for field service1 the #bd1 #ah1 #ab1 and #f pounders are commonly used4 ,the ranges of the eight-inch1 seven-inch1 and six-inch rockets1 are from #bjjj to #bejj yards1 and the quantity of combustible matter1 or bursting powder1 from #be lbs4 to #ej lbs4 ,these sized rockets are equally efficient for the destruction of bomb proofs1 or the demolition of strong buildings4 ,the largest rocket that has yet been constructed has not exceeded #cjj weight4 ,it is proposed1 however1 to make them from half a ton to a ton in weight4 ,the #db and #cb pounders1 which are used in bombardment1 will convey from #g lbs4 to #aj lbs4 of combustible matter each1 and have a range of upwards of #cjjj yards4 ,the #bd pounder is equal to the propelling of the coehorn shell1 or #ab pounder shot4 ,it is1 from the saving in weight1 generally preferred to the #cb pounder4 ,the eighteen-pounder1 which is the first of the light nature of rockets1 is armed with a nine pound shot or shell2 the twelve-pounder1 with a six do42 the nine-pounder1 with a grenade2 and the six-pounder1 with a #c lb4 shot or shell4 ,the following table presents a general view of the ranges1 elevations1 and other particulars of several of the most useful descriptions of ,congreve rockets4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,elevation ,extreme for ,nature of ammunition4 ,armed with range4 extreme range4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,carcasses1 large1 #ah ,elevation #db ,pounder carcass lbs4 of combustible yards4for rockets4 matter2 small1 #ab lbs4 extreme do4 #c1ejj range1 not less #db ,pounder shell ,shells1 #e1 #ab pr4 than #fj rockets4 spherical4 ,carcasses1 large1 #ah lbs4 yards4 #cb ,pounder carcass of combustible matter2 #b1jjj #fj rockets4 medium #ab lbs4 #ac inch carcass2 #b1ejj #fj to #ee ,small1 #h lbs4 #aj inch #c1jjj #ee carcass4 #cb ,pounder shell shells1 #i pr4 spherical4 #c1jjj #ej rockets4 #cb ,pounder case ,case large #bjj carbine shot rockets4 shot1 balls4 #b1ejj #ee small #ajj do4 #c1jjj #ej ,strong iron containing #cb ,pounder explosion from #e lbs4 to #ab lbs4 from rockets4 of powder1 to burst #bejj #ee by fuses4 #hjjj large #gb carbine #ab ,pounder case ,case balls4 #b1jjj #de shot rockets4 shot1 small1 #dh carbine balls4 #b1ejj #de ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,from the preceding table1 it will be seen1 that the #cb pounder carcass rocket will range #cjjj yards1 with the same quantity of combustible matter as that contained in a ten-inch spherical case1 and #bejj yards1 with the same quantity as that of the thirteen-inch spherical carcass4 ,the twelve pounder case-shot rocket1 which is so portable that it may be used with the facility of musquetry1 has a range nearly double that of field artillery1 carrying as many bullets as the six pounder spherical case3 add to which1 that1 from the nature of the combination of the rocket1 these bullets are projected from it in any part of its track1 with an increase of velocity1 by which its operation becomes frequently more destructive at that point1 where any different species of ammunition ceases to be effective4 ,of this description of rocket-case-shot1 one hundred soldiers will carry into action1 in any situation where musquetry can act1 #cjj rounds1 and #aj frames for discharging them2 from each of which1 four rounds may be fired in a minute4 ,of the same description of case-shot1 four horses will carry #gb rounds1 and four frames2 from which may be fired #af rounds in a minute4 ,the rockets used by cavalry are twelve pounders1 armed with a #f pounder shell or case shot2 each horse carrying four of these rockets4 ,to detail the arrangement of the rocket corps1 the weight of ammunition carried by the troop horse1 and other particulars1 would require more space than we can conveniently appropriate to these subjects4 ,we may remark1 however1 that the heavier species of rockets1 as the #cb pounder or #bd pounder1 as also the #ah and #ab pounders1 are sometimes carried in cars of a peculiar description2 which not only convey the ammunition1 but are contrived also to discharge each two rockets in a volley1 from a double iron-plate trough4 ,this trough is of the same length as the boxes for the sticks1 and travels between them2 but being moveable1 may1 when the car is unlimbered1 be shifted into its fighting position1 at any angle from the ground ranges1 or point blank1 up to #de1 without being detached from the carriage4 ,the limbers are always in the rear4 ,the rockets are fired with a port-fire and long stick4 ,when used by infantry1 one man in ten1 carries a frame of a very simple construction1 standing on three legs like a theodolite1 when spread4 ,it is mounted at top with an open cradle1 from which the rockets are discharged1 either for ground ranges1 or at any required elevation4 ,when they are used for bombardment1 they are discharged from frames of a different1 though simple1 construction2 and1 in many cases1 the frames are dispensed with1 as they are thrown from a battery1 erected for the purpose4 ,for the defence of a pass1 or for covering the retreat of an army1 the rockets are laid in batteries of #ajj or #ejj in a row1 according to the extent of the ground to be protected4 ,one man may fire the whole4 ,with regard to their use in the naval service1 some additional remarks may be interesting4 ,we observed1 that1 in consequence of there being no reaction in these projectiles on the point of discharge1 rockets may be used in the smallest boats of the navy4 ,these rockets carry a quantity of combustible matter1 and1 according to the ordinary system1 would require to be thrown from the largest mortars1 and from ships of very heavy tonnage4 ,the #ab and #ah pounder have been fired from a four-oared gig4 ,they may be made to ricochet in the water at low angles4 ,in boarding1 they have been recommended1 to be thrown into the port holes of the enemy4 ,they have also been recommended for fire-ships1 in order to produce an extensive and devastating fire among the ships of the enemy4 ,besides the advantages1 which rockets possess1 and of which we have spoken2 namely1 that it is a species of projectile1 containing within itself the propelling power1 by which heavy ordnance is dispensed with1 and that an extensive fire may be kept up1 by a few men1 against any important point2 there is another advantage said to be peculiar to them2 viz4 that they may be employed in a variety of cases1 in which the usual artillery1 from the nature of the ground1 or other impediments1 cannot be rendered effective2 and that1 in several bombardments1 in consequence of their trifling reaction1 they may be thrown from cutters and small boats1 and1 therefore1 from points1 which could never be approached by the vessels1 usually employed in that service4 ,with respect to the expense of the formation of war-rockets1 calculations have been made1 by which it appears1 that their cost is less than the usual expense of carcasses4 ,we are informed on this head1 that it is the cheapest of all ammunition1 depending on the projectile force of gunpowder4 ,for a #cb pounder carcass rocket costs only #al4 #as4 #aa;d4 complete for service1 and its equivalent1 the #aj inch spherical carcass1 with the charge of powder necessary to convey it #cjjj yards1 which power is contained in the rocket1 costs #al4 #bs4 #g;d41 independent of any charge for the mortar1 mortar bed1 platform1 difference of transport1 c4 ,a vessel of #cjj tons will carry #ejjj of them at least4 ,but the comparison1 as to the expense1 is still more in favour of the rocket1 when compared with the larger nature of carcasses4 ,the #ae inch spherical carcass costs #al4 #ags4 #aa-a_/b;d4 to throw #bejj yards2 while its equivalent rocket costs but #al4 #es4 being a saving on the first cost1 of #abs4 #aa-a_/b;d4 ,notwithstanding all the encomiums1 bestowed on the ,congreve rockets by the ,english1 the ,french entertain a different opinion of them4 ,for the following remarks1 we are indebted to ,ruggeri1 7,pyrotechnie ,militaire1 p4 #bgh71 by which it appears1 that ,congreve was not the original inventor4 ,he acknowledges1 however1 that they experienced the sad effects of them2 and we do not offer this remark with any sort of prejudice1 but as an acknowledgment1 that the ,french experienced their sad effects4 ,ruggeri says1 that the ,congreve rocket is nothing more than he described in his ,elements of ,pyrotechny five years before they were known to the ,english4 ,it is1 therefore1 wrong1 he adds1 that we regard it as an ,english invention4 ,it was invented1 says he1 by a naval officer at ,bordeaux1 and ought not1 he further remarks1 to be regarded as a useful weapon in war4 ,the reason he gives is1 that its utility must depend upon places and circumstances4 ,if it is required1 he adds1 to attack a fleet1 we must employ two or three hundred before making any impression2 because we cannot direct a firing rocket1 as a cannon or ball4 ,this is certainly a great inconvenience4 ,he makes the cost also much greater than the ,english calculation2 namely1 for a single one of them ten times more than for a red-hot shot4 ,ruggeri1 however1 is candid enough to say1 that1 notwithstanding he differs in opinion1 he is far from opposing any trials or experiments1 made with the view of improving or perfecting it2 but is decidedly of opinion1 that it can never be employed at sea with the same advantage as bombs and cannon-ball4 ,ruggeri published1 in the ,journal of ,paris1 in ,september1 #ahji1 a letter1 in reply to a writer1 who had published some reflections on incendiary rockets1 from which1 as it throws some light on this subject1 we shall here introduce a few extracts3 ,although ,monsieur1 the cannonier of ,ostend1 may not have given the precise construction of the rocket1 which we name the sky-rocket1 and of which the ,english have made so criminal a use1 ,i will commence at first by assuring you1 that ,i coincide perfectly with him1 in the preference he gives to howitzes1 bombs1 and other projectiles1 which are used by civilized nations4 ,he has very satisfactorily demonstrated their advantages over the ,congreve rocket4 ,i will only add1 that bombs and howitzes have also the advantage of being one-fifth cheaper1 and projected with greater facility4 ,the ,congreve rocket cannot be of any particular advantage1 because it only carries fire to the place where it falls2 and if we wish to use them against any vessel whatever1 it is impossible to assure ourselves of a direction on a given point1 as many difficulties occur in projecting them4 ,the merit of the invention of these rockets does not belong to the ,english4 ,this invention was made by a ,frenchman1 a captain of a privateer1 who made the first attempt to use them about seventeen years since1 7#agie74 ,the ,english have perfected1 or rather have modified this rocket4 ,it is sometime since ,i offered a kind of bomb1 which may be used with more facility than the common kind4 ,this bomb has the advantage over the ,congreve rocket3 #ast1 ,because it is less troublesome to use2 #b;dly1 ,it may be made of any diameter or size1 and consequently suited to all calibers2 #c;dly1 ,the place and time of its fall is readily determined2 and fourth1 and lastly1 ,it bursts into pieces1 and attaches itself to all combustible bodies1 with which it meets4 ,it remains for me to say1 that it is not the powder which moves the rocket1 but a composition almost as strong4 ,the powder1 which is used in the ,congreve rocket1 is intended to destroy the machine after it has produced its destructive effects4 ,see ,pyrotechnie ,militaire1 p4 #bgh4 ,the difference between incendiary rockets1 and common signal rockets1 is in the interior4 ,instead of the furniture1 or garnishing pot and head1 a conical head of sheet iron is substituted1 in which several holes are made to suffer the composition it contains to burn more readily4 ,the composition is the same as that for fire-rockets2 but is coarsely pulverized1 and mixed with an equal quantity of the composition of fire-lances4 ,these rockets are employed with advantage to burn a city1 or vessels in a harbour4 ,the cone1 with which they are capped1 enables them to penetrate the roofs of houses1 and set them on fire4 ,sec4 ,,xxv4 ,sky-,rockets 7,meurtrires47 ,the sanguinary or murdering rocket is made in the same manner as the preceding4 ,they have neither head nor pot2 but1 in their place1 they are furnished with a cone of beaten or solid iron4 ,this cone is the appendage1 or weapon1 which produces such destructive effects4 ,these rockets1 when they fall upon the troops of an enemy1 wound them very dangerously1 without their being able to prevent it4 ,the advantage1 more particularly derived1 is1 that they may be projected from under cover1 and to double the distance of ordinary musketry4 ,to make use of these rockets1 a box is constructed1 whose interior is so arranged as to receive the rockets in regular order4 ,they should be placed in it with their sticks2 and1 therefore1 the case must be made sufficiently large to admit them4 ,by this contrivance1 the rockets are sheltered from the fire and water4 ,to discharge them1 the box is first inclined on the side next to the heads of the rockets1 and in the direction of the place1 to which they are to be thrown4 ,a communication is made by leaders1 in the manner already mentioned in the preceding part of this work2 so that1 when the match is fired1 or a single rocket1 they all are discharged at the same time4 ,the mode of firing rockets either singly or in numbers1 the manner of preparing the cases1 the different compositions1 and the operation of filling1 and of furnishing them1 c4 are given in the preceding part4 ,sec4 ,,xxvi4 ,of the ,rocket ,light-,ball4 ,congreve also invented a species of light-ball1 which1 when thrown into the air by means of one of his rockets1 and having reached the elevation of the rockets' ascent1 is detached from it with an explosion1 and remains suspended in the air by a small parachute1 to which it is connected by a chain4 ,thus1 in lieu of the transient momentary gleam1 obtained by the common light ball1 a permanent and brilliant light is obtained1 and suspended in the air for five minutes at least1 so as to afford time and light sufficient to observe the motions of an enemy1 either on shore or at sea2 where it is particularly useful in chasing1 and for giving distant and more extensive night signals4 ,it is to be observed1 that nothing of this kind can be obtained by the projectile force of either guns or mortars2 because the explosion infallibly destroys any construction1 that could be made to produce the suspension in the air4 ,we have seen no account of any experiments1 which have been made with it4 ,sec4 ,,xxvii4 ,of the ,floating ,rocket ,carcass4 ,congreve also applied his rocket1 and the parachute1 for the purpose of conveying combustible matter to distances far beyond the range of any known projectile force1 at the same time that it is cheap1 simple1 and portable4 ,the floating carcass1 like the light-ball1 is thrown into the air1 attached to a rocket1 from which being liberated at its greatest altitude1 and suspended to a small parachute1 it is driven forward by the wind1 and will1 in a moderate breeze1 afford ranges at least double those of the common carcass4 ,it may1 therefore1 for naval purposes1 be thrown from a blockading squadron1 in great quantities1 by a fair wind1 against any fleet or arsenal1 without the smallest risk1 or without approaching within range of either guns or mortars4 ,the rocket containing the carcass is no larger than the #cb pounder carcass rocket2 and the whole expense1 added to the rocket1 does not exceed five shillings4 ,nor are the approaches of the carcass itself necessarily visible by night2 as it may be so arranged1 as not to inflame1 till some time after it has settled4 ,it is evidently1 therefore1 capable of becoming a harassing weapon1 if the account of it be true2 and1 among large fleets and flotillas1 it may do as much injury as any other carcass1 by lodging unperceived in the rigging1 or lighting on extensive arsenals1 in such situations1 where other means of annoyance could not be used4 ,sec4 ,,xxviii4 ,observations on ,rockets4 ,the following remarks on the subject of rockets by ,m4 ,bigot1 7,trait d',artifice de ,guerre1 p4 #aca17 may be interesting to the reader4 ,authors1 who have written on rockets1 are of opinion1 that the height of the different kinds of rockets should not be increased on account of their diameter2 because1 as the diameter increases1 the rocket also increases in weight and surface2 and if augmented in height in the same ratio1 its power of ascension would be feeble4 ,it is from this reasoning1 together with practice1 that they have determined the height of empty cases4 ,some have given the proportion of six times their exterior diameter1 and others again have made them a third longer than the piercer4 ,there has resulted from this difference of opinion1 such an irregularity in the formation of rockets1 that artificers or fire-workers were left in uncertainty as to the best mode to be pursued4 ,to avoid1 however1 this embarrassment1 if we consider the diameter of the base of the piercer of any kind of rocket as one-third of the exterior diameter of the case1 the small end must be the one-sixth part of it2 and the piercer and the cone are of the same diameter1 and the surface of the one is equal to the surface of the other4 ,we might conclude1 accordingly1 that the increase of the height of the case1 should be the same with all kinds of rockets4 ,it appears by different authors1 that the ancient and modern fire-workers have fixed the dimensions of rockets and their piercers1 by various experiments4 ,if we take for granted all the heights of the piercers1 or the rockets themselves1 we obtain a curve of double or treble reflection1 which is very evidently in opposition to the above principles1 and of the law which results from them4 ,experiments prove1 that to make a good rocket of half an inch in diameter1 the piercer must be five times and a third of the same diameter2 and for a rocket of three inches1 the piercer1 or broach1 as it is sometimes called1 is only four times the diameter in height4 ,to determine1 however1 the height of the piercer in general1 greater than the preceding1 it is found necessary to have some satisfactory result1 in order to employ1 mathematically speaking1 less times of the exterior diameter of the rocket4 ,the half-inch and three-inch rocket are the extremes of an increasing arithmetical progression2 and their equivalents1 #e-a_/c and #d diameters is the extreme of a similar1 but decreasing progress2 but if we insert the same number of arithmetical mean between the two extremes of each of these two progressions1 and then continue them indifferently1 the terms of the first will express the diameter of as many different cases2 and those of the second1 the height of the corresponding piercers4 ,they will be1 for instance1 in the two following proportions3 #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad1 c4 #cf4 #e-ad_/de #e-ab_/de #e-aa_/de #e-i_/de #e-g_/de #e-g_/de #e-b_/de #e-a_/de #d-dd_/de c4 #d4 ,the first of which has unity for its common difference4 ,it has been found1 that1 by inserting in each1 a mean of #bi1 the height of the piercers will correspond with the superior diameter1 which is less1 or regulated by their respective diameters4 ,besides1 as the diameters go on augmenting1 the rockets are proportionably increased in height1 but only in an inverse order1 until the #ehth term included1 and beyond which they decrease1 until they become negative1 which appears to indicate that the term appertains to the diameter of the rocket1 and without any uncertainty4 ,it results from the intimate relation of these two progressions1 that1 in stopping at the #ehth term1 if we bring back on an axis as it were1 the height of the piercers1 we obtain a straight instead of a curved line4 ,bigot has given two tables relative to the construction of rockets1 and1 as their use is seen by mere inspection1 we here introduce them without remark4 ,they comprehend the dimensions of rockets of different calibers1 compared with the exterior and respective diameter of each kind2 and relative to the dimensions of the tools of sky-rockets of different calibers1 and also compared with the exterior and respective diameter of each4 ,it will be seen1 on an examination of these tables1 that all the data are satisfactorily given2 so that1 in the construction of rockets1 the artificer will find them extremely useful1 if not absolutely necessary4 ,the principles on which these tables are founded1 may be depended on1 inasmuch as ,m4 ,bigot has taken considerable pains on that head2 and1 consequently1 the calculations1 which follow1 and the proportions1 established for the construction of rockets in general1 are sufficiently conclusive4 7,,table ,i3 ,part #a of #c7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,diameter of ,height of tools of wood4 the rocket4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,rammers1 c4 ---------------------------------------- ,name of the ,for charging the head not ,rocket4 comprised4 ,ext ,int- ------------------------------- eriorerior,roller #a #b #c ,solid#d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ inch4,diam4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,small ,partement1 #bd #f #d-e_/i #b-g_/i #a ,partement1 idem4 #af #f-b_/i #d-ac_/bg #b-f_/bg idem4 ,marquise1 #a idem4 #ab #f-a_/ab #d-g_/ah #b-be_/cf idem4 ,double marquises #a idem4 idem4#e-ad_/aed-ac_/de #b-bi_/de idem4 ,ditto1 for #d doz4 #a idem4 #aj #e-g_/i #d-e_/bg #b-af_/bg idem4 ,rocket of #b idem4 #i #e #c-ca_/cf #b-be_/gb #a ,ditto1 #b idem4 #h #e-a_/ae #c-bi_/de #b-b_/i #a-b_/ae ,ditto1 #c idem4 #h #d-g_/i #c-d_/i #b-a_/i #a-a_/i ,ditto1 #d idem4 #f #d #c-c_/cb #a-ae_/af #a ,ditto1 #e idem4 #f #c-dc_/fjb-acc_/ahja-acg_/ahja-g_/fj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ 7,,table ,i3 ,part #b of #c7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,diameter of ,height of ,diameter of the the rocket4tools of wood tools of wood4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,rammers4 ----------- ,name of the ,rocket4 ,con- ,sockets ,ext ,int- ical ,to ,to ,of of the eriorerior ,pot4 head run charge pots4 pot4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- inch4,diam4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,small ,partement1 #c #a #g_/ab #a ,partement1 idem4 #b #a-e_/i idem4#aa_/ah #a-e_/i #g_/i ,marquise1 #a idem4 #b #a idem4idem4 #a ,double marquises #a idem4 #b #a-h_/ae;idem4 #a-h_/ae #ac_/ae ,ditto1 for #d doz4 #a idem4 #b #a idem4#aa_/ah #a ,rocket of #b idem4 #a idem4 idem4 idem4 ,ditto1 #b idem4 #a idem4 idem4#ai_/cj idem4 #i_/aj ,ditto1 #c idem4 #a idem4 idem4#bc_/cf idem4 #aa_/ab ,ditto1 #d idem4#a-a_/af;idem4 idem4#ca_/dh idem4 #ae_/af ,ditto1 #e idem4 #i_/aj;idem4 idem4#ac_/bj idem4 #ad_/ae ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- 7,,table ,i3 ,part #c of #c7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,diameter of,diameter of the ,dimension of the rocket4 tools of wood4 mallets4 ---------------------------------------- - ,name of the ,rocket4 ,base of ,ext ,int-conical eriorerior head4 ,ladle4,diameter4 ,length4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ inch4,diam4 ,d4 ,d4 inches4 inches4 ,small ,partement1 #a #b #c ,partement1 idem4 #a-e_/i idem4 #b #c ,marquise1 #a idem4 #a idem4 #c #d ,double marquises #a idem4 #a-h_/ae idem4 #c #d ,ditto1 for #d doz4 #a idem4 #a idem4 #d #e ,rocket of #b idem4 idem4 idem4 ,ditto1 #b idem4 idem4 idem4 ,ditto1 #c idem4 idem4 idem4 #e #f ,ditto1 #d idem4 idem4 idem4 ,ditto1 #e idem4 idem4 idem4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 7,,table ,,ii3 ,part #a of #c7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,diameter of ,,height ,,of rockets4 -------------------------------- ---------- ,charged ,name of the rockets1 ,rockets4 ,ext- ,int- ,empty button1 ,massive eriorerior cases4c4incl4,rockets,piercers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ inch4,diam4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,small partement1 #g #f #e ,partement1 idem4 idem4 #f-g_/i idem4 #e-b_/i ,marquise1 #a idem4 #g-g_/ab #f-g_/ab idem4 #e-a_/ab ,double marquise #a idem4 #g #f-g_/ae idem4 #d-ad_/ae of #c doz4 ,ditto1 #d doz4 #a idem4 #f-g_/i #f-e_/ah idem4 #d-g_/i ,rocket of #b idem4 #f #e #d-ac_/bd ,ditto1 #b idem4 #f-a_/ae #e-ag_/cj #g_/ae #d-d_/ae ,ditto1 #c idem4 #e-g_/i #e-e_/ah #d_/i #d ,ditto1 #d idem4 #e #d-gc_/gf #aa_/bd #c-ae_/cb ,ditto1 #e idem4 #d-dc_/fj #d-ac_/fj #i_/bj #b-ad_/ae ---------------------------------------- ------------------ 7,,table ,,ii3 ,part #b of #c7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,diameter of ,,height ,,of rockets4 --------------------------------- ---------- ,total of ,name of the ,button the piercer ,rockets4 ,ext- ,int- their and culot erioreriorcylinder,culots4comprised4 ,screw4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- inch4,diam4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,small partement1 #a #g ,partement1 idem4 idem4 idem4 #g-e_/i #b ,marquise1 #a idem4 idem4 idem4 #g-a_/ab #b ,double marquise #a idem4 idem4 #a #f #b of #c doz4 ,ditto1 #d doz4 #a idem4 idem4 #a-a_/ah #f #a ,rocket of #b idem4 idem4 #f-a_/ab #a ,ditto1 #b idem4 idem4 #e-aa_/ae #a-c_/aj ,ditto1 #c idem4 idem4 #e #a ,ditto1 #d idem4 idem4 #d-fa_/if #ae_/af ,ditto1 #e idem4 idem4 #d ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 7,,table ,,ii3 ,part #c of #c7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,diameter of ,diameter of the parts of the piercer4 rockets4 -------------------------------- --- ---------- ,name of the ,exterior ,button ,screw ,rockets4 ,ext- ,int- of small and at the eriorerior ,base4 end4 cylinder4,culot4 base4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- inch4,diam4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,small partement1 #a #a ,partement1 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 #g_/i ,marquise1 #a idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 ,double marquise #a idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 of #c doz4 ,ditto1 #d doz4 #a idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 #e_/i ,rocket of #b idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 ,ditto1 #b idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 ,ditto1 #c idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 ,ditto1 #d idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 #e_/ab ,ditto1 #e idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 idem4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,note4 ,the rockets of two inches1 and those between that and three inches1 require to be beaten with four rammers1 independently of that which is solid2 and also those above three inches1 require five4 ,the rolling board should be sufficiently large for the cases we wish to form2 viz4 one of twenty-eight inches in length1 and six inches in breadth for small rockets2 one of thirty inches in length1 and ten inches in breadth for middlesized rockets2 and one of thirty-six inches by eighteen for the largest rockets4 ,sec4 ,,xxix4 ,of the ,succouring ,rocket4 ,the succouring1 or marine rocket1 is a name given to a rocket1 which is sufficiently large to convey a small cord or rope to some distance from a vessel1 and by its means to save the lives of persons in danger of shipwreck4 ,rockets for this purpose should be at least two inches in interior diameter4 ,the rod should be of the same length and thickness as a rocket of half this caliber4 ,to this rod is tied the cord1 which must be light1 and yet strong1 and when the rocket is fired1 the string should be arranged loose1 so that no impediment is experienced in the flight of the rocket4 ,the applications of the succouring rocket are two in particular3 viz4 ,in case a seaman should fall overboard1 and in case of shipwreck2 in the former1 to throw a cord to some distance1 and in the latter1 to convey a cord from the ship to the shore1 should a vessel be stranded on a beach4 ,several methods have been proposed for the same purpose1 namely1 that of conveying a line or rope to shore1 when the surf is too high for a small boat to live in it4 ,the invention of lieut4 ,bell1 described in the ,annales des ,arts et ,manufactures1 and in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 ii1 #abj1 is designed for a similar purpose as the succouring rocket4 ,mr4 ,bell's invention consists simply in throwing a rope from a vessel by means of a mortar1 attaching it to a shell1 in order to make a communication from a vessel in danger to the shore4 ,for this contrivance1 he received one hundred guineas4 ,several experiments were made with it1 which were satisfactory4 ,in the essays1 published by ,mr4 ,fulton1 a contrivance of this kind is suggested1 using1 however1 an instrument similar to a harpoon1 to which a rope is attached4 ,this harpoon is thrown by a long gun4 ,it is calculated1 also1 as the harpoon for this purpose is furnished with several barbs1 to pierce and secure an enemy's vessel4 ,sec4 ,,xxx4 ,of the ,greek ,fire4 ,it is not known precisely what the composition of the ,greek fire was4 ,it was invented by ,callinicus of ,hellipolis1 a town in ,syria1 who used it with so much skill and effect during a naval engagement1 that he destroyed a whole fleet belonging to the enemy1 in which were embarked thirty thousand men4 ,it is defined to be a sort of artificial fire1 which insinuates itself beyond the surface of the sea1 and which burns with increased violence1 when it mixes with water4 ,its directions are contrary to the course of natural fire2 for the flames1 we are told1 will spread themselves downwards1 to the right or left1 agreeably to the moment that is given4 ,it was used in the year #afgi1 and was known and used in #abia4 ,it was certainly liquid1 and employed in many different ways2 but1 chiefly1 on board ships1 being thrown from large engines on the ships of the enemy4 ,this fire was sometimes kindled in particular vessels1 which might be called fire-ships1 and which were introduced among a hostile fleet4 ,sometimes it was put into jars and other vessels1 which were thrown at the enemy by means of projectile machines2 and sometimes it was squirted by soldiers from hand-engines1 or1 as it appears1 blown through pipes4 ,this fire was discharged from the fore part of ships1 by a machine constructed of copper and iron1 the extremity of which resembled the open mouth and jaws of a lion or other animal4 ,they were painted1 and even gilded1 and1 it appears1 were capable of projecting the fire to a great distance4 ,professor ,beckman1 who examined all the ancient authors respecting the ,greek fire1 expressly says1 that the machines which the ancients employed to throw this fire were spouting engines4 ,he also observes 7,history of ,invent4 iv1 p4 #he7 that ,john ,cameniata1 speaking of his native city1 ,thessalonica1 which was taken by the ,saracens in the year #ija1 says1 that the enemy threw fire into the wooden works of the besieged1 which was blown into them by means of tubes1 and thrown from other vessels4 ,this passage1 which ,i do not find quoted in any of the works that treat on the ,greek fire1 proves1 that the ,greeks1 in the beginning of the tenth century1 were no longer the only people acquainted with the art of preparing this fire1 the precurser of our gunpowder4 ,the ,emperor ,leo1 who about the same period wrote his art of war1 recommends such engines1 with a metal covering1 to be constructed in the fore part of ships2 and he twice afterwards mentions engines for throwing out ,greek fire4 ,in the east1 one may easily have conceived the idea of loading some kind of pump with the ,greek fire2 as the use of a forcing pump for extinguishing fires was long known there before the invention of ,callinicus4 ,writers differ considerably as to the composition of ,greek fire1 properly so called1 as there were many preparations1 some hundred years after the discovery1 which went under the name of ,greek fire4 ,certain it is1 that the ,greeks had a knowledge of a very highly combustible preparation1 which water would not extinguish1 and which1 from its nature1 must have had the property of decomposing water itself1 or possessed so much oxygen1 as to support the combustion of the inflammable substances1 even in contact with water4 ,mr4 ,parke1 7,chem4 ,catechism1 p4 #dfe71 speaking of some of the uses of nitre or saltpetre1 says1 that for the same purposes it was used by the ancients in that destructive composition of antiquity1 the ,greek fire4 ,sulphur1 rosin1 camphor1 and other combustibles1 were melted with it1 and in this melted mass1 woollen cords were dipped1 which were afterwards rolled up for use4 ,these balls being set on fire were thrown into the tents1 c4 of the enemy1 and as the combustibles were furnished with a constant supply of oxygen from the nitre1 nothing could extinguish them4 ,he also observes3 ,for many centuries1 the method of making this dreadful article of destruction was lost2 but it has just been discovered by the librarian of the elector of ,bavaria1 who has found a very old latin manuscript1 which contains directions for preparing it4 ,it appears1 however1 that it could only be extinguished by urine1 sand1 c4 ,james 7,mil4 ,dic4 p4 #cbi7 says1 it is composed1 or made up of naphtha1 sulphur1 bitumen1 gum1 and pitch1 and it can only be extinguished by vinegar1 mixed with urine and sand1 or with undressed leather and green hides4 ,the author of a ,french work1 uvres ,militaires1 says1 that a powerful composition1 which is not extinguishable with water1 may be made of the following substances3 viz4 pitch1 rosin1 tallow1 camphor1 turpentine1 saltpetre1 liquid varnish1 oil of sulphur1 linseed1 rock oil1 flax1 and charcoal finely pulverized4 ,the whole is melted together and boiled1 and before it grows cold1 quicklime in powder is added4 ,it is said to be susceptible of the most subtile and destructive fire4 ,bertrandon de la ,brocquiere1 who was in ,palestine in #adcb1 as counsellor to the ,duke of ,burgundy1 observes1 that the ,moors were then in possession of the ,greek fire4 ,he was present at ,barrat1 during one of the ,moorish celebrations4 ,it began1 says he1 in the evening at sun set4 ,numerous companies1 scattered here and there1 were singing and uttering loud cries4 ,while this was passing1 the cannon of the castle were fired1 and the people of the town launched into the air1 'bien hault et bien loing1 une manire de feu plus gros fallot que je veisse oncques allume4' ,they told me1 they made use of such at sea1 to set fire to the sails of an enemy's vessel4 ,it seems to me1 that as it is a thing easy to be made1 and at a little expense1 it may be equally well employed to burn a camp or a thatched village1 or in an engagement with cavalry1 to frighten their horses4 ,curious to know its composition1 ,i sent the servant of my host to the person who made this fire1 and requested him to teach me this method4 ,he returned for answer1 that he dared not1 for that he should run great danger1 were it known2 but as there is nothing a ,moor will not do for money1 ,i offered him a ducat1 which quieted his fears1 and he taught me all he knew1 and even gave me the moulds in wood1 with the other ingredients1 which ,i have brought to ,france4 ,although ,la ,brocquiere may have brought the secret to ,europe1 yet it does not appear to have been used4 ,we may justly conclude1 that the present gunpowder possesses superior advantages to the ,greek fire1 and some authors1 as ,ruggeri1 are of opinion1 that the account we have of it1 that of its fire descending1 and the like1 are exaggerated4 ,porta1 7,magie ,naturelle71 in treating of this subject1 observes1 that the ,greek fire was composed of the charcoal of willow1 salt1 burnt brandy1 sulphur1 pitch1 frankincense1 flax1 and camphor1 and that camphor alone has the effect of burning in water4 ,he remarks also1 that1 when ,constantinople was attacked1 the emperor ,leon burnt the vessels1 or boats1 to the number of #ahjj1 by means of the ,greek fire4 ,the ,journal des ,savants1 #afgf1 p4 #adh1 speaks of the origin and use of the same fire4 ,in #abdi1 at the siege of ,damietta1 the ,french experienced the fatal effects of it4 ,the ,journal des ,savants for #afff1 mentions a machine1 which1 when applied against a vessel1 communicates fire to it immediately1 without injuring the person who uses it4 ,in the ,french papers for #agig1 ,m4 ,chevalier announced1 that he had invented an inextinguishable incendiary fuse1 which is thrown by fire arms1 and calculated to set fire to the rigging of ships4 ,in #agei1 ,dr4 ,dupr published in the ,french ,journals1 that he had invented a composition1 which had the same properties and effects as the ancient ,greek fire1 and that he possessed the means of extinguishing it4 ,an experiment was made at ,versailles to the satisfaction of all1 and the secret was purchased by ,louis ,,xv4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,p4 ,coste1 in #agid1 laid before the ,french national convention1 a new invention1 for the purpose of war1 consisting of a carcass composition1 which nothing could extinguish1 and which resembled in that respect the ,greek fire4 ,thevenot 7,travels in the ,levant71 says1 that in the #eb;d year of the ,hegira1 7,anno ,domini #fgb71 ,constantinople was besieged in the reign of ,constantine ,prognates1 by ,yesid1 the son of ,moavia1 the first caliph of the family of the ,ammiades2 when the ,greek emperor found himself so pressed1 that he was almost reduced to despair4 ,but the famous engineer1 ,callinicus1 invented a kind of wild fire1 which would burn under water1 and by this means destroyed the whole fleet4 ,gibbon 7,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 vol4 vii1 p4 #bhb71 speaks also of the ,greek fire1 and observes1 that the deliverance of ,constantinople may be chiefly ascribed to it4 ,it appears1 that ,callinicus1 the inventor1 deserted from the service of the ,caliph to that of the ,emperor2 and ,gibbon is of opinion1 that this discovery or improvement of the military art1 was fortunately reserved for the distressful period1 when the degenerate ,romans of the east were incapable of contending with the warlike enthusiasm and youthful vigour of the ,saracens4 ,he is of opinion1 that little or no credit can be given to the ,byzantine accounts1 as to the composition of this fire2 although1 from their obscure and fallacious hints1 it should seem that the principal ingredient was naphtha1 a liquid bitumen which springs from the earth4#ci ,this was mixed with sulphur1 and with the pitch1 extracted from the evergreen firs1 according to the testimony of ,anna ,commena1 7,alexid1 l4 xiii1 p4 #chc71 and ,leo1 in the xixth chapter of his ,tactics1 speaks of the new invention4 ,gibbon describes its effects much as we have stated1 viz4 that the fire was strong and obstinate1 and was quickened by water2 that sand1 urine1 and vinegar were the only agents that could damp its fury2 that it was used for the annoyance of the enemy1 both by sea and land1 in battles or in sieges1 and was either poured from the rampart in large boilers1 or lanched into red-hot balls of stone and iron1 or darted in arrows and javelins1 twisted round with flax and tow1 which had deeply imbibed the inflammable oil2 that1 at other times1 it was deposited in fire ships1 or blown through long tubes of copper1 fixed on a prow of a galley2 that its composition was kept secret at ,constantinople1 pretending that the knowledge of it came from an angel to the first and greatest of the ,constantines1 with a sacred injunction not to divulge it under any pretext1 c4 ,he also observes1 that1 after it was kept secret above four hundred years1 and to the end of the #aath century1 the method of preparing it was stolen by the ,mahometans1 who employed it against the crusaders4 ,a knight1 it appears1 who despised the swords and lances of the ,saracens1 relates1 with heartfelt sincerity1 his own fears1 at the sight and sound of the mischievous engine1 that discharged a torrent of the ,greek fire1 the feu ,gregeois1 as it is styled by the more early of the ,french writers4 ,it came flying through the air1 says ,gibbon1 quoting ,joinville1 7,histoire de ,st4 ,louis7 like a winged long tailed dragon1 about the thickness of a hogshead1 with a report of thunder and the velocity of lightning2 and the darkness of the night was dispelled by this deadly illumination4 ,the use of the ,greek1 or as it might now be called1 ,saracen fire1 was continued to the middle of the #adth century1 when the scientific or casual compound of nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 effected a new revolution in the art of war1 and the history of mankind4 ,ramsay1 our learned historian1 7,universal ,history1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aej71 gives the same account of the ,greek fire4 ,morse1 in his ,universal ,geography1 page #ehh1 observes1 that naphtha forms springs in ,persia1 and1 when scattered on the sea1 it burns1 and the flame is often wafted to a great distance4 ,for remarks respecting the naphtha of ,persia1 and the universal fire of the followers of ,zoroaster1 see the article on ,naphtha4 ,in naphtha districts1 the quantity of inflammable air is so great1 that it is used for fuel4 ,since writing the above1 we have examined ,ruggeri1 7,pyrotechnie ,militaire1 p4 #bhi71 and find nothing new4 ,he states the composition of ,greek fire1 on the authority of others1 to consist of naphtha1 sulphur1 bitumen1 camphor1 and petroleum2 that it was invented by ,callinicus1 and employed against the ,saracens as an incendiary2 that ,pliny1 in his time1 mentioned a combustible substance1 which was thrown upon armed men1 and burnt and destroyed them in the midst of the battle2 that it was employed successfully by the successors of ,constantine1 and its composition was kept a state secret2 that the ,turks used it1 or a composition of a similar nature1 at the siege of ,damieta1 in #abdi1 forty-five years after the death of ,roger ,bacon2 and1 finally1 that1 when the composition and effects of gunpowder became known1 the ,greek fire1 although it laid the foundation of the invention of gunpowder1 was no longer in use1 and the secret of the original preparation became lost4 ,see ,gunpowder4 ,sec4 ,,xxxi4 ,of ,mines and ,mining4 ,a mine is a subterraneous passage1 dug under the wall or rampart of a fortification1 for the purpose of blowing it up by gunpowder2 and mining is the art of accomplishing this effect4 ,the art of mining1 having become one of the most essential parts of the attack and defence of places1 should be well understood2 and requires a perfect knowledge of heights1 depths1 breadths1 and thicknesses2 to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars1 whether they be such as are parallel to the horizon1 or such as are visual2 together with the true levels of all kinds of earth4 ,to this may be added1 a knowledge of rocks1 clays1 soil1 c4 and the effect of gunpowder4 ,mines were made long before the invention of gunpowder4 ,the ancients made galleries1 or underground passages1 much in the same manner as the moderns1 from without1 under the walls of places1 which they cut off from the foundation1 and supported with strong props4 ,the intervals were filled with all manner of combustibles1 which1 being set on fire1 burnt their props1 and the wall1 being no longer supported1 fell1 by which a breach was made4 ,the besieged also made underground passages1 from the town1 under the besiegers' machines1 by which they battered the walls1 to destroy them1 proving that necessity has been the inventress of mines4 ,the first mines we read of1 since the invention of gunpowder1 were made in #adhg1 by the ,genoese1 at the attack of ,serezanella1 a town in ,florence4 ,these1 however1 failed1 and they were neglected1 till ,peter ,navarro1 being then engineer to the ,genoese1 and afterwards to the ,spaniards1 in #aejc1 against the ,french1 at the siege of the castle del ,ovo1 at ,naples1 made a mine under the wall1 and blew it up2 in consequence of which the castle was taken by storm4 ,valliers says1 that the engineer was ,francis ,george1 an ,italian4 ,the place where the powder is lodged1 is called the chamber of the mine1 or fourneau1 and the passage leading to the powder1 is called the gallery4 ,the line of the least resistance1 is the line drawn from the centre of the chamber1 perpendicular to the surface of the ground2 and the excavation1 called the crater1 is the pit or hole1 made by springing the mine4 ,counter-mines are those made by the besieged1 whereas mines are generally made by the besiegers4 ,both mines and counter-mines1 are made in the same manner1 and for like purposes1 viz4 to blow up their enemies and their works4 ,galleries1 made within the fortification1 before the place is attacked1 and from which several branches are carried to different places1 are generally #d and #d-a_/b feet wide1 and #e or #e-a_/b feet high4 ,the earth is supported from falling in1 by arches and walls1 as they are to remain for a considerable time4 ,but when mines are made to be used in a short time1 then the galleries are but #c or #c-a_/b feet wide1 and #e feet high1 and the earth is supported by wooden frames1 or props4 ,the gallery being carried on to the place1 where the powder is to be lodged1 the miners make the chambers4 ,this is generally of a cubical form1 large enough to hold the wooden box1 which contains the powder necessary for the charge4 ,the box is lined with straw and sand bags1 to prevent the powder from contracting dampness4 ,the chamber is sunk rather lower than the gallery1 if the soil permits2 but where water is to be apprehended1 it must be made higher than the gallery2 otherwise the besieged will let in the water1 and spoil the mine4 ,the fire is communicated to the mine by a pipe1 or hose1 made of coarse cloth1 whose diameter is about #a-a_/b inches1 called a saucisson1 7for the filling of which1 near half a pound of powder is allowed to every foot71 extending from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery1 to the end of which is fixed a match1 that the miner who sets fire to it1 may have time to retire before it reaches the chamber4 ,to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness1 the saucisson is laid in a small trough1 called an auget1 made of boards #c-a_/b inches broad1 joined together lengthwise1 with straw in it1 and round the saucisson1 with a wooden cover nailed upon it4 ,the quantity of powder1 required to charge mines1 depends upon the nature of the soil4 ,that which is more tenacious1 will require the greatest force to separate its parts4 ,the density may be learned1 comparatively speaking1 by determining the specific gravity of each kind of soil4 ,the requisites in mining may be ascertained by four simple problems1 which relate to the nature of the soil1 the diameter of the excavation1 the line of least resistance1 and the charge4 ,table of the quantity of ,gunpowder1 to raise a cubic fathom of different kinds of ,soil4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,density4 ,,tenacity4 ------------------------------ ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,soil4 ,quantity of ,weight of #a powder to cubic foot4 raise #a cubic fathom4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a4 ,loose earth or sand4 #ie lbs4 #h lbs4 #b4 ,common light soil4 #abd #aj #c4 ,loam or strong soil4 #abg #ab #d4 ,potters' clay1 or stiff soil4 #ace #ac #e4 ,clay1 mixed with stones4 #afj #af #f4 ,masonry4 #bje #ba ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the gallery and chamber being ready to be loaded1 a strong box of wood is made of the size and figure of the chamber1 being about one-third or one-fourth larger than is required for containing the necessary quantity of powder4 ,against the sides and bottom of the box is put some straw1 and this straw is covered over with empty sand bags1 to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness4 ,a hole is made in the side1 next the gallery1 near the bottom1 for the saucisson to pass through1 which is fixed to the middle of the bottom1 by means of a wooden peg1 to prevent its loosening from the powder1 or to hinder the enemy 7if he should reach the entrance7 from being able to tear it out4 ,this done1 the powder is brought in sand bags1 and thrown loosely in the box1 and covered also with straw and sand bags4 ,upon this is put the cover of the box1 pressed down very tight with strong props2 and1 to render them more secure1 planks are also put above them1 against the earth1 and wedged in as fast as possible4 ,this done1 the vacant spaces between the props are filled up with stones and dung1 and rammed in the strongest manner4 ,the least neglect in this work will considerably alter the effect of the mine4 ,then the auget1 or small trough1 is laid from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery1 with some straw at the bottom2 and the saucisson laid in it1 with straw over it4 ,lastly1 it must be shut with a wooden cover1 nailed upon it4 ,great care must be taken in stopping up the gallery1 not to press too hard upon the auget1 for fear of spoiling the saucisson1 which may hinder the powder from taking fire1 and prevent the mine from springing4 ,the gallery is stopped up with stones1 earth and dung1 well rammed1 six or seven feet further from the chamber than the length of the line of the least resistance4#dj ,before closing this article1 short as it is1 compared with a full view of the subject1 which belongs exclusively to engineering1 we shall notice1 from ,belidor1 the globe of compression in mines4 ,if we imagine a large globe of earth1 homogeneous in all its parts1 and a certain quantity of powder lodged in its centre1 so as to produce a proper effect without bursting the globe2 by setting fire to the powder1 it is evident that the explosion will act all round1 to overcome the obstacles which oppose its motion2 and as the particles of the earth are porous1 they will compress each other in proportion as the flame increases1 and the capacity of the chamber increases likewise3 but the particles of the earth next to the chamber will communicate a part of their motion to those next to them1 and those to their neighbours2 and this communication will thus continue in a decreasing proportion1 till the whole force of explosion is entirely spent2 and the particles of earth beyond this term will remain in the same state as they were at first4 ,the particles of earth1 that have been acted upon by the force of explosion1 will compose a globe1 which ,mr4 ,belidor calls the globe of compression4 ,he observed1 that1 when a mine exploded1 and threw up the ground over it1 its action was1 at the same time1 felt in a circular direction1 throughout the surrounding ground1 to a distance at least equal to the oblique line drawn from the centre of inflammation to the edge of the funnel4 ,mines and counter-mines are now called offensive and defensive mines4 ,the hole made by the explosion is called the entonnoir1 crater1 or funnel4 ,in the system of counter-mines1 we have the magistral gallery1 or gallery of the counterscarp1 which is that extended below the covered way1 from which branches are pushed to overthrow the works and batteries of the beseiger1 that crown it2 the enveloping gallery that communicates with the other passages1 called the galleries of communication1 and is nearly parallel with the first at the distance of from forty to sixty yards4 ,other galleries are pushed forward1 leaving the enveloping gallery1 projecting at least thirty yards1 and having spaces between them of about fifty yards in width2 so that the enemy's miner1 whose work may be heard under ground about thirty yards1 may not pass between any two of them without being discovered4 ,these are called listening galleries4 ,it may be observed1 that1 from these galleries1 branches are carried forward to establish chambers under the works of the enemy4 ,those who wish to acquire information on this1 and other subjects1 connected with attack and defence1 and on some branches of engineering1 would do well to consult the ,french work of ,bousmard4 ,there are likewise small mines called ,fougasses1 used in the defence of field works4 ,they are seldom more than ten feet beneath the surface1 and are placed at the expected points of attack1 usually nine feet from the salient angles1 and without the counterscarp4 ,the chest of powder and the saucisson are placed as usual4 ,barrels or casks and even grenades are used4 ,sec4 ,,xxxii4 ,of the ,means of ,increasing the ,strength of ,gunpowder for ,mining4 ,we mentioned1 in the article on gunpowder1 that quicklime had the effect of increasing its strength4 ,it has been suggested1 to employ quicklime1 for this purpose1 when gunpowder is used in mining4 ,botte and ,riffault 7,trait de l'art de ,fabriquer la ,poudre canon1 p4 #cja7 have given the result of some experiments on this subject1 which we purpose to notice4 ,these experiments1 however1 are not satisfactory on this head4 ,dr4 ,baine1 a physician of ,foxano1 in ,tuscany1 was the first who announced the fact1 that quicklime would increase the explosive effect of gunpowder4 ,the increase he states to be one-third4 ,the proportions are1 twenty-three grammes of quicklime1 and one kilogramme of powder4#da ,the quicklime is powdered1 and mixed with the gunpowder4 ,various experiments were made1 with the eprouvette of ,regnier1 which did not establish the truth of ,dr4 ,baine's assertion4 ,the ,tuscan hunters use gunpowder mixed with lime4 ,the experiments were made by ,m4 ,l4 ,maitre and colonel ,charbonel4 ,they employed pure dry powder1 dry powder mixed with quicklime1 moist powder pure1 and moist powder mixed with lime4 ,the object of these experiments was to ascertain1 if the presence of quicklime added to the force of powder2 either as a fourth component part and acting chemically1 or by absorbing the moisture which the powder contains4 ,the charge of each was three ounces4 ,the result of the experiments is thus given3 ,powder1 dry and pure1 #gch feet #b inches4 ,powder1 dry1 and mixed with quicklime1 #fij -- #a -- ---- ---- ,difference in favor of dry powder1 #dh #a ,powder1 moist and pure1 #gad feet #a inch4 ,powder1 moist1 and mixed with quicklime1 #fdb -- #b -- ---- ---- ,difference in favor of moist powder1 #ga #aa ,it has been asserted1 that the force of gunpowder is increased by water1 alcohol1 and ether1 in consequence of the great expansibility of these fluids2 but1 according to the experiments of ,botte and ,riffault1 the range of the ball was much less when the three fluids were used successively1 than when the dry and pure gunpowder alone was employed4 ,we are informed by a gentleman1 who saw the experiment made1 that when gunpowder is mixed with an equal weight of fine saw dust1 and fired1 it will give the same range to a ball as the same weight of unmixed powder4 ,we find that col4 ,gibbs1 7,american ,journal of ,science1 i4 #hg71 in a letter to professor ,silliman1 mentions the use of lime in increasing the strength of gunpowder4 ,he gives a certificate of the person1 whom he employed in blowing rocks1 in which he used quicklime along with powder1 in the proportion of one part of the former to two of the latter4 ,in the certificate1 it is stated1 that a charge of this mixture was found to be equally powerful1 or to answer equally well with a like quantity of gunpowder1 having made upwards of fifty blasts in this manner1 and1 as he states1 several hundred in the usual way4 ,he remarks1 however1 that1 when the powdered lime was mixed with the gunpowder the day before1 the effect was diminished4 ,the colonel attributes the effect to the desiccation of the powder by the lime2 and1 as gunpowder absorbs more or less water1 the lime1 in its caustic state1 takes it from the powder4 ,if the lime should remain too long1 he is of opinion that it would probably attack the water of crystallization of the saltpetre1 and1 according to count ,rumford's idea1 destroy a great part of the powder4 ,the examination of this subject1 says ,gibbs1 led me to consider the increase of the power of gunpowder in various situations1 and of its use in the field4 ,it is well known1 that1 after a few discharges1 a cannon becomes heated1 and the range is much greater1 as well as the recoil4 ,the charge of powder is1 therefore1 reduced about one-quarter1 to produce the original effect4 ,as ,i have not heard or seen any explanation of this fact1 ,i shall take this opportunity of mentioning1 that it appears to arise from the same cause as the first explained1 viz3 the desiccation of the powder1 c4 ,m4 ,humboldt1 7,bulletin de la ,socit ,philomatique1 floreal1 an4 #c7 it appears1 suggested an improvement in mining1 not by increasing the force of gunpowder1 but in the charging of it2 to leave a space occupied only by air1 a fact well known to those who are accustomed to this work1 although not always adopted4 ,he states the effect of powder on a shell2 that1 if it be filled1 it breaks only into two or three pieces2 but if only half filled1 it is shattered into a great number1 which he attributes to the presence of air in the shell4 ,sec4 ,,xxxiii4 ,of ,incendiary ,bombs4 ,these are used in sieges1 and on water4 ,ruggeri gives the preparation of these bombs as follows1 observing to melt the substances in the order they are mentioned4 #a4 ,three parts of sulphur2 #b4 ,one part of pitch2 #c4 ,two parts of nitrate of potassa2 #d4 ,one part of mutton suet4 ,after melting these substances1 and mixing them intimately1 the mixture is removed from the fire1 and two pounds of gunpowder are added1 and thoroughly blended4 ,it is again submitted to heat1 and a sufficient quantity of quick match1 to cover a good sized marron1 is immersed4 ,the marron is furnished with a fuse4 ,the composition hardens on the match4 ,the match is employed as before described4 ,water does not extinguish the fire1 produced by the combustion of this composition4 ,see ,carcasses and ,fire-,balls4 ,sec4 ,,xxxiv4 ,of ,murdering ,marrons4 ,marrons1 which take this name1 are those1 whose effect is different from the incendiary bomb4 ,the latter is calculated to set fire to houses1 c4 while the former is designed to destroy the lives of persons4 ,to make a murdering marron1 we prepare1 in the usual manner1 a cylindrical case1 and fill it with gunpowder1 and then wrap round it1 a quantity of pack-thread4 ,in winding on the thread1 care must be taken to cross it in the manner mentioned in a former article4 ,it is then finished by coating it with a mixture of glue and wax1 or1 in preference1 pitch4 ,this prevents the thread from unwrapping1 and renders the case firm and less liable to break4 ,a hole is then made in its side to the powder1 in which we insert a piece of quick-match1 to communicate fire to the contents of the case4 ,a small fuse1 similar to that of a bomb fuse1 but shorter1 and made of pasteboard1 is also used2 and1 after it is fixed to the marron1 musket balls1 previously pierced with holes1 are nailed round the marron1 the nails passing through the balls into the case4 ,after thus fixing as many balls as the surface of the case will admit1 we cover them with a composition made of three parts of glue and one part of wax4 ,when this coating is dry1 a hemispherical case is adapted4 ,this case is a small sack of paper1 made round1 and filled with gunpowder4 ,it is placed at the bottom of the marron1 and secured there with paper and glue4 ,the match is conveyed to the orifice of the fuse of the marron2 and1 in short1 a communication is so made from the one to the other1 that1 at a given time1 the fire passes by means of the fuse to the marron1 which then explodes1 and throws the balls1 with which it is furnished1 in every direction4 ,shells1 made by uniting two hemispheres1 containing powder1 and furnished with balls and a fuse1 are also a destructive weapon of the same character4 ,sec4 ,,xxxv4 ,of ,incendiary ,rope4 ,we have mentioned1 under the head of ,tourteaux1 or tarred links and fascines1 the compositions made use of for these preparations4 ,the composition for incendiary rope is as follows3 ,sulphur #ab parts ,saltpetre #f ---- ,rosin #b ---- ,camphor #b ---- ,meal-powder #d ---- ,grained powder #b ---- ,the rosin1 sulphur1 camphor1 and saltpetre are melted1 and mixed thoroughly together1 and the kettle1 which contains them1 is removed from the fire2 the gunpowder is then added1 and intimately blended4 ,the mixture is again heated1 and the rope is then immersed in it1 and suffered to remain until it has imbibed sufficiently4 ,it is then taken out1 and allowed to cool4 ,after this operation1 we melt1 in a separate kettle1 the following substances3 ,rosin #d parts4 ,pitch 7or tar7 #d ---- ,mutton suet #b ---- ,when they are melted1 and mixed1 the rope previously prepared as above1 is thrown into the mixture1 and then removed and hung up4 ,after this second process1 we make1 in an earthen vessel1 a priming mixture1 in which the rope is sometimes immersed1 or such parts of it1 as are to take fire promptly4 ,this priming paste is composed of1 ,meal-powder #d parts4 ,saltpetre #d ---- ,sulphur #b ---- ,spirit of wine1 7or brandy71 a sufficient quantity4 ,gum arabic ---- ,incendiary rope is used more generally in the form of a ball1 which is enclosed in a sack1 and fired out of a common mortar4 ,it was invented by an officer at ,toulon4 ,see ,carcasses4 ,sec4 ,,xxxvi4 ,of ,balloons of ,grenades1 of ,bombs1 and of ,flints or ,stone4 ,balloons of this kind are cases1 or sacks1 made sufficiently large1 containing powder1 and enclosing grenades1 shells1 and stones4 ,the balloon of grenades holds twelve charged grenades1 containing different quantities of powder4 ,they are finished like powder sacks1 and corded with small cord1 twine1 or thread4 ,the balloon of flints1 river stones1 or small pebbles1 is made by enclosing these substances along with powder in a sack1 as before stated4 ,these balloons are employed for the defence of works1 c4 ,see ,powder ,sacks4 ,the ,ballon ,bombes1 of the ,french1 is the same4 ,it is a bag1 in which are placed beds of smaller bombs1 that are charged and interlaid with gunpowder4 ,the bag is put into another covering1 that is pitched1 with the neck closely tied up with pack thread1 in which a fuse is fixed1 as in ordinary bombs4 ,the ,english say1 that ,colonel ,shrapnel's invention of the spherical case shot1 is of a superior kind4 ,we purpose1 therefore1 to notice them in the following section4 ,sec4 ,,xxxvii4 ,of ,spherical ,case-,shot4 ,ordinary case shot is a tin case or cannister1 filled with iron balls1 so as to make up the weight of the shot4 ,the balls are seldom less than #a-a_/d oz1 in weight4 ,little effect is to be expected from firing case shot beyond #cjj yards1 from the very great divergency of the balls4 ,the following summary of the effects and advantages of this species of shot1 which1 as invented by ,col4 ,shrapnel1 is called the ,shrapnel shell1 will be sufficient for our purpose4 ,it is extracted from a book lately published4 #ast4 ,the whole charge takes effect on the enemy at any distance4 ,by the present mode of firing1 the greatest part of the charge disperses as soon as it leaves the muzzle of the gun1 and cannot be directed4 #bnd4 ,grape1 or case shot1 may be fired with effect equally close and collected1 to any distance within the range of the piece2 and the artillery need not advance within musket shot of the enemy1 to make use of this kind of fire with its full effect1 and are not so subject to have their guns charged either by cavalry or infantry4 #c;d4 ,it requires less precision and exactness1 to point a piece of ordnance charged with spherical case shot than with round shot2 because case shot is a wide and dispersed fire1 and the difficulty in elevation consequently less4 #dth4 ,its comparative destruction with that of round shot will be1 generally1 as the number of the shot within the shells to one2 that is to say1 a three pounder1 twenty-two to one in its favour2 a six pounder1 fifty to one1 c42 in which calculation is not enumerated any effect from the splinters of the shell4 #eth4 ,small balls cannot be projected to very considerable distances1 unless enclosed in heavy spherical cases1 which1 from their form and weight1 are not much influenced by the resistance of the air1 or diverted from their direction4 #fth4 ,the explosion of the shell makes no change in the direction of the shot within2 they consequently complete the shell's track1 or curve1 which has sometimes been observed to be #djj yards4 #gth4 ,from the unevenness of the ground1 such as hillocks1 banks1 fallow fields1 c4 all shot which graze1 most commonly lodge3 whereas1 by using this shell1 the whole charge will be carried over these irregularities1 and reach the object with its full contents of balls4 ,sec4 ,,xxxviii4 ,of the ,fire-,rain1 according to ,casimir ,siemienowicz4 ,the composition1 which produces fire-rain1 which we purpose to notice in this place1 is taken from the ,artis ,magn ,artilleri of ,casimir ,siemienowicz4 ,he seems1 however1 to have taken it from a ,german author4 ,the fire rain is an incendiary fire-work1 and calculated1 like other incendiaries1 for firing the houses of a besieged place or city1 which are covered with shingles1 laths1 stubble1 or reeds4 ,besides several other compositions1 designated by artificers1 that of fire-rain was so called from its supposed resemblance to a shower of rain4 ,to prepare this composition1 the following method is used3 ,we take #bd parts of sulphur1 and melt in a copper1 or iron pot1 over live coals without flame1 and then throw in #af parts of saltpetre1 and mix it with an iron spatula1 to incorporate the whole4 ,the pot is now removed from the fire1 and when the composition is become rather cold1 stir into it #h parts of grained powder4 ,the composition is then poured on a marble slab1 or metallic plate1 where it is allowed to cool4 ,it is then broken into pieces of the size of a walnut1 which1 when used1 is interspersed with quick match1 covered with gunpowder1 and put into shells or bombs4 ,these bombs are made in the same manner1 as those1 which are formed in fire-works for exhibition4 ,wood1 covered with this composition1 will burn in the same manner as the shells4 ,the globe of fire is also similar to those for exhibition4 ,the mortar is elevated at an angle of #de1 in order that the globe may go to the greatest height1 and the greatest range2 for the fall of the inflamed matter1 which is dispersed in all directions by the powder1 is more or less vertical1 and1 in that state1 lights upon houses1 c4 ,this effect1 that of setting fire to one or more houses1 depends greatly on the accuracy of their discharge from the mortar4 ,the following compositions are also used for the same purpose1 observing to follow the same manner of mixing the ingredients3 #a4 ,sulphur #c parts4 ,saltpetre #a ---- ,meal-powder #a ---- ,iron filings ---- ,green ,vitriol ---- #b4 ,sulphur #a part4 ,saltpetre #a ---- ,grained powder #a ---- #c4 ,sulphur #a part4 ,galbanum #d ---- ,saltpetre #d ---- ,grained powder #a ---- #d4 ,sulphur #e parts4 ,saltpetre #b ---- ,rosin #a ---- ,meal-powder #a ---- ,these compositions may be used in the manner already described4 ,two wooden hemispheres1 filled with the preparation and joined together1 is the usual mode of forming a fire bomb4 ,the bomb or globe is then covered with strong canvass1 and finished by dipping it1 or smearing it with melted pitch4 ,over this1 two or three covers of canvass are sometimes sewed4 ,when the bomb is dry1 we put it in a case1 in the same manner as directed for the murdering1 and incendiary bombs4 ,the case is charged with fine meal-powder1 c4 ,the modern improvements1 which are many1 supersede the rain-fire4 ,fire stone1 for instance1 is a more powerful preparation4 ,the incendiaries made with this composition1 and the ordinary carcass1 are more effectual for this purpose4 ,that the ,greek fire was an active composition1 and produced very destructive effects on towns and shipping1 there can be no doubt2 notwithstanding the invention of gunpowder has completely changed the art of war1 and superseded1 as we have shown in our articles on gunpowder and ,greek fire1 the use of the incendiary composition of the ,greeks4 ,sec4 ,,xxxix4 ,of the ,effect of ,mirrors in inflaming ,bodies at a ,distance4 ,as this subject may be of some interest to the reader1 at least in relation to an important fact1 that of the concentration of the calorific rays of the sun1 which has had the effect of burning bodies at some distance1 we deem the following facts not irrelevant4 ,the effects of burning glasses1 both by refraction and reflection1 are noticed by ,empedocles and ,euclid1 who composed a treatise on the ancient optics and catoptrics4 ,it has been thought1 that the ,romans had a method of lighting their sacred fire by some such means4 ,aristophanes1 in one of his comedies1 introduces a person as making use of a globe1 filled with water1 to cancel a bond that was against him1 by thus melting the wax of the seal4 ,plutarch1 in his life of ,numa1 says1 that the instruments used to kindle fires1 were metallic dishes1 which were placed opposite to the sun1 and the combustible matter in the centre1 by which1 it is probable1 he meant the focus1 conceiving that to be at the centre of the mirror's concavity4 ,father ,kircher was the first1 who thought of substituting1 for a concave mirror1 several plane mirrors1 so disposed1 that the sun's rays reflected at their surface might converge towards the same point4 ,he employed five only of these mirrors1 which he so arranged1 that the concurrence of the rays should take place at a distance of more than one hundred feet1 and he found the heat there to be scarcely supportable4 ,now1 says ,kircher1 if five mirrors produce so considerable an effect1 what would a hundred or a thousand do1 arranged in the same manner8 ,they would excite so violent a heat1 that it would set fire to every thing1 and reduce all to ashes4 ,orpheus compares his jaspis to rock crystal1 and says that it kindles fire1 and that he knew how to use rock crystal as a burning glass4 ,diodorus calls some kinds of jasper transparent1 and sky-coloured4 ,the jaspis1 described in the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john 7chapter xxi1 verse #aa1 #ah1 #ai17 may have been the same stone4 ,it is not our intention1 however1 to notice the history of mirrors1 from the time of ,moses1 7,exodus1 chap4 xxxviii1 verse #h17 or of ,job1 7,job1 chap4 xxxvii1 verse #ah7 through different periods of time1 to the present day2 as the reader may find an interesting account on this head in ,beckman1 7,history of ,inventions1 vol4 iii1 p4 #aed72 but to state in particular the celebrated experiment of ,archimedes1 which has indeed astonished men of science1 who have lived since that period4 ,there can be no doubt of the fact1 if we reflect for a moment1 that some modern experiments have justified the conclusion which has been drawn2 and1 therefore1 that the solar rays may be concentrated to such a degree1 as to inflame bodies at some distance off3 and as the heat produced is much greater than that of our hottest furnaces1 incredible as it may appear1 there can be no question as to the effect1 which may be produced by a system of mirrors4 ,by means of burning mirrors1 ,archimedes burnt the ,roman ships1 which were beseiging ,syracuse1 and reduced them to ashes4 ,descartes1 among others1 discredited the story as fallacious2 but ,kircher made many experiments1 with a view of establishing its credibility4 ,he tried the effect of a number of plane mirrors1 and with five mirrors of the same size1 placed in a frame1 he contrived to throw the rays reflected from them to the same spot1 at the distance of more than one hundred feet2 and1 by this means1 he produced such a degree of heat1 as led him to conclude1 that1 by increasing their number1 he could have set fire to inflammable substances at a greater distance4 ,he likewise made a voyage to ,syracuse1 in company with his pupil1 ,schottus1 in order to examine the place of the supposed transaction2 and they were both of opinion1 that the galleys of ,marcellus could not have been more than thirty paces from ,archimedes4#db ,proclus is also said to have destroyed the navy of ,vitalian1 beseiging ,byzantium1 near ,constantinople1 by means of burning glasses4 ,among the moderns1 the most remarkable burning mirrors have been those of ,magine2 of ,septala of ,milan1 which was nearly three and a half feet in diameter1 and which burnt at the distance of fifteen or sixteen paces2 of ,vilette1 and ,tschirinhausen2 the new complex one of ,m4 ,buffon2 that of ,trudaine1 and that of ,parker4 ,tschirinhausen's burning glass was between three and four feet in diameter1 and its focus was rendered more powerful by a second one4 ,it may not be improper to notice the construction1 as well as the effect of some of these mirrors4 ,la ,brocquire1 a traveller of the #aeth century1 says1 that1 at ,damascus1 they made mirrors of steel that magnify objects1 and one of them1 when exposed to the sun1 reflected the heat so strongly1 as to set fire to a plank fifteen or sixteen feet distant4 ,m4 ,buffon constructed a machine consisting of a number of mirrors1 by which he seems to have revived the secret of ,archimedes1 and to have vindicated the credit of history in this point4 ,the experiment was first tried with twenty-four mirrors1 which readily set on fire a combustible matter prepared of pitch and tow1 laid on a deal board at a distance of sixty-six ,french feet4 ,he then pursued the attempt1 and put together a kind of polyhedron1 consisting of one hundred and sixty-eight pieces of plane looking glass1 each six inches square2 and by means of this1 some boards of beech wood were set on fire at a distance of one hundred and fifty feet1 and a silver plate was melted at the distance of sixty feet4 ,this machine1 in the next stage of its improvement1 contained #cfj plane mirrors1 each #h inches long1 and #f broad1 mounted on a frame #h feet high1 and #g feet broad4 ,with #ab of these mirrors1 light combustible matters were kindled at a distance of #bj feet2 with #de of them1 at the same distance1 a large tin vessel was melted2 and with #aag1 a thin piece of silver4 ,when the whole machine was employed1 all the metals were melted at the distance of twenty-five1 and even of forty feet4 ,wood was kindled in a clear sky1 at the distance of #baj feet4 ,mr4 ,buffon afterwards constructed a machine1 which contained four hundred mirrors1 each six inches square1 with which he could melt lead and tin at the distance of #adj feet4 ,mr4 ,parker1 an eminent glass manufacturer1 in ,fleet street1 ,london1 constructed the most powerful burning mirror ever made4 ,he erected an out building at the bottom of his garden for the purpose of carrying on his operations4 ,he succeeded in forming a most powerful burning lens4 ,its diameter was three feet4 ,platinum1 iron1 steel1 flint1 c4 were melted in a few seconds1 on being exposed to its immense focus4 ,a diamond weighing thirty grains was reduced to six grains1 in the space of thirty minutes4 ,it opened and foliated like the leaves of a flower1 and emitted whitish fumes1 7carbonic acid gas27 when close again1 it bore a polish1 and retained its form4 ,garnets1 clay1 c4 soon melted4 ,seven hundred guineas were subscribed to indemnify the inventor1 it having cost him seven hundred pounds4 ,it was purchased1 however1 and presented by lord ,macartney to the ,chinese government1 and remains now at ,pekin4 ,m4 ,payard1 7,archives des ,dcouvertes1 c47 has invented a burning mirror1 consisting of several plane mirrors so arranged as to concentrate the solar heat into a focus with great precision4 ,the arrangement1 it may be proper to state1 is different from that heretofore used1 and the effect is said to be very powerful4 ,a polygonal mirror1 from a suggestion of the celebrated ,buffon1 was erected in the ,botanic ,garden at ,paris1 in #agdg1 and had also a very powerful effect4 ,this mirror was composed of one hundred and sixty-eight plates of tinned or silvered glass1 capable of moving in every direction and of being fixed at different degrees of inclination1 so that there could be given to the whole1 a form more or less concave1 and the focus be thrown to different distances4 ,this mirror set fire to wood at two hundred feet1 and fused metals at forty-five feet4 ,as caloric1 like light1 follows the same laws with respect to its motion1 and as the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection1 the radiation of heat1 conducted after the manner of ,pictet's experiment1 has not only occasioned the combustion of gunpowder1 but of other inflammable substances4 ,but1 for this purpose1 the mirrors must be large and extremely bright4 ,that heat radiates in all directions1 and is reflected1 and that the calorific rays may thereby be concentrated1 are facts which are now universally admitted4 ,the application of this principle1 by using concave mirrors sufficiently large1 has1 we are informed1 produced the explosion of gunpowder4 ,they were placed about twelve feet apart4 ,in the focus of one a live coal was put1 which was constantly blown with a double bellows1 and in the focus of the other some gunpowder4 ,in all our experiments with the ordinary reflectors1 we could never produce any thing like the heat necessary to inflame gunpowder4 ,that the principle is substantiated by experiment is evident2 for the rays of a heated body1 or a substance which produces heat1 as a lamp or candle1 placed in the focus of a concave mirror1 are reflected in parallel lines1 and if another concave mirror be placed opposite to it at some distance1 the calorific rays will be thus intercepted and reflected back in a focus4 ,this focus1 therefore1 like the focus of a burning glass1 is the concentration of all the parallel rays of heat4 ,sec4 ,,xl4 ,of ,incendiary and ,poisoned ,arrows4 ,the bow is a very ancient weapon of offence1 made of steel1 wood1 horn1 or other elastic substance1 which1 after being bent by means of a string fastened to its two ends1 in returning to its natural state1 throws out an arrow with great force4 ,that the bow was a weapon of offence among the nations of antiquity1 the inhabitants of ,asia and ,africa1 and the ,aborigines of this country1 and that it was used in ,europe1 before the invention or use of fire-arms1 are facts1 of which we have abundant proof4 ,bows are much the same in all countries4 ,it has generally two inflections or bendings1 between which1 in the place where the arrow is drawn1 is a right line4 ,the ,grecian bow was adorned with gold or silver4 ,the ,scythian bow was distinguished from those of the ,grecians and other nations1 by its incurvation1 which was so great1 as to form a half moon1 or semi-circle4 ,the ,persian bows were made of reed4 ,the ,indians used the same material1 as well for their bows as their arrows4 ,the ,lycian bows were made of the cornel tree2 and those of the ,ethiopians1 which surpassed all others in magnitude1 were made of the palm tree4 ,the ,romans1 although they did not admit bows in the infancy of their republic2 yet they considered them as hostile weapons4 ,they employed auxiliary archers in all their wars4 ,the ,amazonians1 as well as the primitive ,grecians1 in drawing their bow1 did not pull back their hand towards their right ear1 according to the fashion of the ancient ,persians1 and of modern ages2 but1 placing their bow directly before them1 returned their hand upon their right breast4 ,while noticing this subject1 we may also observe1 that ,louis ,,xi first abolished the use of bows in ,france1 introducing1 in their place1 the halberd1 pike1 and broadsword4 ,the long bow was much in use by the ,english archers1 and many laws were passed encouraging its use4 ,in the time of ,henry ,,viii1 the parliament complained of the disuse of long bows4 ,the bow is now laid aside altogether as a war weapon4 ,the arrows1 made use of1 were armed with barbed iron1 and1 among the aborigines of this and other countries1 with a stone1 formed in a particular manner1 many of which are picked up in this country4 ,we have found them at ,west ,point4 ,the natives were in the habit of poisoning their arrows1 by using a particular composition1 not known2 the effect of which1 however1 when the arrow penetrated into the flesh1 is always destructive4 ,roggewein1 7,voyage for the ,discovery of ,southern ,lands7 speaking of ,batavia1 observes1 that1 at this place1 there are some of the ,macassars1 so famous for their little poisoned arrows1 which they blow through a trunk4 ,this poison is the juice of a tree1 that grows in ,macassar1 and in the ,bougie islands4 ,they dip the points of their arrows in this juice1 and then let them dry4 ,the wound they give is mortal4 ,the natives of ,ceylon are very dexterous with the bow and arrow2 so also are the ,hottentots1 according to ,kolben1 in his ,voyage to the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,a ,hottentot arrow consists of a small tapering stick or cane1 of about a foot and a half in length1 pointed with a small thin piece of iron bearded1 and joined to the stick or cane by a barrel4 ,their bows are made of olive1 or iron wood1 and the strings1 of the sinews and entrails of beasts4 ,when they attack a lion1 tiger1 or leopard1 which they do with wonderful resolution and dexterity1 they employ slings 7hassagayes7 and arrows1 which for that purpose are usually poisoned4 ,ellis 7,voyage for the ,discovery of a ,north-,west ,passage7 speaks of the bows and arrows of the ,eskimaux ,indians1 and the facility with which they use them1 but not of poisoned arrows4 ,moore1 7,travels into the interior of ,africa7 observes1 that a native took him to his house1 and showed him a great number of arrows1 daubed over with a black mixture1 said to be so venomous1 that1 if the arrow did but draw blood1 it would be mortal1 unless the person who made the mixture had a mind to cure it4 ,for the man observed to him1 that there were no poisonous herbs1 whose effects might not be prevented by the application of other herbs4 ,poisoned arrows1 according to various historians1 were used in the remotest periods of antiquity4 ,the mode of treating wounds in the twelfth century1 by using membrane like the present gold-beaters' skin1 may be mentioned in relation to this circumstance4 ,the ,emperor1 ,john ,commenus1 accidentally wounded himself in the hand with a poisoned arrow1 while hunting1 and applied a piece of skin to the wound4 ,the emperor1 however1 died in consequence of the wound1 after it had become inflamed under the pellicle2 which1 in large wounds1 and when the skin is suffered to remain too long1 is commonly the case1 though the poison alone we are informed1 would have been a sufficient cause of death4 ,other instances are also mentioned of death being occasioned by the poisoned arrow4 ,on the subject of poisoned arrows1 the following outline is given on the authority of the author of the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 vol4 #c1 p4 #ej4 ,the juice of the ,mancenilier1 or the ,lianes des ,marais1 called in ,guyanne ,curare1 is employed by some savages4 ,the ,arabs use the juice of a milky shrub1 which they name chark1 and called by the ,persians gulbut samour4 ,indian arrows are said to be poisoned with the venom of serpents4 ,the islanders of ,java rub their darts with the blood and venom of the lizard ,gecko1 which they kill by whipping it to death4 ,the needles of the ,macassars1 they poison with the juice of a tree1 which is said to belong to the ahouai of ,america4 ,at ,ceylon they extract the venomous matter from the ,nerium1 or laurel rose4 ,the ancient ,gauls are said by ,m4 ,paw to have poisoned their arms with the juice of the ,caprisiguier4 ,in some cantons of the ,pyrenees and ,alps1 they express the juice of the roots of the ,aconitum1 7thora71 which they put on weapons4 ,m4 ,charles ,coquebert1 in a memoir read to the ,philomatic ,society1 in #agih1 observes1 that the ancient ,european inhabitants employed three plants to poison their arrows2 namely1 ,veratrum album1 ,helleborus viridis1 and ,aconitum ,lysocitonum4 ,there have been obtained from the ,society ,islands some poisoned arrows1 and a pot of the composition1 in which they are dipped4 ,it has the appearance of a black fluid extract1 and seems to be an infusion or decoction of some plants1 probably mixed with other substances4 ,with respect to the poisons obtained from the animal kingdom1 they are principally liquid juices4 ,fontana1 in particular1 has paid attention to this subject4 ,the poison of the viper1 which is contained in two small vesicles of the mouth1 when the animal bites1 is forced1 through the fangs1 into the wound4 ,if the vesicles be extracted1 or the liquor prevented from flowing into the wound1 the bite is harmless4 ,sharp instruments1 as arrows1 when they penetrate the skin1 being covered with the poison1 will have the same effect4 ,fontana made a set of experiments on the dry poison of the viper1 and a similar set on gum arabic1 and obtained the same results6 ,small birds and quadrupeds die immediately1 when they are bitten by a viper2 but to a man1 the bite is not always fatal4 ,the experiments and observations of ,francini1 7,abridg4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ii1 #h17 ,mead1 7,on ,poisons1 p4 #ce17 ,tyson1 7,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 xii17 ,fontana1 ,redi1 ,russel1 the late ,dr4 ,ramsay1 of ,charleston1 7,phil4 ,mag4 xvii1 #abe17 and ,dr4 ,b4 ,s4 ,barton1 7,amer4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ii1 p4 #ajj17 furnish an abundance of facts on the venom of the viper1 and some on the antidotes to the bite4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,g4 ,gren1 late professor at ,halle1 in ,saxony1 7,principles of ,modern ,chemistry1 ii1 p4 #dg71 observes1 in speaking of the experiments of ,fontana1 as the poison of the viper exhibits all the characteristic properties of gum1 whether the gum be merely the vehicle of a peculiar venomous substance1 which1 upon investigation1 escapes the notice of the senses8 or whether this action upon living bodies1 so different from its usual nature1 be imparted to the gum1 merely by a change in the proportions of its radicals1 so slight as to be unobservable in its chemical analysis8 ,mr4 ,misson 7,travels through ,germany and ,italy7 observes1 that1 at the arsenal at ,venice1 he saw some pocket cross bows1 and steel arrows1 with which the late lord of ,padua used to kill such as passed by1 without their knowing from whence they received their wounds4 ,arrows were sometimes employed by the ,grecians1 for conveying their ,greek fire4 ,it seems1 according to ,gibbon1 7,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 vol4 vii1 #bhd71 that1 among the different means of discharging it1 that with the bow and arrow was one4 ,for this purpose1 flax or tow was dipped in the composition1 and wrapped round the arrow1 which was discharged the moment it was inflamed4 ,the ,indians1 and ,africans in particular1 have been very ingenious in poisoning several kinds of warlike instruments4 ,the blades of swords1 the barbs of arrows1 balls1 c4 they have prepared in such a way1 as to be extremely poisonous4#dc ,see ,poisoned ,ball4 ,with respect to incendiary arrows1 it will be sufficient to remark1 that the barb1 for this purpose1 was furnished with a composition1 which1 when inflamed1 was projected by the bow to the spot designed to be set on fire4 ,they were not much employed1 and at the present day1 are entirely out of use4 ,tow1 for instance1 previously prepared with pitch1 meal-powder1 and turpentine1 or a composition equally combustible1 when wrapped round the head of an arrow1 and thrown at the moment of its inflammation1 would1 in many cases1 set fire to buildings4 ,but1 as the present system of employing incendiary fire-works1 presents advantages decidedly in its favour1 it is hardly probable1 that the bow and arrow will ever be employed by civilized nations for that purpose4 ,the ancient catapulta was particularly calculated for throwing incendiary compositions4 ,the catapulta was an engine1 contrived for throwing arrows1 darts1 and stones1 upon the enemy4 ,their power was so great1 that they would project a stone of a hundred weight with an almost incredible force4 ,josephus1 in noticing this machine1 says1 that the stones thrown out of it1 beat down the battlements1 knocked off the angles of the towers1 and had a force sufficient to level a deep file of soldiers4 ,sec4 ,,xli4 ,of ,pyrotechnical ,sponge4 ,this name is applied to the ,german black match1 or tinder1 used chiefly to receive the file from flint and steel4 ,we have1 on a former occasion1 noticed the preparation of the substance called spunk2 namely1 by immersing the fungus in a solution of saltpetre1 and then drying it4 ,there are various species of agaric4 ,the mushroom is a genus belonging to the order ,fungi1 and the boletus igniarius1 spunk1 or touch-wood1 called also female agaric1 is employed1 not only as a match1 but as a styptic4 ,the fungous excrescences1 which grow upon old oaks1 ash trees1 firs1 c4 are all used for the same purpose4 ,the ,germans take the soft inner substance in preference to the hard1 and after beating with a hammer to render it still softer1 they boil it in ley1 then dry it1 and boil it again1 in a solution of nitrate of potassa1 and finally dry it in an oven for use4 ,the amadou of the ,french1 is the same as our spunk1 or pyrotechnical sponge4 ,it is always made1 like the latter1 from various kinds of agaric1 which constitute the spongy excrescence of trees4 ,the ,french prepare it for use in the manner before stated4 ,they prepare amadou1 also1 by soaking blue paper in a solution of nitre4 ,they sometimes employ it in the state of tinder1 and1 for this purpose1 burn it to a coal4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 there is a white spongy plant1 which1 when reduced to a kind of charcoal1 furnishes a very good tinder4 ,spunk1 or pyrotechnical sponge1 is generally made in ,germany4 ,in the preparation of ordinary tinder1 the best mode of carbonizing the old linen1 instead of burning and then smothering the flame1 is to char the rags in close iron vessels4 ,it may be made more quick by soaking it in a solution of nitre1 and then drying it4 ,dry turf1 or peat1 is susceptible of inflammation by the spark1 and1 if previously soaked in a solution of nitre1 the effect1 we are told1 is much the same as with spunk4 ,professor ,beckman 7,history of ,inventions1 i1 p4 #ccc71 remarks1 that a spark falling accidentally on a turf moor1 during a dry summer1 often sets it on fire2 and the conflagration it occasions1 often lasts so long1 that it cannot escape notice4 ,of the earth taking fire in this manner1 there are many instances to be found in the ancients4 ,one of the most remarkable1 is that mentioned by ,tacitus1 7,annal41 lib4 xiii1 cap4 #eg71 who relates1 that not long after the building of the city of ,cologne1 the neighbouring land took fire1 and burned in such a manner1 that the corn1 villages1 and every production of the fields1 were destroyed by the flames1 which advanced even to the walls of the city4 ,this was certainly a morass set on fire4 ,gmelin 7,travels in ,russia1 #agfh-fi1 vol4 i1 p4 #bb7 speaks of a morass in ,siberia1 where a village was erected1 which1 on account of its situation1 the inhabitants deserted4 ,this morass was set on fire1 and when he was there1 had been burning for more than six months2 and being very inflammable1 produced much devastation4 ,turf1 which consists of a congeries of vegetable roots or fibres1 partly in a dry and decomposed state1 or partly carbonized1 when separated from earthy matter1 and treated in the same manner as the medullary excrescence of wood1 may be advantageously employed in like manner2 but it is to be remarked1 that for this purpose1 the small and more friable1 and consequently the more decomposed part1 should be preferred4 ,that turf1 or peat1 has been used for fuel1 from time immemorial1 there can be no doubt2 since it is furnished in some countries very abundantly1 and its inflammability has been long known4 ,sec4 ,,xlii4 ,of ,extinguishing ,flame with ,fired ,gunpowder4 ,the different methods for extinguishing fire in chimnies1 by using salt1 sulphur1 c4 to smother the flame1 as it is called1 depend on one principle1 that of producing either a gas or vapour1 which supplies the place of atmospheric air1 and as it is a non-supporter of combustion1 extinguishes the flame4 ,carbonic acid gas would have the same effect as the sulphurous acid gas1 produced by the combustion of sulphur1 or the vapour of salt4 ,so long1 however1 as the air is permitted to have a draught1 the fire will continue to burn2 and hence1 without making any remarks on the bursting of chimnies1 by closing all the avenues1 by which the air enters1 as the fire must exert a lateral pressure1 this plan is generally adopted4 ,it has been suggested1 and in fact the suggestion is by no means new1 that the smoke of fired gunpowder would extinguish flame4 ,some recommend firing a pistol up a chimney for this purpose1 and others again1 throwing gunpowder into the fire4 ,in the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 iii1 p4 #ca1 ,i find some remarks on this subject4 ,besides the use of gunpowder1 the vapour of water is recommended2 but having some objections1 among which1 that of accelerating the current of air in particular1 it is laid aside4 ,intercepting the passage of air seems to be preferred4 ,it appears1 that the person1 who first suggested the use of gunpowder for this purpose1 was a ,zachariah ,greyl1 of ,augsburgh1 in #agbj4 ,the effect was attributed to the vapour of the gunpowder destroying the elasticity of the air2 and the same effect is said to take place when the vapour of sulphur1 or of volatile acids1 is employed4 ,it is hardly necessary to add1 that this conclusion1 of the diminution of the elasticity of the air1 on which depends its fitness for combustion1 7according to the theory then advanced71 is altogether hypothetical2 and the cause of the extinction of the flame1 must be sought for in the substances themselves1 producing an atmosphere1 which is decidedly a non-supporter of combustion4 ,the ,journal de ,paris for #aghe1 and the ,affiches de ,province of the same year1 recommend the use of brimstone4 ,in the same work1 page #ded1 it is said1 that marine salt is employed with success for the extinguishing of fires2 and that1 when a certain quantity is thrown upon the fire1 it evaporates in an instant1 and displaces1 by its fumes1 the atmospheric air4 ,in #agbc1 ,m4 ,hoffer invented his machine2 and in #agha1 ,m4 ,cadet de ,vaux made some experiments before ,leroy1 ,lavoisier1 and ,macquer1 on the means of rendering bodies incombustible by saline substances1 and different modes of extinguishing flame4 ,in #agbb1 the ,germans announced1 that1 by means of a certain quantity of gunpowder1 flame at all times might be extinguished4 ,the secret1 for such it was then considered1 has been revived2 for the same plan has lately been recommended by a modern writer4 ,m4 de ,reaumur communicated to the ,french academy1 an account of this contrivance1 by which it appears1 that the machine was a large box1 or cask1 that contained a large quantity of water2 in the centre of which1 was placed a case of sheet tin1 containing some pounds of cannon powder4 ,to this was attached a fuse4 ,when it was inflamed1 the gunpowder would burst the vessel1 and disperse the water in every direction4 ,see the ,journal des ,savants1 #agbe1 p4 #fga4 ,in the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 a prompt and certain method is recommended for cleaning the tunnel of chimnies4 ,this is rather a novel plan4 ,of its efficacy we know nothing4 ,it consists in taking a powder1 composed of three parts of saltpetre1 two parts of salt of tartar1 and one part of flowers of sulphur1 7or fulminating powder71 and exploding it on a shovel up the chimney4 ,the explosion indeed may detach the loose pieces of soot2 but it cannot remove the harder crust1 and besides1 it would endanger the chimney taking fire4 ,we know that various contrivances have been used for the same purpose2 and of the chimney cleansing machines1 calculated to diminish the number of infant victims of a filthy and disgusting operation1 that of ,mr4 ,smart appears to possess every advantage1 which 7or a plan similar to it7 is now in use in our cities4 ,a description of this machine1 and another by ,hornblower1 are given in ,gregory's ,mechanics1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ach4 ,the invention of ,mr4 ,hornblower consists of a vessel1 into which air is condensed1 that communicates with a tube1 charged with small gravel1 which being blown up the chimney1 brings down the soot4 ,sec4 ,,xliii4 ,of the ,inflammable ,dart4 ,this dart is made in the following manner4 ,we take a common rocket case1 of one inch exterior diameter1 and charge it solid with the ordinary rocket composition4 ,some use one spoonful of earth1 and three spoonfuls of the composition for fire lances1 piercing the case1 and attaching a quick match4 ,this1 however1 appears altogether unnecessary1 as the rocket composition is sufficient for the purpose4 ,the match1 in either case1 is fixed in the end to set it off4 ,to the end of the case is attached a dart1 made of iron1 and very sharp4 ,this dart is secured in the head1 in such a manner as to be kept firm4 ,a stick is then lashed to the case in the usual way4 ,it may be sent in the direction required4 ,it appears1 however1 that1 although it is calculated to be thrown on an enemy1 it has not been much used2 nor can it be considered an active weapon1 compared with others1 employed for similar purposes4 ,one use for which it is recommended1 is for the defence of buildings4 ,sec4 ,,xliv4 ,of the ,firebrand4 ,the boute-feu of the ,french1 which we have translated into firebrand1 as the most appropriate term in the present instance1 is used as an incendiary1 and is nothing more than a long stick1 furnished at one of its ends with two iron prongs1 with sometimes the figure of a dragon's head1 on which is rolled thick rope1 previously prepared in the same manner as tourteaux4 ,one end of this rope passes between the iron prongs4 ,the boute-feu is calculated to set fire to buildings1 c4 after the retreat of an enemy4 ,it is only a convenient and expeditious mode of communicating fire4 ,one end of the stick is pointed1 and usually covered with iron1 so as to stick in the ground4 ,sec4 ,,xlv4 ,of the ,fire ,flask4 ,the fire flask1 or fire bottle1 is a bottle1 either square or round1 and charged with grain-powder1 mixed with fire-stone1 which is introduced and compressed with a stick4 ,the bottle is then covered with a cloth1 sewed on it1 which is coated with pitch4 ,the mouth is secured with parchment4 ,when used1 a match is inserted1 and inflamed4 ,it is then thrown by the hand4 ,sec4 ,,xlvi4 ,of the ,trompe-,route4 ,the trompe-route of the ,french is a light made use of at sea1 to deceive the enemy4 ,it is nothing more than a common fire lance1 one inch in diameter1 and twelve inches long1 fixed in the centre of a round plank1 which1 when lighted1 is let down upon the water4 ,as it floats from the ship1 the lights of the latter being darkened1 the enemy1 in pursuit1 will follow the light1 and by this means the ship escapes4 ,sec4 ,,xlvii4 ,of ,fire-,pots for ,ramparts4 ,rampart fire-pots are used1 when an enemy approaches a work4 ,they are furnished with grain-powder1 and charged grenades without fuses1 and sometimes also with fire stone4 ,the pots are ordinary potters' ware1 and1 when they contain the ingredients1 are covered with parchment4 ,a match passes through the opening of the pot1 and when used1 is inflamed with a port-fire4 ,the following composition is also used for rampart pots4 ,composition for ,rampart ,fire-,pots4 ,saltpetre1 #ab parts4 ,meal-powder1 #ab ---- ,sulphur1 #d ---- ,antimony1 #d ---- ,these ingredients are mixed in a mortar with the oil of petroleum1 or1 if this cannot be had1 good spermaceti oil1 and made into a thick paste1 about the consistence of dough1 and then rolled into balls4 ,the pots generally hold two rows of these balls1 distributing through them grained powder4 ,they are then finished by using fire stone composition1 beaten into pieces1 and mixed with an equal quantity of grained powder1 and covered with meal-powder to facilitate the inflammation4 ,the pots are covered over with parchment1 as in the former case4 ,it is doubtful1 whether fire pots1 prepared in this way1 have any advantages over those1 made in the manner first described4 ,as to the shape of fire-pots1 some are cylindrical1 and others of the common figure4 ,sometimes they are furnished with an iron hoop1 with a hook of iron1 by which they are suspended4 ,they are used1 when equipped in that way1 more for sea service1 as a defence against small boats4 ,they are hung over the side of the vessel1 so as to come in contact with the boats4 ,when designed in particular for that use1 they are charged with the following composition3 ,composition for ,fire-,pots1 for sea service4 ,grained powder1 #f lbs4 ,meal-powder1 #b -- ,saltpetre1 #a -- ,sulphur1 -- ,charcoal1 #aj oz4 ,with this composition1 grenades are used1 which are put into the pot with powder1 fire-stone1 c4 and a match is fixed as before mentioned4 ,we are told1 that fire-pots1 prepared in this manner1 are a defensive1 as well as a dangerous weapon1 and that a vessel in the ,indian seas was actually saved by them1 when attacked by pirates4 ,it appears1 that she endeavoured to escape from her pursuers1 and finding it in vain1 the crew thought of making1 and employing fire-pots1 for their defence2 as the number of the pirates was greater than their own crew4 ,the effect was1 that1 not expecting that kind of reception1 they were obliged to abandon their enterprize4 ,there is an incendiary fire-pot1 which differs from that used in fire-works for exhibition1 by being made of copper and very stout4 ,it is charged with pieces of fire-stone1 previously rolled in a paste of meal-powder and brandy4 ,a charge of powder is put in the pot1 and quick-match is fixed1 which must be sufficiently long to hang over the pot1 and then the fire-stone is thrown in4 ,when the match is inflamed1 the powder takes fire1 and disperses the fire-stone4 ,the better plan is to have a communication to the powder below1 as in the pots of ordnance1 or mortars for throwing fire-balloons4 ,we see no particular advantage to be derived from the use of this pot2 as a carcass or fire-ball1 thrown out of a mortar1 will do more execution1 and at a greater distance than any of these contrivances4 ,the carcass rocket1 however1 may be an exception1 if we believe the account we have of it4 ,as an incendiary1 the fire-stone1 put in a shell with powder1 is more effectual than the fire-pot1 we have just described4 ,sec4 ,,xlviii4 ,of ,inflammable ,balls4 ,count ,rumford 7,bibliothque ,physico-,economique1 #ahab7 has invented a composition1 which is very inflammable1 and1 as it is used in balls1 is for that reason so called4 ,equal parts of clay1 pitcoal1 and charcoal of wood1 are mixed together1 7having previously reduced them to powder71 and made into a consistence with water fit to roll into balls4 ,these balls are then dried for use4 ,they may be rendered more inflammable1 by soaking them in a strong solution of saltpetre4 ,count ,rumford1 when he recommended the use of clay with coal1 was aware1 that1 in the combustion of coal1 a considerable part of the heat was lost2 whereas1 although clay is incombustible1 a greater part of this heat is retained by the clay1 and given out gradually4 ,the inflammable ball may be considered more in the character of an economical fuel than in any other4 ,the only inconvenience attending these balls is1 that1 when prepared without nitre1 which must add to the expense1 they do not readily inflame2 and1 therefore1 a fire must first be kindled1 before they are used4 ,while noticing the use of clay in this manner1 we may remark1 that the economical brick1 as it is called1 is made nearly in the same way4 ,two parts of clay1 separated from stones1 are mixed with one part of pitcoal4 ,after the fire is kindled1 the coal burns in the same manner1 and the clay bakes4 ,another composition is given in the ,bibliothque ,physico-,economique1 for ,march1 #ahab4 ,it is composed of potters' clay1 cow dung1 street dirt1 saw-dust of wood1 turf1 horse dung1 straw1 and tan4 ,besides these1 pitch1 tar1 oils1 and other combustible substances1 are occasionally used1 either with the above1 or mixed with pitcoal in powder4 ,observations on this preparation may be seen in the work quoted1 or in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 v1 p4 #acg4 ,sec4 ,,xlix4 ,of ,pauly's ,inflammable ,powder4 ,we mentioned1 in a note to the article on guns1 that ,m4 ,pauly had invented a musket1 or fowling piece1 which was discharged by percussion1 instead of flint and steel1 by using a priming powder made of chlorate of potassa4 ,it may be proper1 however1 to state1 that the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,forsyth made use of a similar powder1 and for the same purpose1 many years ago1 of which we have already spoken4 ,m4 ,thenard also has given a formula for a preparation of a similar powder4 ,a description of ,m4 ,pauly's improvement may be seen in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 for #ahab1 p4 #aeh1 and in that of #ahad1 p4 #agd1 where the composition of the powder is noticed2 and also in the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',encouragement1 for #ahad4 ,this powder is composed as follows3 ,chlorate1 or hyperoxymuriate of potassa #h oz4 ,flowers of sulphur #c -- ,charcoal of light wood #b -- ,they are mixed together with ,cologne water1 or in its place with brandy1 to which a small quantity of the solution of gum arabic is added4 ,the ingredients must be made as fine as possible1 and intimately blended together4 ,this powder may be inflamed by a hammer1 or by the condensation of air in a piston1 a mode recommended by ,pauly4 ,we have seen a fowling-piece1 constructed according to ,m4 ,pauly's plan1 and also the priming powder used4 ,sec4 ,l4 ,of ,extemporaneous ,fire4 ,there are several preparations1 which have the effect of producing fire either by friction1 or chemical action4 ,some of these preparations1 we have noticed4 ,the causes of spontaneous combustion may be referred to chemical decomposition1 and the change of quiescent into distributable heat4 ,we remarked1 that a mixture of chlorate of potassa and sugar is inflamed1 when brought in contact with sulphuric acid2 that1 in the slaking of quicklime1 the heat is sufficient to inflame oils2 that pyrites by decomposition very frequently sets fire to combustible bodies2 that oil of turpentine is inflamed by nitric acid2 that pyrophorus1 when exposed to the air1 takes fire1 and also phosphorus by slight friction2 and that1 in all cases of combustion1 either friction1 an increase of temperature1 or the action of some body1 which is brought in contact1 are necessary to produce the effect4 ,water1 when added to some substances and preparations1 will produce fire4 ,thus potassium readily decomposes it1 and the potassuretted hydrogen gas1 which is produced in flames4 ,the same may be said of phosphuret of lime and water2 for the phosphuretted hydrogen gas inflames1 when it comes to the air4 ,on some occasions1 these substances may be employed as incendiaries4 ,hanzelet remarks1 that the following composition will produce inflammation with water4 ,extemporaneous ,fire4 ,linseed ,oil #c lbs4 ,spirit of ,turpentine #a -- ,white of egg -- ,quicklime #h -- ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether this composition will have that effect2 although the heat produced by the slaking of quicklime is very considerable1 and1 as we remarked1 spontaneous combustion1 in several instances1 has been referred to its agency4 ,lime1 in the act of slaking1 absorbs1 and chemically unites with1 water1 which becomes solidified1 converting it into a hydrate1 whilst its latent caloric is set at liberty4 ,this is a process1 which puts quiescent heat in motion1 to become distributable heat4 ,see ,introduction4 ,if the quantity of free caloric1 thus generated1 be sufficient1 the turpentine and oil will necessarily inflame4 ,we may add1 therefore1 that a rapid transition of caloric1 from a latent to a free state1 as in combustion1 is all that is required to produce effects of this kind2 and1 in short1 all cases of spontaneous combustion may be accounted for on this principle2 by considering the cause1 which acts in those instances so powerfully1 and in some instances instantaneously1 and which changes caloric from a quiescent to a distributable state4 ,dr4 ,irvine refers all cases of combustion to a change in the capacity of bodies for caloric2 which depends on the nature of the products3 if they have a greater capacity1 no flame ensues1 and the caloric remains more or less quiescent2 if they possess a less capacity1 flame is the consequence4 ,there are exceptions to this doctrine4 ,in the emission of caloric1 ,dr4 ,black supposes1 that it is given out1 in consequence of the resulting attraction of the new compound for caloric being less than that of its ingredients1 when separate4 ,m4 ,curadou 7,journal de ,physique1 #ahji7 observes1 that1 in preparing the artificial stone1 one-half of which is composed of water1 by mixing one part of sulphuric acid with two parts of clay1 and a sufficient quantity of water1 a higher temperature is produced than that of boiling water4 ,in this instance1 we find that1 in the formation of sulphate of alumina1 which envelopes the silica1 the water is solidified1 as in many other cases1 and1 while it forms a solid substance1 the caloric of fluidity is liberated4 ,the heat1 he remarks1 is sometimes so great as to set fire to inflammable substances4 ,sec4 ,,li4 ,of the ,indian ,white ,fire4 ,this preparation 7feu blanc ,indien of the ,french7 is described in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 c4 vol4 ii1 p4 #cjj4 ,it appears1 that it was kept secret in ,france1 and was used by the ,french astronomers for signals4 ,in #ahjg1 ,m4 de ,zach published some account of it1 in his ,astronomical and ,geographical correspondence4 ,the case1 in which the composition is put1 is ten inches in diameter and four in height2 but may be of any size1 according to the quantity of the composition to be burnt1 and the degree of light required4 ,it was seen #dj miles at sea4 ,general ,ray lighted1 on the ,english coast1 a case of this fire1 which was seen very distinctly on the ,french coast4 ,composition of ,white ,fire4 ,saltpetre #bd parts4 ,sulphur #g ---- ,red arsenic #b ---- ,this powder lights without explosion1 and illuminates with great brilliancy4 ,care must be taken not to breathe the ,arsenical vapours1 which are produced by the combustion4 ,a case of six inches in diameter1 and six inches high1 burns three minutes4 ,the light is said to injure the eyes4 ,the price of this powder is equal to that of ordinary gunpowder4 ,the match1 which accompanies this preparation when it is sold1 is made in the following manner3 ,pulverize four parts of saltpetre1 two parts of gunpowder1 two parts of charcoal1 and one part of sulphur1 and pass them through a sieve4 ,provide then a number of paper cases1 made in the usual manner1 or a roller1 about the diameter of a quill1 and two feet in length1 and charge with the composition4 ,this match1 when used1 is attached to a stick4 ,it will resist the action both of wind and rain4 ,an artificer of ,marseilles proposes the following composition for matches4 ,sulphur #h parts4 ,saltpetre #d ---- ,gunpowder #b ---- ,sec4 ,,lii4 ,of the ,pyrophore of ,defence4 ,an apparatus for defence1 called the ,pyrophore1 was announced in a ,french publication in #ahae4 ,it may be applied1 according to the author1 in #bd hours for the defence of towns1 roads1 passages1 and defiles4 ,the pyrophore itself is a square box furnished with a lid1 and sufficiently large to contain fifty pounds of gunpowder4 ,when it is filled1 and to be used1 it is fixed with cords1 or chains1 in such a manner as to be conveyed to a given point4 ,the lid is furnished with cross pieces1 which open it when necessary4 ,at the sides of the box are rings1 made very strong and fixed in bolts1 which go through the sides1 and clenched4 ,to each of these rings1 a cord or chain is attached1 furnished at each end with a crotchet4 ,this cord or chain runs upon two fixed pulleys1 placed for instance1 at the two extremities of a battery1 and is managed by artillerists4 ,the pyrophore is under cover4 ,when it is conveyed to a certain place1 where a bar or grate is fixed1 it is stopped1 by the contrivance before mentioned1 the lid is raised1 and the powder falls into a kind of funnel or gutter1 at the end of which the explosion is made1 to take effect4 ,it appears that the inventor had in view the conveyance of a given quantity of powder to a particular place1 and by carrying a light to it by means of a cord1 similarly fixed1 to inflame it1 when it had arrived at its destination4 ,it is impossible to make a machine of this kind effective2 for the difficulty in arranging1 and finally managing it1 the enemy taking means to guard against it1 are certainly obstacles1 and strong objections to its use4 ,other means of defence1 which we have pointed out1 are preferable2 although we admit1 that1 in some situations1 a contrivance of this sort might be advantageously used1 where1 for instance1 we wish to deposite a quantity of powder1 to be in readiness for the approach of an enemy1 without exposing men to an attack4 ,what is more destructive than the thundering barrel1 which is furnished with grenades1 c4 c4 if set off among the assailants8 ,see1 for a minute account of this contrivance1 the ,pyrophore1 ou ,moyen de defense gnrale1 par un garde national3 #bj pages grand in #hvo4 avec un planche4 ,paris ,dondey ,dupr1 #ahae1 and also the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 tome #h4 p4 #bha4 ,,vocabulary ,,of ,,french ,,terms1 ,,which ,,occur ,,in ,,the ,,work4 ,aigremore4 ,pulverized charcoal1 proper for fire-works4 ,aigrette4 ,an imitation in fire of the aigrette2 like the aigrette of glass4 ,ailerons4 ,they are used in making rockets4 ,amadou4 ,a kind of tinder made with agaric4 ,ame4 ,this is more particularly used to express the kind of work1 put in the head of a rocket4 ,the term1 however1 is arbitrary4 ,amorce4 ,priming3 a paste of powder and spirit of wine4 ,arquer4 ,a name given to a particular shaped case4 ,artifice1 feu d'4 ,fire-works2 artificial fire4 ,auget4 ,the wooden trough to contain the saucisson1 which communicates fire to a mine4 ,baguette4 ,a rammer1 roller1 former1 c4 ,baguette charger4 ,rammers or chargers1 pierced with holes in their length1 more or less1 to receive the piercer4 ,they are applicable to the charging of rockets1 if they are to be driven hollow2 if not1 solid rammers are employed4 ,baguette feu4 ,fougette2 ,east ,indian rocket4 ,see page #ebi4 ,baguette rouler4 ,a former1 on which the pasteboard or paper is rolled1 in forming cases for rockets1 port-fires1 c4 c4 ,baguette de fuse volante4 ,rocket stick4 ,a stick1 attached to the rocket1 before it is set off4 ,baguette en massive4 ,rods or rammers1 which are not bored4 ,bague suspendue aux cendres d'un fil4 ,a ring suspended to the ashes of a thread4 ,ballon4 ,balloon2 a bomb or shell1 made of pasteboard1 which is thrown in the air by means of a mortar4 ,ballon bombes4 ,a large globe1 filled with bombs1 grenades1 c4 fired by means of a fuse1 and thrown into the works of the enemy4 ,ballon d',artifice4 ,a bomb1 or spherical case1 containing sundry compositions4 ,ballons d'air4 ,air-,balloons4 ,ballons d'eau4 ,water-,balloons4 ,battage4 ,the process of pounding1 grinding1 and mixing1 with water1 the three substances1 composing gunpowder1 to reduce them to a proper consistency4 ,it is performed in wooden mortars1 with wooden pestles1 furnished with a brass box to agitate the water4 ,the time1 employed in the battage in ,france1 is from #ad to #bb hours4 ,bateau-poisson4 ,a diving boat4 ,billot charger4 ,a billot for charging2 used occasionally in the place of a mallet4 ,bote4 ,a species of small mortar4 ,it is used1 also1 to express a piece of wood or pasteboard1 used in the arrangement of some fire-works4 ,bonnetage4 ,the covering of priming over a case1 or fuse4 ,bouffes4 ,literally puffs1 or blasts3 in ,pyrotechny1 a kind of fire-works1 used in theatres1 to represent the flames1 issuing from gulfs1 or the caves of ,cyclops4 ,they are also called ,cornets1 from their resembling horns in their shape4 ,boute feu4 ,lintstock4 ,bouton4 ,the extremity of the culot is sometimes so called4 ,brin4 ,frame4 ,the frame on which are placed or fixed1 fire-pots1 saucissons1 c4 ,hence pots de ,brin1 c4 ,carab or ,karab4 ,yellow amber4 ,carte de ,moulage4 ,means in general1 the paper for cases4 ,chapiteau d'artifice4 ,conical head of a rocket4 ,chasse4 ,charge of grained powder for mortars1 c4 ,chevelure de feu4 ,a species of furniture for rockets1 in the form of serpents4 ,chelingues4 ,a marine term4 ,a kind of flat bottomed boat1 used on the coast of ,coromandel4 ,corde feu4 ,match rope4 ,slow match4 ,a match to preserve a small quantity of fire4 ,courantin4 ,a messenger1 runner1 or flying dragon2 a rocket1 that flies along a rope or string4 ,see page #cde4 ,courantin simple4 ,a line-rocket4 ,a rocket fixed on a cord1 stretched horizontally on which a rocket moves4 ,courantin double4 ,two line-rockets4 ,courier pigeon4 ,carrier pigeon4 ,see page #dij4 ,culot4 ,bottom2 the thickest part of a shell1 opposite to the eye2 also called reinforcement4 ,the round iron plate1 fixed upon the sabot1 or shoe1 for cannister shot1 or at the bottom of the cannister1 to project the shot with more force3--,the bottom1 or block1 which supports the piercer and mould for charging rockets1 7see plate1 fig4 #a73--,that part of a cannon cartridge1 which remains in the piece after firing4 ,camouflet4 ,a small fougasse1 to act against the enemy's miners1 who are heard at work1 to suffocate them and poison their branch4 ,dauphin4 ,a fire-work in water4 ,debonneter une fuse4 ,the paper cover1 put over the priming of a fuse4 ,eaux de cuite4 ,literally1 water of boiling4 ,the strongest lixivium obtained in extracting nitre from plaster rubbish4 ,it must mark more than five degrees of ,baum's areometer1 and is called water of boiling1 on account of its being sufficiently strong1 to be immediately subjected to boiling1 for further concentration4 ,eaux forte4 ,lixivia from plaster rubbish1 which mark between three and five degrees of the areometer4 ,eaux faibles4 ,lixivia from plaster rubbish1 whose strength is under three degrees of the areometer4 ,eclair1 ou jet de flame4 ,several fire-works are so called from their effect4 ,eclatante4 ,a case charged with brilliant fire4 ,epoussetage4 ,the process of separating the dust from gunpowder2 also of separating mealed powder1 from that which is not reduced4 ,eprouvette4 ,gunpowder triers3 an instrument for proving gunpowder4 ,etoile4 ,star4 ,etoiles pet4 ,stars which explode4 ,entonnoir4 ,the crater or tunnel of a mine1 as formed by its explosion4 ,etoupille4 ,quick match1 leader1 match of communication2 cotton or thread mixed in a paste1 composed of meal-powder1 spirits1 and a small portion of gum4 ,etrangler4 ,strangling2 choaking4 ,the closing of a case1 and tying it4 ,fanaux de ,mer4 ,ship lights2--,beacons for vessels in the night2--watch-lights4 ,feu blanc ,indien4 ,chinese fire4 ,feu brilliant4 ,a bright vivid fire4 ,thus the fire1 produced by steel and iron1 in fire-works1 is denominated a brilliant fire4 ,feu commun4 ,common fire4 ,a fire produced by the mixture of powder and charcoal4 ,feu mort4 ,dead light2 dead fire4 ,see page #dhe4 ,feux de ,gouvernement4 ,state or public fire-works4 ,filagere4 ,the thread used for strangling4 ,flamboyante4 ,a species of rocket1 which1 from its effects in the atmosphere1 is called the comet4 ,foudres4 ,thunderbolts1 lightnings2 in pyrotechny1 the preparations1 used to imitate thunderbolts2 thunder powder4 ,foudroyante4 ,a case or rocket1 which imitates thunder3 ,fougette4 7,see ,baguette feu47 ,fougasse4 ,a small mine4 ,fougues4 ,small rockets1 without sticks4 ,fourneau4 ,furnace4 ,a mine4 ,the chamber of a mine4 ,fuse4 ,any sort of composition1 put in a cylindrical case4 ,in ,english1 however1 the term fuse is confined to particular compositions2 as fuse for bombs1 howitzes and grenades4 ,fuses chevelues4 ,bearded rockets4 ,see page #dbd4 ,fuses d'amorce4 ,priming fuses4 ,fuses volantes4 ,flying or sky-rockets4 ,garniture4 ,garniture1 furniture1 embellishment1 ornament3 in pyrotechny the small fire-works1 such as stars1 serpents1 marrons1 c4 which are put into the pots of sky-rockets1 into fire-pots1 c4 ,the petards with which the pots of incendiary rockets are charged4 ,gargousse4 ,cartouch1 cartridge4 ,it more properly means the sack1 or bag for containing the charge of powder for a cannon1 when the bag is made of paper or parchment2 but when it is made of serge1 it is called sachet4 7,see sachet47 ,girandole4 ,chandelier3 in pyrotechny1 two or more horizontal wheels1 placed above one another and turning upon the same vertical axis4 ,when of different sizes1 these wheels resemble a chandelier2 hence the name4 ,girande4 ,a cluster1 or assemblage1 of several hundreds or thousands of rockets1 thrown up at the same time4 ,several clusters may be arranged in different boxes1 and fired separately with regular intervals1 or all at the same time4 ,in either case1 the assemblage is called a ,girande4 ,it is also called gerbe4 ,see gerbe1 and page #dee4 ,gerbe4 ,sheaf2 a fire-jet case1 charged with the composition for brilliant or ,chinese fire1 which is thrown out in such a manner as to represent a luminous sheaf4 ,a group of fuses1 or fire-jets1 fired at the same time1 also bears this name3 ,a ,chinese tree4 ,grenage4 ,the graining of gunpowder4 ,glace ,inflammable4 ,inflammable ice4 ,lissage4 ,the glazing of gunpowder4 ,lardon4 ,this term generally signifies all those small fire-works1 which are sold in shops2 such as serpents1 squibs1 crackers1 c42 but1 more strictly1 it signifies the largest1 and strongest kind of serpents4 ,lance feu4 ,squib1 fire-lance1 or simply lance4 ,lance de feu4 ,a species of lance used by garrisons against scaling parties4 ,lance feu puant4 ,stink-fire lances1 used by miners4 ,lanterne4 ,literally lantern2 a copper spoon1 or ladle1 used instead of cartridges for conveying the charge to the bottom of a cannon4 ,they were formerly used in all pieces1 but at present only in siege and garrison pieces4 ,larmes feu4 ,fire-tears1 or drops2 tears4 ,lianes des ,marais4 ,a species of convolvulus2 bind weed4 ,marquise4 ,marchioness2 a rocket having an interior diameter of two-thirds of an inch4 ,when it has the diameter of five-sixths of an inch1 it is called a double marquise4 ,machine ,infernale4 ,infernal machine4 ,mosaique4 ,mosaic2 the imitation of mosaic in fire-works4 ,meurtrires4 ,literally ,murderers3 applied to those modifications of any species of fire-work1 which fit them for the destruction of an enemy4 ,partement4 ,see fuse de partement4 ,partement1 fuses de4 ,sky-rockets1 having an interior diameter of half of an inch4 ,when the diameter of the rocket is only one-third of an inch1 it is called ,petit ,partement4 ,paratonnerre4 ,lightning rod4 ,patte d'oie4 ,a goose's foot3 a kind of fire-works1 so called from their resemblance to a goose's foot3--,a term in mining to signify three small branches1 which run out at the extremity of a gallery4 ,pots feu4 ,fire pots3 they are thrown upon the enemy in the attack or defence of places2 but are not so much used as fire-balls and carcasses3 pot granado4 ,pots des ,brins4 ,see page #cfd4 ,pots de ,chasse4 ,see page #cfj4 ,pots des ,saucissons4 ,the pots of saucissons4 ,pluie d'or4 ,golden rain4 ,poudre d'or4 ,gold powder4 ,porte feu4 ,port-fire2 also a leader4 ,pice pyrique4 ,this name is generally given to all kinds of fire-works2 composed of fixed and turning pieces1 which would require a great number of words to describe separately2 but it is more particularly given to a kind of mechanical contrivance of fixed and turning wheels1 one of which communicates fire to the other1 and vice versa4 ,see page #dab4 ,ricochet4 ,a bound1 leap1 or skip1 such as a flat piece of stone makes1 when thrown obliquely along the surface of a pond3 ,the bounds1 which are made by balls1 fired with small charges1 and under angles of little elevation1 either upon land1 or water3 ,fire-works1 which leap or roll on the ground4 ,roche feu4 ,fire-stone4 ,schage4 ,the process of drying either gunpowder or fire-works4 ,saucisson4 ,sausage3 in pyrotechny1 a sort of fuse or petard1 still larger than the lardon3--,a cylindrical bag of powder to convey fire to a mine3--,a bundle of sticks1 used in fortification4 ,soleil montant4 ,rising sun4 ,sachet4 ,satchel3 the bag or sack of a cannon cartridge1 when made of serge4 ,tourteaux4 ,links3 see page #ejj4 ,tourteaux goudronns4 ,tarred links4 ,tourbillon4 ,whirlwind1 vortex3 a table wheel4 ,tourbillon de feu4 ,a whirlwind of fire2 fire-wheels1 which rise or fall in the air2 also called rising or falling suns4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,we deem an outline of the nature and effects of caloric as1 in some respects1 indispensably necessary2 for caloric1 it is to be observed1 is an agent1 whose effects are recognised in every species of fire-work4 #b ,that the terms hot and cold are relative1 as to our feelings1 fact and observations abundantly prove4 ,dr4 ,fordyce 7,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 #fd #fe7 heated a room by stoves to two hundred and sixty degrees of ,fahrenheit's scale1 and remained in it for some time without great inconvenience4 ,but different metallic substances1 as the lock of the door1 his watch and keys lying on the table1 could not be touched without burning him3 and although an egg became hard1 and his pulse beat one hundred and thirty-nine per minute1 yet a thermometer placed in his mouth was only two or three degrees hotter than common4 ,he perspired profusely4 ,jenning's steam bath will heat the air in contact with the naked body from one hundred to one hundred and twenty degrees1 a heat sufficient1 as it is in the aqueous vapour1 resulting from the combustion of alcohol or strong spirit1 to induce a copious diaphoresis in less than half an hour4 ,having tried this experiment in several cases1 ,i can only say1 that ,i effected in the course of an hour1 what1 under ordinary circumstances1 would require twelve or twenty-four1 viz4 a copious perspiration1 and that too without the exhibition of sudorifics4 ,the practice is an old one not only among civilized nations1 but aborigines4 ,it is nevertheless worthy of adoption4 ,frozen mercury cannot be touched without experiencing a sensation similar to that of an ignited body1 although directly opposite to heat4 #c ,a writer of the last century remarks1 that he cannot possibly admit the sun to possess the least manner of heat1 but rather to contain the capabilities of fire1 like a stick1 or a flint1 though with a faculty of expressing it1 by its own action1 which the others have not4 ,i imagine its beams not to be hot1 in their rectilineal direction1 but productive of this effect1 from reflection1 only4 ,if the rays of the sun were fire1 in the first instance1 those consequences would naturally follow1 that our friend and correspondent ,tria so well describes in his ,day of ,judgment1 ',the rivers were dried up1 and liquid ore supplied their burning channels4 ,the clouds were turned to fire1 and shot through the astonished sky4 ,the air was flame1 and breathing was no more4 ,the firmament was melted down1 and rained its sulphur o'er the prostrate globe1 c4' ,the sun emanates light only1 in the direct line1 but owes its heat to reflection4 ,we feel it1 therefore1 more intensely1 in a valley1 than on a hill4 ,why are the ,alps and ,pyrennees crowned with eternal frosts1 while the shepherds1 with their flocks1 are sheltering their scorching heads from the heat of the sun1 at the foot of them8 ,why do the upper regions of the air shower down their hail and snow1 to be thawed and melted here below8 ,why shall a lens of ice receive the rays above1 so coldly1 and transmit them so intensely hot1 beneath8 ,why is it warmer1 in summer1 though the sun is farther off1 than in winter1 when 'tis so much nearer to us8 ,because of our situation1 in regard to it1 only4 ,in the first case the rays are vertical1 in others lateral2 and perpendicular reflections are stronger1 than oblique ones4 ,we judge of fire above1 from what we feel below1 c4 ,the summit of tna1 notwithstanding the fire of the volcano1 is covered almost all the year with snow4 ,fazello1 speaking of this says1 that this region extends nearly twelve miles2 and1 even in summer1 is almost perpetually covered with snow1 and extremely cold3 which is the more wonderful as the summit continually produces1 nourishes1 and pours forth flames amid the ice and snow with which it is enveloped4 ,solinus says1 tna1 in a wonderful manner1 exhibits snows mixed with fires2 and retains every appearance of the severest winter1 amid her vast conflagrations4 ,silius ,italicus1 and ,claudian1 and ,pindar1 who lived #ejj years before the ,christian era1 bear testimony to the antiquity of this fact4 ',where burning tna1 towering1 threats the skies1 ,mid flames and ice the lofty rocks arise1 ,the fire amid eternal winter glows1 ,and the warm ashes hide the hoary snows4' ,silius ,italicus1 from the ,latin4 ',amid the fires accumulates the snow1 ,and frost remains where burning ashes glow2 ,o'er ice eternal sweep th' inactive flames1 ,and winter1 spite of fire1 the region claims4' ,claudian1 from the ,latin4 ----',snowy tna1 nurse of endless frost1 ,the mighty prop of heaven4' ,pindar1 from the ,greek4 ,the height of tna is generally estimated at #aa1jjj feet above the sea4 ,in #agee1 it issued out a torrent1 not of mud1 as was supposed1 but of snow and ice melted by the lava4 ,the same thing happened at the volcano of ,cargarossa in ,south ,america4 ,the celebrated ,herschel1 7,phil4 ,trans4 #ahja1 and ,nich4 ,jour4 #a4 #ac71 in considering the construction of the sun1 infers it to be a habitable globe more magnificent than our earth1 or other planets1 and that its lucid substance is not a liquid nor an elastic fluid2 but that it exists in the manner of luminous clouds1 swimming in the transparent atmosphere of the sun1 or rather of lucid decompositions taking place within that atmosphere4 ,the ,philosophical ,transactions1 #agie1 p4 #gb1 also contains remarks on this lucid matter4 ,having rejected the old terms of spots1 nuclei1 penumbr1 and luculi1 he has substituted those of openings1 shallows1 ridges1 nodules1 corrugations1 indentations1 and pores4 ,the openings are places where the luminous solar clouds are removed1 which he thinks are produced by a wind or gas from the sun's body4 ,shallows are depressions below the luminous clouds1 and are caused by the propelling gas1 which produces the openings4 ,they are tufted like masses of clouds4 ,ridges are elevations of the luminous clouds4 ,the length of one of the longest was found to be #ge1jjj miles4 ,they generally surround the openings4 ,herschel thinks it probable1 from appearances1 that the luminous matter is disturbed at top by the transparent elastic fluid1 which issues from the openings4 ,nodules are small elevations of the luminous matter4 ,corrugations are smaller elevations and depressions of the same matter4 ,indentations are the dark places of corrugations4 ,that they are not much depressed1 is deduced from their visibility near the margin of the sun4 ,they are of the same nature as shallows1 and of different sizes4 ,pores are the low places of indentations4 ,the doctor is of opinion1 that the phenomena before described could not appear1 if the shining matter were a liquid2 because1 by the laws of hydrostatics1 the openings1 shallows1 indentations1 and pores would be filled up4 ,still less could these phenomena exist with the supposition of elastic fluidity4 ,the shining matter1 he concludes1 must exist in the manner of empyreal luminous or phosphoric clouds4 ,the planetary atmosphere of the sun1 its great height1 its density1 as inferred from the power of gravitation1 which is known to be twenty-seven times stronger at the sun's surface than with us1 and other subjects are also discussed4 ,he supposes the gas to pass from the sun itself upwards to the region of the clouds1 so as to generate pores1 corrugations1 c4 ,he concludes finally1 that if this view of the solar appearances be well founded1 there will be no difficulty in ascertaining the actual state of the sun with regard to its energy in giving heat and light4 ,in a paper on the ,construction of the ,heavens1 the doctor thinks it probable1 that the great stratum called the milky way is that in which the sun is placed1 though perhaps not in the centre of its thickness4 ,the celebrated astronomer ,lalande supposes the spots before mentioned to be parts of the solid body of the sun1 but admits not a luminous atmosphere1 but a luminous ocean4 ,for the observations of ,dr4 ,young1 see his ,natural ,philosophy1 and of sir ,isaac ,newton1 his ,principia1 c4 ,consult also ,biot4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton has asserted1 according to ,nicholson1 7,british ,encyclopedia7 that the density of the sun's heat1 which is proportioned to his light1 is seven times as great in ,mercury as with us1 and that water there would be all carried off in the shape of steam1 for1 he found1 by experiments with the thermometer1 that a heat seven times greater than that of the sun's beams in summer will serve to make water boil4 ,that fixed stars are of the same nature as the sun1 since they agree with it in several particulars1 as in the property of emitting light continually1 and in retaining constantly their relative situation with but little variation1 is generally admitted4 ,they are supposed also to emit heat as well as light4 ,the sun is1 therefore1 considered a fixed star comparatively near us1 and the fixed stars1 which seem as centres to other systems of worlds1 as suns at immense distances from us4 ,taking the distance of the sun from us to be1 as is found by calculation1 #ie1jjj1jjj miles1 we may infer1 that every thing must be scorched up at its surface2 but this question is put at rest1 if we consider that the sun's rays act on a calorific medium1 as the cause of changing quiescent into distributable heat4 ,may not light itself1 by some process unknown to us1 produce calorific rays8 ,that heat and light are both material1 and possess some properties in common1 that for instance1 of reflection and refraction1 are facts well known2 but to account for the peculiar agency of light1 if it be admitted1 is a problem1 which1 perhaps1 will never be settled8 #d ,fire must have been a very potent instrument in the hands of ,hannibal1 if we believe what ,livy and ,pliny assert respecting the means he employed in crossing the ,alps1 which took him fifteen days1 after meeting with almost every obstacle4 ,livy tells us1 that ,hannibal softened the rock by pouring vinegar upon it1 after it had first been made hot under flaming piles of huge trees6 ,m4 ,rollin quotes ,pliny to prove that vinegar has the force to break stones and rocks6 ,this story is altogether fabulous2 for in the first place1 had he vinegar sufficient2 and1 secondly1 who ever knew that vinegar had force1 or even the power of dissolving primitive rocks1 such as granite or gneiss2 and1 thirdly1 if it possessed the power stated by ,pliny1 and had he a sufficient quantity1 where was his wood8 ,for ,polybius assures us1 that ,hannibal had no wood to make a fire with1 and that there was not a tree in the place1 where he then was1 nor near it4 ,that ,hannibal passed over the ,alps into ,italy1 and at an inclement season of the year1 is certain1 and that it was one of the greatest achievements that an enterprising commander ever accomplished1 is generally admitted4 #e ,respiration is a mechanical and chemical process1 and consists in alternate inhalation and exhalation1 which1 in consequence of the oxygen gas in the air1 effects a change in the venous blood that enters the lungs from the pulmonary artery4 ,now as this blood is charged with carbon1 to which its dark purple colour is owing1 it is carried off in union with oxygen in the form of carbonic acid4 ,hence carbonic acid is produced in respiration and the venous blood is changed into the bright red arterial blood4 ,a common sized man will consume about #df thousand cubic inches of oxygen per diem2 equivalent to #abe cubic feet of air1 and makes about twenty respirations in a minute1 or for every seven pulsations breathes twice4 #f ,of this fact the reader may form some idea1 when he is informed1 that ,newton's ,principia1 ,biot's ,physique1 ,hatchette1 ,gregory1 c4 c4 form the class books of instruction1 works which require deep study1 and profound thought4 #g ,various applications of chemistry1 among which that to gunpowder1 drew my attention at an early period of life4 ,in the ,aurora of ,philad4 ,i published a series of essays on this and other subjects1 which1 from the letters received at that time1 ,i flatter myself tended in some degree to advance the manufacturing interest in the ,united ,states2 an interest1 which is connected with our individual and national prosperity1 and the permanent and practical independence of the republic4 ,these essays were entitled ,application of chemistry to the arts and manufactures1 and published in #ahjh4 ,i have since enlarged that plan in the ,artist's ,manual1 c4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,while noticing this subject we may add1 that1 having the honour of being one of the few of the original society of ,philadelphia for the promotion of ,national ,industry1 whose essays excited1 as they claimed1 the attention of the citizens of the ,united ,states1 much is due to the indefatigable labours of some of the members of that association4 ,we are greatly indebted to the able and masterly pen of ,,samuel ,,jackson ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,pharmacy in the college of ,apothecaries1 of ,philadelphia1 for many of the best essays it produced1 whose disinterested motives1 liberal and exalted mind1 and pure patriotic feeling prompted him to the laudable undertaking2 and whose essays were full1 clear1 and comprehensive4 ,viewing his talents1 his worth1 his merit1 we may truly add1 that he is not only an honour to the country which gave him birth1 but an ornament to the age in which he lives4 ,the able address of the ,philadelphia ,linnan society1 penned and signed by him1 the late ,samuel ,benezet ,m4 ,d41 and the author1 as a committee1 although written many years ago1 contains the principles1 which are now advocated for the support and encouragement of national industry4 ,this address was calculated1 however1 to promote1 at the same time1 the interests of ,natural ,history4 #h ,incombustible cloth made of this substance was formerly in use1 not only for domestic purposes1 but1 also to retain the ashes of the dead from those of the funeral pile4 ,cloth made of amianthus1 when greased1 or soiled1 may be cleansed by throwing it into a bright fire4 ,it is then restored to a dazzling white colour4 ,pliny1 the naturalist1 saw table cloths1 towels1 and napkins of amianthus taken from the table of a great feast1 thrown into the fire1 and burnt before the whole company2 and by this operation1 he says1 they became better cleansed than if they had been washed4 ,pontoppidan 7,natural ,history of ,norway7 remarks1 that he has a piece of paper made of the ,norway asbestus1 which1 when thrown into a fierce fire1 is not in the least wasted1 but what is written on it totally disappears4 ,in ,norway1 the stone flax is prepared by beating it in water1 till the fibres separate1 which are repeatedly washed1 and then dried in a sieve4 ,it is afterwards spun1 observing to moisten the fingers with oil4 #i ,in the year #afja1 a horse1 which had been taught to perform a number of tricks1 was tried1 as possessed by the devil1 and condemned to be burnt4 ,joblonski affirms in his ,lexicon1 c4 that he was condemned to the flames in ,lisbon4 ,nothing was a greater imposition on mankind than the ,oracles4 ,the imposition of causing statues to speak1 as the head of ,orpheus in the island of ,lesbos1 the sculapius of ,alexander1 c4 may be readily perceived1 when ,lucius relates1 that1 in the case of ,alexander's oracle1 he took instead of a pipe1 the gullet of a crane1 and transmitted the voice through it to the mouth of the statue6 ,bishop ,theophilus1 in the fourth century1 broke to pieces the statues at ,alexandria4 ,he found some which were hollow1 and placed in such a manner against a wall1 that a priest could slip unperceived behind them1 and speak to the ignorant populace through their mouths4 ,professor ,beckman observes1 that the ,pagan priests1 like our jugglers1 were afraid that their deceptions1 if long practised1 might be discovered4 ,they considered it1 therefore1 as more secure to deliver the answers themselves1 or cause them to be delivered by women instructed for that purpose1 or by writings1 or by any other means4 ,we read1 nevertheless1 that idols1 and the images of saints once spoke2 for at present the latter will not venture to open their mouths4 ,if their votaries ever really heard a voice proceed from the statue1 it may have been produced in the before-mentioned manner4 ,we think1 that a contrivance1 similar to the bull of ,phalaris1 in the place of hollow statues1 would furnish a good reality4 ,the oracle of ,apollo at ,delphos1 says ,percy1 having been consulted about the manner of stopping a plague then raging at ,athens1 returned for answer1 that the plague should cease1 when ,apollo's altar1 which was cubical1 should be doubled4 ,the philosophers of ,athens immediately applied themselves to discover the duplicature of the cube1 which henceforward was called the ,delian ,problem1 and continued for a long time to be an object of the keenest pursuit to the curious4 ,the first who discovered the solution was ,hippocrates ,chias4 #aj ,signs in the heavens were believed by the ancients2 and even with regard to natural occurrences1 they produced melancholy and awful reflections4 ,augustus ,csar was so afraid of thunder and lightning1 that1 though he carried about him a skin of a sea-calf1 which was in those days accounted an excellent paratonnerre1 yet1 whenever he saw a tempest coming1 he used to fly for refuge to some vaulted place underground4 ,caius ,caligula rivalled ,augustus in this respect2 for ,suetonius observes1 that when it thundered1 he would wrap his head in some covering2 or1 if in bed1 leap out of bed and hide himself under it4 #aa ,by means of a solar microscope1 ,i have seen the animalcula in vinegar several inches in length1 some of which had the appearance of eels1 and in motion4 #ab ,there is a sort of mountebanks not only in ,ceylon1 but in many other parts of the ,east ,indies1 who make a trade of taming serpents1 which they pretend to do by incantation1 and carry them about by way of show4 ,i once witnessed the taming of a serpent1 a black snake about four feet in length1 by an ,english gentleman at ,harrowgate1 in the neighbourhood of ,philadelphia4 ,he was remarkably fond of snakes for pets1 and had them not only to follow him1 but also to be about in the house among his children1 who became familiar with them2 and1 although young myself1 ,i observed that they were passive and obedient1 and knew by instinct their dependence on his favours4 ,the incantation1 that ,mr4 ,c--d used1 was simply this3 ,the snake was put into a room1 and ,mr4 ,c4 took in with him a bowl of milk1 and the door was closed4 ,having taken off his coat1 and put on a glove1 he proceeded towards his antagonist1 who1 being prepared for the attack1 made at him1 but was repulsed2 a second and third attempt was made1 but he was thrown back as before4 ,the snake finding himself mastered1 did not think proper to renew the combat1 and crawled into the corner panting for breath4 ,mr4 ,c4 now took some of the milk and placed it before him1 without the least fear1 and after he had finished it1 he gave him more4 ,this he continued until the snake was satisfied4 ,after which1 to the astonishment of all who witnessed the experiment1 he took it up1 and having wound itself round his arm1 he carried it home4 ,whether he examined his mouth1 destroyed the fang1 or the vesicular sac1 7if it had one71 ,i do not recollect2 but this same snake was afterwards a great favorite1 and would follow his master like a dog1 and even play about with the children4 ,i mention this incident to show1 that serpents possess considerable instinct1 and are1 like domestic animals1 conscious of their friends and benefactors1 and may be trained in the same manner4 ,in the island of ,ceylon1 there is a small animal called the ,indian ,ichneumon1 which destroys snakes in abundance2 but1 what is remarkable1 he only attacks them in an open place1 where he has an opportunity of running to a certain herb1 which he knows instinctively to be an antidote against the poison of the bite1 if he should happen to receive one4 ,the monkeys of ,india1 knowing the malignity of snakes1 make a business of hunting and destroying them at night2 after seizing them1 they carry them to a stone1 and beat their heads until the fangs are destroyed1 and then exultingly throw them in the air4 ,the poison is lodged in two small vesicles1 and when the animal bites they are squeezed1 and the poison is forced through the fangs into the wound4 ,if the vesicles be extracted1 or the liquid prevented from flowing into the wound1 the bite is harmless4 #ac ,the great cave on ,crooked ,creek1 was discovered about the year #ahjj1 by ,mr4 ,baker4 ,he proceeded only a small distance into it4 ,on the succeeding day1 he brought his wife1 and two or three children to explore it4 ,he carried a torch1 which he accidentally dropped4 ,during two days and two nights1 this family wandered in total darkness1 though sometimes within the hearing of a cataract1 when1 fortunately1 ,mrs4 ,baker1 in attempting to support herself on a rock1 perceived that it was wet4 ,she conjectured that it was caused by the mud1 which they had brought in upon their feet4 ,baker immediately ascended the rock1 and saw the light of day4 #ad ,there can be no doubt1 as we observed1 that miasma is variously compounded2 but there is no certainty1 as to what it is composed of1 or what modifications it may assume4 ,that it is1 however1 a chemical combination1 and may be decomposed1 and destroyed by chemical agents1 appears equally true4 ,the disinfecting apparatus of ,morveau1 sundry fumigations1 c4 are used for this purpose4 ,the proper destroyers of these gaseous poisons1 are nitric acid vapour1 muriatic acid1 and chlorine4 ,the two last are the most effectual4 ,how would chlorine gas act on prussine gas1 or cyanogen8 ,would it not deprive it of its carbon1 forming the chlorocarbonic acid1 and thus set the azote at liberty1 or might it not unite with the nitrogen1 and form a chloride of nitrogen8 ,suppose the cyanogen to be combined with hydrogen1 the decomposition of the hydrocyanic acid would be effected first by the chlorine combining with the hydrogen1 forming muriatic acid1 and secondly with the carbon1 forming chlorocarbonic acid4 ,if hydrogen1 in any other combination1 should exist1 would not the chlorine in every case decompose such compound1 and thereby destroy its deletereous properties by taking away its hydrogen8 ,i think it will be proved1 some time or other1 that the miasma1 which produces yellow fever1 is a compound of carbon and azote1 with hydrogen1 acting under particular circumstances and conditions4 ,various other means1 besides those we have stated1 have been recommended to prevent the effect of contagious matter1 such as odoriferous substances1 preparations of camphor1 aromatic vinegar1 called the vinegar of four thieves1 c4 but all come short of the effect1 and may be regarded as nostrums4 ,the vapour of burning sulphur1 or sulphurous acid1 is used in the ,east against the plague2 but this is inferior to either of the other acids1 of which chlorine1 formerly called oxymuriatic acid1 is to be preferred4 ,a mixture of four parts of common salt1 one of black oxide of manganese1 and two of sulphuric acid1 or muriatic acid poured on manganese or red lead1 will generate chlorine gas4 ,morveau's disinfecting apparatus contains the above mixture4 ,the free use of this gas in apartments1 c4 c4 cannot be too strongly recommended4 #ae ,on this subject1 see a paper by ,mr4 ,howard in the ,english ,philosophical ,transactions1 for #ahjb1 and by ,vauquelin in the ,journal des ,mines1 ,no4 #gf4 #af ,for the history of saltpetre1 the reader may consult1 with advantage1 ,beckman's ,history of ,inventions4 #ag ,the affinity of charcoal for oxygen is so considerable1 that instances have been known of its undergoing spontaneous combustion by simple contact with the air4 ,an occurrence of this kind took place at the powder mills of ,essonne1 in ,france4 7,an4 de ,chim4 #cf1 p1 #ic47 ,a large quantity of recently burnt charcoal had been ground in the usual manner1 and was deposited in a large receptacle for future use2 some days after1 the door of the magazine being opened1 in order to remove a part of the charcoal1 an extraordinary heat was perceived1 and immediately a train of fire was observed1 spreading over the surface of the charcoal1 and which was not extinguished without much difficulty4 ,aikin's ,chemical ,dictionary1 vol4 i1 p4 #bch4 #ah ,this apparatus will heat the air in a room to #hd in the coldest weather1 and is particularly calculated for cotton mills1 and other purposes4 ,his invention is considered to be a judicious application of a well known principle4 ,count ,rumford heated rooms in a similar manner by steam1 which may be seen in the ,repository of ,arts vol4 xv1 p4 #ahf4 ,a ,mr4 ,green of ,wandsworth1 ,england1 obtained a patent in #agic1 for warming rooms1 by heated air1 heated with steam4 ,steam pipes1 however1 are now in use in the ,united ,states4 ,in consequence of the great quantity of latent caloric in steam 7about #ajjj degrees7 which is given out as free heat in its condensation1 this principle has been judiciously applied not only to the warming of apartments1 but to the boiling of dye kettles1 and other purposes4 ,see an account of ,woolf's steam apparatus1 subsequent pages4 #ai ,the principal workmen they describe1 are a master powderer1 a master carpenter1 a master cooper1 a head boy1 7,garon7 employed in the pulverization of the substances1 another for the fabrication of charcoal1 one for every mill1 besides workmen for aiding in the charring1 for the mill1 c4 #bj ,trait sur l'art de fabriquer la poudre canon1 par ,,mm4 ,botte et ,riffault may be consulted4 #ba ,this is a mixed gas1 composed of carburetted hydrogen1 and carbonic oxide4 #bb ,his son wrote a work1 having the following title3 ,thoughts concerning that last and most perfect work of nature1 and chief of metals1 gold1 its wonderful properties1 generation1 affection1 effects1 and fitness for the operations of art2 illustrated by experiments1 from the ,latin4 ,hamburgh1 #afhe1 #hvo4 #bc ,in the year #aggg1 ,lord ,mahon1 afterwards ,earl ,stanhope1 exhibited some experiments1 to prove the certain1 cheap1 and simple method of securing houses against fire1 without making use of either brick1 stones1 tiles1 iron1 or any such incombustible material4 ,a building1 entirely constructed of wood1 and of lath and plaster1 with a very small quantity of sand laid under the floors1 which were of deal1 was attempted to be set on fire by means of a large quantity of dry burning fuel1 faggots1 straw1 pitch and other combustibles1 with which the lower room of this building was filled1 from the floor to the ceiling almost in every part4 ,the whole mass of fire burnt out without doing the least damage4 ,those who were in the next story1 directly over the conflagration1 did not perceive the least degree of heat4 ,a wooden stair case1 made in the same manner1 also resisted the flames4 #bd ,the imitation of thunder1 rain1 hail1 c4 for theatrical purposes1 is variously performed4 ,mr4 ,nicholson1 in describing an exhibition he saw in ,london1 7,see ,phantasmagoria17 remarks1 that thunder was imitated very accurately1 by means of sheet iron plates4 ,the noise of rain and hail may be imitated by procuring a thin hollow cylinder of wood1 about ten inches wide1 and two or three feet long2 dividing its inside into five equal parts1 by boards1 placed obliquely1 of five or six inches1 observing to let there be between them and the wooden circle1 a space of about one-sixth of an inch1 and then introducing about four or five pounds of shot1 and turning it upside down4 ,the shot will pass through the various partitions1 and resemble the fall of rain4 ,if large shot be used1 the noise will be increased1 and resemble hail4 ,according to the ,dictionnaire de l',industrie1 7article ,tonnerre artificiel71 thunder is imitated1 by making a hexangular case of sheet iron1 and putting stones or small balls into it1 and rolling it more or less swiftly4 ,another mode is to roll cannon balls on a floor1 on which is loosely nailed1 at certain distances apart1 strips of wood or lath4 ,a clap of thunder is imitated by letting fall on each other1 very suddenly1 a number of sheet iron plates1 having them previously suspended1 or strung on a cord1 which must be vertical4 ,in #aghd1 ,m4 ,michael1 7,journal de ,paris7 made a machine1 which imitated thunder1 so completely1 as either to produce the most violent clap1 or the most distant rumbling1 with intermediate variations4 ,parchment1 stretched over a frame1 has likewise1 been used for the same purpose4 ,the distant thunder may be represented in this manner2 but1 to produce a sharp noise1 or clap1 something more is required4 #be ,whoever walked the streets of ,rome1 at night1 without a lantern1 was under the necessity of creeping home in perfect darkness1 and in great danger1 like ,alexis1 in ,athenus4 ,antioch1 ,rome1 and a few other cities had public lanterns in streets which were most frequented4 ,libanus1 who lived in the beginning of the fourth century1 in praising his native city1 ,antioch1 says1 that the light of the sun is succeeded by other lights1 which are far superior to the lamps lighted by the ,egyptians on the festival of ,minerva of ,sais4 ,the night differs from the day only in the appearance of the light4 ,with regard to labour and employment1 every thing goes on well4 ,some work continually2 but others laugh and amuse themselves with singing4 ,in another passage1 in the oration to ,ellibichus1 the same author tells us1 that the ropes from which the lamps that ornamented the city were suspended1 had been cut by some riotous soldiers1 not far from a bath4 ,proceeding1 says he to a bath1 not far off1 they cut1 with their swords1 the ropes1 from which were suspended the lamps that afforded light in the night-time1 to show that the ornaments of the city ought to give way to them4 ,jerome also makes it appear1 that ,antioch was lighted with lamps2 for1 he remarks1 that1 in an altercation between a ,luciferan and an ,orthodox1 an adherent to the schismatic ,lucifer disputed in the street with a true believer1 till the streets were lighted1 when the listening crowd departed1 and that they spat in each other's face1 and retired4 ,edessa1 in ,syria1 was lighted in the fifth century1 and the governor of that city ordered1 that a part of the oil1 which was before given to the churches and monasteries1 should be burnt in the streets4 ,while illuminations were considered emblematical of public rejoicing1 the reverse was considered a token of public sorrow2 to denote which1 on occasions of great misfortune1 it was customary not to light the streets4 ,valerius quotes a passage of ,libanius in proof of this assertion1 where it is said1 that the people of ,antioch1 in order to mitigate the anger of the emperor1 bethought themselves of lighting either no lamps1 or a very small number4 ,in #aehh1 ,paris was lighted up with falots1 or vases filled with pitch1 rosin1 and other combustibles4 ,the ,abb ,laudati let out torches and lanterns in ,paris1 in #affb4 #bf ,in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes1 c4 several new lamps are described1 as follows3 ,a lamp1 invented by count ,rumford noticed by him in a memoir on the light of lamps1 and the means of increasing it2 a new lamp with a double current of air1 by ,lenormand2 star lamp by ,bordier2 reverberatory lamp for towns1 c4 by de ,thirville and ,bordier2 a modified thermo-lamp by ,winsor2 a new lamp by ,baswell2 the economical lamp of inflammable gas1 by ,murdoc1 and economical lamp by ,lambertin2 the cupola lamp by ,vivien2 new lamp with a porcelain reflector by ,l',ange2 the hydrodynamic and chemical lamp1 by ,l',ange2 the portable lamp by count ,rumford2 horizontal reflectors1 with parabolic surfaces in revolving1 and parabolic reflectors1 simple and double1 by ,argand and ,bordier ,marcet2 improved lamp1 by ,marcet2 thermo-lamp by ,sobolewsky and ,horrer2 watch lamp by ,dumouceau2 various lamps1 with carburetted hydrogen2 the polyflame lamp1 of ,rumford2 the curved lamp by ,connain2 the enamellers' lamp1 and hydropneumatic lamp by ,tilley1 c4 ,davy's safety lamp is described in ,brande's ,chemistry1 and in ,ure's ,chemical ,dictionary4 ,see ,aphlogistic lamp4 #bg ,a solution of muriate of copper gives a green1 of sulphate of copper and muriate of soda1 a light green2 of sulphate of copper1 and ammonia in excess1 a deep blue2 a decoction of cochineal1 or of brazil wood1 and a solution of tin1 a deep red or scarlet1 c4 ,these solutions may be used for that purpose4 #bh ,having mentioned in this article1 the use of candles for illumination1 it may not be improper to observe1 that they were also employed for cooking1 as will appear from the following incident4 ,in #aagb1 ,henry ,,ii1 of ,france1 collected together the feigners of ,languedoc1 in order to mediate a peace between the count of ,toulouse1 and the king of ,arragon1 at which ,guillaume ,gros de ,martel gave a sumptuous dinner1 the viands being all cooked by the flame of wax tapers6 #bi ,in the ,archives des ,dcouvertes et des ,inventiones ,nouvelles1 are several new inventions and improvements1 relative to fire arms1 among which are the following3 ,new fire arms1 invented by ,pauly1 which are said to carry a ball double the distance of ordinary muskets1 and to possess other advantages2 for a particular account of which1 the reader is referred to the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',encouragement1 ,no4 #ii2 another kind1 by ,,mm4 ,pauly and ,prelat1 which primes itself1 c4 and goes off by percussion2 an improvement in guns by using platina bushing1 c4 by ,lepage1 with the use of priming1 composed of powder made of chlorate of potassa in lieu of saltpetre2 the improvement of ,regnier in guns2 improvement in the use of platina for guns1 to be used with the oxymuriated powder1 by ,debourbet2 a gun which fires fourteen times in succession without new loading1 by ,m4 ,henri2 an improved carabine1 which is discharged by percussion1 by ,m4 ,gosset1 c4 #cj ,since #agib1 musket-balls are seven-twelfths of an inch in diameter1 and twenty go to the pound instead of eighteen4 ,in the ,british service1 eleven bullets to the pound are used for the proof of muskets1 and fourteen in the pound1 or twenty-nine in two pounds1 for service2 seventeen for the proof of carbines1 and twenty for service2 and twenty-eight in the pound1 for the proof of pistols1 and thirty four for service4 ,the diameter of musket-bullets differs but one-fiftieth part from that of the musket bore2 for if the shot but just rolls into the barrel1 it is sufficient4 ,the diameter of any bullet is found1 by dividing #a4fgjf by the cube root of the number1 which shows how many of them make a pound1 or it may be done in a shorter way4 ,from the logarithm 4#bbbhgef of #a4fgjf1 subtract continually the third part of the logarithm of the number of bullets in the pound1 and the difference will be the logarithm of the diameter required4 ,thus the diameter of a bullet1 whereof twelve weigh a pound1 is found by subtracting 4#ceigbgj1 a third part of the logarithm of #ab1 from the given logarithm 4#bbbhgef2 or1 when the logarithm is less than the former1 a unit must be added1 so as to have #a4bbbhgef1 and the difference 4#hfcadhf will be the logarithm of the diameter sought1 which is 4#gbig inches2 observing that the number found will always be a decimal1 when the logarithm1 which is to be subtracted is greater than that of the pound2 because the divisor is greater than the dividend in this case4 ,hence1 from the specific gravity of lead1 the diameter of any bullet may be found from its given weight3 for1 since a cube foot weighs #aacbe ounces1 and #fgh is to #cee1 as the cube #agbh of a foot1 or #ab inches1 is the content of the sphere2 which therefore is1 #eibi4g is to #af ounces1 or a pound1 as the cube #agbh is to the cube of the diameter of a sphere which weighs a pound2 which cube therefore is #d4ffbfc1 and its root #a4fgjf inches1 the diameter sought4 #ca ,a term used in the ,french ,navy1 to signify a wooden case or box1 in which cartridges are brought out of the powder-magazine for the purpose of serving the guns2 also a spoon or ladle1 made of copper1 and fixed to a long pole1 which serves to convey gunpowder into a piece of ordnance4 #cb ,if sugar of lead cannot be had1 and a substitute is required which in fact is the same1 we may dissolve white lead in vinegar1 until the latter is saturated4 ,this may be used with water in the same manner1 using1 however1 more of it as it is in solution4 #cc ,lee's adventure1 just related1 brings to mind another1 by a man of same name1 not1 however1 with a submarine torpedo1 or any thing of that kind2 but with a sublunar aerostatic vessel1 made about two or three years ago1 at ,camden1 opposite ,philadelphia4 ,this was a balloon of an oblong shape1 intended to float in the air like a ship on water1 and furnished with oars or wings4 ,it was filled with hydrogen gas4 ,the object was to direct it1 7a desideratum in aerostation71 like a vessel on water2 but the aeronaut1 having arose in his car to the height of a lombardy poplar1 which came in contact with it1 and judging a retreat was preferable1 leaped on a limb1 where he had the misfortune to be caught by the seat of his pantaloons1 and appeared1 as it were1 suspended between heaven and earth1 to the no small diversion of thousands of spectators4 ,the balloon ascended to some height1 and then turned1 throwing out his sand bags1 c4 which1 in the city1 were taken for the unfortunate aeronaut1 and produced1 of course1 a contrary feeling4 ,lee called on me the next day1 and1 in explanation of the cause1 observed1 that1 when he ascended to the height mentioned1 he found the centre of gravity was shifting1 and thought it prudent not to venture4 ,i observed1 that it was well he changed his gravity1 but was sorry to find1 that he had transferred his centre a posteriori4 #cd ,a friend1 who was a prisoner on board of ,hardy's ship1 very facetiously observed1 such was the dread of torpedoes by the ,british1 that they were literally afraid of eating a potato1 lest it should contain a torpedo6 #ce ,we are informed1 that some rockets1 which were made at the ,u4 ,s4 ,arsenal at ,troy1 were charged with the usual rocket composition1 and a small portion of quicklime1 in consequence of which their power was greatly augmented2 a useful hint for their improvement4 #cf ,star composition3--meal-powder #e parts1 saltpetre #af parts1 sulphur #h parts1 antimony #b parts4 #cg ,four inches more likely4 #ch ,general ,lallemand 7,treatise on ,artillery1 vol4 i1 p4 #bf17 observes1 that the ,congreve rocket is thirty inches in length1 and three and a half inches in diameter2 that a part of its charge consists of fire stone and small grenades2 that their range is equal to a long gun1 but their direction is very uncertain2 so much so as to render them of little service1 except to set fire to objects with extensive surfaces2 and that they will not pierce through solid buildings1 and in battle are at best only fit to frighten horses4 #ci ,in a note to ,gibbon1 page #bhc1 we read1 ,the naphtha1 the oleum incendiarum of the history of ,jerusalem 7,gest4 ,dei per ,francos1 p4 #aafg17 the oriental fountain of ,james de ,vitry 7l4 iii1 c4 #hd17 is introduced on slight evidence and strong probability4 ,the name by which ,cinnamus call the ,greek fire1 corresponds with the locality where naphtha was found1 between the ,tigris and the ,caspian sea4 ,pliny 7,hist4 ,natur4 ii1 #aji17 says1 it was subservient to the revenge of ,medea1 and according to the etymology1 naphtha was signified4 #dj ,the ,fougasses and ,camouflets1 used in mining1 are employed for different purposes4 ,the fougasses are small mines1 whose line of resistance is only six to six and two-thirds feet4 ,they are used to defend large posts4 ,bomb fougasses are nothing more than fougasses1 charged with bombs containing powder4 ,to estimate the effects of bomb fougasses1 artillerists have ascertained the exact quantity of powder contained in each kind of bomb4 ,a bomb of eight and a half inches weighs forty-six and a half pounds2 it requires four and a half pounds of powder to fill it2 but one pound will burst it4 ,the eighteen inch bomb1 or cominage1 weighs nearly five hundred and seventy-one pounds1 and contains forty pounds of powder ,thirteen pounds of powder will burst it4 ,the camouflet is a small fougasse1 made to act against the enemy's mines1 to suffocate and poison their branch4 ,the camouflet is also used to act against the sides of the crater of a mine that has been sprung4 ,see ,science of ,war and ,fortification1 vol4 #b;d1 p4 #bhf4 #da ,the gramme is the ,french unit of weight1 and is equal to the weight of a cubic centimetre of pure water2 it weighs #ah4hd grains1 ,french4 ,the kilogramme is equal to #ajjj grammes4 7#b lbs41 #e drachma1 #di grains1 ,french47 #db ,among other inventions1 by this philosopher1 such as the detection of the adulteration of the crown of ,hiero1 mentioned by ,vitruvius1 the cachleon or ,archimedes' screw1 the ,helix for launching large ships1 the ,trispaston for drawing immense weights1 ,pneumatic and ,hydrostatic engines1 sphere1 which exhibited the celestial motions2--there are two in particular1 which relate to the defence of ,syracuse1 as well as the destruction of the enemy4 ,besides his burning mirrors1 ,polybius1 ,livy1 and ,plutarch assert1 that his inventions for defence consisted of ,tormenta1 ,balist1 ,catapults1 ,sagittarii1 ,scorpions1 ,cranes1 c4 ,archimedes died in the #adc;d ,olympiad1 #baj years before the birth of ,christ4 #dc ,certain plants1 we have said1 are made use of for this purpose4 ,botanists have certain rules for distinguishing poisonous plants1 from those which are innocent4 ,professor ,eaton 7,manual of ,botany1 c4 p4 #ag7 observes1 that plants with five stamens and one pistil1 with a dull coloured lurid corol1 and of a nauseating sickly smell1 are always poisonous2 as tobacco1 thorn-apple1 henbane1 night-shade4 ,the degree of poisonous property diminished1 when the flower is brighter coloured1 and the smell1 less nauseous4 ,he also observes1 that umbelliferous plants of the aquatic kind1 and of a nauseating scent1 are always poisonous2 as water-hemlock and cow-parsley4 ,but if they grow in dry land1 and their smell is pleasant1 they are not poisonous2 as fennel1 dill1 c4 ,snap dragon1 foxglove1 and plants1 generally1 with labiate corols1 and seeds in capsules1 are poisonous1 and also those plants which exude a milky juice when broken1 unless they bear compound flowers2 as milk-weed and dog-bane4 ,it is understood1 also1 that plants having any appendage to the calyx or corol1 and eight or more stamens1 are generally poisonous4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,accension of glace inflammable1 #dj ,accension of spirit of turpentine1 #ea ,accension of phosphuretted hydrogen gas1 #he ,accension1 spontaneous1 remarks on1 #bhh ,acid of borax1 use of1 in fire-works1 #bbg ,aigrette1 pots of1 #cfc why so named1 ibid ,air works1 #cdg ,alcohol1 #afh the flame of1 how coloured1 #bj1 #bfi its compound with water1 c4 #afi its use in fire-works1 #afh its proof1 or strength1 how ascertained1 #agj used in the preparation of fulminating mercury1 ibid burns without smoke1 ibid ,alexander the ,great1 surprised with the effects of naphtha1 #cb1 #aec ,albertus ,magnus1 published an account of the ordeal by fire1 #ch on the ,greek fire1 #ih ,amadou2 see ,pyrotechnical sponge4 ,amber1 #aef used in odoriferous fire1 #aeg found in the ,united ,states1 ibid black2 see ,jet4 ,ambergris1 ibid ,american ,turtle1 what1 #eae ,ammonia1 muriate of1 #ahd ,analysis of gunpowder1 in what it consists1 #adj ,ancients1 fire-works of the1 #bfa as exhibited in theatres1 ibid made chiefly in wooden tubes1 #bfb illuminated on birth days1 #dbh ,anelzin1 ,constantine1 supposed to have invented gunpowder1 #ii ,animal poisons1 for what used1 #efh ,animalcula1 #cd ,anglesea1 ,island of1 furnishes sulphur from copper pyrites1 #hj ,antimony1 #ahh ,antioch1 had some public lamps1 note4 #dbh ,anna ,commena1 her formula for ,greek fire1 #ih ,aphlogistic lamp1 #agj with camphor1 #aga ,aquatic fire-works1 #ba1 #ddb ,aquafortis1 #di ,archbishop of ,magdeburg had nitre districts1 #eb ,arrow1 poisoned1 #efg ,archbishop of ,triers1 granted privileges for searching for nitre1 #ec ,artifice of destruction1 #bfg ,artificial nitre beds1 #fi ,artificial flower pot1 #aj ,artillery1 how fired by sulphuric acid1 #ge match1 #dga rod1 #dgd ,arsenic1 sulphurets of1 #ahg ,arrows1 used to attract lightning1 #ca ,asbestus1 or ,amianthus1 wicks of1 #bf ,ashes1 wood1 #aib ,asphaltum1 #aee used as a cement1 ibid ,aurum ,musivum1 #bjj ,auger rammer1 what1 #bch size of1 for boring rockets1 ibid ,auget in mining1 what1 #eea ,automatons of fire1 #dai ,aurora1 composition for1 #bgb ,azote1 iodide of1 a fulminating compound1 #agg in nitre beds1 furnished by animal matter1 #gj quantity of1 in nitric acid1 #abb disengaged from gunpowder1 ibid quantity of1 disengaged from powder1 #abc exists in miasmata1 #fj carburet of1 in miasmata1 #fa different combinations of1 ib4 ,b4 ,bacon1 ,roger1 #ih received his knowledge of gunpowder1 ib4 his work1 containing the composition of powder1 ib4 his opinion of the manner the ,midianites were defeated1 ib4 knew gunpowder before ,schwartz1 #ii ,balls1 incendiary1 #ib smoke1 #ddi stink1 ibid poisoned1 ibid inflammable1 #egg red-hot1 #ddi ,balloon wheels1 #cid ,balloons of grenades1 bombs and stone1 #eei ,coehorn1 #cea ,republican1 #ceb of serpents1 #cec of crackers and marrons1 #ceb compound1 ibid eight-inch1 c4 #cec ten-inch1 c4 #ced observations on1 #cee ,table respecting1 #cef ,mortars for the charge of1 ibid fuses of1 #ced composition for the1 #ceh cases for1 #bde ,barbadoes tar1 #aee ,barras1 #adh ,bar-,cochebra1 the rabbi1 his deceptions on the ,jews1 #ca ,barrow's account of ,asiatic fire-works1 #bee the nitre caves of ,africa1 #eh ,battle of the kegs1 #ebc ,batteries of ,roman candles1 #djf ,mosaic candles1 ibid ,bavins1 for fire-ships1 #eji composition for1 ibid ,beckman1 his remarks concerning jugglers1 #bg ,bengal lights1 #cgg ,benzoin1 #afa ,benzoic acid1 ibid ,benzoin1 why used in fire-works1 #afb flowers of1 ibid ,berard1 his improvement in refining nitre1 #fg ,berthollet1 proposed chlorate of potassa for gunpowder1 #gf his fulminating silver1 #agd ,bergamot1 the essence of1 used in odoriferous flambeaux1 #bhh ,bigot1 his observations on rockets1 #edj ,bistre1 how prepared from wood-soot1 #adf ,bitumen1 elastic1 #aee solid1 ibid ,black1 ivory1 #ij ,black lead1 #bji ,black amber1 #aeg ,blue vitriol1 #bbb ,blue stars1 #ah ,boat1 plunging1 #ead ,bodington1 invented a machine to prove powder1 #aci ,bologna phial1 #bad ,bones1 charring of1 #id ,bone and ivory1 #bbj ,borello1 his process for regeneration1 #cd ,bottle1 phosphoric fire1 #he ,bombs1 howitzes and grenades1 #dhg tables respecting1 #dhi incendiary1 of ,ruggeri1 #ecg composition of1 #eef where said to have been invented1 #ejd succouring1 an account of ,bell's1 #edd ,brass1 #aig ,brand1 fire1 #egd ,brick1 economical1 #egg ,brilliant stars1 #ah fire1 #bga ,brins1 pots de1 #cfd ,brimstone1 #gh roll1 #hj how obtained1 ib4 how to determine its purity1 #hc flowers of1 #hb ,browning of gun barrels1 #bjd ,browne1 ,dr4 on nitre caves1 #ed1 #ee1 #eh ,bronze1 #aih ,brongniart's directions for refining saltpetre1 #fb ,brugnatelli's fulminating silver1 #agd ,bullock's blood1 paste made with1 #bec ,burgundy pitch1 #adg ,burning barrel1 #ejc composition for the1 #ejd ,byzantium1 illumination of1 #bd ,c4 ,cabinet de composition1 #bce ,cadet1 his mode of discharging guns1 #dgg ,caduceus rocket1 #cda ,cagliostro1 the imposter1 #cc his pretensions to the miraculous1 ib4 his phial1 ib4 ,cardan's account of his phial1 ib4 ,csalpinus1 his comment on ,aristotle1 #cd ,callinicus1 the inventor of the ,greek fire1 #edd1 #edh ,calamine stone1 #aie ,calcareous caverns mostly contain nitre1 #ed ,caligula1 caused ,rome to be illuminated1 #bd1 #dbh ,camphor1 #aeg used in candle-making1 #aei obtained from the ,laurus ,camphora1 #aeh crude1 how refined1 ibid properties of1 #aeh use of1 in fire-works1 #afj the flame produced by1 ibid ,candles1 ,roman1 #chj cases for1 and effect of1 ibid manner of charging the1 ibid manner of firing1 ibid ,mosaic1 #cha duration of1 #dci light of1 ibid ,ure's experiments on1 ibid ,cannon1 history of1 #def how originally made1 #deg different kinds of1 #dei opinions respecting1 #deh ,carbon1 gaseous oxide of1 #hi different combinations of1 ib4 quantity in different coals1 how ascertained1 #aea ,carbonic acid1 #hh ,carbonic oxide gas1 #hi ,carburetted hydrogen gas1 ib4 ,cartwright's fire-works1 #bj ,caromel1 #afe ,carbonate of ,ammonia1 #ahe zinc1 impure1 #aie potassa1 #ahi ,castera's ,plunging boat1 some account of1 #ead ,caprices1 #djj cracking1 #djg ,cascades of fire1 #djd ,carney1 ,m4 his process for gunpowder1 #aaj ,carcass rocket1 #ecj ,carcasses1 #dib how made1 #dic table of the dimensions of1 #did uses of1 #dib composition of1 #did a general rule for their preparation1 #die composition for covering1 #dif how discharged from mortars1 #dig inextinguishable1 #dic ,cartridges1 #dfb musket1 #dfd cannon1 #dfg used in seiges1 what kind of1 #dff cost of1 in ,france1 ibid ball for1 calculations respecting1 #dfc dimensions of the sacks for1 #dfh cannon1 of what composed1 ibid table relative to1 #dfi ,bigot's table on the charge of powder for1 #dga ,cases1 when drove solid1 observations on1 #bcg how distinguished by their diameters1 ibid charging of1 without moulds1 ibid nipples for1 ibid when charged solid1 how bored1 #bch rolled wet1 for wheels and fixed pieces1 #bdd for turning pieces1 of what length1 #bde for ,roman candles1 ibid for serpents1 ibid for fixed stars1 ibid tourbillon1 ibid balloon1 how made1 ibid for illumination port-fires1 #bdf lances1 #bdg for common port-fires1 ibid paper for1 #bej paper1 preferred to wooden tubes1 #bfb used by the ,chinese1 ibid for reports1 #cja for crackers1 #cjj for fire-pumps1 #cbb for scrolls1 #cdd priming of1 #cgj whitening of1 ibid standing and fixed1 compositions for1 #chh ,catamarin1 #ead invented by ,fulton1 ibid ,caves1 nitre1 of the ,united ,states1 #ed ,celsius1 his writings against the ,magi1 #bg ,cement1 ,japanese1 #beb ,cerasin1 #bai ,chained rockets1 #cdb ,chaptal1 his approval of ,carney's process1 #aaj his observations on saltpetre1 #fg ,christians in the first century1 illuminated1 #bd1 #dbh ,charcoal1 #hg accension of1 by nitric acid1 #ea from damaged gunpowder1 #gb quantity of1 for decomposing #ajj parts of nitre1 #if used in fire-works1 #hg decomposes nitric acid1 ib4 nitrate of potassa1 #if properties of1 #hg destroys the empyreumatic flavour of liquor1 ib4 burns in oxygen gas1 c4 #hh one of the constituents of gunpowder1 #hi how made1 #ij how made intensely black1 #if for gunpowder1 how prepared1 #id wood used for making1 #id ,charred pitcoal1 #ij ,chargers1 #bca ,characters1 used in pyrotechny1 #bcj ,champy1 ,m4 his process for gunpowder1 #aji ,changes1 in sun pieces1 how effected1 #cif ,chemical effects in fire-works1 #b changes1 ib4 ,chimnies1 different modes of cleansing1 #egc ,smart's machine for1 #egd ,chinese fire1 #ai1 #cga works1 #bee preparation of the iron for1 #bja composition of1 as used in theatres1 #bfe for table works1 #bgb peculiar art of the1 in making fire-works1 #bee flyers1 #cjc cases for1 ibid how filled1 ibid use of1 ibid fountains1 #dje paste1 how made1 #beb iron sand1 different numbers of the1 how made1 #bjb ,incarville's account of the1 #bjb ,chlorate of potassa1 in fire-works1 #g accension by1 #bb experiments with1 ib4 how made1 #gd composition of1 #ge decomposed by combustibles1 #ge and sugar1 give fire with sulphuric acid1 ib4 effects of1 with charcoal and sulphur1 #gf in lieu of nitre for gunpowder1 ib4 serious accidents from1 ib4 proportions of1 for powder1 ib4 powder made with1 stronger than the common1 ib4 powder of1 experiments with the1 ib4 for rockets1 #gg how used to discharge cannon1 #ge ,choaker1 #bcc ,choaking1 how performed1 #bdc contrivance for1 #bdd ,cicero1 lamps lighted in honor of1 #bd1 #dbh ,clay1 uses of1 in pyrotechny1 #aic how prepared for use1 #aid ,cleaveland1 professor1 his notices of saltpetre caves1 #ed ,coal1 #adi common1 ibid pit1 ibid component parts of1 ibid character of1 ibid what kind of1 best for fire-works1 ibid surcharged with bitumen1 how it burns1 #aej ,american1 ibid use of1 in the arts1 ibid kinds of1 ibid quantity of carbon in1 how ascertained1 #aea why used in fire-works1 ibid analysis of1 ibid origin of1 #aeb ,coke1 #ij ovens1 #aej ,coehorn balloon1 #cea illuminated1 ibid of serpents1 ibid of crackers1 ibid compound1 #ceb ,colophony1 #adg ,colours1 how communicated1 #ai ,combustion1 spontaneous1 how occasioned1 #cbc accelerated or retarded1 #a produces new compounds1 #b products of1 ib4 of metals1 #d of sulphur with nitre1 #di ,common stars1 #ah ,compositions1 remarks respecting particular1 #i how preserved1 #bce sundry1 for fire-works1 tabular view of1 #cag effects of particular1 #cfg for variations1 for sun pieces1 #cif to preserve the fuses of shells1 c4 #dhe for dipping curtains1 bavins1 c4 #eaa for priming for fire-ships1 ibid for setting fire to fascines1 ibid for hoops1 fire arrows1 c4 ibid for kitt1 #eab ,condensing syringe1 #bgf ,courantines1 or line rockets1 #cde ,constantius1 alarmed at some feats by fire1 #ca ,constantinople1 illumination of1 #bd by order of ,constantine1 #dbh ,copal1 #afd ,cornelius1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 his description of a nitre cave1 #eh ,corrosive sublimate1 #ahf use of1 in fire-works1 ibid ,cotton1 #bai ,counter-mines1 #eea ,crackers of fulminating silver1 #agc how made for fire-works1 #cjj report of1 how caused1 ibid ,waterloo1 #bgc ,crawfish1 process for regenerating1 #cd ,cramer's experiments on the formation of nitre1 #gj ,cross-fire1 what1 #djf ,crowns and globes1 compositions for1 #cij ,cruikshank1 his process for making fulminating silver1 #agd ,curtains1 for fire-ships1 #eaj ,cyanogen1 #hi ,cylinders1 or rollers1 #bcj ,cyphers in fire1 how made1 #cbd ,d4 ,dana1 his remarks respecting vapour in combustion1 #dcd ,dart1 the inflammable1 #egd ,dead fire1 for wheels1 #chi light fuse1 #dhe ,deceptions by fire1 various1 #cj ,decorations for fire-works1 #bih1 #dbe ,deflagration of nitre with crude antimony1 #ej ,delian problem1 7note71 #bh ,deliquescent salts in nitre1 #ch ,desaguliers1 his remarks concerning rockets4 ,see ,rockets4 ,destruction1 artifice of1 #bfg ,detonation with nitre and phosphorus1 #di ,detonations1 sundry with chlorate of potassa1 #ge sundry experiments to produce1 #bgc ,detonating mixtures with phosphorus1 #he girdle1 #bgd powder from indigo1 #agg tape1 #bgd oil1 #agi works1 #bgc balls1 #bgd cards1 #bge ,devices1 variously formed1 #cbd ,diamond1 pure carbon1 #hg ,dodecaedron1 representation of1 #djc ,don ,pedro1 #ii ,d',orval1 his account of aquatic fire-works1 #bgb ,dragons1 in fire-works1 exhibitions of1 #bff ,driver for charging large rockets1 #bcc ,drying of powder1 #aab ,duponts1 the ,messrs4 the character of their powder1 #gc ,dusting of gunpowder1 #aab ,dung of camels1 used as fuel1 #bah ,e4 ,eau de cuite1 #fd ,eau forte1 ib4 ,eau faible1 ib4 ,europeans1 ancient1 their poisoned arrows1 #efh ,elastic bitumen1 #aee aeriform fluids1 #f ,electron1 #aef ,electricity1 effects of1 on inflammable bodies1 #bgf ,ellibichus1 7note471 #dbh ,empedocles knew the effect of burning glasses1 #efb ,endless screw1 #dah ,eprouvette1 #ach of ,hutton1 ibid improved1 ibid of ,darcy1 #gf of ,regnier1 #gg of ,ramsden1 #aci ,dr4 ,hutton's opinion of the1 #ach ,eruption1 volcanic1 #bfc substances which produce1 ibid ,essence of spruce1 #adg ,ether1 phosphorized1 #he ,essential oils1 #afc ,etoupille of the ,french1 #bie how prepared1 #big ,ewel1 his patent for making gunpowder1 #aah ,examination1 chemical1 of nitre1 #gb ,exhibition of fire-works1 #dec ,experiments1 sundry1 with detonating substances1 #bgc ,extemporaneous fire1 #egh various kinds of1 ibid by chemical action1 ibid ,hanzelet's composition for1 #egi remarks on1 ibid ,f4 ,fascines1 #eja how made1 ibid to what use applied1 ibid various kinds of1 #eja ,feast of the lanterns in ,china1 #be ,feast of the lamps1 #dbg ,feast of the dedication of the ,temple1 ibid ,festum encniorum of the ,jews1 #bd ,fevers1 malignant1 supposed causes of1 #fj ,fight1 with small ships1 how represented1 #dea ,fire1 feats performed with1 #bf works of1 general basis of1 #ai works1 to show in sparks1 c4 #bj for rooms1 of what made1 #ba substances used in1 #dh rain1 incendiary1 #efj composition of1 #efj1 #efa observations on1 ibid gave rise to the fire-stone1 #efb ,greek1 #edd of what composed1 #ede flasks1 #ege stone1 what1 #bje produced by percussion1 #bgc works in general1 #bee invention of ,europe1 ibid at ,pekin1 ibid known in ,china from time immemorial1 ibid ,chinese not surpassed by any nation1 ibid ,barrow's account of the1 ibid arrangement of1 #bef a system of1 what1 ibid of inflammable air1 #chc ,frazier's opinion respecting1 #beg ordeal by1 #cg works at ,versailles and ,paris1 #beg of the ancients1 #bfa theatrical1 #bfb rain for theatres1 #bfd composition of1 #bfd1 #cji1 #caj1 #caa in ,chinese fire1 #bfe spur1 #bfg composition of1 #bfh works1 portable1 #bga scented1 #bhc tables1 #bga pots1 #cfe for ramparts1 #ege charge for1 #cff brand1 #egd pumps1 #cbb composition for1 ibid cases for1 how made1 ibid how charged1 ibid jets1 #cfg extemporaneous1 how made1 #egh spouts1 #cfg compositions for1 ibid blue1 for parasols and cascades1 #cfi radiant1 ibid green1 ibid ,aurora1 ibid ,italian rose1 ibid everlasting1 what1 #aed jets1 different appearances of1 #cgj how used1 ibid ,chinese1 #cga red1 #cgb cast iron1 used in the1 #cga iron sand in the1 ibid applications of the1 #cge has little force1 ibid on wheels1 its effect1 ibid for calibers under #aj_/abths of an inch1 #cgf for other calibers1 ibid for ,palm trees and cascades1 ibid white1 ibid for gerbes1 ibid works for exhibition1 the arrangement of1 #chg how arranged1 #dec incendiary1 #dij general account of the1 ibid number of the1 ibid slow1 for wheels1 #chi dead1 for wheels1 ibid wands1 #djj cascades of1 #djd galleries of1 #djf globes1 #dbj crayons1 #bhf globe1 aquatic1 #dde representation of figures in1 #dbc ship1 in miniature1 #dea for service1 #ejg preparation of a1 ibid uses of a1 ibid stores required for a1 #eaj fire-barrels for a1 ibid composition for1 ibid stone1 #dia its use1 ibid of what composed1 ibid cautions to be used in making1 ibid on what its goodness depends1 ibid how made more inflammable1 ibid composition of1 #dib origin of1 #dia composition1 used for carcasses2 see carcasses4 balls1 #dib ,fire balls1 composition of1 #did table on the dimensions of1 ibid how they differ from carcasses1 #dib composition for covering of1 #dif how discharged1 #dig a new mode for making1 ibid to be thrown by hand1 kind for1 ibid composition for hand1 #dih works1 with hydrogen gas1 #chc ,dillon's exhibition of inflammable air1 ibid ,cartwright's do4 do41 ibid flame of hydrogen gas in1 how charged1 ibid of inflammable air1 how executed1 ibid their character1 ibid imitative1 #ddj how made1 ibid ,red1 for theatres1 #bgj ,fixed air1 #hg suns1 #cig1 #cih cases1 #ai ,flame1 the rapidity of the communication of1 #dca of felt1 colours of1 #dce ,reaumur and ,schatt's remarks on1 ibid of felt1 experiment to produce the1 ibid coloured1 theory of1 #dcf very remarkable effects of1 on living persons1 ibid how prepared to produce singular appearances1 ibid ,flame1 changed of different colours1 #b1 #dcb deception by breathing1 #cj the1 in fire-works1 how shown1 #bfd how extinguished1 and made to reappear at the same time1 #bge ,flambeaux1 odoriferous1 #bhh its use in war1 #eja how made1 #ejb composition for1 ibid ,flower pot1 artificial1 of fire1 #aj ,flowers of sulphur1 #hb ,flower pots1 pyramid of1 #djb ,flux1 black1 #ej white1 ib4 ,flyers1 ,chinese1 #cjc ,fetid carbonate of lime1 #aee fire1 remarks on1 #bij ,forsyth1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 his composition for gunpowder1 #bc1 #ge his invention of a gun-lock1 #bb ,foudres1 what1 #bfe ,fougasses1 #eed ,fougette1 #ebi improvement on the1 #ecj ,fountains1 ,chinese1 #dje ,frankincense1 #adh used in odoriferous fire1 ibid ,frazier1 his opinion on fire-works1 #beg ,fruiloni wheel1 #cid ,fuel1 economical1 #egg ,fulminating powder1 #ej of ,higgins1 ib4 mercury1 #aga of ,bayen1 #agc silver1 #agc1 #bgd balls1 ibid1 ibid bombs1 #agc1 #bge silver1 of ,berthollet1 #agd of ,chenevix1 ibid of ,silliman1 #age gold1 ibid platinum1 #agf powder1 from indigo1 #agg compound1 called iodide of azote1 ibid oil1 #agi silver1 entertaining experiments with1 #bgc ,fusion1 powder of1 #ej ,fuses1 #dha for shells1 howitzes1 and grenades1 ibid how made1 ibid how charged1 #dhb sundry compositions for1 #dhd with dead light1 #dhe composition for the1 #dhf dimensions of1 #dhg ,g4 ,gallipot1 #adg ,galbanum1 #bba ,galleries of fire1 #djf ,galvanism1 detonations produced by1 #bgf ,games at ,rome1 illuminated at night1 #bd ,garniture1 in fire-works1 what1 #bih ,gases produced in fire-works1 #f character of the1 ib4 ,gas lights1 #hi ,gases1 what1 produced by gunpowder1 #aba number of1 evolved from gunpowder1 #abb carbonic acid1 c4 quantity from gunpowder1 #abc ,general theory of ,pyrotechny1 #a ,gerbes1 #ai account of1 #cdh composition for1 #cdi ,gibbs1 colonel1 his experiments on gunpowder with lime1 #eef ,girandoles1 #djg modification of1 ibid chests of1 for rockets1 #cch ,girdle1 detonating1 #bgd ,glazing of powder1 what1 #aaa plumbago used for the1 ibid ,glass1 #baj different kinds of1 ibid acted upon by fluoric acid1 #bad annealing of1 ibid uses of1 in fire-works1 #baj ,globes1 with their decorations1 #dai leaping1 #dbj composition for1 #dba bursting1 #dbj ,globe of compression1 #eec ,glue1 #bad its use in pyrotechny1 ibid ,gold rain1 #caj fulminating1 #age ,gracchus1 ,marcus1 #ih ,grcus1 ,marcus1 ib4 said to have invented gunpowder1 ib4 ,grape shot1 how made1 #dgj ,granulation of powder1 #aaa ,grecian illumination1 #bd ,green match1 #cbd fire of the ,palm tree1 #gg ,gregory1 his summary of ,robins's experiments1 #abe ,greek-fire1 #edd invented by ,callinicus1 ibid used by ,callinicus with success1 ibid how defined1 ibid used at different periods1 #ede how made use of1 ibid thrown by spouting engines1 ibid ,beckman's remarks on the1 ibid peculiar properties of the1 #edf modern imitations of the1 ibid ,la ,brocquiere on the1 ibid ,ruggeri's remarks on the1 #edg said to have given rise to gunpowder1 #ih recipes for the making of1 known to ,bacon1 ib4 a manuscript containing the1 and gunpowder1 ib4 various kinds of1 #edf the original1 not known1 ibid the author of uvre ,militaire on1 ibid recommends a substitute for the1 ibid superseded by gunpowder1 #edg ,grenades1 fuses for1 #dha how charged1 #dhd ,gums1 used in fire-works1 #ba contain carbon1 #hi ,gum arabic1 #bai ,tragacanth1 ibid ,gun1 repeating1 #dfj ,guns discharged by percussion1 #ge ,guns1 see cannon4 ,gunpowder1 history of1 #ig invented in ,india1 #ig1 #deh invention1 how brought to ,europe1 #ig the ,arabians obtained a knowledge of1 from the ,indians1 ib4 the use of1 forbidden in the sacred books of the ,indians1 ib4 employed in #fij at the battle of ,mecca1 ib4 the ,greek fire said to have given rise to1 #ih recipe for1 in an old manuscript1 ib4 quality of1 #ig the formul for of ,marcus ,grcus1 #ih said to have been invented by a ,german monk1 #ii invention of1 ascribed to ,anelzin1 ib4 to ,schwartz1 ib4 no mention made of1 in the ,french registers1 ib4 damaged1 nitre extracted from1 #gb how examined by reagents1 #gc analysis of1 in what it consists1 #gc1 #adj made with chlorate of potassa1 #gf with chlorate of potassa1 effects of1 ib4 what required to make good1 #ajj varies in its constituent parts1 ibid ,french formula1 for the best1 ibid ,english1 proportions used for1 ibid government1 7,british71 what1 ibid experiments with1 at ,grenille1 ibid proportions for1 by different nations1 ibid for war1 ,french formula1 #ajb for hunting1 do4 do41 ibid for mining1 do4 do41 ibid manufacture of1 #ajb in ,france1 summary of the1 #aaj improvement in the drying of1 #ajc glazing of1 #ajd for making1 according to ,champy1 #aji mills1 #ajd accidents to1 ibid at ,frankford1 an experiment at1 #aje machinery of1 ibid charcoal for1 according to ,proust1 #aaj ,carney's process for making1 ibid its power1 on what it depends1 #abj gases produced by the combustion of1 #aba quantity of1 #abb ,thenard's remarks on the gases from1 #aba ,proust's opinion of the products of fired1 ibid remarks on the combustion of1 ibid ,granulation of1 said to be injurious1 #abd fired in a vacuum1 the products of1 #abe carbonic acid gas from1 #aba ,robins's experiments with1 #abe ,dr4 ,hutton's remarks on1 #abg charges of1 #abi the velocity of balls caused by1 ibid table of the charges1 c4 of1 #acj ,hutton's experiments at ,woolwich1 with1 ibid azotic gas from1 #aba proof of1 #acf various1 ibid comparative1 ibid by the eprouvette1 #ach strength of1 how increased1 #adj preservation of1 ibid examination of1 ibid chemical1 ibid marks1 what1 #acf quantity required to raise a cubic fathom of earth1 #eeb torpedo2 see ,torpedo4 several modes proposed to increase the force of1 #eed experiments of ,m4 ,l4 ,maitre1 c4 with1 #eee basis of fire-works4 ,see ,theory of ,fire-,works4 extinguishing flame with fired1 #egb charging of1 with a ball1 a new mode1 #ci how used with ball1 without injuring1 ib4 ,tricks with1 by jugglers1 #dj action and reaction of1 against a ball1 ib4 how put in the repeating-gun4 ,see ,cannon4 how it acts in extinguishing flame1 #egb recommended to scatter water on buildings on fire1 #egc inflammation of1 by the radiation of heat1 #eff cautions in loading guns with1 #abe its force increased by confined air1 ibid how employed for the splitting of trees1 c4 ibid damaged1 how the nitre is recovered from1 #gb purification of sulphur1 for making1 #ha mills1 spontaneous combustion in1 #ajf how prevented1 #ajg ,bartholdi's opinion of the1 #ajf ,david's plan to prevent the1 ibid ,gunbarrels1 how browned1 #bjd utility of browning1 ibid ,h4 ,hanzelet1 his extemporaneous fire1 #egi ,half-moulds1 #bch dimensions of1 ibid ,hare1 professor1 his remarks concerning flame1 #dcc ,heat1 latent1 #acf idea of1 how formed1 ibid in nitric acid1 ibid ,herodotus1 his account of the ,egyptian illuminations1 #bd of the ,egyptian festivals1 #dbg ,higgins1 his fulminating powder1 #ej improvement on the old1 ib4 ,hirpi1 the1 jumped through fire1 c4 #cg ,hippocrates ,chias1 the discoverer of the ,delian problem1 7note47 #bi ,holy ,fire1 office of the1 #da ceremonies of the1 ib4 ,honorary rockets1 #cdb ,horse1 a1 burnt1 through a superstitious notion1 7note47 #bh ,humboldt1 his observation on gunpowder for mining1 #eef ,howard's fulminating mercury1 #agb of what composed1 ibid how prepared1 ibid effects of1 #agc ,howitzes1 fuses for1 #dha how charged1 #dhd ,hughes' nitre cave1 #ed ,hydrogen gas1 for fire-works1 #bj1 #chc ,cartwright's fire-works with1 #bj ,dillon's fire-works with1 #chc detonation of1 in a pistol1 #chd ,hyperboreans1 how they caught the electric fluid1 #ca ,hyperoxymuriate of potassa1 #g1 #gd sundry properties of1 #ge used for gunpowder1 #gf the same as chlorate of potassa1 #gd contains a large quantity of oxygen1 #ge how prepared1 #gd basis of the pocket lights1 #ge ,i4 ,illumination port-fires1 cases for1 #bdf lances of1 #cad composition for the1 ibid of various colours1 ibid ,illuminations1 #bc1 #dbe for what designed1 #bc antiquity of1 ib4 ,egyptian1 #bd ,parisian1 ib4 by the ,ancients1 on great occasions1 ib4 port-fire1 composition for1 #cad chemical1 #dci1 #ebc ,illuminating barrel1 #ejc ,illuminated table star1 #bgc ,illuminated spiral wheel1 #cic yew tree1 #djb figures1 sundry1 #dac fountain1 #dci how produced1 ibid ,imitative fire-works1 #ddj ,incendiary machines1 in war1 #dfb fire-works1 #dij matches1 #dib kegs1 #ebc rocket1 #ecj rope1 #eeh composition for1 ibid arrows1 #eff ,incombustible1 wheels1 c4 how made1 #bdj ,indigo1 a fulminating powder from1 #agg ,indian white fire1 #ehj composition of the1 ibid matches for the1 ibid ,ingenhouz1 ,dr4 his remarks concerning gunpowder1 #abj ,inflammable powder of ,m4 ,gengembrie and ,botte1 #ej ,infernal machine1 #eab ,inflammable ball1 #egg air1 #bj works1 #chc pistol1 #chd lamp1 ibid dart1 #egd ,iodide of azote1 a fulminating substance1 #agg ,iron cylinders and cases1 why preferred for charring wood1 #ia use of1 in fire-works1 #bja cast1 or crude1 an ingredient of ,chinese fire1 ibid pig1 or crude iron1 #bjf properties of1 #bja the effect of1 in brilliant and ,chinese fire1 ibid sand of the ,chinese1 powdered cast iron1 ibid chambers of1 for fire-ships1 #eji their use1 ibid some preparations of1 #bja theory of the effect of1 in fire-works1 #bjb filings1 how preserved1 #bci in brilliant fire1 #d ,irrorateur1 #bhh ,isinglass1 used in composition1 #ai its properties1 #bad ,italian roses1 #cac composition for1 ibid ,j4 ,japanese cement1 #beb ,jerome1 his remarks on the lights of ,antioch1 7note47 #dbh ,jessamine fire1 composition of1 #bga ,jet1 #aef fire1 #cfg ,jews1 festival of1 had illuminations at the1 #bd ,joblonski1 his account of the horse condemned at ,lisbon1 7note47 #bh ,julius ,camillus1 his homunculi1 #cd ,k4 ,karab1 #aef ,kircher1 his mirror1 #efb ,kurtz1 his patent for preparing charcoal1 #ic ,l4 ,laboratory1 in ,pyrotechny1 #bbh ,laboratory tools1 ibid ,lampblack1 in spur fire1 #aj action of1 in spur fire1 ib4 accension of1 by nitric acid1 #ea how made1 #hi1 #add origin of the name of1 #add houses1 ibid properties of1 #ade purity of1 how discovered1 ibid artificial tannin from1 ibid quality of1 how improved1 ibid durable ink1 prepared with1 ibid used in printers' ink1 ibid a constituent part of ,close's ink1 ibid ,lampadaria1 what1 #dbh ,lampteric1 ibid ,lamp1 inflammable air1 #dcj ,lamps1 kinds of1 #dbi various patent1 7note47 #dcj custom of the ,turks with1 #bd ,pococke's account of1 in a synagogue1 ib4 ,persian ceremony with1 #be ,lances of illumination1 #cad sundry compositions for1 ibid ,lance feu1 composition of1 ibid stink fire1 ibid slow white flame1 #cae composition of1 ibid for petards1 #cah how made1 ibid of service1 ibid composition for the1 ibid ,lanterns1 feast of the1 in ,china1 #be ,lapis ,calaminaris1 #aie ,lardons1 same nature as serpents1 #bih ,lead1 recommended for the preservation of powder1 #adj experiments with1 for this purpose1 ibid cartridges formed of sheet1 ibid black1 #bji used for the glazing of powder1 #aaa ,leaders1 #bid1 #bie threading and joining of1 #bid for small cases1 how used1 ibid ,lee1 ,sergeant1 his account of ,bushnel's turtle1 #eah his adventure with a submarine vessel1 ibid his adventure with a balloon-ship1 7note47 #eba ,libanus speaks of his native city1 on account of the lamps1 7note47 #dbh ,lights1 pocket1 how made1 #bb1 #ge various kinds of1 #cae composition for1 ibid common1 composition for1 ibid red1 composition for1 #caf sundry compositions of1 for different calibers1 ibid brilliant1 c4 composition for1 ibid for all calibers1 ibid another1 ibid large ,jessamine1 #cag small ,jessamine1 ibid tabular view of compositions for1 ibid ,bengal1 #cgg composition of the1 #cgh observations on the1 ibid ,lightning1 the ,ancients knew how to attract the1 #ca how represented1 #bfg ,lime1 promotes the formation of nitre1 #ec the carbonate of1 the same effect1 ib4 ,lime1 #aid its use in fire-works1 #aie ,line rockets1 #cde ,linseed oil1 #bah ,lixivium for slow match1 how made1 #bic ,longchamp1 his improvement in refining saltpetre1 #fg ,lycopodium used in priming powder1 #gf imitating lightning1 #bfg ,m4 ,machines1 infernal1 #eab ,magazine1 #bce principles of forming a bomb proof1 ibid lightning rod for a1 #bcf access of moisture in a1 how prevented1 ibid ,magic lantern1 #dd phantasmagoria with the1 ib4 ,magi1 character of the ,ancient ,egyptian1 #bg ,mallets1 #bca ,maltha1 #aee ,mandrils1 #bcj ,marble1 bituminous1 #aee ,marks1 gunpowder1 #adc ,mariotte1 his theory of the flight of rockets1 #ad ,marrons1 #cah made to imitate the explosion of mines1 #bfd how made1 #cah how fired1 #cai batteries of1 how formed1 ibid for service1 ibid cubical1 ibid figure of the paper1 before forming1 #cbj shining1 #cbj for what designed1 ibid ,murdering1 #eeg ,mastich1 #afc from the ,pistacia lentiscus1 ibid used in the scented paste1 #afd ,matches1 in artillery1 #dga ,match1 #bib quick1 ibid slow1 #bic lixivium for slow1 ibid principles with respect to the combustion of1 #bif proportion of substances for forming1 #big slow 7military71 #dga how prepared1 ibid rope for1 #dgb lixivium for1 ibid nitre1 why used1 ibid how polished1 ibid another process for preparing1 ibid how made at ,gibraltar1 ibid made of sugar of lead1 ibid quick1 process of ,m4 ,bigot for1 #dgg different compositions for1 #dgh of worsted1 ibid how made with expedition1 ibid rod1 artillery1 of ,m4 ,cadet1 #dgd experiments with1 ibid incendiary1 #dib how prepared1 ibid phosphoric1 #he wood1 #ega paper1 #bid for cyphers1 blue and green1 #cbd purple1 or violet1 #cbe ,meal-powder1 #bcd ,mealing table1 how made1 #hc ,mealing of brimstone1 ib4 ,medici1 house of1 bribed to abolish the ,academy del ,cimento1 #bh ,mercury1 fulminating1 #aga ,mercury1 corrosive muriate of1 #ahf ,metals1 used in fire-works1 #d ,metallic preparations1 some detonate1 #bc ,metallic copper1 how obtained by precipitation1 #bbb used in fire-works1 #bbc ,meteors1 imitation of natural1 #cbe ,meteorolites1 #fb ,meteoric phenomenon1 ib4 ,mexia1 ,peter1 his remarks on gunpowder1 #ih ,miasmata1 of what composed1 #fj produce fevers1 ib4 produce yellow fever1 #fj how destroyed1 7note47 #fa kind of1 supposed to produce yellow fever1 ib4 ,military ,pyrotechny1 what1 #def ,milk of sulphur1 #hc ,mine pots1 #bii composition of1 ibid ,mines1 and mining1 #eej ,minerva of ,sais1 festival of1 7note47 #dbh ,mineral tar1 #aed ,miracles1 #bi ,mirrors1 powerful effects of1 #efb ,archimedes employed1 with success1 #efc ,mix1 lieut4 his unsuccessful attempt with a torpedo1 #ebb ,mixtures1 how made for fire-works1 #bec ,morey1 his experiment with nitre and oil1 #ea with tar1 #dcc with rosin and boiling water1 #dcb ,mortars and pestles1 #bcc paper1 #cej to throw aigrettes1 #cej1 #cfc ,moore1 his remarks on rockets1 #ae ,moon and stars1 #dba ,mosaic candles1 #cha theory and effect of1 #ag gold1 #bjj tourbillons1 #ceh composition of1 #cfj simples1 #cha how used1 ibid moulded stars1 #chb composition of1 ibid ,moses1 how he differed from the ,magi1 #cj rod of1 miracles wrought with the1 #bi ,mother water of nitre1 #eg ,moulds1 for common port-fires1 #bdg ,muriated gunpowder1 what1 #gf ,muriate of ,ammonia1 #ahd ,mushet1 his remarks on iron1 #baj ,mutations1 a regulated piece of nine1 #djh ,myrrh1 #afd used in odoriferous fire1 #afe ,n4 ,naphtha1 #aec the substance1 which burnt ,creusa1 ibid ,alexander the great1 surprised at the effects of1 ibid used by the ,ancients in exhibitions1 #aed ,hanway's account of1 ibid ,pinkerton's observations on1 ibid grounds1 singular properties of1 ibid used in the ,greek fire1 #aed ,neptune1 how represented in fire1 #dej ,nitre1 #dh fixed by charcoal1 #di used in the formation of gunpowder1 #ej its quality1 how judged of1 by fire-workers1 #ea how procured in the ,east1 #eb districts1 what1 ib4 how procured at ,lima1 ib4 regale1 in ,germany1 what1 ib4 how obtained in ,germany1 ib4 from old walls1 buildings1 c4 #ec formed with animal and vegetable matter1 ib4 collected in the ,east ,indies1 ib4 quantity used in ,china for fire-works1 ib4 bed of1 at ,apulia1 near ,naples1 ib4 how obtained in ,switzerland1 ib4 springs1 in ,hungary1 ib4 convocation at ,paris1 of young men1 to receive instruction for forming1 ib4 ,caves of the ,united ,states1 #ed obtained from the soil of tobacco-houses1 ib4 beds1 artificial1 ib4 how extracted from the nitrous earth of nitre caves1 #ed1 #ee crude1 what1 #ed earth1 what1 ib4 found in caves in a state of purity1 ib4 caves of ,tennessee1 ,virginia1 and ,maryland1 ib4 cave1 a1 how discovered1 #ee in the grease1 what1 #ef theory of the process of extracting1 #eg crystallization of1 ib4 rough1 ib4 rock ore of1 how treated1 ib4 caves1 observations on1 #ei ,brongniart's direction for refining1 #fb process for extracting1 in ,france1 #fc old process for refining1 #ff ,chaptal's observations1 c4 on1 #fg conditions necessary to form1 #gj how extracted from damaged gunpowder1 #gb how to ascertain its purity1 ib4 how reduced expeditiously to powder1 #gc cubic1 #gd caves of ,africa1 a bituminous substance found there1 #eh native1 in the nitre caves of the ,united ,states1 #ef native1 of ,africa1 #eh in the sandstone strata of ,africa1 ib4 caves of ,africa1 contain animal excrement1 ib4 in the cave at ,nicajack in ,georgia1 ib4 quantity obtained at ,nicajack1 #ei supposed origin of1 at ,nicajack1 ib4 in the cave at ,corydon1 ,indiana1 ib4 caves of ,east ,tennessee1 ,kain's remarks on1 ib4 of the ,cumberland mountains1 ib4 causes which are supposed to form1 ib4 used in the manufacture of candles1 #ahf ,nitrification1 what1 #gj ,nitrous efflorescence1 the ancient scrophula contra lapides1 #ec ,nitrate of potassa1 nitre1 or saltpetre1 #dh of soda1 used in fire-works1 #h of strontia1 ib4 produces flame1 ib4 of soda1 #gc experiments with1 by ,botte ,riffault1 #gd of copper1 #bbc uses of1 in fire-works1 ibid use of1 for matches1 ibid preparation of1 ibid ,nitrates of different bases1 may be used in fire-works1 #h all contain oxygen1 ib4 ,nitric acid1 #ea how prepared1 ib4 ,o4 ,odoriferous fire-works1 general principle of1 #ba water balloons1 #bhf1 #ddf flambeaux1 #bhi and fetid fire1 #bij fire1 by spontaneous accension1 #bhh pastilles1 or crayons1 #bhf vases of the ancients1 ibid ,odour1 classification of1 ibid extreme divisibility of1 #bhe ,oils1 essential1 #afc inflammation of1 #ea used in odoriferous fire1 #bhe ,oil of vitriol1 #hb ,oil1 phosphorized1 #he detonating1 #agi linseed1 #bah why required in boring of rockets1 #bch used for the preservation of iron or steel filings1 #bci of spike1 #aef how prepared1 ibid ,olefiant gas4 ,see fire-works with hydrogen gas1 #hi ,ores1 many1 furnish sulphur by sublimation1 #hj how treated to yield sulphur1 ib4 ,orenburg gum1 #adg ,ordeal by fire1 what1 #cg ,orpiment1 #ahg ,oxygen gas1 how obtained from nitre1 #di in nitrates and chlorates1 #h an important agent in fire-works1 #b ,oxides1 formed by combustion1 what kind of1 #d ,oxide of copper1 in fire-works1 #bbb how obtained1 ibid ,p4 ,pagan ,priests1 conscious of their deceptions1 #cj ,palm trees1 representation of1 #dja ,paper press1 #bcd different kinds of1 used for cases1 #bej how made incombustible1 ibid how coloured and glazed1 #bea preferred for cases to wood1 #bfb cases used by the ,chinese1 ibid touch1 or match1 #bid mortars1 #cdi ,swedish stone1 #bej incombustible1 of amianthus1 #bea ,chinese1 ibid observations on1 ibid ,parasols1 ,chinese1 #dje ,paris1 fire-works at1 in #agci1 #beg ,paste1 #beb patent1 ibid ,japanese1 ibid odoriferous1 #bhg board1 how made1 #bdi uses of1 ibid for fire-works1 ,chinese mode of making the1 #beb ,pastilles1 or pastes1 #bhf composition of1 #bhg ,peach-wood1 raspings of1 #gf ,pearl ash1 #aij ,perchloride of ,mercury1 #ahf ,persia1 the sacred fire in1 #chf grounds of1 contain inflammable air1 ibid the followers of ,zoroaster in1 ibid ,petard1 #bih for war1 #eje table of the dimensions of the1 ibid ,petards1 composition for1 #ejf ,petroleum1 #aed ,payard1 ,m4 his burning mirror1 #efe ,peyre1 his remarks confined to gunpowder1 #af ,phantasmascope1 #dg ,phantasmagoria1 #dd thunder and lightning with the1 #dg ,phalaris1 bull of2 7note47 #bh ,philosophical phial1 #bad ,phlogiston1 supposed to have existed in acids1 #gj ,phosphorus1 #hd general properties of1 #he how prepared1 #hf ,phosphoric matches1 and fire bottles1 #he stone1 #hf tapers1 #he pencil1 #hf ether1 #he oil1 ib4 ,phosphuret of lime1 its effect in water1 ib4 of ,wurzer1 #hf ,phosphuretted hydrogen gas1 #he ,piece1 regulated1 of nine mutations1 #djh ,pinks1 fire1 from flower pots1 #aj ,pin wheels1 #cie composition for1 ibid ,pipes of communication1 #ddc for fire-works1 #bie how joined together1 ibid how made1 ibid why necessary1 ibid ,pitch1 ,jews'1 #aee how made1 #adg use of1 in fire-works1 ibid a composition of1 almost inextinguishable1 ibid used in the ,greek fire1 ibid used in incendiary fire-works1 see military fire-works4 ,burgundy1 furnished by the ,pinus ,abies1 ibid white1 ibid ,plane board1 #bcc ,platinum1 fulminating1 #agf ,pliny1 his account of ,porsena1 #ca of ,numa ,pompilius1 ib4 of ,tullius ,hostilius1 ib4 ,plumbago1 #bji ,plutarch1 his account of ,naphtha1 #cb ,pocket lights1 how made1 #bb1 #ge ,poisoned arrows1 #eff of savages1 of what composed1 #efg sundry plants for1 specified1 #efh the ,arabs1 how they make1 ibid of the island of ,java1 ibid ,asiatic1 with what poisoned1 ibid of the ,alps1 ibid ancient ,europeans1 how they made1 ibid ,polydore ,virgil1 to whom he ascribes the invention of powder1 #ii ,polygonal mirror1 its effect1 #efe ,pontiffs1 the1 considered learning opposed to their views1 #bh their arbitrary edicts1 ib4 bribed the house of ,medici1 ib4 abolished the academy ,del ,cimento1 ib4 ,port-fire1 cases for1 #bdg length of1 ibid origin of the term1 ibid how made1 by the ,strasburg formula1 ibid ,strasburg1 composition of1 #bdh how generally made1 #dgi instructions of ,m4 ,bigot respecting1 ibid composition of1 various1 ibid usual length of1 #dhj wet and dry1 ibid dry1 according to the ,english method1 ibid other compositions for1 ibid composition for1 according to ,ruggeri1 ibid ,potash1 #aia ,potassium1 ibid ,pots des ,brins1 #cfd serpents for1 #bii how made1 #cfd de chasse1 #cfj fire1 remarks on1 #cfe for ramparts1 #ege composition for1 #cff of ordnance1 #dbb how made1 ibid how fixed1 ibid how discharged1 #dbc flower1 pyramid of1 #djb ,powder-triers1 #ach proof1 #acf bags1 #ejc how made1 ibid barrel1 ibid of fusion1 what1 #ej fulminating1 ib4 inflammable1 of ,pauly1 #egg of what composed1 #egh ,priests of antiquity1 acting as jugglers1 #cb ,prince ,rupert's drops1 #bad ,priming powder1 of chlorate of potassa1 #ge tubes1 or fuses1 #dge formerly made of tin1 ibid composed of two parts1 ibid reeds1 or quills used for1 ibid how filled1 #dgf compositions1 sundry for1 ibid pewter used for1 #dge ,prognosticator1 a preparation of camphor for a1 #aei ,proust1 his remarks on the charcoal for powder1 #aaj ,prussic acid1 #hi ,puddling1 what1 #bjg ,puffs1 #bfb composition for1 #bfc ,pulverization of substances1 #bec ,purple match1 #cbe ,putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances1 #gj forms saltpetre1 #ga ,pyrotechny1 #a general theory of1 ib4 of the ,chinese1 #ec ,pyrotechnical sponge1 #egj mixtures1 #a ,pyroacetic acid1 #ia how purified for use1 #ic1 #ie ,pyric piece1 #dab ,pyrophorus1 #ahj of ,wurzer1 #hf how prepared1 ib4 ,pyrophore of defence1 #eha ,q4 ,quick match1 #bj how generally made1 ib4 military1 #dgg different kinds of1 see match4 ,quicklime1 #aid its use in making slow match1 #dgb ,r4 ,radiation of heat1 its effects1 #efe ,rammers1 #bca ,rampart fire-pots1 #ege ,realgar1 #ahg ,reagents1 chemical1 to discover foreign salts in nitre1 #gb ,recoil of a gun1 similar to the recoil of a rocket1 #aa ,reeds1 for fire-ships1 #eaj ,red-fire for theatres1 #bgj ,resins1 #adh ,thenard's opinion of1 ibid ,repeating gun1 #dfj ,reports1 single1 #cja cases for1 ibid ,rain1 silver1 composition for1 #bgb fire1 #ah filamentous1 #cji how formed1 ibid cases for1 with what charged1 ibid in sparks1 what1 ibid composition for1 #caj gold1 composition for1 ibid remarks on the1 #cai fire1 in general1 sundry compositions for1 #caa falls1 and stars1 double and single1 ibid observations on the cases for1 ibid and hail1 how imitated1 7note47 #bff ,rays1 composition for1 #bgb ,rice glue1 #beb ,richardson1 his tricks with fire1 #cf ,ring1 a1 how suspended by a thread reduced to ashes1 #da ,robins1 his conclusions applicable to rockets1 #af his experiments on gunpowder1 #abe ,rochos1 on the ashes of toads1 #cd ,rock saltpetre ore1 what1 #ee ,rockets1 gunpowder1 c4 causes the ascension of1 #aa motion of1 how balanced1 #ab gases produced by the combustion of the composition for the1 ib4 principle of the1 gives motion to fire-wheels1 #aa a missile weapon1 ib4 used at the seige of ,seringapatam1 ib4 principle1 what1 #ab employed for explosion and conflagration1 #aa theory of the ascension of the1 #ab stick1 its use1 ib4 stars1 #ah water1 ib4 charcoal of hard wood for1 when used1 #id remarks on charging of the1 #bca charging of the1 rammers required for1 ibid signal1 tools required for forming the1 #bcb table1 #bgb driving of a1 #bcf driven solid1 or hollow1 #bcf ladle for charging1 #bcg blows required for charging of the1 ibid for each ladleful of composition1 ibid how bored1 and machine for boring1 #bch taps for1 what1 ibid bored with a brace and screw bit1 #bci cases1 how made1 #bdc cases1 ,morel's rule for making1 #bdd length of the1 how regulated1 #bde and their appendages1 #cbf flying1 ibid uses of1 ibid caliber and preparation of1 ibid tables1 concerning the1 #cbg1 #cbh different opinions respecting1 #cbg moulds for1 remarks on the1 #cbh composition for1 remarks on the1 ibid charcoal used in the composition for1 of what kind1 #cbi compositions for1 opinions respecting the1 ibid compositions for1 ibid according to ,morel1 #ccj to ,bigot1 ibid tabular view of the1 #cca of honour1 ,chinese composition for1 #ccj observations on charging of1 #cca furniture of1 its weight1 #ccb heads for1 how made1 ibid sticks for1 ibid how measured1 ibid piercer1 what1 #ccc rammers1 for charging of1 ibid formers for the cases of1 ibid moulds for1 table exhibiting the dimensions of1 ibid on the heading of1 #ccd heads of1 why used1 ibid experiments respecting1 #cce manner of decorating them1 ibid decorations used for1 ibid sticks1 their dimensions and poise1 #ccf their use1 ibid table respecting1 ibid how discharged1 #ccg different modes of discharging1 ibid fired without sticks1 in what manner1 #cch ,girandole chest for discharging1 ibid how made1 #cci fountain of1 what1 ibid how discharged at the same time1 ibid ,morel's contrivance for discharging1 ibid angle of inclination given to1 if required1 #cdj combinations of1 with appendages1 ibid fixed on the top of each other1 ibid towering1 #af1 #cdj ,caduceus1 #af1 #cda ,honorary1 #cdb ,chained1 ibid tails of1 how made to form an arch1 #cdc small1 or swarmers1 ibid composition for1 ibid scrolls for1 #cdd cases for1 ibid line1 with decorations1 #cde signal1 #cdg water1 #ddc discharging of1 in water1 #ddh under water1 #ddi war1 #aa1 #ebf ,congreve1 has iron cases ibid ,signal1 trimming of1 ibid composition for the trimming of1 #ebg quicklime used in the composition of1 7note47 #ebf the hollow in1 increases the surface that takes fire1 #ebg sticks of1 when large1 are bored and filled with powder1 #ebh ,robins's experiments with1 ibid height of ascension of1 ibid ,indian1 #ebi ,congreve1 how it differs from the common1 #ecj contains the propelling power1 ibid carries ball1 shells1 case shot1 c4 ibid distance of its flight1 ibid carcass1 ibid how armed1 #ecc used at ,boulogne and ,copenhagen1 #eca advantages it is said to possess1 ibid range of the largest kind of1 #ecb kinds used for different services1 #ecc table concerning the range1 c4 of the1 ibid how discharged1 #ece estimate of the cost of the1 #ecf ,french account of the1 ibid described by ,ruggeri1 ibid ,congreve said not to be the inventor of the1 ibid invented by a naval officer1 ibid ,ruggeri's publication concerning the1 ib4 analysis of the1 by ,gay-,lussac1 #eca objections to the1 #ecg difference between the incendiary and common1 #ech murdering1 how formed1 ibid how discharged1 ibid light ball1 #eci carcass1 the floating1 ibid observations on the1 #edj ,bigot's remarks concerning the1 ibid ,bigot's tables of the different kinds of1 #edb1 #edc the succoring1 #edd ,rolling board1 #bcc ,rolled stars1 #cjd ,rome1 the forum at1 lighted1 #dbh without public lights1 ibid ,roman candles1 #chj ,roses1 ,italian1 #cac composition for1 ibid ,rose-piece and sun1 #cii ,rosin1 #adf how prepared1 #adg ,ruggeri1 his opinion of chlorate of potassa for rockets1 #gg ,rumford1 count1 his improvement in fuel1 #egg ,s4 ,sacks1 for mealing gunpowder1 #bcd of powder1 for pots des brins1 #cff ,sage1 on the spontaneous combustion of charcoal1 #ajg his remarks concerning gunpowder1 #ajh ,sal ,alembroth1 #ahg ammoniac1 use of1 in fire-works1 #ahd in candle making1 #aia ammoniac1 #ahd ,sal ,prunelle1 #di1 #afg ,saltpetre1 the basis of fire-works4 ,see ,nitre1 #c affords oxygen1 ib4 decomposed by charcoal1 ib4 remarks concerning1 #di converted into sal prunelle1 #afg refining of1 #fe old process for refining of1 #ff reagents used to determine the purity of1 #gb ,dupont's refined1 character of1 #gc how obtained in fine powder1 ib4 preparation of1 for fire-works1 ib4 the oldest certain account of1 #ih ,caves4 ,see ,nitre4 proportion of acid in1 #abb used in candle-making1 #ahf ,saracen fire1 #edi ,saucissons1 #cba how made1 ibid flying1 ibid how used1 #cbb in mining1 what1 #eea ,scudder1 his plan for blowing up the ,ramilies1 #ebd ,scrolls for rockets1 #cdd ,scented vase1 #bhh ,scented fire-works1 #ba1 #bhc vase of the ,athenians1 #ba fire of the ,moldiva ,islands1 #bhe ,schwartz1 said to be the inventor of gunpowder1 #ii ,schistus1 bituminous1 #aee ,schpfer revived magic1 #cc and ,cagliostro1 tricks of1 ib4 ,sea lights1 #ebe composition for1 ibid ,sea fights1 how represented1 #dea ,sieves1 #bcd ,seneca oil1 #aee ,serpents1 nest of1 #cfd how formed1 #bih how driven1 ibid composition of1 #bii for pots de brins1 ibid for pots of aigrettes1 c4 ibid why so called1 ibid stars1 #cja their intention1 ibid cases for1 ibid compositions for1 ibid of two kinds1 ibid how moulded1 #cjb how primed1 ibid theory of their effect1 ibid whirling1 ibid principle of the1 ibid how charged1 ibid ,ship1 fire1 #ejg preparation of a1 #ejg ,shells1 paper1 how made1 #bde fuses for1 #dha loading of1 #dhd ,shining marrons1 #cbj ,shrapnel shell1 #eei ,siemienowicz1 ,casimir1 his fire-rain1 #efj ,signal rockets1 #cdg ,silliman1 professor1 his fulminating silver1 #age ,silver rain1 composition of1 #bgb what1 #ah fulminating1 #agc ,size1 #bae ,skin1 the1 how made callous1 #cf ,sky-rocket1 see ,rocket4 ,smoke ball1 composition of the1 #ejg ,snakes1 how tamed1 7note47 #ce destroyed in ,india1 7note47 ib4 fangs of1 what1 7note47 ib4 ,solar phosphori1 #dcg the miraculous luminaries1 no other than1 different kinds of1 ibid phosphorus1 ,bolognian1 ibid ,canton's1 ibid ,hanzelet's1 ibid ,baldwin's1 ibid ,soot1 why used in some pyrotechnical mixtures1 #ade of what composed1 #adf of animal excrement furnishes sal ammoniac1 ibid of camels' dung1 its use in ,egypt1 ibid of oil1 and turpentine4 ,see ,lampblack4 ,sparks1 in rain-fire1 #cji substances1 which show in1 #cab ,spelter1 #aif ,spherical case shot1 #eei ,spiral screw1 #dah ,spontaneous combustion1 #ea ,spouts1 fire1 #cfg ,spirit of sal ammoniac1 #ahe ,spirits of turpentine1 #adg ,spirit of wine1 #afh ,spirit lamps1 #agj ,spur fire1 #i1 #bfg composition of1 #bfh ,spunk1 #egj ,standing or fixed cases1 compositions for1 #chi ,stands1 for sky-rockets1 #cch ,stahl1 his opinion of the composition of nitric acid1 #gj ,stars1 from artificial flower pots1 #aj simple1 #cjc use of1 ibid how prepared1 ibid composition for1 #cjd rolled1 #cjd how made1 ibid composition used for1 ibid cracking1 ibid are small marrons1 ibid rocket1 white1 composition of1 ibid blue1 composition of1 #cje variegated1 composition of1 ibid brilliant1 composition of1 ibid common1 composition of1 ibid tailed1 composition of1 ibid drove1 composition of1 ibid fixed pointed1 composition of1 ibid of a fine colour1 composition for1 ibid of different colours1 composition of1 ibid directions for preparing1 #cjf another composition for1 ibid which carry tails of sparks1 ibid composition of1 ibid which yield some sparks1 #cjg yellow1 composition for1 ibid another composition for1 ibid caution in rolling1 ibid different ways of forming1 #cjh flaming1 with brilliant wheels1 ibid general theory of1 ibid fixed1 #cac scrolls for1 #cdd strung1 ibid moulded ,mosaic1 #chb flat1 #dbd ,steam1 how used for drying gunpowder1 #aab1 #aaf1 #aai pipes1 what1 #aab latent heat in1 7note47 ibid for boiling dye kettles1 7note47 ibid ,count ,rumford's experiment with1 7note47 ibid ,steel1 its use in fire-works1 #bja combustion of1 in oxygen gas1 #bjb hardening of1 #bjd tempering of1 ibid natural1 #bjg kind called ferrum candidum1 #bjh of cementation1 #bjg singular mode of making1 in ,spain1 #bjh blistered1 #bjg antiquity of hardening1 #bjh shear1 #bjg cast1 ibid or iron filings1 how preserved for fire-works1 #bci filings1 in spur-fire1 #aj produce scintillations1 ib4 of what composed1 #hi ,stink fire lance1 #ejg ,stink stone1 #aee ,strangling of cases1 how performed1 #bdc contrivance for1 #bdd ,strangler1 #bcc ,streets1 lighting of the1 a modern invention1 #bf ,storax1 #afb ,substances1 what1 required for military fire-works1 #bbh pulverization of1 #bec properties of various1 known to jugglers1 #bf ,submarine navigation1 #eae ,succinum1 #aef ,succinic acid1 #aeg its effect in fire-works1 #bij ,suffocating pot1 #ejg composition for the1 ibid ,sugar1 #afe used in fire-works1 ibid decomposed by chlorate of potassa1 ibid from various substances1 #aff caromel from1 by the burning of1 #afe sulphuric acid converts several substances into1 #aff ,sulphur1 #gh native1 ib4 in the island of ,java1 ib4 associated with gypsum1 ib4 volcanic1 #gi how obtained from ores1 #gh how purified for gunpowder1 #hj mineralizes metals1 ib4 from pyrites1 ib4 vivum1 what1 ib4 how recovered1 from damaged gunpowder1 #gb from galena1 #gi various means of obtaining1 #hj quantity obtained1 from pyrites1 #hj quantity of in metallic sulphurets1 #gi roll1 #hj flowers of1 ib4 properties of1 #hb various compounds of1 ib4 a constituent part of gunpowder1 #hc mealing of1 ib4 how to determine the purity of1 ib4 to discover the adulteration of1 by oil of turpentine1 #hd milk of1 #hc use of1 in preserving iron and steel1 #bci ,sulphuret of arsenic1 #ahg antimony1 #ahh ,sulphurets1 #hb ,sulphuric acid1 ib4 native1 in the island of ,java1 #gh ,sulphurous acid1 #hb ,sun cases1 #ai ,suns1 c4 exhibition of1 by the ,chinese1 #bef ,suns1 fixed1 #cig with transparent faces1 #cih with variations1 #cif compositions for the charges1 ibid with rose piece1 #cii ,swarmers1 #cdc composition for1 ibid ,swedish melting house1 feats performed at the1 #cf ,sword blades1 how ornamented1 #bje ,t4 ,table1 mealing1 #bcd fire1 #bga works exhibited on1 ibid ,table rocket1 #bgb ,table-star1 the illuminated1 #bgc ,tape1 detonating1 #bgd ,tar1 how obtained1 #adg ,barbadoes1 #aee ,morey's experiments with1 #adh ,tarred links1 #ejj how made1 ibid ,tests1 their use in discovering the presence of substances1 #gb ,thenard's formula for priming powder1 #gf ,thenard1 respecting nitrous lixivium1 #fc ,theophilus1 bishop1 respecting the statues at ,alexandria1 7note47 #bh ,thick stuff1 of nitre boilers1 #eg ,thouvenal's opinion respecting nitre beds1 #gj ,thundering barrel1 #ejd ,thunder bolts1 in fire-works1 #bfe composition for1 #bff various ways of imitating1 7note47 ibid accompanying the phantasmagoria1 how imitated1 7note47 ib4 ,thus1 #adh used in odoriferous fire1 ibid copallinum1 #afd ,tin1 sheet1 #bjf plate1 ibid ,tinder1 #egj ,tools and utensils1 #bbh ,tophania1 the female poisoner1 #dh ,torpedo1 ,fulton's1 #eba principle of1 ibid precautions against1 #ebb fulminating silver used in the small1 #agc used against the ,plantagenet1 #ebb ,touch paper1 #ba1 #bib1 #bid1 #cgj ,tourbillons1 theory of1 #af cases for1 #bde how charged1 ibid common1 #ceh mosaic1 ibid character of1 #cei mosaic1 composition of1 #cfj table1 #cfa appendages to1 ibid directions for firing1 ibid common1 another mode of making1 ibid composition of1 for different calibers1 #cfb for half inch caliber1 ibid of various sizes1 ibid general rule respecting1 #cfc ,torches1 odoriferous1 #bhi compositions for1 ibid used in war1 #eja how made1 #ejb ,tourteaux1 #ejj for what used1 ibid goudronn of the ,french1 ibid how made1 ibid composition for1 according to ,bigot1 ibid according to the ,strasburg formula1 #eja ,tow and hemp1 #bbb ,towering rocket1 #cdj theory of the1 #af ,transparencies1 #dbe ,tubes1 cannon1 how inflamed by sulphuric acid1 #bb ,tunestrick1 his wonderful performance1 #cd his miraculous liquor1 #ce ,turpentine1 #adf for what purpose used in fire-works1 ibid spirit of1 how inflamed by nitric acid1 #ea decomposes the nitrates1 #adf a component part of the ancient ,greek fire1 ibid obtained from different species of the ,pinus1 ibid common1 from the ,pinus ,sylvestris1 ibid composed of resin and volatile oil1 #adg ,spirit of1 how obtained1 ibid ,essential oil of1 ibid ,venice1 from the ,pinus laryx1 #adg made artificially1 ibid from the ,pinus ,maritima1 ib4 spirits of1 ,morey's experiments with1 #adh ,turtle1 the ,american1 #eae invented by ,bushnel1 #eaf intended to destroy shipping1 ibid outline of its construction1 ibid experiments with1 #eag sergeant ,lee's adventure with the1 ibid ,turf1 used in the place of spunk1 #egb inflammability of1 #aeb1 #ega of morasses1 some account of1 ibid ,tacitus' account of1 taking fire1 ibid ,gmelin's observations on1 ibid ,v4 ,vapour of water accelerates combustion1 #dcb preparation of1 to form blue flame1 ibid ,varnish1 #afd ,variegated stars1 #ah ,vase1 the scented1 #bhh composition for the1 ibid ,vegetable poisons1 their use in poisoning of arrows1 #efh ,venice turpentine1 #adg ,versailles1 fire-works at1 in #agci1 #beg ,vinegar from wood1 character of the1 #ic quantity of the1 ib4 apparatus for obtaining the1 #ie ,violet match1 #cbe ,vitriol1 blue1 its use in fire-works1 #bbb ,volcano of ,lemery1 #cbc how made1 ibid theory of1 ibid exhibition of a1 in ,china1 #bef ,volute1 grand1 #dag ,w4 ,wand1 ,mercury's1 #dja fire1 #djj ,war-rockets1 #ebf of the ,asiatics1 #bfb1 #ebi ,water-squibs1 #ddh fire-fountain1 ibid balloons1 odoriferous1 #ddf compositions for1 ibid mines1 #ddd fire-works1 #ddb rockets1 #ah1 #ddc of ammonia1 #ahe casks1 the use of charring1 #hg how preserved at sea1 ib4 ,water1 its presence in fire-works injurious1 #h weak1 what1 #fd strong1 in nitre making1 ib4 ,waterloo crackers1 how made1 #bgc ,watson1 the ,bishop of ,llandaff1 his mode of examining gunpowder1 #ada ,waved fire1 #dah ,wax1 artificial1 for candles1 #ea ,wheels1 #ai ,wheel cases1 manner of loading1 #bcg ,wheels1 how made incombustible1 #bdj ,wheel cases1 standing and fixed1 composition for1 #chh ,wheels1 slow fire for1 #chi dead fire for1 ibid single1 vertical1 c4 #cia plural1 #cic illuminated spiral1 ibid balloon1 #cid fruiloni1 ibid pin1 #cie composition for1 ibid horizontal1 how changed to vertical1 with a sun in front1 #cii cone1 double illuminated1 #daf vertical1 on a horizontal table1 ib4 decoration of1 #dah single1 double1 and triple table1 #dbe for water1 horizontal1 #ddd ,white fire1 composition for1 #bgb1 #ehj flame lances1 #cae composition of the1 ib4 iron of the ,french1 what1 #bjf pitch1 #adg ,stars1 #ah ,whitening of cases1 #cgj ,whirling serpents1 #cch ,wicks1 lamp1 of amianthus1 #bf ,kircher's1 ib4 ,wild fire1 #dib ,will-with-the-,wisp1 #he ,wings1 #djf ,women1 ,roman1 their custom with fire1 #cg ,wood1 charred1 #ij carbonization of1 how performed1 ib4 improved process for the1 #ia kinds of1 for making charcoal for gunpowder1 #id light1 for gunpowder1 ib4 heavy1 or hard1 when used1 ib4 raspings of1 used in fire-works1 #afc1 #baf distillation of1 #bag bronzing of1 #bdb ashes of1 used in fire-works1 #aib tubes of1 used by the ancients in fire-works1 #bfb how preserved from the weather1 #bfe how made incombustible1 #bda colouring of1 how performed1 ibid ,woolf1 ,arthur1 his steam apparatus1 #aai ,wootz1 #bji ,worcester1 the ,marquis of1 his destructive machines1 #ebe ,works1 detonating1 #bgc ,workshop for artificers1 #bce ,wrought iron1 #bjf ,x4 ,xenophon1 his account of ancient jugglers1 #bc ,y4 ,yew tree1 illuminated1 #djb ,yellow fever1 supposed cause of1 #fa ,z4 ,zoroaster1 the followers of1 in ,persia1 #chf sacred fire of the1 ibid ,zinc1 #aif ,,the ,,end4 ,illustration ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,plate4 ,,fig4 #a4--;,a4 is the entering rammer or driver4 ,it is bored in such a manner1 that the whole of the broach1 or piercer above the nipple1 n1 may be admitted4 ,the cavity of the bore is cylindrical1 and equal in diameter to that of the foot of the broach4 ,this driver serves to fix the rocket case1 over the broach1 in the mould ,g1 and to form the cup1 o1 fig4 #aj1 for receiving the priming4 ,b4 is the driver of the first charge4 ,it is bored in such a manner1 as to admit the broach to within two-fifths of the interior diameter of the case1 from its base4 ,its bore is cylindrical1 and has the diameter of the broach1 at the height of two-fifths the interior diameter of the case4 ,c4 is the driver of the second charge1 and admits the broach two-thirds of its length2 the diameter of its bore being the same as that of the broach1 at one-third of its height4 ,d4 is the driver of the third charge1 and admits one-third of the broach2 the diameter of the bore being that of the broach1 at two-thirds of its height4 ,e4 is the last driver1 and is solid2 the charge being above the summit of the broach4 ,see page #bca4 ,,fig4 #a4 and ,,fig4 #f4 ,,fig4 #a4 7cont47 and ,,fig4 #f4--,the broach or piercer ,i1 fig4 #a1 7a section of which is represented in fig4 #f71 is a truncated cone1 having a hemispherical summit4 ,the cone is the part from a to b1 fig4 #f4 ,the diameter of the base of the cone at b1 ought to be two-fifths of the interior diameter of the case1 and the diameter at the summit1 one-fifth1 which is also the diameter of the small hemisphere at the top4 ,the height from b to a1 ought to be seven times the interior diameter of the case1 or #ag4e times the diameter of the base b4 ,the part n1 fig4 #a1 and from b to c1 fig4 #f1 is rounded4 ,its diameter ought to be that of the interior of the case1 and its height1 seven-tenths of that diameter4 ,this is called the nipple1 and is the part1 which gives shape to the cup o1 fig4 #aj4 ,the part m1 fig4 #a1 and from c to d1 fig4 #f1 is cylindrical1 and may be made of any height or diameter1 provided the latter is not less than that of the cone4 ,it is generally one-twentieth more than the exterior diameter4 ,this part ought to penetrate into the bottom of the charging mould1 ,g1 fig4 #a1 and fit closely1 so as to be firm4 ,the part from d to e1 fig4 #f1 is the blade or tongue of the broach4 ,it is rectangular1 and enters into the block ,h1 fig4 #a1 where it is firmly fixed4 ,the size of this part is arbitrary1 as well as that of the block ,h1 fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4--,the ,rocket finished4 ,,fig4 #c4--;,conical ,mandril or ,former1 for the head of the ,rocket4 ,,figs4 #d #e4--;,head of the ,rocket and ,pot de fuse4 ,,figs4 #g #h4--,mealing table and ,mullar4 ,,fig4 #i4--,the ,rocket case choaked1 and prepared for charging4 ,,fig4 #aj4--,section of the ,rocket1 after charging4 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the ,rocket with its stick4 ,for want of room1 the stick is represented in two pieces4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,exponents are denoted by so for example #db indicates #d squared4 ,for consistency and clarity1 a space 7when absent7 has been placed between the number and the unit of weight lb4 and lbs4 giving for example '#ba lbs4' in place of '#balbs4' ,fractions1 usually in the form '#ad #c-d' in the original text1 have been converted to the form '#ad-c_/d' in this etext4 ,fractions in all tables have been converted to ,unicode etc41 for clarity and to conserve space in larger tables4 ,a few tables have non-,unicode fractions which remain in the form #a-g_/ab4 ,also1 in a few larger tables with italic styling on some text1 this italic styling has been removed1 for clarity and to conserve space4 ,in a few cases a word has been abbreviated to conserve table space3 cal4 caliber2 diam4 diameter4 ,some instances of ,tome in ,french citations have been changed to ,tome 7no italic71 for consistency4 ,some accents and spelling in ,french citations have been corrected4 ,for consistency1 instances of 'fireworks' and 'fire works' have been changed to the predominant form 'fire-works'4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,except for those changes noted above and below1 misspelling in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,for example3 meal-powder1 meal powder2 quick-match1 quick match1 quickmatch2 siege1 seige2 musket1 musquet2 hazle2 dodecaedron2 deposite2 inclose4 ,pg xiv4 ',meutrieres' replaced by ',meurtrires'4 ,pg xiv4 ',siemienowick' replaced by ',siemienowicz'4 ,pg xviii4 'accesssion' replaced by 'accession'4 ,pg xxv4 'alchohol' replaced by 'alcohol'4 ,pg xxxi4 ,the references to #dj have been retained 7should be #d74 ,pg xxxv4 'indispensible' replaced by 'indispensable'4 ,pg xl4 'knowlege' replaced by 'knowledge'4 ,pg xliv4 ',siemienowick' replaced by ',siemienowicz'4 ,pg #ai4 'pluverized' replaced by 'pulverized'4 ,pg #ai4 'foretel' replaced by 'foretell'4 ,pg #bb4 ',belhelaive' replaced by ',belhelvie'4 ,pg #bd4 ',heroditus' replaced by ',herodotus'4 ,pg #bf ,footnote #h4 ',pontoppidon' replaced by ',pontoppidan'4 ,pg #bf ,footnote #h4 'seive' replaced by 'sieve'4 ,pg #ca4 ',heroditus' replaced by ',herodotus'4 ,pg #cd4 ',tunesteick' replaced by ',tunestrick'4 ,pg #dd4 'skreen' replaced by 'screen'4 ,pg #ec4 ',bradenburgh' replaced by ',brandenburgh'4 ,pg #fg4 ',rifault' replaced by ',riffault'4 ,pg #fh4 'indispensible' replaced by 'indispensable'4 ,pg #gd4 'exhilirating' replaced by 'exhilarating'4 ,pg #ajj4 'salpetre' replaced by 'saltpetre'4 7twice7 ,pg #ajj4 'decribed' replaced by 'described'4 ,pg #ajg4 'occured' replaced by 'occurred'4 ,pg #ajg ,footnote #ag4 'occurence' replaced by 'occurrence'4 ,pg #acd4 'combustbile' replaced by 'combustible'4 ,pg #ach4 'one-hundreth' replaced by 'one-hundredth'4 ,pg #adj4 'eprovette' replaced by 'eprouvette'4 ,pg #adj4 'pulverized quick-lime' replaced by 'pulverized quicklime'4 ,pg #adb4 'processess' replaced by 'processes'4 ,pg #adh4 'frankincese' replaced by 'frankincense'4 ,pg #aeh4 'by some4 ,it is' replaced by 'by some it is'4 ,pg #aei4 'guages' replaced by 'gauges'4 ,pg #afc4 'tranverse' replaced by 'transverse'4 ,pg #agb4 'which see4' replaced by 'which see below4'4 ,pg #ahh4 ',,xxxvi' replaced by ',sect4 ,,xxxvi'4 ,pg #aib4 'westtern' replaced by 'western'4 ,pg #aic4 'nesessary' replaced by 'necessary'4 ,pg #aig4 'absord' replaced by 'absorb'4 ,pg #bjc4 'harpsicord' replaced by 'harpsichord'4 ,pg #bjf4 'metalic' replaced by 'metallic'4 ,pg #bba4 ',siemenowitz' replaced by ',siemienowicz'4 ,pg #bcb4 ',britanica' replaced by ',britannica'4 ,pg #bcd4 'paste-board' replaced by 'pasteboard'4 ,pg #bce4 'whe r ' replaced by 'where'4 ,pg #bcf4 ',peirre' replaced by ',pierre'4 ,pg #bcg4 'bass' replaced by 'brass'4 ,pg #bda4 'repecting' replaced by 'respecting'4 ,pg #bdd4 ',britanica' replaced by ',britannica'4 ,pg #bde4 'cases is' replaced by 'case is'4 ,pg #bea4 'abbe ,raynal' replaced by ',abb ,raynal'4 ,pg #bef4 ',eygpt' replaced by ',egypt'4 ,pg #beg4 'groupes' replaced by 'groups'4 ,pg #beh4 ',tuilleries' replaced by ',tuileries'4 ,pg #bei4 ',tuilleries' replaced by ',tuileries'4 ,pg #bfb4 ',brittish' replaced by ',british'4 ,pg #bga4 'pastebord' replaced by 'pasteboard'4 ,pg #bgd4 'parts length' replaced by 'parts in length'4 ,pg #bgf4 'breakes' replaced by 'breaks'4 ,pg #bgg4 ',volcono' replaced by ',volcano'4 ,pg #bgh4 'sucession' replaced by 'succession'4 ,pg #bhd4 'esssential' replaced by 'essential'4 ,pg #bhg4 'ingedients' replaced by 'ingredients'4 ,pg #bhg4 'will to exhale' replaced by 'will exhale'4 ,pg #cad4 'artficial' replaced by 'artificial'4 ,pg #cbj4 ,the italic styling on the letters in the figure has been removed for clarity4 ,pg #cbd4 'phosporus' replaced by 'phosphorus'4 ,pg #cbe4 'pealed' replaced by 'peeled'4 ,pg #cbh4 ,in the table '#bhf' replaced by '#bhj' and '#cch' by '#ccj'4 ,pg #cbh4 '3 #afj 3' replaced by '3 #ajj 3'4 ,pg #cca4 'section iv' replaced by 'section iii'4 ,pg #ccb4 'counter-ter weights' replaced by 'counter-weights'4 ,pg #cdc4 'desscribed' replaced by 'described'4 ,pg #cde4 'unrol' replaced by 'unroll'4 ,pg #cde4 'couratines' replaced by 'courantines'4 ,pg #cea4 'fiit' replaced by 'fit'4 ,pg #cei4 'thicknes' replaced by 'thickness'4 ,pg #cfb4 'case whirl' replaced by 'case whirls'4 ,pg #chb4 'pyrimids' replaced by 'pyramids'4 ,pg #chc4 'air' replaced by 'airs'4 ,pg #chd4 ',votaic' replaced by ',voltaic'4 ,pg #djf4 ',sec4 ,,xiv4' replaced by ',sec4 ,,xv4'4 ,pg #dac4 ',archimedian' replaced by ',archimedean'4 7twice7 ,pg #dad4 'star weeel' replaced by 'star wheel'4 ,pg #dah4 ',archimedian' replaced by ',archimedean'4 ,pg #dca4 ',alchohol' replaced by ',alcohol'4 ,pg #ddj ,footnote #bh4 'meditate' replaced by 'mediate'4 ,pg #ddj ,footnote #bh4 ',guillume' replaced by ',guillaume'4 ,pg #ddc4 'ladle-full' replaced by 'ladleful'4 ,pg #dec4 'sauccissons' replaced by 'saucissons'4 ,pg #ded4 'sauccissons' replaced by 'saucissons'4 ,pg #ded4 'squills' replaced by 'quills'4 ,pg #dee4 'mosique' replaced by 'mosaique'4 ,pg #dfj4 'richochet' replaced by 'ricochet'4 ,pg #dge4 'parallelopepids' replaced by 'parallelepipeds'4 ,pg #dgf4 ,in the table1 'comsition' replaced by 'composition'4 ,pg #dhh4 ',shrapnell' replaced by ',shrapnel'4 7twice7 ,pg #dia4 ',siemienowich' replaced by ',siemienowicz'4 ,pg #ead4 ',dictionaire' replaced by ',dictionnaire'4 ,pg #eag4 'passsing' replaced by 'passing'4 ,pg #eai4 ',he how' replaced by ',he now'4 ,pg #ebf4 'two-third' replaced by 'two-thirds'4 ,pg #ecc4 ,duplicate phrase ',elevation for extreme range' removed from the table4 ,pg #ece4 'their being' replaced by 'there being'4 ,pg #ece4 'richochet' replaced by 'ricochet'4 ,pg #edb4 'the' removed from header ',base of the conical head' in the table4 ,pg #efj4 ',siemienowick' replaced by ',siemienowicz'4 7twice7 ,pg #egj ,footnote #dc4 'fennell' replaced by 'fennel'4 ,pg #ehj4 'seive' replaced by 'sieve'4 ,pg #eha4 'pullies' replaced by 'pulleys'4 ,pg #ehe4 'de ,gouvernment' replaced by 'de ,gouvernement'4 ,index3 ,pg #eij4 ',bertholet' replaced by ',berthollet'4 ,pg #eij4 ',cagliostra' replaced by ',cagliostro'4 ,pg #eij4 ,callinicus3 '#fgc' replaced by '#edd1 #edh'4 ,pg #eic4 ',copal' entry moved to correct alphabetic order4 ,pg #eif4 ',grcus1 ,marcus' replaced by ',grcus1 ,marcus'4 ,pg #eih4 ,section for ',j' moved after section for ',i'4 ,pg #eih4 ,inflammable3 ',gingembrie' replaced by ',gengembrie'4 ,pg #eih4 ',jassamine' replaced by ',jessamine'4 ,pg #eii4 ',lampadacea' replaced by ',lampadaria'4 ,pg #eii4 ',longschamp' replaced by ',longchamp'4 ,pg #fjb4 ,pliny3 ',porcena' replaced by ',porsena'4 ,pg #fjd4 ',rochus' replaced by ',rochos'4 ,pg #fjf4 ',seneka' replaced by ',seneca'4 ,pg #fji4 ,watson3 ',landaff' replaced by ',llandaff'4 ,pg #fji4 ',will-with-the-whisp' replaced by ',will-with-the-,wisp'4