,,nietzsche ,,and ,,other ,,exponents ,,of ,,individualism ,,by ,,paul ,,carus ,,chicago ,,london ,,the ,,open ,,court ,,publishing ,,company #aiad ,illustration3 ,friedrich ,nietzsche4 ,statue by ,klein4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,anti-,,scientific ,,tendencies ,,deussen',s ,,recollections ,,extreme ,,nominalism ,a ,,philosophy ,,of ,,originality ,,the ,,overman ,,zarathustra ,a ,,protest ,,against ,,himself ,,nietzsche',s ,,predecessor ,,ego-,,sovereignty ,,another ,,nietzsche ,,nietzsche',s ,,disciples ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,valuation ,,individualism ,,conclusion ,,index ,,anti-,,scientific ,,tendencies4 ,philosophies are world-conceptions presenting three main features3 7#a7 ,a systematic comprehension of the knowledge of their age2 7#b7 ,an emotional attitude toward the cosmos2 and 7#c7 ,a principle that will serve as a basis for rules of conduct4 ,the first feature determines the worth of the several philosophical systems in the history of mankind1 being the gist of that which will last1 and giving them strength and backbone4 ,the second one1 however1 appeals powerfully to the sentiments of those who are imbued with the same spirit and thus constitutes its immediate acceptability2 while the ethics of a philosophy becomes the test by which its use and practicability can be measured4 ,the author's ideal has been to harmonize these three features by making the first the regulator of the second and a safe basis of the third4 ,what we need is truth2 our fundamental emotion must be truthfulness1 and our ethics must be a living of the truth4 ,truth is not something that we can fashion according to our pleasure2 it is not subjective2 its very nature is objectivity4 ,but we must render it subjective by a love of truth2 we must make it our own1 and by doing so our conduct in life will unfailingly adjust itself4 ,former philosophies made the subjective element predominant1 and thus every philosopher worked out a philosophy of his own1 endeavoring to be individual and original4 ,the aim of our own philosophy has been to reduce the subjective to its proper sphere1 and to establish1 in agreement with the scientific spirit of the age1 a philosophy of objective validity4 ,it is a well known experience that the march of progress does not advance in a straight line but proceeds in epicycles4 ,man seems to tire of the rigor of truth4 ,from time to time he wants fiction4 ,a strict adherence to exact methods becomes monotonous to clever minds lacking the power of concentration1 and they gladly hail vagaries4 ,truth1 they claim1 is relative1 knowledge mere opinion1 and poetry had better replace science4 ,then they say3 ,error1 be thou our guide2 ,error1 thou art a liberator from the tyranny of truth4 ,glory be to ,error6 ,similar retrograde movements take place from time to time in art4 ,classical taste changes with romantic tendencies4 ,goethe1 ,schiller and ,lessing are followed by ,schlegel and ,tieck1 ,mozart and ,beethoven by ,wagner4 ,the last half-century has been an age of unprecedented progress in science and we would expect that with all the wonderful successes and triumphs of scientific invention this age of science ought to find its consummation in the adoption of a philosophy of science4 ,but no6 ,the mass of mankind is weary of science1 and anti-scientific tendencies grow up like mushrooms1 finding spokesmen in philosophers like ,william ,james and ,henri ,bergson who have the ear of large masses1 proclaiming the superiority of subjectivism over objectivism1 and the advantages of animal instinct over human reason4 ,these subjective philosophies if considered as expressions of sentiment1 as sentimental attitudes toward the world1 as poetical effusions of a semi-philosophical nature1 are perfectly legitimate and can be indulged in as well as the several religions which in allegories attune the minds of their followers toward the ,all of which they are parts4 ,there is no need to condemn arts or emotions for they have a right to exist just as they are4 ,we protest against subjectivism in philosophy only when it denies the possibility of an objective philosophy4 ,we do not deny that the masses of the world are not1 cannot be and never will be scientific thinkers4 ,science is the prerogative of the few1 and the large masses of mankind will always be of a pragmatist type4 ,if the pragmatist considered himself as a psychologist pure and simple showing how the majority of mankind argues1 how people are influenced by their own interest and how their thoughts are warped by what they wish the facts to be1 pragmatism would be a commendable branch of the science of the soul4 ,pragmatism explains the errors of philosophy and we can learn much from a consideration of its principles4 ,it becomes objectionable only in so far as it claims to be philosophy in the strict sense of the word4 ,the name philosophy is used in two senses1 first as we defined it above1 as a world-conception based upon critically sifted knowledge2 and secondly it is used in a vague general sense as wisdom in the practical affairs of life4 ,and if pragmatism claims to be a philosophy in this second sense it ought not to deny that philosophy as a science is possible4 ,philosophy as a science is philosophy par excellence4 ,it is the only philosophy of objective validity4 ,all other philosophies are effusions of subjective points of view1 of attitudes1 of sentiment4 ,but we must insist that these two contrasts may exist side by side just as art does not render mathematics supererogatory1 and as a physicist who in his profession devotes himself to a study of nature according to methods of an objective exactness may in his leisure hours paint a ,stimmungsbild to give an artistic expression to a subjective mood4 ,this world is not merely the object of science4 ,there are innumerable tendencies which exist and have a right to exist1 but they ought not to banish science1 scientific enquiry and scientific ideals from the place they hold2 for science is the mariners' compass which guides us over the ocean of life1 and though the majority of the passengers do not and need not worry about it1 science is after all the only means which makes for progress and lifts mankind to higher and higher levels4 ,if we criticize men like ,james and ,bergson and other philosophers of subjectivism we do it as a defence of the indispensable character of the objectivity of science as well as of philosophy as a science4 ,james and ,bergson were by no means the originators of their method of philosophizing4 ,there have been many sages before them who deemed the spectacles through which they viewed the world to be the most important or even the only significant issue of life's problems4 ,the ,ionian physicists were outdone by the sophists1 and in modern times ,friedrich ,nietzsche expressed the most sovereign contempt for science4 ,among all the philosophies of modern times there is perhaps none which in its inmost principle is more thoroughly opposed to our own than ,nietzsche's1 and yet there are some points of mutual contact which are well worth pointing out4 ,the problem which is at the basis of ,nietzsche's thought is the same as in our philosophy1 but our solution is radically different from his4 ,friedrich ,nietzsche is a philosopher who astonishes his readers by the boldness with which he rebels against every tradition1 tearing down the holiest and dearest things1 preaching destruction of all rule1 and looking with disdain upon the heap of ruins in which his revolutionary thoughts would leave the world4 ,for more than a century ,germany has been the storm-center of philosophical thought4 ,the commotions that started in the ,fatherland reached other countries1 ,france1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states1 after they had lost their force at home4 ,kant's transcendentalism and ,hegel's phenomenalism began to flourish among the ,english-speaking races after having become almost extinct in the home of their founders4 ,prof4 ,r4 ,m4 ,wenley of the ,university of ,michigan1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,mich41 expresses this truth with his native ,scotch wit in the statement which ,i do not hesitate to endorse1 that ,german professors when they die go to ,oxford1 and we may add that from ,oxford they travel west to settle for a while in ,concord1 ,boston1 ,washington1 or other ,american cities4 ,hegelianism had scarcely died out in the ,united ,states when ,schopenhauer and ,nietzsche began to become fashionable4 ,the influence of the former has been felt in a quiet way for some time while the ,nietzsche movement is of more recent date and also of a more violent character4 ,nietzsche represents a type of most modern date4 ,his was a genius after the heart of ,lombroso4 ,he was eccentric and atypical4 ,lombroso's psychology is an outgrowth of nominalism which does not recognize an objective norm for truth1 health1 reason1 or normality of any kind1 and regards the average as the sole method of finding a norm4 ,if1 however1 the average type is the standard of measurement1 the unusually excellent specimens1 being rare in number1 must be classed together with all other deviations from the average1 and thus a genius is regarded as abnormal as much as a criminal--a theory which has found many admirers in this age that is sicklied over with agnosticism1 the modern offshoot of nominalism4 ,the truth is that true genius 7not the pseudo-genius of erratic minds1 not the would-be genius of those who make a failure of life7 is uncommonly normal--,i had almost said abnormally normal4 ,a perfect crystal is rare2 so the perfectly normal man is an exception2 yet for all that he is a better representative of the ideal of his type than the average4 ,nietzsche was most assuredly very ingenious2 he was unusually talented but he was not a genius in the full sense of the word4 ,he was abnormal1 titanic in his pretensions and aims1 and erratic4 ,breaking down under the burden of his own thought1 he ended his tragical career in an insane asylum4 ,the mental derangement of ,nietzsche may be an unhappy accident but it appears to have come as the natural result of his philosophy4 ,nietzsche1 by nature modest and tractable1 almost submissive1 was1 as a thinker1 too proud to submit to anything1 even to truth4 ,schopenhauer had taught him that the intellect1 with its comprehension of truth1 is a mere slave of the will1 ancilla voluntatis4 ,our cognition of the truth has a purpose2 it must accommodate itself to our own interest4 ,but the self is sovereign2 the self wants to assert itself2 the self alone has a right to exist2 and the self that does not dare to be itself is a servile1 menial creature4 ,therefore ,nietzsche preaches the ethics of self-assertion and pride4 ,he is too proud to recognize the duty of inquiry1 the duty of adapting his mind to the world1 or of recognizing the cosmic order of the universe as superior to his self4 ,he feels bigger than the cosmos2 he is himself2 and he wants to be himself4 ,his own self is sovereign2 and if the world is not satisfied to submit to his will1 the world may go to ruin4 ,if the world breaks to pieces1 it will only cause him to laugh2 on the other hand1 if his very self is forced to the wall in this conflict1 he will still1 from sheer pride1 not suffer himself to abandon his principle of the absolute sovereignty of selfhood4 ,he will not be a man1 human and humane1 but an overman 7,uebermensch71 a superhuman despiser of humanity and humaneness4 ,the multitudes are to him like cattle to be used1 to be milked1 fleeced and butchered1 and ,nietzsche calls them herds1 animals of the flock1 ,heerdentiere4 ,nietzsche's philosophy is unique in being throughout the expression of an emotion--the proud sentiment of a self-sufficient sovereignty of self4 ,it rejects with disdain both the methods of the intellect1 which submit the problems of life to an investigation1 and the demands of morality1 which recognize the existence of duty4 ,other philosophers have claimed that rights imply duties and duties1 rights4 ,nietzsche knows of rights only4 ,nietzsche claims that there is no objective science save by the permission of the sovereign self1 nor is there any ought1 except for slaves and fools4 ,he prides himself on being the first ,unmoralist1 implying the absolute sovereignty of man--of the overman--and the foolishness as well as falsity of moral maxims4 ,,deussen',s ,,recollections ,professor ,paul ,deussen1 ,sanskritist and philosopher of ,kiel1 was ,friedrich ,nietzsche's most intimate friend4 ,they were chums together in school in ,schulpforta1 and remained friends to the end of ,nietzsche's life4 ,nietzsche had come to ,schulpforta in #aheh1 and ,deussen entered the next year in the same class4 ,once ,nietzsche1 who as the senior of the class had to keep order among his fellow scholars during working periods and prevent them from making a disturbance1 approached ,deussen while he sat in his seat peacefully chewing the sandwich he had brought for his lunch and said1 ,don't talk so loud to your crust6 using here the boys' slang term for a sandwich4 ,these were the first words ,nietzsche had spoken to ,deussen1 and ,deussen says3#a ,i see ,nietzsche still before me1 how with the unsteady glance peculiar to extremely near-sighted people1 his eye wandered over the rows of his classmates searching in vain for an excuse to interfere4 ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche ,,as ,a ,,pupil ,,at ,,schulpforta ,,in ,,the ,,year #ahfa4 ,nietzsche and ,deussen began to take walks together and soon became chums1 probably on account of their common love for ,anacreon1 whose poems were interesting to both perhaps on account of the easy ,greek in which they are written4 ,in those days the boys of ,schulpforta addressed each other by the formal ,sie2 but one day when ,deussen happened to be in the dormitory1 he discovered in the trunk under his bed a little package of snuff2 ,nietzsche was present and each took a pinch4 ,with this pinch they swore eternal brotherhood4 ,they did not drink brotherhood as is the common ,german custom1 but1 as ,deussen humorously says1 they snuffed it2 and from that time they called each other by the more intimate du4 ,this friendship continued through life with only one interruption1 and on ,laetare ,sunday in #ahfa1 they stepped to the altar together and side by side received the blessing at their confirmation4 ,on that day both were overcome by a feeling of holiness and ecstasy4 ,thus their friendship was sealed in ,christ1 and though it may seem strange of ,nietzsche who was later a most iconoclastic atheist1 a supernatural vision filled their young hearts for many weeks afterwards4 ,there was a third boy to join this friendship--a certain ,meyer1 a young1 handsome and amiable youth distinguished by wit and the ability to draw excellent caricatures4 ,but ,meyer was in constant conflict with his teachers and generally in rebellion against the rules of the school4 ,he had to leave school before he finished his course4 ,nietzsche and ,deussen accompanied him to the gate and returned in great sorrow when he had disappeared on the highway4 ,what has become of ,meyer is not known4 ,deussen saw him five years later in his home at ,oberdreis1 but at that time he was broken in health and courage1 disgruntled with ,god1 the world and himself4 ,later he held a subordinate position in the custom house1 and soon after that all trace of him was lost4 ,probably he died young4 ,this ,meyer was attached to ,nietzsche for other reasons than ,deussen4 ,while ,deussen appreciated more the intellectuality and congeniality of his friend1 ,meyer seems to have been more attracted by his erratic and wayward tendencies and this for some time endeared him to ,nietzsche4 ,thus it came to pass that the two broke with ,deussen for a time4 ,the way of establishing a state of hostility in ,schulpforta was to declare oneself mad at another1 and to some extent this proved to be a good institution1 for since the boys came in touch with each other daily and constantly in the school1 those who could not agree would have easily come to blows had it not been for this tabu which made it a rule that they were not on speaking terms4 ,this state of things lasted for six weeks1 and was only broken by an incidental discussion in a ,latin lesson1 when ,nietzsche proposed one of his highly improbable conjectures for a verse of ,virgil4 ,the discussion grew heated1 and when the professor after a long ,latin disquisition finally asked whether any one had something to say on the subject1 ,deussen rose and extemporized a ,latin hexameter which ran thus3 ,nietzschius erravit1 neque coniectura probanda est ,on account of the declared state of mad-ness1 the debate was carried on through the teacher1 addressing him each time with the phrase3 ,tell ,nietzsche1 ,tell ,deussen1 ,tell ,meyer1 etc41 but in the heat of the controversy they forgot to speak in the third person1 and finally addressed their adversaries directly4 ,this broke the spell of being mad and they came to an understanding and a definite reconciliation4 ,nietzsche never had another friend with whom he became so intimate as with ,deussen4 ,deussen says 7page #i73 ,at that time we understood each other perfectly4 ,in our lonely walks we discussed all possible subjects of religion1 philosophy1 poetry1 art and music4 ,often our thoughts ran wild and when words failed us we would look into each other's eyes1 and one would say to the other3 ',we understand each other4' ,these words became a standing phrase which forthwith we decided to avoid as trivial1 and we had to laugh when occasionally it escaped our lips in spite of us4 ,the great ordeal of the final examination came4 ,we had to pass first through our written tests4 ,in ,german composition1 on the 'advantages and dangers of wealth' ,nietzsche passed with ,no4 #a2 also in a ,latin exercise de bello ,punico primo2 but in mathematics he failed with the lowest mark1 ,no4 #d4 ,this upset him and in fact he who was almost the most gifted of us all was compelled to withdraw4 ,while the two were strolling up and down in front of the schoolhouse1 ,nietzsche unburdened his grief to his friend1 and ,deussen tried to comfort him4 ,what difference does it make1 said he1 if you pass badly1 if only you pass at all8 ,you are and will always be more gifted than all the rest of us1 and will soon outstrip even me whom you now envy4 ,you must increase but ,i must decrease4 ,the course of events was as ,deussen had predicted1 for ,nietzsche though not passing with as much distinction as he may have deserved nevertheless received his diploma4 ,when ,deussen with his wife visited ,nietzsche in ,august #aijg at ,sils-,maria1 ,nietzsche showed him a requiem which he had composed for his own funeral1 and he added3 ,i do not believe that ,i will last much longer4 ,i have reached the age at which my father died1 and ,i fear that ,i shall fall a victim to the same disease as he4 ,though ,deussen protested vigorously against this sad prediction and tried to cheer him up1 ,nietzsche indeed succumbed to his sad fate within two years4 ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche ,,from ,,photograph ,,in ,,the ,,possession ,,of ,,professor ,,deussen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,professor ,deussen1 though ,nietzsche's most intimate friend1 is by no means uncritical in judging his philosophy4 ,it is true he cherishes the personal character and the ideal tendencies of his old chum1 but he is not blind to his faults4 ,deussen says of ,nietzsche3 ,he was never a systematic philosopher4444 ,the great problems of epistemology1 of psychology1 of sthetics and ethics are only tentatively touched upon in his writings4444 ,there are many pearls of worth upon which he throws a brilliant side light1 as it were in lightning flashes4444 ,his overwhelming imagination is always busy4 ,his thoughts were always presented in pleasant imagery and in language of dazzling brilliancy1 but he lacked critical judgment and was not controlled by a consideration of reality4 ,therefore the creation of his pen was never in harmony with the actual world1 and among the most valuable truths which he revealed with ingenious profundity there are bizarre and distorted notions stated as general rules although they are merely rare exceptions1 as is also frequently the case in sensational novels4 ,thus ,nietzsche produced a caricature of life which means no small danger for receptive and inexperienced minds4 ,his readers can escape this danger only when they do what ,nietzsche did not do1 when they confront every thought of his step by step by the actual nature of things1 and retain only what proves to be true under the touchstone of experience4 ,between the negation of the will and its affirmation ,nietzsche granted to ,deussen while still living in ,basel1 that the ennoblement of the will should be man's aim4 ,the affirmation of the will is the pagan ideal with the exception of ,platonism4 ,the negation of the will is the ,christian ideal1 and according to ,nietzsche the ennoblement of the will is realized in his ideal of the overman4 ,deussen makes the comment that ,nietzsche's notion of the overman is in truth the ideal of all mankind1 whether this highest type of manhood be called ,christ or overman2 and we grant that such an ideal is traceable everywhere4 ,it is called ,messiah among the ,jews2 hero among the ,greeks1 ,christ among the ,christians1 and chin1 the superior man1 or to use ,nietzsche's language1 the overman1 among the ,chinese2 but the characteristics with which ,nietzsche endows his overman are unfortunately mere brutal strength and an unscrupulous will to play the tyrant4 ,here ,professor ,deussen halts4 ,it appears that he knew the peaceful character of his friend too well to take his ideal of the overman seriously4 ,we shall discuss ,nietzsche's ideal of the overman more fully further down in a discussion of his most original thoughts1 the typically ,nietzschean ideas4 #a ,see ,dr4 ,paul ,deussen's ,erinnerungen an ,friedrich ,nietzsche4 ,leipsic1 #aija4 ,,extreme ,,nominalism ,according to ,nietzsche1 the history of philosophy from ,plato to his own time is a progress of the idea that objective truth 7a conception of the true world7 is not only not attainable1 but does not exist at all4 ,he expresses this idea in his ,twilight of the ,idols 7,english edition1 pp4 #abb-abc7 under the caption1 ,how the ',true ,world' ,finally ,became a ,fable1 which describes the successive stages as follows3 #a4 ,the true world attainable by the wise1 the pious1 and the virtuous man1--he lives in it1 he embodies it4 7,oldest form of the idea1 relatively rational1 simple1 and convincing4 ,transcription of the proposition1 ',i1 ,plato1 am the truth1'7 #b4 ,the true world unattainable at present1 but promised to the wise1 the pious1 and the virtuous man 7to the sinner who repents74 7,progress of the idea3 it becomes more refined1 more insidious1 more incomprehensible1--it becomes feminine1 it becomes ,christian47 #c4 ,the true world unattainable1 undemonstrable1 and unable to be promised2 but even as conceived1 a comfort1 an obligation1 and an imperative4 7,the old sun still1 but shining only through mist and scepticism2 the idea becomes sublime1 pale1 northerly1 ,koenigsbergian47 #d4 ,the true world--unattainable8 ,at any rate unattained4 ,and being unattained also unknown4 ,consequently also neither comforting1 saving nor obligatory3 what obligation could anything unknown lay upon us8 7,gray morning4 ,first dawning of reason4 ,cock-crowing of ,positivism47 #e4 ,the 'true world'--an idea neither good for anything1 nor even obligatory any longer1--an idea become useless and superfluous2 consequently a refuted idea2 let us do away with it6 7,full day2 breakfast2 return of bon sens and cheerfulness2 ,plato blushing for shame2 infernal noise of all free intellects17 #f4 ,we have done away with the true world3 what world is left8 perhaps the seeming8444 ,but no6 in doing away with the true1 we have also done away with the seeming world6 7,noon2 the moment of the shortest shadow2 end of the longest error2 climax of mankind2 ,incipit ,zarathustra67 ,the reader will ask1 ,what next8 ,probably afternoon and evening1 and then night4 ,in the night presumably the old sun1 i4 e41 the idea of ,plato's true world1 which 7according to ,nietzsche7 grew pale in the morning1 will shine again4 ,nietzsche's main desire was to live the real life and make his home not in an imaginary ,utopia but in this actual world of ours4 ,he reproached the philosophers as well as the religious leaders and ethical teachers for trying to make mankind believe that the teal world is purely phenomenal1 for replacing it by the world of thought which they called the true world or the world of truth4 ,to ,nietzsche the typical philosopher is ,plato4 ,he and all his followers are accused of hypocrisy for making people believe that the true world of their own fiction is real and that man's ambition should be to attain to this true world 7the world of philosophy1 of science1 of art1 of ethical ideals7 built above the real world4 ,nietzsche means to shatter all the idols of the past1 and he has come to the conclusion that even the scientists were guilty of the same fault as the philosophers4 ,they erected a world of thought1 of subjective conception from the materials of the real world1 and so he denounces even their attempts at constructing a true world as either a self-mystification or a lie4 ,it is as imaginary as the world of the priest4 ,in order to lead a life worthy of the overman1 we should assert ourselves and feel no longer hampered by rules of conduct or canons of logic or by any consideration for truth4 ,with all his hatred of religion1 ,nietzsche was nevertheless an intensely religious character1 and knowing that he could not clearly see a connection between his so-called real world and his actual surroundings1 he developed all the symptoms of religious fanaticism which characterizes religious leaders of all ages4 ,he indulged in a mystic ecstacy1 preaching it as the essential feature of his philosophy1 and his ,dionysiac enthusiasm is not the least of the intoxicants which are contained in his thought and bring so many poetical and talented but immature minds under his control4 ,it is obvious that the real world of ,nietzsche is more unreal than the true world of philosophy and of religion which he denounces as fictitious1 but he was too naive and philosophically crude to see this4 ,nietzsche's real world is a fabric of his own personal imagination1 while the true world of science is at least a thought-construction of the world which pictures facts with objective exactness2 it is controlled by experience and can be utilized in practical life2 it is subject to criticism and its propositions are being constantly tested either to be refuted or verified4 ,nietzsche's real world is the hope 7and perhaps not even a desirable hope7 of a feverish brain whose action is influenced by a decadent body4 ,nietzsche's so-called real world is one ideal among many others4 ,it is as much subjective as the ideals of other mortals1--of men who seek happiness in wealth1 or in pleasures1 or in fame1 or in scholarship1 or in a religious life--all of them imagine that the world of their thoughts is real and the goal which they endeavor to reach is the only thing that possesses genuine worth4 ,in ,nietzsche's opinion all are dreamers catching at shadows1 but the shadow of his own fancy appeared to him as real4 ,according to ,nietzsche the universe is not a cosmos but a chaos4 ,he says 7,la ,gaya ,scienza1 ,german edition1 p4 #adh73 ,the astral order in which we live is an exception4 ,this order and the relative stability which is thereby caused1 made the exception' of exceptions possible1--the formation of organisms4 ,the character-total of the world is into all eternity chaos1 not in the sense of a missing necessity1 but of missing order1 articulation1 form1 beauty1 wisdom1 and as all our sthetic humanities may be called4 ,in agreement with this conception of order1 ,nietzsche says of man1 the rational animal3 ,i fear that animals look upon man as a being of their own kind1 which in a most dangerous way has lost the sound animal-sense1--as a lunatic animal1 a laughing animal1 a crying animal1 a miserable animal4 7,la ,gaya ,scienza1 ,german edition1 p4 #aif47 ,if reason is an aberration1 the brute must be superior to man and instinct must range higher than logical thought4 ,man's reason1 according to this consistent nominalist view1 is purely subjective and has no prototype in the objective world4 ,this is a feature common to all nominalistic philosophies4 ,john ,stuart ,mill regards the theorems of logic and mathematics1 not only not as truths1 but as positive untruths4 ,he says3 ,the points1 lines1 circles1 and squares1 which any one has in his mind1 are 7,i apprehend7 simply copies of the points1 lines1 circles1 and squares which he has known in his experience4 ,our idea of a point1 ,i apprehend to be simply our idea of the minimum visibile1 the smallest portion of surface which we can see4 ,a line1 as defined by geometers1 is wholly inconceivable4 ,we can reason about a line as if it had no breadth2 because we have a power1 which is the foundation of all the control we can exercise over the operations of our minds2 the power1 when a perception is present to our senses1 or a conception to our intellects1 of attending to a part only of that perception or conception1 instead of the whole4 ,but we cannot conceive a line without breadth2 we can form no mental picture of such a line3 all the lines which we have in our minds are lines possessing breadth4 ,nietzsche shows his nominalistic tendencies by repeatedly pronouncing the same propositions in almost literally the same words1#a without1 however1 acknowledging the school in which he picked up this error4 ,it is quite true that mathematical lines and circles are human conceptions1 but they are not purely subjective conceptions1 still less untruths2 they are great and important discoveries4 ,they are not arbitrarily devised but constructed according to the laws of the uniformities that dominate existence4 ,they represent actual features of the factors which shape the objective universe1 and thus only is it possible that the astronomer through the calculation of mathematical curves can predict the motion of the stars4#b ,reason is the key to the universe1 because it is the reflex of cosmic order1 and the cosmic order1 the intrinsic regularity and immanent harmony of the uniformities of nature1 is not a subjective illusion but an objective reality4 ,when ,goethe claims that all things transitory are symbols of that which is intransitory and eternal1 ,nietzsche answers that the idea of anything intransitory is a mere symbol1 and ,god 7the idea of anything eternal7 a poet's lie4 ,like a mocking-bird1 the nominalist philosopher imitates the ring of ,goethe's well-known lines at the conclusion of the second part of ,faust1 in which the real world of transient things is considered as a mere symbol of the true world of eternal verities3 ,das ,unvergangliche ,ist nur dein ,gleichniss4 ,gott der ,verfngliche ,ist ,dichter-,erschleichniss4 ,weltspiel1 das herrische1 ,mischt ,sein und ,schein3-- ,das ,ewig-,nrrische ,mischt uns--hinein4 ,the non-deciduous ,is a symbol of thy sense1 ,god ever invidious1 ,a poetical license4 ,world-play domineeringly ,mixes semblance and fact1 ,and between them us sneeringly ,the ,ever-,foolish has packed4 ,in spite of ,nietzsche's hunger for the realities of life1 that is to say for objectivity1 he was in fact the most subjective of all philosophers--so much so that he was incapable of formulating any thought as an objectively precise statement4 ,he did not believe in truth3 ,there is probability1 but no truth1 says he in ,der ,wanderer und sein ,schatten1 p4 #aij2 and he adds concerning the measure of the value of truth 7ibid41 ,aphorism #d73 ,the trouble in ascending mountains is no measure of their height1 and should it be different in science8 ,it is true that such words as long and short are relative1 because dependent on subjective needs and valuations4 ,but must we for that reason give up all hope of describing facts in objective terms8 ,are not meters and foot-measures definite magnitudes1 whether or not they be long for one purpose and short for another8 ,relativity itself admits of a description in objective terms2 but if a statement of facts in objective terms were impossible1 the ideals of exact science 7as all ideals7 would be a dream4 ,that ,nietzsche prefers the abrupt style of aphorisms to dispassionate inquisitions is a symptom that betrays the nature of his philosophy4 ,his ideas1 thus expressed1 are easily understood4 ,they are but very loosely connected1 and we find them frequently contradictory4 ,they are not presented in a logical1 orderly way1 but sound like reiterated challenges to battle4 ,they are appeals to all wild impulses and a clamor for the right of self-assertion4 ,while ,nietzsche's philosophy is in itself inconsistent and illogical1 it is yet born of the logic of facts2 it is the consistent result and legitimate conclusion of principles uttered centuries ago and which were slowly matured in the historical development of thought4 ,the old nominalistic school is the father of ,nietzsche's philosophy4 ,a consistent nominalist will be driven from one conclusion to another until he reaches the stage of ,nietzsche1 which is philosophical anarchism and extreme individualism4 ,the nominalist denies the reality of reason2 he regards the existence of universals as a fiction1 and looks upon the world as a heap of particulars4 ,he loses sight of the unity of the world and forgets that form is a true feature of things4 ,it is form and the sameness of the laws of form which makes universality of reason possible4 ,nominalism rose in opposition to the medieval realism of the schoolmen who looked upon universals as real and concrete things1 representing them as individual beings that existed ante res1 in rebus1 and post res1 i4 e41 in the particulars1 before them and after them4 ,the realists were wrong in so far as they conceived universals as substances or distinct essences1 as true realities 7hence the name realism72 only they were supposed to be of a more spiritual nature than material things but1 after all1 they were concrete existences4 ,they were said to have been created by ,god as an artisan would make patterns or molds for the things which he proposes to produce4 ,according to ,plato1 ideas serve the ,creator as models of concrete objects of which they are deemed to be the prototypes4 ,the realists were mistaken in regarding the ideal as concrete and real1 but the nominalists1 on the other hand1 also went too far in denying the objective significance of universals and declaring that universals were mere names 7nomina and flatus vocis71 i4 e41 words invented for the sake of conveniently thinking things and serving no other purpose4 ,at the bottom of the controversy lies the problem as to the nature of things4 ,the question arises1 ,what are things in themselves8 ,do things1 or do they not1 possess an independence of their own8 ,kant's reply is1 that things in themselves can not be known2 but our reply is1 that the nature of a thing consists in its form2 a thing is such as it is because it has a definite form4 ,therefore things in themselves do not exist2 but there are forms in themselves4 ,form is not a non-entity but the most important feature of reality1 and the pure laws of form are the determinative factors of the world4 ,the sciences of the laws of pure form1 logic1 arithmetic1 algebra1 geometry1 etc41 are therefore the key to a comprehension of the world1 and morality is the realization of ideals1 i4 e41 of the conceptions of pure forms1 which are higher1 nobler1 and better than those which have been actualized4 ,from our standpoint1 evolution is a process in which the eternal laws of being manifest themselves in a series of regular transformations1 reaching a point at which sentiency appears4 ,and then evolution takes the shape of progress1 that is to say1 sentient beings develop mind2 sentiments become sensations1 i4 e41 representative images2 and words denote the universals4 ,then reason originates as a reflex of the eternal laws of pure form4 ,human reason is deepened in a scientific world-conception1 and becoming aware of the moral aspect of universality it broadens out into comprehensive sympathy with all forms of existence that like ourselves aspire after a fuller comprehension of existence4 ,thus the personality of man is the reflex of that system of eternalities which sways the universe1 and humanity is found to be a revelation of the core of the cosmos1 an incarnation of ,godhood4 ,this revelation1 however1 is not closed4 ,the appearance of the religions of good-will and mutual sympathy merely marks the beginning of a new era1 and we may expect that the future of mankind will surpass the present1 as much as the present surpasses savagery4 ,such is the higher humanity1 the true overman1 representing a higher species of mankind1 whom we expect4 ,nietzsche's philosophy of unmorality looms on the horizon of human thought as a unique conception apparently ushered into this world without any preparation and without any precedent4 ,it sets itself up against tradition4 ,schopenhauer1 ,nietzsche's immediate predecessor1 regarded history as the desolate dream of mankind1 and ,nietzsche exhibits a remorseless contempt for everything that comes to us as a product of history4 ,nietzsche scorns not only law and order1 church and state1 but also reason1 argument1 and rule2 he scorns consistency and logic which are regarded as toys for weaklings or as tools of the crafty4 ,nietzsche is a nominalist with a vengeance4 ,his philosophy is particularism carried to extremes4 ,there is no unity of existence to him4 ,the ,god-idea is dead--not only the old metaphysical notion of a ,god-individual1 but also ,god in the sense of the ultimate ground of being1 the supreme norm of the cosmos4 ,nietzsche's world is split up into particular selves4 ,he does not ask how they originated2 he only knows that they are here4 ,above all1 he knows that his own self is here1 and there is no bond of sympathy between it and other selves4 ,the higher self is that which assumes dominion over the world4 ,his ideal is brutal strength1 his overman the tyrant who tramples under foot his fellowmen4 ,democracy is an abomination to him1 and he despises the gospel of love as it is preached by both ,christ and ,buddha4 ,this is the key to his anti-moralism and to the doctrine of the autonomy of selfhood4 ,nietzsche's philosophy might be called philosophical nihilism1 if he did not object to the word4 ,he calls it positivism1 but it is particularism1 or rather an aristocratic individualism which in the domain of thought plays the same role that political nihilism plays in ,russia4 ,it would dethrone the hereditary ,czar1 the ruler by ,god's grace1 but it would not establish a republic4 ,it would set on the throne a ruthless demagogue1 a self-made political boss--the overman4 ,it is the philosophy of protest1 and ,nietzsche is conscious of being ,slavic in thought and aspiration4 ,nor does he forget that his ancestors belonged to the nobility4 ,he claims to have been descended from a ,polish nobleman by the name of ,nitzki1 a ,protestant who came to ,germany in the eighteenth century as a religious refugee4 ,nietzsche's love of ,slavism manifested itself in his childhood1 for when the news of the fall of ,sebastopol became known1 ,nietzsche1 at that time a mere boy1 was so dejected that he could not eat and gave expression to his chagrin in mournful strains of verse4 ,he who has faith in truth accepts truth as authority2 he who accepts truth as authority recognizes duty2 he who recognizes duty beholds a goal of life4 ,he has found a purpose for which life appears worth living1 and reaches out beyond the bounds of his narrow individuality into the limitless cosmos4 ,he transcends himself1 he grows in truth1 he increases in power1 he widens in his sympathies4 ,here we touch upon the ,god problem4 ,in denning ,god as the ultimate authority of conduct1 we are confronted by the dilemma1 ,is there1 or is there not a norm of morality1 a standard of right and wrong1 to which the self must submit8 ,and this question is another version of the problem as to the existence of truth4 ,is there truth which we must heed1 or is truth a fiction and is the self not bound to respect anything8 ,we answer this question as to the existence of truth in the affirmative1 ,nietzsche in the negative4 ,but he who rejects truth cuts himself loose from the fountain-head of the waters of life4 ,he may deify selfhood1 but his own self will die of its self-apotheosis4 ,his divinity is not a true ,god-incarnation1 it is a mere assumption and the self-exaltation of a pretender4 ,nietzsche's philosophy is more consistent than it appears on its face4 ,being the negation of the right of consistency1 its lack of consistency is its most characteristic feature4 ,if the intellect is truly1 as ,schopenhauer suggests1 the servant of the will1 then there is no authority in reason1 and arguments have no strength4 ,all quarrels are simply questions of power4 ,then1 there is might1 but not right2 right is simply the bon plaisir of might4 ,then there is no good nor evil2 good is that which ,i will1 bad is that which threatens to thwart my will4 ,good and evil are distinctions invented for the enslavement of the masses1 but the free man1 the genius1 the aristocrat1 who craftily tramples the masses under foot1 knows no difference4 ,he is beyond good and evil4 ,this1 indeed1 is the consequence which ,nietzsche boldly draws4 ,it is a consistent anarchism2 it is unmoralism1 a courageous denial of ethical rule2 and a proud aristocratism1 the ruthless shout of triumph of the victor who hails the doctrine of the survival of the strongest and craftiest as a joyful science4 ,nietzsche would not refute the arguments of those who differ from him2 for refutation of other views does not befit a positive mind that posits its own truth4 ,what have ,i to do with refutations6 exclaims ,nietzsche in the ,preface to his ,genealogy of ,morals4 ,the self is lord4 ,there is no law for the lord1 and so he denounces the ethics of ,christianity as slave-morality1 and preaches the lord-morality of the strong which is self-assertion4 ,morality itself is denounced by ,nietzsche as immoral4 ,morality is the result of evolution1 and man's moral ideas are products of conditions climatic1 social1 economical1 national1 religious1 and what not4 ,why should we submit to the tyranny of a rule which after all proves to be a relic of barbarism8 ,nietzsche rejects morality as incompatible with the sovereignty of selfhood1 and1 pronouncing our former judgment a superstition1 he proposes a transvaluation of all values4 ,the self must be established as supreme ruler1 and therefore all rules1 maxims1 principles1 must go1 for the very convictions of a man are mere chains that fetter the freedom of his soul4 #a ,la ,gaya ,scienza1 ,german edition1 p4 #aed2 and passim in ,menschliches1 etc4 #b ,for further details of a refutation of this wrong conception of geometry1 see the author's ,foundation of ,mathematics4 ,a ,,philosophy ,,of ,,originality ,one might expect that ,nietzsche1 who glories in the triumph of the strong over the weak in the struggle for life1 red in tooth and claw1 would look up to ,darwin as his master4 ,but ,nietzsche recognizes no1 master1 and he emphasizes this by speaking in his poetry of ,darwin as this ,english joker1 whose mediocre reason is accepted for philosophy4#a ,to ,nietzsche that which exists is the mere incidental product of blind forces4 ,instead of working for a development of the better from the best of the present1 which is the method of nature1 he shows his contempt for the human and all-too-human2 he prophesies a deluge and hopes that from its floods the overman will emerge whose seal of superiority will be the strength of the conqueror that enables him to survive in the struggle for existence4 ,nietzsche has looked deeply into the apparent chaos of life that according to ,darwin is a ruthless struggle for survival4 ,he avoids the mistake of those sentimentalists who believe that goody-goodyness can rule the world1 who underrate the worth of courage and over-rate humility1 and who would venture to establish peace on earth by grounding arms4 ,he sees the differences that exist between all things1 the antagonism that obtains everywhere1 and preferring to play the part of the hammer1 he showers expressions of contempt upon the anvil4 ,and ,nietzsche's self-assertion is immediate and direct4 ,he does not pause to consider what his self is1 neither how it originated nor what will become of it4 ,he takes it as it is and opposes it to the authority of other powers1 the state1 the church1 and the traditions of the past4 ,an investigation of the nature of the self might have dispelled the illusion of his self-glorification1 but he never thinks of analysing its constitution4 ,bluntly and without any reflection or deliberation he claims the right of the sovereignty of self4 ,he seems to forget that there are different selves1 and that what we need most is a standard by which we can gauge their respective worth1 and not an assertion of the rights of the self in general4 ,we do not intend to quarrel with ,nietzsche's radicalism4 ,nor do we underrate the significance of the self4 ,we1 too1 believe that every self has the liberty to choose its own position and may claim as many rights as it pleases provided it can maintain them4 ,if it cannot maintain them it will be crushed2 otherwise it may conquer its rivals and suppress counter-claims2 but therefore the wise man looks before he leaps4 ,reckless self-assertion is the method of brute creation4 ,neither the lion nor the lamb meditate on their fate2 they simply follow their instincts4 ,they are carnivorous or herbivorous by nature through the actions of their ancestors4 ,this is what ,buddhists call the law of deeds or ,karma4 ,man's karma leads higher4 ,man can meditate on his own fate1 and he can discriminate4 ,his self is a personality1 i4 e41 a self-controlled commonwealth of motor ideas4 ,man does not blindly follow his impulses but establishes rules of action4 ,he can thus abbreviate the struggle and avoid unnecessary friction2 he can rise from brute violence to a self-contained and well-disciplined strength4 ,self-control 7i4 e41 ethical guidance7 is the characteristic feature of the true overman2 but ,nietzsche knows nothing of self-control2 he would allow the self blindly to assert itself after the fashion of animal instincts4 ,nietzsche is the philosopher of instinct4 ,he spurns all logical order1 even truth itself4 ,he has a contempt for every one who learns from others1 for he regards such a man as a slave to other people's thought4 ,his ambition for originality is expressed in these four lines which he inserted as a motto to the second edition of ,la ,gaya ,scienza3 ,ich wohne in meinem eignen ,haus1 ,hab' niemandem nie nichts nachgemacht ,und--lachte noch jeden ,meister aus1 ,der nicht sich selber ausgelacht4 ,we translate faithfully1 preserving even the ungrammatical use of the double negative1 as follows3 ,in my own house do ,i reside1 ,did never no one imitate1 ,and every master ,i deride1 ,save if himself he'd derogate4 ,we wonder that ,nietzsche did not think of ,goethe's little rhyme1 which seems to suit his case exactly3 ,a fellow says3 ',i own no school or college2 ,no master lives whom ,i acknowledge2 ,and pray don't entertain the thought ,that from the dead ,i e'er learned aught4' ,this1 if ,i rightly understand1 ,means3 ',i'm a fool by own command4' ,nietzsche observes that the thoughts of most philosophers are secretly guided by instincts4 ,he feels that all thought is at bottom a will for power1 and the will for truth has no right to exist except it serve the will for power4 ,he reproaches philosophers for glorifying truth4 ,fichte in his ,duties of the ,scholar says3 ,my life and my fate are nothing2 but the results of my life are of great importance4 ,i am a priest of ,truth2 ,i am in the service of ,truth2 ,i feel under obligation to do1 to risk1 and to suffer anything for truth4 ,nietzsche declares that this is shallow4 ,will for truth1 he says1 should be called will to make being thinkable4 ,here1 it seems to us1 ,nietzsche simply replaces the word truth by one of its functions4 ,truth is a systematic representation of reality1 a comprehensive description of facts2 the result being that existence is made thinkable4 ,nietzsche is in a certain sense right when he says that truth in itself is nothing2 for every representation of reality must serve a purpose1 otherwise it is superfluous and useless4 ,and the purpose of truth is the furtherance of life4 ,nietzsche instinctively hits the right thing in saying that at the bottom of philosophy there is the will for power4 ,in spite of our school-philosopher's vain declamations of science for its own sake1 genuine philosophy will never be anything else than a method for the acquisition of power4 ,but this method is truth4 ,nietzsche errs when he declares that the head is merely the intestine of the heart4 ,the head endeavors to find out the truth1 and the truth is not purely subjective4 ,it is true that truth is of no use to a man unless he makes it his own2 he must possess it2 it must be part of himself1 but he cannot create it4 ,truth cannot be made2 it must be discovered4 ,since the scholar's specialized business is the elucidation of the method of discovering the truth--not its purpose1 not its application in practical life--,fichte's ideal of the aim of scholarship remains justified4 ,omit the ideal of truth in a philosophy1 and it becomes an ignis fatuus1 a will-o'-the-wisp1 that will lead people astray4 ,truth makes existence thinkable1 but thinkableness alone is not as yet a test of truth4 ,the ultimate test of truth is its practical application4 ,there is something wrong with a theory that does not work1 and thus the self has a master1 which is reality1 the world in which it lives1 with its laws and actualities4 ,the subjective self must measure its worth by the objective standard of truth--to be obtained through exact inquiry and scientific investigation4 ,the will for power1 in order to succeed1 must be clarified by a methodical comprehension of facts and conditions4 ,the contradictory impulses in one's own self must be systematized so that they will not collide and mutually annihilate themselves2 and the comprehension of this orderly disposition is called reason4 ,nietzsche is on the right track when he ridicules such ideals as virtue for virtue's sake1 and even truth for truth's sake4 ,virtue and truth are for the sake of life4 ,they have not their purpose in themselves1 but their nature consists in serving the expansion and further growth of the human soul4 ,this is a truth which we have always insisted upon and which becomes apparent when those people who speak of virtue for its own sake try to define virtue1 or determine the ultimate standard of right and wrong1 of goodness and badness4 ,we say1 that whatever enhances soulgrowth1 thus producing higher life and begetting a superior humanity1 is good2 while whatever cripples or retards those aspirations is bad4 ,further1 truth is not holy in itself4 ,it becomes holy in the measure that it serves man's holiest aspirations4 ,we sometimes meet among scientists1 and especially among philologists1 men who with the ideal of truth for truth's sake1 pursue some very trivial investigations1 such1 for example1 as the use of the accusative after certain prepositions in ,greek1 or how often ,homer is guilty of a hiatus4 ,they resemble ,faust's famulus ,wagner1 whom ,faust characterizes as a fool 4444 whose choice is ,to stick in shallow trash for ever more1 ,who digs with eager hand for buried ore1 ,and when he finds an angle-worm rejoices4 ,thus there are many trivial truths of no importance1 the investigation of which serves no useful purpose4 ,for instance1 whether the correct pronunciation of the ,greek letter ta2 was ee or ay need not concern us much1 and the philologist who devotes all his life and his best strength to its settlement is rather to be pitied than admired4 ,various truths are very different in value1 for life and truth become holy according to their importance4 ,all this granted1 we need not1 with ,nietzsche1 discard truth1 reason1 virtue1 and all moral aspirations4 ,nietzsche apparently is under the illusion that reason1 systematic thought1 moral discipline and self-control1 are external powers1 and in his love of liberty he objects to their authority4 ,did he ever consider that thought is not an external agent1 but a clarification of man's instincts1 and that discipline is1 or at least in its purpose and final aim ought to be1 self-regulation1 so that our contradictory thoughts would not wage an internecine war8 ,thus1 ,nietzsche1 the instinct-philosopher1 appears as an ingenious boy whose very immaturity is regarded by himself as the highest blossom of his existence4 ,like an intoxicated youth1 he revels in his irresponsibility and laughs at the man who has learned to take life seriously4 ,because the love of truth originates from instincts1 ,nietzsche treats it as a mere instinct1 and nothing else4 ,he forgets that in the evolution of man's soul all instincts develop into something higher than instinct1 and the love of truth develops into systematic science4 ,nietzsche never investigated what his own self consisted of4 ,he never analyzed his individuality4 ,other-wise he would have learned that he received the most valuable part of his being from others1 and that the bundle of instincts which he called his sovereign self was nothing but the heirloom of the ages that preceded him4 ,in spite of his repudiation of any debt to others1 he was but the continuation of others4 ,but he boldly carried his individualism1 if not to its logical conclusions1 yet to its moral applications4 ,when speaking of the ,order of ,assassins of the times of the ,crusades1 he said with enthusiasm3 ,the highest secret of their leaders was1 ',nothing is true1 everything is allowed6' ,and ,nietzsche adds3 ,that indeed1 was liberty of spirit2 that dismissed even the belief in truth4 ,the philosopher of instinct even regards the adherence to truth as slavery and the proclamation of truth as dogmatism4 #a ,see ,nietzsche's poems in the appendix to ,a ,genealogy of ,morals1 ,eng4 ed41 ,macmillan1 p4 #bdh4 ,,the ,,overman ,he quintessence of ,nietzsche's philosophy is the overman4 ,what is the overman8 ,the word 7,uebermensch7 comes from a good mint2 it is of ,goethe's coinage1 and he used it in the sense of an awe-inspiring being1 almost in the sense of ,unmensch1 to characterize ,faust1 the titanic man of high aims and undaunted courage1--the man who would not be moved in the presence of hell and pursued his aspirations in spite of the forbidding countenance of ,god and the ugly grin of ,satan4 ,but the same expression was used in its proper sense about two and a half millenniums ago in ancient ,china1 where at the time of ,lao-tze the term chin jen ,chin4 chars1 superior man1 or chin tse1 superior sage1 was in common usage4 ,but the overman or chin jen of ,lao-tze1 of ,confucius and other ,chinese sages is not a man of power1 not a ,napoleon1 not an unprincipled tyrant1 not a self-seeker of domineering will1 not a man whose ego and its welfare is his sole and exclusive aim1 but a ,christlike figure1 who puts his self behind and thus makes his self--a nobler and better self--come to the front1 who does not retaliate1 but returns good for evil1#a a man 7as the ,greek sage describes him7 who would rather suffer wrong than commit wrong4#b ,this kind of higher man is the very opposite of ,nietzsche's overman1 and it is the spirit of this nobler conception of a higher humanity which furnishes the best ideas of all the religions of the world1 of ,lao-tze's ,taoism1 of ,buddhism and of ,christianity4 ,alexander ,tille1 the ,english translator of ,nietzsche's ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 translates the word ,uebermensch by beyond-man4 ,but beyond means jenseits2 and ,nietzsche wrote ber1 i4 e41 superior to1 over1 or higher than1 and the literal translation overman appears to be the best4 ,it is certainly better than the barbaric combination of superman in which ,latin and ,saxon are mixed against one of the main rules for the construction of words4 ,say superhuman and overman1 but not overhuman or superman4 ,emerson in a similar vein1 when attempting to characterize that which is higher than the soul1 invented the term oversoul1 and ,i can see no objection to the word overman4 ,the overman is the higher man1 the superhuman man of the future1 a higher1 nobler1 more powerful1 a better being than the present man6 ,what a splendid idea6 ,since evolution has been accepted as a truth1 we may fairly trust that we all believe in the overman4 ,all our reformers believe in the possibility of realizing a higher mankind4 ,we ,americans especially have faith in the coming of the kingdom of the overman1 and our endeavor is concentrated in hastening his arrival4 ,the question is only1 ,what is the overman and how can we make this ideal of a higher development actual8 ,happy ,nietzsche6 ,you need not trouble yourself about consistency2 you reject all ideals as superstitions1 and then introduce an ideal of your own4 ,there you see1 says an admirer of ,nietzsche1 what a splendid principle it is not to own any allegiance to logic1 or rule1 or consistency4 ,the best thought of ,nietzsche's would never have been uttered if he had remained faithful to his own principles4 ,however ingenious the idea of an overman may be1 ,nietzsche carries his propositions to such extremes that in spite of many flashes of truth they become in the end ridiculous and even absurd4 ,his ideal is good1 but he utterly fails to comprehend its nature and also the mode in which alone the overman can be realized4 ,nietzsche proclaims the coming of the overman1 but his overman is not superior by intellect1 wisdom1 or nobility of character1 but by vigor1 by strength1 by an unbending desire for power and an unscrupulous determination4 ,the blond barbarian of the north who tramples under foot the citizens of ,greece and ,rome1 ,napoleon ,i1 and the ,assyrian conqueror1--such are his heroes in whom this higher manhood formerly manifested itself4 ,he saw in the history of human thought1 the development of the notion of the true world1 which to him was a mere subjective phantom1 a superstition2 but a reaction must set in1 and he prophesied that the doom of nihilism would sweep over the civilized world applying the torch to its temples1 churches and institutions4 ,upon the ruins of the old world the real man1 the overman1 would rise and establish his own empire1 an empire of unlimited power in which the herds1 i4 e41 the common people1 would become subservient4 ,the herd animal 7so ,nietzsche called any one foolish enough to recognize morality and truth7 is born to obey4 ,he is destined to be trodden under foot by the overman who is strong1 and also unscrupulous enough to use the herds and govern them4 ,nietzsche was by no means under the illusion that the rule of the overman would be lasting1 but he took comfort in the thought that though there would be periods in which the slaves would assert themselves and establish an era of the herd animals1 the overman would nevertheless assert himself from time to time1 and this was what he called his doctrine of the eternal return--the gospel of his philosophy4 ,the highest summit of existence is reached in those phases of the denouement of human life when the overman has full control over the herds which are driven into the field1 sheared and butchered for the sole benefit of him who knows the secret that this world has no moral significance beyond being a prey to his good pleasure4 ,nietzsche's hope is certainly not desirable for the mass of mankind1 but even the fate of the overman himself would appear as little enviable a condition as that of the tyrant ,dionysius under the sword of ,damocles1 or the ,czar of ,russia living in constant fear of the anarchistic bomb4 ,nietzsche1 feeling that his thoughts were untimely1 lived in the hope of the coming of the great day on which his views would find recognition4 ,he looked upon the present as a rebellion against the spirit of strength and vigor2 ,christianity especially1 and its doctrine of humility and love for the down-trodden was hateful to him4 ,he speaks of it as a rebellion of slaves and places in the same category the democraticism that now characterizes the tendency of human development which he denounces as a pseudo-civilization4 ,he insists that the overman is beyond good and evil2 and yet it is obvious that though he claims to be the first philosopher who maintained the principle of unmorality1 he was only the first philosopher boldly to proclaim it4 ,his maxim 7or lack of maxims7 has been stealthily and secretly in use among all those classes whom he calls overmen1 great and small4 ,the great overmen are conquerors and tyrants1 who meteorlike appear and disappear1 the small ones are commonly characterized as the criminal classes2 but there is this difference between the two1 that the former1 at least so far as they have succeeded1 recognize the absolute necessity of establishing law and order1 and though they may temporarily have infringed upon the rules of morality themselves1 they have finally come always to the conclusion that in order to maintain their position they must enforce upon others the usual rules of morality4 ,both ,alexander and ,csar were magnanimous at the right moment4 ,they showed mercy to the vanquished1 they exercised justice frequently against their own personal likes or dislikes1 and were by no means men of impulse as ,nietzsche would have his overman be4 ,the same is true of ,napoleon whose success is mainly due to making himself subservient to the needs of his age4 ,as soon as he assumed the highest power in ,france1 ,napoleon replaced the frivolous tone at his court1 to which his first wife ,josephine had been accustomed1 by an observance of so-called bourgeois decency1 and he enforced it against her inclinations and his own4 ,further1 ,napoleon served the interests of ,germany more than is commonly acknowledged by sweeping out of existence the medival system of innumerable sovereigns1 ecclesiastical as well as secular1 who in conformity with the conservative tenor of the ,german people had irremediably ensconced themselves in their hereditary rights to the disadvantage of the people4 ,moreover1 the ,code ,napoleon1 the new law book1 perhaps the most enduring work of ,napoleon1 was compiled by the jurists of the time1 not because ,napoleon cared for justice1 but because he saw that the only way of establishing a stable government was by acknowledging rules of equity and by enforcing their recognition4 ,it is true that ,napoleon made his service in the cause of right and justice a pedestal for himself1 but in contrast to ,nietzsche's ideas we must notice that this recognition of principle was the only way of success to a man whose natural tendency was an unbounded egotism1 an unlimited desire for power4 ,in spite of his enthusiasm in announcing the advent of an overman1 ,nietzsche would be a poor adviser for a rising usurper4 ,he would be able to cause a great upheaval1 to bring about a ,volcanic eruption1 or to raise a thunderstorm wherever restlessness prevails1 but his philosophy lacks the principle of using discretion1 or advising self-discipline1 of applying scientific methods--all of which is indispensable for success4 ,he preaches boldness1 not wisdom2 and a hero after ,nietzsche's heart would be like a navigator who courageously ventures into the storm but scorns a chart and leaves the mariners' compass behind2 he would steer not as circumstances demand but according to his own sweet will1 and would be wrecked before ever reaching the harbor of overmanhood4 ,how much greater is the ideal of the overman as taught by the ancient philosopher of ,china6 ,he1 the chin jen1 the superior man1 does not need power either political or financial to be great2 he does not need a pedestal of oppressed slaves to stand on2 he is great in himself1 because he has a great compassionate heart and a broad comprehensive mind4 ,he is simple1 and1 as we read in the ,tao ,teh ,king1 ,he wears wool is not dressed in silk and purple and wears his jewel concealed in his bosom4 #a ,lao-tse's ,tao ,teh ,king1 ,chaps4 #di and #fc4 #b ,for a collection of ,greek quotations on the ethics of returning good for evil1 see ,the ,open ,court1 ,vol4 ,,xv1 #aija1 pp4 #i-ab4 ,,zarathustra ,to those who have not the time to wade through the twelve volumes of ,nietzsche's works and yet wish to become acquainted with him at his best1 we recommend a perusal of his book ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra4 ,it is original and interesting1 full of striking passages1 sometimes flashes with deep truths1 then again is sterile and unprofitable1 or even tedious1 and sometimes absurd2 but at any rate it presents the embodiment of ,nietzsche's grandest thoughts in their most attractive and characteristic form4 ,we need scarcely warn the reader that ,zarathustra is only another name for ,friedrich ,nietzsche and has nothing to do with the historical person of that name1 the great ,iranian prophet1 the founder of ,mazdaism4 ,nietzsche's ,zarathustra is a hermit philosopher who1 weary of his wisdom1 leaves his cave and comes to mingle with men1 to teach them the overman4 ,he meets a saint who loves ,god1 and ,zarathustra leaving him says3 ,is it possible8 ,this old saint in his forest has not yet heard that ,god is dead6 ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche ,,in ,,the ,,prime ,,of ,,life4 ,zarathustra preaches to a crowd in the market3 ,i teach you the overman4 ,man is a something that shall be surpassed4 ,what have ye done to surpass him8 ,all beings hitherto have created something beyond themselves3 and are ye going to be the ebb of this great tide and rather revert to the animal than surpass man8 ,what with man is the ape8 ,a joke or a sore shame4 ,man shall be the same for the overman1 a joke or a sore shame4 ,behold1 ,i teach you the overman6 ,the overman is the significance of the earth4 ,your will shall say2 the overman shall be the significance of the earth4 ,i conjure you1 my brethren1 remain faithful to the earth and do not believe those who speak unto you of superterrestrial hopes6 ,poisoners they are whether they know it or not4 ,verily1 a muddy stream is man4 ,one must be the ocean to be able to receive a muddy stream without becoming unclean4 ,behold1 ,i teach you the overman3 he is that ocean1 in him your great contempt can sink4 ,what is the greatest thing ye can experience8 ,that is the hour of great contempt4 ,the hour in which not only your happiness1 but your reason and virtue as well1 turn loathsome4 ,i love him who is of a free spirit and of a free heart3 thus his head is merely the intestine of his heart1 but his heart driveth him to destruction4 ,i love all those who are like heavy drops falling one by one from the dark cloud lowering over men3 they announce the coming of the lightning and perish in the announcing4 ,behold1 ,i am an announcer of the lightning and a heavy drop from the clouds2 that lightning's name it the overman4 ,zarathustra comes as an enemy of the good and the just4 ,he says3 ,lo1 the good and just6 ,whom do they hate most8 ,him who breaketh to pieces their tables of values1--the law-breaker1 the criminal3--but he is the creator4 ,the destroyer of morality ,i am called by the good and just3 my tale is immoral4 ,illustration3 ,,coins ,,of ,,ancient ,,elis4 ,each is worth two drachm4 ,one shows on the obverse a ,zeus head with a laurel wreath1 the other a winged ,victory4 ,nietzsche's favorite animals are the proud eagle and the cunning serpent1 the former because it typifies aristocracy1 the latter as the wisest among all creatures of the earth4 ,it is a strange and exceptional combination1 for these two animals are commonly represented as enemies4 ,the eagle and serpent was the emblem of ancient ,elis and is at present the coat-of-arms of ,mexico1 but in both cases the eagle is interpreted to be the conqueror of the serpent1 not its friend1 carrying it as his prey in his claws4 ,zarathustra's philosophy is a combination of the eagle's pride and the serpent's wisdom1 which ,nietzsche describes thus3 ,lo6 an eagle swept through the air in wide circles1 a serpent hanging from it not like a prey1 but like a friend3 coiling round its neck4 ,they are mine animals1' said ,zarathustra and rejoiced heartily4 ,the proudest animal under the sun1 and the wisest animal under the sun have set out to reconnoitre4 ,they wish to learn whether ,zarathustra still liveth4 ,verily1 do ,i still live4 ,more dangerous than among animals ,i found it among men4 ,dangerous ways are taken by ,zarathustra4 ,let mine animals lead me6 ,here is a sentence worth quoting3 ,of all that is written ,i love only that which the writer wrote with his blood4 ,write with blood1 and thou wilt learn that blood is spirit4 ,in another chapter on the back-worlds-men ,nietzsche writes3 ,once ,zarathustra threw his spell beyond man1 like all back-worlds-men4 ,then the world seemed to me the work of a suffering and tortured ,god4 ,alas6 brethren1 that ,god whom ,i created was man's work and man's madness1 like all ,gods6 ,man he was1 and but a poor piece of man and the ,i4 ,from mine own ashes and flame it came unto me1 that ghost yea verily6 ,it did not come unto me from beyond6 ,what happened1 brethren8 ,i overcame myself1 the sufferer1 and carrying mine own ashes unto the mountains invented for myself a brighter flame4 ,and lo6 the ghost departed from me6 ,now to me1 the convalescent1 it would be suffering and pain to believe in such ghosts3 suffering it would be for me and humiliation4 ,thus spake ,i unto the back-worlds-men4 ,nietzsche's self is not ideal but material2 it is not thought1 not even the will1 but the body4 ,the following passage sounds like ,vedantism as interpreted by a materialist3 ,he who is awake and knoweth saith3 ,body ,i am throughout1 and nothing besides2 and soul is merely a word for a something in body4 ,body is one great reason1 a plurality with one sense1 a war and a peace1 a flock and a herdsman4 ,also thy little reason1 my brother1 which thou callest 'spirit'--it is a tool of thy body1 a little tool and toy of thy great reason4 ,t1 thou sayest and art proud of that word4 ,but the greater thing is--which thou wilt not believe--thy body and its great reason4 ,it doth not say ,t1 but it is the acting ',i4' ,the self ever listeneth and seeketh3 it compareth1 subdueth1 conquereth1 destroyeth4 ,it ruleth and is the ruler of the ',i' as well4 ,behind thy thoughts and feelings1 my brother1 standeth a mighty lord1 an unknown wise man--whose name is self4 ,in thy body he dwelleth1 thy body he is4 ,there is more reason in thy body than in thy best wisdom4 ,and who can know why thy body needeth thy beat wisdom8 ,thy self laugheth at thine ',i' and its prancings3 ,what are these boundings and flights of thought8 it saith unto itself4 ,a round-about way to my purpose4 ,i am the leading-string of the ,i and the suggester of its concepts4 ,the creative self created for itself valuing and despising1 it created for itself lust and woe4 ,the creative body created for itself the spirit to be the hand of its will4 ,one of the best passages in ,zarathustra's sermons is ,nietzsche's command to love the overman1 the man of the distant future3 ,i tell you1 your love of your neighbor is your bad love of yourselves4 ,ye flee from yourselves unto your neighbor and would fain make a virtue thereof2 but ,i see through your unselfishness4' ,the thou is older than the ,i2 the thou hath been proclaimed holy1 but the ,i not yet2 man thus thrusteth himself upon his neighbor4 ,do ,i counsel you to love your neighbor8 ,i rather counsel you to flee from your neighbor and to love the most remote4 ,love unto the most remote future man is higher than love unto your neighbor4 ,and ,i consider love unto things and ghosts to be higher than love unto men4 ,this ghost which marcheth before thee1 my brother1 is more beautiful than thou art4 ,why dost thou not give him thy flesh and thy bones8 ,thou art afraid and fleest unto thy neighbor4 ,unable to endure yourselves and not loving yourselves enough1 you seek to wheedle your neighbor into loving you and thus to gild you with his error4 ,my brethren1 ,i counsel you not to love your neighbor2 ,i counsel you to love those who are the most remote4 ,in perfect agreement with the ideal of the overman is ,nietzsche's view of marriage1 and verily it contains a very true and noble thought3 ,thou shalt build beyond thyself4 ,but first thou must be built thyself square in body and soul4 ,thou shalt not only propagate thyself but propagate thyself upwards6 ,therefore the garden of marriage may help thee6 ,thou shalt create a higher body1 a prime motor1 a wheel of self-rolling1--thou shalt create a creator4 ,marriage3 thus ,i call the will of two to create that one which is more than they who created it ,i call marriage reverence unto each other as unto those who will such a will4 ,let this be the significance and the truth of thy marriage4 ,but that which the much-too-many call marriage1 those superfluous--alas1 what call ,i that8 ,alas6 that soul's poverty of two6 ,alas6 that soul's dirt of two6 ,alas6 that miserable ease of two6 ,marriage they call that2 and they say marriage is made in heaven4 ,well1 ,i like it not that heaven of the superfluous6 ,nietzsche takes a ,schopenhauerian view of womankind1 excepting from the common condemnation his sister alone1 to whom he once said1 ,you are not a woman1 you are a friend4 ,he says of woman3 ,too long a slave and a tyrant have been hidden in woman4 ,therefore woman is not yet capable of friendship2 she knoweth love only4 ,nietzsche is not aware that the self changes and that it grows by the acquisition of truth4 ,he treats the self as remaining the same1 and truth as that which our will has made conceivable4 ,truth to him is a mere creature of the self4 ,here is ,zarathustra's condemnation of man's search for truth3 ',will unto truth' ye call1 ye wisest men1 what inspireth you and maketh you ardent8 ',will unto the conceivableness of all that is1'--thus ,i call your will6 ,all that is ye are going to make conceivable4 ,for with good mistrust ye doubt whether it is conceivable4 ,but it hath to submit itself and bend before yourselves6 ,thus your will willeth4 ,smooth it shall become and subject unto spirit as its mirror and reflected image4 ,that is your entire will1 ye wisest men1 as a will unto power2 even when ye speak of good and evil and of valuations4 ,ye will create the world before which to kneel down4 ,thus it is your last hope and drunkenness4 ,recognition of truth is regarded as submission3 ,to be true1--few are able to be so6 ,and he who is able doth not want to be so4 ,but least of all the good are able4 ,oh1 these good people6 ,good men never speak the truth4 ,to be good in that way is a sickness for the mind4 ,they yield1 these good men1 they submit themselves2 their heart saith what is said unto it1 their foundation obeyeth4 ,but whoever obeyeth doth not hear himself6 ,nietzsche despises science4 ,he must have had sorry experiences with scientists who offered him the dry bones of scholarship as scientific truth4 ,when ,i lay sleeping1 a sheep ate at the ivy-wreath of my head1--ate and said eating3 ',zarathustra is no longer a scholar4' ,said it and went off clumsily and proudly4 ,so a child told me4 ,this is the truth3 ,i have departed from the house of scholars1 and the door ,i have shut violently behind me4 ,too long sat my soul hungry at their table4 ,not1 as they1 am ,i trained for perceiving as for cracking nuts4 ,freedom ,i love1 and a breeze over a fresh soil4 ,and ,i would rather sleep on ox-skins then on their honors and respectabilities4 ,i am too hot and am burnt with mine own thoughts1 so as often to take my breath away4 ,then ,i must go into the open air and away from all dusty rooms4 ,like millworks they work1 and like corn-crushers4 ,let folk only throw their grain into them6 ,they know only too well how to grind corn and make white dust out of it4 ,they look well at each other's fingers and trust each other not over-much4 ,ingenious in little stratagems1 they wait for those whose knowledge walketh on lame feet2 like spiders they wait4 ,they also know how to play with false dice2 and ,i found them playing so eagerly that they perspired from it4 ,we are strangers unto each other1 and their virtues are still more contrary unto my taste than their falsehoods and false dice4 ,even if all scientists were puny sciolists1 the ideal of science would remain1 and if all the professed seekers for truth were faithless to and unworthy of their high calling1 truth itself would not be abolished4 ,so far as we can see1 ,nietzsche never became acquainted with any one of the exact sciences4 ,he was a philologist who felt greatly dissatisfied with the loose methods of his colleagues1 but he has not done much in his own specialty to attain to a greater exactness of results4 ,his essays on ,homer1 on the ,greek tragedy1 and similar subjects1 have apparently not received much recognition among philologists and historians4 ,having gathered a number of followers in his cave1 one of them1 called the conscientious man1 said to the others3 ,we seek different things1 even up here1 ye and ,i4 ,for ,i seek more security4 ,therefore have ,i come unto ,zarathustra4 ,for he is the firmest tower and will-- ,fear--that is man's hereditary and fundamental feeling4 ,by fear everything is explained1 original sin and original virtue4 ,out of fear also hath grown my virtue1 which is called ,science4 ,such long1 old fears1 at last become refined1 spiritual1 intellectual1 to-day1 methinketh1 it is called ,science4 ,this conception of science is refuted by ,nietzsche in this fashion3 ,thus spake the conscientious one4 ,but ,zarathustra1 who had just returned into his cave and had heard the last speech and guessed its sense1 threw a handful of roses at the conscientious one1 laughing at his 'truths4' ',what8' he called4 ',what did ,i hear just now8 ,verily1 methinketh1 thou art a fool1 or ,i am one myself4 ,and thy truth ,i turn upside down with one blow1 and that quickly4' ',for fear is our exception4 ,but courage and adventure1 and the joy of what is uncertain1 what hath never been dared--courage1 methinketh1 is the whole prehistoric development of man4 ',from the wildest1 most courageous beasts he hath1 by his envy and his preying1 won all their virtues4 ,only thus hath he become a man4 ',this courage1 at last become refined1 spiritual1 intellectual1 this human courage with an eagle's wings and a serpent's wisdom--it1 methinketh1 is called to-day--' ',zarathustra6' cried all who sat together there1 as from one mouth making a great laughter withal4 ,in spite of identifying the self with the body1 which is mortal1 ,nietzsche longs for the immortal4 ,he says3 ,oh6 how could ,i fail to be eager for eternity1 and for the marriage-ring of rings1 the ring of recurrence8 ,never yet have ,i found the woman by whom ,i should like to have had children1 unless it be this woman ,i love--for ,i love thee1 ,o ,eternity6 ,illustration3 ,,nietzsche',s ,,handwriting4 ,the best known of ,nietzsche's poems forms the conclusion of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 the most impressive work of ,nietzsche1 and is called by him ,the ,drunken ,song4 ,the thoughts are almost incoherent and it is difficult to say what is really meant by it4 ,nothing is more characteristic of ,nietzsche's attitude and the vagueness of his fitful mode of thought4 ,it has been illustrated by ,hans ,lindlof1 in the same spirit in which ,richard ,strauss has written a musical composition on the theme of ,nietzsche's ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra4 ,illustration3 ,,nietzsche',s ,,drunken ,,song--,,illustration ,,by ,,lindlof4 ,the ,drunken ,song reads in our translation as follows3 ,man1 listen1 pray6 ,what the deep midnight has to say3 ',i lay asleep1 ',but woke from dreams deep and distraught ,the world is deep1 ',e'en deeper than the day e'er thought4 ',deep's the world's pain1-- ',joy deeper still than heartache's burning4 ',pain says1 ,life's vain6 ',but for eternity ,joy's yearning4 ',for deep eternity ,joy's yearning6' ,prof4 ,william ,benjamin ,smith has translated this same song1 and we think it will be interesting to our readers to compare his translation with our rendering4 ,it reads as follows3 ,oh ,man6 ,give ear6 ,what saith the midnight deep and drear8 ',from sleep1 from sleep ',i woke as from a dream profound4 ',the world is deep ',and deeper than the day can sound4 ',deep is its woe1-- ',joy1 deeper still than heart's distress4 ',woe saith1 ,forego6 ',but ,joy wills everlastingness1-- ',wills deep1 deep everlastingness4' ,a ,,protest ,,against ,,himself ,nietzsche is far from regarding his philosophy as timely4 ,he was a proud and aristocratic character1 spoiled from childhood by an unfaltering admiration on the part of both his mother and sister4 ,it was unfortunate for him that his father had died before he could influence the early years of his son through wholesome discipline4 ,not enjoying a vigorous constitution ,nietzsche was greatly impressed with the thought that a general decadence was overshadowing mankind4 ,the truth was that his own bodily system was subject to many ailments which hampered his mental improvement4 ,he was hungering for health1 he envied the man of energy1 he longed for strength and vigor1 but all this was denied him1 and so these very shortcomings of his own bodily strength--his own decadence--prompted in him a yearning for bodily health1 for an unbounded exercise of energy1 and for success4 ,these were his dearest ideals1 and his desire for power was his highest ambition4 ,he saw in the history of human thought1 the development of the notion of the true world1 which to him was a mere subjective phantom1 a superstition2 but a reaction would set in1 and he prophesied that the doom of nihilism would sweep over the civilized world applying the torch to its temples1 churches and institutions4 ,upon the ruins of the old world the real man1 the overman1 would rise and establish his own empire1 an empire of unlimited power in which the herds1 i4 e41 the common people would become subservient4 ,nietzsche's philosophy forms a strange contrast to his own habits of life4 ,a model of virtue1 he made himself the advocate of vice1 and gloried in it4 ,he encouraged the robber#a to rob1 but he himself was honesty incarnate2 he incited the people to rebel against authority of all kinds1 but he himself was a model child in the nursery1 a model scholar in school1 and a model soldier while serving in the ,german army4 ,his teachers as well as the officers of his regiment fail to find words enough to praise ,nietzsche's obedience4#b ,nietzsche's professors declare that he distinguished himself durch pnktlichen ,gehorsam 7p4 #c72 his sister tells us that she and her brother were ungeheuer artig1 wahre ,musterkinder 7p4 #cf74 ,he makes a good soldier1 and1 in spite of his denunciations of posing1 displays theatrical vanity in having himself photographed with drawn sword 7the scabbard is missing74 ,his martial mustache almost anticipates the tonsorial art of the imperial barber of the present ,kaiser2 and yet his spectacled eyes and good-natured features betray the peacefulness of his intentions4 ,he plays the soldier only1 and would have found difficulty in killing even a fly4 ,nietzsche disclaims ever having learned anything in any school1 but there never was a more grateful ,german pupil in ,germany4 ,he composed fervid poems on his school--the well known institution ,schulpforta1 which on account of its severe discipline he praises1 not in irony but seriously1 as the narrow gate4#c ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche ,,as ,a ,,volunteer ,,in ,,the ,,german ,,artillery1 #ahfh4 ,nietzsche denounces the ,german character1 ,german institutions1 and the ,german language1 his mother-tongue1 and is extremely unfair in his denunciations4 ,he takes pleasure in the fact that ,deutsch 7see ,ulfila's ,bible translation7 originally means pagans or heathen1 and hopes that the dear ,german people will earn the honor of being called pagans4 7,la ,gaya ,scienza1 p4 #agf47 ,a reaction against his patriotism set in immediately after the war1 when he became acquainted with the brutality of some vulgar specimens of the victorious nation1--most of them non-combatants4#d ,nietzsche not only wrote in ,german and made the most involved constructions1 but when the war broke out he asked his adopted country ,switzerland1 in which he had acquired citizenship after accepting a position as professor of classical languages at the ,university of ,basel1 for leave of absence to join the ,german army4 ,in the ,franco-,prussian war he might have had a chance to live up to his theories of struggle1 but unfortunately the ,swiss authorities did not allow him to join the army1 and granted leave of absence only on condition that he would serve as a nurse4 ,such is the irony of fate4 ,while ,nietzsche stood up for a ruthless assertion of strength and for a suppression of sympathy which he denounced as a relic of the ethics of a negation of life1 his own tender soul was so over-sensitive that his sister feels justified in tracing his disease back to the terrible impressions he received during the war4 ,nietzsche speaks of the king as the dear father of the country4#e ,if there was a flaw in ,nietzsche's moral character1 it was goody-goodyness2 and his philosophy is a protest against the principles of his own nature4 ,while boldly calling himself the first unmoralist1 justifying even license itself and defending the coarsest lust1#f his own life might have earned him the name of sissy1 and he shrank in disgust from moral filth wherever he met with it in practical life4 ,nietzsche denounced pessimism1 and yet his philosophy was1 as he himself confesses1 the last consequence of pessimism4 ,hegel declared 7says ,nietzsche in ,morgenrthe1 p4 #h71 ,contradiction moves the world1 all things are self-contradictory2 we 7adds ,nietzsche7 carry pessimism even into logic4 ,he proposes to vivisect morality2 but 7adds he7 you cannot vivisect a thing without killing it4 ,thus his unmoralism is simply an expression of his earnestness to investigate the moral problem1 and he expresses the result in the terse sentence2 ,moral ist ,nothlge 7,menschliches1 p4 #fc47 ,he preached struggle and hatred1 and yet was so tender-hearted that in an hour of dejection he confessed to his sister with a sigh3 ,i was not at all made to hate or be an enemy4#g ,the decadence which he imputes to mankind is a mere reflection of his own state of mind1 and the strength which he praises is that quality in which he is most sorely lacking4 ,nietzsche himself had the least possible connection with active life4 ,he was unmarried1 had no children1 nor any interests beyond his ambition1 and having served as professor of the classical languages for some time at the small university of ,basel1 he was for the greater part of his life without a calling1 without duties1 without aims4 ,he never ventured to put his own theories into practice4 ,he did not even try to rise as a prophet of his own philosophy1 and remained in isolation to the very end of his life4 ,nietzsche must have felt the contradiction between his theories and his habits of life1 and it appears that he suffered under it more than can be estimated by an impartial reader of his books4 ,he was like the bird in the cage who sings of liberty1 or an apoplectic patient who dreams of deeds of valor as a knight in tournament or as a wrestler in the prize ring4 ,never was craving for power more closely united with impotence6 ,it is characteristic of him that he said1 ,if there were a ,god1 how should ,i endure not to be ,god8 and so his ambition impelled him at least to prophesy the coming of his ideal1 i4 e41 robust health1 full of bodily vigor and animal spirits1 unchecked by any rule of morality1 and an unstinted use of power4 ,nietzsche had an exaggerated conception of his vocation and he saw in himself the mouthpiece of that grandest and deepest truth1 viz41 that man should dare to be himself without any regard of morality or consideration for his fellow beings4 ,and here we have the tragic element of his life4 ,nietzsche1 the atheist1 deemed himself a ,god incarnate1 and the despiser of the ,crucified1 suffered a martyr's fate in offering his own life to the cause of his hope4 ,the earnestness with which he preached his wild and untenable doctrines appeals to us and renders his figure sympathetic1 which otherwise would be grotesque4 ,think of a man who in his megalomania preaches a doctrine that justifies an irresponsible desire for power6 ,would he not be ridiculous in his impotence to actualize his dream8 and on the other hand1 if he were strong enough to practice what he preached1 if like another ,napoleon1 he would make true his dreams of enslaving the world1 would not mankind in self-defense soon rise in rebellion and treat him as a criminal1 rendering him and his followers incapable of doing harm8 ,but ,nietzsche's personality1 weak and impotent and powerless to appear as the overman and to subjugate the world to his will1 suffered excruciating pains in his soul and tormented himself to death1 which came to him in the form of decadence--a softening of the brain4 ,poor ,nietzsche6 what a bundle of contradictions6 ,none of these contradictions are inexplicable4 ,all of them are quite natural4 ,they are the inevitable reactions against a prior enthusiasm1 and he swings1 according to the law of the pendulum1 to the opposite extreme of his former position4 ,how did ,nietzsche develop into an unmoralist8 ,simply by way of reaction against the influence of ,schopenhauer in combination with the traditional ,christianity4 ,nietzsche passed through three periods in his development4 ,he was first a follower of ,schopenhauer and an admirer of ,wagner1 but he shattered his idols and became a convert to ,auguste ,comte's positivism4 ,schopenhauer was the master at whose feet ,nietzsche sat2 from him he learned boldness of thought and atheism1 that this world is a world of misery and struggle4 ,he accepted for a time ,schopenhauer's pessimism but rebelled in his inmost soul against the ethical doctrine of the negation of the will4 ,he retained ,schopenhauer's contempt for previous philosophers 7presumably he never tried to understand them7 yet he resented the thought of a negation of life and replaced it by a most emphatic assertion4 ,he thus recognized the reactionary spirit of ,schopenhauer1 whose system is a ,christian metaphysics4 ,nietzsche denounces the ethics of a negation of the will as a disease1 and since nature in the old system is regarded as the source of moral evil the idea dawns on him that he himself1 trying to establish a philosophy of nature1 is an immoralist4 ,he now questions morality itself from the standpoint of an affirmation of the will1 and at last goes so far as to speak of ideals as a symptom of shallowness4#h ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche ,,as ,,professor ,,at ,,basle4 ,nietzsche argued that our conception of truth and our ideal world is but a phantasmagoria1 and the picture of the universe in our consciousness a distorted image of real life4 ,our pleasures and pains1 too1 are both transient and subjective4 ,accordingly it would be a gross mistake for us to exaggerate their importance4 ,what does it matter if we endure a little more or less pain1 or of what use are the pleasures in which we might indulge8 ,the realities of life consist in power1 and in our dominion over the forces that dominate life4 ,knowledge and truth are of no use unless they become subservient to this realistic desire for power4 ,they are mere means to an end which is the superiority of the overman1 the representative of ,nietzsche's philosophy by whom the mass of mankind are to be enslaved4 ,this view constitutes his third period1 in which he wrote those works that are peculiarly characteristic of his own philosophy4 ,nietzsche must not be taken too seriously4 ,he was engaged with the deepest problems of life1 and published his opinions as to their solution before he had actually attempted to investigate them4 ,he criticised and attacked like the ,irishman who hits a head wherever he sees it4 ,here are the first three rules of his philosophical warfare3 ,first3 ,i attack only those causes which are victorious1 sometimes ,i wait till they are victorious4 ,secondly3 ,i attack them only when ,i would find no allies1 when ,i stand isolated1 when ,i compromise myself alone4 ,thirdly3 ,i have never taken a step in public which did not compromise me4 ,that is my criterion of right action4 ,a man who adopts this strange criterion of right conduct must produce a strange philosophy4 ,his soul is in an uproar against itself4 ,says ,nietzsche in his ,gtzendmmerung1 ,aphorism #de3 ,almost every genius knows as one phase of his development the ',catilinary existence1' so-called1 which is a feeling of hatred1 of vengeance1 of revolution against everything that is1 which no longer needs to become 444 ,catiline--the form of ,csar's pre-existence4 ,nietzsche changed his views during his life-time1 and the unmoralist ,nietzsche originated in contradiction to his habitual moralism4 ,he was a man of extremes4 ,as soon as a new thought dawned on him1 it took possession of his soul to the exclusion of his prior views1 and his later self contradicts his former self4 ,nietzsche says3 ,the serpent that cannot slough must die4 ,in the same way1 the spirits which are prevented from changing their opinions cease to be spirits4 ,so we must expect that if ,nietzsche had been permitted to continue longer in health1 he would have cast off the slough of his immoralism and the negative conceptions of his positivism4 ,his ,zarathustra was the last work of his pen1 but it is only the most classical expression of the fermentation of his soul1 not the final purified result of his philosophy2 it is not the solution of the problem that stirred his heart4 ,while writing his ,unzeitgemsse ,betrachtungen1 ,nietzsche characterizes his method of work thus3 ,that ,i proceed with my outpourings considerably like a dilettante and in an immature manner1 ,i know very well1 but ,i am anxious first of all to get rid of the whole polemico-negative material4 ,i wish undisturbedly to sing off1 up and down and truly dastardly1 the whole gamut of my hostile feelings1 'that the vaults shall echo back4'#i ,later on1 i4 e41 within five years1 ,i shall discard all polemics and bethink myself of a really 'good work1' ,but at present my breast is oppressed with disgust and tribulation4 ,i must expectorate1 decorously and indecorously1 but radically and for good endgltig4 ,the writings of ,nietzsche will make the impression of a youthful immaturity upon any half-way serious reader4 ,there is a hankering after originality which of necessity leads to aberrations and a sovereign contempt for the merits of the past4 ,the world seems endangered1 and yet any one who would seriously try to live up to ,nietzsche's ideal must naturally sober down after a while1 and we may apply to him what ,mephistopheles says of the baccalaureus3 ,yet even from him we're not in special peril ,he will1 ere long1 to other thoughts incline4 ,the must may foam absurdly in the barrel4 ,nathless1 it turns at last to wine4 ,tr4 by ,bayard ,taylor4 ,nietzsche did not live long enough to experience a period of matured thought4 ,he died before the fermentation of his mind had come to its normal close1 and so his life will remain forever a great torso1 without intrinsic worth1 but suggestive and appealing only to the immature1 including the herd animal who would like to be an overman4 ,the very immaturity of ,nietzsche's view becomes attractive to immature minds4 ,he wrote while his thoughts were still in a state of fermentation1 and he died before the wine of his soul was clarified4 ,nietzsche is an almost tragic figure that will live in art as a brooding thinker1 a representative of the dissatisfied1 a man of an insatiable love of life1 with wild and unsteady looks1 proud in his indomitable self-assertion1 but broken in body and spirit4 ,such he was in his last disease when his mind was wrapt in the eternal night of dementia1 the oppressive consciousness of which made him exclaim in lucid moments the pitiable complaint4 ,mutter1 ich bin dumm ,as such he is represented in ,klein's statue1#aj which in its pathetic posture is a psychological masterpiece4 ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche--,,the ,,latest ,,portrait1 ,,after ,,an ,,oil ,,painting ,,by ,c4 ,,stoeving4 ,nietzsche's works are poetic effusions more than philosophical expositions and yet we would hesitate to call him a poet4 ,his poems are not poetical in the usual sense4 ,they lack poetry and yet they appeal not only to his admirers1 but also to his critics and enemies4 ,most of them are artificial yet they are so characteristic that they are interesting specimens of a peculiar kind of taste4 ,they strike us as ingenious1 because they reflect his eccentricities4 ,in a poem entitled ,ecce ,homo#aa he characterizes himself3 ,yea1 ,i know from whence ,i came6 ,never satiate1 like the flame ,glow ,i and consume me too ,into light turns what ,i find1 ,cinders do ,i leave behind1 ,flame am ,i1 'tis surely true4 #a ,e4g43 ,bitte nie6 ,lass dies ,gewimmer6 ,nimm1 ich bitte dich1 nimm immer6 #b ,compare ,das ,leben ,friedrich ,nietzsche's by his sister1 ,elisabeth ,frster-,nietzsche4 #c ,leben1 pp4 #ij-ig4 #d 7,see1 e4 g41 ,leben1 ,,ii41 #a1 pp4 #ajh-aaa47 ,nach dem ,kriege missfiel mir der ,luxus1 die ,franzosenverachtung1 etc41 p4 #ajh4 ,ich halte das jetzige ,preussen fr eine der ,cultur hchst gefhrliche ,macht4 ,nietzsche ridicules the ,german language as barbarous in sound 7,la ,gaya ,scienza1 pp4 #ach-adj71 wlderhaft1 heiser1 wie aus rucherigen ,stuben und unhflichen ,gegenden4 ,unique is the origin of the standard style of modern high ,german from the bureaucratic slang1 kanzleimssig schreiben1 das war etwas ,vornehmes 7,la ,gaya ,scienza1 p4 #ach71 and at present the ,german changes into an ,offizierdeutsch 7ibid41 p4 #aci74 ,nietzsche suspects1 the ,german depth1 die deutsche ,tiefe1 to be a mere mental dyspepsia 7see ,jenseits von ,gut und ,bse1 p4 #baa71 saying1 ,der ,deutsche verdaut seine ,ereignisse schlecht1 or wird nie damit fertig2 die deutsche ,tiefe ist oft nur eine schwere1 zgernde ,verdauung4 ,nevertheless1 he holds that the old-fashioned ,german depth is better than modern ,prussian ,schneidigkeit und ,berliner ,witz und ,sand4 ,he prefers the company of the ,swiss to that of his countrymen4 7,see also ,was den ,deutschen abgeht1 ,vol4 #h1 p4 #ajh47 #e ,unser lieber ,knig1 der ,landesvater1 etc4 ,see ,leben1 ,i41 p4 #bd1 and ,,il1 #a1 p4 #bdh1 ,unser lieber alter ,kaiser ,wilhelm1 and wir ,preussen waren wirklich stolz4 ,these expressions occur in ,nietzsche's description of the ,emperor's appearance at ,bayreuth4 #f ,e4g41 ,auch der schdlichste ,mensch ist vielleicht immer noch der allerntzlichste in ,hinsicht auf ,erhaltung der ,art1 etc4 ,la ,gaya ,scienza1 p4 #c ff4 #g ,ich bin so gar nicht zum ,hassen und zum ,feind sein gemacht6 #h ,see1 e4 g41 ,leben1 ,i41 p4 #ace1 where he speaks of a new ,freigeisterei1 denouncing the libres penseurs as unverbesserliche ,flachkpfe und ,hanswrste1 adding1 ,sie glauben allesammt noch an's ',ideal4' #i ,dass das ,gewlbe wiederhallt1--a quotation from ,goethe's ,faust4 #aj ,reproduced as the frontispiece of this book4 #aa ,ja1 ich weiss woher ich stamme6 ,ungesttigt gleich der ,flamme1 ,glhe und verzehr ich mich1 licht wird alles was ich fasse1 ,kohle alles was ich lasse3 ,flamme bin ich sicherlich6 ,,nietzsche',s ,,predecessor ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 the author of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra and the inventor of the new ideal called the overman1 is commonly regarded as the most extreme egotist1 to whom morality is non-existent and who glories in the coming of the day in which a man of his liking--the overman--would live au grand jour4 ,his philosophy is an individualism carried to its utmost extreme1 sanctioning egotism1 denouncing altruism and establishing the right of the strong to trample the weak under foot4 ,it is little known1 however1 that he followed another thinker1 ,johann ,caspar ,schmidt1 whose extreme individualism he adopted4 ,but this forerunner who preached a philosophy of the sovereignty of self and an utter disregard of our neighbors' rights remained unheeded2 he lived in obscurity1 he died in poverty1 and under the pseudonym ,max ,stirner he left behind a book entitled ,der ,einzige und sein ,eigentum4 ,the historian ,lange briefly mentioned him in his ,history of ,materialism1 and the novelist ,john ,henry ,mackay followed up the reference which led to the discovery of this lonely comet on the philosophical sky4#a ,the strangest thing about this remarkable book consists in the many coincidences with ,friedrich ,nietzsche's philosophy4 ,it is commonly deemed impossible that the famous spokesman of the overman should not have been thoroughly familiar with this failure in the philosophical book market2 but while ,stirner was forgotten the same ideas transplanted into the volumes of the author of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra found an echo first in ,germany and soon afterwards all over the world4 ,stirner's book has been ,englished by ,stephen ,t4 ,byington with an introduction by ,j4 ,l4 ,walker at the instigation of ,benjamin ,r4 ,tucker1 the representative of ,american peaceful anarchism1 under the title ,the ,ego and ,his ,own4 ,they have been helped by ,mr4 ,george ,schumm and his wife1 ,mrs4 ,emma ,heller ,schmm4 ,these five persons1 all interested in this lonely and unique thinker1 must have had much trouble in translating the ,german original and though the final rendering of the title is not inappropriate1 the translator and his advisers agree that it falls short of the mark4 ,for the accepted form ,mr4 ,b4 ,r4 ,tucker is responsible1 and he admits in the preface that it is not an exact equivalent of the ,german4 ,der ,einzige means the unique man1 a person of a definite individuality1 but in the book itself our author modifies and enriches the meaning of the term4 ,the unique man becomes the ego and an owner 7ein ,eigener71 a man who is possessed of property1 especially of his own being4 ,he is a master of his own and he prides himself on his ownhood1 as well as his ownership4 ,as such he is unique1 and the very term indicates that the thinker who proposes this view-point is an extreme individualist4 ,in ,stirner's opinion ,christianity pursued the ideal of liberty from the world2 and in this sense ,christians speak of spiritual liberty4 ,to become free from anything that oppresses us we must get rid of it1 and so the ,christian to rid himself of the world becomes a prey to the idea of a contempt of the world4 ,stirner declares that the future has a better lot in store for man4 ,man shall not merely be free1 which is a purely negative quality1 but he shall be his own master2 he shall become an owner of his own personality and whatever else he may have to control4 ,his end and aim is he himself4 ,there is no moral duty above him4 ,stirner explains in the very first sentence of his book3 ,what is not supposed to be my concern6 ,first and foremost1 the good cause1 then ,god's cause1 the cause of mankind1 of truth1 of freedom1 of humanity1 of justice2 further1 the cause of my people1 my prince1 my fatherland2 finally1 even the cause of mind1 and a thousand other causes4 ,only my cause is never to be my concern4 ',shame on the egoist who thinks only of himself6 ,stirner undertakes to refute this satirical explanation in his book on the unique man and his own1 and a ,french critic according to ,paul ,lauterbach 7p4 #e7 speaks of his book as un livre qu'on quitte monarque1 a book which one lays aside a king4 ,stirner is opposed to all traditional views4 ,he is against church and state4 ,he stands for the self-development of every individual1 and insists that the highest duty of every one is to stand up for his ownhood4 ,j4 ,l4 ,walker in his ,introduction contrasts ,stirner with ,nietzsche and gives the prize of superiority to the former1 declaring him to be a genuine anarchist not less than ,josiah ,warren1 the leader of the small band of ,new ,england anarchists4 ,he says3 ,in ,stirner we have the philosophical foundation for political liberty4 ,his interest in the practical development of egoism to the dissolution of the state and the union of free men is clear and pronounced1 and harmonizes perfectly with the economic philosophy of ,josiah ,warren4 ,allowing for difference of temperament and language1 there is a substantial agreement between ,stirner and ,proudhon4 ,each would be free1 and sees in every increase of the number of free people and their intelligence an auxiliary force against the oppressor4 ,but1 on the other hand1 will any one for a moment seriously contend that ,nietzsche and ,proudhon march together in general aim and tendency--that they have anything in common except the daring to profane the shrine and sepulcher of superstition8 ,nietzsche has been much spoken of as a disciple of ,stirner1 and1 owing to favorable cullings from ,nietzsche's writings1 it has occurred that one of his books has been supposed to contain more sense than it really does--so long as one had read only the extracts4 ,nietzsche cites scores or hundreds of authors4 ,had he read everything1 and not read ,stirner8 ,but ,nietzsche is as unlike ,stirner as a tight-rope performance is unlike an algebraic equation4 ,stirner loved liberty for himself1 and loved to see any and all men and women taking liberty1 and he had no lust of power4 ,democracy to him was sham liberty1 egoism the genuine liberty4 ,nietzsche1 on the contrary1 pours out his contempt upon democracy because it is not aristocratic4 ,he is predatory to the point of demanding that those who must succumb to feline rapacity shall be taught to submit with resignation4 ,when he speaks of 'anarchistic dogs' scouring the streets of great civilized cities1 it is true1 the context shows that he means the communists2 but his worship of ,napoleon1 his bathos of anxiety for the rise of an aristocracy that shall rule ,europe for thousands of years1 his idea of treating women in the ,oriental fashion1 show that ,nietzsche has struck out in a very old path--doing the apotheosis of tyranny4 ,we individual egoistic anarchists1 however1 may say to die ,nietzsche school1 so as not to be misunderstood3 ,we do not ask of the ,napoleons to have pity1 nor of the predatory barons to do justice4 ,they will find it convenient for their own welfare to make terms with men who have learned of ,stirner what a man can be who worships nothing1 bears allegiance to nothing4 ,to ,nietzsche's rhodomontade of eagles in baronial form1 born to prey on industrial lambs1 we rather tauntingly oppose the ironical question3 ,where are your claws8 ,what if the 'eagles' are found to be plain barnyard fowls on which more silly fowls have fastened steel spurs to hack the victims1 who1 however1 have the power to disarm the sham 'eagles' between two suns8 ,stirner shows that men make their tyrants as they make their gods1 and his purpose is to unmake tyrants4 ,nietzsche dearly loves a tyrant4 ,in style ,stirner's work offers the greatest possible contrast to the puerile1 padded phraseology of ,nietzsche's ,zarathustra and its false imagery4 ,who ever imagined such an unnatural conjuncture as an eagle 'toting' a serpent in friendship8 which performance is told of in bare words1 but nothing comes of it4 ,in ,stirner we are treated to an enlivening and earnest discussion addressed to serious minds1 and every reader feels that the word is to him1 for his instruction and benefit1 so far as he has mental independence and courage to take it and use it ,the startling intrepidity of this book is infused with a whole-hearted love for all mankind1 as evidenced by the fact that the author shows not one iota of prejudice or any idea of division of men into ranks4 ,he would lay aside government1 but would establish any regulation deemed convenient1 and for this only our convenience is consulted4 ,thus there will be general liberty only when the disposition toward tyranny is met by intelligent opposition that will no longer submit to such a rule4 ,beyond this the manly sympathy and philosophical bent of ,stirner are such that rulership appears by contrast a vanity1 an infatuation of perverted pride4 ,we know not whether we more admire our author or more love him4 ,stirner's attitude toward woman is not special4 ,she is an individual if she can be1 not handicapped by anything he says1 feels1 thinks1 or plans4 ,this was more fully exemplified in his life than even in this book2 but there is not a line in the book to put or keep woman in an inferior position to man1 neither is there anything of caste or aristocracy in the book4 ,it is not our intention to enter here into a detailed criticism of ,stirner's book4 ,we will only point out that society will practically remain the same whether we consider social arrangements as voluntary contracts or as organically developed social institutions1 or as imposed upon mankind by the divine world-order1 or even if czars and kings claim to govern by the grace of ,god4 ,whatever religious or natural sanction any government may claim to possess1 the method of keeping order will be the same everywhere4 ,wrongs have been done and in the future may still be committed in the name of right1 and injustice may again and again worst justice in the name of the law4 ,on the other hand1 however1 we can notice a progress throughout the world of a slow but steady improvement of conditions4 ,any globe-trotter will find by experience that his personal safety1 his rights and privileges are practically the same in all civilized countries1 whether they are republics like ,switzerland1 ,france and the ,united ,states1 or monarchies like ,sweden1 ,germany and ,italy4 ,at the same time murders1 robberies1 thefts and other crimes are committed all over the world1 even in the homes of those who pride themselves on being the most civilized nations4 ,the world-conception lying behind our different social theories is the same wherever the same kind of civilization prevails4 ,where social evils prevail1 dissatisfaction sets in which produces theories and reform programs1 and when they remain unheeded1 a climax is reached which leads to revolution4 ,stirner's book begins with a short exhortation headed with ,goethe's line1 ,my trust in nothingness is placed4 ,he discusses the character of human life 7,chap4 ,i7 and contrasts men of the old and the new eras 7,chap4 ,,ii74 ,he finds that the ancients idealized bodily existence while ,christianity incarnates the ideal4 ,greek artists transfigure actual life2 in ,christianity the divine takes abode in the world of flesh1 ,god becomes incarnate in man4 ,the ,greeks tried to go beyond the world and ,christianity came2 ,christian thinkers are pressed to go beyond ,god1 and there they find spirit4 ,they are led to a contempt of the world and will finally end in a contempt of spirit4 ,but ,stirner believes that the ideal and the real can never be reconciled1 and we must free ourselves from the errors of the past4 ,the truly free man is not the one who has become free1 but the one who has come into his own1 and this is the sovereign ego4 ,as ,achilles had his ,homer so ,stirner found his prophet in a ,german socialist of ,scotch ,highlander descent1 ,john ,henry ,mackay4 ,the reading public should know that ,mackay belongs to the same type of restless reformers1 and he soon became an egoistic anarchist1 a disciple of ,stirner4 ,his admiration is but a natural consequence of conditions4 ,nevertheless ,mackay's glorification of ,stirner proves that in ,stirner this onesided world-conception has found its classical1 its most consistent and its philosophically most systematic presentation4 ,whatever we may have to criticize in anarchism1 ,stirner is a man of uncommon distinction1 the leader of a party1 and the standard-bearer of a cause distinguished by the extremeness of its propositions which from the principle of individualism are carried to their consistent ends4 ,mackay undertook the difficult task of unearthing the history of a man who1 naturally modest and retired1 had nowhere left deep impressions4 ,no stone remained unturned and every clue that could reveal anything about his hero's life was followed up with unprecedented devotion4 ,he published the results of his labors in a book entitled ,max ,stirner1 ,his ,life and ,his ,work4#b ,the report is extremely touching not so much on account of the great significance of ,stirner's work which to impartial readers appears exaggerated1 but through the personal tragedy of a man who towers high above his surroundings and suffers the misery of poverty and failure4 ,mr4 ,mackay describes ,stirner as of medium height1 rather less so than more1 well proportioned1 slender1 always dressed with care though without pretension1 having the appearance of a teacher1 and wearing silver-or steel-rimmed spectacles4 ,his hair and beard were blonde with a tinge of red1 his eyes blue and clear1 but neither dreamy nor penetrating4 ,his thin lips usually wore a sarcastic smile1 which1 however1 had nothing of bitterness2 his general appearance was sympathetic4 ,no portrait of ,stirner is in existence except one pencil sketch which was made from memory in #ahib by the ,london socialist1 ,friedrich ,engels1 but the criticism is made by those who knew ,stirner that his features1 especially his chin and the top of his head1 were not so angular though nose and mouth are said to have been well portrayed1 and ,mackay claims that ,stirner never wore a coat and collar of that type4 ,illustration3 ,,pencil ,,sketch ,,of ,,max ,,stirner4 ,the only portrait in existence4 ,stirner was of purely ,frankish blood4 ,his ancestors lived for centuries in or near ,baireuth4 ,his father1 ,albert ,christian ,heinrich ,schmidt of ,anspach1 a maker of wind-instruments1 died of consumption in #ahjg at the age of #cg1 half a year after the birth of his son4 ,his mother1 ,sophie ,eleanora1 ne ,reinlein of the city of ,erlangen1 six months later married ,h4 ,f4 ,l4 ,ballerstedt1 the assistant in an apothecary shop in ,helmstedt1 and moved with him to ,kulm on the ,vistula4 ,in #ahah the boy was sent back to his native city where his childless god-father and uncle1 ,johann ,caspar ,martin ,sticht1 and his wife took care of him4 ,young ,johann ,caspar passed through school with credit1 and his schoolmates used to call him ,stirner on account of his high forehead 7,stirn7 which was the most conspicuous feature of his face4 ,this name clung to him throughout life4 ,in fact his most intimate friends never called him by any other1 his real name being almost forgotten through disuse and figuring only in official documents4 ,stirner attended the universities of ,erlangen1 ,berlin and ,knigsberg1 and finally passed his examination for admission as a teacher in gymnasial schools4 ,his stepfather died in the summer of #ahcg in ,kulm at the age of #gf4 ,it is not known what became of his mother who had been mentally unsound for some time4 ,neither father nor stepfather had ever been successful1 and if ,stirner ever received any inheritance it must have been very small4 ,on ,december #ab of #ahcg ,stirner married ,agnes ,clara ,kunigunde ,burtz1 the daughter of his landlady4 ,their married life was brief1 the young wife dying in a premature child-birth on ,august #bith4 ,we have no indication of an ardent love on either side4 ,he who wrote with passionate fire and with so much insistence in his philosophy1 was calm and peaceful1 subdued and quiet to a fault in real life4 ,having been refused appointment in one of the public or royal schools ,stirner accepted a position in a girls' school ,october #a1 #ahci4 ,during the political fermentation which preceded the revolutionary year of #ahdh1 he moved in the circle of those bold spirits who called themselves ,die ,freien and met at ,hippel's1 among whom were ,ludwig ,buhl1 ,meyen1 ,friedrich ,engels1 ,mussak1 ,c4 ,f4 ,kppen1 the author of a work on ,buddha1 ,dr4 ,arthur ,mller and the brothers ,bruno1 ,egbert and ,edgar ,bauer4 ,it was probably among their associates that ,stirner met ,marie ,dhnhardt of ,gadebusch near ,schwerin1 ,mecklenberg1 the daughter of an apothecary1 ,helmuth ,ludwig ,dhnhardt4 ,she was as different from ,stirner as a dashing emancipated woman can be from a gentle meek man1 but these contrasts were joined together in wedlock on ,october #ba1 #ahdc4 ,their happiness did not last long1 for ,marie ,dhnhardt left her husband at the end of three years4 ,the marriage ceremony of this strange couple has been described in the newspapers and it is almost the only fact of ,stirner's life that stands out boldly as a well-known incident4 ,that these descriptions contain exaggerations and distortions is not improbable1 but it cannot be denied that much contained in the reports must be true4 ,on the morning of ,october #ba1 a clergyman of extremely liberal views1 ,rev4 ,marot1 a member of the ,consistory1 was called to meet the witnesses of the ceremony at ,stirner's room4 ,bruno ,bauer1 ,buhl1 probably also ,julius ,faucher1 ,assessor ,kochius and a young ,english woman1 a friend of the bride1 were present4 ,the bride was in her week-day dress4 ,mr4 ,marot asked for a ,bible1 but none could be found4 ,according to one version the clergyman was obliged to request ,herr ,buhl to put on his coat and to have the cards removed4 ,when the rings were to be exchanged the groom discovered that he had forgotten to procure them1 and according to ,wilhelm ,jordan's recollection ,bauer pulled out his knitted purse and took off the brass rings1 offering them as a substitute during the ceremony4 ,after the wedding a dinner with cold punch was served to which ,mr4 ,marot was invited4 ,but he refused1 while the guests remained and the wedding carousal proceeded in its jolly course4 ,in order to understand how this incident was possible we must know that in those pre-revolutionary years the times were out of joint and these heroes of the rebellion wished to show their disrespect and absolute indifference to a ceremony that to them had lost all its sanctity4 ,stirner's married life was very uneventful1 except that he wrote the main book of his life and dedicated it to his wife after a year's marriage1 with the words1 ,meinem ,liebchen ,marie ,dhnhardt4 ,obviously this form which ignores the fact that they were married1 and uses a word of endearment which in this connection is rather trivial1 must be regarded as characteristic of their relation and their life principles4 ,certain it is that she understood only the negative features of her husband's ideals and had no appreciation of the genius that stirred within him4 ,lauterbach1 the editor of the ,reclam edition of ,stirner's book1 comments ironically on this dedication with the ,spanish motto ,da ,dios almendras al que no tiene muelas1 ,god gives almonds to those who have no teeth4 ,marie ,dhnhardt was a graceful blonde woman rather under-sized1 with heavy hair which surrounded her head in ringlets according to the fashion of the time4 ,she was very striking and became a favorite of the round table of the ,freien who met at ,hippel's4 ,she smoked cigars freely and sometimes donned male attire1 in order to accompany her husband and his friends on their nightly excursions4 ,it appears that ,stirner played the most passive part in these adventures1 but true to his principle of individuality we have no knowledge that he ever criticized his wife4 ,marie ,dhnhardt had lost her father early and was in possession of a small fortune of #aj1jjj thalers1 possibly more4 ,at any rate it was considered quite a sum in the circle of ,stirner's friends1 but it did not last long4 ,having written his book1 ,stirner gave up his position so as to prevent probable discharge and now they looked around for new resources4 ,though ,stirner had studied political economy he was a most unpractical man2 but seeing there was a dearth of milk-shops1 he and his wife started into business4 ,they made contracts with dairies but did not advertise their shop1 and when the milk was delivered to them they had large quantities of milk on hand but no patrons1 the result being a lamentable failure with debts4 ,in the circle of his friends ,stirner's business experience offered inexhaustible material for jokes1 while at home it led rapidly to the dissolution of his marriage4 ,frau ,schmidt complained in later years that her husband had wasted her property1 while no complaints are known from him4 ,one thing is sure that they separated4 ,she went to ,england where she established herself as a teacher under the protection of ,lady ,bunsen1 the wife of the ,prussian ambassador4 ,frau ,schmidt's later career is quite checkered4 ,she was a well-known character in the colony of ,german exiles in ,london4 ,one of her friends there was a ,lieutenant ,techow4 ,when she was again in great distress she emigrated with other ,germans1 probably in #aheb or #ahec1 to ,melbourne1 ,australia4 ,here she tasted the misery of life to the dregs4 ,she made a living as a washerwoman and is reported to have married a day laborer4 ,their bitter experiences made her resort to religion for consolation1 and in #ahgj or #ahga she became a convert to the ,catholic ,church4 ,at her sister's death she became her heir and so restored her good fortune to some extent4 ,she returned to ,london where ,mr4 ,mackay to his great joy discovered that she was still alive at the advanced age of eighty4 ,what a valuable resource her reminiscences would be for his inquiries6 ,but she refused to give any information and finally wrote him a letter which literally reads as follows3 ,mary ,smith solemnly avowes that she will have no more correspondence on the subject1 and authorizes ,mr4 -------#c to return all those writings to their owners4 ,she is ill and prepares for death4 ,the last period of ,stirner's life1 from the time when his wife left him to his death1 is as obscure as his childhood days4 ,he moved from place to place1 and since his income was very irregular creditors pressed him hard4 ,his lot was tolerable because of the simple habits of his life1 his only luxury consisting in smoking a good cigar4 ,in #ahec we find him at least twice in debtor's prison1 first #ba days1 from ,march #e to #bf1ahec1 and then #cf days1 from ,new ,year's eve until ,february #d of the next year4 ,in the meantime 7,september #g7 he moved to ,philippstrasse #ai4 ,it was ,stirner's last home4 ,he stayed with the landlady of this place1 a kind-hearted woman who treated all her boarders like a mother1 until ,june #be1 #ahef1 when he died rather suddenly as the result of the bite of a poisonous fly4 ,a few of his friends1 among them ,bruno ,bauer and ,ludwig ,buhl1 attended his funeral2 a second-class grave was procured for one thaler #aj groats1 amounting approximately to one ,american dollar4 ,during this period ,stirner undertook several literary labors from which he possibly procured some remuneration4 ,he translated the classical authors on political economy from the ,french and from the ,english1 which appeared under the title ,die ,national-,oekonomen der ,franzosen und ,englnder 7,leipsic1 ,otto ,wigand1 #ahde-ahdg74 ,he also wrote a history of the ,reaction which he explained to be a mere counter-revolution4 ,this ,geschichte der ,reaction was planned as a much more comprehensive work1 but the two volumes which appeared were only two parts of the second volume as originally intended4 ,the work is full of quotations1 partly from ,auguste ,comte1 partly from ,edmund ,burke4 ,none of these works represent anything typically original or of real significance in the history of human thought4 ,his real contribution to the world's literature remains his work ,der ,einzige und sein ,eigentum1 the title of which is rendered in ,english ,the ,ego and ,his ,own1 and this1 strange to say1 enthrones the individual man1 the ego1 every personality1 as a sovereign power that should not be subject to morality1 rules1 obligations1 or duties of any kind4 ,the appeal is made so directly that it will convince all those unscientific and half-educated minds who after having surrendered their traditional faith find themselves without any authority in either religion or politics4 ,god is to them a fable and the state an abstraction4 ,ideas and ideals1 such as truth1 goodness1 beauty1 are mere phrases4 ,what then remains but the concrete bodily personality of every man of which every one is the ultimate standard of right and wrong8 #a ,see also ,r4 ,schellwien1 ,max ,stirner und ,friedrich ,nietzsche2 ,v4 ,basch1 ,l'individualisme anarchiste1 ,max ,stirner1 #aijd4 #b ,max ,stirner1 sein ,leben und sein ,werk4 ,berlin1 #ahih4 #c ,the name of the gentleman she mentions is replaced by a dash at his express wish in the facsimile of her letter reproduced in ,mr4 ,mackay's book 7p4 #bee74 ,,ego-,,sovereignty ,strange that neither of these philosophers of individuality1 ,nietzsche or ,stirner1 ever took the trouble to investigate what an individual is6 ,stirner halts before this most momentous question of his world-conception1 and so he overlooks that his ego1 his own individuality1 this supreme sovereign standing beyond right and wrong1 the ultimate authority of everything1 is a hazy1 fluctuating1 uncertain thing which differs from day to day and ,anally disappears4 ,the individuality of any man is the product of communal life4 ,no one of us could exist as a rational personality were he not a member of a social group from which he has imbibed his ideas as well as his language4 ,every word is a product of his intercourse with his fellow-beings4 ,his entire existence consists in his relations toward others and finds expression in his attitude toward social institutions4 ,we may criticize existent institutions but we can never do without any4 ,a denial of either their existence or their significance proves an utter lack of insight into the nature of personality4 ,we insert here a few characteristic sentences of ,stirner's views1 and in order to be fair we follow the condensation of ,john ,henry ,mackay 7pp4 #ace-aib7 than whom certainly we could find no more sympathetic or intelligent student of this individualistic philosophy4 ,here are ,stirner's arguments3 ,the ancients arrived at the conclusion that man was spirit4 ,they created a world of spirit1 and in this world of spirit ,christianity begins4 ,but what is spirit8 ,spirit has originated from nothing4 ,it is its own creation and man makes it the center of the world4 ,the injunction was given1 ,thou shalt not live to thyself but to thy spirit1 to thy ideas4 ,spirit is the ,god1 the ego and the spirit are in constant conflict4 ,spirit dwells beyond the earth4 ,it is in vain to force the divine into service here for ,i am neither ,god nor man1 neither the highest being nor my being4 ,the spirit is like a ghost whom no one has seen1 but of whom there are innumerable creditable witnesses1 such as grandmother can give account of4 ,the whole world that surrounds thee is filled with spooks of thy imagination4 ,the holiness of truth which hallows thee is a strange element4 ,it is not thine own and strangeness is a characteristic of holiness4 ,the specter is truly only in thine ownhood44444 ,right is a spleen conferred by a spook2 might1 that is myself4 ,i am the mighty one and the owner of might4444 ,right is the royal will of society4 ,every right which exists is created right4 ,i am expected to honor it where ,i find it and subject myself to it4 ,but what to me is the right of society1 the right of all8 ,what do ,i care for equality of right1 for the struggle for right1 for inalienable rights8 ,right becomes word in law4 ,the dominant will is the preserver of the states4 ,my own will shall upset them4 ,every state is a despotism4 ,all right and all power is claimed to belong to the community of the people4 ,i1 however1 shall not allow myself to be bound by it1 for ,i recognize no duty even though the state may call crime in me what it considers right for itself4 ,my relation to the state is not the relation of one ego to another ego4 ,it is the relation of the sinner to the saint1 but the saint is a mere fixed idea from which crimes originate 7,mackay1 pages #aed-e74 ,it will sometimes be difficult to translate ,stirner's declarations in their true meaning2 for instance3 ,i am the owner of mankind1 ,i am mankind and shall do nothing for the benefit of another mankind4 ,the property of mankind is mine4 ,i do not respect the property of mankind4 ,poverty originates when ,i can not utilize my own self as ,i want to4 ,it is the state which hinders men from entering into a direct relation with others4 ,on the mercy of right my private property depends4 ,only within prescribed limits am ,i allowed to compete4 ,only the medium of exchange1 the money which the state makes1 am ,i allowed to use4 ,the forms of the state may change1 the purpose of the state always remains the same4 ,my property1 however1 is what ,i empower myself to4 ,let violence decide1 ,i expect all from my own4 ,you shall not lure me with love1 nor catch me with the promise of communion of possessions1 but the question of property will be solved only through a war of all against all1 and what a slave will do as soon as he has broken his fetters we shall have to see4 ,i know no law of love4 ,as every one of my sentiments is my property1 so also is love4 ,i give it1 ,i donate it1 ,i squander it merely because it makes me happy4 ,earn it if you believe you have a right to it4 ,the measure of my sentiments can not be prescribed to me1 nor the aim of my feelings determined4 ,we and the world have only one relation toward each other1 that of usefulness4 ,yea1 ,i use the world and men4 7,pp4 #aef-aeg47 ,as to promises made and confidence solicited ,stirner would not allow a limitation of freedom4 ,he says3 ,in itself an oath is no more sacred than a lie is contemptible4 ,stirner opposes the idea of communism4 ,the community of man creates laws for society4 ,communism is a communion in equality4 ,says ,stirner1 ,i prefer to depend on the egotism of men rather than on their compassion4 ,he feels himself swelled into a temporary1 transient1 puny deity4 ,no man expresses him rightly1 no concept defines him2 he1 the ego1 is perfect4 ,stirner concludes his book3 ,owner ,i am of my own power and ,i am such only when ,i know myself as the only one4 ,in the only one even the owner returns into his creative nothingness from which he was born4 ,any higher being above1 be it ,god or man1 detracts from the feeling of my uniqueness and it pales before the sun of this consciousness4 ,if ,i place my trust in myself1 the only one1 it will stand upon a transient mortal creator of himself1 who feeds upon himself1 and ,i can say1 ,ich hab mein ,sach' auf nichts gestellt4 ,my trust in nothingness is placed4' ,we call attention to ,stirner's book1 ,the ,only ,one and ,his ,ownhood1 not because we are strongly impressed by the profundity of his thought but because we believe that here is a man who ought to be answered1 whose world-conception deserves a careful analysis which finally would lead to a justification of society1 the state and the ideals of right and truth4 ,society is not1 as ,stirner imagines1 an artificial product of men who band themselves together in order to produce a state for the benefit of a clique4 ,society and state1 as well as their foundation the family1 are of a natural growth4 ,all the several social institutions 7kind of spiritual organisms7 are as much organisms as are plants and animals4 ,the co-operation of the state with religious1 legal1 civic and other institutions1 are as much realities as are individuals1 and any one who would undertake to struggle against them or treat them as nonentities will be implicated in innumerable struggles4 ,stirner is the philosopher of individualism4 ,to him the individual1 this complicated and fluctuant being1 is a reality1 indeed the only true reality1 while other combinations1 institutions and social units are deemed to be mere nonentities4 ,if from this standpoint the individualism of ,stirner were revised1 the student would come to radically different conclusions1 and these conclusions would show that not without good reasons has the individual developed as a by-product of society1 and all the possessions1 intellectual as well as material1 which exist are held by individuals only through the assistance and with the permission of the whole society or its dominant factors4 ,both socialism and its opposite1 individualism1 which is ultimately the same as anarchism1 are extremes that are based upon an erroneous interpretation of communal life4 ,socialists make society1 and anarchists the individual their ultimate principle of human existence4 ,neither socialism nor anarchism are principles2 both are factors1 and both factors are needed for preserving the health of society as well as comprehending the nature of mankind4 ,by neglecting either of these factors1 we can only be led astray and arrive at wrong conclusions4 ,poor ,stirner wanted to exalt the ego1 the sovereign individual1 not only to the exclusion of a transcendent ,god and of the state or any other power1 divine or social1 but even to the exclusion of his own ideals1 be it truth or anything spiritual2 and yet he himself sacrificed his life for a propaganda of the ego as a unique and sovereign being4 ,he died in misery and the recognition of his labors has slowly1 very slowly1 followed after his death4 ,yea1 even after his death a rival individualist1 ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 stole his thunder and reaped the fame which ,stirner had earned4 ,certainly this noble-minded1 modest1 altruistic egotist was paid in his own coin4 ,did ,stirner live up to his principle of ego sovereignty8 ,in one sense he did2 he recognized the right of every one to be himself1 even when others infringed upon his own well-being4 ,his wife fell out with him but he respected her sovereignty and justified her irregularities4 ,apparently he said to himself1 ,she has as much right to her own personality as ,i have to mine4 ,but in another sense1 so far as he himself was concerned1 he did not4 ,what became of his own rights1 his ownhood1 and the sweeping claim that the world was his property1 that he was entitled to use or misuse the world and all mankind as he saw fit2 that no other human being could expect recognition1 nay not even on the basis of contracts1 or promises1 or for the sake of love1 or humaneness and compassion8 ,did ,stirner in his poverty ever act on the principle that he was the owner of the world1 that there was no tie of morality binding on him1 no principle which he had to respect8 ,nothing of the kind4 ,he lived and died in peace with all the world1 and the belief in the great ego sovereignty with its bold renunciation of all morality was a mere ,platonic idea1 a tame theory which had not the slightest influence upon his practical life4 ,men of ,stirner's type do not fare well in a world where the ego has come into its own4 ,they will be trampled under foot1 they will be bruised and starved1 and they will die by the wayside4 ,no1 men of ,stirner's type had better live in the protective shadow of a state2 the worst and most despotic state will be better than none1 for no state means mob rule or the tyranny of the bulldozer1 the ruffian1 the brutal and unprincipled self-seeker4 ,here ,friedrich ,nietzsche comes in4 ,like ,stirner1 ,nietzsche was a peaceful man2 but unlike ,stirner1 ,nietzsche had a hankering for power4 ,being pathological himself1 without energy1 without strength and without a healthy appetite and a good stomach1 ,nietzsche longed to play the part of a bulldozer among a herd of submissive human creatures whom he would control and command4 ,this is ,nietzsche's ideal1 and he calls it the overman4 ,here ,nietzsche modified and added his own notion to ,stirner's philosophy4 ,individualistic philosophies are therefore based on an obvious error by misunderstanding the nature of the individual man1 by forgetting the reality of society and its continued significance for the individual life4 ,a careful investigation of the nature of the state as well as of our personality would have taught ,stirner that both the state and the individual are realities4 ,the state and society exist as much as the individuals of which they are composed1#a and no individual can ignore in his maxims of life the rules of conduct1 the moral principles1 or whatever you may call that something which constitutes the conditions of his existence1 of his physical and social surroundings4 ,the dignity and divinity of personality does not exclude the significance of super-personalities2 indeed1 the two1 super personal presences with their moral obligations and concrete human persons with their rights and duties1 co-operate with each other and produce thereby all the higher values of life4 ,stirner is onesided but1 within the field of his onesided view1 consistent4 ,nietzsche spurns consistency but accepts the field of notions created by ,stirner1 and1 glorying in the same extreme individualism1 proclaims the gospel of that individual who on the basis of ,stirner's philosophy would make the best of a disorganized state of society1 who by taking upon himself the functions of the state would utilize the advantages thus gained for the suppression of his fellow beings2 and this kind of individual is dignified with the title overman4 ,nietzsche has been blamed for appropriating ,stirner's thoughts and twisting them out of shape from the self-assertion of every ego consciousness into the autocracy of the unprincipled man of power2 but we must concede that the common rules of literary ethics can not apply to individualists who deny all and any moral authority4 ,why should ,nietzsche give credit to the author from whom he drew his inspiration if neither acknowledges any rule which he feels obliged to observe8 ,nietzsche uses ,stirner as ,stirner declares that it is the good right of every ego to use his fellows1 and ,nietzsche shows us what the result would be--the rise of a political boss1 a brute in human shape1 the overman4 ,nietzsche is a poet1 not a philosopher1 not even a thinker1 but as a poet he exercises a peculiar fascination upon many people who would never think of agreeing with him4 ,most admirers of ,nietzsche belong to the class which ,nietzsche calls the herd animals1 people who have no chance of ever asserting themselves1 and become hungry for power as a sick man longs for health4 ,individualism and anarchism continue to denounce the state1 when they ought to reform it and improve its institutions4 ,in the meantime the world wags on4 ,the state exists1 society exists1 and innumerable social institutions exist4 ,the individual grows under the influence of other individuals1 his ideas--mere spooks of his brain--yet the factors of his life1 right or wrong1 guide him and determine his fate4 ,there are as rare exceptions a few lawless societies in the wild ,west where a few outlaws meet by chance1 revolver in hand1 but even among them the state of anarchy does not last long1 for by habit and precedent certain rules are established1 and wherever man meets man1 wherever they offer and accept one another's help1 they co-operate or compete1 they join hands or fight1 they make contracts1 form alliances1 and establish rules1 the result of which is society1 the state1 with all the institutions of the state1 the administration1 the legislature1 the judiciary1 with all the intricate machinery that regulates the interrelations of man to man4 ,the truth is that man develops into a rational1 human and humane being through society by his intercourse with other men4 ,man is not really an individual in the sense of ,stirner and ,nietzsche1 a being by himself and for himself1 having no obligations to his fellows4 ,man is a part of the society through which he originated and to which he belongs and to overlook1 to neglect and to ignore his relations to society1 not to recognize definite obligations or rules of conduct which we formulate as duties is the grossest mistake philosophers can make1 and this becomes obvious if we consider the nature of man as a social being as ,aristotle has defined it4 #a ,see the author's ,the ,nature of the ,state1 #ahid1 and ,personality1 #aiaa4 ,,another ,,nietzsche ,the assertion of selfhood and the hankering after originality make ,nietzsche the exponent of the absolute uniqueness of everything particular1 and he goes to the extreme of denying all kinds of universality--even that of formal laws 7the so-called uniformities of nature71 reason1 and especially its application in the field of practical life1 morality4 ,his ideal is ,be thyself6 ,be unique6 ,be original6 ,properly speaking1 we should not use the term ideal when speaking of ,nietzsche's maxims of life1 for the conception of an ideal is based upon a recognition of some kind of universality1 and ,nietzsche actually sneers at any one having ideals4 ,the adherents of ,nietzsche speak of their master as der ,einzige1 i4 e41 the unique one1 and yet 7in spite of the truth that every thing particular is in its way unique7 the uniformities of nature are so real and unfailing that ,nietzsche is simply the representative of a type which according to the laws of history and mental evolution naturally and inevitably appears whenever the philosophy of nominalism reaches its climax4 ,he would therefore not be unique even if he were the only one that aspires after a unique selfhood2 but the fact is that there are a number of ,nietzsches1 he happening to be the best known of his type4 ,other advocates of selfhood1 of course1 will be different from ,nietzsche in many unimportant details1 but they will be alike in all points that are essential and characteristic4 ,one of these ,nietzsches is ,george ,moore1 a ,britain who is scarcely familiar with the writings of his ,german double1 but a few quotations from his book1 ,confessions of a ,young ,man1 will show that he can utter thoughts which might have been written by ,friedrich ,nietzsche himself4 ,george ,moore says3 ,i was not dissipated1 but ,i loved the abnormal 7p4 #ah74 ,i was a model young man indeed 7p4 #bj74 ,i boasted of dissipations 7p4 #ai74 ,i say again1 let general principles be waived2 it will suffice for the interest of these pages if it be understood that brain-instincts have always been1 and still are1 the initial and the determining powers of my being 7p4 #dg74 ,george ,moore1 like ,nietzsche1 is one of ,schopenhauer's disciples who has become sick of pessimism4 ,he says3 ,that odious pessimism6 ,how sick ,i am of it 7p4 #caj74 ,when ,george ,moore speaks of ,god he thinks of him in the old-fashioned way as a big self1 an individual and particular being4 ,hence he denies him4 ,god is as dead as any pagan deity4 ,george ,moore says3 ,to talk to us1 the legitimate children of the nineteenth century1 of logical proofs of the existence of ,god1 strikes us in just the same light as the logical proof of the existence of ,jupiter ,ammon 7p4 #acg74 ,george ,moore is coarse in comparison with ,nietzsche4 ,nietzsche is no cynic2 he is pure-hearted and noble by nature4 ,moore is voluptuous and vulgar4 ,both are avowed immoralists1 and if the principle of an unrestrained egotism be right1 ,george ,moore is as good as ,nietzsche1 and any criminal given to the most abominable vices would not be worse than either4 ,nietzsche feels the decadence of the age and longs for health2 but he attributes the cause of his own decadence to the ,christian ideals of virtue1 love1 and sympathy with others4 ,george ,moore cherishes the same views2 he says3 ,we are now in a period of decadence1 growing steadily more and more acute 7p4 #bci74 ,respectability 444 continues to exercise a meretricious and enervating influence on literature 7p4 #bdj74 ,pity1 that most vile of all vile virtues1 has never been known to me4 ,the great pagan world ,i love knew it not 7p4 #bjj74 ,the philanthropist is the ,nero of modern times 7p4 #ahe74 ,both ,nietzsche and ,moore long for limitless freedom2 but ,moore seems more consistent1 for he lacks the ideal of the overman and extends freedom to the sex relation1 saying3 ,marriage--what an abomination6 ,love--yes1 but not marriage444freedom limitless 7p4 #afh-afi74 ,moore loves art1 but his view of art is cynical1 and here too he is unlike ,nietzsche2 he says3 ,art is not nature4 ,art is nature digested4 ,art is a sublime excrement 7p4 #agh74 ,both believe in the coming of a great social deluge4 ,george ,moore says3 ,the ,french revolution will compare with the revolution that is to come1 that must come1 that is inevitable1 as a puddle on the road-side compares with the sea4 ,men will hang like pears on every lamp-post1 in every great quarter of ,london1 there will be an electric guillotine that will decapitate the rich like hogs in ,chicago 7p4 #cdc74 ,ideals are regarded as superstitions1 and belief in ideas is deemed hypocritical4 ,george ,moore says3 ,in my heart of hearts ,i think myself a cut above you1 because ,i do not believe in leaving the world better than ,i found it2 and you1 exquisitely hypocritical reader1 think that you are a cut above me because you say you would leave the world better than you found it 7p4 #ced74 ,the deeds of a man1 his thoughts and aspirations1 which constitute his spiritual self1 count for nothing2 the body alone is supposed to be real1 and thus after death a pig is deemed more useful than a ,socrates4 ,continues ,moore3 ,the pig that is being slaughtered as ,i write this line will leave the world better than it found it1 but you will leave only a putrid carcass fit for nothing but the grave 7p4 #cec74 ,wrong is idealized3 ,injustice we worship2 all that lifts us out of the miseries of life is the sublime fruit of injustice4 ,man would not be man but for injustice 7p4 #bjc74 ,again ,i say that all we deem sublime in the world's history are acts of injustice2 and it is certain that if mankind does not relinquish at once and for ever1 its vain1 mad1 and frantic dream of justice1 the world will lapse into barbarism 7p4 #bje74 ,george ,moore gives a moment's thought to the ideal of a new art1 based upon science1 in opposition to the art of the old world that was based on imagination1 an art that should explain all things and embrace modern life in its entirety1 in its endless ramifications1 be it1 as it were1 a new creed in a new civilization 444 that would continue to a more glorious and legitimate conclusion the work that the prophets have begun2 but he turns his back upon it4 ,it would be after all a product of development2 it would be the tyranny of a past age1 and he says1 as well drink the dregs of yesterday's champagne 7p4 #abh74 ,,nietzsche',s ,,disciples ,it is said that barking dogs do not bite1 and this being true1 we must look upon ,nietzsche's philosophy as a harmless display of words and a burning desire for power without making any attempt to practice what he preached4 ,his philosophy1 so far as he is concerned1 is a purely ,platonic love of an unattainable star whose brilliance dazzled the imagination of a childlike peaceful weakling4 ,suppose1 however1 for argument's sake1 that ,nietzsche had been a man of robust health1 and that he had been born at the time of great disturbances1 offering unlimited chances to an unscrupulous ambition1 would he under these circumstances have led the life he preached1 and in case he had done so1 would he have boldly and unreservedly admitted his principles while carrying out his plans8 ,did ever ,csar or ,napoleon or any usurper1 such as ,richard ,,iii1 who unscrupulously aspired for power1 own that he would shrink from nothing to attain his aim8 ,such a straightforward policy for any schemer would be the surest way of missing his aim4 ,such men1 on the contrary1 have played hypocrites1 and have pretended to cherish ideals generally approved by the large masses of the people whom ,nietzsche calls the herd4 ,so it is obvious that the philosophy of ,nietzsche if it were ever practically applied1 would have become a secret doctrine known only to the initiated few1 while the broad masses would be misguided by some demonstrative show of moral principles that might be pleasing to the multitudes and yet at the same time conceal the real tendency of the overman to gain possession of his superior position4 ,nietzsche's influence upon professional philosophers is comparatively weak4 ,whenever mentioned by them1 it is in criticism1 and he is generally set aside as onesided1 and perhaps justly1 because he was truly no philosopher in the strict sense of the word4 ,he was no reasoner1 no logician1 and we can not1 properly speaking1 look upon his philosophy as a system or even a systematized view of the world4 ,nietzsche made himself the exponent of a tendency1 and as such he has his followers among large masses of those very people whom he despised as belonging to the herds4 ,as ,nietzsche idealized this very quality in which he was lacking1 so his followers recruit themselves from the ranks of those people who more than all others would be opposed to the rule of the overman4 ,his most ardent followers are among the nihilists of ,russia1 the socialists and anarchists of all civilized countries4 ,the secret reason of attraction1 perhaps unknown to themselves1 seems to be ,nietzsche's defense of the blind impulse and the privilege which he claims for the overman to be himself in spite of law and order and morality1 and also his contempt for rules1 religious1 philosophical1 ethical or even logical1 that would restrict the great sovereign passion for power4 ,nietzsche's philosophy has taken a firm hold of a number of souls who rebel against the social1 the political1 the religious1 and even the scientific1 conditions of our civilization4 ,nietzsche is the philosopher of protest1 and1 strange to say1 while he himself is aristocratic in his instincts1 he appeals most powerfully to the masses of the people4 ,nietzsche's disciples are not among the aristocrats1 not among the scholars1 not among the men of genius4 ,his followers are among the people who believe in hatred and hail him as a prophet of the great deluge4 ,his greatest admirers are anarchists1 sometimes also socialists1 and above all those geniuses who have failed to find recognition4 ,nietzsche's thought will prove veritable dynamite if it should happen to reach the masses of mankind1 the disinherited1 the uneducated1 the proletariat1 the ,catilinary existences4 ,nietzsche's philosophy is an intoxicant to those whom he despised most2 they see in him their liberator1 and rejoice in his invectives4 ,invectives naturally appeal to those who are as unthinking as the brutes of the field1 but feel the sufferings of existence as much as do the beasts of burden4 ,they are impervious to argument1 but being full of bitterness and envy they can be led most easily by any kind of denunciations of their betters4 ,nietzsche hated the masses1 the crowd of the common people1 the herd4 ,he despised the lowly and had a contempt for the ideals of democracy4 ,nevertheless1 his style of thought is such as to resemble the rant of the leaders of mobs1 and it is quite probable that in the course of time he will become the philosopher of demagogues4 ,a great number of ,nietzsche's disciples share their master's eccentricities and especially his impetuosity4 ,having a contempt for philosophy as the work of the intellect1 they move mainly in the field of political and social self-assertion2 they are anarchists who believe that the overman is coming in labor troubles1 strikes1 and through a subversion of the authority of government in any form4 ,the best known ,german expounders of ,nietzsche's philosophy have been ,rudolph ,steiner and ,alexander ,tille4#a ,professor ,henri ,lichtenberger of the ,university of ,nancy was his interpreter in ,france1#b and the former editor of ,the ,eagle and the ,serpent1 known under the pseudonym of ,erwin ,mc,call1 in ,england4 ,this periodical1 which flourished for a short time only1 characterized its own tendency as follows3 ,the ,eagle and the ,serpent is a bi-monthly journal of egoistic philosophy and sociology which teaches that in social science altruism spells damnation and egoism spells salvation4 ,in the war against their exploiters the exploited cannot hope to succeed till they act as a unit1 an 'ego4' ,a reader of ,the ,eagle and the ,serpent humorously criticised the egoistic philosophy as follows3 ,dear ,eagle and ,serpent4--,i am one of those unreasonable persons who see no irreconcilable conflict between egoism and altruism4 ,the altruism of ,tolstoy is the shortest road to the egoism of ,whitman4 ,the unbounded love and compassion of ,jesus made him conscious of being the son of ,god1 and that he and the ,father were one4 ,could egoism go further than this8 ,i believe that true egoism and true altruism grow in precisely equal degree in the soul1 and that the alleged qualities which bear either name and attempt to masquerade alone without their respective make-weights are shams and counterfeits4 ,the real desideratum is balance1 and that cannot be permanently preserved on one leg4 ,however1 you skate surprisingly well for the time being on one foot1 and ,i have enjoyed the first performance so well that ,i enclose #fj cents for a season-ticket--,,ernest ,h4 ,,crosby4 ,rhinebeck1 ,n4 ,y41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,a ,german periodical ,der ,eigene1 i4 e41 he who is his own1 announced itself as a journal for all and nobody1 and sounded the slogan of the egoists1 by calling on them to preserve their ownhood4 ,another anarchistic periodical that stood under the influence of ,nietzsche appeared in ,budapest1#c ,hungary1 in ,german and ,hungarian under the name ,ohne ,staat1 7,without ,government7 as the organ of ideal anarchists1 under the editorship of ,karl ,krausz4 ,perhaps the most worthy exponent of ,nietzsche in ,england to-day is his translator ,thomas ,common4 ,he does not consider himself an orthodox ,nietzsche apostle but thinks that ,nietzsche has given the world a very important revelation and that his new philosophy of history and his explanation of the role of ,christianity are among the most wonderful discoveries since ,darwin4 ,at the same time ,mr4 ,common pronounces ,nietzsche's doctrine of eternal recurrence very foolish and believes his use of the terms good and evil so perverted that he was frequently confused about them and so misled superficial readers4 ,mr4 ,common published at regular intervals during the years #aijc to #aiji ten numbers of a small periodical entitled variously ,notes for ,good ,europeans and ,the ,good ,european ,point of ,view1 and expects to resume its publication soon4 ,its motto is from ,nietzsche1 ,in a word--and it shall be an honorable word--we are ,good ,europeans 444 the heirs of thousands of years of the ,european spirit4 ,its purpose is expressed in its first number as follows3 ,our general purpose is to spread the best and most important knowledge relating to human well-being among those who are worthy to receive it1 with a view to reducing the knowledge to practice1 after some degree of unanimity has been attained4444 ,as ,nietzsche's works1 notwithstanding some limitations1 exaggerations and minor errors1 embody the foremost philosophical thought of the age1 it will be one of our special objects to introduce these works to ,english readers4 ,these numbers contain many bibliographical and other notes of interest to friends or critics of the ,nietzsche propaganda4 ,mr4 ,common has published selections from ,nietzsche's works under the title1 ,nietzsche as ,critic1 ,philosopher1 ,poet and ,prophet4#d ,in ,america ,nietzsche's philosophy is represented by a book of ,ragnar ,redbeard1 entitled ,might is ,right1 the ,survival of the ,fittest4#e ,the author characterizes his work as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,bust ,,of ,,nietzsche1 ,,by ,,klinger4 ,this book is a reasoned negation of the ,ten ,commandments--the ,golden ,rule--the ,sermon on the ,mount--,republican ,principles--,christian ,principles--and ,principles' in general4 ,it proclaims upon scientific evolutionary grounds1 the unlimited absolutism of ,might1 and asserts that cut-and-dried moral codes are crude and immoral inventions1 promotive of vice and vassalage4 ,the author is a most ardent admirer of ,nietzsche1 as may be learned from his verses made after the pattern of ,nietzsche's poetry4 ,he sings3 ,there is no 'law' in heaven or earth that man must needs obey6 ,take what you can1 and all you can2 and take it while you--may4 ,let not the ,jew-born ,christ ideal unnerve you in the fight4 ,you have no 'rights1' except the rights you win by--might4 ,there is no justice1 right1 nor wrong2 no truth1 no good1 no evil4 ,there is no 'man's immortal soul1' no fiery1 fearsome ,devil4 ,there is no 'heaven of glory3' ,no6--no 'hell where sinners roast' ,there is no ',god the ,father1' ,no6--no ,son1 no ',holy ,ghost4' ,this world is no ,nirvna where joy forever flows4 ,it is a grewsome butcher shop where dead 'lambs' hang in--rows4 ,man is the most ferocious of all the beasts of prey4 ,he rangeth round the mountains1 to love1 and feast1 and--slay4 ,he sails the stormy oceans1 he gallops o'er the plains1 and sucks the very marrow-bones of captives held in--chains4 ,death endeth all for every man1--for every 'son of thunder'2 then be a lion 7not a 'lamb'7 and--don't be trampled under4 ,a valuable recent addition to the discussion of egoism is ,the ,philosophy of ,egoism by ,james ,l4 ,walker1 7,denver1 #aije74 ,we know of no ,american periodical which stands for ,nietzsche's views1 except1 perhaps1 ,the ,lion's ,paw 7,chicago7 which claims to follow no one4 ,in the last years of the nineteenth century ,clarence ,l4 ,swartz published at ,wellesley1 ,mass41 an egoistic periodical called the ,i4 ,this magazine is no longer in existence1 but ,mr4 ,swartz is very active in the ,international ,intelligence ,institute whose aims are universal language1 universal nationality and universal peace4 ,he still maintains the same philosophical view which he held as editor of the ,i1 but his philosophical egoism has led him in far different paths from those of ,nietzsche--into the paths of peace and not of struggle4 ,he expresses his present conception as follows3 ,in the last analysis there is no right but might4 ,such is the common ordinary rule of every-day life1 from which there is no escape1 even were escape desirable4 ,any attempt to overthrow or circumvent or even dispute the exercise of this prerogative of the mighty is but to assert or oppose a greater might4 ,expediency always dictates how might should be exercised4 ,politically1 ,i hold that the non-coercion of the non-invasive individual is the part of wisdom4 ,the individual is supreme1 and should be preserved as against society1 for in no other way can evolution perform its perfect work4 ,the ,free ,comrade edited by ,j4 ,wm4 ,lloyd and ,leonard ,abbott1 an avowedly socialistic and individualistic paper1 originally under the sole editorship of ,lloyd1 stood for ,nietzsche and his egoism1 but can no longer be said to do so4 #a ,a4 ,tille1 ,von ,darwin bis ,nietzsche4 ,r4 ,steiner1 ,wahrheit und ,wissenschaft2 ,die ,philosophie der ,freiheit2 and ,f4 ,nietzsche1 ein ,kmpfer gegen seine ,zeit4 ,we have already mentioned the biography of ,nietzsche published by the philosopher's sister1 ,frau ,e4 ,frster-,nietzsche4 ,a characterization1 disavowed by ,nietzsche's admirers1 was written by ,frau ,lou ,andreas ,salome1 under the title ,f4 ,nietzsche in seinen ,werken4 ,other works kindred in spirit are ,schellwien's ,der ,geist der neueren ,philosophie1 #ahie1 and ,der ,darwinismus1 #ahif2 also ,adolf ,gerecke1 ,die ,aussichtslosigkeit des ,moralismus2 ,schmitt1 ,an der ,grenzscheide zweier ,weltalter2 ,kroly ,krausz1 ,nietzsche und seine ,weltanschauung4 #b ,henri ,lichtenberger1 ,la ,philosophie de ,nietzsche4 ,paris1 ,alcan1 #ahih #c ,we may mention incidentally that a contributor to ,ohne ,staat reproduced one of the ,homilies of ,st ,chrysostom1 in which he harangues after the fashion of the early ,christian preachers against wealth and power4 ,the state's attorney1 not versed in ,christian patristic literature1 seized the issue and placed the man who quoted the old ,byzantine saint behind the prison bars4 ,in the issue of ,nov41 #ahih1 ,dr4 ,eugen ,heinrich ,schmitt mentions the case and says3 ,thus we have an exact and historical proof that the liberty of speech and thought was incomparably greater in miserable1 servile ,byzantium than it is now in the much more miserable and more servile despotism of modern ,europe4 ,does not ,dr4 ,schmitt overlook the fact that in the days of ,byzantine ,christianity the saints were protected by the mob1 which was much feared by the imperial government and was kept at bay only by a nominal recognition of its claims and beliefs8 #d ,other recent ,english ,nietzschean literature is as follows3 ,grace ,neal ,dolson1 ,the ,philosophy of ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 #aija2 ,oscar ,levy1 ,the ,revival of ,aristocracy1 #aijf2 ,a4 ,r4 ,orage1 ,fried4 ,nietzsche1 the ,dionysion ,spirit of the ,age1 #aijf2 ,a4 ,r4 ,orage1 ,nietzsche in ,outline and ,alphorism2 ,henry ,l4 ,mencken1 ,the ,philosophy of ,friedrich ,nietzsche2 ,m4 ,a4 ,mgge1 ,friedrich ,nietzsche3 ,his ,life and ,work2 ,anthony ,m4 ,ludovici1 ,who ,is to ,be ,master of the ,world8 #e ,published by ,adolph ,mueller1 ,chicago4 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,valuation ,it may be interesting in this connection to mention the case of an ,american equivalent to ,nietzsche's philosophy1 which so far as ,i know has never yet seen publicity4 ,some time ago the writer of this little book became acquainted with a journalist who has worked out for his own satisfaction a new system of philosophy which he calls ,christian economics1 the tendency of which would be to preach a kind of secret doctrine for the initiated few who would be clever enough to avail themselves of the good opportunity4 ,he claims that the only thing worth while in life is the acquisition of power through the instrumentality of money4 ,he who acquires millions can direct the destiny of mankind1 and this tendency was first realized in the history of mankind in this ,christian nation of ours1 whose ostensible faith is ,christianity4 ,our religion1 he argues1 is especially adapted to serve as a foil to protect and conceal the real issue1 and so he calls his world-conception1 ,christian economics4 ,emperors and kings are mere puppets who are exhibited to general inspection1 and so are presidents and all the magistrates in office4 ,political government has to obey the behests of the financiers1 and the most vital life of mankind resides in its economical conditions4 ,the inventor of this new system of ,christian economics would allow no other valuation except that of making money1 on the sole ground that science1 art and the pleasures of life are nothing to man unless he is in control of power which can be had only through the magic charm of the almighty dollar4 ,i shall not comment upon his view1 but shall leave it to the reader1 and am here satisfied to point out its similarity to ,nietzsche's philosophy4 ,there is one point only which ,i shall submit here for criticism and that is the principle of valuation which is a weak point with both the originator of ,christian economics and with ,friedrich ,nietzsche4 ,nietzsche proclaimed with great blast of trumpets1 if we may so call his rhetorical display of phrases1 that we need a revaluation of all values2 but the best he could do was to establish a standard of valuation of his own4 ,every man in this world attains his mode of judging values according to his character1 which is formed partly by inherited tendencies1 partly by education and is modified by his own reflections and experiences4 ,there are but few persons in this world who are clearsighted enough to formulate the ultimately guiding motive of their conduct4 ,most people follow their impulses blindly1 but in all of them conduct forms a certain consistent system corresponding to their own idiosyncrasy4 ,these impulses may sometimes be contradictory1 yet upon the whole they will all agree1 just as leaves and blossoms1 roots and branches of the same tree will naturally be formed according to the secret plan that determines the growth of the whole organism4 ,those who work out a specially pronounced system of moral conduct do not always agree in practical life with their own moral principle1 sometimes because they wilfully misrepresent it and more frequently because their maxims of morality are such as they themselves would like to be1 while their conduct is such as they actually are4 ,such are the conditions of life and we will call that principle which as an ultimate raison d'tre determines the conduct of man1 his standard of valuation4 ,we will see at once that there is a different standard for each particular character4 ,a scientist as a rule looks at the world through the spectacles of the scientist4 ,his estimation of other people depends entirely on their accomplishments in his own line of science4 ,artist1 musician1 or sculptor does the same4 ,to a professional painter scarcely any other people exist except his pupils1 his master1 his rivals and especially art patrons4 ,the rest of the world is as indifferent as if it did not exist2 it forms the background1 an indiscriminate mass upon which all other values find their setting4 ,all the professions and vocations1 and all the workers along the various lines of life are alike in that every man has his own standard of valuation4 ,a ,napoleon or a ,csar might have preached the doctrine that the sciences1 the arts and other accomplishments are of no value if compared with the acquisition of power1 but ,i feel sure that it would not have been much heeded by the mass of mankind1 for no one would change his standard of value4 ,a financier might publicly declare that the only way to judge people is according to the credit they have in banking1 but it would scarcely change the standard of judgment in society4 ,beethoven knew as well as any other of his contemporaries the value of money and the significance of power1 and yet he pursued his own calling1 fascinated by his love for music4 ,the same is true not only of every genius in all the different lines of art and science1 but also of religious reformers and inventors of all classes4 ,tom1 ,dick and ,harry in their hankering for pleasure and frivolous amusement are not less under the influence of the conditions under which they have been born than the great men whose names are written in the book of fame4 ,it is difficult for every one of us to create for himself a new standard of valuation1 for what ,goethe says of man's destiny in a poem entitled ,daimon1 is true3#a ,as on the day which has begotten thee ,the sun and planets stood in constellation1 ,thus growest and remainest thou to be1 ,for't is life's start lays down the regulation ,how thou must be4 ,thyself thou canst not flee4 ,such sibyl's is and prophet's proclamation4 ,for truly1 neither force nor time dissolveth1 ,organic form as1 living1 it evolveth4 ,the original reads thus3 ,wie an dem ,tag der dich der ,welt verliehen1 ,die ,sonne stand zum ,grusse der ,planeten1 ,bist alsobald and fort und fort gediehen ,nach dem ,gesetz1 wonach du angetreten4 ,so musst du sein1 dir kannst du nicht entfliehen1 ,so sagten schon ,sibyllen1 so ,propheten2 ,und keine ,zeit und keine ,macht zerstckelt1 ,geprgte ,form1 die lebend sich entwickelt4 ,our attitude in life depends upon our character1 and the basic elements of character are the product of the circumstances that gave birth to our being4 ,our character enters unconsciously or consciously in the formulation of our standards of value which we will find to be the most significant factors of our destinies4 ,now the question arises1 ,is the standard of value which we set up1 each one of us according to his character1 purely subjective or is there any objective criterion of its worth8 ,we must understand that to a great extent our choice of a profession and other preferences in our occupations or valuations are naturally different according to conditions2 some men are fit to be musicians1 or scholars1 or traders1 or farmers1 or manufacturers1 and others are not4 ,the same profession would not be appropriate for every one4 ,but there is a field common to all occupations which deals with man's attitude toward his fellow beings and1 in fact1 toward the whole universe in general4 ,this it is with which we are mainly concerned in our discussion of a criterion of value because it is the field occupied by religion1 philosophy and ethics4 ,tradition has sanctioned definite views on this very subject which have been codified in certain rules of conduct different in many details in different countries according to religion1 national and climatic conditions1 and the type of civilization2 yet1 after all1 they agree in most remarkable and surprising coincidences in all essential points4 ,nietzsche1 the most radical of radicals1 sets up a standard of valuation of his own1 placing it in the acquisition of power1 and he claims that it alone is entitled to serve as a measure for judging worth because1 says he1 it alone deals with that which is real in the world2 yet at the same time he disdains to recognize the existence of any objective criterion of the several standards of value4 ,if he were consistent1 he ought to give the palm of highest morality to the man who succeeds best in trampling under foot his fellowmen1 and he does so by calling him the overman1 but he does not call him moral4 ,to be sure this would be a novel conception of morality and would sanction what is commonly execrated as one of the most devilish forms of immorality4 ,nietzsche takes morality in its accepted meaning1 and so in contradiction to himself denies its justification in general4 ,considering that every one carries a standard of valuation in himself we propose the question1 ,is there no objective criterion of valuation1 or are all valuations purely subjective8 ,this question means whether the constitution of the objective world in which we all live1 is such as to favor a definite mode of action determined by some definite criterion of value4 ,we answer that subjective standards of valuation may be regarded as endorsed through experience by the course of events in the world whenever they meet with success1 and thus subjective judgments become objectively justified4 ,they are seen to be in agreement with the natural course of the world1 and those who adhere to them will in the long run be rewarded by survival4 ,such an endorsement of standards can be determined by experience and has resulted in what is commonly called morality4 ,we may here take for granted that the moral valuation is a product of many millenniums and has been established1 not only in one country and by one religion1 nor in one kind of human society1 but in perfect independence in many different countries1 under the most varied conditions1 and finds expression in the symbolism of the most divergent creeds4 ,the beliefs of a ,christian1 of a ,buddhist1 of a ,mussulman in ,turkey1 or a ,taoist in the ,celestial ,empire1 of a ,parsee in ,bombay1 or ,japanese ,shintoist1 are all as unlike as they can be1 but all agree as to the excellency of moral behavior which has been formulated in these different religions in sayings incorporated in their literature4 ,we find very little if anything contradictory in their standards of valuation1 and if there is any objective norm for the subjective valuation of man it is this moral consensus in which all the great religious prophets and reformers of mankind agree4 ,a transvaluation of all values is certainly needed1 and it is taking place now4 ,in fact it has always taken place whenever and wherever mankind grows or progresses or changes the current world-conception4 ,the old morality has been negative and we feel the need of positive ideals4 ,the old doctrines are formulated in rules which forbid certain actions and our commandments begin with the words ,thou shalt not4444 ,those folk are esteemed moral who obey these restrictions or at least do not ostensibly infringe upon them1 and this practically limits morality to mediocrity4 ,how often have great and noble people been condemned as immoral because some irregularities would not fit the ,procrustean bed of customary respectability6 ,think only of ,george ,eliot who had to suffer under the prejudices of ,sunday-,school morality6 ,we need a higher standard in which we may set aside the paltry views of the old morality without losing our ideals4 ,we need a positive norm1 the norm which counts in the actual world and in history1 where man is measured not by his sins of omission but by his positive accomplishments2 not by the errors he has or has not committed1 but by his deeds1 by the work with which he has benefited mankind4 ,therefore the new morality does not waste much time with the several injunctions1 ,thou shalt not 444 but impresses the growing generation with the demand3 ,do something useful2 show thyself efficient2 be superior to others in nobility1 in generosity1 in energy2 excel in one way or another2 and in this sense a transvaluation of the old values is being worked out at present4 ,we will grant that ,nietzsche's demand of a transvaluation of all values may mean to criticize the narrow doctrines and views of the religion of his surroundings4 ,but as he expresses himself and according to his philosophical principle he goes so far as to condemn not only the husk of all these religious movements1 but also their spirit4 ,in spite of his subjectivism which denies the existence of anything ideal1 and goes so far as to deny the right even of truth to have an objective value1 ,nietzsche establishes a new objectivism1 and proposes his own1 and indeed very crude1 subjective standard of valuation as the only objective one worthy of consideration for the transvaluation of all values4 ,nietzsche's real world1 or rather what he deemed to be the real world1 is a dream1 the dream of a sick man1 to whom nothing possesses value save the boons denied him1 physical health1 strength1 power to dare and to do4 ,the transvaluation of all values which ,nietzsche so confidently prophesied1 will not take place1 at least not in the sense that ,nietzsche believed4 ,there is no reason to doubt that in the future as in the past history will follow the old conservative line of development in which different people according to their different characters will adopt their own subjective standards1 and nature1 by a survival of the fittest will select those for preservation who are most in agreement with this real world in which we live1 a world from which ,nietzsche1 according to the sickly condition of his constitution1 was separated by a wide gulf4 ,he thirsted for it in vain1 and we believe that he had a wrong conception of the wealth of its possibilities and viewpoints4 #a ,so far as ,i know1 these lines have never been translated before4 ,,individualism ,nietzsche is unquestionably a bold thinker1 a ,faust-like questioner1 and a ,titan among philosophers4 ,he is a man who understands that the problem of all problems is the question1 ,is there an authority higher than myself8 ,and having discarded belief in ,god1 he finds no authority except pretensions4 ,nietzsche apparently is only familiar with the sanctions of morality and the criterion of good and evil as they are represented in the institutions and thoughts established by history1 and seeing how frequently they serve as tools in the hands of the crafty for the oppression of the unsophisticated masses of the people1 he discards them as utterly worthless4 ,hence his truly magnificent wrath1 his disgust1 his contempt for underling man1 for the masses1 this muddy stream of present mankind4 ,if ,nietzsche had dug deeper1 he would have found that there is after all a deep significance in moral ideals1 for there is an authority above the self by which the worth of the self must be measured4 ,truth is not a mere creature of the self1 but is the comprehension of the immutable eternal laws of being which constitute the norm of existence4 ,our self1 that creating1 willing1 valuing ',i1' which 7according to ,nietzsche7 is the measure and value of all things1 is itself measured by that eternal norm of being1 the existence of which ,nietzsche does not recognize4 ,what is true of ,nietzsche applies in all fundamental questions also to his predecessor1 ,max ,stirner4 ,it applies to individualism in any form if carried to its consistent and most extreme consequences4 ,nietzsche is blind to the truth that there is a norm above the self1 and that this norm is the source of duty and the object of religion2 he therefore denies the very existence of duty1 of conviction1 of moral principles1 of sympathy with the suffering1 of authority in any shape1 and yet he dares to condemn man in the shape of the present generation of mankind4 ,what right has he1 then1 to judge the sovereign self of to-day and to announce the coming of another self in the overman8 ,from the principles of his philosophical anarchism he has no right to denounce mankind of to-day1 as an underling2 for if there is no objective standard of worth1 there is no sense in distinguishing between the underman of to-day and the overman of a nobler future4 ,on this point1 however1 ,nietzsche deviates from his predecessor ,stirner4 ,the latter is more consistent as an individualist1 but the former appeals strongly to the egoism of the individual4 ,nietzsche is a ,titan and he is truly ,titanic in his rebellion against the smallness of everything that means to be an incarnation of what is great and noble and holy4 ,but he does not protest against the smallness of the representatives of truth and right1 he protests against truth and right themselves1 and thus he is not merely ,titanic1 but a genuine ,titan1--attempting to take the heavens by storm1 a monster1 not superhuman but inhuman in proportions1 in sentiment and in spirit4 ,being ingenious1 he is1 in his way1 a genius1 but he is not evenly balanced2 he is eccentric and1 not recognizing the authority of reason and science1 makes eccentricity his maxim4 ,thus his grandeur becomes grotesque4 ,the spirit of negation1 the mischief-monger ,mephistopheles1 says of ,faust with reference to his despair of reason and science3 ,reason and ,knowledge only thou despise1 ,the highest strength in man that lies6444 ,and ,i shall have thee fast and sure4 --,tr4 by ,bayard ,taylor4 ,being giant-like1 the ,titan ,nietzsche has a sense only for things of large dimensions4 ,he fails to understand the significance of the subtler relations of existence4 ,he is clumsy like ,gargantua2 he is coarse in his reasoning2 he is narrow in his comprehension2 his horizon is limited4 ,he sees only the massive effects of the great dynamical changes brought about by brute force2 he is blind to the quiet and slow but more powerful workings of spiritual forces4 ,the molecular forces that are invisible to the eye transform the world more thoroughly than hurricanes and thunderstorms2 yet the strongest powers are the moral laws1 the curses of wrong-doing and oppression1 and the blessings of truthfulness1 of justice1 of good-will4 ,nietzsche sees them not2 he ignores them4 ,he measures the worth of the overman solely by his brute force4 ,if ,nietzsche were right1 the overman of the future who is going to take possession of the earth will not be nobler and better1 wiser and juster than the present man1 but more gory1 more tiger-like1 more relentless1 more brutal4 ,nietzsche has a truly noble longing for the advent of the overman1 but he throws down the ladder on which man has been climbing up1 and thus losing his foothold1 he falls down to the place whence mankind started several millenniums ago4 ,we enjoy the rockets of ,nietzsche's genius1 we understand his ,faust-like disappointment as to the unavailableness of science such as he knew it2 we sympathize with the honesty with which he offered his thoughts to the world2 we recognize the flashes of truth which occur in his sentences1 uttered in the tone of a prophet2 but we cannot help condemning his philosophy as unsound in its basis1 his errors being the result of an immaturity of comprehension4 ,nietzsche has touched upon the problem of problems1 but he has not solved it4 ,he weighs the souls of his fellowmen and finds them wanting2 but his own soul is not less deficient4 ,his philosophy is well worth studying1 but it is not a good guide through life4 ,it is great only as being the gravest error1 boldly1 conscientiously1 and seriously carried to its utmost extremes and preached as the latest word of wisdom4 ,it has been customary that man should justify himself before the tribunal of morality1 but ,nietzsche summons morality itself before his tribunal4 ,morality justifies herself by calling on truth1 but the testimony of truth is ruled out1 for truth--objective truth--is denounced as a superstition of the dark ages4 ,nietzsche knows truth only as a contemptible method of puny spirits to make existence conceivable--a hopeless task6 ,nietzsche therefore finds morality guilty as a usurper and a tyrant1 and he exhorts all esprits forts to shake off the yoke4 ,we grant that the self should not be the slave of morality2 it should not feel the ought as a command2 it should identify itself with it and make its requirements the object of its own free will4 ,good-will on earth will render the law redundant2 but when you wipe out the ideal of good-will itself together with its foundation1 which is truth and the recognition of truth1 the struggle for existence will reappear in its primitive fierceness1 and mankind will return to the age of savagery4 ,let the esprits forts of ,nietzsche's type try to realize their master's ideal1 and their attempts will soon lead to their own perdition4 ,we read in ,der arme ,teufel1#a a weekly whose radical editor would not have been prevented by conventional reasons from joining the new fad of ,nietzscheanism1 the following satirical comment on some modern poet of original selfhood3 ',i am against matrimony because ,i am a poet ,wife1 children1 family life1--well1 well6 they may be good enough for the man possessed of the herding instinct ,but ,i object to trivialities in my own life4 ,i want something stimulating1 sensation1 poetry #a ,a wife would be prosaic to me1 simply on account of being my wife2 and children who would call me papa would be disgusting4 ,poetry ,i need6 ,poetry6' ,thus he spoke to a friend1 and when the latter was gone continued his letter reproaching a waitress for again asking for money and at the same time reflecting upon the purity of her relations to the bartender who1 she pretended1 was her cousin only4444 ,if marriage relations were abolished to-day1 would not in the course of time some new form of marriage be established8 ,those who are too proud to utilize the experiences of past generations1 will have to repeat them for themselves and must wade through their follies1 sins1 errors1 and suffer all the consequences and undergo their penalties4 ,nietzsche tries to produce a ,csar by teaching his followers to imitate the vices of a ,catiline2 he would raise gods by begetting ,titans2 he endeavors to give a nobler and better standard to mankind1 not by lifting the people higher and rendering them more efficient1 but by depriving them of all wisdom and making them more pretentious4 ,if the ethics of ,nietzsche were accepted to-day as authoritative1 and if people at large acted accordingly1 the world would be benefited in one respect1 viz41 hypocrisy would cease1 and the selfishness of mankind would manifest itself in all its nude bestiality4 ,passions would have full sway2 lust1 robbery1 jealousy1 murder1 and revenge would increase1 and ,death in all forms of wild outbursts would reap a richer harvest than he ever did in the days of prehistoric savage life4 ,the result would be a pruning on a grand scale1 and after a few bloody decades those only would survive who either by nature or by hypocritical self-control deemed it best to keep the lower passions and the too prurient instincts of their selfhood in proper check1 and then the old-fashioned rules of morality1 which ,nietzsche declared antiquated1 would be given a new trial in the new order of things4 ,they might receive a different sanction1 but they would find recognition4 ,nietzsche forgets that the present social order originated from that general free-for-all fight which he commends1 and that if we begin at the start we should naturally run through the same or a similar course of development to the same or very similar conditions4 ,will it not be better to go on improving than to revert to the primitive state of savagery8 ,there are superstitious notions about the nature of the sanction of ethics1 but for that reason the moral ideals of mankind remain as firmly established as ever4 ,the self is not the standard of measurement for good and evil1 right and wrong1 as ,nietzsche claims in agreement with the sophists of old2 the self is only the condition to which and under which it applies4 ,there is no good and evil in the purely physical world1 there is no suffering1 no pain1 no anguish--all this originates with the rise of organized animal life which is endowed with sentiency2 and further there is no goodness and badness1 no morality until the animal rises to the height of comprehending the nature of evil4 ,the tiger is in himself neither good nor bad1 but he makes himself a cause of suffering to others2 and thus he is by them regarded as bad4 ,goodness and badness are relative1 but they are not for that reason unreal4 ,it is true that there is no ought in the world as an ought2 nor are there metaphysical ghosts of divine commandments revealing themselves4 ,but man learns the lesson how to avoid evil and reducing it to brief rules which are easily remembered1 he calls them commandments4 ,buddha was aware that there is no metaphysical ghost of an ought1 and being the first positivist before positivism was ever thought of1 his decalogue is officially called avoiding the ten evils1 not the ten commandments1 the latter being a popular term of later origin4 ,granting that there is no metaphysical ought in the world and that it finds application only in the domain of animate life through the presence of the self or rather of many selves1 we fail to see that the self is the creator of the norm of good and evil4 ,granting also that there are degrees of comprehending the nature of evil and that different applications naturally result under different conditions1 we cannot for that reason argue that ethics are purely subjective and that there is no objective norm that underlies the moral evolution of mankind and comes out in the progress of civilization more and more in its purity4 ,nietzsche is like a schoolboy whose teacher is an inefficient pedant4 ,he rebels against his authority and having had but poor instruction proclaims that the multiplication table is a mere superstition with which the old man tries to enslave the free minds of his scholars4 ,are there not different solutions possible of the same example and has not every one to regard his own solution as the right solution8 ,how can the teacher claim that he is the standard of truth8 ,why1 the very attempt at setting up a standard of any kind is tyranny and the recognition of it is a self-imposed slavery4 ,there is no rightness save the rightness that can be maintained in a general hand-to-hand contest1 for it is ultimately the fist that decides all controversies4 ,nietzsche calls himself an atheist2 he denies the existence of ,god in any form1 and thus carries atheism to an extreme where it breaks down in self-contradiction4 ,we understand by ,god 7whether personal1 impersonal1 or superpersonal7 that something which determines the course of life2 the factors that shape the world1 including ourselves2 the law to which we must adjust our conduct4 ,nietzsche enthrones the self in the place of ,god1 but for all practical purposes his ,god is blunt success and survival of the fittest in the crude sense of the term2 for according to his philosophy the self must heed survival in the struggle for existence alone1 and that1 therefore1 is his ,god4 ,nietzsche's ,god is power1 i4 e41 overwhelming force1 which allows the wolf to eat the lamb4 ,he ignores the power of the still small voice1 the effectiveness of law in the world which makes it possible that man1 the over-brute1 is not the most ferocious1 the most muscular1 or the strongest animal4 ,nietzsche regards the cosmic order1 in accommodation to which ethical codes have been invented1 as a mere superstition4 ,thus it will come to pass that ,nietzsche's type of the overman1 should it really make its appearance on earth1 would be wiped out as surely as the lion1 the king of the beasts1 the proud pseudo-overbrute of the animals1 will be exterminated in course of time4 ,the lion has a chance for survival only behind the bars of the zological gardens or when he allows himself to be tamed by man1 that weakling among the brutes whose power has been built up by a comprehension of the sway of the invisible laws of life1 physical1 mental and moral4 ,what is the secret of ,nietzsche's success8 ,while other men of greater consistency1 among them his predecessor ,stirner1 failed1 he attained an unparalleled fame1 and his philosophy exercised an extraordinary influence upon large classes of people not only in ,germany but also abroad1 in ,russia1 in ,france1 in the ,united ,states and even in conservative ,england4 ,we must concede that ,nietzsche possesses a poetic power of oratory2 he appeals to sentiment2 he is not much of a thinker1 not a philosopher1 but a leader and a prophet1 and as such he stands for the most extreme egoism4 ,nietzsche attempts to establish the absolute sovereignty of the individual and grants a most irresponsible freedom to the man who dares2 and this principle of doing away with moral maxims has made him popular4 ,the truth is that our moral sanctions are no longer accepted4 ,people still believe in ,god1 in the authority of church and state1 but their belief is no longer a living faith4 ,whatever they may think of ,god1 the old ,god1 the ,god of traditional dogmatism1 is gone4 ,he is no longer a living power in the hearts of the people2 and so1 large masses rejoice to have the proclamation frankly stated that ,god is dead1 that they need no longer fear hell1 and that the chains of their slavery are broken4 ,nietzsche is consistent in his denial of the traditional sanctions4 ,he understands not only that there are no gods1 that the powers of nature as personifications do not exist1 but that the laws of nature are mere abstract generalizations4 ,we need no longer believe in ,hephaestos1 the god of fire2 there is no use to bow the knee to him or do homage to his divinity4 ,nor is there any truth in the existence of a phlogiston1 a metaphysical fire-stuff1 or any fire essence2 there are only scattered facts of burning4 ,everything else is mere superstition4 ,generalizations exist only in our imagination1 and so we should get rid of the idea that there is any truth at all4 ,science is a pretender which is apt to make cowards of us4 ,that man is wise who is not hampered by scruple or doubt of any kind and simply follows the bent of his mind1 subjecting to himself every thing he finds1 including his fellow human beings4 ,this bold and reckless proposition appeals to egoism and it seems so true that abstract formulas and generalizations are empty4 ,weight exists2 there is gravity2 there are particular phenomena of masses in mutual attraction1 but gravitation1 the law of these actual happenings1 is a mere formula1 an imaginary quantity1 a mere thought about which we need not worry4 ,the law of gravitation is a human invention and has no real existence in the realm of facts4 ,and the same would of course be true about the interrelations among human beings in their social intercourse1 too4 ,all the several maxims of conduct1 which are called moral and constitute our code of ethics1 are built upon generalizations4 ,there is no sanction for them4 ,the gods who were formerly supposed to be responsible for the several domains of facts have died long ago4 ,the ,jewish deity called ,elohim1 the ,lord1 entered upon the inheritance of the ancient gods1 but he too had to die4 ,thereupon his place was taken by metaphysical essences1 pale ghosts of a mysterious nature1 but they too died and so the last shadow of anything authoritative is gone4 ,we are en face du rien2 therefore let us boldly enjoy our freedom4 ,let us be ourselves2 let our passions take their course2 let us do wrong if it suits us2 let us live without consideration of anything1 just as we please4 ,there is no sanction of moral maxims to be respected2 there is no authority of conduct2 there is no judge2 there is no evil1 no wrong4 ,this seems pretty plausible to our modern generation raised in the traditions of nominalism1 but would we really ignore the law of gravitation because the ,newtonian formula is a man-made abstraction and a mere generalization8 ,yet1 if we do not give heed to it we fall1 and the same is true of any law of nature4 ,our sciences are mental constructions2 they are mind-made1 and so far as they are built out of the material of our experience they tally with facts and we call them true4 ,our social interrelations1 too1 constitute conditions observable in experience2 they can be formulated in ,jaws and applied to practical life2 they can be expressed in maxims of conduct and have received various sanctions successively1 the sanctions of religion1 the sanctions of metaphysics1 the sanctions of science4 ,in the age of savagery the sanction of moral maxims was offered us in a mythological dress4 ,with the rise of monotheism our moral sanction came to us as the command of a supreme ruler of the universe2 in the age of abstract philosophy as metaphysical principles1 and in the age of science these should be recognized as lessons of experience4 #a ,may #ac1 #ahji4 ,detroit1 #idi ,gratiot ,ave4 ,,conclusion4 ,we will gladly grant that personifications are mythological fictions1 that metaphysical entities are products of a philosophical imagination and that the scientific formulas are abstract generalizations1 but we deny that generalizations are unmeaning2 they signify some actual features of reality4 ,abstract ideas are not purely fictitious2 they denote significant qualities or occurrences1 and the relations in life1 the forms of things1 combinations1 or in general the non-material configurations1 co-operations1 combinations and functions are the most important and the most significant aspects of existence4 ,indeed1 matter and energy are only the clumsy conditions of being2 they denote actuality and reality1 but all things1 all events1 all facts are such as they are on account of their form--on account of that feature which is non-material and non-energetic4 ,according to ,nietzsche the whole history of mankind1 especially the development of reason1 knowledge and science1 is a great blunder1 and the dawn of day begins with a radical break with the past4 ,we see in the evolution of life a gradual ascent with a slow but constant approximation to truth4 ,in the history of religion we see in the dawn of civilization the beginning of a comprehension of truth4 ,mythology is not error pure and simple1 not a conglomeration of superstitions2 it is plainly characterized by a groping after great truths1 and myths become foolish inventions only when the poetic character of the tale is misunderstood4 ,so dogmas become dangerous errors when the symbol is taken literally1 when the letter is exalted and the spirit forgotten4 ,it is true that science has taken away the charm of many religious beliefs1 but the great lesson of the doctrine of evolution is to show us that our onward march in the humanization of man does not stop1 that the periods of mythology and dogma are stages in the progress of our recognition of the truth4 ,there is no need to fear a collapse of past results but we may boldly build higher4 ,we must search for truth and we shall have a clearer vision of it1 and the future will bring new glories1 new fulfilments of old hopes and grander realization of our fondest dreams4 ,verily1 the overman will come1 although he is not quite so near at hand as one might wish4 ,he is at hand though1 but he will not come1 as ,nietzsche announces him1 in the storm of a catastrophe4 ,the fire and the storm may precede the realization of a higher humanity2 but the higher humanity will be found neither in the fire nor in the storm4 ,the overman will be born of the present man1 not by a contempt for the shortcomings of the present man1 but by a recognition of the essential features of man's manhood1 by developing and purifying the truly human by making man conform to the eternal norm of rationality1 humaneness and rightness of conduct4 ,what we need first is the standard of the higher man2 and on this account we must purify our notions of the norm of truth and righteousness1--of ,god4 ,let us find first the over-,god1 and the overman will develop naturally4 ,the belief in an individual ,god-being is giving way to the recognition of a superpersonal ,god1 the norm of scientific truth1 the standard of right and wrong1 the standard of worth by which we measure the value of our own being2 and the kingdom of the genuine overman will be established by the spread of the scientific comprehension of the world1 in matters physical1 social1 intellectual1 moral1 and religious4 ,,index ,abbott1 ,leonard ,alexander ,all-too-human ,ambition2 for originality2 for power ,anacreon ,anarchism ,anarchists ,ancilla ,voluntatis1 intellect ,animals superior to man ,aphorisms1 no preference for ,aristocracy ,aristocratic tastes ,aristotle ,art2 nature of ,assassins ,atheism ,authority of conduct ,average1 the ,back-worlds-men ,ballerstedt1 ,h4 ,f4 ,l4 ,basch1 ,v4 ,bauer1 ,bruno ,beethoven ,bergson1 ,henri ,blood is spirit ,body1 self is ,bruno1 ,edgar and ,egbert ,buddha's ,decalogue2 gospel of love ,buhl1 ,ludwig ,burke1 ,edmund ,burtz1 ,agnes ,clara ,kunigunde ,byington1 ,stephen ,t4 ,csar ,carus1 ,foundation of ,mathematics2 ,lao-,tse's ,too ,teh ,king2 ,the ,nature of the ,state12 ,personality ,catilinary existences ,catilene ,chaos1 universe a ,change of views ,chin jen ,christ1 overman the ,christ's gospel of love ,christian economics ,christianity a rebellion of slaves ,classical taste ,commandments1 negative ,common1 ,thomas2 ,nietzsche as ,critic1 ,philosopher1 ,poet and ,prophet ,comte1 ,auguste ,confucius ,consistency1 ,n4 scorns2 of ,n42 of ,stirner ,contempt for1 democratic ideals2 man2 past2 philosophy2 the all-too-human2 truth2 world ,contradictions natural ,contrast between life and theory ,cosmic order ,cosmos1 universe not a ,criterion of right action ,crosby1 ,ernest ,h4 ,cynic1 ,n4 not a ,dhnhardt1 ,helmuth ,ludwig ,dhnhardt1 ,marie ,damocles1 sword of ,darwin ,decadence ,democracy ,der arme ,teufel ,der ,eigene ,der ,wanderer und sein ,schatten ,deussen1 ,paul2 his opinion of ,n4 ,die ,freien ,dionysiac enthusiasm ,doctrine of the eternal return ,dolson1 ,grace ,neal ,dream1 ,n4's real world a ,dreamers catching at shadows ,drunken ,song ,duty not recognized ,eagle and ,serpent ,eagle and the ,serpent1 ,the ,eliot1 ,george ,elis1 ,coins of ,emerson ,emotional attitude ,engels1 ,friedrich ,error1 a liberator2 mythology not ,eternal return ,eternity1 love for ,ethics1 denial of2 denounced2 identical2 no sanction for2 of the strong2 result of ,n4's2 test of philosophy4 ,see also s4 v4 ,morality4 ,evolution1 defined2 lesson of ,examination at school ,expediency ,faucher1 ,julius ,faust ,fichte1 ,duties of the scholar ,financier1 standard of ,flatus vocis ,form1 importance of ,forms in themselves ,frster-,nietzsche1 ,elisabeth1 ,das ,leben ,friedrich ,nietzsche's ,free ,comrade ,freedom fettered by convictions2 limitless love of2 spiritual ,garden of marriage ,gargantua ,genealogy of morals ,generalizations1 abstract2 not unmeaning ,genius not abnormal ,geometry ,gerecke1 ,adolph ,german things1 dislike of ,germany a philosophical storm center ,god1 a poet's lie2 authority of conduct2 created by man2 denial of2 idea of2 is dead2 norm of truth2 self in place of ,goethe2 imitation of2 quotations from1 ,good1 and evil2 and evil1 overman beyond2 men never true ,good ,europeans1 notes for ,good will ,goody-goodyness ,gtzendmmerung ,gravitation a human invention ,hammer and anvil ,health1 ,n4's desire for ,hegel ,herd animal 7,heerdentier7 ,hero1 overman the ,hippel's ,homer ,hypocrisy1 ,plato accused of ,hypocrisy to obtain power ,i ,ideal1 ,christianity incarnates ,ideals are superstitions2 needed1 positive2 significance in ,identical ethics2 world-conceptions ,idols of the past shattered ,imaginary1 scientist's world ,immature minds1 influence on ,immaturity2 appeal of2 of ,n4 ,immortality1 desire for ,individual defined ,individualism2 aristocratic2 error of extreme2 ineffective ,influence of ,n4 ,insanity ,instinct higher than reason2 ,n4 the philosopher of2 self a bundle of ,intellect ancilla voluntatis ,international ,intelligence ,institute ,intoxicants ,ionian physicist ,james1 ,william ,joyful science ,kant ,karma ,key to the universe1 reason the ,kochius ,kppen1 ,c4 ,f4 ,klein's statue ,kraust1 ,kroly ,la ,gaya ,scienza ,lange1 ,history of ,materialism ,lao-tze ,lauterbach ,leasing ,levy1 ,oscar ,lichtenberger1 ,henri ,life1 truth for the sake of ,lightning1 overman the ,lion and lamb ,lion's ,paw ,lindlof1 ,hans ,lloyd1 ,j4 ,wm4 ,logic untrue ,lombroso ,love1 freedom of2 not your neighbor2 ,stirner's view of ,ludovici1 ,anthony ,m4 ,mc,call1 ,erwin 7pseud47 ,mackay1 ,john ,henry ,man1 beast of prey2 a muddy stream2 a part of society2 animals' opinion of2 contempt for2 his own master2 humanization of2 personality of ,marot ,marriage1 a poet's objection to2 an abomination2 ,n4's view of ,masses1 are pragmatists2 distinction for2 enslaved by overman ,mathematics ,measure of truth ,mencken1 ,henry ,l4 ,mephistopheles ,messiah1 overman the ,meyen ,meyer1 a fellow student ,mill1 ,john ,stuart ,moore1 ,george1 and ,n4 compared2 ,confessions of a ,young ,man ,moral ist ,nothlge1 ,morality1 denial of2 immoral2 limited to mediocrity2 ,see also s4 v4 ,ethics4 ,morgenrthe ,mozart ,mueller1 ,adolph ,mller1 ,dr4 ,arthur ,mgge1 ,m4 ,a4 ,mussak ,mythology not an error ,napoleon ,nature1 uniformities of ,negation1 of will2 spirit of ,negative1 commandments ,neighbor1 love not ,nietzsche1 a model of virtue2 a modern2 a mystic2 abnormal1 not a genius2 ancestors of2 and ,george ,moore compared2 and ,stirner compared2 confirmation of2 consistency of2 contrast between life and theory2 destroyer of morality2 his doctrine of self2 immaturity of2 insanity of1 not an accident2 nominalistic tendencies of2 philosophy of1 agreement with2 philosophy of1 result of nominalism2 religious character of2 requiem composed by2 subjectivity of2 success of2 tender-hearted ,nihilism ,nomina ,nominalism1 and realism2 of ,lombroso2 traditions of ,normal man the exception ,nothingness1 trust in ,nurse1 ,n4 as a ,obedience ,objectivism1 subjective ,objectivity of truth ,ocean1 overman the ,ohne ,staat ,open ,court1 ,the ,orage1 ,a4 ,r4 ,order2 cosmic ,originality2 ambition for2 hankering after ,overman love of2 the true ,particularism ,patriotism ,personality of man ,pessimism ,philologist1 ,n4 a ,philosophy as a science2 contempt for2 three features of ,pig1 usefulness of ,plato2 accused of hypocrisy2 ideal of2 ideas of ,platonism ,pleasure and pain ,poet1 ,god the lie of ,poet1 ,n4 a2 ,n4 not really a ,positive ideals needed ,positivism ,power1 acquisition of2 desire for2 ,god is2 hypocrisy to obtain2 will for ,pragmatism ,pragmatists1 masses are ,pride ,probability but no truth ,progress1 evolution is2 in epicycles2 in the world ,protest1 against himself2 against truth2 philosopher of2 philosophy of ,proudhon ,quarrels at school ,real world ,realism and nominalism ,reason1 a blunder2 key to the universe2 origin of2 subjective2 tool of body2 universality of ,redbeard1 ,ragnar1 ,might is ,right ,relativity ,religion1 hatred of ,revaluation of values ,richard ,,iii ,right but might1 no ,rules of ,n4's philosophical warfare ,salome1 ,lou ,andreas ,sandwich1 anecdote ,schellwien1 ,r4 ,schiller ,schlegel ,schmidt1 ,albert ,christian ,heinrich ,schmidt1 ,johann ,caspar4 ,see ,stirner1 ,max4 ,schmitt1 ,eugen ,heinrich ,schopenhauer ,schulpforta2 a pupil at ,schmm1 ,george and ,mrs4 ,emma ,h4 ,science1 a blunder2 a means2 a mental construction2 a pretender2 despised2 for its own sake1 #c2 triumph of2 unavailableness of2 world of ,sciences of form1 the ,scientist1 standard of ,sebastopol1 fall of ,self1 an authority above2 is body2 sovereignty of2 truth creature of ,self-assertion1 right of1 #bd2 the ethics of the strong ,serpent2 eagle and ,slavism ,smith1 ,william ,benjamin ,snuffing brotherhood ,socialism ,society2 man a part of ,socrates ,soldier1 ,n4 as a ,sophists ,spectacles not the world ,spirit1 blood is2 ,stirner on ,spoiled child ,standard1 of measurement2 of valuation2 of values needed ,state1 a despotism2 growth of ,steiner1 ,rudolph ,sticht1 ,johann ,caspar ,stimmungsbild ,stirner1 ,max1 and ,nietzsche compared2 arguments of2 consistent2 contrast between life and theory2 death of2 ,der ,einzige und sein ,eigentum2 description of2 life of2 marriage of2 pencil sketch of2 the name2 works of ,straus1 ,richard ,subjective standard ,subjectivism ,subjectivity of ,n4 ,superman ,superpersonal ,god ,superpersonalities ,swartz1 ,clarence ,l4 ,switzerland1 a citizen of ,things in themselves ,three1 features of philosophy2 periods in ,n4's development2 rules of philosophical warfare ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra ,tieck ,tille1 ,alexander ,tolstoy ,tradition defied2 opposed to2 sanction of2 sanction of denied ,tragic1 element2 figure ,transvaluation of values ,true world ,truth1 as authority2 creature of self2 defined2 existence of2 flashes of2 for the sake of life2 need of2 non-existent2 objectivity of2 probability but no2 protests against ,tucker1 ,benjamin ,r4 ,twilight of the ,idols ,tyrant1 morality a2 ,n4 loves a2 overman a ,ulfila's bible ,uniformities dominate existence ,universality of reason ,universe a chaos ,unmoralist2 development into2 the first ,unmoralism ,unmorality ,unseitgemsse ,betrachtungen ,valuation1 principle of ,vedantism interpreted by a materialist ,virtue1 a model of ,wagner ,walker1 ,james1 ,l42 ,the ,philosophy of ,egoism ,warren1 ,josiah ,wenley1 ,r4 ,m4 ,whitman ,will1 ennoblement of2 for power2 intellect slave of2 negation of ,woman2 ,stirner's attitude toward ,world-conceptions identical ,zarathustra