,illustration3 ,,frontispiece4 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,war4 ,a ,,graphic ,,record4 ,one minute before the hour4 ,all guns firing4 ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 #aa ,a4,m4 ,one minute after the hour4 ,all guns silent4 ,this is the last record by sound ranging of artillery activity on the ,american front near the ,river ,moselle4 ,it is the reproduction of a piece of recording tape as it issued from an ,american sound-ranging apparatus when the hour of #aa o'clock on the morning of ,november #aa1 #aiah1 brought the general order to cease firing1 and the great war came to an end4 ,six seconds of sound recording are shown4 ,the broken character of the records on the left indicates great artillery activity2 the lack of irregularities on the right indicates almost complete cessation of firing1 two breaks in the second line probably being due to the exuberance of a doughboy firing his pistol twice close to one of the recording microphones on the front in celebration of the dawn of peace4 ,the two minutes on either side of the exact armistice hour have been cut from the strip to emphasize the contrast4 ,sound ranging was an important means of locating the positions and calibers of enemy guns4 ,a description of these wonderful devices1 which were a secret with ,america and the ,allies1 is given in ,book ,,iii1 chapter #d4 ,america's ,munitions #aiag-aiah ,,report ,,of ,,benedict ,,crowell ,,the ,,assistant ,,secretary ,,of ,,war ,,director ,,of ,,munitions ,illustration ,,washington ,,government ,,printing ,,office #aiai ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,december #bd1 #aiah4 ,,dear ,,mr4 ,,crowell3 ,american munitions production1 which for some time has been in your charge1 played an important part in the early decision of the war1 yet the very immensity and complexity of the problem has made it difficult for this accomplishment to be adequately understood by the public or in fact by any except those who have had occasion to give the matter special study4 ,as the whole people have been called upon to make sacrifices for the war1 all the people should be given an opportunity to know what has been done in their behalf in munitions production1 and ,i therefore ask that you have prepared a historical statement of munitions production1 so brief that all may have time to read it1 so nontechnical that all may be able readily to understand it1 and so authoritative that all may rely upon its accuracy4 ,cordially yours1 ,,newton ,d4 ,,baker1 ,secretary of ,war4 ,hon4 ,,benedict ,,crowell1 ,the ,assistant ,secretary of ,war4 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #aj1 #aiai4 ,,dear ,,mr4 ,,secretary3 ,responding to your request1 ,i transmit herewith a brief1 nontechnical1 authoritative history of munitions production during the recent war4 ,the several chapters have been prepared in the first instance by the officers who have been directly responsible for production1 and have been assembled and edited1 under my direction1 by ,hon4 ,robert ,j4 ,bulkley1 assisted by ,capt4 ,robert ,forrest ,wilson and ,capt4 ,benjamin ,e4 ,ling4 ,capt4 ,wilson has undertaken responsibility for the literary style of the report1 and has rewritten the greater part of it1 consulting at length with the officers who supplied the original material1 and with officers of the statistics branch of the ,general ,staff1 in order to insure accuracy4 ,maj4 ,gen4 ,c4 ,c4 ,williams1 ,chief of ,ordnance2 ,brig4 ,gen4 ,w4 ,s4 ,peirce1 ,acting ,chief of ,ordnance2 ,maj4 ,gen4 ,c4 ,t4 ,menoher1 ,chief of ,air ,service2 ,maj4 ,gen4 ,w4 ,m4 ,black1 ,chief of ,engineers2 ,maj4 ,gen4 ,w4 ,l4 ,sibert1 ,chief of ,chemical ,warfare ,service2 ,maj4 ,gen4 ,h4 ,l4 ,rogers1 ,quartermaster ,general2 ,mr4 ,r4 ,j4 ,thorne1 ,acting ,quartermaster ,general2 ,maj4 ,gen4 ,g4 ,o4 ,squier1 ,chief ,signal ,officer2 ,brig4 ,gen4 ,charles ,b4 ,drake1 ,chief of ,motor ,transport ,corps2 and ,maj4 ,gen4 ,w4 ,m4 ,ireland1 the ,surgeon ,general1 have cooperated in the preparation of the material transmitted herewith4 ,special acknowledgment for the preparation and correction of the several chapters is due to the following officers3 ,the ordnance problem1 ,col4 ,james ,l4 ,walsh4 ,gun production1 ,col4 ,william ,p4 ,barba4 ,mobile field artillery1 ,col4 ,j4 ,b4 ,rose4 ,railway artillery1 ,col4 ,g4 ,m4 ,barnes and ,maj4 ,e4 ,d4 ,campbell4 ,explosives1 propellants1 and artillery ammunition1 ,col4 ,c4 ,t4 ,harris and ,maj4 ,j4 ,herbert ,hunter4 ,sights and fire-control apparatus1 ,col4 ,h4 ,k4 ,rutherford and ,maj4 ,fred ,e4 ,wright4 ,motorized artillery1 ,col4 ,l4 ,b4 ,moody and ,lieut4 ,col4 ,h4 ,w4 ,alden4 ,tanks1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,h4 ,w4 ,alden4 ,machine guns1 ,col4 ,earl ,mc,farland and ,lieut4 ,col4 ,herbert ,o',leary4 ,service rifles1 ,maj4 ,lewis ,p4 ,johnson and ,maj4 ,parker ,dodge4 ,pistols and revolvers1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,j4 ,c4 ,beatty and ,maj4 ,parker ,dodge4 ,small arms ammunition1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,j4 ,c4 ,beatty1 ,maj4 ,lee ,o4 ,wright1 ,maj4 ,a4 ,e4 ,hunt1 and ,capt4 ,c4 ,j4 ,evans4 ,trench warfare material1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,e4 ,j4 ,w4 ,ragsdale1 ,capt4 ,j4 ,r4 ,caldwell1 ,capt4 ,r4 ,d4 ,smith1 and ,lieut4 ,j4 ,t4 ,libbey4 ,miscellaneous ordnance equipment1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,s4 ,h4 ,mac,gregor1 ,maj4 ,bashford ,dean1 ,capt4 ,a4 ,l4 ,fabens1 and ,capt4 ,james ,s4 ,wiley4 ,the aircraft problem and airplane production1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,george ,w4 ,mixter4 ,the ,liberty engine and other airplane engines1 ,lieut4 ,h4 ,h4 ,emmons1 ,united ,states ,navy4 ,aviation equipment and armament1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,e4 ,j4 ,w4 ,ragsdale1 ,maj4 ,e4 ,bradley1 ,capt4 ,robert ,d4 ,smith1 ,capt4 ,h4 ,e4 ,ives1 and ,lieut4 ,john ,m4 ,hammond4 ,the airplane radio telephone1 ,col4 ,c4 ,c4 ,culver and ,lieut4 ,col4 ,nugent ,h4 ,slaughter4 ,balloons1 ,capt4 ,h4 ,w4 ,treat4 ,the ,engineers in ,france1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,j4 ,b4 ,cress and ,capt4 ,c4 ,beard4 ,military railways1 ,col4 ,j4 ,m4 ,milliken and ,mr4 ,s4 ,m4 ,felton4 ,engineer activities at home1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,j4 ,b4 ,cress and ,lieut4 ,col4 ,r4 ,w4 ,crawford4 ,sound and flash ranging and searchlights1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,j4 ,b4 ,cress and ,maj4 ,w4 ,d4 ,young4 ,toxic gases1 ,col4 ,m4 ,t4 ,bogert1 ,col4 ,w4 ,a4 ,walker1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,e4 ,m4 ,chance1 and ,lieut4 ,col4 ,william ,mc,pherson4 ,defensive gas equipment1 ,col4 ,bradley ,dewey and ,lieut4 ,col4 ,a4 ,l4 ,besse4 ,subsistence1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,j4 ,h4 ,adams and ,capt4 ,s4 ,b4 ,johnson4 ,clothing and equipage1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,f4 ,a4 ,ellison and ,capt4 ,w4 ,h4 ,porter4 ,miscellaneous quartermaster undertakings3 ,music1 ,maj4 ,george ,h4 ,richards2 fuel1 oil1 and paints1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,elliott ,hall2 brushes1 ,capt4 ,t4 ,w4 ,s4 ,phillips2 rolling kitchens1 ,capt4 ,j4 ,g4 ,williams and ,mr4 ,m4 ,a4 ,dunning2 tools and tool chests1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,fusting and ,mr4 ,m4 ,e4 ,moye2 hardware1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,h4 ,p4 ,hill and ,mr4 ,william ,a4 ,graham2 factory enterprises1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,h4 ,p4 ,hill2 shoe fitting1 ,col4 ,f4 ,a4 ,ellison2 meat cutting1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,o4 ,trone2 packing1 ,capt4 ,r4 ,h4 ,moody2 horses and mules1 ,maj4 ,a4 ,cedarwald4 ,motor and horse-drawn vehicles3 ,motor vehicles1 ,col4 ,fred ,glover2 horse-drawn vehicles1 ,maj4 ,a4 ,volgeneau4 ,medical and dental supplies1 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,j4 ,p4 ,fletcher and ,capt4 ,w4 ,g4 ,guth4 ,salvage1 ,col4 ,j4 ,s4 ,chambers and ,capt4 ,f4 ,c4 ,simpson4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,pollard1 ,mr4 ,aaron ,rachofsky1 and ,lieut4 ,j4 ,j4 ,cameron have rendered very valuable assistance in assembling data concerning quartermaster activities4 ,cantonments and camps1 and miscellaneous construction1 ,maj4 ,w4 ,g4 ,maupin4 ,signal ,corps material1 ,brig4 ,gen4 ,c4 ,mc,k4 ,saltzman and ,capt4 ,donald ,mac,gregor4 ,the accuracy of all statistics and direct statements of fact has been checked and approved by the statistics branch of the ,general ,staff1 under the direction of ,maj4 ,w4 ,r4 ,burgess4 ,respectfully submitted1 ,,benedict ,,crowell1 ,the ,assistant ,secretary of ,war1 ,director of ,munitions4 ,hon4 ,,newton ,d4 ,,baker1 ,secretary of ,war4 ,,preface4 ,except in one or two instances1 this account of the production of munitions in ,america for the war against ,germany and her allies contains nothing about secret devices invented during the period under discussion4 ,when the necessity for silence with respect to vital matters brought about a voluntary censorship in ,american publications1 the land was filled with rumors of new and revolutionary developments in war matriel1 particularly of new weapons of offense4 ,it is fair to the ,american public to-day to state that such rumors were not without foundation4 ,american inventiveness rose splendidly to the emergency4 ,the expected ,american offensive in #aiai would have had its surprises in numbers1 some of which might well have proved to be decisive4 ,certain of these inventions had been put in large production before the armistice was declared1 others had been carried to an advanced experimental stage that insured their success4 ,since the value of these innovations as part of the ,nation's permanent military assets depends largely upon their secret nature1 it would be obviously unwise to mention or describe them at this time4 ,the ,director of ,munitions wishes to acknowledge the debt of ,america1 so far as the production of munitions is concerned1 to the ,navy for its cooperation in industrial matters at home and its strong aid in the safe transport of munitions to ,france1 and to all the other ,government departments1 each one of which contributed in numerous and important ways to the success of the munitions enterprise4 ,the debt also extends heavily to the ,war ,industries ,board1 its functions of creating facilities for manufacture1 opening up new sources of raw materials1 allocating materials1 decreeing priorities1 fixing prices1 and acting as purchasing agent for the allies1 making it the national industrial clearing house through which the ,war ,department could work without waste effort4 ,acknowledgment is made to such essential agencies as the ,united ,states ,railroad ,administration1 the ,united ,states ,fuel ,administration1 the ,war ,trade ,board1 and the ,united ,states ,food ,administration1 and to all official or volunteer activities looking to the conservation and mobilization of our national resources4 ,without this entire cooperation the history set forth in these pages would not be what it is4 ,,contents4 ,page4 ,introduction #ac ,,book ,i--,,ordnance4 ,,chapter #a4 ,the ordnance problem #ba #b4 ,gun production #ch #c4 ,mobile field artillery #ef #d4 ,railway artillery #ia #e4 ,explosives1 propellants1 and artillery ammunition #ajc #f4 ,sights and fire-control apparatus #ace #g4 ,motorized artillery #adh #h4 ,tanks #aed #i4 ,machine guns #aeh #aj4 ,service rifles #agg #aa4 ,pistols and revolvers #ahg #ab4 ,small-arms ammunition #aia #ac4 ,trench-warfare material #bjj #ad4 ,miscellaneous ordnance equipment #bba ,,book ,,ii--,,the ,,air ,,service4 ,,chapter #a4 ,the aircraft problem #bce #b4 ,airplane production #bci #c4 ,the ,liberty engine #bfe #d4 ,other airplane engines #bha #e4 ,aviation equipment and armament #bid #f4 ,the airplane radio telephone #cbc #g4 ,balloons #cca ,,book ,,iii--,,the ,,engineer ,,corps4 ,,chapter #a4 ,the ,engineers in ,france #cdg #b4 ,military railways #cfg #c4 ,engineer activities at home #cge #d4 ,sound and flash ranging and searchlights #chc ,,book ,,iv--,,chemical ,,warfare4 ,,chapter #a4 ,toxic gases #cie #b4 ,gas defense equipment4 #daj ,,book ,v--,,quartermaster ,,activities4 ,,chapter #a4 ,subsistence #dce #b4 ,clothing and equipage #dec #c4 ,miscellaneous quartermaster undertakings #dge #d4 ,motor and horse-drawn vehicles #dif #e4 ,medical and dental supplies #eaa #f4 ,salvage #eag ,,book ,,vi--,,the ,,construction ,,division4 ,,chapter #a4 ,cantonments and camps #ece #b4 ,miscellaneous construction #edh ,,book ,,vii--,,the ,,signal ,,corps4 ,,chapter #a4 ,signal ,corps material #efg ,conclusion #ehe ,,america',s ,,munitions1 #aiag-ah ,,introduction4 ,as our war against ,germany recedes into the past its temporal boundaries become more sharply defined1 and it assumes the character of a complete entity--a rounded-out period of time in which the ,united ,states collected her men and resources1 fought1 and shared in the victory4 ,as such it offers to the critic the easy opportunity to discover that certain things were not done4 ,american airplanes did not arrive at the front in sufficient numbers4 ,american guns in certain essential calibers did not appear at all4 ,american gas shells were not fired at the enemy4 ,american troops fought with ,french and ,british machine guns to a large extent4 ,the public is familiar with such statements4 ,it should be remembered that the war up to its last few weeks--up to its last few days1 in fact--was a period of anxious suspense1 during which ,america was straining her energies toward a goal1 toward the realization of an ambition which1 in the production of munitions1 dropped the year #aiah almost out of consideration altogether1 which indeed did not bring the full weight of ,american men and matriel into the struggle even in #aiai1 but which left it for #aibj1 if the enemy had not yet succumbed to the growing ,american power1 to witness the maximum strength of the ,united ,states in the field4 ,necessarily1 therefore1 the actual period of hostilities1 between ,april #f1 #aiag1 and ,november #aa1 #aiah1 was devoted in this country to laying down the foundations of a munitions industry that should bring about its overwhelming results at the appointed time4 ,what munitions of the more difficult sort were actually produced in this period might almost be termed casual to the main enterprise--pilots of the quantities to come4 ,the decision to prepare heavily for #aiai and #aibj and thus sacrifice for #aiag and #aiah the munitions that might have been produced at the cost of any less adequate preparation for the more distant future1 was based on sound strategical reasoning on the part of the ,allies and ourselves4 ,on going back to the past we find that on ,april #f1 #aiag1 the ,united ,states scarcely realized the gravity of the undertaking4 ,there was a general impression1 reaching even into ,government1 that the ,allies alone were competent to defeat the ,central ,powers in time1 and that ,america's part would be largely one of moral support1 with expanding preparation in the background as insurance against any unforeseen disasters4 ,in line with this attitude we sent the first division of ,american troops to ,france in the spring of #aiag to be our earnest to the governments and peoples of the ,allies that we were with them in the great struggle4 ,not until after the departure of the various foreign missions that came to this country during that spring did ,america fully awake to the seriousness of the situation4 ,all through the summer of #aiag the emphasis upon ,american man power in ,france gradually grew1 but no definite schedule upon which the ,united ,states could work was reached until autumn or early winter1 until the mission headed by ,col4 ,edward ,m4 ,house visited ,europe to give ,america place on the ,supreme ,war ,council and in the ,interallied ,conference4 ,the purpose of the ,house mission was to assure the ,allies that ,america was in the war for all she was worth and to determine the most effective method in which she could cooperate4 ,in the conferences in ,london and ,paris the ,american representatives looked into the minds of the allied leaders and saw the situation as it was4 ,two dramatic factors colored all the discussions--the growing need for men and the gravity of the shipping situation4 ,the ,german submarines were operating so effectively as to make exceedingly dark the outlook for the transport on a sufficient scale either of ,american troops or of ,american munitions4 ,as to man power1 the ,supreme ,war ,council gave it as the judgment of the military leaders of the ,allies that1 if the day were to be saved1 ,america must send #a1jjj1jjj troops by the following ,july4 ,there were in ,france then 7on ,dec4 #a1 #aiag7 parts of four divisions of ,american soldiers--#abi1jjj men in all4 ,the program of ,american cooperation1 as it crystallized in these conferences1 may be summarized as follows3 #a4 ,to keep the ,allies from starvation by shipping food4 #b4 ,to assist the ,allied armies by keeping up the flow of matriel already in production for them in the ,united ,states4 #c4 ,to send as many men as could be transported with the shipping facilities then at ,america's command4 #d4 ,to bend energies toward a big ,american ,army in #aiai equipped with ,american supplies4 ,in these conferences sat the chief military and political figures of the principal ,european powers at war with ,germany4 ,in the ,supreme ,war ,council were such strategists as ,gen4 ,foch for the ,french and ,gen4 ,robertson for the ,british1 ,gen4 ,bliss representing the ,united ,states4 ,the president of the ,interallied ,conference was ,m4 ,clemenceau1 the ,french prime minister4 ,mr4 ,winston ,churchill1 the minister of munitions1 represented ,great ,britain1 while ,mr4 ,lloyd-,george1 the ,prime ,minister of ,england1 also participated to some extent in the conferences4 ,out of bodies of such character came the international ordnance agreement4 ,it will be apparent to the reader that this agreement must have represented the best opinion of the leaders of the principal ,allies1 initiated out of their intimate knowledge of the needs of the situation and concurred in by the representatives of the ,united ,states4 ,the substance of this agreement was outlined for ,washington in a cabled message signed by ,gen4 ,bliss1 a document that had such an important bearing upon the production of munitions in this country that its more important passages are set down at this point3 ,the representatives of ,great ,britain and ,france state that their production of artillery 7field1 medium1 and heavy7 is now established on so large a scale that they are able to equip completely all ,american divisions as they arrive in ,france during the year #aiah with the best make of ,british and ,french guns and howitzers4 ,the ,british and ,french ammunition supply and reserves are sufficient to provide the requirements of the ,american ,army thus equipped at least up to ,june1 #aiah1 provided that the existing #f-;inch shell plants in the ,united ,states and ,dominion of ,canada are maintained in full activity1 and provided that the manufacture of #f-;inch howitzer carriages in the ,united ,states is to some extent sufficiently developed4 ,on the other hand1 the ,french1 and to a lesser extent the ,british1 require as soon as possible large supplies of propellants and high explosives3 and the ,british require the largest possible production of #f-;inch howitzers from now onward and of #h-;inch and #i4b-;inch shell from ,june onward4 ,in both of these matters they ask the assistance of the ,americans4 ,with a view1 therefore1 first to expedite and facilitate the equipment of the ,american armies in ,france1 and1 second1 to secure the maximum ultimate development of the ammunition supply with the minimum strain upon available tonnage1 the representatives of ,great ,britain and ,france propose that the ,american field1 medium1 and heavy artillery be supplied during #aiah1 and as long after as may be found convenient1 from ,british and ,french gun factories2 and they ask3 7,a7 ,that the ,american efforts shall be immediately directed to the production of propellants and high explosives on the largest possible scale2 and 7,b7 ,great ,britain also asks that the #f-;inch1 #h-;inch1 and #i4b-;inch shell plants already created for the ,british service in the ,united ,states shall be maintained in the highest activity1 and that large additional plants for the manufacture of these shells shall at once be laid down4 ,in this way alone can the tonnage difficulty be minimised and potential artillery development1 both in guns and shells1 of the combined ,french1 ,british1 and ,american armies be maintained in #aiah and still more in #aiai4 ,this agreement had a profound effect upon ,american production of munitions4 ,most important of all1 it gave us time2 time to build manufacturing capacity on a grand scale without the hampering necessity for immediate production2 time to secure the best in design2 time to attain quality in the enormous output to come later as opposed to early quantity of indifferent class4 ,in the late autumn of #aiag1 shortly after ,russia collapsed and withdrew from the war1 it became evident that ,germany would seize the opportunity to move her troops from the eastern front and concentrate her entire army against the ,french and ,british in #aiah4 ,this intelligence at once resulted in fresh emphasis upon the man-power phase of ,american cooperation4 ,as early as ,december1 #aiag1 the ,war ,department was anticipating the extraordinary need for men in the coming spring by considering plans for the transport of troops up to the supposed limit of the capacity of all available ,american ships1 with what additional tonnage ,great ,britain and the other ,allies could spare us4 ,it is of record that the actual dispatch of troops to ,france far outstripped these early estimates4 ,then came the long-expected ,german offensive1 and the cry went up in ,europe for men4 ,england1 her back against the wall1 offered additional ships in which to transport six divisions over and above the number of troops already scheduled for embarkation1 agreeing further to feed and maintain these men for #aj weeks while they were brigaded with ,british units for final training4 ,after the six additional divisions had embarked there was still need of men1 and the ,british continued their transports in our service4 ,the high mark of shipment was in ,july1 when #cjf1jjj ,american soldiers were transported across the ,atlantic1 more than three times the number contemplated for ,july in the schedule adopted six months earlier4 ,illustration3 ,,actual ,,troop ,,sailings ,,compared ,,with ,,programs4 ,the effect of this stepping up of the man-power program upon the shipment of supplies was described by ,lieut4 ,col4 ,repington1 the ,british military critic1 writing in the ,morning ,post 7,london7 on ,december #i1 #aiah1 in part as follows3 99 99 99 they 7the ,british war cabinet7 also prayed ,america in aid1 implored her to send in haste all available infantry and machine guns1 and placed at her disposal1 to her great surprise1 a large amount of transports to hasten arrivals4 99 99 99 ,the ,american ,government acceded to this request in the most loyal and generous manner4 ,assured by their ,allies in ,france that the latter could fit out the ,american infantry divisions on their arrival with guns1 horses1 and transport1 the ,americans packed their infantry tightly in the ships and left to a later occasion the dispatch to ,france of guns1 horses1 transport1 labor units1 flying service1 rolling stock1 and a score of other things originally destined for transport with the divisions4 ,if subsequently--and indeed up to the day that the armistice was signed--,gen4 ,pershing found himself short of many indispensable things1 and if his operations were thereby conducted under real difficulties of which he must have been only too sensible1 the defects were not due to him and his staff1 nor to the ,washington administration1 nor to the resolute ,gen4 ,march and his able fellow workers1 but solely to the self-sacrificing manner in which ,america had responded to the call of her friends4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,british ,,and ,,american ,,expeditionary ,,forces ,,on ,,western ,,front4 ,the really amazing thing which ,america did was to place in ,france in #ai months an army of the size and the ability of the ,american ,expeditionary ,force4 ,the war taught us that ,america can organize1 train1 and transport troops of a superior sort at a rate which leaves far behind any program for the manufacture of munitions4 ,it upset the previous opinion that adequate military preparedness is largely a question of trained man power4 ,when the war touched us our strategical equipment included plans ready drawn for the mobilization of men4 ,there were on file at the ,army ,war ,college in ,washington detailed plans for defending our harbors1 our coasts1 and our borders4 ,there were also certain plans for the training of new troops4 ,it is worthy of note1 however1 that this equipment included no plan for the equally important and equally necessary mobilization of industry and production of munitions1 which proved to be the most difficult phase of the actual preparation for war4 ,the experience of #aiag and #aiah was a lesson in the time it takes to determine types1 create designs1 provide facilities1 and establish manufacture4 ,these years will forever stand as the monument to the ,american genius of workshop and factory1 which in this period insured the victory by insuring the timely arrival of the overwhelming force of ,america's resources in the form of ,america's munitions4 ,b4 ,c4 ,,washington1 ,may1 #aiai4 ,,book ,i4 ,,ordnance4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,ordnance ,,problem4 ,to arm the manhood called to defend the ,nation in #aiag and #aiah1 to make civilians into soldiers by giving them the tools of the martial profession--such was the task of the ,ordnance ,department in the late war4 ,the off-hand thought may identify ordnance as artillery alone4 ,it may surprise many to know that in the ,american ordnance catalogue of supplies during the recent war there were over #ajj1jjj separate and distinct items4 ,thousands of the items of ordnance were distinctly noncommercial1 meaning that they had to be designed and produced specially for the uses of war4 ,while the principles of fighting essentially have changed not one whit since the age when projectiles were stones hurled by catapults1 nearly every advance in mechanical science has had its reflection in warfare1 until to-day the weapons which man has devised to destroy the military power of his enemy make up an intricate and an imposing list4 ,when ,america accepted the challenge of ,germany in #aiag1 part of the range of ordnance had already been produced in moderate quantities in the ,united ,states1 part of it had been developed by the more militaristic nations of the world in the last decade or quarter century1 and part of it was purely the offspring of two and one-half years of desperate fighting before ,america entered the great struggle4 ,yet all of it1 both the strange and the familiar1 had to be put in production here on a grand scale and in a minimum of time1 that the ,american millions might go adequately equipped to meet the foe4 ,let us examine the range of this equipment1 seeing in the major items something of the character of the problem which confronted the ,ordnance ,department at the outset of the great enterprise4 ,starting with the artillery1 there was first in order of size the baby two-man cannon of #cg millimeters 7about an inch and a half7 in the diameter of its bore--a ,european development new to our experience1 so light that it could be handled by foot troops in the field1 used for annihilating the enemy's machine-gun emplacements4 ,then the mobile field guns--the famous #ge's1 the equivalent in size of our former #c-;inch gun1 the #aee-millimeter howitzer1 the ,french #aee millimeter ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 7,grand ,puissance ,filloux7 gun of glorious record in the war1 and its ,american prototypes1 the #d4g-;inch1 #e-;inch1 and #f-;inch guns--all of these employed to shell crossroads and harass the enemy's middle area4 ,beyond these were the #h-;inch and #i4b-;inch howitzers and the terrific #bdj-millimeter howitzer1 for throwing great weights of destruction high in air to descend with a plunge upon the enemy's strongest defenses4 ,then there were the #h-;inch1 #aj-;inch1 #ab-;inch1 and #ad-;inch guns on railway mounts1 for pounding the depots and dumps in the enemy's back areas4 ,these weapons were so tremendous in weight when mounted as to require from #af to #bd axles on the car to distribute the load and the recoil of firing within the limits of the strength of standard heavy railway track4 ,all of these guns had to be produced in great numbers1 if the future requirements of the ,american forces were to be met1 produced by the thousands in the cases of the smaller ones and by the hundreds and scores in the cases of the larger4 ,these weapons would be ineffective without adequate supplies of ammunition4 ,in the case of the mobile held guns this meant a requirement of millions of shell or shrapnel for the incessant bombardments and the concentrated barrages which characterized the great war4 ,the entire weight of projectiles fired in such an historic engagement as ,gettysburg would supply the artillery only for a few minutes in such intensive bombardments as sowed the soil of ,flanders with steel4 ,the artillery demanded an immense amount of heavy equipment--limbers1 caissons1 auto ammunition trucks1 and tractors to drag the heavy and middle-heavy artillery4 ,some of them were fitted with self-propelled caterpillar mounts which could climb a #dj grade or make as high as #ab miles an hour on level ground4 ,these1 the adaptations to warfare of peaceful farm and construction machine traction1 for the first time rendered the greater guns exceedingly mobile1 enabling them to go into action instantly upon arrival and to depart to safety just as soon as their mission was accomplished4 ,then1 too1 this artillery equipment must have adequate facilities for maintenance in the field1 and this need brought into existence another enormous phase of the ordnance program4 ,there must be mobile ordnance repair shops for each division1 consisting of miniature machine shops completely fitted out with power and its transmission equipment and mounted directly on motor trucks4 ,then there must be semi-heavy repair shops on #e-ton tractors1 these to be for the corps what the truck machine shop was to the division4 ,each army headquarters called for its semipermanent repair shop for artillery and still larger repair shops for its railway artillery4 ,and in addition to all these were the base repair shops in ,france1 which were erected on a scale to employ a force three times as large as the combined organizations of all the manufacturing arsenals of the ,united ,states in time of peace1 having a capacity for relining #a1jjj cannon and overhauling and repairing #b1jjj motor vehicles1 #g1jjj machine guns1 #ej1jjj rifles1 and #b1jjj pistols every month4 ,this equipment of artillery and its maintenance organization implies the flow from ,american industry of enormous quantities of repair parts and spare parts to keep the artillery in good condition4 ,coming next to the more personal equipment of the soldier1 we find the necessity confronting the ,ordnance ,department to manufacture shoulder rifles by the million and cartridges for them by the billion4 ,the great war brought the machine gun into its own1 requiring in the ,united ,states the manufacture of these complicated and expensive weapons by the tens of thousands1 including the one-man automatic rifle1 itself an arm of a deadly and effective type4 ,simultaneously with the mass employment of machine guns in the field came the development of the modern machine gun barrage1 the indirect fire1 of which required sighting instruments of the most delicate and accurate sort1 and tripods with finely calibrated elevating and traversing devices1 so that the gunner might place the deadly hail safely over the heads of his own unseen but advancing lines and with maximum damage to the enemy4 ,these thousands of machine guns required water jackets to keep their barrels cool and specially built carts to carry them4 ,the personal armament of the soldier also called for an automatic pistol or a revolver for use in the infighting1 when squads came in actual contact with soldiers of the enemy4 ,these had to be produced by the hundreds of thousands4 ,the requirements of the field demanded hundreds of thousands of trench knives1 murderous blades backed by the momentum of heavily weighted handles1 which in turn were protected by guards embodying the principle of the thug's brass knucks armed with sharp points4 ,then there were the special weapons1 largely born of modern trench warfare4 ,these included mortars1 ranging from the small #c-;inch ,stokes1 light enough to go over the top and simple enough to be fired from between the steadying knees of a squatting soldier1 to the great #bdj-millimeter trench mortar of fixed position4 ,the mortars proved to be exceedingly effective against concentrations of troops1 and so there was devised for them a great variety of bombs and shell1 not only of the high explosive fragmentation type1 but also containing poison gas or fuming chemicals4 ,great quantities both of mortars and their ammunition were required4 ,from the security of the trenches the soldiers first threw out grenades1 which burst in the enemy's trenches opposite and created havoc4 ,from the original device were developed grenades of various sorts--gas grenades for cleaning up dugouts1 molten-metal grenades for fusing the firing mechanisms of captured enemy cannon and machine guns1 paper grenades to kill by concussion4 ,then there were the rifle grenades1 each to be fitted on the muzzle of a rifle and hurled by the lift of gases following the bullet1 which passed neatly through the hole provided for it4 ,the production of grenades was no small part of the ,american ordnance problem4 ,in addition to these trench weapons were the ,livens projectors1 which1 fired in multiple by electricity1 hurled a veritable cloud of gas containers into a selected area of enemy terrain1 usually with great demoralization of his forces4 ,bayonets for the rifles1 bolos1 helmets1 periscopes for looking safely over the edges of the trenches1 panoramic sights1 range finders--these are only a few of the ordnance accessories of general application4 ,then those innovations of the great war--the tanks--the #c-ton whippet1 built to escort the infantry waves1 the #f-ton tanks1 most used of all1 and the powerful ,anglo-,american heavy tanks1 each mounting a #cg-millimeter cannon and four machine guns4 ,the war in the air put added demands upon ordnance4 ,it required the stripped machine gun firing cartridges so rapidly that their explosions merged into a single continuous roar1 yet each shot so nicely timed that it passed between the flying blades of the propeller4 ,there had to be electric heaters for the gun mechanisms to prevent the oil which lubricated them from becoming congealed in the cold of high altitudes4 ,the airplane guns required armor-piercing bullets for use against armored planes1 incendiary bullets to ignite the hydrogen of the enemy's balloon or to fire the gasoline escaping through the wound in the hostile airplane's fuel tank1 and tracer bullets to direct the aim of the aerial gunner4 ,other equipment for the airman included shot counters1 to tell him instantly what quantity of ammunition he had on hand1 and gun sights1 ingeniously contrived to correct his aim automatically for the relative speed and direction of the opposing plane4 ,these were all developments in ordnance brought about by the great war1 and in each case they involved problems for the production organization to solve4 ,then there were the drop bombs of aerial warfare1 of many gradations in weight up to #ejj pounds each1 these latter experimental ones forecasting the day when bombs weighing #a1fjj pounds would be dropped from the sky2 then bomb sights to determine the moment when the missile must be dropped in order to hit its target1 sights which corrected for the altitude1 the wind resistance1 and the rate of speed of the airplane2 and then mechanisms to suspend the bombs from the plane and to release them at the will of the operator4 ,the list might be stretched out almost indefinitely--through pyrotechnics1 developed by the exigencies in ,europe into an elaborate system2 through helmets and armor1 revivals from medieval times to protect the modern soldier from injury2 through the assortment of heavy textiles1 which gave the troops their belts1 their bandoleers1 their haversacks1 and their holsters2 through canteens1 cutlery for the mess in the fields1 shotguns1 and so on1 until there might be set down thousands of items of the list which we know as modern ordnance4 ,it will be noted that the most important articles in this range are articles of a noncommercial type4 ,in other words1 they are not the sort of things that the industry of the country builds in time of peace1 nor learns how to build4 ,many other war functions came naturally to a country skilled in handling food supplies for teeming populations1 in solving housing problems for whole cities1 and in managing transportation for a hundred million people2 there was at hand the requisite ability to conduct war enterprises of such character smoothly and efficiently4 ,yet there was in the country at the outbreak of war little knowledge of the technique of ordnance production4 ,the declaration of war found an ,american ,ordnance ,department whose entire commissioned personnel consisted of #ig officers4 ,only #aj of this number were experienced in the design of artillery weapons4 ,the projected army of #e1jjj1jjj men required #aa1jjj trained officers to handle every phase of ordnance service4 ,while a portion of this production would have to do with the manufacture of articles of a commercial type1 such as automobiles1 trucks1 meat cans1 mess equipment1 and the like1 yet the ratio of #ig to #aa1jjj gives an indication of the amount of ordnance knowledge possessed by the ,war ,department at the outbreak of war as compared to what it would need to equip the first #e1jjj1jjj men for battle4 ,the ,government could obtain commissary officers from the food industry2 it could turn bank tellers into paymasters1 or convert builders into construction quartermasters2 find transportation officers in the great railway systems1 ,signal ,corps officers in the telegraph companies1 or medical officers in professional life4 ,but there was no broad field to which ordnance could turn to find specialized skill available4 ,the best it could do was to go into the heavy manufacturing industry for expert engineers who could later be trained in the special problems of ordnance4 ,prior to #aiad there were but six ,government arsenals and two large private ordnance works which knew anything about the production of heavy weapons4 ,after #aiad1 war industry sprang up in the ,united ,states1 yet in #aiag there were only a score or so of firms engaged in the manufacture of artillery ammunition1 big guns1 rifles1 machine guns1 and other important ordnance supplies for the allies4 ,when the armistice was signed nearly #h1jjj manufacturing plants in the ,united ,states were working on ordnance contracts4 ,while many of these contracts entailed production not much dissimilar to commercial output1 yet here is another ratio--the #bj or more original factories compared with the ultimate #h1jjj--which serves as an indication of the expansion of the industrial knowledge of the special processes incident to ordnance manufacture4 ,when we found ourselves in the war the first step was to extend our ordnance knowledge as quickly as possible4 ,the war in ,europe had developed thousands of new items of ordnance1 many of them carefully guarded as military secrets1 with which our own officers were familiar only in a general way4 ,as soon as we became a belligerent1 however1 we at once turned to the allies1 and they freely and fully gave us of their store of knowledge--plans1 specifications1 working models1 secret devices1 and complete manufacturing processes4 ,with this knowledge at hand we adopted for our own program certain ,french types of field guns and howitzers and ,british types of heavy howitzers4 ,the reproduction of the ,british types caused no unusual difficulties1 but the adoption of ,french plans brought into the situation a factor the difficulties of which are apt not to be appreciated by the uninitiated4 ,this new element for consideration was the circumstance that the entire ,french system of manufacture in metals is radically different from our own in its practices and is not readily adapted to ,american methods4 ,the ,english and the ,american engineers and shops use inches and feet in their measurements1 but the ,french use the metric system4 ,this fact means that there was not a single standard ,american drill1 reamer1 tap1 die1 or other machine-shop tool that would accurately produce the result called for by a ,french ordnance drawing in the metric system4 ,moreover1 the ,french standards for metal stocks1 sheets1 plates1 angles1 ,i-beams1 rivet holes1 and rivet spacing are far different from ,american standards4 ,it was discovered that complete ,french drawings were in numerous cases nonexistent1 the ,french practice relying for small details upon the memory and skill of its artisans4 ,but even when the complete drawings were obtained1 then the ,american ordnance engineer was confronted with the choice of either revolutionizing the machining industry of the ,united ,states by changing over its entire equipment to conform to the metric system1 or else of doing what was done--namely1 translating the ,french designs into terms of standard ,american shop practice1 a process which in numerous cases required weeks and even months of time on the part of whole staffs of experts working at high tension4 ,nor do the ,french know the ,american quantity-production methods4 ,the ,french artisan sees always the finished article1 and he is given discretion in the final dimensions of parts and in the fitting and assembling of them4 ,but the ,american mechanic sees only the part in which he is a specialist in machining1 working with strict tolerances and producing pieces which require little or no fitting in the assembling room4 ,consequently1 in the translating of ,french plans it was necessary to put into them what they never had before1 namely1 rigid tolerances and exact measurements4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #a4 ,,expenditure ,,of ,,artillery ,,ammunition ,,in ,,modern ,,battles4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,year4,battle4 ,days' ,army4 ,rounds of artillery ammunition duration4 expended4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ahfc;,chickamauga #b ,union #g1cbe #ahfc;,gettysburg #c ,union #cb1gha #ahgj,st4 ,privat #a ,german #ci1jjj #aijd,nan ,shan #a ,japanese #cd1jdg #aijd,liao ,yang #i ,russian #acd1djj #aijd,sha ,ho #i ,russian #bgd1cjj #aiae,neuve #ac ,british #aig1jjj ,chapelle #aiae,souches #ba ,french #cjj1jjj #aiaf,somme #cg ,british #d1jjj1jjj #aiag,messines #cg ,british #b1gec1jjj ,ridge #aiah,st4 ,mihiel #bd ,united #a1jih1bag ,states ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a ,artillery preparation lasted #ce minutes4 #b ,artillery preparation lasted #d hours4 #c ,artillery preparation intermittent #g days4 ,one of the most striking developments of the present war has been the great increase in the use of artillery to precede infantry action in battle4 ,this is illustrated by a comparison of the expenditure of artillery ammunition in characteristic battles of recent wars with that in important battles of the present war4 ,the special features of the several battles should be kept in mind4 ,chickamauga was fought in a heavily wooded region2 ,gettysburg and ,st4 ,privat over open farm land4 ,the latter battles1 together with ,nan ,shan1 and all the battles of the present war considered below1 involved artillery preparation for assault upon armies in defensive position4 ,the expenditures1 therefore1 are roughly comparable4 ,the high mark of the use of artillery in offensive battle was reached at the ,somme and ,messines ,ridge1 before the effective use of tanks was developed4 ,when an army of #ajj1jjj men expands and becomes an army of #c1jjj1jjj1 it becomes a job just #cj times bigger to feed the #c1jjj1jjj than it was to feed the #ajj1jjj4 ,a soldier of a campaigning army eats no more than a soldier of a quiet military post4 ,the same is true approximately in the case of clothing an army4 ,but the army's consumption of ammunition in time of war is far out of proportion to its numerical expansion to meet the war emergency4 ,for instance1 an ,army machine gun in time of peace might fire #f1jjj rounds in practice during the year4 ,this was the standard quantity of cartridges provided in peace4 ,yet it is necessary to provide for a single machine gun on the field in such a war as the recent one #bhh1hge rounds of ammunition during its first year of operation1 this figure including the initial stock and the reserve supply as well as the actual number of rounds fired4 ,thus the machine gun of war increases its appetite1 so to speak1 for ammunition #d1gjj per cent in the first year of fighting4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #b4 ,,rates ,,of ,,artillery ,,fire ,,per ,,gun ,,per ,,day ,,in ,,recent ,,wars4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,war4 ,army4 ,approximate rounds per gun per day4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ahed-ahef1 ,crimean ,british and ,french #de #ahei1 ,italian ,austrian 4#c #ahfa-ahfe1 ,civil ,union #d #ahff1 ,austro-,prussian ,austrian #b4b ,prussian 4#h #ahgj-ga1 ,franco-,prussian,german #ea4a #aijd-e1 ,russo-,japanese ,russian #d #aiab-ac1 ,balkan ,bulgarian #g ,,present ,,war ,september1 #aiad ,french #eh ,jan4 #a-,oct4 #a1 #aiah ,italian #eh ,jan4 #a-,nov4 #aa1 #aiah ,united ,states #ecj ,jan4 #a-,nov4 #aa1 #aiah ,french #ecd ,jan4 #a-,nov4 #aa1 #aiah ,british #ece ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #d ,siege of ,sebastopol4 #e ,field gun ammunition only4 ,the rates are based upon total expenditure and average number of guns in the hands of field armies for the period of the wars4 ,a large part of the heavy expenditure of artillery ammunition in the present as compared with other modern wars can be attributed to the increased rate of fire made possible by improved methods of supply in the field and by the rapid-fire guns now in use4 ,in wars fought before the introduction of quick-firing field guns1 four or five rounds per day was the greatest average rate4 ,even this was reached only in the siege of ,sebastopol1 where armies were stationary and supply by water was easy1 and in the ,american ,civil ,war1 which was characterized by advanced tactical developments4 ,the guns of the allied armies in ,france fired throughout the year #aiah at a rate about seven times greater than these previously high rates4 ,in the case of larger weapons the increase in ammunition consumption is even more startling4 ,prior to #aiag the ,war ,department allotted to each #c-;inch field gun #abe rounds of ammunition per year for practice firing4 ,ammunition for the #ge-millimeter guns 7the #c-;inch equivalent7 was being produced to meet an estimated supply of #bb1gej rounds for each gun in a single year1 or an increased consumption of ammunition in war over peace of #ah1ajj per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #c4 ,,expenditure ,,of ,,artillery ,,ammunition ,,in ,,recent ,,wars4 ,,past ,,wars ,,compared ,,with ,,one ,,month ,,of ,,present ,,war4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,year4 ,war4 ,army4 ,rounds expended during war4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #ahei ,italian ,austrian #ae1cbf #ahfa-ahfe;,civil ,union #e1jjj1jjj #ahff ,austro-,prussian,prussian #cf1aii ,austrian #if1dgb #ahgj-ga ,franco-,prussian,german #hag1jjj #aijd-e ,russo-,japanese ,russian #ied1jjj #aiab-ac ,balkan ,bulgarian #gjj1jjj #aiah ,present ,british ,in one and month4#f ,french #ab1gaj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,expenditures ,,for ,,one ,,year1 ,,civil ,,and ,,present ,,wars4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #ahfdg ,civil ,union #a1iej1jjj #aiahh ,present ,united #h1ajj1jjj ,states #aiahh ,present ,british #ga1dde1jjj #aiahh ,present ,french #ha1jgj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #f ,average1 year ended ,nov4 #aj1 #aiah4 #g ,year ended ,june #cj1 #ahfd4 #h ,year ended ,nov4 #aj1 #aiah4 ,the industrial effort necessary to maintain modern armies in action may be measured to a certain extent by their expenditure of artillery ammunition4 ,european wars of the past #ajj years were for the most part decided before peace-time reserves had been exhausted4 ,the ,american ,civil ,war1 however1 required for its decision an industrial mobilization at that time unprecedented1 which1 like the use in that war of intrenchments by field armies1 was more truly indicative of the trend of modern warfare than were the conditions of the more recent ,european wars4 ,thus when a peace army of #ajj1jjj becomes a war army of #c1jjj1jjj its ammunition consumption becomes not #cj times greater1 but anywhere from #dh to #ahb times #cj times greater--an increase far out of proportion to its increase in the consumption of food1 clothing1 or other standard supplies4 ,modern invention has made possible and modern practice has put into effect a greatly augmented use of ammunition4 ,figures #a1 #b1 and #c show graphically how ammunition expenditure has increased in modern times4 ,another circumstance that complicated the ordnance problem was the increasing tendency throughout the great war to use more and more the mechanical or machine methods of fighting as opposed to the older and simpler forms in which the human or animal factor entered to a greater extent4 ,at the time the ,united ,states entered the war the regulations prescribed #ej machine guns as the equipment for an infantry division4 ,when the armistice was signed the standard equipment of a division called for #bfj heavy machine guns and #gfh light automatic rifles4 ,of the heavy machine guns with a division1 only #afh were supposed to be in active service1 the remainder being in reserve or in use for antiaircraft work4 ,however1 the comparison in the two standards of equipment shows the tendency toward machine methods in the wholesale killing of modern warfare and indicates the fresh demands made upon the ordnance organization to procure this additional machinery of death4 ,moreover1 when the fighting came to an end the ,a4 ,e4 ,f4 was on the point of adding to its regimental and divisional equipment a further large number of automatic rifles4 ,the day of the horse was passing in the great war as far as his connection with the mobile artillery was concerned1 and the gasoline motor was taking his place1 this tendency being accelerated particularly by ,america1 the greatest nation of all in automotivity4 ,trucks and tractors to pull the guns1 motor ammunition trucks displacing the old horse-drawn caissons and limbers1 even self-propelling platforms for the larger field guns1 with track laying or caterpillar mounts supplying not only mobility for the gun but aiming facilities as well2 these were the fresh developments4 ,some of these improvements were produced and put in the field1 the others were under development at the signing of the armistice4 ,the whole tendency toward motorization served to complicate ordnance production in this country1 not only in the supply of the weapons and traction devices themselves1 but in the production of increased supplies of ammunition1 since these improvements also tended to increase the rapidity with which bullets and shell were consumed4 ,the total cost of the ordnance alone required to equip the first #e1jjj1jjj ,americans called to arms was estimated to be between #ab1jjj1jjj1jjj and #ac1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,this was equal to about half of all the money appropriated by ,congresses of the ,united ,states from the first ,continental ,congress down to our declaration of war against ,germany1 out of which appropriations had been paid the cost of every war we ever had1 including the ,civil ,war1 and the whole enormous expenses of the ,government in every official activity of #adj years4 ,to equip with ordnance an army of this size in the period projected meant the expenditure of money at a rate which would build a ,panama ,canal complete every #cj days4 ,above are sketched some of the difficulties of the situation4 ,in our favor we had the greatest industrial organization in the world1 engineering skill to rank with any1 a race of people traditionally versatile in applying the forces of machinery to the needs of mankind1 inventive genius which could match its accomplishments with those of the rest of the world added together1 a capacity for organization that proved to be astonishingly effective in such an effort as the nation made in #aiag and #aiah1 enormous stores of raw materials1 the country being more nearly self-sufficient in this respect than any other nation of the globe1 magnificent facilities of inland transportation1 a vast body of skilled mechanics1 and a selective-service law designed to take for the ,army men nonessential to the ,nation's industrial efforts for war and to leave in the workshops the men whose skill could not be withdrawn without subtracting somewhat from the national store of industrial ability4 ,it only remains to sketch in swift outlines something of the accomplishments of the ,american ordnance effort4 ,in general it may be said that those projects of the ordnance program to which were assigned the shorter time limits were most successful4 ,there never was a time when the production of smokeless powder and high explosives was not sufficient for our own requirements1 with large quantities left over for both ,france and ,england4 ,america in #ai months of development built over #b1ejj1jjj shoulder rifles1 a quantity greater than that produced either by ,england or by ,france in the same period1 although both those countries in ,april1 #aiag1 at the time when we started1 had their rifle production already in a high stage of development4 7,see fig4 #d47 ,however1 the ,franco-,british production of rifles dropped in rate in #aiah because there was no longer need for original rifle equipment for new troops4 ,in the #ai months of war ,american factories produced over #b1hgi1jjj1jjj rounds of rifle and machine-gun ammunition4 ,this was somewhat less than the production in ,great ,britain during the same period and somewhat less than that of ,france2 but ,america began the effort from a standing start1 and in the latter part of the war was turning out ammunition at a monthly rate twice that of ,france and somewhat higher than that of ,great ,britain4 7,see fig4 #d47 ,between ,april #f1 #aiag1 and ,november #aa1 #aiah1 ,america produced as many machine guns and automatic rifles as ,great ,britain did in the same period and #ha per cent of the number produced by ,france2 while at the end of the effort ,america was building machine guns and machine rifles nearly three times as rapidly as ,great ,britain and more than twice as fast as ,france4 7,fig4 #d47 ,when it is considered that a long time must elapse before machine-gun factories can be equipped with the necessary machine tools and fixtures1 the effort of ,america in this respect may be fairly appreciated4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #d4 ,,production ,,of ,,rifles1 ,,machine ,,guns1 ,,and ,,ammunition1 ,,france ,,and ,,united ,,states ,,compared ,,with ,,great ,,britain4 ,,average ,,monthly ,,rate1 ,,july1 ,,august1 ,,and ,,september1 #aiah4 ,machine guns and machine rifles3 ,per cent of rate for ,great ,britain4 ,great ,britain #aj1idg #ajj ,france #ab1abf #aaa ,united ,states #bg1bgj #bdi ,rifles3 ,great ,britain #aab1hba #ajj ,france #dj1ebb #cf ,united ,states #bcc1efb #bjg ,rifle and machine-gun ammunition3 ,great ,britain #bei1gfi1jjj #ajj ,france #aci1hde1jjj #ed ,united ,states #bgg1hid1jjj #ajg ,,total ,,production1 ,,april #f1 #aiag1 ,,to ,,november #aa1 #aiah ,machine guns and machine rifles3 ,per cent of rate for ,great ,britain4 ,great ,britain #aha1djd #ajj ,france #bbi1bhh #abf ,united ,states #aha1ffb #ajj ,rifles3 ,great ,britain #a1iga1gfd #ajj ,france #a1daf1jef #gb ,united ,states #b1ejf1gdb #abg ,rifle and machine-gun ammunition3 ,great ,britain #c1dhf1abg1jjj #ajj ,france #b1ihc1fge1jjj #hf ,united ,states #b1hgi1adh1jjj #hc ,british and ,french production of rifles during #aiah was at a lower rate than had been attained because there was no longer need for original equipment of troops4 ,prior to ,november #aa1 #aiah1 ,america produced in the #ge-millimeter size alone about #d1bej1jjj high-explosive shell1 over #ejj1jjj gas shell1 and over #g1bej1jjj shrapnel4 ,of the high-explosive shell produced #b1gce1jjj were shipped to ,france up to ,november #ae1 #aiah4 ,in all #h1ejj1jjj rounds of shell of this caliber were floated--nearly two-thirds of it being shrapnel4 ,american troops on the line expended a total of #f1bej1jjj rounds of #ge-millimeter ammunition1 largely high-explosive shell of ,french manufacture drawn from the ,franco-,american ammunition pool4 ,american high-explosive shell were tested in ,france by the ,french ordnance experts and approved for use by the ,french artillery just before the armistice4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,munitions ,,building1 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,the ,lincoln ,memorial and the ,potomac ,river in the background4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,park ,,of ,,american-,,built #aee-,,millimeter ,,howitzers ,,at ,,aberdeen ,,proving ,,ground4 ,illustration3 ,,american-,,built ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 #aee-,,millimeter ,,guns ,,stored ,,at ,,aberdeen ,,proving ,,ground4 ,illustration3 ,,guns ,,of ,,various ,,sorts ,,and ,,sizes ,,returned ,,from ,,france ,,by ,,american ,,expeditionary ,,forces ,,just ,,as ,,they ,,were ,,unloaded ,,from ,,train ,,at ,,aberdeen4 ,illustration3 ,,american-,,built ,,ordnance ,,material1 ,,parked ,,on ,,aberdeen ,,proving ,,ground4 ,illustration3 ,,american-,,built ,,ordnance ,,stores ,,at ,,aberdeen ,,proving ,,ground4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,park ,,of ,,american-,,built ,,caissons1 ,,back ,,from ,,france1 ,,at ,,aberdeen ,,proving ,,ground4 ,illustration3 ,,charging ,,floor ,,of ,,an ,,open-,,hearth ,,furnace4 ,the charging floor of an open-hearth furnace building1 showing two furnaces on the side into which the raw materials are charged4 ,each of these furnaces is #ge feet long and #ae feet wide1 and the melted steel lies in a shallow bath inside the three doors1 into one of which the man is looking4 ,the pool or bath1 as it is termed1 is #cc feet long by #ab feet wide and approximately #b feet deep1 weighs approximately #fj tons1 and is composed of pig iron and well-selected scrap steel from previous operations1 which are placed in the furnace through the three doors shown1 the furnace being all the time at a temperature so high that the naked eye may not look within the furnace1 but must be protected with blue glass or smoked glass1 exactly as when looking at the noonday sun4 ,the eye can see nothing in the atmosphere of the bath in which the steel is being melted and refined1 due to the exceedingly high temperature1 which gives a light as white as that of the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #e4 ,,production ,,of ,,artillery ,,ammunition1 ,,france ,,and ,,united ,,states ,,compared ,,with ,,great ,,britain4 ,types for use in ,a4 ,e4 ,f4 ,,monthly ,,rate ,,at ,,end ,,of ,,war4 ,unfilled rounds3 ,per cent of rate for ,great ,britain4 ,great ,britain #g1gdh1jjj #ajj ,france #f1ffa1jjj #hf ,united ,states #g1jdd1jjj #ia ,complete rounds3 ,great ,britain #g1cdg1jjj #ajj ,france #g1fch1jjj #ajd ,united ,states #b1gab1jjj #cg ,,total ,,production1 ,,april #a1 #aiag1 ,,to ,,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,unfilled rounds3 ,per cent of rate for ,great ,britain4 ,great ,britain #ach1ceg1jjj #ajj ,france #aef1agj1jjj #aac ,united ,states #ch1fbc1jjj #bh ,complete rounds3 ,great ,britain #aba1gci1jjj #ajj ,france #adi1hbg1jjj #abc ,united ,states #ag1bfj1jjj #ad ,in artillery ammunition rounds of all calibers ,america at the end of the war was turning out unfilled shell faster than the ,french and nearly as fast as the ,british2 but1 due to the shortage in adapters and boosters1 a shortage rapidly being overcome at the end of the war1 the rate of production of completed rounds was only about one-third that of either ,great ,britain or ,france4 ,in total production during her #ai months of belligerency ,america turned out more than one-quarter as many unfilled rounds as ,great ,britain did in the same time and about one-quarter as many as came from the ,french munition plants4 ,in completed rounds alone did ,america lag far behind the records of the two principal allies during #aiag and #aiah4 7,fig4 #e47 ,the production of completed rounds of artillery ammunition was gaining rapidly1 beginning with the early summer of #aiah1 and in the month of ,october was approaching half the rate of manufacture in ,great ,britain or in ,france4 ,figure #f shows graphically the rate at which the artillery ammunition deliveries were expanding4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #f4 ,,complete ,,rounds ,,of ,,artillery ,,ammunition ,,produced ,,for ,,the ,,army ,,each ,,month ,,during #aiah 7,,figures ,,in ,,thousands ,,of ,,rounds74 ,jan4 #acj ,feb4 #ach ,mar4 #ejj ,apr4 #ijf ,may4 #ajcd ,june4 #acai ,july4 #ajea ,aug4 #aihd ,sept4 #bedh ,oct4 #cjbf ,nov4 #begj ,dec4 #bjbd ,in artillery proper the war ended too soon for ,american industry to arrive at a great production basis4 ,the production of heavy ordnance units is necessarily a long and arduous effort even when plants are in existence and mechanical forces are trained in the work4 ,america in large part had to build her ordnance industry from the ground up--buildings1 machinery1 and all--and to recruit and train the working forces after that4 ,the national experience in artillery production in the great war most like our own was that of ,great ,britain1 who started in from scratch1 even as we did4 ,it is interesting1 then1 to know how ,great ,britain expanded her artillery industry1 and the testimony of the ,british ministry of munitions may throw a new light on our own efforts in this respect4 ,in discussing artillery in the war the ,british ministry of munitions issued a statement from which the following is an excerpt3 ,it is very difficult to say how long it was before the ,british army was thoroughly equipped with artillery and ammunition4 ,the ultimate size of the army aimed at was continually increased during the first three years of the war1 so that the ordnance requirements were continually increasing4 ,it is probably true to say that the equipment of the army as planned in the early summer of #aiae was completed by ,september1 #aiaf4 ,as a result1 however1 of the battle of ,verdun and the early stages of the battle of the ,somme1 a great change was made in the standard of equipment per division of the army1 followed by further increases in ,september1 #aiaf4 ,the army was not completely equipped on this new scale until spring1 #aiah4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #g4 ,,complete ,,units ,,of ,,mobile ,,artillery ,,produced ,,for ,,the ,,army ,,each ,,month ,,during #aiah4 ,jan4 #gc ,feb4 #fh ,mar4 #hi ,apr4 #hf ,may4 #gf ,june4 #ajf ,july4 #he ,aug4 #ahj ,sept4 #bga ,oct4 #dfe ,nov4 #bff ,dec4 #bgi ,thus it took ,england three and a half years to equip her army completely with artillery and ammunition on the scale called for at the end of the war4 ,on this basis ,america1 when the armistice came1 had two years before her to equal the record of ,great ,britain in this respect4 ,as to the production of gun bodies ready for mounting1 the attainments of ,american ordnance were more striking4 ,at the end of the fighting ,america had passed the ,british rate of production and was approaching that of the ,french4 ,in totals for the whole war period 7,apr4 #f1 #aiag1 to ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah7 the ,american production of gun bodies could scarcely be compared with either that of the ,british or that of the ,french1 this due to the fact that it required many months to build up the forging plants before production could go ahead4 ,in completed artillery units the ,american rate of production at the end of the war was rapidly approaching both that of the ,british and that of the ,french4 ,in total production of complete units in the #ai months of war1 ,american ordnance turned out about one-quarter as many as came from the ,british ordnance plants and less than one-fifth as many as the ,french produced in the same period4 ,figure #h represents visually ,america's comparative performances in the production of gun bodies and complete artillery units4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #h4 ,,production ,,of ,,artillery1 ,,france ,,and ,,united ,,states ,,compared ,,with ,,great ,,britain4 ,,average ,,monthly ,,rate ,,at ,,end ,,of ,,war4 ,gun bodies 7new73 ,per cent of rate for ,great ,britain4 ,great ,britain #hjb #ajj ,france #a1ach #adb ,united ,states #hcb #ajd ,complete units3 ,great ,britain #dhf #ajj ,france #fei #acf ,united ,states #dab #he ,,total ,,production1 ,,april #a1 #aiag1 ,,to ,,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,gun bodies 7new73 ,per cent of rate for ,great ,britain4 ,great ,britain #aa1heb #ajj ,france #ai1dib #afd ,united ,states #d1bge #cf ,complete units3 ,great ,britain #h1jfe #ajj ,france #aa1jef #acg ,united ,states #b1jjh #be ,stress has sometimes been laid upon the fact that the ,american ,army was required to purchase considerable artillery and other supplies abroad1 the latter including airplanes1 motor trucks1 food and clothing1 and numerous other materials4 ,yet1 balanced against this fact is that every time we spent a dollar with the allied governments for ordnance1 we sold ordnance1 or materials for conversion into munitions to the allied governments to the value of five dollars4 ,the interallied ordnance agreement provided that certain munitions plants in the ,united ,states should continue to furnish supplies to the allies1 and that additional plants for the allies should be built up and fostered by us4 ,thus1 while we were purchasing artillery and ammunition from the allies we were shipping to them great quantities of raw materials1 half-completed parts1 and completely assembled units1 and such war-time commodities as powder and explosives1 forgings for cannon and other heavy devices1 motors1 and structural steel4 ,the following table shows the ordnance balance sheet between ,america and the allied governments3 ,purchase and sales from ,apr4 #f1 #aiag1 to ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 ,purchases3 ,by ,army ,ordnance ,department from #dej1bcd1bef4he ,allied governments ,sales3 ,by ,army ,ordnance ,department to ,allied governments #bjj1faf1djb4jj ,by ,united ,states manufacturers other than ,army ,ordnance ,department to ,allied governments #b1jid1ghg1ihd4jj ---------------- ,total #b1bie1djd1chf4jj ,the credit for the ordnance record can not go merely to those men who wore the uniform and were part of the ordnance organization4 ,rather it is due to ,american science1 engineering1 and industry1 all of which combined their best talents to make the ordnance development worthy of ,america's greatness4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,gun ,,production4 ,the sole use of a gun is to throw a projectile4 ,the earliest projectile was a stone thrown by the hand and arm of man--either in an attack upon an enemy or upon a beast that was being hunted for food4 ,both of these uses of thrown projectiles persist to this day1 and during all time1 from prehistoric days until now1 every man who had a projectile to throw was steadily seeking for a longer range and a heavier projectile4 ,the man who could throw the heaviest stone the longest distance was the most powerfully armed4 ,in the ,biblical battle between ,david and ,goliath1 the arm of ,david was strengthened and lengthened by a leather sling of very simple construction4 ,much practice had given the young shepherd muscular strength and direction1 and his longer arm and straighter aim gave him power to overcome his more heavily armed adversary4 ,later1 machines were developed after the fashion of a crossbow mounted upon a small wooden carriage which usually was a hollowed trough open on top and upon which a heavy stone was laid4 ,the thong of the crossbow was drawn by a powerful screw operated by man power1 and the crossbow arrangement when released would throw a stone weighing many pounds quite a distance over the walls of a besieged city or from such walls into the camps and ranks of the besiegers4 ,this again was an attempt by mechanical means to develop and lengthen the stroke of the arm and the weight of the projectile4 ,with the development of explosives1 which was much earlier than many people suppose1 there came a still greater range and weight of projectile thrown1 although the first guns were composed of staves of wood fitted together and hooped up like a long1 slender barrel1 wound with wet rawhide in many folds1 which1 when dried1 exerted a compressive force upon the staves of the barrel exactly as do the steel hoops of barrels used in ordinary commercial life to-day4 ,this1 the first gun1 sufficed for a long while until the age of iron came4 ,and then the same principle of gun construction was followed as is seen in that historical gun1 the ,mons ,meg1 in the castle at ,edinburgh4 ,the barrel of that gun is made of square bars of iron1 placed lengthwise1 and similar bars of iron were wrapped hot around the staves to confine them in place and to give more resisting power than was possible with the wooden staves and the rawhide hooping4 ,thus1 all during the age of iron1 gun development went steadily forward4 ,every military power was always striving by the aid of its best engineers1 designers1 and manufacturers to get a stronger gun1 either with or without a heavier projectile1 but in every case striving for greater power4 ,as a special development we find in ,march1 #aiah1 the now famous long-range gun of the ,germans1 which was at that time trained upon ,paris1 where it successfully delivered a shell approximately #i inches in diameter1 punctually every #bj minutes for a good part of each day until the gun was worn out4 ,this occurred after a comparatively small number of shots1 probably not more than #ge in all4 ,the rapid wearing out was due to the immense demands of the long range upon the material of the gun4 ,the ,germans in the shelling of ,paris used three of these long-range weapons and #ahc shells are known to have fallen in the city4 ,the ,germans evidently calculated with great care and experience upon the factors leading up to this famous long-range type of gun1 which had an effective shooting distance of approximately #ge miles1 which range1 in the opinion of our experts1 it is now quite easy for an experienced designer and manufacturer to equal and excel at will4 ,in fact1 one would hesitate to place a limit upon the length of range that could be achieved by a gun that it is now possible to design and build4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note that the great ,french ordnance works at ,le ,creusot in #ahib produced the first known and well-authenticated long-range gun1 which was constructed from the design of a #ab-;inch gun1 but bored down to throw a #f-;inch projectile4 ,and instead of the usual #h miles expected from the flight of a #f-;inch shell this early ,creusot long-range gun gave a range of approximately #ba miles with a #f-;inch projectile1 using a #ab-;inch gun's powder charge4 ,closely connected with the development of the gun itself1 and a necessary element of the gun's successful use1 is the requirement that the weapon itself be easily transported from point to point1 where its available range and capacity for throwing the projectile can be made of maximum use4 ,this requires a gun carriage which has within itself various functions1 the primary one being to establish the gun in the desired position where it can be made most effective against the enemy4 ,then1 too1 the gun carriage must have stability in order to withstand1 absorb1 and care for the enormous recoil energies let loose by the firing of the gun4 ,it is obvious that the force which propels the projectile forward is equal to the reacting force to the rear1 and in order to care for1 absorb1 and distribute to the earth this reacting force to the rear the carriage must have within itself some very peculiar and important properties4 ,to this end there is provided what is known as a brake which permits the gun1 upon the moment of firing1 to slide backward bodily within the controlling apparatus mounted upon a fixed carriage4 ,the sliding of the whole gun to the rear by means of the mechanism of the brake is controlled1 as to speed and time1 by springs1 by compressed air1 by compressed oil1 etc41 either all together or in combinations of two or three of these agencies2 so that the whole recoil energy is absorbed and the rearward action of the gun brought to rest in a fraction of a second and in but a very few inches of travel4 ,the strains are distributed from the recoil mechanism to the fixed portion of the carriage that is necessarily anchored to the ground by means of spades1 which the recoil force of each shot sets more firmly into the ground1 so that the whole apparatus is thus steadily held in place for successive shots4 ,in mobile artillery1 again1 rapid firing is a prime essential4 ,the #ge-millimeter gun of modern manufacture is capable of being fired at a rate in excess of #bj shots a minute--that is1 a shot every #c seconds4 ,rarely however1 is a gun served as rapidly as this4 ,the more usual rate of fire is #f shots a minute or #a about each #aj seconds1 and this rate of fire can be maintained in the #ge-millimeter gun with great accuracy over a comparatively long period4 ,the larger guns are served at proportionately slower rates1 until as the calibers progress to the #ad-;inch rifles1 which have been set up upon railway mounts as well as on fixed emplacements for seacoast defense1 the rate of fire is reduced to one shot in three minutes for railway mounts1 and to one shot a minute for seacoast mounts1 although upon occasions a more rapid rate of fire can be reached4 ,under rapid fire conditions1 the gun becomes very hot1 owing to the heat generated by the combustion of the powder within the gun at pressures as high as #ce1jjj pounds per square inch or more1 which are generated at the moment of fire4 ,this heat is communicated through the walls of the gun and taken off by the cooling properties of the air4 ,nevertheless1 the wall of the gun becomes so hot that it would scorch or burn a hand laid upon it4 ,the rapid fire and heating of the gun lessens the effective life of the weapon1 due to the fact that the hot powder gases react more rapidly on hot metal than they do upon cold metal2 hence a gun will last many rounds longer if fired at a slow rate than if fired at a rapid rate4 ,it may be helpful to keep in mind throughout that the sole purpose of a gun is to fire a projectile1 as was stated at the very beginning of this chapter4 ,all other operations connected with the life of a gun1 its manufacture1 its transportation to the place where it is to be used1 its aiming1 its loading and all its functions and operations are bound up in the single purpose of actually firing the shot4 ,consider now for a moment1 the life of1 let us say1 one of the #ad-;inch guns4 ,in the great steel mills it requires hundreds and perhaps thousands of workmen to constitute the force necessary to handle the enormous masses of steel through the various processes which finally result in the finished gun4 ,from the first operation in the steel mill it requires perhaps as long as #aj months to produce the gun ready for the first test4 ,during the #aj months of manufacture of one of these #ad-;inch rifles there has been expended for the gun and its carriage approximately #bjj1jjj4 ,of course1 while it requires #aj months to make a final delivery of one gun after its first operation is commenced1 it should be remembered that yet other guns are following in series and that in a well-equipped ordnance factory two and perhaps three guns per month of this kind can be turned out continuously1 if required4 ,remembering now that it requires #aj months to produce one such #ad-;inch rifle and that its whole purpose is to fire a shot1 consider now the time required to fire this shot4 ,as the primer is fired and the powder charge ignited the projectile begins to move forward in the bore of the gun at an increasingly rapid rate1 so that by the time it emerges from the muzzle and starts on its errand of death and destruction1 it has taken from a thirtieth to a fiftieth of a second in time1 depending upon certain conditions4 ,assuming that a fiftieth of a second has been taken up and that the life of a large high-pressure gun at a normal rate of firing is #aej shots1 it is obvious then that in the actual firing of these #aej shots only three seconds of time are consumed4 ,therefore1 the active life of the gun1 which it has taken #aj months to build1 is but three seconds long in the actual performance of the function of throwing a shot4 ,however1 after the gun has fired its life of #aej shots it is a comparatively simple and inexpensive matter to bore out the worn-out liner and insert a new liner1 thus fitting the gun again for service1 with an expenditure of time and money much less than would be required in the preparation of a new gun4 ,as the size of the powder charge decreases1 a progressively longer life of the walls of the bore of a gun is attained1 so that we have had the experience of a #ge-millimeter gun firing #ab1jjj rounds without serious effect upon the accuracy of fire4 ,large-caliber guns1 such as #ab-;inch howitzers1 with the reduced powder charge required for the lower muzzle velocities employed in howitzer attack1 have retained their accuracy of fire after #aj1jjj rounds4 ,from the fact that when in action guns are served with ammunition1 aimed1 fired1 and cared for by a crew of men carefully trained to every motion involved in the successful use of the gun1 it is most essential that the design and the material shall be such1 both as to calculation in the design and as to manufacture in the material1 as will insure the maintenance of the morale of the crew that serves the gun4 ,each man must be confident to the very last bit of fiber in his make-up that his gun is the best gun in the world1 that it will behave properly1 that it will protect him and his fellow soldiers who are caring for the welfare of their country1 that it will respond accurately and well to every demand made upon it1 that it will not yield or burst1 that it will not shoot wild1 but that it will in every respect give the result required in its operation4 ,to this end it has for generations been known that the requirements of manufacture of ordnance material1 particularly for the body of the gun1 are of the very highest order and call for the finest attainable quality in material1 workmanship1 and design4 ,it is well known and admitted that the steel employed in the manufacture of guns must be of the highest quality and of the finest grade for its purpose4 ,it requires the most expert knowledge of the manufacture of steel to obtain this grade and quality4 ,until recently this knowledge in ,america was confined to the ,ordnance officers of the ,army and of the ,navy and to a comparatively small number of manufacturers--not more than four in all--and only two of these manufacturers had provided the necessary equipment and appliances for the manufacture of complete guns4 ,until #aiad the number of guns whose manufacture was provided for in this country as well as in the countries of ,europe1 excepting ,germany1 was very small4 ,it might be stated that the sum total of guns purchased by the ,united ,states from the two factories mentioned did not exceed an average of #ee guns a year in calibers of from #c-;inch to #ad-;inch1 and that the stock of guns which by this low rate of increase of manufacture had been provided for us was pitifully small with which to enter a war of the magnitude of the one through which this country has just passed4 ,the two factories in question not having been encouraged by large purchases of ordnance material1 as were similar industries in ,germany1 were not capable of volume production when we entered the war4 ,but at the same time the gun bodies produced by these concerns at least equaled in quality those built in any other country on earth2 so that while the big-gun-making art was in existence in this country and was maintained as to quality1 it was most insufficient as to the quantity of the production available4 ,when the ,united ,states faced the war in ,april1 #aiag1 arrangements were at once entered into to obtain in the shortest space of time an adequate supply of finished artillery of all calibers required by our troops and to get this supply in time to meet our men as they should set foot on the shores of ,france4 ,many thousands of forgings for guns1 and finished guns too1 had been ordered by the allies of the few gun makers in this country2 and these makers were1 at the time we got into the conflict1 fully occupied for at least a year ahead with orders from the ,french and ,english ordnance departments4 ,all of this production was immediately useful and available for the combined armies of the allies1 and so it was allowed to go forward1 the forgings preventing a gap in the output of the finished articles from the ,british and ,french arsenals which were then using the semifinished guns made in the old factories in existence in this country in ,april1 #aiag4 ,some idea of the volume of this production in this country will be gained from the following table showing material supplied to the allies between ,april1 #aiag1 and the date of the signing of the armistice1 ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,guns of calibers from #c-;inch to #i4e-;inch #a1ajb furnished to the allies ,additional gun forgings furnished to the allies tubes #ad1fbc ,shell and shell forgings furnished to the allies pieces #e1jah1dea in this period ,in supplying all of this material from our regular sources of manufacture in this country to the finishing arsenals of the allies we were but maintaining our position as a part of the general source of supply4 ,the plan of the ,french and ,british ordnance engineers at the outbreak of the war in #aiad was to build their factories as quickly and as extensively as could possibly be done4 ,by the time the ,united ,states entered the war all of these factories were in operation and clamoring for raw material at a rate which was far in excess of that which could be supplied by the home steel makers in ,great ,britain and ,france4 ,consequently their incursions into the semifinished ordnance material supplies in the ,united ,states were necessary4 ,in sending these large quantities of our own materials abroad1 when we needed them ourselves1 we were distinctly adding to the rate and quantity of the supply of finished ordnance for the use of our own ,army in the field as well as being at the same time of inestimable value to the allies4 ,this was because the ,french and ,british had agreed to supply our first armies with finished fighting weapons while we were giving them the raw materials which they needed so badly4 ,the four gunmakers in ,america meanwhile were being expanded into a total of #ai makers4 ,all of these #ai factories during the month of ,october1 #aiah1 were practically in full operation4 ,many of them were producing big guns at a faster rate than that for which the plants had been designed4 ,in the month of ,october1 #aiah1 with #c of the #ai factories yet to have their machine-tool equipment completed1 there were produced #b1jca sets of gun forgings between the calibers of #c-;inch and #i4e-;inch1 which is at the rate of upward of #bd1jjj guns a year4 ,this figure1 of course1 does not indicate anything of the gun-finishing capacity of the country2 yet this expansion may be contrasted to the fact that our supply of finished guns prior to #aiag amounted only to #ee weapons a year4 ,monthly production of finished cannon1 ranging in size from #ge millimeters to #bdj millimeters1 at the various machining and assembling plants4#i ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #aiag #aiah ,caliber4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,dec4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 ---------------------------------------- --- #ge-millimeter #e #de #dh #eb #gd #abg #afi #c-;inch antiaircraft #c #af #bd #af #b #aa #d4g-;inch #f #aee-millimeter howitzer #c #aj #af #bh #ge #aee-millimeter gun #h-;inch howitzer #cd #ch #h #bdj-millimeter howitzer ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #h #fa #ge #aab #acj #afc #bfa #aiah ,caliber4 ------------------------------------ ,total ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #ge-millimeter #adb #bjd #aii #bad #cbj #bad #a1hac #c-;inch antiaircraft #aj #aa #bb #ej #cd #ca #bcj #d4g-;inch #h #ae #bi #ga #ej #ci #bah #aee-millimeter howitzer #aaj #bdh #bjf #cej #bca #agi #a1def #aee-millimeter gun #b #ad #ea #bb #dj #abi #h-;inch howitzer #bh #bb #cc #ad #ad #aia #bdj-millimeter howitzer #a #a #b ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #bgb #ejg #dib #gfi #fgb #eag #d1jci ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #i ,carriages1 recuperators1 and sights had to be added to these cannon to make them complete units ready for service4 ,monthly production of cannon forgings4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #aiag #aiah ,caliber4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,dec4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #ge-millimeter #d #ac #gc #fb #gi #bci #cgf #c-;inch antiaircraft #f #g #e #d #ab #d4g-;inch gun #i #aj #h #bh #aee-millimeter howitzer #b #ac #bf #fa #dd #adf #acc #aee-millimeter gun #a #ae #d #h-;inch howitzer #cd #ch #h #bdj-millimeter howitzer ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #f #bf #aad #agd #age #ddj #ebe #aiah ,caliber4 ------------------------------------ ,total ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #ge-millimeter #egd #fgh #ged #a1che #fgd #caj #e1bba #c-;inch antiaircraft #aj #f #di #afc #abd #ah #djd #d4g-;inch gun #gj #ajj #hd #ce #be #ec #dbb #aee-millimeter howitzer #agf #bjd #bgc #bgi #bgf #fb #a1fie #aee-millimeter gun #db #bh #ef #aje #gi #bd #ced #h-;inch howitzer #bh #bb #cc #ad #ad #aia #bdj-millimeter howitzer #cj #ba #ca #bb #di #aec ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #hgb #a1jgd #a1bei #b1jca #a1bad #ecj #h1ddj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,our chain of gun factories1 that were making this remarkable production1 were built as follows3 ,one at the ,watertown ,arsenal1 ,watertown1 ,mass41 near ,boston1 for the manufacture of rough machined gun forgings of the larger mobile calibers4 ,this factory was entirely built and equipped on ,government land with ,government money and is splendidly able to produce rough machined gun forgings of the highest quality at the rate of two sets a day for the #aee-millimeter ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 rifles1 and one set a day of the #bdj-millimeter howitzers4 ,at ,watervliet ,arsenal1 ,watervliet1 ,n4 ,y41 large extensions were made to the existing plant that had always been the ,army's prime reliance for the finishing and the assembly of guns of all calibers1 including the very largest4 ,this plant was extended to manufacture complete four of the #bdj-millimeter howitzers each day1 and two a day of the #aee-millimeter ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 guns4 ,at ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 there was constructed a complete new factory by the ,bullard ,engineering ,works for the ,united ,states to turn out four #aee-millimeter ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 guns a day4 ,at ,philadelphia1 the ,tacony ,ordnance ,corporation1 as agents for the ,government1 erected complete a new factory officered and manned by experts well-trained and experienced in the difficult art of the manufacture of steel and gun forgings4 ,on ,october #aa1 #aiag1 the grounds for this great undertaking had been merely staked out for the outline of the buildings4 ,seven months later1 on ,may #ae1 #aiah1 the entire group of buildings1 comprising a complete steel works from making the steel to the final completion of #aee-millimeter gun forgings1 was entirely erected at a cost of about #c1jjj1jjj4 ,this difficult and rapid building operation was carried through successfully during the extraordinarily severe winter of #aiag-ah4 ,on ,june #bi1 #aiah1 the first carload of gun forgings was accepted and shipped from this plant1 so we have the marvelous enterprise of building a complete steel works from the bare ground forward to the shipment of its first forgings in a total elapsed time of only eight and one-half months4 ,at another1 the works of the ,midvale ,steel ,co4 in ,philadelphia1 large extensions were made to enable some of the larger guns to be produced1 to be finished later at the ,watervliet ,arsenal4 ,at the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4's plant1 ,bethlehem1 ,pa41 as early as ,may1 #aiag1 orders were placed and appropriations allotted for expansions to this enterprise to enable a rapid output of a larger number of gun forgings and finished guns4 ,large extensions were made at the works of the ,standard ,steel ,works ,co41 ,burnham1 ,pa41 to increase their existing forging and heat treating facilities1 so that at this plant two sets of #aee-millimeter howitzers and one set of #aee-millimeter gun forgings were produced each day4 ,at ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 the plants of the ,heppenstall ,forge ,knife ,co4 and the ,edgewater ,steel ,co4 were extended so as to provide for the daily production at the first plant of forgings for one #c-;inch antiaircraft gun and one #d4g-;inch gun1 and at the second plant of forgings for one #aee-millimeter ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 gun and one #bdj-millimeter howitzer per day4 ,at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 the ,buckeye ,steel ,castings ,co4 in combination with the works of the ,symington-,anderson ,co4 at ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 had their facilities extended to provide for the manufacture each day of six sets of forgings for the #ge-millimeter guns4 ,at the ,symington-,anderson ,co4 in ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 there was provided a finishing plant for the #ge-millimeter gun with a capacity of #ae finished guns per day4 ,at ,erie1 ,pa41 one of the most remarkable achievements in rapid construction and successful mechanical operation was performed by the erection of a plant that was commenced in ,july1 #aiag1 and out of which the first production was shipped to the ,aberdeen ,proving ,grounds in ,february1 #aiah4 ,the ,american ,brake ,shoe ,foundry ,co4 built and operated this plant as agents for the ,ordnance ,department1 and much credit is due them for their energy and organizing capacity4 ,it is doubtful if history records any similar enterprise in which guns were turned out in a plant seven months from the date of beginning the erection of the factory4 ,this plant was laid out to manufacture #aj of the #aee-millimeter ,schneider-type howitzers a day1 and before the signing of the armistice it had more than fulfilled every expectation by regularly turning out up to #ae howitzers a day1 or #ij a week4 ,at ,detroit1 ,mich41 the ,chalkis ,manufacturing ,co4 adapted an existing plant1 and additional facilities were erected for the manufacture of three of the #c-;inch antiaircraft guns each day4 ,at ,madison1 ,wis41 the ,northwestern ,ordnance ,co4 erected for the ,united ,states an entire new factory1 beautifully equipped for the manufacture of four guns a day of the #d4g-;inch model4 ,at ,milwaukee1 ,wis41 the ,wisconsin ,gun ,co4 put up for the ,government an entirely new works capable of finishing six #ge-millimeter guns each day4 ,the plants at both ,milwaukee and ,madison acquitted themselves very well and gave us guns of the highest quality4 ,at ,chicago1 the ,illinois ,steel ,co4 expanded existing facilities to produce more of the necessary electric furnace steel1 which was forged into guns at several works producing gun forgings1 both for the ,army and ,navy4 ,at ,indiana ,harbor1 ,ind41 the works of the ,standard ,forgings ,co41 whose sole business had been the volume production of forgings with steam hammers and hydraulic presses1 were expanded to the enormous degree of producing each day #aj sets of gun forgings for the #aee-millimeter howitzer and #be sets a day for the #ge-millimeter gun4 ,it should be stated that this was a triumph of organizing ability and that this factory was one of our main reliances for these guns4 ,at ,gary1 ,ind41 the ,american ,bridge ,co4 created what is perhaps the finest gun-forging plant in the world1 comprising four presses from #a1jjj tons to #c1jjj tons forging capacity and all the other necessary apparatus for the production each day of two sets of #aee-millimeter ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 guns and the equivalent of one and one-half sets a day of the #bdj-millimeter howitzers4 ,at ,baltimore1 ,md41 the plant of the ,hess ,steel ,corporation was enlarged from its peace-time capacity and caused to produce at three times its normal rate the special steels required for gun manufacture4 ,it will become evident that the collection of machinery1 buildings1 and equipment necessary to produce these guns in the short space of time required and at the rate of production stipulated1 was an enormous task in itself4 ,it required the production of vast quantities of raw materials and the congregating in one place of large numbers of men capable of undertaking the exceedingly intricate mechanical processes of manufacture4 ,the success of this plan and its carrying out is due largely to the loyalty of the manufacturers who unselfishly came forward early in #aiag and agreed at the request of the ,ordnance ,department to turn over their plants1 lock1 stock1 and barrel1 to the requirements of the department2 agreed also to undertake the manufacture of products totally unfamiliar to them2 agreed likewise to lend all of their organizing ability and great material resources to the success of the plants which the ,united ,states found necessary to build in the creation of a new art1 in new locations and in an extent theretofore undreamed of4 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,big ,,gun4 ,steel1 of course1 and steel in some of its finest forms is the basis of gun manufacture4 ,the word steel for the purpose of producing guns means much more than is ordinarily carried by the word in its everyday and most commonly accepted use4 ,only steel of the very highest quality is suitable for gun manufacture1 as was indicated previously when attention was directed to the complete reliance which the operating crews must place in their guns and the severity of the uses to which the big guns are put4 ,let us take a hasty trip through a big gun plant1 watching the processes through which is finally evolved from the raw materials one of our hardy and efficient big guns4 ,entering an open-hearth furnace building at one of our big gun plants1 we find two large furnaces in which the raw materials are charged4 ,each of these furnaces is #ge feet long and #ae feet wide1 and in them in a shallow bath or pool lies the molten steel4 ,the pool is about #cc feet long by #ab feet wide and approximately #b feet deep4 ,this pool1 or bath as it is termed1 weighs approximately #fj tons and is composed of pig iron and well-selected scrap steel from previous operations4 ,the furnace is at all times during the operation of melting these raw materials in the bath kept at such a high temperature that the eye may not look within at the molten mass without being protected with blue glass or smoked glass1 exactly as when looking at the noonday sun4 ,the eye can see nothing in the atmosphere of the bath in which the steel is being melted and refined because the temperature is so exceedingly high that it gives a light as white as that of the sun4 ,after #ab or #ae hours of refining treatment in this furnace the metal is tested1 analyzed in the chemical laboratory1 and1 if found to be refined to the proper degree1 it is allowed to flow out of the furnace on the opposite side from that through which it entered4 ,flowing out of the furnace the entire charge of #fj tons finds its way into a huge ladle which is suspended from a traveling crane capable of safely carrying this great weight4 ,the ladle is then transferred by the crane to a heavy cast-iron mold which is built so as to contain as much of the #fj tons of molten metal as is required for the particular gun forging under manufacture4 ,the mold1 which we have before us now on our imaginary trip through the gun plant1 will provide an ingot from the molten metal that will be #dj inches in diameter and #ajj inches high4 ,on top of this ingot is a brick-lined so-called sinkhead4 ,this sinkhead is that portion of the molten metal that has been allowed to cool more slowly in the brick lining than the ingot does in the cast-iron mold proper4 ,the ingot with the sinkhead will weigh approximately #fj1jjj pounds4 ,this sinkhead is to insure greater solidity to the portion of the ingot which is used for the gun forging4 ,only that part of the ingot below the sinkhead enters the forging4 ,the sinkhead itself is cut off while hot under the press in a subsequent operation and afterwards remelted4 ,next the ingot is placed under a #b1jjj-ton forging press which handles ingots up to #de inches in diameter4 ,there it is forged into a square shape after coming from the mold in an octagonal form4 ,previous to its being put under this press1 however1 a careful chemical analysis has been made of the ingot to determine that it is satisfactory for gun purposes1 and then before being put under the press the whole ingot is heated in the charge chamber and fired either by a gas or oil flame4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,ladle1 ,,containing #fj ,,tons ,,of ,,molten ,,steel ,,suspended ,,from ,a ,,traveling ,,crane4 ,the ladle is receiving metal from the furnace and the crane is conveying the ladle to the mold4 ,illustration3 ,,molten ,,steel ,,being ,,poured ,,from ,,ladle ,,into ,,mold1 ,,which ,,is ,,of ,,heavy ,,cast-,,iron ,,construction1 ,,at ,,the ,,tacony ,,ordnance ,,corporation4 ,arrow points from letter ,a to a completed ingot from a mold4 ,the brick-lined sink head is a part of the mold and is to insure greater solidity to the portion of the ingot which is used for the gun forging2 only the part below the sink head entering the forging1 the sink head itself being cut off hot under the press in a subsequent operation4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,ingot ,,mold4 ,illustration3 ,a #b1jjj-,,ton ,,forging ,,press ,,at ,,the ,,tacony ,,ordnance ,,corporation ,,plant4 ,this press can forge ingots up to #de inches in diameter4 ,the ingot under the press is shown in a partly forged state4 ,note that the original octagonal shape of the ingot as it came from the mold has been forged down to a square shape and later will be forged into a round shape4 ,after coming from the mold1 the ingot has been subjected to a careful chemical analysis to determine its fitness for use as a gun barrel4 ,illustration3 ,a #i1jjj ,,ton ,,hydraulic ,,forging ,,press ,,in ,,the ,,plant ,,of ,,the ,,midvale ,,steel ,,co4 ,this press is needed for such large caliber guns as the #ad-;inch and #af-;inch guns4 ,the piece of forging under the press is armor plate and not a gun forging4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,tubes ,,of ,,the #aee-,,millimeter ,,guns ,,suspended ,,at ,,furnace4 ,three tubes of the #aee-millimeter guns suspended at furnace ready for heating and quenching to give them the necessary combination of hardness and toughness4 ,the door of the furnace is open4 ,the tubes remain in this furnace for perhaps eight hours at a temperature of #a1ejj ,fahrenheit or until a bright yellow color1 uniform in every part4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,tube ,,for ,a #ab-;,,inch ,,gun ,,just ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,furnace1 ,,where ,,it ,,was ,,tempered ,,at ,,white ,,heat ,,and ,,is ,,now ,,ready ,,for ,,quenching ,,in ,,the ,,plant ,,of ,,the ,,midvale ,,steel ,,co4 ,the gun tube is #da feet long4 ,illustration3 ,,tube ,,of ,a #aee-,,millimeter ,,gun ,,being ,,turned1 ,,prior ,,to ,,boring1 ,,at ,,the ,,tacony ,,ordnance ,,corporation ,,plant4 ,illustration3 ,,tube ,,of ,a #aee-,,millimeter ,,gun ,,in ,a ,,lathe ,,being ,,bored4 ,the ingot out of which this tube was made1 came from the mold in an octagonal shape and later was forged into a square shape and finally made round4 ,it now1 too1 has the hole bored partially into it4 ,through this hole1 ultimately1 will pass the projectile4 ,the forging press used for the larger caliber guns1 such as #ad-;inch and #af-;inch1 is of a #i1jjj-ton weight capacity4 ,after the ingot forging has been reduced from squareness to a cylindrical shape under the press1 it is allowed to cool1 then taken to the machine shop1 where it is turned and the hole through which the projectile ultimately will pass is bored into it4 ,this hole is somewhat smaller than the diameter of the projectile1 because in the finishing operation1 when the gun is assembled finally and put together1 the hole must be within one-one-thousandth of an inch of the diameter required1 which is all the tolerance that is allowed from the accuracy to which the projectiles are brought4 ,otherwise the accuracy of the gun in firing would be injured and the reliability of its aim would not be satisfactory4 ,during all of these operations with the ingot1 the steel is largely in the soft condition in which it left the forging press4 ,as is well known1 steel is capable of taking many degrees of temper4 ,temper is an old term that no longer is quite descriptive of the condition desired or obtained1 but it is sufficiently expressive of the condition desired for the purposes here4 ,this condition is one of a certain degree of hardness--greater than that ordinarily carried by the soft steel--combined with the greatest obtainable degree of toughness4 ,this combination of hardness and toughness produced to the proper degree resists the explosive power of the powder and also causes the wear on the gun in firing to be diminished and made as slight as possible4 ,to effect this combination of hardness and toughness it is necessary to take the bored and turned tubes of the guns and suspend them by means of a specially made apparatus in a furnace where they are heated for a period of perhaps eight hours to a temperature of approximately #a1ejj ,f4 or a bright-yellow color1 uniform in every part of the piece4 ,after being subjected to this treatment for the time mentioned1 the tube is then conducted by means of a traveling crane apparatus to a tank of warm water in which it is dipped and the heat rapidly taken from it down to a point of practically atmospheric temperature4 ,this quench as it is called1 produces the required degree of hardness called for by the ordnance officers' design2 but the piece has not yet got the required degree of toughness4 ,this toughness is now imparted to the hard piece by heating it once more in another furnace to a temperature of approximately #a1ajj ,f41 or a warm rosy red1 for a period of perhaps #ad hours4 ,from this temperature1 the piece is allowed to cool naturally and slowly to the atmospheric temperature4 ,the ordnance inspectors at this point determine whether the piece has the required properties in a sufficient degree1 by cutting from the tube a piece #e inches long and inch in diameter4 ,the ends of this piece are threaded suitably for gripping in a machine4 ,the piece is then pulled until the half-inch stem breaks4 ,the machine registers the amount of force required to break this piece and this gives the ordnance engineer his test as to the degree of hardness and toughness to which the piece has been brought by the heat treatment processes just described4 ,a satisfactory physical condition having been determined by pulling and breaking the test pieces described1 the whole forging is sent to the finishing shop where it is machined to a mirror polish on all its surfaces4 ,the diameters are accurately measured and the forgings assembled into the shape of a finished gun4 ,in this process there is required a different kind of care and accuracy4 ,up until this time the care has been to provide a metal of proper consistency and quality4 ,from this point forward the manufacture of a gun requires the machining and fitting of this metal into a shape and form so accurate that the full strength of the gun and the best accuracy of fire may be attained4 ,to explain how and why hoops are placed upon the gun tubing and how the various hoops are shrunk from the outside diameter of the gun will require a few lines4 ,cannon are made of concentric cylinders shrunk one upon another4 ,the object of this method of construction is twofold4 ,the distinctly practical object is the attainment throughout the wall of each cylinder of the soundness and uniformity of metal which is more certainly to be had in thin pieces than in thick ones2 the other object is more closely connected with the theory of gun construction4 ,when a hollow cylinder is subjected to an interior pressure the walls of the cylinder are not uniformly strained throughout their thickness1 but the layer at the bore is much more severely strained than that at the outside4 ,this can be readily seen if we consider a cylinder of rubber1 for example1 with a bore of #a inch and an exterior diameter of #c inches1 which are about the proportions of many guns4 ,if we put an interior air pressure on the cylinder until we expand the bore to #b inches1 the exterior diameter will not thereby be increased #a inch4 ,but supposing that it were increased as much as the bore1 that is1 #a inch1 we would have the diameter1 and therefore the circumference1 of the bore increased #ajj per cent1 and the circumference of the exterior increased #cc-a_/c per cent4 ,that is1 the layer at the bore would be strained three times as much as that at the exterior1 and the interior layer would commence to tear before that at the exterior would reach anything like its limit of strength4 ,the whole wall of the cylinder therefore would not be contributing its full strength toward resisting the interior pressure1 and there would be a waste of material as well as a loss of strength4 ,let us now consider1 instead of our simple cylinder1 a built-up cylinder composed of two concentric ones1 the inner one of a bore originally a little greater than #a inch1 and the outer one of exterior diameter a little less than three inches1 originally2 so that when the outer one is pressed over the inner one 7its inner diameter being originally too small for it to go over the inner one without stretching7 the bore of the inner one is brought to #a inch1 and the exterior of the outer one to #c inches4 ,we now have a cylinder of the same dimensions as our simple one1 but in a different state2 the layers of the inner one being compressed and those of the outer one extended4 ,if now we commence to put air pressure on the bore1 we can put on a certain amount before we wipe out the compression of the inner layer1 and bring it to a neutral state1 and thereafter can go on putting on more pressure until we stretch the inner layer #ajj per cent beyond the neutral state1 as before2 which would take just as much additional pressure as the total pressure which we employed with our simple cylinder4 ,we have therefore gained all that pressure which is necessary to bring the inner layer of our built-up cylinder from its state of compression to the neutral state4 ,if we have so proportioned the diameter of junction of our inner and outer cylinders and so gauged the amount of stretching required to get the outer one over the inner one that we have not in the process caused any of the layers of the outer one to be overstrained1 the gain has been a real one1 attained by causing the layers of the outer cylinder to make a better contribution of strength toward resisting the interior pressure4 ,this is the theory of the built-up gun4 ,the number of cylinders employed generally increases1 up to a certain limit1 with the size of the gun1 practical considerations governing2 and the shrinkage1 or amount by which the inner diameter of the outer cylinder is less than the outer diameter of the one which it is to be shrunk over1 is a matter of nice calculation4 ,roughly speaking1 it is about one and one half one-thousandths of an inch for each inch of diameter1 varying with the position of the cylinder in the gun2 and its accurate attainment1 throughout the length of the cylinder of a large gun1 is a delicate matter of the gun-maker's art and the machinist's skill4 ,the method of assembly is to have the cold tube set upright and prepared for a circulation of water within the bore of the tube to keep it cool4 ,then the hoop1 whose inside diameter is smaller than the outside diameter of the tube on which it is to be shrunk1 is measured and carefully heated to a temperature of approximately #dej ,f41 or just about the temperature of a good oven for baking or roasting4 ,this mild temperature so expands the material in the hoop that the difference of diameter is overcome and the hot hoop is expanded to a larger inside diameter than the outside diameter of the cold tube on which the hoop is to be placed4 ,next the hot1 expanded hoop is placed in position around the breech end of the tube1 and slowly and carefully cooled1 so that in contracting from the high temperature to the low ordinary temperature1 the hoop shrinks toward its original diameter and thus exerts an inclosing pressure or compressive strain upon the breech end of the tube4 ,now when the gun is fired the tube tends to expand under the pressure and this expansion is resisted1 first by the compressive force exerted by the shrunken hoop and later by the hoop itself1 so that the built-up system is stronger and better able to resist the explosive charge of the burning powder than would be the case if the gun were made in one piece and of the same thickness of metal4 ,this brief explanation will show why so many pieces are provided for the manufacture of the finished gun and the reason for the large number of machine tools and machining operations necessary in order to carry forward the manufacture of the finished article4 ,sometimes one or more of the outer cylinders are replaced by layers of wire1 wound under tension4 ,both our #d4g-;inch gun1 model #aijf1 with which our troops have been equipped for a long time and which throws a projectile weighing #de pounds a distance of about #f miles1 and the ,french #ge-millimeter 7#b4ie-;inch7 gun1 successfully used by the ,french since #ahig1 were designed to be drawn by horses1 and the guns are best used when drawn by teams of #f or #h horses4 ,as the horse has a sustained pulling power of only #fej pounds1 it is obvious that the weight to be drawn by the team of #f horses must not be more than #c1ijj pounds4 ,so there is every incentive for making mobile artillery of this kind as light as possible1 consistent with the strength required for the work to be done4 ,thus the pulling power of the horse coupled with his speed has been the limiting factor in the design and weight of mobile field artillery4 ,as one of our foremost ,united ,states ordnance engineers once said1 the limited power of the horse is what has governed the weight of our artillery1 and that if ,divine ,providence had given the horse the speed of the deer and the power of the elephant1 we might have had a far wider and more effective range for our mobile artillery4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,midvale ,,steel ,,co4 ,,plant1 ,,showing ,,types ,,of #f-;,,inch1 #g-;,,inch1 ,,and #h-;,,inch1 ,,nickel-,,steel1 ,,breech-,,loading ,,rifles4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,finished #h-;,,inch ,,rifles1 #de ,,calibers1 ,,set ,,up ,,on ,,turret ,,mounts ,,in ,,the ,,plant ,,of ,,the ,,midvale ,,steel ,,co4 ,,where ,,they ,,were ,,made4 ,in the foreground are three large gun tubes partially completed4 ,this company started the manufacture of the first piece of ordnance material in ,america in #ahhj4 ,one of the answers of the ,united ,states ordnance engineers to this problem1 as developed in the recent war1 has been the production of a tractor to replace the horse1 and this tractor has the speed of the deer and the power of the elephant4 ,the most powerful tractors are mounted on track-laying devices and are colloquially known as caterpillars4 ,one of these powerful caterpillars1 on which is mounted an #h-;inch howitzer with a range of #f miles1 which is manned and operated by only two men1 and which can go up hill and down hill1 over broken brushwood1 trees1 etc41 was recently given a severe test at the ,aberdeen ,proving ,grounds4 ,here it was sent through a dense wood in which it bumped square into a live locust tree that was #ag inches in diameter at the bottom4 ,this tree1 almost the tallest in the wood1 was prostrated by the attack of the tractor1 which rode over it and then emerged from the wood1 took up its position1 and fired its shot almost in as short a time as that which it takes to tell of the deed4 ,truly the power of the elephant and the speed of the deer has been brought to the aid of the ordnance engineer for any future warlike operations4 ,the number of workmen employed in gun production at once in this country totaled #ba1cbi1 and fully that many more are estimated to have been employed in the manufacture of gun carriages and fire-control instruments4 ,consequently in turning out the complete big guns there were fully #db1jjj workmen engaged by the month of ,october1 #aiah4 ,furthermore1 these men became so skilled in their work that it may be said that the difficult art of gun making has become firmly established in this country and that the ,united ,states may now and at any time in the near future rely on this trained body of artisans for the finest kind of gun-metal manufacture4 ,,production ,,of ,,cannon ,,forgings4 ,production of cannon forgings during the war at the various plants4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,caliber4 ,contractor4 #aiag #aiah ------------------------------- ,dec4 ,jan4,feb4 ,mar4,apr4,may4,june4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #ge-mm4 field gun1 ,bethlehem ,steel #b #a #cb #ad #ac #c #ge model #aiaf ,co41 ,bethlehem1 ,pa4 ,standard ,forgings #a #e #aa #aj #ai #e #fg ,co41 ,indiana ,harbor1 ,ind4 ,buckeye ,steel #aed ,co41 ,columbus1 ,ohio #ge-mm4 field gun1 do4 #dd #afb model #ahig ,standard ,forgings #aj ,co4 #ge-mm4 field gun1 ,bethlehem ,steel #a #g #cj #ch #dg #cc #fb model #aiag ,co4 #c-;inch anti- do4 #f #g #e #d #ab aircraft gun ,heppenstall ,forge ,knife ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #d4g-;inch gun ,bethlehem ,steel #i #aj #h #bh ,co4 ,heppenstall ,forge ,knife ,co4 #aee-mm4 howitzer ,bethlehem ,steel #aj #bf #ea #i #cg #be ,co4 ,standard ,forgings #b #c #aj #bj #ee #dd ,co4 ,standard ,steel ,co4 #ae #ed #fd #aee-mm4 gun ,bethlehem ,steel #a #i ,co4 ,edgewater ,steel ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,standard ,steel #f #d ,car ,co41 ,burnham1 ,pa4 ,tacony ,ordnance ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,american ,bridge ,co41 ,gary1 ,ind4 #h-;inch howitzer ,midvale ,steel ,co4 #a #e #aa #aj #ai #e #fg #bdj-mm4 howitzer ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 ,edgewater ,steel ,co4 ,tacony ,ordnance ,co4 ,watertown ,arsenal ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,total #f #bf #aad #agd #age #ddj #ebe ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,caliber4 ,contractor4 #aiah ,total4 ------------------------------- ,july4,aug4,sept4,oct4,nov4,dec4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #ge-mm4 field gun1 ,bethlehem ,steel #bc #g #a #ahj #a #ceb moodel #aiaf ,co41 ,bethlehem1 ,pa4 ,standard ,forgings #bi #b #adi ,co41 ,indiana ,harbor1 ,ind4 ,buckeye ,steel #aj #afd ,co41 ,columbus1 ,ohio #ge-mm4 field gun1 do4 #dai #cbe #cbb #feh #aha #bbdbcce model #ahig ,standard ,forgings #cb #bge #caj #dga #bde #ciachb ,co4 #ge-mm4 field gun1 ,bethlehem ,steel #fa #fi #aba #gf #bdg #dg #hci model #aiag ,co4 #c-;inch anti- do4 #aj #f #df #aab #aji #e #cbb aircraft gun ,heppenstall ,forge #c #ea #ae #ac #hb ,knife ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #d4g-;inch gun ,bethlehem ,steel #gj #id #ff #ad #dc #cdb ,co4 ,heppenstall ,forge #f #ah #ba #be #aj #hj ,knife ,co4 #aee-mm4 howitzer ,bethlehem ,steel #e #aa #eb #ai #cb #bgg ,co4 ,standard ,forgings #hi #gd #afi #abg #aeg #aj #gfj ,co4 ,standard ,steel ,co4 #hb #acj #ic #ajj #ajj #bj #feh #aee-mm4 gun ,bethlehem ,steel #ba #g #e #d #a #dh ,co4 ,edgewater ,steel #d #ac #ba #bd #e #fg ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,standard ,steel #ba #ad #bc #da #ba #i #aci ,car ,co41 ,burnham1 ,pa4 ,tacony #c #ae #ca #bf #ge ,ordnance ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,american ,bridge #h #g #aj #be ,co41 ,gary1 ,ind4 #h-;inch howitzer ,midvale ,steel ,co4 #bi #b #adi #bdj-mm4 howitzer ,bethlehem ,steel #cj #af #af #ai #af #ig ,co4 ,edgewater ,steel #a #ad #ae ,co4 ,tacony ,ordnance #d #ae #c #ab #cd ,co4 ,watertown ,arsenal #aj #g #g ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,total #hgbajgd #abeibjcaabad #ecjhddj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #aj ,figures in first table indicate delivery of completed sets of forgings only4 ,deliveries of finished and accepted gun forgings1 not in complete sets1 were made in carload lots and in other large quantities by various factories prior to the dates when their receipt of machine tools enabled them to produce completed sets4 ,for instance1 ,watertown ,arsenal made its first carload shipment of forgings on ,oct4 #bh1 #aiah4 ,,cannon ,,machining ,,and ,,assembling4 ,progress of the work of machining and assembling cannon at the various factories during the war4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aiag #aiah ----------------------------------- ,caliber4 ,contractor4 ,dec4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ge-mm4 ,symington- field gun1 ,anderson ,co41 model ,rochester1 #aiaf ,n4 ,y4 #a #ea #ha ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,wisconsin ,gun ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 #h #ah ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,watervliet ,arsenal1 ,watervliet1 ,n4 ,y4 #d #ch #ah #ad #bf #ce #h ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ge-mm4 ,symington- field gun1 ,anderson #ahig ,co4 model ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,wisconsin ,gun ,co4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ge-mm4 ,bethlehem field gun1 ,steel ,co4 model #aiag #a #g #cj #ch #dg #cc #fb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #c-;inch ,chalkis antiaircraft ,manufacturing gun ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #c-;inch ,watervliet antiaircraft ,arsenal gun1 #ae-pdr4 #c #af #bd #af #b #aa ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #d4g-;inch1 ,northwestern model ,ordnance ,co41 #aijf ,madison1 ,wis4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,watervliet ,arsenal #f ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aee-mm ,american howitzer ,brake ,shoe ,foundry ,co41 ,erie1 ,pa4 #c #aj #af #bh #ge ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aee-mm4 ,bullard gun ,engine ,works ,co41 ,bridgeport1 ,conn4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,watervliet ,arsenal ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #h-;inch ,midvale howitzer ,steel ,co4 #cd #ch #h ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #bdj-mm4 ,watervliet ,arsenal #cd #ch #h ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,total #h #fa #ge #aab #acj #afc #bfa ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #aiah ----------------------------------- ,caliber4 ,contractor4 ,july4 ,aug4,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4,total4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ge-mm4 ,symington- field gun1 ,anderson ,co41 model ,rochester1 #aiaf ,n4 ,y4 #fa #hh #dh #gd #ab #daf ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,wisconsin ,gun ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 #bj #ch #bg #e #aaf ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,watervliet ,arsenal1 ,watervliet1 ,n4 ,y4 #h #e #e #e #aff ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 #a #a #b ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ge-mm4 ,symington- field gun1 ,anderson #ahig ,co4 model #a #eb #ej #acf #bci ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,wisconsin ,gun ,co4 #a #b #f #bf #ce ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ge-mm4 ,bethlehem field gun1 ,steel ,co4 model #aiag #fa #fi #aba #gf #bdg #dg #hci ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #c-;inch ,chalkis antiaircraft ,manufacturing gun ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #a #g #ai #dh #bi #cj #acd ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #c-;inch ,watervliet antiaircraft ,arsenal gun1 #ae-pdr4 #i #d #c #b #e #a #if ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #d4g-;inch1 ,northwestern model ,ordnance ,co41 #aijf ,madison1 ,wis4 #e #g #ca #bc #cb #ih ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,watervliet ,arsenal #h #aj #bb #dj #bg #g #abj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aee-mm ,american howitzer ,brake ,shoe ,foundry ,co41 ,erie1 ,pa4 #aaj #bdh #bjf #cej #bca #agi #a1def ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aee-mm4 ,bullard gun ,engine ,works ,co41 ,bridgeport1 ,conn4 #a #ad #bh #ah #cf #ig ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,watervliet ,arsenal #a #bc #d #d #cb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #h-;inch ,midvale howitzer ,steel ,co4 #bh #bb #cc #ad #ad #aia ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #bdj-mm4 ,watervliet ,arsenal #a #a #b ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,total #bgb #ejg #dib #gfi #fgb #eag #d1jci ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,chapter ,,iii ,,mobile ,,field ,,artillery4 ,the chance observer might assume that once the ,ordnance ,department had succeeded in putting in production the cannon of various sizes described in the preceding chapter the battle of providing artillery was as good as won4 ,but such was not the case4 ,even after the ponderous tubes had come finished from the elaborate processes of the steel mills1 the task of the ordnance officers had only just begun4 ,each one of these guns had to be rendered mobile in the field and it had to be equipped with a mechanism to take up the retrograde shock of firing 7the kick7 and to prevent the weapon from leaping out of aim at each discharge4 ,mobility to a gun is given by the carriage on which it rides4 ,the device which absorbs the recoil and restores the gun to position is called the recuperator 7in the case of the hydropneumatic ,french design7 or the recoil mechanism4 ,carriage and recuperator1 or recoil mechanism1 together are known as the mount4 ,the forging1 boring1 reinforcing1 machining1 and finishing of the gun body is not half the battle of manufacturing a modern military weapon2 it is scarcely one-third of it4 ,no ordnance officer of #aiag-ah will ever forget the heartbreaking experiences of manufacturing the mounts1 a work which went along simultaneously with the production of the cannon themselves4 ,the manufacture of carriages often presented engineering and production problems of the most baffling sort4 ,as to the recuperators1 a short analysis of the part they play in the operation of a gun will indicate something of the nature of the project of building them in quantities4 ,the old schoolbook axiom that action and reaction are equal has a peculiar emphasis when applied to the firing of a modern piece of high-power artillery4 ,the force exerted to throw a heavy projectile #g miles or more from the muzzle of a gun is equally exerted toward the breach of the weapon in its recoil4 ,some of these forces handled safely and easily by mechanical means are almost beyond the mind's grasp4 ,not long ago a touring car1 weighing #b tons1 traveled at the rate of #abj miles an hour along a ,florida beach4 ,conceive of such a car going #ccg miles an hour1 which is much faster than any man ever traveled2 then conceive of a mechanism which would stop this car1 going nearly #f miles a minute1 stop it in #de inches of space and half a second of time1 without the slightest injury to the automobile4 ,that is precisely the equivalent of the feat performed by the recuperator of a #bdj-millimeter howitzer after a shot4 ,conceive of a #aej1jjj-pound locomotive traveling at #ec4c miles an hour4 ,the action of the #bdj-millimeter recuperator after a shot is equivalent to stopping that locomotive in less than #d feet in half a second without damage4 ,the forging for the #aee-millimeter howitzer's recuperator is a block of steel weighing nearly #b tons--in exact figures1 #c1hge pounds4 ,this must be bored and machined out until it weighs1 with the accessory parts of the complete recuperator placed on the scales with it1 only #hgj pounds4 ,it is scarcely fair to a modern hydropneumatic recuperator to say that it must be finished with the precision of a watch4 ,it must be finished with a mechanical nicety comparable only to the finish of such a delicate instrument as a navigator's sextant or the mechanism which adjusts the ,lick telescope to the movement of the earth4 ,no heavy articles ever before turned out in ,american workshops required in their finish the degree of microscopic perfection the recuperators called for4 ,we adopted from the ,french1 the greatest of all artillery builders1 four recuperators--one for the #ge-millimeter gun1 one for the #aee-millimeter gun1 another for the #aee-millimeter howitzer1 and the fourth for the #bdj-millimeter howitzer4 ,these mechanisms had never been built before outside of ,france4 ,indeed1 one could find pessimists ready to say that none but ,french mechanics could build them at all and that our attempt to duplicate them could end only in failure4 ,yet ,american mechanical genius licked every one of these problems1 as the men in the greasy overalls say1 and did it in little more than a year of time after the plans came to the workshops4 ,there was not one of these beautiful mechanisms1 in ,france the product of patient handiwork on the part of metal craftsmen of deep and inherited skill1 that eventually did not become in ,american workshops a practical proposition of quantity production4 ,the problem of building ,french recuperators in the ,united ,states1 in short1 may be regarded as the crux of the whole ,american ordnance undertaking in the war against ,germany1 the index of its success4 ,it presented the most formidable challenge of all to ,american industrial skill4 ,there were men whose opinion had to be considered and who were convinced that it was impracticable to attempt to produce ,french recuperators here4 ,although the superiority of these recoil devices in their respective classes were universally conceded1 ,germany had never been able to make them1 while ,england1 with the cooperation of the ,french ordnance engineers freely offered1 did not attempt them4 ,the ,french built them one by one1 as certain custom-built and highly expensive automobiles are produced4 ,when ,american factories proposed to produce ,french recuperators not only but to manufacture them by making parts and assembling them according to the modern practice of quantity production1 the ranks of the skeptics increased4 ,yet1 as we have said1 the thing was done4 ,the first of these recuperators ever produced outside of the ,french industry were produced in ,america and manufactured by typically ,american quantity methods4 ,the first of these recuperators to come into quantity production was that for the #aee-millimeter howitzer4 ,rough forgings began to be turned out in heavy quantities by the ,mesta ,machine ,co4 in the spring of #aiah1 while the ,watertown ,arsenal1 the other contractor1 reached quantity production in rough forgings in ,september1 #aiah4 ,at their special recuperator plant at ,detroit the ,dodge ,bros4 turned out the first finished #aee-millimeter howitzer recuperator in ,july1 #aiah1 and went into quantity production with them in ,september1 producing #die in the month of ,november alone1 and turning out up to the end of ,april1 #aiai1 the great number of #a1fja of them4 ,next in order of time to be conquered as a factory problem was the #aee-millimeter gun recuperator4 ,the rough forgings at the ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 the sole contractor1 were in quantity production in the spring of #aiah4 ,the first of these recuperators finished came from the ,dodge plant in ,october1 #aiah2 and although #cj issued from the plant and were accepted before the end of the year1 quantity production may be said to have started on ,january #a1 #aiai1 when the factory began producing them at the rate of more than four a day4 ,in ,march the high mark of #cfa recuperators was reached1 and the total production up to the end of ,april was #hhj4 ,the heavy #bdj-millimeter howitzer recuperator was third to come into quantity production4 ,the rough forgings were being turned out in quantity in the spring of #aiah by the ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 while the ,watertown ,arsenal1 the other contractor1 produced a number of these rough forgings in ,august1 #aiah4 ,the two contractors for finishing and turning out the complete recuperators were the ,otis ,elevator ,co41 at its ,chicago plant1 and the ,watertown ,arsenal4 ,the arsenal produced the pilot recuperator in ,october1 #aiah4 ,in ,january the ,otis ,elevator ,co4 produced its first four1 while quantity production began in ,february1 #aiai1 both contractors that month sending out #ai recuperators1 a number which may be regarded as good quantity when the size of this mechanism is taken into consideration4 ,both plants together in ,april turned out the large number of #hi recuperators for the #bdj4 ,last to come through to quantity production was the hardest of the four to build1 the one that promised to defy ,american industry to build it at all--the #ge-millimeter gun recuperator4 ,the two contractors for the rough forgings for this recuperator were the ,carbon ,steel ,co4 and the ,bucyrus ,co4 ,the ,carbon ,steel ,co4 was in large series production of them in the spring of #aiah1 and the ,bucyrus ,co4 reached the quantity basis of manufacture in ,october1 #aiah4 ,in that month alone both contractors together turned out #a1cje sets of forgings4 ,the machining and finishing of the #ge recuperator was in the hands of the ,rock ,island ,arsenal and the ,singer ,manufacturing ,co41 which built a costly plant especially for the purpose at ,elizabethport1 ,n4 ,j4 ,the first recuperator of this size to appear and be accepted under the severe tests came from the arsenal in ,october4 ,thereafter the production ceased for a while4 ,the contractors indeed built recuperators in this period1 but the recuperators could not pass the tests4 ,the machining and production of parts seemed to be as perfect as human skill could accomplish1 but still the devices would not function perfectly4 ,adjustments1 seemingly of the most microscopical and trivial sort1 had to be made--there was trouble with the leather of the valves and with oil for the cylinders4 ,these matters1 which could scarcely cause any delay at all in the production of less delicate machinery1 indicate the infinite care which had to be employed in the manufacture of the recuperators4 ,at length the producers smoothed out the obstacles and learned all the secrets and necessary processes1 and then the #ge-millimeter recuperators began to come--#b in ,january1 #aiai1 and then #ac in ,february1 #bj in ,march1 and #bc in ,april4 ,it should be remembered that by quantity production in this particular is meant the production in quantity of recuperators of such perfect quality as to pass the inspection of the ,government and to be accepted as part of our national ordnance equipment4 ,in this inspection the ,government was assisted by ,french engineers sent from the great artillery factories in ,france which had designed the recuperators and which until the successful outcome of the ,american attempt were their sole producers4 ,such inspection naturally required that the ,american recuperators should be the equals of their ,french prototypes in every respect4 ,because the production of ,french recuperators stands at the summit of ,american ordnance achievement1 here at this point1 before there is given any account of the manufacture of field artillery1 the theme of this chapter1 a performance table is inserted to show the records written by the various concerns engaged in making these devices4 ,american acceptances of recuperators by firms on ,army ordnance orders only4 #aiah ---------------------------------------- --- ,item1 process1 and firm4 ,to ,july4,august4,septem-,octo-,novem-,dece m- ,july #a4 ber4 ber4 ber4 ber4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ge-mm4 gun recuperator3 ,forging-- ,carbon ,steel ,co4 #bei #bei #bed #gej #a1jje #cjj #eeb ,bucyrus ,co4 #bi #gh #cjj #agc #aaa ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #bei #bei #bhc #hbh #a1cje #dgc #ffc ,finish machining and assembling-- ,singer ,manufacturing ,co4 ,rock ,island ,arsenal #a ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #a #aee-mm4 howitzer recuperator3 ,forging-- ,mesta ,machine ,co4 #fgf #fdf #fdh #hii #a1jhj #bbf ,watertown ,arsenal #afj #hj #hj ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #fgf #fdf #fdh #a1jei #a1afj #cjf ,machining complete and assembling-- ,dodge ,bros4 #a #bg #bdi #bhe #die #djc #aee-mm4 gun recuperator3 ,forging-- ,carnegie ,steel ,co4 #bab #bac #bbi #bfi #dja #chi #ba ,finish machining and assembling-- ,dodge ,bros4 #a #aj #ai #bdj-mm4 howitzer recuperator3 ,forging-- ,carnegie ,steel ,co4 #bhf #ii #aae #fa #gj #gi ,watertown ,arsenal #ba ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #bhf #ii #acf #fa #gj #gi ,finish machining and assembling-- ,otis ,elevator ,co4 ,watertown ,arsenal #a ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #a #aiai ,total1 ,total ,total1 ------------------------,nov4 #aa1aiah4;,apr4 #cj1 ,item1 process1 and firm4 ,jan- ,febru-,march4,april4 #aiah4 #aiai4 uary4 ary4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ge-mm4 gun recuperator3 ,forging-- ,carbon ,steel ,co4 #djg #di #b1fjj #c1cgi #c1hce ,bucyrus ,co4 #fh #dce #fia #gei ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total #djg #aag #c1jce #d1jgj #d1eid ,finish machining and assembling-- ,singer ,manufacturing ,co4 #c #h #aa ,rock ,island ,arsenal #b #ac #ag #ae #a #a #dh ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total #b #ac #bj #bc #a #a #ei #aee-mm4 howitzer recuperator3 ,forging-- ,mesta ,machine ,co4 #di #ca #d1jjj #d1age #d1bee ,watertown ,arsenal #be #a #bfh #cbj #cdf ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total #gd #a #ca #d1bfh #d1die #d1fja ,machining complete and assembling-- ,dodge ,bros4 #ada #gif #a1dfj #a1fja #aee-mm4 gun recuperator3 ,forging-- ,carnegie ,steel ,co4 #a1dhj #a1gcd #a1gcd ,finish machining and assembling-- ,dodge ,bros4 #aaf #bgj #cfa #ajc #cj #hhj #bdj-mm4 howitzer recuperator3 ,forging-- ,carnegie ,steel ,co4 #fgh #gaj #gaj ,watertown ,arsenal #ba #ba #ba ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total #fii #gca #gca ,finish machining and assembling-- ,otis ,elevator ,co4 #d #ad #da #fb #aba ,watertown ,arsenal #e #ai #bg #a #a #eb ---------------------------------------- ----- ,total #d #ai #fj #hi #a #a #agc ,the process of manufacture of recuperators requires four steps--forging1 rough machining1 finish machining1 and assembling4 ,in the case of #aee-millimeter howitzer recuperators all the machining was done by one firm2 in the other cases rough machining was done by various firms1 including1 in the case of the #aee-millimeter gun and #bdj-millimeter howitzer recuperators1 the firms doing the forging4 ,complete records of rough machining are not available4 ,in discussing here1 therefore1 the production of field artillery in the war period1 we are concerned chiefly with carriages and recuperators1 for they offered the major difficulties4 ,since the production of gun bodies for these various units has been taken up in the preceding chapter1 such reference to them as is necessary will be brief4 ,for the sake of additional clearness in the mind of the reader inexpert in these things1 the line should be sharply drawn between field artillery and the so-called railway artillery1 which was also mobile to a limited degree4 ,the mobile field artillery consisted of all rolling guns or caterpillar guns up to and including the #bdj-millimeter howitzer in size2 and also included the antiaircraft guns of various sizes4 ,all mobile guns of larger caliber than the #bdj-millimeter howitzer were mounted on railroad cars4 ,the list of the mobile field artillery weapons in manufacture here during the war period was as follows3 ,the little #cg-millimeter gun1 the so-called infantry cannon1 one of which two husky men could lift from the ground--a ,french design2 ,the #ge-millimeter guns--three types of them--the ,french #ge1 adopted bodily by the ,united ,states2 our own #c-;inch gun redesigned to the ,french caliber2 and the ,british #c4c-;inch gun1 similarly redesigned2 ,the #d4g-;inch gun of ,american design2 ,the #e-;inch and #f-;inch guns1 taken from our coast defenses and naval stores and placed on mobile mounts2 ,the #aee-millimeter gun1 a ,french weapon with a barrel diameter of approximately #f inches2 ,the #aee-millimeter howitzer1 also ,french2 ,the #h-;inch and #i4b-;inch howitzers1 ,british designs1 being manufactured in the ,united ,states when war was declared2 ,the #bdj-millimeter howitzer1 ,french and ,american2 and1 finally1 ,the antiaircraft guns4 ,in modern times1 but prior to #aiag1 the ,united ,states had designed types of field-artillery weapons and produced them in quantities shown by the following tabulation3 ,pieces4 #b4ie-;inch mountain gun #aac #c-;inch gun #edd #d4g-;inch gun #fj #e-;inch gun #gj #f-;inch howitzer #dj #g-;inch howitzer #gj --- ,total #hig ,a comparison of this list with the enumeration above of weapons put in production during the war against ,germany indicates that we greatly expanded our artillery in types4 ,that we were able to do this at the outset and go ahead immediately with the production of many weapons strange and unknown to our experience1 without waiting to develop models and types of our own1 is due solely to the generosity of the governments of ,france and ,great ,britain1 with whom we became associated4 ,we manufactured in all eight new weapons1 taking the designs of three of them from the ,british and of five from the ,french4 ,it might seem to the uninitiated that the way of the ,united ,states to a great output of artillery would be made smooth by the action of the ,british and ,french ,governments in agreeing to turn over to us without reservation the blue prints and specifications that were the product of years of development in their gun plants4 ,yet this was only relatively true4 ,in numerous instances we were not able to secure complete drawings until months after we had entered the war1 due to the practice of continental manufacturers that intrusts numerous exact measurements to the memories of the mechanics working in their shops4 ,consequently it required several months to complete drawings1 and when we received them our troubles had only begun4 ,first there came the problem of translating the plans after we received them4 ,all ,french dimensions are according to the metric system4 ,a millimeter is one one-thousandth part of a meter1 and a meter is #ci4cg inches4 ,an inch is approximately #j4jbed meter4 ,thus to translate ,french plans into ,american factory practice involves hundreds of mathematical computations1 most of them carried out to decimals of four or five places4 ,moreover1 the ,french shop drawings are put down on an angle of projection different from what is used in this country4 ,this fact involved the recasting of drawings even when the metric system measurements were retained4 ,when it is considered that such a mechanism as the recuperator on the #aee-millimeter gun involves the translation of #daf drawings1 the fact that the preparation of ,french plans for our own use never took more than two months is remarkable1 particularly so since it was hard to find in the ,united ,states draftsmen and engineers familiar with such translation work4 ,once our specifications were worked out from the ,french plans1 it then became necessary to find ,american manufacturers willing to bid on the contracts4 ,the average manufacturer would look at these specifications1 realize what a highly specialized and involved sort of work would be required in the production of the gun carriages or recoil mechanisms1 and shake his head4 ,in numerous instances no such work had ever before been attempted in the ,united ,states4 ,however1 as the result of efforts on the part of the ,government an increased capacity for producing mobile field artillery was created as follows3 ,at ,watertown1 ,n4 ,y41 the ,new ,york ,air ,brake ,co41 as agent for the ,united ,states1 constructed a completely new factory to turn out #be gun carriages a month for the #ge-millimeter guns1 model #aiaf--the ,american #c-;inch type modified to the ,french dimensions4 ,at ,toledo1 ,ohio1 increased facilities were put up at the plant of the ,willys-,overland ,co4 to manufacture a daily output of #ag ,french #ge-millimeter gun carriages1 model #ahig4 ,at ,elizabethport1 ,n4 ,j41 the ,singer ,manufacturing ,co4 erected for the ,government a complete new factory for finishing daily #ag ,french #ge-millimeter recuperators4 ,at ,new ,britain1 ,conn41 the plant of the ,new ,britain ,machine ,co4 was adapted and increased facilities were created for the manufacture of two #c-;inch antiaircraft gun carriages a day4 ,at ,detroit1 ,mich41 ,dodge ,bros41 as agents for the ,government1 erected an entirely new factory1 costing in the neighborhood of #aa1jjj1jjj to give the final machining to the rough-machine forgings for five recuperators daily for the #aee-millimeter gun and to machine completely the parts for twelve recuperators daily for the #aee-millimeter howitzer4 ,their huge new plant for this purpose established a record for rapidity of construction in one of the most severe winters of recent history4 ,at the plant of the ,studebaker ,corporation at ,detroit1 facilities were extended for turning out three carriages a day for the #d4g-;inch guns4 ,at ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j41 extended facilities were created at the factory of the ,walter ,scott ,co4 for manufacturing #bj carriages a month for the #d4g-;inch guns4 ,at ,worcester1 ,mass41 at the plant of the ,osgood ,bradley ,car ,co4 increased facilities were built for the daily manufacture of five carriages for the #aee-millimeter howitzers4 ,at ,hamilton1 ,ohio1 at the works of the ,american ,rolling ,mill ,co41 extensions were made to provide for the manufacture each day of three carriages for the #aee-millimeter howitzers4 ,the plant of the ,mesta ,machine ,co41 at ,west ,homestead1 ,pa41 near ,pittsburgh1 was extended to the enormous capacity of turning out the forgings for #dj recuperators a day for the #aee-millimeter howitzers4 ,extensively increased facilities were made at the shops of the ,standard ,steel ,car ,co41 at ,hammond1 ,ind41 for the daily output of two carriages for the #bdj-millimeter howitzers4 ,increased facilities were created in the plant of the ,otis ,elevator ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill41 for the finish machining of the equivalent in parts of two and one-half recuperators a day for the #bdj-millimeter howitzers4 ,large extensions were made to the plant of the ,morgan ,engineering ,co41 ,alliance1 ,ohio1 for the manufacture monthly of #bj improvised mounts for the #f-;inch guns taken from the seacoast fortifications4 ,the facilities of the ,united ,states arsenals at ,watertown1 ,mass41 and at ,rock ,island1 ,ill41 for the manufacture of field-gun carriages and recuperators were greatly increased4 ,this carriage construction for the big guns required the closest kind of fine machine work and fittings where the brake or recuperator construction entered the problem1 and the great plants built for this purpose of turning out carriages and recuperators were marvels for the rapidity of their construction1 the speed with which they were equipped with new and intricate tools1 and the quality of their output4 ,every mobile gun mount must be equipped with a shield of armor plate4 ,the size of the artillery project may be read in the fact that our initial requirement for armor for the guns ran to a total of #ae1jjj tons to be produced as soon as it could be done4 ,now1 we had no real source for getting armor in such large quantities1 because the previous demands of our artillery construction had never called for it4 ,the prewar manufacturers of artillery armor were three in number--the ,simmons ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,st4 ,louis2 ,thomas ,disston ,sons1 of ,philadelphia2 and the ,crucible ,steel ,co4 ,to meet the new demand two armor sources were developed--the ,mosler ,safe ,co4 plant of the ,standard ,ordnance ,co4 and the ,universal ,rolling ,mill ,co4 ,the process of building this armor had been a closely guarded secret in the past1 a fact entailing extended experiments in the new plants before satisfactory material could be obtained4 ,the new artillery program required the manufacture of #abj1jjj wheels of various types and sizes for the mobile carriages4 ,the ,rock ,island ,arsenal and two commercial concerns prior to the war had been building artillery wheels in limited quantities4 ,one completely new plant had to be erected for the manufacture of wheels1 while seven existing factories were specially equipped for this work4 ,we had to develop new sources of supply of oak and hickory and to erect dry kilns especially for the wheel project4 ,the largest order for rubber tires in the history of the ,american rubber industry was placed as one relatively small phase of the artillery program1 the order amounting to #d1bej1jjj4 ,rubber tires on the wheels of all the heavier types of artillery carriages1 so that the units might be drawn at good speed by motor vehicles1 was essentially an ,american innovation4 ,no tires of this size had ever been manufactured in this country4 ,consequently it was necessary for the firms who got the orders to build machinery especially designed for the purpose4 ,with practically all of the manufacturers of the ,american metal-working industries clamoring for machine tools1 and with some branches of the ,government commandeering the machine-tool shops in whole sections of the country1 it is evident that the necessity for the heavier types of machine tools required by the manufacturers of artillery material offered a weighty problem at the outset4 ,in fact1 the machine-tool supply was never adequate at any time1 and the shortage of this machinery hampered and impeded to a great degree the speed of our artillery production4 ,the ,nation was raked with a fine-toothed comb for shop equipment4 ,the ,government went to almost any honorable length to procure this indispensable tooling4 ,for instance1 when the ,dodge plant at ,detroit was being equipped to manufacture the #aee-millimeter recuperators1 the ,government agents discovered trainloads of machinery consigned to the ,russian government and awaiting shipment4 ,these tools were commandeered on the docks4 ,one huge metal planer had dropped overboard while it was being lightered to the ocean tramp that was to carry it to a ,russian port4 ,government divers fixed grappling hooks to this machine1 and it was brought to the surface and shipped at once to the ,dodge plant4 ,the #c-;inch gun which we had been building for many years prior to the war was a serviceable and efficient weapon2 but still we were unable to put it into production immediately as it was4 ,our earliest divisions in ,france1 under the international arrangement1 were to be equipped by the ,french with #ge-millimeter guns2 while we1 on this side of the water1 reaching out for all designs of guns of proven worth1 expected to manufacture the #ge's in large numbers in this country4 ,the ,french #ge in its barrel diameter is a fraction of an inch smaller than our #c-;inch gun1 the exact equivalent of #ge millimeters being #b4iebge inches4 ,thus1 if we built our own #c-;inch gun 7and the ,british #c4c-;inch gun1 as we intended7 and also went ahead with the #ge-millimeter project on a great scale1 we should be confronted by the necessity of providing three sorts of ammunition of almost the same size1 with all the delays and confusion which such a situation would imply4 ,consequently we decided to redesign the ,american and ,british guns to make their bores uniformly #ge millimeters1 thus simplifying the ammunition problem and making available to us in case of shortage the supplies of shell of this size in ,france4 ,with all of the above considerations in mind1 it is evident now1 and it was then1 that we could not hope to equip our ,army with ,american-built artillery as rapidly as that ,army could be collected1 trained1 and sent to ,france2 and this was particularly true when in the spring of #aiag the ,army policy was changed to give each #a1jjj1jjj men almost twice as many field guns as our program had required prior to that date4 ,consequently1 when on ,june #bg1 #aiag1 the ,secretary of ,war directed the ,chief of ,ordnance to provide the necessary artillery for the #b1jjj1jjj men who were to be mobilized in #aiag and the first half of #aiah1 the first thought of our officers was to find outside supplies of artillery which we could obtain for an emergency that would not be relieved until our new facilities had reached great production4 ,we found this source in ,france4 ,the ,french had long been the leading people in ,europe in the production of artillery1 and even the great demands of the war had not succeeded in utilizing the full capacity of their old and new plants4 ,two days later1 on ,june #bi1 #aiag1 the ,french high commissioner1 by letter1 offered us in behalf of ,france a daily supply of five #ge-millimeter guns and carriages1 beginning ,august #a1 #aiag4 ,the ,french also offered at this time to furnish us with #aee-millimeter howitzers2 and on ,august #ai1 #aiag1 the ,french ,government informed ,gen4 ,pershing that each month1 beginning with ,september1 he could obtain twelve #aee-millimeter ,filloux guns and carriages from the ,french factories4 ,before the signing of the armistice #ge-millimeter guns to the number of #c1jfh had been ordered from the ,french1 and of this number #a1hbh had been delivered4 ,of #aee-millimeter howitzers1 #a1cfa had been ordered from the ,french and #ggb delivered before ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,of #aee-millimeter guns1 #egg had been ordered from the ,french and #baf delivered previous to the granting of the armistice4 ,from ,british plants we ordered #bab ,vickers-type #h-;inch howitzers1 and #abc had been delivered before the armistice had been signed2 while of #i4b-;inch howitzers1 ,vickers model1 #dj of an order for #acb had been completed4 ,in addition to this1 #cjb ,british #f-;inch howitzers were in manufacture in ,england for delivery to us by ,april #a1 #aiai4 ,these figures1 with the exception of those relating to the order for ,british #f-;inch howitzers1 do not include the arrangements being made by this ,government during the last few weeks of hostilities for additional deliveries of foreign artillery4 ,as to our own manufacture of artillery1 when we had conquered all the difficulties--translated the drawings1 built the new factories1 equipped them with machine tools and dies1 gages1 and other fixtures needed by the metal workers1 and had mobilized the skilled workers themselves--we forged ahead at an impressive rate4 ,when the armistice was signed we were turning out #dab artillery units per month4 ,compare this with ,great ,britain's #dhf units per month in the fall of #aiah and measure our progress1 remembering that ,england had approximately three years' head start4 ,compare it with the ,french monthly production of #fei units per month1 and remember that ,france was the greatest artillery builder in the world4 ,when it came to the gun bodies themselves we obtained a monthly output of #hcb1 as against ,great ,britain's #hjb and ,france's #a1ach4 ,and our artillery capacity was then1 in the autumn of #aiah1 only coming into production4 ,in the war period--,april #f1 #aiag1 to ,november #aa1 #aiah--we produced #b1jjh complete artillery units1 as against #aa1jef turned out by ,france and #h1jfe completed by ,great ,britain in the same period4 ,in those #ai months we turned out #d1bge gun bodies1 while in the same months ,france produced #ai1dib and ,great ,britain #aa1heb4 ,,the #cg-,,millimeter ,,infantry ,,field ,,guns ,the smallest weapon of all the field guns we built was the ,french #cg-millimeter gun1 the diameter of its bore being about #a inches in our measurements1 the figure being #a4deffi inches4 ,this was the so-called infantry field gun1 to be dragged along by foot soldiers when they are making an advance4 ,its chief use in the war was in breaking up the ,german concrete pill boxes1 machine gun nests1 and other strong points of enemy resistance4 ,in service it was manned by infantrymen instead of artillerists1 a crew of eight men handling each weapon1 the squad leader being the gunner4 ,one of the men of the crew was the loader1 and he was likewise able to fire the piece4 ,the other six men served as assistants4 ,the #cg-millimeter outfit as it exists to-day consists of the gun1 with a split trail1 mounted on axle and wheels4 ,by means of a trailer attachment on the ammunition cart it can be drawn by one horse or one mule4 ,the ammunition cart itself is merely a redesigned machine-gun ammunition vehicle4 ,the wheels and axle can easily be removed and left a short distance in the rear of the place where it is desired to set up the gun4 ,the whole outfit weighs only #cdj pounds and is about #f feet long4 ,the gun rests on its front leg which is dropped to form a tripod with the two legs of the split trail4 ,the gun proper can be removed from the trail and the sponge staff can be inserted in the barrel through the opened breech4 ,two men can bear this part of the weapon in advancing action4 ,two other men are able to carry the trail1 when its legs are locked together1 while the four other members of the squad bring along the boxes of ammunition4 ,the ammunition cart holds #ad ammunition boxes1 each containing #af rounds4 ,a spare-parts case1 strapped to the trail1 contains a miscellaneous assortment of such parts as can readily be handled in the field4 ,a tool kit in a canvas roll is also transported on the cart1 along with entrenching tools and other accessories4 ,equipped with a telescopic sight for direct fire and a quadrant1 or collimating sight1 for indirect fire1 great accuracy is obtained by this small piece of artillery4 ,the length of the barrel of the gun proper is #bj calibers1 which means that it is #bj times #cg millimeters in length1 or about #bi inches4 ,the length of the recoil when the gun is fired is #h inches4 ,two types of ammunition were provided for this gun at first2 but1 as the low-explosive type was not so effective as desired1 it was abandoned entirely in favor of the high-explosive type contained in a projectile weighing #a pounds4 ,this projectile is loaded with #bdj grains of ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 and detonated by a base percussion fuse4 ,the range of the gun is #c1ejj meters1 or considerably more than #b miles4 ,only three to six shots from this gun were found to be necessary to demolish an enemy machine gun emplacement or other strongly held position4 ,in the great war the #cg-millimeter gun found itself and proved its usefulness4 ,the original model had been designed at the ,puteaux ,arsenal in ,france in #ahhe2 but it was not until after #aiad that the weapon was produced in quantities4 ,in this country we took up the production of #cg-millimeter guns in ,october1 #aiag4 ,while our shops were tooling up for the effort1 #fbj of these weapons were purchased from the ,french and turned over to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,for the purposes of greater speed in manufacture our executives took the gun apart and divided it into three groups1 known as the barrel group1 the breech group1 and the recoil group4 ,additional to these1 as a manufacturing proposition1 were the axle and wheels and the trail4 ,the barrel group went to the ,poole ,engineering ,machine ,co41 of ,baltimore1 ,md41 who subcontracted for some of the parts to the ,maryland ,pressed ,steel ,co41 of ,hagerstown1 ,md4 ,the breech group was manufactured by the ,krasberg ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,chicago4 ,the ,c4 ,h4 ,cowdrey ,machine ,works1 of ,fitchburg1 ,mass41 turned out the recoil mechanisms4 ,the axles and wheels were built by the ,international ,harvester ,co41 of ,chicago4 ,the trails were turned out by the ,universal ,stamping ,manufacturing ,co41 also of ,chicago4 ,when crated for overseas shipment1 the gun1 ammunition cart1 and all accessories1 weighed #a1eej pounds and occupied about #ae cubic feet of space4 ,the first delivery of completed #cg-millimeter guns from our factories was made in ,june1 #aiah1 and at the cessation of hostilities manufacturers were turning out the guns at the rate of #aj per day4 ,between ,june and ,november #abb ,american-built #cg-millimeter guns were shipped abroad1 and more were ready to be sent over when the armistice was signed4 ,the gun had been so successful in use abroad that our original order of #a1bjj had been increased to #c1bag before the signing of the armistice1 including the #fbj purchased from the ,french4 ,the various groups of this gun were shipped to the plant of the ,maryland ,pressed ,steel ,co41 ,hagerstown1 ,md41 for assembly and were there tested at a specially built proving ground1 #h miles from the factory4 ,three #cg's were issued to each infantry regiment1 making one for each battalion4 ,the required equipment for a division was1 therefore1 #ab weapons4 ,illustration3 ,,the #cg-,,millimeter ,,infantry ,,cannon4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of #ge-,,millimeter ,,field ,,gun1 ,,model #aiah 7,,american74 ,figures on #cg-millimeter gun production4 ,guns procured from the ,french ,government #fbj ,guns ordered manufactured in ,united ,states1 ,october1 #aiag #a1bjj ,increase in order1 ,september1 #aiah #a1cig ,total number ordered in ,united ,states #b1eig ,total number of guns completed prior to the signing of the armistice #hhd ,guns delivered for overseas shipment prior to the signing of the #cjj armistice ,guns shipped to various camps in this country #bf ,guns shipped to other points in this country #d ,on hand at ,hagerstown ,arsenal1 proof fired #dbe ,completed and ready for proof firing #abi ,,the #ge-,,millimeter ,,guns4 ,next in order in the upward scale of sizes we come to the #ge-millimeter gun1 which was by far the most useful and most used piece of artillery in the great war4 ,in fact the ,american artillery program might be divided in two classes1 the #ge's in one class1 and all other sizes in the other1 since it may be said practically that for every gun of another size produced we also turned out a #ge4 ,in number the #ge's made up almost half of our field artillery4 ,the #ge-millimeter gun threw projectiles weighing between #ab and #af pounds and it had an effective range of over #e miles4 ,we approached the war production of this weapon with three types available for us to produce--our own #c-;inch gun2 its ,british cousin the #c4c-;inch gun or #ah-pounder2 and the ,french #ge-millimeter gun1 with its bore of #b4iebge inches4 ,the decision to adopt the #ge-millimeter size and modify the other two guns to this dimension1 giving us interchangeability of ammunition with the ,french1 was an historic episode in the ,american ordnance development of #aiag4 ,while in #aiag the ,french with their excess manufacturing capacity began work on our first orders for #a1jfh guns of this size to supply our troops during the interim until ,american factories could come into production1 we were preparing our factories for the effort4 ,roughly speaking the #ge consists of a cannon mounted on a two-wheeled support for transportation purposes4 ,this support also provides a means for aiming by suitable elevating and traverse mechanisms4 ,as previously explained1 a recoil mechanism is also provided to absorb the shock of firing1 allowing a certain retrograde movement of the cannon and then returning it in position for the next shot--returning it into battery1 as the artillerists say4 ,by its recuperator device the field gun of to-day is chiefly distinguished from its brother of the latter part of the nineteenth century4 ,without a recuperator the gun would leap out of aim at each shot and would have to be pointed anew2 but one with a recuperator needs to be pointed only at the beginning of the action4 ,when we entered the war we found ourselves with an equipment of #edd field guns of the old #c-;inch model of #aijb4 ,this gun had a carriage provided with the old-style single trail4 ,by #aiac1 however1 we had been experimenting with the split trail and it had been strongly recommended by our ordnance experts2 and in #aiaf we had placed orders for nearly #cjj carriages of the split-trail type1 which had come to be known as ,model #aiaf4 ,of these orders #if carriages were to come from the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 and the remainder from the ,rock ,island ,arsenal4 ,meanwhile for some time the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 had been engaged in turning out carriages for the ,british #c4c-;inch guns4 ,here was capacity that might be utilized to the limit2 and1 accordingly1 in ,may1 #aiag1 we ordered from the ,bethlehem ,co4 #bfh of the ,british carriages4 ,at the same time we ordered from the same company approximately #cdj of our own ,model #aiaf carriages at a cost of #c1cai1hjj4 ,a few weeks later the decision had been made to make all our guns of this sort conform to the ,french #ge-millimeter size1 and these ,british and ,american carriages contracted for in ,may were ordered modified to take #ge-millimeter guns4 ,the carriages needed little modification and the guns not much4 ,subsequently1 in rapid succession we placed orders with the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 calling for the construction of an additional #a1acj of the ,british carriages1 all of them to be adapted to #ge-millimeter guns4 ,next it was the concern of the ,ordnance ,department to find other facilities for manufacturing carriages for these weapons4 ,the artillery committee of the ,council of ,national ,defense located the ,new ,york ,air ,brake ,co4 as a concern willing to undertake this work2 and in ,june1 #aiag1 this company signed a contract to produce #djj ,american model #aiaf carriages at a cost of #c1bej1jjj4 ,by ,december we had the drawings for the ,french carriages of this size and made a contract with the ,willys-,overland ,motor ,car ,co4 to produce #b1ibg of them4 ,the table at the end of this section shows the production attained at these various plants4 ,the manufacture of carriages for the #ge's produced concrete results1 as our factories here were turning them out for us at the rate of #cic per month when the fighting ceased1 and our contract plants in ,france were making #aga per month4 ,in all we received from ,american factories #a1bba carriages4 ,at the rate of increase we would have been building #hjj carriages per month by ,february1 #aiai4 ,it may be said we were thoroughly impressed with the difficulties attached to the transplanting to this country of the manufacture of ,french #ge-millimeter recuperators4 ,it was a question whether this device could possibly be built by any except the ,french mechanics trained by long years in its production4 ,at first it seemed that we could secure no manufacturer at all who would be willing to assume such a burden4 ,not until ,february1 #aiah1 were complete drawings and specifications of the recuperator received from ,france4 ,at length the ,singer ,manufacturing ,co41 builders of sewing machines1 consented to take up this new work1 and on ,march #bi the company contracted to produce #b1ejj recoil systems for the #ge-millimeter gun carriages4 ,in ,april1 #aiah1 the ,rock ,island ,arsenal was instructed to turn out #a1jjj of these recuperators4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,french #ge-,,millimeter ,,gun4 ,this type of gun has been used by the ,french ,army since #ahig1 and was the gun most used by the ,allies in the ,great ,war4 ,this gun throws a shell weighing #ab4c pounds a distance of #h1djj meters or shrapnel weighing #af pounds a distance of #i1jjj meters4 ,the weight of the gun and carriage is #b1feg pounds4 ,the service muzzle velocity of the shell is #a1hje feet per second1 while for shrapnel it is #a1gee feet per second4 ,illustration3 ,,the #ge-,,millimeter ,,field ,,gun1 ,,model #aiag 7,,british74 ,this gun throws a shell weighing #ab4c pounds a distance of #h1cjj meters1 and #af pounds of shrapnel a distance of #h1ijj meters4 ,the weight of the gun and carriage is #b1hhg pounds4 ,its muzzle velocity for shell is #a1gej feet a second and for shrapnel #a1fhj feet a second4 ,the production of gun bodies for the #ge-millimeter units was quite satisfactory4 ,the ,bethlehem ,co41 the ,wisconsin ,gun ,co41 the ,symington-,anderson ,co41 and the ,watervliet ,arsenal were the contractors who built the gun bodies4 ,gun bodies of three types1 but all of the same #ge-millimeter bore1 were ordered--the ,american type 7the modified #c-;inch gun71 the ,british type 7the modified #c4c-;inch gun71 and the ,french type4 ,our ordnance preparation would have given us enough #ge's for the projected army of #c1cfj1jjj men on the front in the summer of #aiai1 together with appropriate provision for training in the ,united ,states4 ,of the #ge's built in this country1 #adc units were shipped to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces before the armistice went into effect4 ,meanwhile the ,french had delivered to our troops #a1hbh units of this size4 ,the total equipment of #ge's for our ,army in ,france from all sources thus amounted to #a1iga guns with their complete accessories4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,unit4 ,contractor4 ,number,number,number,number or- comp-float- com- dered4 leted ed leted at over- up to sign- seas ,april ing of to #ag1 armi- ,nov4 #aiai4 stice4 #aa1 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ge-mm4 gun carriage1 ,rock ,island ,arsenal #dgb #aei #ahe model #aiaf ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 #dee #ad #cd #be ,new ,york ,air ,brake ,co4 #djj #cc #ig #ge-mm4 gun carriage ,willys-,overland ,co4 #b1ibg #bia #a1bii 7,french7 #ge-mm4 gun carriage ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 #b1hfh #gbd #abd #iba 7,british71 complete #ge-mm4 gun carriage do4 #ifh #dci #a1jaj limber 7,british71 complete #ge-mm4 gun carriage do4 #dcf #dcf #dda limber1 model #aiah ,american ,car ,foundry #c1ffa #c1ffa #ihj #c1ffa ,co4 #ge-mm4 gun caisson1 ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 #a1fff #cjb #d1ieg #hca model #aiah ,american ,car ,foundry #bj1cefaa1fhj #ah1cja ,co4 #ge-mm4 caisson limber1 ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 #a1iaf #a1baj #a1iaf model #aiah ,american ,car ,foundry #bj1fgeae1ebf #d1abfbj1fge ,co4 ,symington-,anderson ,co4 #fdj #daf #daf #ge-mm4 cannon1 model ,wisconsin ,gun ,co4 #afj #aaf #ai #aaf #aiaf ,watervliet ,arsenal #bfd #afa #aib ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 #cdj #b #b #ge-mm4 cannon 7,french7 ,symington-,anderson ,co4 #d1cjj #ajc #hfj ,wisconsin ,gun ,co4 #b1jej #i #aij #ge-mm4 cannon 7,british7 ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 #b1hfh #eib #abd #iji ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #d4g-;,,inch ,,guns4 ,in the #d4g-;inch field gun1 model of #aijf1 ,america took to ,france a weapon all her own4 ,it was a proven gun1 too1 developed under searching experiments and tests4 ,there were #fj of these in actual service when we got into the war4 ,the #d4g-;inch guns1 with their greater range and power1 promised to be particularly useful for destroying the enemy's #gg-millimeter guns4 ,the carriage model of #aijf for the #d4g-;inch gun is of the long recoil type1 the recoil being #gj inches in length4 ,the recoil is checked by a hydraulic cylinder1 and a system of springs thereupon returns the gun to the firing position4 ,the gun's maximum elevation is #ae degrees1 at which elevation1 with a #fj-pound projectile1 the gun has a range of #g1bfj meters1 or #d miles4 ,with a #de-pound projectile a range of #h1gej meters1 or nearly #e miles1 can be obtained at #ae degrees elevation4 ,it is possible to increase this range to about #aj1jjj meters1 or well over #f miles1 by depressing the trail into a hole prepared for it1 a practice often adopted on the field to obtain greater range4 ,the total weight of the gun carriage with its limber is about #i1hjj pounds4 ,an order for #bej of the #d4g-;inch carriages was placed with the ,walter ,scott ,co41 at ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j41 ,july #ab1 #aiag1 upon the recommendation of committees of the ,council of ,national ,defense1 who were assisting the ,ordnance ,department in the selection of industrial firms willing to accept artillery contracts4 ,of the #bej ordered from this concern1 #di were delivered up to the signing of the armistice4 ,the ,rock ,island ,arsenal had also been employed previously in turning out #d4g-;inch carriages2 and the capacity of that plant1 although small1 was utilized4 ,under the date of ,july #bc1 #aiag1 the arsenal was instructed to deliver #ahc carriages4 ,late in ,december1 #aiag1 the ,studebaker ,corporation was given an order for #ejj4 ,on ,september #cj1 #aiah1 ,rock ,island ,arsenal was given an additional order for #abj carriages1 while the ,studebaker order was reduced to #chj4 ,additional plant facilities had to be provided at both the ,walter ,scott ,co4 and the ,studebaker ,corporation4 ,up to ,december #ab1 #aiah1 a total of #cha carriages of the #d4g-;inch type had been completed and delivered4 ,these carriages included the recoil mechanism4 ,in the month of ,october1 #aiah1 alone1 #aac were produced1 and this rate would have been continued had the armistice not been signed4 ,cannon for the #d4g-;inch units were turned out at the ,watervliet ,arsenal and the ,northwestern ,ordnance ,co41 ,madison1 ,wis4 ,deliveries from the ,watervliet ,arsenal began in ,june1 #aiah1 totaling #abj up to ,december1 while the ,northwestern ,ordnance ,co41 starting its deliveries in ,august1 had completed #ih by ,december4 ,up to the #aeth of ,november1 #fd complete #d4g-;inch units had been floated for our forces overseas4 ,forgings for the #d4g-;inch gun cannon were made by the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 and the ,heppenstall ,forge ,knife ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,owing to the great difference in cross section between muzzle and breech end of the jacket1 great difficulty was experienced in the heat treatment of these forgings1 particularly on the part of manufacturers who had had no previous experience in the production of gun forgings4 ,illustration3 ,,front ,,and ,,rear ,,views ,,of ,,our #d4g-;,,inch ,,gun ,,and ,,carriage1 ,,model #aijf1 ,,with ,,which ,,our ,,troops ,,have ,,been ,,equipped ,,for ,a ,,long ,,time4 ,this gun throws a projectile weighing #de pounds a distance of about #f miles4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of #aee-,,millimeter ,,gun1 ,,model #aiah1 ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 ,the upper view shows the piece mounted on an auto truck for quick moving about4 ,in order to produce enough forgings to supply the finish-machining shops1 an order for #ej jackets was later given to the ,edgewater ,steel ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 where the jackets were forged4 ,these were then sent to the ,heppenstall ,forge ,knife ,co4 for rough machining and finally returned to the ,edgewater ,steel ,co4 for heat treating4 ,an order for #aej jackets was also given to the ,tacony ,ordnance ,corporation4 ,shortly before the signing of the armistice1 the jacket was redesigned so that the heavy breech end was forged separately in the shape of a breech ring4 ,this design1 however1 was not produced4 ,it was desired to develop a #d4g-;inch gun carriage having the characteristics of the split-trail #ge-millimeter gun carriage1 model of #aiaf1 so that greater elevation and wide traverse could be obtained4 ,the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 was given a small order for #cf carriages of their own design prior to the war1 and their pilot carriage had been undergoing tests at the proving ground4 ,the design was1 however1 not sufficiently advanced to be used in the war4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,unit4 ,contractor4 ,number ,number ,number ordered4completed completed at the up to signing of,april #ag1 armistice4 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #d4g-;inch gun carriage1 ,rock ,island ,arsenal #cjc #ahc #ahc model of #aijf ,studebaker ,corporation #chj #hh #age ,walter ,scott ,co4 #bej #di #eg #d4g-;inch gun-carriage ,american ,car #dcc #dcc #dcc limber ,foundry ,co4 ,maxwell ,motor ,co4 #dgi #hb #bej #d4g-;inch gun caisson ,american ,car #a1hdh #cbj #hdh ,foundry ,co4 ,ford ,motor ,co4 #a1jja #ajf #djj #d4g-;inch cannon ,northwestern ,gun ,co4 #ef ,watervliet ,arsenal #ic ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,sixteen of these units1 also #dh which were previously on hand1 were floated for overseas up to ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,,the #e-;,,inch ,,and #f-;,,inch ,,gun ,,mounts4 ,in the war emergency ,america sought to put on the front every pound of artillery she could acquire from any source whatsoever4 ,accordingly1 before any of the manufacturing projects were even started1 the ,ordnance ,department conducted a preparedness inventory of the ,united ,states to see what guns already in existence we might find that could be improvised for use as mobile artillery in ,france4 ,the search discovered a number of heavy cannon that could serve the purpose--part of them belonging to the ,army1 these being the guns at our seacoast fortifications2 part belonging to the ,navy1 in its stores of supplies for battleships2 and part of them being the property of a private dealer1 ,francis ,bannerman ,son1 of ,new ,york4 ,the guns for this improvised use were obtained as follows3 ,from the ,coast ,artillery1 a branch of the ,army1 we obtained ninety-five #f-;inch guns1 #ej calibers in length1 and twenty-eight #e-;inch guns1 #dd4f calibers2 from the ,navy stores came forty-six #f-;inch guns1 ranging from #cj to #ej calibers in length2 from ,francis ,bannerman ,son1 thirty #f-;inch guns1 #cj calibers long4 ,this was a total of #aii weapons of great destructive power1 awaiting only suitable mobile mounts to make them of valiant service on the western front4 ,it was the task of the ,ordnance ,department to take these guns and as swiftly as possible mount them on field artillery carriages of an improvised type that could be most quickly built4 ,minor changes had to be made on many of the guns obtained in this manner in order to adapt them for use on field artillery carriages4 ,the various seacoast guns were retained as they were in length1 because it was planned to return them eventually to the fortifications from which they had been taken4 ,the ,navy guns1 all of the #f-;inch size1 were shipped to the ,watervliet ,arsenal to be cut down to a uniform length of #cj calibers4 ,the need for speed in manufacture demanded that the carriages for these guns should be of the simplest design consistent with the ruggedness required for field operations and the accuracy necessary for effectiveness4 ,when tests of the first carriages produced were made it was found that requirements had been more than met4 ,orders were placed on ,september #bd1 #aiag1 with the ,morgan ,engineering ,co41 of ,alliance1 ,ohio1 for #gj mounts for the #f-;inch units4 ,a few days later this number was increased to #gd1 while on the #bhth of ,september1 #aiag1 the same company was given an order for #ah additional #f-;inch gun mounts and #bh mounts for the #e-;inch guns4 ,orders for limbers were placed with the same company on ,december #a4 ,it was soon discovered that big transport wagons would be required to carry the long #f-;inch seacoast guns separately because of their great weight4 ,on ,february #ae1 #aiah1 the ,morgan ,engineering ,co4 was ordered to build these necessary transport wagons4 ,difficulties in securing skilled labor1 necessary materials1 and tools delayed production of these mounts1 but the eighteen #f-;inch gun mounts ordered ,september #bh1 #aiag1 were completed in ,march1 #aiah1 while the twenty-eight #e-;inch gun mounts ordered on the same date were finished in ,april4 ,in ,august1 #aiah1 the seventy-four #f-;inch gun mounts were turned out4 ,the production of an additional order for thirty-seven #f-;inch gun mounts was just beginning when the armistice was signed4 ,the #f-;inch gun carriage1 bearing the gun1 weighs about #da1jjj pounds4 ,a maximum range of over #aj miles can be obtained by this weapon4 ,the complete #e-;inch gun unit weighs about #bc1ejj pounds and has a maximum range of more than #i miles4 ,in understanding the difficulties that faced the ,ordnance ,department in building carriages for these guns1 it should be recalled that these big weapons were originally built for fixed-emplacement duty and were therefore much heavier than mobile types4 ,this fact complicated the problem of designing the wheeled mounts4 ,they proved to be more difficult to maneuver than the lighter types of guns4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,number ,number ,number completed floated for ,model4 ,size4 ordered4 prior to overseas4 ,nov4 #aa4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahig #e-;inch #bh #bh #bf #aiag #f-;inch #gd #gd #fh #aiag-;,a #f-;inch #ah #ah #d #aiag-;,b #f-;inch #cg #a ---------------------------------------- ----------- #aee-,,millimeter ,,howitzers4 ,it is a testimonial to the adaptability and skill of ,american industry that we were able to duplicate successfully in this country the celebrated #aee-millimeter howitzer1 before #aiag built only in the factory of its original designer1 the great firm of ,schneider et ,cie41 in ,france4 ,this powerful weapon is a fine example of the ,french gun builders' art1 in a country where the art of gun-making has been carried to a perfection unknown anywhere else4 ,the #aee-millimeter howitzer's history dates back to the nineteenth century4 ,in its development the ,french designers had so strengthened its structure1 increased its range1 and improved its general serviceability1 that in #aiad it was ready to take its place as one of the two most-used and best-known weapons of the allies1 the other being the #ge-millimeter field gun4 ,as thus perfected the howitzer weighs less than #d tons and is extremely mobile for a weapon of its size4 ,it can hurl a #ie-pound projectile well over #g miles and fire several times a minute4 ,the rapidity of fire is made possible by a hydropneumatic recoil system that supports the short barrel of the gun and stores up the energy of the recoil by the compression of air4 ,with the gun pointing upward at an angle of #de degrees1 the recoil mechanism will restore it into battery in less than #ac seconds4 ,the carriage of the gun is extremely light1 being built of pressed steel parts that incorporate many ingenious features of design to reduce the weight4 ,the shell and the propelling charge of powder are loaded separately4 ,the ,american-built #aee-millimeter howitzer was practically identical with that built in ,france4 ,any of the important parts of the ,american weapon would interchange with those which had come from the ,schneider factory4 ,we equipped the wheels of our field carriage1 however1 with rubber tires1 and gave the gun a straight shield of armor plate instead of a curved shield4 ,in the spring of #aiag we bought the plans of the howitzer from ,schneider et ,cie4 and began at once the work of translating the specifications into ,american measurements4 ,this work monopolized the efforts of an expert staff until ,october #h1 #aiag4 ,in order to facilitate the reproduction here1 we divided the weapon1 as a manufacturing proposition1 into three groups--the cannon itself1 the carriage1 and the recuperator or recoil system--and placed each group in the hands of separate contractors4 ,there was1 of course1 the usual difficulty in finding manufacturers willing to undertake production of such an intricate device and who also possessed machine shops that had the equipment and talent required for such work1 and in procuring for these shops the highly specialized machinery that would be necessary4 ,the ,american ,brake ,shoe ,foundry ,co41 of ,erie1 ,pa41 whose magnificent work in building a special plant has been described in the preceding chapter1 took an order in ,august1 #aiag1 for #c1jjj howitzer cannon and by ,october1 #aiah1 was producing #ab of them every day4 ,the company turned out its first cannon in ,february1 #aiah1 approximately six months after receiving the contract1 having in the interim built and equipped a most elaborate plant4 ,it is doubtful if the annals of industry in any country can produce a feat to match this4 ,in fact1 the production of cannon by the ,erie concern so outstripped the manufacture of carriages and other important parts for the howitzer that it was possible by ,september1 #aiah1 for us to sell #eej howitzer bodies to the ,french ,government4 ,when the armistice was signed on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 the company had completed #a1agb cannon4 ,in ,november1 #aiag1 we placed orders for #b1dfi carriages for this weapon1 splitting the order between the ,osgood-,bradley ,car ,co41 of ,worcester1 ,mass41 and the ,mosler ,safe ,co41 of ,hamilton1 ,ohio4 ,then followed a long battle to secure the tools and equipment1 the skilled mechanical labor1 and the necessary quantities of the best grades of steel and bronze1 an effort in which the contracting companies were at all times aided by the engineers of the ,ordnance ,department4 ,all obstacles were overcome and the first carriages were ready for testing in ,june1 #aiah4 ,when the armistice was signed #aed carriages had been delivered1 and production was moving so rapidly that one month later this number had been run up to #bcj4 ,the limbers were manufactured by the ,maxwell ,motor ,car ,co41 which had orders to turn out #b1ege of them4 ,the first deliveries of limbers came in ,september1 #aiah1 and seven a day were being turned out in ,october1 a total of #bgc having been completed by the day of the armistice4 ,a month later the number of completed limbers totaled #ehg4 ,it was in the making of the recuperator systems that the greatest problems were presented4 ,no mechanism at all similar to this had ever been made in this country4 ,no plant was in existence here capable of turning out such a highly complicated1 precise1 and delicate device4 ,finally1 after much ,governmental search and long negotiation1 the ,dodge ,bros41 of ,detroit1 motor car builders1 agreed to accept the responsibility4 ,in this effort they built and equipped the splendid factory1 costing #aj1jjj1jjj1 described elsewhere4 ,this howitzer recuperator is turned out from a solid forging1 weighing #c1hge pounds1 but the completed recuperator weighs only #hgj pounds4 ,each cylinder must be bored1 ground1 and lapped to a degree of fineness and accuracy that requires the most painstaking care4 ,difficulties of almost every sort were experienced with the forgings and other elements of the recuperators4 ,the steel was analyzed and its metallurgical formulas were changed4 ,the work of machining proceeded favorably until the very last operation--that of polishing the interior of the long bores to a mirrorlike glaze and still retaining the extreme accuracy necessary to prevent the leakage of oil past the pistons4 ,such precision had been theretofore unknown in ,american heavy manufacture4 ,until the many processes could be perfected1 the deliveries were held back4 ,even with the delivery of the first recuperator1 difficulties did not vanish4 ,this mechanism has no adjustments which can be made on the field1 but depends for its wonderful operation upon the extreme nicety of the relation of its parts4 ,it required the alteration of certain small parts before the first trial models could be made to function4 ,however1 all obstacles and difficulties were finally overcome1 and in the plant that had been erected during the bitter cold of one of our severest winters1 and with practically entirely new machinery and workmen1 production got under way1 and the first recuperator was delivered early in ,july1 #aiah1 nine months after the contract was signed4 ,production in quantity began to follow shortly after that month1 and by ,november an average of #af recuperators a day was being turned out4 ,of the #c1abj recuperators contracted for1 #hih had been finished when the armistice was signed1 and this quantity was increased to #a1bch one month later4 ,the steel required for the recuperators in these #aee-millimeter howitzers1 and also for those of the #aee-millimeter guns1 was of special composition2 yet all the forge capacity in this country was being utilized in other war manufacture4 ,new facilities for the manufacture of these forgings had to be developed by increasing the capacity of the ,mesta ,machine ,co4 of ,pittsburgh1 until it could meet our requirements4 ,the ,government itself contracted for these forgings and supplied them to ,dodge ,bros4 ,each howitzer required some #bjj items of miscellaneous equipment1 such as air and liquid pumps and other tools4 ,these were purchased from many sources1 and many of these contractors had just as much difficulty with the small parts as the larger firms had with the more important sections of the howitzers4 ,many of the problems involved in turning out the complete unit could not be known or understood until they were met with in actual manufacture4 ,mechanical experts representing ,schneider et ,cie4 were on hand at all times to help solve difficulties as they arose4 ,the ,government turned to ,france for an auxiliary supply of carriages for the ,american-built howitzers1 placing orders for #a1cfa with ,french concerns4 ,of this number #ggb had been completed when the armistice was signed1 and the ,french expected soon to turn out the carriages at the rate of #adj per month4 ,it might also be noted here that we placed an order in ,england for #cjb ,british #f-;inch howitzers1 a piece very like the ,french howitzer4 ,the ,british contract was to be completed ,april #a1 #aiai4 ,the various parts of the #aee-millimeter howitzer were assembled into complete units and tested at the ,aberdeen ,proving ,grounds4 ,after being assembled and tested1 the whole unit was taken apart and packed into crates especially designed for overseas shipment4 ,one crate held two howitzer carriages with recuperators in less space than would have been occupied by one carriage on its wheels4 ,it will be noted that the first gun body of the #aee-millimeter howitzers made in this country was delivered in ,february and the first recuperator in ,july4 ,before the recuperators were ready1 the other parts of the howitzer had been proof-tried by using a recuperator of ,french manufacture4 ,during the months of ,august and ,september1 #aiah1 the first regiment equipped with #aee-millimeter howitzers was made ready at ,aberdeen4 ,the big weapons were packed and on the dock for shipment overseas when the armistice was signed4 ,these first ones were to be followed by a steady stream of howitzers4 ,all arrangements had been made to assemble units and crate them for overseas at the ,erie ,proving ,ground at ,port ,clinton1 ,ohio4 ,none of the #aee-millimeter howitzers built here reached the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 but ,french deliveries of the weapon up to the signing of the armistice totaled #gdg4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,unit4 ,contractor4 ,number ,number ,number ordered4completedcompleted ,nov4 #aa1 ,apr4 #ag1 #aiah4 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #aee-mm4 howitzer ,osgood ,bradley ,car ,co4 #ijj #acf #cfi carriage #aee-mm4 carriage do4 #di #j replacement parts #aee-mm4 howitzer do4 #bej #ic carriage ,do ,american ,rolling ,mill #a1bgj #ah #bf ,co4 7old ,mosler ,safe contract7 ,do ,rock ,island ,arsenal #agb #j #aee-mm4 howitzer carriage limbers ,maxwell ,motor ,co4 #b1ege #bgc #gjj ,do ,rock ,island ,arsenal #ajj #j #aee-mm4 howitzer caisson,ford ,motor ,co4 #h1icg #d1cgc #h1icg #aee-mm4 howitzer cannon ,american ,brake ,shoe ,foundry ,co4 #a1agb #a1ghi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,the #aee-,,millimeter ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 ,,guns4 ,the reproduction in the ,united ,states of the ,french #aee-millimeter ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 7the ,french designation7 gun presents much the same story as that of the howitzer of equal size--a story of difficulties in translating plans1 writing into them the precision of finishing measurements that the ,french factory usually leaves to the skill of the mechanic himself1 difficulties in finding manufacturers willing to undertake the work1 and then of providing them with suitable raw materials and machinery1 and1 above all1 of locating the necessary skilled mechanics4 ,this strange1 big monster of a weapon is of rugged design4 ,the entire unit weighs #ai1hfj pounds4 ,the gun has the extremely high muzzle velocity of #b1djj feet per second1 a rate of propulsion that throws the #ie-pound projectile #ag1gjj yards1 or a little more than #aj miles4 ,the wheels of the carriage have a double tread of solid rubber tire4 ,by an ingenious arrangement a caterpillar tread can be applied to the wheels in a few minutes whenever soft ground is encountered4 ,the center of gravity of the unit is low4 ,the wheels are of small dimensions and the cradle is trunnioned behind in such a fashion as to reduce the height of the cannon4 ,the carriage has a split trail1 which allows for a large clearance for recoil at a high elevation and a large angle of traverse4 ,the carriage when traveling is supported on semielliptical springs1 as is also the carriage limber4 ,two large steel castings make up the carriage of this unit4 ,the bottom part of the carriage is supported by the axle1 which carries the two sections of the split trail upon the hinge pins4 ,the top part of the carriage is supported by and revolves upon the bottom carriage and carries in trunnioned bearings the recuperator4 ,the principal difficulty in carriage manufacture was to obtain in this country the extremely large steel castings of light-section1 high-grade steel4 ,the carriages1 #a1chh in number1 were ordered in ,november1 #aiag1 from the ,minneapolis ,steel ,machinery ,co4 ,the first delivery of carriages was made in ,august1 #aiah1 and in the last week of ,october they were being turned out at the rate of seven a day4 ,up to the armistice date #cgj had been produced1 of which #af had been sent overseas4 ,we also placed orders in ,france for #egg of these carriages1 of which #baf had been completed upon the signing of the armistice4 ,the ,american monthly rate of production of carriages in ,october was #afb4 ,the #aee-millimeter gun itself is far from being simple to manufacture4 ,it is of considerable length and is built of a number of jackets and hoops to give the required resistance to the heavy pressures exerted in firing1 this being a high-velocity gun4 ,except for a slight change in the manner of locking the hoops to the jacket1 our gun is identical with that of the ,french4 ,orders for #b1afj cannon were given to the ,watervliet ,arsenal and the ,bullard ,engineering ,works1 at ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 in ,november1 #aiag4 ,the ,bullard ,engineering ,works had to construct new buildings and to purchase and install special equipment1 and the ,watervliet ,arsenal had to extend its shops and also purchase and install much additional machinery--a job that took time at both places4 ,the first deliveries of cannon came from ,watervliet ,arsenal in ,july1 #aiah4 ,during ,october #ej cannon were delivered1 and it seemed certain that by early in #aiai the projected eight cannon per day would be the rate attained4 ,we shipped #af of the cannon overseas4 ,by ,november #aa we had received #ga cannon1 a number increased to #aji by ,december #ab4 ,limbers in the same quantity as carriages were ordered from the ,minneapolis ,steel ,machinery ,co41 which produced a limber to accompany each one of its delivered carriages4 ,this limber has an extremely heavy axle1 similar to the automobile front axle4 ,its size and weight caused difficulty in obtaining it as a drop forging4 ,to ,dodge ,bros4 was assigned the task of producing the recuperators for this gun in their special plant4 ,the #aee-millimeter gun recuperators1 however1 were made secondary to the production of the recuperators for the #aee-millimeter howitzers1 which were the easier of the two sorts to build4 ,forgings were available and work started on recuperators in ,april1 #aiah4 ,no rapid completion of these intricate mechanisms was possible1 however1 as the first forgings encountered many delays in their machinings4 ,in the cycle of operations1 with everything speeded up to the limit1 more than three months must elapse from the day the recuperator forging is received to the day when the completed mechanism can be turned over to the inspector as an assembled article4 ,illustration3 #aee-,,millimeter ,,howitzer1 ,,model #aiah 7,,schneider74 ,this weapon throws shell or shrapnel weighing #ie pounds4 ,muzzle velocity for shell is #a1dbj feet per second4 ,the weight of the howitzer and carriage is #g1fjj pounds4 ,illustration3 #h-;,,inch ,,howitzer1 ,,model #aiag4 ,it was in ,october1 #aiah1 that the first #aee-millimeter gun recuperator was delivered4 ,the factory expected to reach a maximum capacity of #aj a day4 ,the company built #ab more by ,december #a4 ,after the armistice was signed the company's order was reduced to #hhj1 which had all been completed by ,may #a1 #aiai4 ,in order to have recuperators available for use for the units shipped from the ,united ,states minus these mechanisms1 #aaj rough-machined recuperator forgings were shipped to ,france1 where the work of machining and completing was done4 ,the translation of the ,french plans for this weapon furnished one of the most difficult pieces of work undertaken by the ,ordnance ,department4 ,without counting in the gun pieces1 the carriage and limber is made up of #dgi pieces1 while the recoil mechanism itself has #cgb pieces4 ,a total of #aej mechanical tracings had to be made by our draftsmen for the carriage and test tools2 #ej for the carriage limbers2 #adb for the recoil mechanism2 #gd for the tools and accessories2 or a total of #daf4 ,it was extremely difficult to secure draftsmen who could do this work1 and the translation1 accomplished in a few weeks1 is regarded as a remarkable achievement4 ,the cannon for this gun were tested at the ,erie ,proving ,grounds and there packed for overseas shipment4 ,we had many cannon and carriages awaiting shipment when the armistice was signed1 the plan being to send them to ,france1 where they would be equipped with recuperators4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,number ,number ,number ,units4 ,contractors4 ,number completedcompleted floated ordered4,nov4 #aa1 ,apr4 #ag1 ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 #aiai4 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #aee-mm4 gun carriage,minneapolis ,steel #a1ddf #cgj #hjj #af model #aiah ,machinery ,co4 7,filloux7 #aee-mm4 gun carriage do4 #a1ddf #cgj #hjj #af limber1 model #aiah 7,filloux7 #aee-mm4 gun cannon ,bullard ,engine #a1djj #ec #bej proper ,works #af ,do ,watervliet ,arsenal #gfj #ah #fh ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #h-;,,inch ,,howitzers ,in the early days of the war the ,british designed an #h-;inch field howitzer that proved itself on battle fields in ,france4 ,great ,britain loaded her own plants with orders for this weapon and then turned to the ,united ,states for additional facilities4 ,the ,midvale ,steel ,ordnance ,co4 at ,nicetown1 ,pa41 was manufacturing this unit for the ,british at the time we entered the war4 ,on ,april #ad1 #aiag1 exactly eight days after we had formally announced our purpose of warring with ,germany1 an order for #hj of these #h-;inch howitzers was placed with the ,midvale ,steel ,co4 ,it was understood that production on our order was to be begun upon the completion of the ,british contract on which the ,midvale ,co4 was then engaged4 ,the order included the complete units1 with carriages1 limbers1 tools1 and accessories1 all to be built in accordance with ,british specifications4 ,contracts for the trails were sublet by the ,midvale ,co4 to the ,cambria ,steel ,co2 for the wheels1 to the ,american ,road ,machinery ,co42 for the limbers and firing platforms1 to the ,j4 ,g4 ,brill ,co42 and for the open sights1 to the ,british-,american ,manufacturing ,co4 ,panoramic sights for these guns were furnished by the ,frankford ,arsenal4 ,so satisfactory did the production proceed that on ,december #ac1 #aiag1 the first of the #h-;inch howitzers was proof-tried with good results4 ,early in ,january1 #aiah1 the complete units began to come through at the rate of three a week1 increasing to four a week in ,april and to six a week in ,may4 ,a subsequent contract with ,midvale brought the total number of howitzers ordered from that plant up to #aie4 ,these weapons1 all of the model known as the ,mark ,,vi1 were all produced and accepted before the signing of the armistice1 #if of them being shipped overseas1 with their full complement of accessories4 ,each completed unit cost in the neighborhood of #ee1jjj4 ,these weapons throw a #bjj-pound projectile #aa1gej yards4 ,the progress of the war moved so swiftly1 however1 that there soon was need for artillery units of this same size but with longer range4 ,accordingly1 a new design1 known as the ,mark ,,viii1 was brought out1 having a range of over #ac1jjj yards4 ,on ,october #b1 #aiah1 we placed with the ,midvale ,co4 an order for #ajj of these #h-;inch howitzers1 specifying carriages of the new1 heavier type4 ,when we entered the war the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 at ,bethlehem1 ,pa41 was producing for the ,british ,government a howitzer with a bore of #i4b inches4 ,the ,bethlehem ,co4 expected to complete these ,british contracts in ,july1 #aiag4 ,the #i4b-;inch howitzer was approximately the same size as the #bdj-millimeter howitzer which we were getting ready to put into production4 ,however1 in our desire to utilize every bit of the production facilities of the country1 we ordered #ajj of the #i4b-;inch howitzer units from the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 and placed additional orders for #acb of these units in ,england4 ,the ,british concerns delivered #dj howitzers before the armistice was signed4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,number ,number ,number ,mark4 ,size4 ,contractor4 ordered4completed ,number completed ,nov4 #aa1 floated4 to ,apr4 #aiah4 #ag1 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,vi #h-;inch ,midvale #aie #afg #if #aie howitzer ,steel ,co4 ,,viii do4 do4 #ajj #cd ,model #aiag #i4b-;inch ,bethlehem #ajj #a howitzer ,steel ,co4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,the #i4b-;,,inch ,,howitzer1 ,,model #aiag4 ,this gun shoots shell weighing #bij pounds #h1fij meters4 ,the weight of the howitzer and carriage is #bi1ajj pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of ,,the #bdj-,,millimeter ,,howitzer1 ,,model #aiah4 ,,the #bdj-,,millimeter ,,howitzers4 ,the scheme of production of the ,french #bdj-millimeter howitzers was entirely aimed at the year #aiai2 since even if ,american heavy manufacturing establishments had not been loaded with war orders1 it would have been well-nigh impossible to turn out this mighty engine of destruction in quantities in any shorter period of time4 ,although approximately the same size as the ,british #i4b-;inch howitzer 7the exact diameter of the bore of the #bdj being #i4de inches7 and only a little larger than the #h-;inch howitzer1 the ,french gun was far more powerful than either4 ,the #h-;inch and the #i4b-;inch howitzers had ranges in the neighborhood of #f miles1 while their shell weighed from #bjj to #bij pounds4 ,the #bdj1 on the other hand1 hurled a shell weighing #cef pounds and carrying a bursting charge of between #de and #ej pounds of high explosive4 ,its range was almost #aj miles4 ,we produced the #h-;inch and the #i4b-;inch howitzers to fill the gap during the two years which must elapse before we could get into quantity production of the #bdj4 ,the ,french and ,british governments in the fall of #aiag asserted their ability to equip our first #cj combat divisions in #aiah with heavy howitzers1 so that if our production came along in the spring of #aiai it could meet the requirements of the war situation4 ,consequently we planned to equip our first army of #cj divisions with #h-;inch and #i4b-;inch howitzers in equal numbers of each4 ,our second army of #cj divisions should be wholly equipped with #bdj-millimeter howitzers2 and our expected production of these1 being beyond our own contemplated needs1 would serve to replace such #h-;inch and #i4b-;inch howitzers as had been lost in the meantime4 ,as we adapted it from the ,french ,schneider model1 the #bdj-millimeter howitzer consisted of four main parts--the howitzer barrel1 the top carriage1 the cradle with recoil and mechanism1 and the firing platform4 ,each of these four parts had its own transportation wagon and limber drawn by a #aj-ton tractor4 ,the weapon was set up with the aid of an erecting frame and a small hand crane4 ,each of the main sections is composed of numerous smaller assembled parts made up of various grades of iron and steel and raw materials1 all requiring the greatest precision in their manufacture and all having to pass rigid and exacting tests for strength and dimensions4 ,the production of even one of these enormous weapons would have been a hard job for any ,american industrial plant1 but to manufacture over #a1bjj of them1 and that within the comparatively limited time allowed and under the abnormal industrial and transportation conditions then prevailing1 was a task of tremendous difficulty and complexity4 ,on ,september #a1 #aiag1 an order was placed with the ,watertown ,arsenal for #bej carriages for the ,american #bdj's1 to be turned out complete with the recoil mechanism1 transportation vehicles1 tools1 and accessories4 ,to show the size of the job1 an allotment of #ag1dej1jjj was set aside to cover the estimated expenses at the arsenal4 ,well equipped as the ,watertown ,arsenal was said to be at the time for the production of heavy gun carriages1 it was found necessary1 in order to handle this job1 to construct a new erecting shop that had a capacity practically as large as all the other buildings of the plant put together4 ,the number of employees at the arsenal was increased from #a1bjj to more than #c1jjj4 ,the greatest difficulty experienced was in obtaining the large number of heavy machine tools required1 and experts were sent out to scour the country in an effort to locate these tools wherever they might be available4 ,raw materials could not be procured in sufficient quantities1 while numerous transportation delays impeded the work4 ,finally1 in ,october1 #aiah1 the pilot carriage was completed and sufficient progress had been made on the entire contract to assure production of the required number of units in the early part of #aiai4 ,a second carriage contract 7,nov4 #af1 #aiag7 went to the ,standard ,steel ,car ,co41 of ,hammond1 ,ind4 ,this called for the delivery of #ifd carriages complete with transportation vehicles1 limbers1 tools1 etc41 but not with recuperators4 ,these the ,otis ,elevator ,co41 of ,new ,york1 undertook to deliver4 ,the ,standard ,steel ,car ,co4 is one of the most important builders of railway cars1 freight and passenger1 in the country1 and it possessed a large and well-equipped plant4 ,nevertheless1 the company was compelled to construct several additional buildings and practically to double the capacity of its huge erecting shop in order to prepare adequately for the tremendous task undertaken4 ,as a means to save time1 subcontracts were immediately placed with more than #ajj firms throughout the ,east and ,middle ,west for the production and machining of as many as possible of the component parts needed by the ,standard ,steel ,car ,co4 ,wherever practicable1 the subcontractors working on similar contracts for the ,watertown ,arsenal were retained by the ,indiana company1 so that better prices might be obtained1 parts standardized1 and the whole production greatly facilitated4 ,once the work was well under way the ramifications of this one contract1 with its subcontracts for parts1 materials1 tools1 building construction1 etc41 extended throughout practically the entire industrial facilities of the eastern and central sections of the country4 ,as in the case of the contract given the ,watertown ,arsenal1 there were many difficulties in obtaining tools and raw materials4 ,in a large majority of cases allocations1 partly of iron and steel products1 had to be obtained through the ,war ,industries ,board4 ,when allocations had been granted1 priority orders had to be secured1 as the producers of these materials were already overworked with ,government orders of varying importance4 ,with the pilot carriage complete in the early part of ,october1 production on all the main parts had progressed by ,november to such an extent that a large output of finished carriages was assured for ,december and thereafter1 had not the signing of the armistice intervened and ended the necessity for further expedition of the work4 ,orders for howitzer bodies were placed as follows3 ,sets4 ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 ,nov4 #ba1 #aiag4 #bcg ,edgewater ,steel ,co41 ,oct4 #bd1 #aiag4 #age ,tacony ,ordnance ,corporation1 ,nov4 #ad1 #aiag4 #age ,watertown ,arsenal1 ,nov4 #aj1 #aiag4 #hj ,american ,bridge ,co41 ,mar4 #ca1 #aiah4 #hjj ,the ,watervliet ,arsenal on ,november #bj1 #aiag1 was instructed to do the machining of forgings so as to turn out #bej gun bodies for the #bdj-millimeter howitzers1 and three months later this order was doubled4 ,on ,november #g1 #aiah1 an additional #ffj were ordered from ,watervliet1 making a grand total of #a1afj howitzer cannon of this caliber ordered machined and completed at the ,watervliet ,arsenal4 ,the arsenal contracted to reach an output of #ajj cannon a month and deliver the last of the #a1afj not later than ,september #cj1 #aiai4 ,it was found necessary to erect an entirely new shop for the machining of these howitzers4 ,this shop was completed in ,may1 #aiah4 ,during the war period #ac1afd1gjf was spent or allotted to the ,watervliet ,arsenal for increasing its facilities4 ,forgings were furnished to the arsenal by the ,government1 but the forging situation was never a delaying factor in the production of #bdj-millimeter howitzers4 ,in all1 #aeh sets1 of #a1dfg ordered1 were delivered up to ,december #ab1 #aiah4 ,the pilot howitzer was delivered by the ,watervliet ,arsenal to the proving ground on ,august #bd1 #aiah4 ,in the summer of #aiah the ,watertown ,arsenal contracted to build #beb additional recuperators for these howitzers4 ,work was started at once in the shops1 and1 though additional facilities had to be prepared and much new equipment added1 the production of the first recuperator was begun without delay4 ,it was found that the planing equipment at the arsenal was not sufficient to handle the work1 and therefore a great deal of the rough planing was done by subcontractors4 ,the ,watertown ,arsenal was to furnish its own forgings1 but it was quickly found that an additional source of supplies was required4 ,the ,carnegie ,steel ,co4 had been given an order on ,december #bg1 #aiag1 for #a1cjj recuperator forgings1 and some of these were sent to the ,watertown ,arsenal4 ,the first recuperator was completed ,october #bh1 #aiah1 and #af had been finished up to ,december #ca1 #aiah1 when #bhj forgings were in the process of machining4 ,to handle its order for #a1jci recuperators1 the ,otis ,elevator ,co41 of ,new ,york1 found it necessary to rebuild a plant which it owned in ,chicago4 ,forgings were furnished by the ,government4 ,on ,may #a1 #aiah1 the ,otis ,elevator ,co4 started its rough machining4 ,hard spots were found in the metal1 causing great trouble at first1 but this difficulty was overcome by changes in the heat treatment4 ,the ,carnegie ,steel ,co4 was then instructed to rough-machine the forgings before sending them to the ,otis ,elevator ,co4 ,an order was also given to the ,midvale ,steel ,co4 to rough-machine #bd forgings4 ,early in ,november1 #aiah1 the ,otis ,elevator ,co4 finished its first recuperator4 ,one #bdj-millimeter howitzer unit was completed at the time of the signing of the armistice1 out of a total of #a1bad contracted for2 but had war conditions continued1 the expectation was for a monthly capacity of #hj units by #aiai4 ,actual deliveries are given below3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,number ,number ,units4 ,contractors4 ,number completedcompleted ordered4,nov4 #aa1 ,apr4 #ag1 #aiah4 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #bdj-mm4 unit1 ,watertown #bej #aaa #aada complete1 except ,arsenal #abd #abbe howitzer #bdj-mm4 howitzer ,standard #ifd #e #fg carriage units1 ,steel ,car ,co4 except recuperators ,windlasses ,dodge #a1abe #cc #cej ,manufacturing ,co ,rammer trucks do4 #a1bje #b #cge ,shot trucks do4 #c1bad #b #a1jjj #bdj-mm4 howitzer ,watervliet #b #ai cannon ,arsenal ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aa ,carriage alone4 #ab ,carriages with recuperators4 ,,fighting ,,the ,,airplane ,,with ,,artillery4 ,the ,american development of antiaircraft artillery had1 previously to #aiag1 been confined almost exclusively to the task of designing and constructing stationary units of defense for our coast fortifications4 ,it was naturally expected that it would be at those points that we would first1 if ever1 have to meet an attack from the air4 ,very little attention had been paid mobile artillery of this sort4 ,before ,april1 #aiaf1 the ,ordnance ,department had designed a high-powered #c-;inch antiaircraft mount for the fixed emplacement at coast fortifications4 ,the gun on this mount fired a #ae-pound projectile with a muzzle velocity of #b1fjj feet a second4 ,it is still to-day the most powerful antiaircraft weapon of its caliber4 ,between ,may1 #aiaf1 and ,june #ah1 #aiag1 orders for #afj of these mounts were placed with the ,watertown ,arsenal and the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 ,up to ,april #aj1 #aiai1 a total of #aaf of these had been completed and sent for emplacement at the points selected4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of ,,antiaircraft ,,guns ,,on ,,truck ,,mounts4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,other ,,views ,,of ,,antiaircraft ,,guns4 ,by the end of #aiaf1 however1 it was foreseen that it would be necessary to provide antiaircraft artillery of a mobile type as part of the equipment for any field forces that might be sent abroad4 ,since that contingency seemed entirely possible at that time1 and as it appeared to be impossible to provide a suitable design that would have a sufficient period of time in which to get proper consideration and test1 it was decided to improvise a simple structural steel design that would permit quick construction and on which a #ge-millimeter field gun1 that was already in production1 could be mounted4 ,this design was completed ,may #a1 #aiag1 and an order for #ej placed with the ,builders ,iron ,foundry4 ,deliveries on these were made during the fall of #aiag1 and the carriages were at once shipped to ,france for equipment with ,french field guns and recuperators that had been already procured for the purpose4 ,in its mobility the improvised antiaircraft gun mount was far from perfect4 ,it was necessary to disassemble it partly and mount it on trailers4 ,the need for a mount that could be moved easily and speedily had been realized before our entrance in the war1 and a design embodying these qualities was completed as early as ,december1 #aiaf4 ,this truck was designed to be equipped with the ,american #ge-millimeter field gun1 model of #aiaf4 ,before the drawings were completed an order for the pilot mounts of this type was placed with the ,rock ,island ,arsenal4 ,the war came on1 and it was decided not to wait for a test of the mounts before starting general manufacture4 ,accordingly the ,new ,britain ,machine ,co41 in ,july1 #aiag1 was given an order for #ea carriages4 ,no further orders were placed for carriages of this sort1 as it was not thought best to go too heavily into production of an untried mount4 ,it may be noted here that our first #bf antiaircraft guns were mounted on ,white #a-ton trucks4 ,it was also realized that the field guns with which these mounts were to be equipped did not have the power and range that the war experience was showing to be necessary4 ,the only reasons that the field guns of the #ge-millimeter caliber were used in this way was because they were the guns most quickly available and because the ,french were already using them for this purpose4 ,to meet the need of more powerful antiaircraft weapons1 a need becoming more pressing each day1 a #c-;inch high-powered antiaircraft gun was designed and mounted on a four-wheel trailer of the automobile type4 ,this mount permitted elevations of the gun from #aj degrees to #he degrees and also allowed for all around firing4 ,an order for #fab of these carriages was given to the ,new ,britain ,machine ,co4 in ,july1 #aiag1 shortly after the contract for the #ea truck mounts had been placed with that concern4 ,because of the urgency of the situation it was necessary to construct these carriages without the preliminary tests on a pilot carriage4 ,this1 of course1 is a very undesirable practice1 but under the existing conditions no other procedure would have been practicable4 ,the ,french antiaircraft auto truck mount1 which had the ,french #ge-millimeter field gun with its recuperator placed upon a special antiaircraft mount1 was not adopted at the time1 because1 in ,july1 #aiag1 the whole question of the possibility of constructing ,french recuperators in this country was still entirely unsettled4 ,it was imperative then that we develop our own designs4 ,all of the #ea truck mounts for the antiaircraft guns were delivered during the fall and early winter of #aiah1 and #bb of them were in ,france before ,december1 #aiah4 ,delivery of the first carriage for the #c-;inch high-powered gun mounted on the trailer carriage was made in ,august1 #aiag4 ,it had been rushed ahead of general production in order to be given some sort of a test4 ,no further deliveries were made1 but manufacture reached a point where production in quantity could begin4 ,a representative of the ,ordnance ,department was sent to ,france and ,england in ,december1 #aiag1 to gather all the information possible on antiaircraft artillery4 ,as a result of his investigations it was determined that it would be best to procure the greater part of our fire-control equipment in ,france1 since the instruments developed there were in some cases of a highly complicated nature and their manufacture entirely controlled by private parties4 ,orders were placed for enough of these instruments for the equipment of the first #abe batteries4 ,meanwhile1 fire-control instruments of various types were in the process of development in this country2 but1 as they were largely based upon theoretical construction derived from study of the ,french practices1 it was deemed best not to manufacture any of these instruments in quantity1 as better instruments of ,french design were available4 ,drawings of the ,french instruments were brought back by the ,ordnance officer on his visit to ,france and were available in this country in the spring of #aiah1 when manufacture of some of them began in the ,united ,states4 ,at the signing of the armistice our forces in ,france were equipped almost wholly with antiaircraft artillery loaned to us and supplied by the ,french4 ,this1 of course1 does not include the #aja improvised and truck mounts completed during #aiag4 ,production here1 however1 had reached such a point that shipment of material would have begun in quantity in ,january1 #aiai4 ,the estimated requirements of antiaircraft artillery for #b1jjj1jjj men in #dh divisions is only #abj guns4 ,other material1 of course1 would have been required previously for defense of depots1 railheads1 etc41 dependent in a great measure upon the activities of ,german bombers4 ,it is estimated that about #bjj guns would have sufficed for this purpose4 ,to summarize1 #ej of the so-called improvised #ge-millimeter antiaircraft guns and mounts had been ordered and completed up to the time of the signing of the armistice2 #ea of the #ge-millimeter antiaircraft mounts1 model of #aiag1 had been ordered and #df completed2 while #fab of the #c-;inch antiaircraft trailer carriage mounts1 model of #aiag1 had been ordered1 of which #a had been actually delivered at the signing of the armistice1 the balance to come at the rate of #bf per month starting in ,december4 ,artillery--,production of complete units1 by months4 ,deliveries in the ,united ,states on ,u4 ,s4 ,army orders only4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,to #aiah ,jan41------------------------- #aiah4;,jan4,feb4,mar4,apr4,may4,june4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #ge-mm4 gun1 model #ahig #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #ge-mm4 gun1 model #aiaf #j #j #j #i #d #f #ba #ge-mm4 gun1 model #aiag #a #aa #cf #bh #eh #bb #fa #ge-mm4 antiaircraft gun #j #di #b #j #j #a #a #c-;inch antiaircraft gun #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #d4g-;inch gun #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #aee-mm4 howitzer #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #e-;inch seacoast gun #j #j #a #bg #acac #ac #f-;inch seacoast gun #j #j #ab #e #b #de #bc #aee-mm4 gun #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #h-;inch howitzer #g #ab #ag #bj #bb #b #j #i4b-;inch howitzer#ad #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #bdj-mm4 howitzer #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #h-;inch seacoast gun #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #aj-;inch seacoast gun #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #ab-;inch gun #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #ab-;inch seacoast mortar #j #j #j #j #j #j #j ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,total #h #gb #fh #hi #hf #gf #ajf ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aiah ---------------------------,total4 ,july4,aug4,sept4,oct4,nov4 ,dec4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #ge-mm4 gun1 model #ahig #j #j #j #a #j #j #a #ge-mm4 gun1 model #aiaf #b #fj #db #ea #aa #de #bea #ge-mm4 gun1 model #aiag #fa #ee #acj #baa #aaj #ee #hci #ge-mm4 antiaircraft gun #b #af #b #ah #f #c #ajj #c-;inch antiaircraft gun #j #a #j #j #j #j #a #d4g-;inch gun #ae #ae #bh #gb #ej #dd #bbd #aee-mm4 howitzer #a #h #ci #fc #fe #ajj #bgf #e-;inch seacoast gun #acac #acacac #ac #bh #f-;inch seacoast gun #d #a #acacac #ac #ib #aee-mm4 gun #j #j #j #a #e #aj #af #h-;inch howitzer #j #bc #bg #cc #ac #ae #aia #i4b-;inch howitzer#ad #j #j #j #j #j #j #adj #bdj-mm4 howitzer #j #j #j #j #a #j #a #h-;inch seacoast gun #j #j #c #ad #d #a #bb #aj-;inch seacoast gun #j #j #j #j #j #j #j #ab-;inch gun #j #j #j #j #a #b #c #ab-;inch seacoast mortar #j #a #j #j #aj #b #ac ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,total #he #ahj #bga #dfd #bgf #bgg #b1jeh ---------------------------------------- --------------- #ac ,project complete4 #ad ,no deliveries made by ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 on ,u4,s4 ,army orders until after signing of the armistice because of priority given to ,british orders placed before the ,american declaration of war4 ,by complete units is meant gun body complete1 carriage1 and recoil mechanism or recuperator4 ,units are given as complete when their component parts were complete1 although the actual assembly of these parts at a common point1 testing1 and final delivery usually required from two weeks' to two months' additional time4 ,the #e-;inch1 #f-;inch1 #aj-;inch1 and #ab-;inch seacoast guns and the #ab-;inch seacoast mortars were taken from the fortifications and modified for use with mobile carriages1 all above #f inches for railway mounts4 ,the #ge-millimeter gun1 model #ahig1 was the approved model for active service in ,france4 ,model #aiaf and model #aiag were used for training purposes both in the ,united ,states and in ,france4 ,production of mobile artillery 7complete units71 ,apr4 #a1 #aiag1 to ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 ,including all produced for ,france and ,great ,britain in ,united ,states4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,produced4 ,shipped ,overseas4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ge-mm4 guns 7or ,british #ah-pounder7 #igj #aha #c-;inch and #ge-mm4 antiaircraft guns #ig #aebf #d4e-;inch howitzers #ig #ig #d4g-;inch guns #aeg #fd #aee-mm4 7#e-;inch and #f-;inch seacoast guns7 #aba #afaad #aee-mm4 howitzers #add #j #g-;inch guns on caterpillar mounts #agaj #j ,railway artillery #bj #aa ,heavy howitzers #ahdah #cbb --------------------- ,total #b1jcd #hae ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ae ,does not include #ea improvised mounts for which guns were furnished by ,french4 #af ,includes sixteen #aee-mm4 guns and carriages shipped without recuperators4 #ag ,built for the ,marine ,corps4 #ah ,includes sixteen #h-;inch howitzers built for the ,marine ,corps4 ,illustration3 #a-,,ton ,,antiaircraft ,,machine ,,gun ,,trailer4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of ,,the #g-;,,inch ,,navy ,,rifle ,,mounted ,,on ,a ,,pedestal ,,on ,a ,,railway ,,car4 ,this rifle has a range of about #aj miles and throws a projectile weighing #afe pounds4 ,note the means of loading and the depression angle4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,railway ,,artillery4 ,as soon as war was declared against ,germany the ,ordnance ,department1 in its search for an immediate equipment of strong artillery1 surveyed the ordnance supplies of the country and discovered some #dfd heavy guns which might be spared from the seacoast defenses1 obtained from the ,navy1 or commandeered at private ordnance plants where they were being manufactured for foreign ,governments4 ,there were six guns of this last-named class--powerful #ab-;inch weapons which had been produced for the ,chilean ,government4 ,it was seen that if all1 or if a large part1 of these guns could be made available for service in ,france1 ,america would quickly provide for herself a heavy artillery equipment of respectable proportions4 ,the guns thus available for mounting on railway cars ranged in size from the #g-;inch guns of the ,navy to the single enormous #af-;inch howitzer which had been built experimentally by the ,ordnance ,department prior to #aiag4 ,the list of these guns according to number1 size1 length1 and source whence obtained was as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,number of guns4 ,size4 ,length4 ,source whence obtained4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,inches4 ,calibers4 #ab #g #de ,navy4 #if #h #ce ,seacoast defenses4 #abi #aj #cd ,do4 #di #ab #ce ,do4 #f #ab #ej ,in manufacture for ,chile4 #aej 7mortars7 #ab #aj ,seacoast defenses4 #ba #ad #ej ,navy4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,in addition to these there was the #af-;inch howitzer1 #bj calibers in length1 which had been built by the ,ordnance ,department before #aiag4 ,the expression #ad-;inch gun1 #ej calibers1 means that the gun has a barrel diameter of #ad inches and that the gun body is fifty times the caliber of #ad inches1 or #gjj inches 7#eh feet #d inches7 long4 ,the ,ordnance ,department conceived that the only way to make these guns available for use abroad would be to mount them on railway cars4 ,these guns were not vital in the defense of our coast under the conditions of the war with ,germany1 but it was evident that they would make a valuable type of long-range artillery when placed on satisfactory railway mounts4 ,mounting heavy artillery on railway cars1 however1 was not an idea born of the recent war4 ,the idea was probably originally ,american4 ,the ,union forces at the siege of ,richmond in #ahfc mounted a #ac-;inch cast-iron mortar on a reinforced flat car1 this being the first authenticated record of the use of heavy railway artillery4 ,in #aiac the commanding officer of the defenses of the ,potomac1 which comprise ,forts ,washington and ,hunt1 was called upon to report on the condition of these defenses4 ,in reply1 he advised that no further expenditure be made on any one of the fixed defenses1 but recommended that a strategic railroad be built along the backbone of the peninsula from ,point ,lookout to ,washington1 with spurs leading to predetermined positions both on ,chesapeake ,bay and the ,potomac ,river1 so placed as to command approaches to ,washington and ,baltimore4 ,further1 he recommended that #d major-caliber guns1 #af medium-caliber guns1 and #bd mine-defense guns be mounted on railroad platforms1 with ammunition1 range finding1 and repair cars making up complete units1 so that this armament could be quickly transported at any time to the place where most needed4 ,he suggested that this scheme be made applicable to any portion of the coast line of the ,united ,states4 ,his argument was based upon the fact that guns in fixed positions1 of whatever caliber1 violate the cardinal military principle of mobility4 ,the nations engaged in the war now ending developed to a high stage the use of heavy artillery mounted on railway cars1 bringing about a combination of the necessary rigidity with great mobility1 considering the weight of this material4 ,railway artillery came to be as varied in its design as field artillery4 ,each type of railway mount had certain tactical uses and it was not considered desirable to use the different types interchangeably4 ,the three types of cannon used on railway mounts were mortars1 howitzers1 and guns4 ,it was not practicable to use the same type of railway mounts for the different kinds of cannon4 ,moreover1 these mounts differed radically from the mounts for such weapons at the seacoast defenses4 ,the three general types of railway mounts adopted were those which gave the gun all-around fire 7#cfj-;degree traverse71 those which provided limited traverse for the gun1 and those which allowed no lateral movement for the gun on the carriage but were used on curved track1 or epis1 to give the weapons traverse aim4 ,the smaller weapons1 such as the #g-;inch and the #h-;inch guns and the #ab-;inch mortars1 were placed on mounts affording #cfj-;degree traverse4 ,the limited traverse mounts were used for the moderately long-range guns and howitzers4 ,the fixed type of mount was used for long-range guns only1 and included the sliding railway mounts1 such as the ,american #ab-;inch and #ad-;inch sliding mounts and the ,french ,schneider glissement mounts4 ,the work of providing railway artillery--that is1 taking the big1 fixed-position guns already in existence within the ,united ,states and similar guns being produced and designing and manufacturing suitable mounts for them on railway cars--grew into such an important undertaking that it enlisted the exclusive attention of a large section within the ,ordnance ,department4 ,this organization eventually found itself engaged in #aj major construction projects1 which1 in time1 had the war continued1 would have delivered more than #cjj of these monster weapons to the field in ,france and1 to a lesser extent1 to the railway coast defenses of the ,united ,states4 ,as it was1 so much of the construction--the machining of parts1 and so on--was complete at the date of the armistice1 that it was decided to go ahead with all of the projects except three1 these involving the mounting of #af guns of #ad-;inch size1 #ej calibers long1 the production of #be long-range #h-;inch guns1 #ej calibers1 and their mounting on railway cars1 and the mounting of #ah coast-defense1 #aj-;inch guns1 #cd calibers long1 on the ,french ,batignolles type of railway mount4 ,inasmuch as it will be necessary in this chapter to refer frequently to the barbette1 ,schneider1 and ,batignolles types of gun mounts for railway artillery1 it should be made clear to the reader what these types are4 ,the barbette carriage revolves about a central pintle1 or axis1 and turns the gun around with it4 ,when it was decided to put coast-defense guns on railway cars1 the guns were taken from their emplacements1 barbette carriages manufactured for them1 and the whole mounted upon special cars4 ,the barbette mount revolves on a support of rollers traveling upon a circular base ring4 ,in the railway mount the base ring is attached to the dropped central portion of the railway car4 ,the barbette railway mount is provided with struts and plates by which the car is braced against the ground4 ,the ,schneider railway mount is named after the ,french ordnance concern ,schneider et ,cie1 who designed it4 ,in this mount the gun and its carriage are fastened rigidly parallel to the long axis of the railway car4 ,thus the gun itself1 independently of any movement of the car1 can be pointed only up and down in a vertical plane1 having no traverse or swing from left to right1 and vice versa4 ,in order to give the weapon traverse for its aim1 special railway curved tracks1 called epis1 are prepared at the position where it is to be fired4 ,the car is then run along the curve until its traverse aim is correct1 and the vertical aim is achieved by the movement of the gun itself4 ,in the ,schneider mount there is no recoil mechanism1 but the recoil is absorbed by the retrograde movement of the car itself along the rails after the gun is fired4 ,this movement1 of course1 puts the gun out of aim1 and the entire unit must then be pushed by hand power back to the proper point4 ,in the ,batignolles type1 gun and cradle are mounted on a so-called top carriage that permits of small changes in horizontal pointing right and left4 ,thus with the railway artillery of the ,batignolles type also1 track curves1 or epis1 are necessary for the accurate aiming4 ,the ,batignolles mount partially cushions the recoil by the movement of the gun itself in the cradle4 ,but1 in addition1 a special track is provided at the firing point and the entire gun car is run on this track and bolted to it with spades driven into the ground to resist what recoil is not taken up in the cradle4 ,the unit is thus stationary in action1 and the gun can be more readily returned to aim than can a gun on a ,schneider mount4 ,,the #g-;,,inch ,,rifles4 ,the conditions under which the war with ,germany was fought virtually precluded any chance of a naval attack on our shores which would engage our fixed coast defenses4 ,the ,british grand fleet1 with the assistance of fleets of the other allies and ,america1 had the ,german battle fleet securely bottled4 ,on the other hand there was the prowling submarine able at all times to go to sea and even to cross the ocean1 and some of the latest of these submarines were armed with long-range medium-caliber guns4 ,it was not beyond possibility that some sort of an attack would be made on our shores by submarines of this character1 yet it was safe to believe that these craft would keep well out of range of the guns at our stationary coast defenses4 ,to protect our coast from such attack the ,ordnance ,department conceived the plan of mounting heavy guns on railway cars4 ,they might then be moved quickly to places on the seacoast needing defense4 ,for this purpose the ,navy turned #ab of its #g-;inch rifles over to the ,ordnance ,department for mounting4 ,meanwhile our ordnance officers had designed certain standard railway artillery cars1 known as models #aiah1 #aiah ,mark ,i1 and #aiah ,mark ,,ii1 for #g-;inch and #h-;inch guns and #ab-;inch mortars1 respectively4 ,these cars all had the same general features4 ,the model #aiah car was selected for the converted #g-;inch ,navy rifle4 ,the rifle was mounted on a pedestal set on the gun car in such a manner as to give all-around fire1 or #cfj-;degree traverse4 ,the pedestal mount permitted the gun to be depressed at an angle suitable for firing from high places along the coast down upon the low-lying submarines4 ,contracts for the various parts for these cars and the pedestal gun mounts were let to concerns engaged in heavy steel manufacture1 but the assembling was done by the ,american ,car ,foundry ,co41 of ,berwick1 ,pa4 ,twelve of the #g-;inch rifles were so mounted4 ,as this equipment was intended exclusively for use in this country1 the gun cars were equipped with the ,american type of car couplings4 ,,the #h-;,,inch ,,guns4 ,for the #h-;inch guns taken from seacoast fortifications the ,ordnance ,department designed a barbette mount giving complete1 #cfj-;degree1 traverse1 thus providing for fire in any direction4 ,there were #if such guns available for railway mounts4 ,orders for #dg gun cars with carriages for mounting the weapons were placed with three concerns--the ,morgan ,engineering ,co41 of ,alliance1 ,ohio1 the ,harrisburg ,manufacturing ,boiler ,co41 of ,harrisburg1 ,pa41 and the ,american ,car ,foundry ,co41 of ,berwick4 ,two of the three contractors found it necessary to provide additional facilities and machine-tool equipment at their plants in order to handle this job4 ,the first railway mount for the #h-;inch gun was completed and sent to the ,aberdeen ,proving ,ground for test in ,may1 #aiah4 ,in early ,june the test had shown that the weapon was efficient and entirely satisfactory4 ,before the end of the year #aiah a total of #bd complete units1 with ammunition cars for standard-gauge track1 shell cars for narrow-gauge track1 transportation cars1 tools1 spare parts1 and all the other necessary appurtenances of a unit of this character1 had been completed4 ,three complete #h-;inch units were shipped overseas before the armistice was signed4 ,when the armistice came the ,harrisburg company had delivered #i of these mounts and the ,morgan ,engineering ,co4 an equal number1 making #ah in all4 ,the former concern had reached an output of #e mounts per month and the latter #aj per month4 ,an interesting feature of this mount is that it can be used either on standard-gauge or on narrow-gauge railroad track4 ,the narrow gauge adopted was that in standard use in the fighting zones in ,france1 the distance between the rails being #fj centimeters1 or the approximate equivalent of #bd inches4 ,each gun car was provided with interchangeable trucks to fit either gauge4 ,the artillery train necessary for the maneuvering of the weapon was also similarly equipped to travel on either sort of track4 ,as a rule the longer the barrel of a cannon1 the greater its range4 ,the #h-;inch seacoast guns thus mounted were #ce calibers in length1 that is1 thirty-five times #h inches1 or #bc feet #d inches4 ,the requirements of our forces in the field in ,france called for guns of this same size but of longer range4 ,consequently an #h-;inch gun of #ej calibers--that is1 #aj feet longer than the seacoast #h-;inch gun--was designed1 and #be of them were ordered4 ,this project came as a later development in the war1 the guns being intended for use abroad in #aibj4 ,the railway mounts for the weapons had not been placed in production when the armistice came4 ,because of the incomplete status of this project in the autumn of #aiah1 the whole undertaking was abandoned4 #aj-;,,inch ,,and #ab-;,,inch ,,guns4 ,there were at the seacoast defenses and in the stores of the ,army a large number of #aj-;inch guns of #cd calibers4 ,of these #abi were available for mounting on railway cars4 ,it was proposed to mount these weapons on two types of ,french railway mounts--the ,schneider and the ,batignolles4 ,the project to mount #cf of these weapons on ,schneider mounts was taken up as a joint operation of the ,united ,states and ,french ,governments1 the heavy forging and rough machining to be done in this country and the finishing and assembling in the ,french shops4 ,the ,american contractors were three4 ,the ,harrisburg ,manufacturing ,boiler ,co4 undertook to furnish the major portion of the fabricated materials for the carriages and cars4 ,the ,pullman ,car ,co4 contracted to produce the necessary trucks for the gun cars1 while the ,american ,car ,foundry ,co4 engaged to build the ammunition cars4 ,eight sets of fabricated parts to be assembled in ,france had been produced before the armistice was signed4 ,gen4 ,pershing had requested the delivery in ,france of the #cf sets of parts by ,march #b1 #aiai4 ,after the armistice was signed there was a natural letdown in speed in nearly all ordnance factories1 but even without the spur of military necessity the contracting concerns were able by ,april #g1 #aiai1 to deliver #bb of the #cf sets ordered4 ,had the war continued through the winter there is little question but that all #cf sets of parts would have been in ,france on the date specified4 ,the #aj-;inch seacoast gun1 ,batignolles mount project1 was placed exclusively in the hands of the ,marion ,steam ,shovel ,co41 of ,marion1 ,ohio4 ,it had been proposed also to mount #ab-;inch seacoast guns on this same type of equipment1 and this work1 too1 went to the ,marion concern4 ,there were to be produced #ah of the #aj-;inch units and #ab of the larger ones4 ,illustration3 #h-;,,inch ,,railway ,,artillery1 ,,barbette ,,type4 ,this view shows gun in act of hurling projectile parallel to track4 ,illustration3 #h-;,,inch ,,seacoast ,,rifle1 ,,with ,,recoil ,,mechanism1 ,,set ,,up ,,on ,a ,,specially ,,designed ,,railway ,,mount4 ,this gun1 thus mounted on a railway car1 is capable of an all-around fire and can deliver a shot in any direction from its location on the car4 ,illustration3 #ab-;,,inch ,,rifle ,,in ,,act ,,of ,,firing4 ,the force of the recoil sends the entire car back on track about #e feet4 ,illustration3 #ab-;,,inch ,,rifle ,,elevated ,,to ,,its ,,maximum ,,position4 ,it is capable of hurling a #gjj-pound shell #be miles4 ,this is a modified ,schneider type of carriage4 ,,two ,,views ,,of #ab-;,,inch ,,rifle ,,on ,,sliding ,,type ,,railway ,,mount4 ,the ,marion ,steam ,shovel ,co4 had had a large experience in producing heavy construction and road-building equipment4 ,the concern encountered numerous difficulties at the start in translating the ,french drawings and in substituting the ,american standard materials for those specified by the ,french4 ,these difficulties1 combined with struggles to obtain raw materials and the equipment for the increased facilities which had to be provided at the factory1 so delayed production that no mount for either the #aj-;inch or #ab-;inch guns had been delivered at the time of the armistice4 ,the first mount of these classes--one with a #ab-;inch gun--reached the ,aberdeen proving ground about ,april #a1 #aiai4 ,the #aj-;inch project1 calling for #ah mounts1 was canceled soon after ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,the work on the dozen mounts for #ab-;inch guns1 however1 had progressed so far that the ,ordnance ,department ordered the completion of the entire equipment4 ,as has been stated1 the ,government found in this country six #ab-;inch guns being made for the ,republic of ,chile4 ,their length of #ej calibers gave them a specially long range4 ,it was decided to place the ,chilean guns on a sliding mount4 ,in a mount of this type the retrograde movement of the car along the track as and after the gun is fired takes up and absorbs the energy of fire4 ,the first sliding railway mount used on the allied side in the great war was of ,french design4 ,but our manufacturers had so much trouble with ,french designs that when the project came up of mounting the ,chilean guns in this fashion it was decided that it would be quicker to design our own mount4 ,consequently the ,french design was taken in hand by our ordnance engineers and redesigned to conform to ,american practice1 with the inclusion in the design of all original ideas developed by the ,ordnance ,department in its creative work during the war period up to that time4 ,the manufacturers who looked at the ,french design of the sliding railway mount estimated that it would take from #ab to #ah months before the unit could be duplicated in this country and first deliveries made4 ,they looked at the ,american design and estimated that they could build it in #c months4 ,it was decided to build three mounts of this character and thus have a reserve of one gun for each mount to serve as replacement when the original guns were worn out4 ,contracts were placed in the early summer of #aiah1 and all three mounts were delivered before the armistice was signed1 the first mount being completed within #he days after the order was placed4 ,for these mounts the ,american ,bridge ,co4 furnished the main girders or side pieces1 the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,co4 built the railway trucks1 and the ,morgan ,engineering ,co4 manufactured the many other parts and assembled the complete units4 ,the speed in manufacture was made possible by the fact that the plant engineers of the three companies helped the ordnance officers in designing the details4 ,with such intimate cooperation1 the concerns were able to begin the manufacture of component parts while the drawings were being made4 ,all three weapons with their entire equipment1 including supplies1 spare parts1 ammunition cars1 and the whole trains that make up such units1 were ready for shipment to ,france in ,november1 #aiah4 ,each mount as it stands to-day is #aje feet long and weighs #fjj1jjj pounds4 ,the load of the gun and the peak load put on the carriage when the gun is fired are so great that it requires four trucks of #h wheels each1 #cb car wheels in all1 to distribute the load safely over ordinary standard-gauge track4 ,,the #ab-;,,inch ,,mortars4 ,in years past the ,ordnance ,department had procured a large number of #ab-;inch mortars for use at seacoast defenses4 ,these great weapons are #aj calibers in length1 or #aj feet in linear measurement1 the diameter of the barrel being just an even foot4 ,of the number stationed at the coastal forts and in reserve it was decided that #aej could be safely withdrawn and prepared for use against ,germany4 ,when ,gen4 ,pershing was informed of the proposal1 he asked that #dj of these weapons mounted on railway cars should be delivered to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces for use in the planned campaign of #aiai4 ,in order that there might be an adequate supply of them1 the ,ordnance ,department let contracts for the mounting of #ia of these mortars on railway equipment1 a project which would give the ,united ,states a formidable armament and still provide a reserve of #ei mortars to replace the service mortars on the carriages after repeated firing had worn them out4 ,this job proved to be one of the largest in the whole artillery program4 ,the entire contract was let to the ,morgan ,engineering ,co41 of ,alliance1 ,ohio4 ,in order to handle the contract1 a special ordnance plant1 costing #a1gjj1jjj for the building alone1 had to be constructed at the company's works at ,alliance4 ,the work was so highly specialized that machine tools designed for the particular purpose had to be produced4 ,the ,government itself bought these tools at a cost of #a1hjj1jjj4 ,although work on this plant was not started until ,december #aj1 #aiag1 and although thereafter followed weeks and weeks of the severest winter weather known in recent years1 with all the delays in the deliveries of materials which such weather conditions bring about1 the plant was entirely complete on ,june #a1 #aiah1 not only1 but the work of producing the mounts had started in it long before that1 some machines getting to work as early as ,april4 ,the gun car used for mounting the mortar carriage was of the same design as that for the #g-;inch and #h-;inch guns1 except that each truck had six wheels4 ,the carriage built upon this car was of the barbette type1 and it allowed the gun to be pointed upward to an angle as high as #fe and provided complete traverse1 so that the mortar could be fired in any direction from the car4 ,a hydropneumatic system for absorbing the recoil of the mortar after firing was adopted4 ,this recuperator in itself was a difficult problem for the manufacturer to solve1 being the first hydropneumatic recuperator of the size ever built in this country4 ,illustration3 #ab-;,,inch ,,seacoast ,,gun ,,on ,a ,,creusot ,,railway ,,mount4 ,this huge weapon in this position is ready to fire half a ton of shot a distance of #be miles4 ,it requires only two men to operate the powerful elevating apparatus necessary to bring the gun into quick-firing position4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of #ab-;,,inch ,,mortar ,,on ,,railway ,,mount4 ,lower view shows the mortar in its extreme position of recoil4 ,in spite of the weight and elaborate character of this unit it was put into production in an astonishingly short space of time4 ,the pilot mount came through on ,august #bb1 #aiah1 less than nine months after the spade was first struck in the ground to begin the erection of the ordnance plant4 ,by the end of ,august the pilot mortar had successfully passed its firing tests at ,aberdeen1 functioning properly at angles of elevation from #bb degrees to #fe degrees and in any direction from the mount4 ,while this unit was put through hurriedly for these tests1 the preparation for the rest of the deliveries was made on a grand scale1 looking toward quantity production later on4 ,when the armistice was signed1 every casting1 forging1 and structural part for every one of the #ia railway mounts was on hand and completed at the works of the ,morgan ,engineering ,co41 and thereafter the process was merely one of assembling1 although in a unit of such size the assembling job alone was one of great magnitude4 ,even at the reduced rate of production incident to the relaxation of tension after the armistice was signed1 the company delivered #de complete units to the ,government up to ,april #g1 #aiai1 or five more than ,gen4 ,pershing said he would require during the whole campaign of #aiai4 ,careful estimates show that if the war had continued the company would have delivered the mounts at the rate of #ae per month beginning on ,december #ae1 #aiah1 a rate which would have completed the entire project for #ia mounts by the middle of ,june1 #aiai4 ,as in the case of the #h-;inch railway guns1 the #ab-;inch mortars were provided with interchangeable wheel trucks allowing the unit to travel and work either on standard-gauge track or on the #fj-;centimeter1 narrow-gauge track of the war zone in ,france4 #ad-;,,inch ,,guns4 ,the ,war ,department did not have any #ad-;inch guns which could be spared from the seacoast defenses for use abroad4 ,the ,ordnance ,department1 therefore1 inaugurated the project for the construction of #fj guns of #ad-;inch caliber4 ,for the construction of such guns complete new plants were required1 as all available facilities were already taken over for other projects considered more important4 ,this contract was to have been turned out by the ,neville ,island ordnance plant4 ,the ,navy ,department in ,may1 #aiah1 expressed willingness to turn over to the ,army certain #ad-;inch guns1 #ej calibers1 then under construction and of which it was estimated that #cj would be completed by ,march1 #aiai4 ,it was decided to place some of these #ad-;inch guns on ,american sliding railway mounts1 and #af such mounts were ordered from the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works1 deliveries to begin ,february #a1 #aiai4 ,the #af units were to be delivered prior to ,april1 #aiai1 but due to the signing of the armistice work was suspended on the contracts1 since the mounts were designed for use in ,france4 ,the contract was canceled in ,march1 #aiai4 ,the ,navy itself placed five of these guns on railway mounts of another design to be operated in ,france by naval forces on shore4 ,eleven such mounts were built by the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works under the supervision of the ,navy ,ordnance ,bureau1 and six of them were afterwards turned over to the ,army4 ,,the #af-;,,inch ,,howitzer4 ,without discussing here the #ab-;inch howitzers1 #bj feet long1 which the ,ordnance ,department ordered produced and mounted on railway trucks1 a development for use abroad in #aibj1 we come1 finally1 to the largest weapon of all in the railway artillery program1 the #af-;inch howitzer1 the barrel of this mighty weapon being #bf feet #f inches long4 ,the ,american #af-;inch howitzer had been forged out and finished prior to the date of ,america's entrance into the war4 ,it was proposed to place this weapon on a railway mount and make it available for use on the western front4 ,the ,ordnance ,department completed the design for the mount on ,february #aj1 #aiah4 ,in order to turn out the unit in the shortest possible time1 the project was placed with three manufacturers1 each of whom was to produce different parts4 ,the ,american ,bridge ,co4 received the order to build the structural parts1 the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works contracted for the trucks1 while the ,morgan ,engineering ,co4 undertook to assemble the unit and also to build the top carriage and other mechanical parts4 ,the contractors did a speedy job in producing the mount for this howitzer4 ,in nearly all railway artillery of this size it is necessary to provide bracing when the gun is set up in position for firing4 ,the #af-;inch howitzer mount was unique in that the weapon could be fired from the trucks without any track preparation whatsoever4 ,an exhaustive test at the ,aberdeen proving grounds demonstrated that this piece of artillery ranked with the highest types of ordnance in use by any country in the world4 ,in the meantime orders had been placed for #fa additional howitzers4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces asked that #ab of these enormous weapons be sent overseas as soon as they could be produced1 a job which would have extended over a period of months1 if not years4 ,since none of the additional howitzers had been produced when the armistice was signed1 the project of building mounts for them never got under way4 ,the pilot howitzer and mount were not shipped abroad4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of #ad-;,,inch ,,railway ,,artillery4 ,this type was evolved entirely by the ,ordnance ,department4 ,it is an excellent weapon for coast defense and hurls a #a1bjj-pound projectile more than #ah miles4 ,illustration3 #af-;,,inch ,,howitzer ,,on ,,railway ,,mount4 ,a #a1fjj-pound projectile being loaded into the #af-;inch howitzer from which it will be sent on a journey of approximately #ac miles4 ,illustration3 #af-;,,inch ,,howitzer ,,on ,,railway ,,mount4 ,this view shows howitzer in the act of firing4 ,in the design of railway equipment for high-angle weapons such as howitzers1 two loads must be considered by the builders in order to provide a gun car of sufficient strength to hold its freight4 ,one of these loads1 the lighter one1 consists merely of the ordinary weight of the gun and its carriage upon the car wheels4 ,the other load1 the so-called firing load1 consists of the weight of the unit plus the additional weight of the down-thrust of the howitzer when it recoils4 ,in the case of the #af-;inch howitzer the firing load is #gdh1bca pounds4 ,the weight of #gdh1bca pounds must be distributed along the tracks by the numerous sets of wheels at the instant the gun is fired4 ,the mount for the howitzer is so constructed that this load is partly taken up by the slide of the gun car along the track4 ,in addition1 the howitzer is equipped with a hydraulic recoil cylinder4 ,thus the unit has a double recoil system4 ,the car trucks in the tests comfortably transmitted1 through a series of equalizer springs1 this enormous load upon an ordinary rock-ballast track1 without any distortion to the track or roadbed or impairment to the working parts of the unit4 ,after each discharge the whole huge mount moves backward along the track for a distance of #bj or #cj feet4 ,each railway artillery project called for the manufacture of a great equipment of ammunition cars1 fire-control cars1 spare-parts cars1 supply cars1 and the like1 a complete unit being a heavy train in itself4 ,such armament-train cars1 together with numerous other accessories and necessary equipment1 were designed by the ,ordnance ,department and produced for each mount4 ,in all1 #ecj ammunition cars were produced up to ,april1 #aiai4 ,most of them were shipped abroad1 but #aah were retained for use in this country4 ,since the overseas cars were to be used with ,french railway equipment1 it was necessary to fit them out with ,french standard screw couplers1 air brakes1 and other appliances for connecting up with ,french railway cars4 ,the matter of traction power for these gun and armament trains near the front set a problem for the ,ordnance ,department to solve4 ,it was out of the question to use steam engines near the enemy's lines1 since the steam and smoke would betray the location of artillery trains at great distances4 ,the ,ordnance ,department adopted a gas-electric locomotive of #djj horsepower to be used to pull railway artillery trains at the front1 and was on the point of letting a contract to the ,general ,electric ,co4 for the manufacture of #ej of them when the armistice was signed4 ,,neville ,,island4 ,it seems fitting at this point to say something about the ,neville ,island ordnance plant1 on an island in the ,ohio ,river near ,pittsburgh1 which would have produced weapons of the character of those used with railway mounts and would have turned them out in large numbers had the armistice not come to put an end to this enormous project4 ,the plant was being erected for the ,government by the ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation without profit to itself4 ,the estimated cost of this plant when finished was #aej1jjj1jjj4 ,designed to supply the needs of the ,army for artillery of the heaviest types1 the ,neville ,island plant was being constructed on such a scale that it would surpass in size and capacity any of the famous gun works of ,europe1 including the ,krupps4 ,it was being equipped to handle huge ordnance undertakings1 such as the monthly completion of #ae great #ad-;inch guns and the production of #dj1jjj projectiles monthly for #ad-;inch and #af-;inch guns4 ,the plans of the ,government contemplated the production of #ad-;inch guns to the number of #afe in all and their shipment to ,france in time to be in the field before ,may #a1 #aibj4 ,an initial order for #ij of these weapons had been placed at the arsenal while it was being erected4 ,besides #ad-;inch guns the plant was being equipped to turn out #af-;inch and even #ah-;inch weapons4 ,the immense size of the machinery necessary for such production can be understood when it is noted that an #ah-;inch gun weighs #eaj1jjj pounds and a #ad-;inch gun #ahj1jjj pounds4 ,it requires from #ab to #ah months to produce guns of this size1 yet ,neville ,island was being developed on a scale to build hundreds of them simultaneously4 ,the entire plant was to cover #egc acres and was to employ #bj1jjj workmen when in full operation4 ,at the signing of the armistice work was suspended at ,neville ,island1 and four months later the whole project was abandoned4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,number ,number ,number required ,producedproducedby ,a4 ,e4 ,f4 ,guns ,type4 ,total ,nov4 #aa1 to for avail- ,remarks4 ,ordered4 #aiah4 ,apr4 #g1 campaign able4 #aiai4 during #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #g-;inch #ab #ab #ab #j #ab ,produced for ,navy gun1 antisubmarine railway work along mount ,america's seacoast4 #h-;inch1 #dg #ah #cc #cf #if #ce-;caliber seacoast gun1 railway mount #aj-;inch1 #cf #aih #aibb #cf #aaa ,fabricated #cd-;caliber material and seacoast trucks1 gun on complete1 ,french produced type within railway country1 mount mount to be assembled in ,france4 ,do #ah #j #j #ah ,project cancelled on signing of the armistice1 ,batignolles4 #ab-;inch1 #ab #j #a #ab #di ,french #ce-;caliber ,batignolles seacoast type4 gun on ,french type railway mount #ab-;inch1 #c #c #c #d #f ,guns obtained #ej-;caliber from ,chilean gun on ,government ,american manufactured sliding in this railway country4 mount #ad-;inch1 #aa #aa #aa #aa #ba #ej-;caliber naval gun on railway mount #ab-;inch1 #ia #a #de #di #aej #aj-;caliber seacoast mortar on railway mount #af-;inch #a #a #a #j #a #fa guns howitzer1 under #bj-;caliber construction4 on railway mount #ad-;inch1 #af #j ,protect #ej-;caliber cancelled guns on ,mar4 #aa1 ,american #aiai4 ,guns sliding under railway construction4 mount #ab-;inch1 #a #j ,if war had #bj-;caliber continued1 howitzer #fj mounts on contemplated4 railway mount ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #ai ,sets1 fabricated parts4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,explosives1 ,,propellants1 ,,and ,,artillery ,,ammunition4 ,the ,interallied ,ordnance ,agreement of the late fall of #aiag1 supplying to the ,united ,states as it did ,french and ,british artillery and other heavy ordnance supplies until the developing ,american ordnance industry could come into production1 nevertheless called upon the ,united ,states to produce heavily the explosives and propellants that are of such major importance to a modern army4 ,these commodities were needed by the armies of ,france and ,great ,britain more than any other sort of ordnance which ,america could supply4 ,the result was an enormous production of propellants and explosives in the ,united ,states during the period of ,american belligerency1 no other prime phase of the ordnance program being carried to such a stage of development4 ,the reader will clearly see the distinction between propellants and explosives4 ,the propellant is the smokeless powder that sends the shell or bullet from the gun2 the explosive is the bursting charge within the shell4 ,to realize the expansion of the ,american explosives industry during the war period1 consider such figures as these3 ,america in #ai months turned out #fcb1ejd1jjj pounds of propellants--the powder loaded into small-arms cartridges or packed into the big guns behind the projectiles to send them against the enemy4 ,in those same #ai months ,france produced #cdb1aee1jjj pounds of propellants and ,great ,britain #bia1gjf1jjj pounds4 ,the ,american production was practically equal to that of ,england and ,france together4 ,in those #ai months we produced #cge1fef1jjj pounds of high explosives for loading into shell4 ,in the same #ai months ,england produced #gfe1aaj1jjj pounds of high explosives and ,france #gjb1ifd1jjj pounds4 ,america was below both ,france and ,england in total output1 but in monthly rate of output ,america had reached #dg1hhh1jjj pounds as against ,france's #bb1hjb1jjj pounds and ,england's #cj1ieg1jjj pounds4 ,our rate of manufacturing propellants at the end of the fighting was up to #db1gge1jjj pounds as against ,france's #ag1caa1jjj and ,england's #ab1jee1jjj4 ,figure #i shows graphically the achievements of ,america in manufacturing propellants and explosives4 ,in the production of artillery ammunition a comparison with ,france and ,great ,britain shows that our monthly rate in turning out unfilled rounds of ammunition at the end of the war was #g1jdd1jjj rounds1 as against #g1gdh1jjj rounds for ,great ,britain and #f1ffa1jjj rounds for ,france4 ,in producing complete rounds of artillery ammunition1 our monthly rate at the signing of the armistice was #b1dbi1jjj rounds while that of ,great ,britain was #g1cdg1jjj rounds and that of ,france #g1fch1jjj rounds4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #i4 ,,production ,,of ,,smokeless ,,powder ,,and ,,high ,,explosives1 ,,france ,,and ,,united ,,states ,,compared ,,with ,,great ,,britain4 ,,average ,,monthly ,,rate1 ,,august1 ,,september1 ,,and ,,october1 #aiah4 ,smokeless powder3 ,pounds4 ,per cent of rate for ,great ,britain4 ,great ,britain #ab1jee1jjj #ajj ,france #ag1caa1jjj #add ,united ,states #db1gge1jjj #cee ,high explosives3 ,great ,britain #cj1ifg1jjj #ajj ,france #bb1hjb1jjj #gd ,united ,states #dc1hhh1jjj #adb ,,total ,,production1 ,,april #f1 #aiag1 ,,to ,,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,smokeless powder3 ,pounds4 ,per cent of rate for ,great ,britain4 ,great ,britain #bia1gjf1jjj #ajj ,france #cdb1aee1jjj #aag ,united ,states #fcb1ejd1jjj #bag ,high explosives3 ,great ,britain #gfe1aaj1jjj #ajj ,france #gjb1ifd1jjj #ib ,united ,states #cge1fef1jjj #di ,in the #ai months of our participation in the war our production of unfilled rounds in ammunition was #ch1fbc1jjj rounds1 while that of ,france was #aef1agj1jjj rounds and that of ,great ,britain #ach1ceg1jjj rounds4 ,in that time we had produced #ag1bfj1jjj complete rounds1 while ,france had produced #adi1hbg1jjj rounds1 and ,great ,britain #aba1gci1jjj complete rounds4 ,the entrance of the ,united ,states into the war found the existing ,american explosives manufacturers operating to the very limit of their capacity in production for the allied governments and for general commercial purposes4 ,since the outbreak of the war in #aiad the explosives business in this country had increased enormously and the trained men familiar with manufacturing operations and conditions in this highly specialized and extremely dangerous industry had fallen short of meeting demands4 ,when we entered the war1 therefore1 it became necessary at once to distribute this limited force of experts as equitably as possible and to put chemists1 engineers and other specialists in the various plants under the supervision of this trained personnel so as to produce in as quick a time as possible a vastly enlarged force of competent operators and supervisors for the production of explosives4 ,summed up1 the problem that faced the ,ordnance ,department was1 while maintaining the current great production of explosives1 to expand enormously the facilities for further production1 to provide personnel for operating these expanded facilities1 to build up entirely new manufacturing plants for making both propellants and high explosives1 and in addition to all of this1 to bring into existence huge loading plants4 ,in all1 #ec new plants for making explosives and propellants and for loading these were undertaken at a cost of approximately #cfj1jjj1jjj4 ,when the armistice was signed a very large part of this construction work had been completed and was in an efficient state of operation4 ,how creditably this reflects upon ,america can be understood when it is made plain that in addition to the development of production there was also to be worked out the very intricate question of design1 not only of the plants themselves but also of their products1 which required an exceptional degree of technical skill and thorough control4 ,prior to our entry into the war the ,ordnance ,department had depended upon ammonium picrate1 known in the ,army vernacular as explosive ,d1 as a bursting charge for our high-explosive shell4 ,during the progress of the ,european conflict the ,british had developed an explosive they called amatol1 which is a mixture of trinitrotoluol--,t4 ,n4 ,t4--and ammonium nitrate4 ,as this had proved to be entirely satisfactory in actual service on ,european battle fields1 and as ammonium nitrate could be produced here in large quantities1 we adopted it4 ,the ,ordnance ,department eventually put into effect a standard policy for the use of high explosives4 ,every effort was being made to conserve the supply of ,t4 ,n4 ,t41 and consequently this explosive was specified for the shell of smaller calibers only4 ,the standard filling scheme was as follows3 ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 for shell between and including the calibers of #ge-millimeter and #d4g-;inch2 amatol for shell of calibers between #d4g-;inch and #i4b-;inch1 including the latter2 ammonium picrate1 or explosive ,d1 for shell of #aj-;inch caliber and higher4 ,while these were the standards the scheme was not always followed rigidly4 ,as a matter of fact amatol was loaded into shell of all sizes and so was ,t4 ,n4 ,t41 although explosive ,d was never used in shell smaller than those for the #aj-;inch guns4 ,these departures from standard practice were due to the necessity for keeping certain plants in production and to other special causes and exceptional circumstances4 ,production of large quantities of ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 and ammonium nitrate was the first big problem to be solved by the high-explosives section of the ,ordnance ,department4 ,all the work of the explosives section can be subdivided under four group heads--raw materials1 propellants1 high explosives1 and loading4 ,,raw ,,materials4 ,the first steps taken in the endeavor to meet the need for raw materials were to increase greatly the available means for obtaining toluol1 phenol1 caustic soda1 sodium nitrate1 sulphuric and nitric acids1 ammonia liquor or aqua ammonia1 and to attempt to provide a substitute for cellulose in case a shortage of cotton should render its use necessary4 ,how to increase the supply of toluol1 the basic raw material from which ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 is made1 was the greatest and most pressing of all the problems in regard to the existing raw materials4 ,before the war the sole source of this ingredient was from by-product coke ovens4 ,the monthly capacity of these ovens in #aiad was1 approximately1 #gjj1jjj pounds4 ,by ,april1 #aiag1 when we stepped into the conflict1 this capacity had been increased to #f1jjj1jjj pounds a month4 ,by the time the armistice was signed our efforts for greater production had been carried on so successfully that the supply had been increased to #ab1jjj1jjj pounds a month1 and the average cost of this was only #ba cents a pound4 ,this tremendous increase of production not only took care of all demands for commercial purposes and permitted the shipment of about #aa1jjj1jjj pounds to the allied ,governments1 but was more than ample to take care of our own entire explosives program1 leaving a stock on hand ,december #a1 #aiah1 of #ag1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,a few details of how this tremendous increase in production was brought about through the energies of the officials charged with this task and the most efficient and whole-hearted cooperation of patriotic business concerns are interesting4 ,three general sources existed from which toluol was obtained3 first1 from the by-product recovery coke ovens2 second1 by the stripping or absorbing of toluol from carbureted water and coal gas2 and third1 by the cracking or breaking down of oils4 ,in augmenting the supply of toluol through the first process1 construction of additional by-product coke ovens by the following big steel companies was arranged3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,company4 ,toluol capacity per year4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,pounds4 ,jones ,laughlin ,steel ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #e1ggj1afj ,the ,sloss-,sheffield ,co41 ,birmingham1 ,ala4 #b1jai1eef ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation1 ,clairton1 ,pa4 #b1cjh1jfd ,international ,harvester ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #a1ehe1gid ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation1 ,birmingham1 ,ala4 #b1jai1eef ,rainey-,wood ,co41 ,swedeland1 ,pa4 #b1afc1haj ,the ,seaboard ,by-,product ,co41 ,jersey ,city1 ,n4 ,j4 #a1jha #ije ,pittsburgh ,crucible ,steel ,co41 ,midland1 ,pa4 #b1jai1eef ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,the total cost of these additional ovens was about #cj1jjj1jjj1 which was met by private capital after contracts for the purchase of the product had been made1 insuring a secure return on the investment4 ,production was to begin in #aiai4 ,in addition to this there was arranged construction for #cbj additional ovens at the following places3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,company4 ,estimated ,date of ,estimated time of contract4 cost4 completion4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,donner ,steel ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,may1 #aiah #f1jjj1jjj ,mar41 #aibj ,birmingham ,coke ,co41 ,birmingham1 ,ala4 ,july1 #aiah #b1ejj1jjj ,oct41 #aiai ,domestic ,coke ,corporation1 ,fairmont1 ,w4 ,va4,sept41 #aiah #b1gjj1jjj ,nov41 #aiai ,domestic ,coke ,corporation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,july1 #aiah #a1ejj1jjj ,feb41 #aibj ,international ,coal ,products ,corporation1 ,may1 #aiah #b1jjj1jjj ,aug41 #aiai ,clinchfield1 ,va4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,from these sources the monthly production of toluol in #aibj would have been increased by #fjj1jjj pounds a month4 ,while all these arrangements for vastly increasing the supply of this chemical in #aiai and #aibj were being made1 technical experts of the ,ordnance ,department stimulated production by visiting existing by-product coke ovens and advising as to changes and alterations in the plants1 both in regard to equipment and methods of operation4 ,investigations were made early in the summer of #aiag on the possibility of recovering toluol by stripping illuminating gas1 and a report was made on this subject in ,october1 #aiag4 ,construction of the necessary plants to carry out this plan was begun late in ,november1 and the first plants were in operation in ,april1 #aiah4 ,this was considered a remarkable record1 in view of the fact that the operating personnel for the purpose had to be established and trained in this entirely new line of activity4 ,in this connection it is extremely interesting to note that the ,american people in #ac of the largest cities of the country played an unconscious part in contributing to the successful termination of the war by using artificial gas of considerably less heating power1 as a result of the removal of the toluol for explosive purposes4 ,for example1 in ,new ,york ,city1 due to the extraction of toluol1 the artificial gas there was reduced in heating value approximately #f per cent and the candlepower lowered from #bb to #af because of this stripping process4 ,contracts for taking the toluol from artificial gas were made with companies in the following cities3 ,new ,york and ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y42 ,boston1 ,mass42 ,new ,haven1 ,conn42 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y42 ,utica1 ,n4 ,y42 ,elizabeth1 ,n4 ,j42 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,detroit1 ,mich42 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 ,new ,orleans1 ,la42 ,denver1 ,colo42 and ,seattle1 ,wash4 ,the total cost of the installations made for this purpose in these cities in connection with the gas plants was about #g1ejj1jjj4 ,for the production of toluol by cracking crude oils or petroleum distillates1 three processes of the many submitted were officially approved and contracts awarded for operation4 ,the first and most important of these was that of the ,general ,petroleum ,co4 of ,los ,angeles1 ,calif4 ,under their scheme a yield of #f per cent toluol was obtained from a petroleum distillate1 of which there was a large quantity available1 by treatment under temperature and pressure4 ,to facilitate production of toluol by this means1 two large plants1 one at ,los ,angeles and the other at ,san ,francisco1 were erected at a cost of approximately #e1jjj1jjj4 ,these plants have a monthly capacity of #c1jjj1jjj pounds of toluol and their construction destroyed all possibility of a shortage in this vital raw material4 ,another process was that known as the ,rittman process1 evolved by a scientist of the ,bureau of ,mines4 ,this scheme1 which called for producing toluol from solvent naphtha or light oils by cracking under high pressure and temperature1 was finally demonstrated to be capable of operation under war conditions1 and production had just started at a plant on ,neville ,island1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 at the time of the signing of the armistice4 ,a third process was that known as the ,hall process1 by which toluol was also obtained by cracking solvent naphtha under high pressure and temperature by another1 different1 mechanical system4 ,this scheme was in operation on a small scale during #aiah at the ,standard ,oil ,plant1 ,bayonne1 ,n4 ,j4 ,phenol1 one of the essentials in the manufacture of picric acid1 was another raw material1 the production of which was greatly augmented4 ,at the time of our entry into the war the monthly production amounted to #fgj1jjj pounds1 while in ,october1 #aiah1 it had been increased to #ac1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 the price of phenol as fixed by the ,war ,industries ,board was #df cents a pound1 while ,government contracts in force a year later had reduced this figure to #ca cents a pound4 ,the price of sulphuric acid jumped from #ad a ton to #fj a ton early in the war1 while nitric acid advanced from #e cents a pound to #aj cents4 ,the shortage of sulphuric acid was met by the erection of both chamber and contact plants in all high-explosives factories built for or under direction of the ,ordnance ,department4 ,both pyrites and sulphur were used at the beginning of the war1 but the submarine warfare stopped the importation of the pyrites from ,spain1 and therefore sulphur deposits in ,texas and ,louisiana were depended upon4 ,a destructive storm in the early part of #aiah temporarily curtailed the production from ,louisiana deposits1 but repairs were made in time to prevent its effect being felt by the acid manufacturers4 ,the submarine also had the effect of lessening the importations from ,chile of sodium nitrate1 which prior to the war were depended upon entirely in the production of nitric acid4 ,it became necessary1 therefore1 to develop other methods of production4 ,after investigations a plant for the fixation of nitrogen under what is known as a modified ,haber process was erected at ,sheffield1 ,ala41 while a plant for the same purpose using the cyanamide process was erected at ,muscle ,shoals1 ,ala4 ,both of these were equipped for the oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid1 each using a different process4 ,when the armistice was signed these plants were just coming into production4 ,the existence of these two nitrate plants insures the independence of this country in its supply of commercial nitrogen1 either for peace or for war4 ,there were also in course of erection1 though not in operation on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 great plants for the extraction of nitrogen from the air1 at ,toledo and ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 but construction on these two plants1 each of which was to cost #be1jjj1jjj1 was stopped when the armistice was signed4 ,,propellants4 ,in army usage the term propellant includes both smokeless powder and black powder4 ,at the outbreak of the ,european war1 the producing capacity in this country for smokeless powder was approximately #a1ejj1jjj pounds a month4 ,by the time the ,united ,states got into the war this capacity had been increased from #be to #cj times1 and under the explosives program laid down by us it was indicated that even this capacity would have to be greatly increased4 ,the increase in the production of smokeless powder was helped by the construction of two of the largest smokeless-powder plants in the world--one known as the ,old ,hickory ,plant1 located almost on the site of ,andrew ,jackson's old home at ,nashville1 ,tenn41 and the other at ,nitro1 near ,charleston1 ,w4 ,va4 ,the ,old ,hickory ,plant was the larger and more complete of the two4 ,it is probably the biggest plant of its kind in the world and is entirely self-contained2 in other words1 the plant actually takes the crude1 raw cotton and1 producing both the acid and solvents used1 puts it through every process until the final product is attained4 ,nine powder lines were planned for this enterprise1 each with a capacity of #ajj1jjj pounds per day1 although developments from the early operations indicated that the ultimate production of the plant would reach #a1jjj1jjj pounds a day4 ,the estimated cost of this huge undertaking was in the neighborhood of #ij1jjj1jjj4 ,negotiations were begun in ,october of #aiag and led to a contract with the du ,pont ,engineering ,co41 under which this concern was to construct the plant and operate it for a six months' period after its completion4 ,operation of the first powder line in the plant was to start ,september #ae1 #aiah1 or seven and one-half months after the signing of the contract4 ,ground was broken ,march #h1 #aiah1 and work was pushed so efficiently and successfully that on ,july #a1 #aiah1 the first powder line was put in operation1 #ge days ahead of the schedule called for in the contract4 ,some idea of the magnitude of this enterprise can be realized in the statements that the plant covers an area of #e1jjj acres and that in addition to the powder plant proper there was built a city1 housing twenty odd thousand people1 complete with schools1 churches1 and all other elements that go to make up a town4 ,there was also built in connection with the plant a number of subprocess plants for the manufacture of purified cotton1 sulphuric acid1 nitric acid1 diphenylamine1 and other chemicals used in powder manufacture4 ,each of these was an undertaking of no little size in itself4 ,operation of the plant during the four and one-half months preceding the signing of the armistice showed a production in excess of contract requirements4 ,on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 the plant was over #ij per cent complete and about #ej per cent in operation4 ,at that time #f1jjj1jjj pounds of powder over and above contract expectations had been produced1 the total capacity having reached #dbc1jjj pounds a day4 ,the second powder plant1 located at ,nitro1 is somewhat smaller than the ,old ,hickory ,plant4 ,it has a capacity of #fbe1jjj pounds of smokeless powder a day4 ,it was built under the direction of ,d4 ,c4 ,jackling1 director of ,united ,states ,government explosive plants1 by the ,thompson-,starrett ,co41 of ,new ,york4 ,the contract was dated ,january #ah1 #aiah1 and ground was broken ,february #a4 ,a contract for the operation of the plant was signed with the ,hercules ,powder ,co41 and at the time of the armistice the output was running approximately #aji1jjj pounds a day1 with the expectation of early and speedy increase4 ,as in the case of the ,old ,hickory ,plant1 a large village and many subprocess plants were constructed in connection with this enterprise4 ,illustration3 ,,nitro1 ,,west ,,virginia4 ,when the war began smokeless powder was dried by the circulation of warm dried air for a long period of time over the damp powder as it came from the solvent recovery house4 ,this process required from six weeks for small-caliber powder to nine months for large-caliber powder4 ,this time-consuming method being obviously impracticable in war1 the ,ordnance ,department authorized the so-called water-drying process4 ,this consists in the immersion of the powder as it comes from the solvent recovery house in warm water for varying periods up to #gb hours1 the water then being expelled by filtration or centrifugal force and the surplus external moisture dried off by hot air4 ,by this method the time of drying was reduced to #d days for the small-caliber powder and to #bb days for powder for the larger caliber guns4 ,just prior to the signing of the armistice an entirely new drying process had been experimentally tried out4 ,this was known as the ,nash or alcohol-drying process4 ,the preliminary tests indicated that this method was a great improvement both in safety and in the reduction of cost4 ,the indications were that drying could be reduced from days to hours by this new method4 ,the ,nash process also insured apparently a more uniform and tougher grade of powder1 both of which characteristics were greatly to be desired4 ,in spite of the rise in price of labor and of almost everything else1 the cost of powder was being reduced4 ,at the beginning of the war cost figures were #hj cents a pound for small-arms and #ec cents a pound for cannon powder4 ,when the armistice was signed these costs had been reduced to #fb cents for small-arms powder and #da cents for cannon powder4 ,at the time of the signing of the armistice there was on hand approximately #bjj1jjj1jjj pounds of smokeless powder4 ,it early became evident that the supply of cellulose1 even though all available sources of supply were utilized to the utmost1 would nevertheless be insufficient to meet our vast production program4 ,for years it had been rumored that the ,germans in the manufacture of their smokeless powder had been using1 with great success1 cellulose produced from wood pulp4 ,following out this idea1 experimental work was undertaken in an effort to develop cellulose that could be produced from wood pulp in suitable physical form for nitration and which would meet the chemical requirements4 ,in the southern and southwestern portions of the ,united ,states there are large tracts of land from which timber has been removed and there are also vast acreages of swamp lands4 ,processes developed by the ,ordnance ,department had in view the idea of taking as much of these lands as possible for farming and reforesting and utilizing the tree stumps thereon4 ,these stumps contained quantities of turpentine and resin that could be recovered and the resultant pulp after proper treatment could be prepared in suitable form as cellulose for nitration purposes4 ,the question of black powder1 while an important one1 did not present many difficulties excepting one1 the necessary supply of potassium nitrate4 ,this was because ,germany was the principal source of the potash4 ,it was thought that sodium nitrate might possibly have to be used as a substitute4 ,experimental work along these lines indicated that by using certain precautions1 this substitution1 if necessary1 could be made1 although it was never adopted4 ,black powder of all grades for military purposes was being produced at the rate of #hdj1jjj pounds a month1 at a cost of #be cents a pound1 at the time the armistice was signed4 ,at that time there was on hand #f1hej1jjj pounds of black powder4 ,if the war had continued the ,united ,states could have produced during the year #aiai more than #a1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds of smokeless powder4 ,two-thirds of this would have been available for our overseas forces and the balance would have gone to the allied governments4 ,this rate of production would have amounted to about seven times the quantity of explosives normally manufactured in peace times4 ,,loading ,,the ,,propellants4 ,in addition to solving the problem of producing a sufficient quantity of propellant powder there was also the problem1 just as important1 of assembling this powder into fixed ammunition1 or loading it into bags4 ,the ,frankford ,arsenal and commercial cartridge factories1 after expansion1 were enabled to take care of the expanded small-arms program4 ,but it became necessary for the ,government to erect and operate several great bag-loading plants4 ,these were located at ,woodbury1 ,n4,j41 ,tullytown1 ,pa41 and ,seven ,pines1 ,va4 ,the ordinary cartridge fired from the rifle is familiar to most people4 ,the projectile is fitted into the metal case in which the explosive force is contained4 ,projectiles for big guns are made along similar lines1 until the #d4g-;inch gun is reached4 ,up to and including guns of this caliber the projectile is fired with what is known as fixed ammunition--that is to say1 the shell itself is fixed into a metal container which holds the powder4 ,guns above the caliber of #d4g inches1 however1 are fired with unfixed ammunition--that is1 the powder is loaded in silk bags1 the projectile placed in the gun1 and a number of bags1 depending upon the size of the charge necessary1 put into the breach of the gun behind the projectile4 ,the powder is then ignited and the big shell ejected by the gases generated4 ,from the mills the powder is shipped to the bag-loading plants in bulk4 ,the silken bags are manufactured in huge quantities by industrial plants and forwarded to the bag-loading plants1 where are also daily received large quantities of metal and fiber containers1 into which are loaded bags packed for overseas shipment not to be unpacked again until they have reached the battle field4 ,filling the bags is a precise and delicate operation4 ,chances can not be taken or averages struck4 ,errors may mean the possible loss of battles4 ,a battery commander who has figured his range and who is about to drop a number of high-explosive shell on an enemy battery must know exactly how much powder he has behind his charge4 ,if more powder is in the bag than he calculates on1 he will overshoot his mark2 if less1 the shell instead of dropping upon an enemy battery may explode in midst of his own advancing troops4 ,the three bag-loading plants the ,government constructed at ,woodbury1 ,tullytown1 and ,seven ,pines were built to load bags that were to be used in firing guns from #aee-millimeter caliber up to a caliber of #aj inches4 ,the estimated average capacity of each plant was #bj1jjj bags a day1 but as a matter of fact a maximum capacity of #dj1jjj bags a day at each plant had been reached before the signing of the armistice4 ,two shifts a day were used at these plants most of the time4 ,in each shift there were approximately #c1ejj operatives1 most of them women4 ,at each of these plants1 which are located in comparatively isolated points1 because of the dangerous work1 special housing facilities had to be constructed4 ,for example1 at ,tullytown there were #gj bungalows1 #ac residences for officers and executive heads1 and six #ih-room dormitories1 while at ,woodbury #ai great dormitories were built to house workers4 ,the number of buildings at ,tullytown is #bae4 ,they range from guardhouses to electrical generating stations for power and light4 ,besides this construction there are between #bb and #cj miles of railroad track laid at each of these points4 ,the extremely dangerous nature of the work makes it necessary to store not more than #djj1jjj pounds of explosives in a single building1 and where powder is stored the buildings are at least #cej feet apart4 ,up to the time of the signing of the armistice there were loaded into small-arms ammunition #ai1gda1ejj pounds of powder2 there were assembled into fixed ammunition approximately #cc1jjj1jjj pounds of smokeless powder2 and there were assembled into bags1 properly packed for shipment1 approximately #cb1cjj1jjj pounds of smokeless powder4 ,,high ,,explosives4 ,when ,europe was plunged into the great war in ,august1 #aiad1 the ,american production of trinitrotoluol for commercial purposes amounted to approximately #fjj1jjj pounds a month of varying grades of purity4 ,this quantity was almost entirely consumed in the making of explosives for blasting purposes4 ,when we entered the war this production had been increased to #a1jjj1jjj pounds a month1 exclusive of that which was being used here commercially4 ,under pressure of our own war-time needs the production of this highly important explosive chemical had been run up to #af1jjj1jjj pounds a month at the termination of hostilities in ,november1 #aiah4 ,during the early stages of the war the average price of ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 for military purposes was #a a pound4 ,largely1 however1 because of the tremendous quantity production and enormous economies effected by reason of this1 and despite the scarcity of raw materials1 and notwithstanding the greatly increased labor cost1 this price had been reduced at the time of the signing of the armistice to #bf cents a pound4 ,there were in the course of erection at the time of the armistice1 two great ,government ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 plants--one at ,racine1 ,wis41 that was to have a capacity of #d1jjj1jjj pounds a month1 and one at ,giant1 ,cal41 with a capacity of #b1jjj1jjj pounds a month4 ,during the war three grades of ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 were produced4 ,grade ,i was used for booster charges--that is1 those charges which initiated the explosive wave in the main shell charge4 ,grade ,,ii was used as a shell filler2 while ,grade ,,iii was utilized with ammonium nitrate in producing amatol4 ,in view of the fact that high explosives were produced in such enormous quantities and that it was necessary to carry on these tremendous manufacturing operations with an inexperienced force1 the toll of life taken in the production was remarkably small4 ,only two explosions of any magnitude occurred in plants where explosives were manufactured and both of these took place in ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 producing plants4 ,one of these happened at ,oakdale1 ,pa41 in the plant of the ,aetna ,explosives ,co4 in ,may1 #aiah4 ,this cost the lives of #ajj persons4 ,the other took place on ,july #b1 #aiah1 at ,split ,rock1 ,n4,y41 in the plant of ,semet-,solvay ,co41 where #fj people lost their lives4 ,at the time of the explosions neither of these plants was operating on ,war ,department contracts4 ,before the great war about #eh1jjj1jjj pounds of ammonium nitrate used in the manufacture of commercial explosives were being produced annually in this country1 at an average cost of about #ab cents a pound4 ,by ,january1 #aiag1 the commercial explosives manufacturers had extended their facilities so that they had increased their production by #a1gjj1jjj pounds monthly4 ,this expansion1 however1 was insufficient to meet our demands1 and a ,government ammonium nitrate plant was erected at ,perryville1 ,md4 ,this plant was operated under the supervision of the ,atlas ,powder ,co41 who also cooperated in its erection4 ,it did this manufacturing under the ,brunner-,mond process that was developed in ,england under the patents of ,capt4 ,freeth4 ,under this process ammonium nitrate is produced by the double decomposition of ammonium sulphate and sodium nitrate4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 the ,atlas people detailed several technical men to go to ,england and study the ,brunner-,mond process as carried on there4 ,in #aiah these men returned to the ,united ,states and prepared designs as a result of the information they had gained abroad4 ,ground was broken for the plant at ,perryville ,march #h1 #aiah1 and it was in production by ,july #ae4 ,this plant is a large one1 of excellent construction1 and absolutely fireproof1 as is necessary because of the nature of the work conducted in it4 ,because of the type of the building the rapidity of its construction may well be classed as phenomenal4 ,even while the plant was being put up1 experimental work of a highly technical nature was being carried on4 ,at the time of the signing of the armistice production of ammonium nitrate at the ,perryville plant had reached #deb1jjj pounds a day1 and this was greatly in excess of that being obtained at the ,english plant of a similar size that had been in operation for months before ground had been broken for our ,american plant4 ,each of the ,government-owned nitrogen fixation plants at ,muscle ,shoals1 ,ala41 and ,sheffield1 ,ala41 was also equipped to produce ammonium nitrate by neutralization4 ,our total capacity from all sources at the time of the signing of the armistice was #bj1jjj1jjj pounds monthly4 ,ammonium nitrate is the one material in the field of explosives that shows an increase in price over that of normal times4 ,the average cost of this substance used for military purposes was #ag cents a pound4 ,there were on hand #fj1ejj1jjj pounds of ammonium nitrate on ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,picric acid as such is not used by this country directly for military purposes4 ,but it is one of the raw materials used in producing ammonium picrate1 or explosive ,d1 and in the manufacture of the poisonous gas known as chlorpicrin4 ,picric acid is1 however1 the main explosive used by the ,french1 who had placed enormous contracts for this material with explosives manufacturers prior to the entry of the ,united ,states in the war4 ,because of our purchase of early large supplies of ammunition and guns from the ,french ,government1 to be largely paid for by picric acid1 large contracts were entered into by our ,government for this explosive1 which was produced here in accordance with ,french specifications and subject to joint inspection by our officers and the ,french4 ,in ,november1 #aiag1 we were turning out #fjj1jjj pounds of picric acid monthly1 and a year later this had been increased to a monthly production of #aa1cjj1jjj pounds2 the average cost was #ef cents a pound4 ,to insure production quickly for the needs of the times1 three ,government picric-acid plants were authorized4 ,one of these was located at ,picron1 near ,little ,rock1 ,ark41 to be operated by the ,davis ,chemical ,corporation2 another was located at ,new ,brunswick1 ,ga41 to be operated by the ,butterworth-,judson ,corporation2 and the third was located at ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich41 for operation by the ,semet-,solvay ,co4 ,all of these contracts were made on a cost-plus basis4 ,each of these plants was to have a capacity of #ad1ejj1jjj pounds of picric acid a month4 ,the plant at ,picron in ,arkansas was the only one that had started production before the signing of the armistice4 ,ammonium picrate1 otherwise known as explosive ,d in our ,army annals1 is produced by the ammoniation of picric acid1 and because it is more insensitive than picric acid and is less liable to form sensitive salts with metals it is used as the explosive charge for all armor-piercing projectiles4 ,our average monthly production of ammonium picrate in ,may1 #aiag1 was #ec1jjj pounds1 and this had been increased without the erection of any ,government plants to a monthly capacity in ,november1 #aiah1 of #iej1jjj pounds4 ,there was on hand at the time of the signing of the armistice #f1ejj1jjj pounds of this explosive1 the average cost of which was #fd cents a pound4 ,tetryl1 on account of its high cost and the lack of manufacturing facilities for its production1 was not used except as a loading charge for boosters4 ,it is more sensitive than ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 and has a higher rate of detonation4 ,only two companies1 the du ,pont ,powder ,co4 and the ,bethlehem ,loading ,co41 manufactured tetryl4 ,expansion of these two plants increased the monthly capacity of #h1gjj pounds in ,december1 #aiag1 to #afj1jjj pounds in ,november1 #aiah1 while its cost was reduced from #a4cj a pound to #ij cents a pound4 ,this increased capacity1 however1 was not in excess of our explosives requirements1 and there was authorized by the ,government the erection of a plant at ,senter1 ,mich41 that was to be operated by the ,atlas ,co41 and which was to have a monthly capacity of #bej1jjj pounds4 ,this plant had not reached production when the armistice was signed4 ,the ,aetna ,powder ,co4 at the time we entered the war was manufacturing for the ,russian ,government tetranitroaniline that was to be used in the loading of boosters and fuses4 ,this company's plant at ,nobleston1 ,pa41 was destroyed by an explosion4 ,ordnance officers learned that this material was equal to tetryl as a military explosive4 ,consequently a contract was entered into with ,dr4 ,bernhardt ,jacques ,flurschein1 the holder of the patent rights1 to have manufactured ,t4 ,n4 ,a4 for our own uses4 ,a ,government plant was authorized for erection on the ground of the ,calco ,chemical ,co41 ,bound ,brook1 ,n4,j41 to be operated by that concern4 ,production at this plant was to be on a cost-plus basis1 the estimated cost of the material being #gj cents a pound4 ,when the armistice was signed1 about #h1jjj pounds of ,t4 ,n4 ,a4 had been produced1 but none had been utilized4 ,mercury fulminate1 a very sensitive and powerful explosive1 was used only in caps1 primers1 detonators1 etc41 as a means of initiating detonation1 on account of its own high rate of detonation4 ,the three plants operating in this country to produce this explosive for commercial purposes1 the du ,pont ,co41 ,pompton ,lake1 ,n4,j41 the ,atlas ,powder ,co41 ,tamaqua1 ,pa41 and the ,aetna ,powder ,co41 ,kingston1 ,n4,y41 expanded their facilities sufficiently to meet our program4 ,their average monthly production in #aiah was #ej1jjj pounds at a cost of #c4ba per pound1 and there was on hand in ,november1 #aiah1 #ccj1ijj pounds of this explosive4 ,in the early stages of the war to meet the apparent shortage of ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 and ammonium nitrate then existing because of our enormous explosives program1 it was necessary to develop an explosive for trench warfare purposes that could be used for filling hand and rifle grenades1 trench-mortar shell1 and drop bombs4 ,to meet this need1 the ,trojan ,powder ,co41 of ,allentown1 ,pa41 submitted a nitrostarch explosive4 ,after exhaustive investigations and complete tests1 this explosive was authorized for use in loading the hand and rifle grenades and the #c-;inch trench-mortar shell4 ,development of a nitrostarch explosive for commercial purposes had been under consideration and investigation by two other large experienced manufacturers for a number of years1 but the difficulties incident to the production and purification of nitrostarch were such that their efforts had met with little success4 ,the ,trojan ,powder ,co41 operating under secret process1 solved this problem1 and all nitrostarch explosives used were produced by this company1 although another nitrostarch explosive known as grenite1 which was produced by the du ,pont ,co41 was tested and authorized for use4 ,our country was the only ,government that used nitrostarch explosives during the war1 and the development of this explosive made the loading problem easier and made possible the use of materials that were available and whose cost was low4 ,the average cost of this explosive was #ba4h cents a pound4 ,in ,july1 #aiah1 the average monthly production of nitrostarch was #hdj1jjj pounds and this had been increased by ,november1 #aiah1 to #a1gbj1jjj pounds a month4 ,there were loaded with nitrostarch explosive #g1bdd1efi defensive hand grenades2 #a1ebf1jjj offensive hand grenades2 #i1iba1ecc rifle grenades and #hac1jgc three-inch trench-mortar shell4 ,at the time of the signing of the armistice there was on hand of this explosive #a1fej1ejj pounds4 ,the du ,pont ,co4 developed an explosive called lyconite1 and this was authorized for use in the loading of drop bombs4 ,anilite1 a liquid explosive used by the ,french1 was thoroughly investigated and improvements were made in it to render its use safer1 but development had not progressed far enough to warrant authorization for its use prior to the signing of the armistice4 ,chlorate and perchlorate explosives were also investigated and several types developed that were considered entirely satisfactory for use1 but these never got into production before the end of the war4 ,,ammunition ,,and ,,shell ,,loading4 ,when we entered the war the quantity of field artillery ammunition on hand was considerably less than a single month's supply1 basing our rate of expenditure on the estimated rate for ,november1 #aiah4 ,there were no facilities of any degree of magnitude available to take care of our projected program for filling the high-explosive shell necessary for use by our overseas forces4 ,consequently it became necessary at once to plan and to develop the resources of the country for the production of metallic parts1 such as the shell proper1 the fuse1 boosters and adapters1 as well as to design and build entirely new plants and to train completely new forces for the loading of the shell with the high explosives4 ,illustration3 ,,high ,,explosive ,,nose ,,fuse ,,shell #ge,m_/,m ,,type ,detonator 7explosive7 ,bourrelet ,explosive charge 7,t4 ,n4 ,t47 or 7,amatol7 ,smokeless powder ,primer 7brass7 ,adapter 7steel7 ,percussion fuse ,booster case1 or ,jacket1 or ,gaine4 7cold drawn or pressed steel-machined7 ,copper band or rotating band ,cartridge case 7drawn brass7 ,illustration3 ,,girls ,,loading ,,point-,,detonating ,,fuses ,,for ,,high-,,explosive ,,shell ,,in ,,body-,,machining ,,department ,,of ,a ,,loading ,,plant4 ,the explosion of an ,h4 ,e4 shell is really a series of explosions4 ,the process of the burst is about as follows3 ,the firing pin strikes the percussion primer1 which explodes the detonator4 ,the detonator is filled with some easily detonated substance1 such as fulminate of mercury4 ,the concussion of this explosion sets off the charge held within the long tube which extends down the middle of the shell and which is known as the booster4 ,the booster charge is a substance easily exploded1 such as tetryl or trinitroaniline 7,t4 ,n4 ,a474 ,the explosion of the booster jars off the main charge of the shell1 ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 or amatol4 ,this system of detonator1 booster1 and main charge gives control of the explosives within the shell1 safety in handling the shell1 and complete explosion when the shell bursts4 ,without the action of the booster charge on the main charge of the shell1 the latter would be only partially burned when the shell exploded1 and part of the main charge would thus waste itself in the open air4 ,the shell used by our ,army before the war had been largely of the base-fuse type4 ,interchangeability of ammunition with the ,french required that we adopt shell of the nose-fuse type4 ,the boosters and adapters that went with this type were unfamiliar to our industry4 ,the adapter is the metallic device that holds the booster and fuse and fastens them in the shell4 ,the adapter1 therefore1 is a broad ring1 screw-threaded both outside and inside4 ,the inside diameter is uniform1 so as to allow the same size of booster and fuse to be screwed into shell of different sizes4 ,the outside diameters of the adapters vary with the sizes of the shell they are made to fit1 the rings thus being thicker or thinner as the case may require4 ,fuses of several sorts are employed by the modern artillerist2 and with shell equipped with adapters1 any fuse may be inserted in the field right at the gun4 ,unexpectedly the manufacture of boosters and adapters proved to be much more difficult than it appeared to be at the start1 and the shortage of these devices was a limiting factor in the ,american production of shell4 ,on ,may #a1 #aiag1 drawings and specifications were sent to the principal manufacturers of ammunition and ammunition components inviting bids on #c-;inch ammunition4 ,these bids were opened on ,may #ae1 #aiag1 and after full discussion with the ,council of ,national ,defense orders were placed for #i1jjj1jjj rounds of #c-;inch shell and shrapnel ammunition4 ,the bids for shell and shrapnel ammunition for all the other calibers of guns and howitzers we had on hand then were about to be asked1 when the ,french mission to this country arrived2 and the sending out of proposals was deferred1 while discussion ensued as to changing our #c-;inch and #f-;inch artillery to #ge-millimeter and #aee-millimeter calibers1 so as to make our ammunition interchangeable with that of the ,french4 ,this decision was made ,june #e1 #aiag4 ,there then took place much discussion and consideration of the ,french ammunition4 ,the ,french had several distinct types of shell1 ranging from the very thin walled high capacity kind to the thicker walled types4 ,the ,french specifications were radically different from our own or those of the ,british4 ,the steel shell in the ,french practice was subjected to a drastic heat treatment1 which did not seem necessary to us for the thicker walled types of shell4 ,the ,french fusing system also was entirely different from that used by our service4 ,french fuses were carried separately1 and the adapter and the booster casing were screwed permanently into the shell4 ,our decision to adopt ,french types of ammunition made it necessary to rearrange all our plans1 and to obtain drawings of the shell1 boosters1 adapters1 and fuses from ,france4 ,this caused much negotiating1 and a considerable amount of time was consumed in getting the necessary specifications and drawings here4 ,as a result of recommendations from ,french officials against production in this country during #aiag of the so-called obus allong and the semisteel type of shell1 no attempt was made to produce these for the #aee-millimeter guns and howitzers during the first year of the war1 but as a result of new recommendations and investigations of our officers in ,france in the spring of #aiah both of these types of shell were put into quantity production here4 ,when the armistice was signed they were being turned out in such quantities that it appeared that there was sure to be an ample supply on hand in the early spring of #aiai4 ,radical differences of manufacture existed between the ,french and ,british in the matter of specifications and methods of production4 ,large quantities of ,british ammunition had been made in this country1 and we had adopted the ,british #h-;inch howitzer1 so that it appeared we should use ,british practice in the manufacture of shell4 ,manufacturers claimed that great delay would result in the production of shell here if the heat treatment and hydraulic tests were insisted upon as the ,french specifications called for1 and investigation proved this to be essentially true1 as no facilities for heat treating and hydraulic testing existed4 ,the upshot of the entire matter was that it was decided to use ,french dimensions and shell for the #ge-millimeter and #aee-millimeter calibers so as to obtain uniformity of ballistics1 but to permit ,american metallurgical practice to obtain in the manufacture4 ,shells made under these specifications were tested by the ,french commission in ,france4 ,the verdict on these shell can be summarized in this quotation from their report3 ,to sum up1 from the test of #aj1jjj cartridges of #ge millimeter1 it may be concluded that ,american ammunition is in every way comparable to ,french ammunition and that the two may be considered as interchangeable4 ,our designs for shrapnel and time fuses had been proven to be entirely satisfactory1 and they were continued as they were4 ,in fact it was generally agreed that ours was the best time fuse used on the allied side during the war4 ,that our decision in the matter of continuing production of shrapnel and time fuses was warranted1 is borne out by the fact that we obtained early deliveries in sufficient quantities to meet requirements4 ,in the use of the adapters and boosters1 which introduced an entirely new component to our service in shell making1 we had had no experience1 and subsequently met with great difficulties due to this lack of experience4 ,delays were encountered because in this part of shell manufacture it was generally necessary to await information from ,france whenever difficulties were encountered1 or to conduct experiments before we could proceed4 ,when we began receiving our bids for #c-;inch gun ammunition there were comparatively few factories in the ,united ,states that were able to turn out complete rounds of ammunition4 ,there were many factories1 however1 capable of turning out one or more of the shell components4 ,it was necessary to place orders for complete rounds of ammunition with those factories that could furnish them1 and have the remaining components manufactured separately1 and to provide assembling plants4 ,to get as many factories as possible on a production basis in anticipation of the future large orders for ammunition that must necessarily follow with extension of operations by our field forces1 orders for our initial quantities of ammunition were distributed as widely as possible4 ,to prevent confusion and loss of time because of the scramble for steel forgings and other raw materials it was decided that the ,government would purchase all raw materials as well as furnish components for ammunition4 ,how successful we were in getting into quantity production on ammunition after the numerous and large obstacles in the early months of the war can be indicated best by the fact that of the #aa1faf1aef high-explosive shell for #ge-millimeter guns machined up to ,november #a1 no less than #b1hic1cfg passed inspection in ,october2 while of the #g1cde1cff adapters and boosters for #ge-millimeter guns that had been machined up to the #ast of ,november1 #b1geh1cig passed inspection in ,october4 ,the figures for the #d4g-;inch and #aee-millimeter guns and howitzers follow3 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,machined ,machined high-explosive adapters and ,kind of ammunition4 shell boosters accepted up accepted up to ,nov4 #a4 to ,nov4 #a4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #d4g-;inch #iid1heb #bjfcf1jif #aee-millimeter #b1jhc1ghb #b1eaf1baf ---------------------------------------- ------------- #bj ,for use in #d4g-;inch and other sizes4 ,ammonium picrate or explosive ,d upon which this country had depended almost entirely up to the time of our entry into the war was forced into the shell under hydraulic pressure4 ,the adoption of the point-fused shell and an explosive for shell filling new to this country1 namely1 amatol1 made necessary the provision of new methods for shell loading and the expansion of plant facilities for these new methods capable of loading the vast and tremendous numbers of shell required in modern warfare4 ,as a result of reports1 following investigations by our officers of methods used abroad1 various new shell-loading plants were built in the ,united ,states4 ,the names1 location1 and output of the shell-loading plants in our country are as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total ,company4 ,location4 capacity daily 7shell74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,t4 ,a4 ,gillespie ,loading ,co4 ,morgan1 ,n4 ,j4 #dg1jjj ,do4 ,parlin1 ,n4 ,j4 #be1jjj ,do4 ,runyon1 ,n4 ,y4 #c1ejj ,poole ,engineering ,machine ,co4 ,texas1 ,md4 #ae1jjj ,united ,states ,arsenal ,rock ,island1 ,ill4 #a1jjj ,sterling ,motor ,car ,co4 ,brockton1 ,mass4 #aj1jjj ,american ,can ,co4 ,kenilworth1 ,n4 ,j4 #bj1jjj ,atlantic ,loading ,co4 ,amatol1 ,n4 ,j4 #ec1ejj ,bethlehem ,loading ,co4 ,mays ,landing1 ,n4 ,j4 #da1jjj ,do4 ,new ,castle1 ,del4 #bg1djj ,do4 ,redington1 ,pa4 #d1jjj du ,pont ,engineering ,co4 ,penniman1 ,va41 ,g plant #da1jjj ,do4 ,penniman1 ,va41 ,d plant #ac1ccj ,j4 ,d4 ,evans ,engineer ,corp4 ,old ,bridge1 ,n4 ,j4 #cj1jjj --------- ,total #cca1gcj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,it was found necessary in the early stages of the war to fill all shell with ,t4 ,n4 ,t41 regardless of cost1 until there could be built the required and properly equipped plants for the mixing and loading of amatol4 ,two methods for loading ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 were adopted4 ,the one most largely used1 however1 was the casting method by which the chemical was brought to a molten condition in a steam jacketed kettle and poured into the shell4 ,to do this two operations were usual4 ,first1 the shell was filled approximately two-thirds full with the molten material1 and then as soon as a crust was formed this was broken through and the second filling took place4 ,this process was necessary to prevent the formation of cavities in the filling charge4 ,such cavities cause breakdowns1 resulting almost invariably in incomplete or entire failure of detonation4 ,the ammonium nitrate first produced in this country during the war was of such a character that proper densities could not be obtained when mixed with ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 to form amatol4 ,this difficulty was overcome after much investigation1 and proper methods were outlined for the ammonium nitrate manufacturers1 with the result that ,grade ,,iii ammonium nitrate was produced as a sharp1 hard crystal at a setting point of not less than #bij ,f4 ,this was found to be perfectly satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,,eight-,,inch ,,shell ,,being ,,loaded ,,with ,,amatol4 ,view of extruding machine bulkhead in background4 ,illustration3 ,,mark ,v ,,fuse ,,assembly4 ,this picture shows two complete units for this assembly work4 ,the operation begins in the foreground with cap assembly and progresses toward background1 the fulminate detonator being inserted midway down table4 ,the protecting bulkhead for cap supply is shown in the foreground4 ,the so-called #ej-ej amatol1 composed of #ej parts ammonium nitrate and #ej parts ,t4 ,n4 ,t41 is loaded into shell by a casting method similar to that used in loading ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 alone4 ,the so-called #hj-bj amatol1 composed of #hj parts ammonium nitrate and #bj parts ,t4 ,n4 ,t41 was originally loaded cold1 by hand1 and then followed up with mechanical pressing4 ,as a substitute for this method1 which is accompanied by a certain element of danger1 the use of hot #hj-bj amatol1 was resorted to in ,england4 ,this was tamped by hand to the proper density1 it being more compressible than cold amatol4 ,as this is an exceedingly tedious method of operation it was entirely done away with in ,england1 except for large shell1 by the use of what is known as the horizontal extruding machine4 ,with this machine the ,british were able to load #hj-bj amatol with great success into the #ge-millimeter shell and higher calibers up to #h inches4 ,this machine took a mixture of ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 and ammonium nitrate in a jacketed hopper1 so that the temperature might be maintained1 and the hopper fed it down through a funnel upon a screw that was placed against the shell by counterweights to give the proper density4 ,one of these machines was imported here from ,england1 but1 as it was unsatisfactory from a construction standpoint1 new and satisfactory machines were built on the same principles of construction in our own amatol loading plants4 ,experimental work with these machines was carried on at the ,government testing station ,picatinny ,arsenal1 ,dover1 ,n4 ,j41 and the du ,pont ,experimental ,station1 ,gibbstown1 ,n4 ,j41 as well as experimental plant operations at the ,morgan plant of the ,t4 ,a4 ,gillespie ,co41 ,parlin1 ,n4 ,j41 and the ,penniman plant of the du ,pont ,co41 ,penniman1 ,va4 ,all difficulties of the operations were overcome so satisfactorily that the greater portion of the loaded shell was produced by this method4 ,the metal parts as received at the shell-filling plant are inspected and cleaned to remove all traces of foreign matter such as grit or grease before being sent to the loading room4 ,after being loaded the shell are again inspected4 ,at intervals a split shell is loaded and then taken apart and examined1 so that any loading defects may be found quickly and conditions remedied1 before any large quantities of shell are produced4 ,the cavity left in the amatol by the tube of the extruding machine is filled with molten ,t4 ,n4 ,t41 and a cavity is produced in this ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 into which the booster fits4 ,this is necessary in order to provide for complete detonation4 ,the booster cavity is produced either by the use of a former1 which upon removal leaves a cavity of the proper size1 or by plunging the booster into the shell filling before this is cooled1 or by drilling out a cavity for the booster after the filling has been thoroughly cooled4 ,a large number of rounds of ammunition of all calibers had also to be loaded with a flashless compound that was inserted in the propelling charges1 so that the discharge of the guns would not betray their positions to the enemy at night1 while a smoke compound was inserted in a large quantity of shell so that each missile of this character might be located after firing to determine the accuracy of the shot4 ,coordination of manufacture of metallic parts so as to cause the proper quantities of shell1 fuse1 and boosters to be produced without leaving any incomplete rounds that would have to be held awaiting other components caused the greatest difficulty4 ,the magnitude of the task of providing the necessary shell components in the tremendous quantities required can be better appreciated by a realization of the fact that the various parts of each component must be made to fit each other properly and perfectly4 ,gauging had to be resorted to frequently in the process of manufacture to make certain that there was perfect interchangeability of parts of each component to prevent any waste of time in selecting parts to fit each other4 ,the complete components1 too1 must themselves be made with equal care and scrupulous attention to make certain that they fit properly4 ,thus1 the booster had to be made in such a fashion and with such precision and accuracy that it would fit perfectly into the shell as well as into the booster cavity in the shell filling into which it is screwed and also at the same time accommodate the fuse which screws into the booster4 ,this extreme accuracy made necessary a large number of gauges1 which had to be designed at the same time as1 and in coordination with1 the design of the component4 ,for example1 in a complete round of artillery ammunition1 #hj dimensions must be gauged4 ,to standardize the gauges used for these #hj dimensions1 #ahj master gauges are required1 while the actual number of different gauges used during the various stages of manufacture of a complete round is over #ejj4 ,government inspectors required over #bjj gauges in their work of inspecting and gauging the finished components for the shell1 so in all about #hjj gauges were used in the process of manufacturing a complete round of artillery ammunition1 to insure interchangeability of parts1 proper fit for the projectile in the gun1 and perfect functioning of the various parts4 ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,smokeless ,,powder4 ,notice safety door at the girl's elbow4 ,a flash in this room will not communicate to an adjoining room4 ,the room is heated by overhead hot-air heating system4 ,illustration3 ,,fulminate ,,composition ,,charging1 ,,steel ,,shield1 ,,with ,,window ,,of ,,heavy ,,glass ,,to ,,the ,,right4 ,girl operating the same device on the left4 ,the view shows the bulkhead between the operations4 ,illustration3 ,,shell ,,painting4 ,this view shows the exhaust hood open and turntable lowered4 ,operator raises turntable by foot lever and closes hood before spraying4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,shell-,,painting ,,room4 ,shell is received on the elevated platform and trucked to the edge on hand trucks1 where the trolley hook just enters the eyebolt as shell is removed from truck1 thus making it unnecessary to lift the shell during any operation in this room4 ,all fixed ammunition was assembled at the shell-filling plants1 making it necessary to install at these points storage capacity and equipment to handle the propellant powder as well as to fill the high-explosive shell4 ,boosters and fuses were loaded at separate plants and shipped to the shell-filling assembly places to be packed for shipment with the shell for transportation overseas4 ,the cost of a loaded #ge-millimeter shell with the fuse and propellant charge ready to be fired is about #aa4 ,such a shell contains a little over #a pounds of high explosive1 which costs #a4 ,the loading and assembling of the complete round costs #d4 ,a loaded #aee-millimeter shell complete with fuse costs about #cj1 exclusive of the propellant charge of powder1 which is loaded separately4 ,a shell of this caliber holds about #ad pounds of high explosive1 which costs #aj1 while the loading and assembling costs #d4 ,the #ge-millimeter and #aee-millimeter shell were used in the greatest quantities on the ,european battle fields1 and at the time of the signing of the armistice our ,american loading plants were concentrating on filling ammunition for guns of these two calibers4 ,the nature of the work carried on at these shell-loading plants1 of course1 made the danger of a disaster ever present4 ,prior to our entry into the war an explosion at the ,canadian ,car ,foundry ,co4's plant1 ,kingsland1 ,n4 ,j41 resulted in the entire destruction of the plant with large loss of life4 ,in ,october1 #aiah1 the ,morgan plant of the ,t4 ,a4 ,gillespie ,co41 ,south ,amboy1 ,n4 ,j41 was wiped out by an explosion in which about #ajj employees lost their lives4 ,plans for rebuilding this plant1 had progressed far when the armistice was signed4 ,in the fall of #aiag1 #dj people were killed in an explosion at the ,eddystone ,loading ,plant1 ,eddystone1 ,pa4 ,for the successful carrying out of our program for the production of vast quantities of explosives and propellants1 as well as shell loading1 the women of ,america must be given credit1 on account of the highly important part they took in this phase of helping to win the war4 ,fully #ej per cent of the number of employees in our explosive plants were women1 who braved the dangers connected with this line of work1 to which they had been1 of course1 entirely unaccustomed1 but whose perils were not unknown to them4 ,in connection with the production of shell themselves1 the ,american ,ordnance ,department adopted certain changes of design which were not only radically different from what we had known before the war but were interesting for the way in which they were brought about and for the results they accomplished4 ,the modern shell as we knew it before the war was simply a metal cylinder cut off squarely at the base and roundly blunted at the nose4 ,the shell is zoned with a so-called rotating ring1 a circular band of copper which by engaging the rifling channels of the gun gives to the shell the whirl that keeps it from tumbling over and over and thus holds it accurately on its course in flight4 ,in the proof-firing of the #f-;inch seacoast guns it was discovered that their fire was none too accurate2 and the ,american ordnance engineers began studying the shell to see if the fault lay there4 ,one of these experts was ,maj4 ,f4 ,r4 ,moulton1 who before accepting a commission in the ,army had been professor of astronomy at the ,university of ,chicago4 ,maj4 ,moulton began a study of the #f-;inch shell2 and soon it was discovered that the mathematics which could chart the orbits of comets could also deal with the flight of projectiles1 calculate the influences of air resistance and gravitation1 and eventually work out new1 scientific contours for offsetting these influences as much as possible4 ,maj4 ,moulton first dealt with the inaccuracy of our #f-;inch shell4 ,he discovered the cause in the rotating band4 ,although but a slight portion of this band was upraised above the surface of the shell's circumference1 yet the enormous force exerted upon the projectile to start it from the gun actually caused the cold copper to flow backward4 ,the result was that when the shell emerged from the muzzle of the gun it bore around its sides an entirely unsuspected and undesirable flange4 ,this flange not only shortened the range of the shell by offering resistance to the air1 but it was seldom uniform all the way around1 a condition giving rise to the idiosyncracies of our #f-;inch shell as they were fired at the target4 ,the remedy for this was a redesigned rotating band1 making it somewhat thicker in front4 ,the flow of the copper could thus be accommodated without causing any detrimental distortion to the projectile4 ,when this improvement was made the #f-;inch shell became as accurate as any4 ,but ,maj4 ,moulton was to make an even greater contribution to the #f-;inch shell4 ,this shell1 like those of our other types1 was square ended at the base4 ,maj4 ,moulton in his new design tapered in the sides somewhat1 making the shell boat ended4 ,he elongated the nose1 bringing it out to a much sharper point4 ,the result was the first ,american streamline design for a shell4 ,shell of this new model were built experimentally and tested4 ,the #f-;inch gun could fire its old shell #ag1jjj yards1 while the streamline shell went #d1jjj or #e1jjj yards farther--#b or #c miles added to the range of an already powerful weapon by the application of brains and mathematics4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aj4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,field ,,guns ,,since ,,the ,,napoleonic ,,wars4 ,,muzzle ,,velocity4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,type4 ,date4 ,feet per second4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,early rifled guns #ahfc-ahgj #ajij ,later rifled guns #ahgj-ahic #adff ,early quick firers ,about #aijj #afie ,modern quick firers #aiad-aiah #aggj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,range ,,with ,,shrapnel4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,smooth bores #ahae-ahej #abeg ,early rifled guns #ahfc-ahgj #bjjd ,later rifled guns #ahgj-ahic #dabj ,early quick firers ,about #aijj #fafj ,modern quick firers #aiad-aiah #f1ejj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,range ,,with ,,shell4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,smooth bores #ahae-ahej #a1fgj ,early rifled guns #ahfc-ahgj #c1ife ,later rifled guns #ahgj-ahic #f1afh ,early quick firers ,about #aijj #g1cdj ,modern quick firers #aiad-aiah #h1ejj ,with streamline shell #aiah-ai #ab1acj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the limiting factor in the development of light field guns has always been the continuous hauling power of #f horses1 which is about #d1jjj pounds4 ,the gun has been as powerful as possible within the limits of this weight1 which includes the carriage and limber as well as the cannon itself4 ,improved technique and materials have reduced the necessary weight of the cannon from #a1fej pounds in #ahae to about #hjj pounds to-day1 permitting the use of weight for recoil mechanism and shield of armor plate without exceeding the limit4 ,the #hjj-pound nickel-steel gun of #aiah fires as heavy a projectile 7#ab-ae pounds7 as the #a1fej-pound bronze gun of the ,napoleonic wars4 ,the improved material permits a more powerful propellant charge1 which results in greater muzzle velocity1 a flatter trajectory1 and longer maximum range4 ,the latter is due in part also to improved shapes of projectiles and the introduction of rifling4 ,the efficiency of artillery is further increased by the introduction of high-explosive bursting charge4 ,the modern #ge-millimeter shell contains about #a4gf pounds of high explosive as against about #j4e pound of black powder in shell prior to #ahic4 ,the ,french were experimenting with streamline shell4 ,we adopted the ,french streamline #ge-millimeter shell and put it into production1 calling it our ,mark ,,iv shell4 ,our regular #ge-millimeter shell1 known as the ,mark ,i #aijj shell1 had a maximum range of #i1jjj yards4 ,the ,mark ,,iv shell proved to have a maximum range of #ab1acj yards1 giving an increase in range of well over a mile4 ,america up to ,april #c1 #aiai1 turned out about #ebd1jjj of these streamline shell4 ,the ,french also built shell of semisteel1 steel to which iron was added4 ,it was claimed that these shell1 by bursting into fine fragments upon exploding1 were more effective against troops than all-steel shell1 because the fragments of the latter were larger4 ,we adopted this shell also and produced it experimentally4 ,in contour it was a compromise between the old cylindrical shell and the extreme streamline type and was easier to make than the latter4 ,artillery ammunition1 complete rounds--,acceptances in ,united ,states and ,canada on ,u4 ,s4 ,army orders only4 ,figures in thousands of rounds4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,to #aiah ,jan4 ------------------------------------ #a4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,calibers for ,american ,expeditionary ,force program4 #ge-mm4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #bce #ge-mm4 gun shrapnel #bj #aba #abd #dhc #hhh #a1jaa #a1jdi #ge-mm4 gun gas #ge-mm4 ,a4 ,a4 shrapnel #c-;inch ,a4 ,a4 shrapnel #d4g-;inch gun ,h4 ,e4 #d4g-;inch gun1 shrapnel #i #i #ad #ag #ah #bc #ce #e-;inch ,s4 ,c4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #f-;inch ,s4 ,c4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #b #aee-mm4 gun ,h4 ,e4#ba #aee-mm4 howitzer ,h4 ,e4#ba #aee-mm4 shrapnel #h-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #i4b-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #bdj-mm4 howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #h-;inch ,s4 ,c4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #aj-;inch ,s4 ,c4 gun ,h4 ,e4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,total #bbbibbacjbbachbbejjbbijfbba1jcda1cba ,calibers for use in ,united ,states only4 #b4ie-;inch mountain gun ,h4 ,e4 #bb #b4ie-;inch mountain gun shrapnel #cg #c-;inch ,f4 ,g4 ,h4 ,e4 #ccc #gc #bab #adb #abh #ie #c #c-;inch ,f4 ,g4 shrapnel #ieg #afd #bca #agd #ee #fj #ae #c4h-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #c #c #b #b #a #c4h-;inch howitzer shrapnel #ab #a #d4g-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #ad #d #e #a #a #d4g-;inch howitzer shrapnel #d #f-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #bj #a #c #bd #ce #f-;inch howitzer shrapnel #a ---------------------------------------- -- ,total #a1cih #bdf #ddh #cdb #bbd #afj #bj ,grand total #a1dbg #cgf #ehf #hdb #a1acj #a1aid #a1cda ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #aiah ------------------------------------,tot al ,july ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,calibers for ,american ,expeditionary ,force program4 #ge-mm4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #bhg #hji #a1afh #a1abb #a1age #gij #e1ehf #ge-mm4 gun shrapnel #gcj #gcb #hjb #a1jeg #hab #gch #h1efg #ge-mm4 gun gas #ahh #afd #bac #ae #ehj #ge-mm4 ,a4 ,a4 shrapnel #ib #ig #ahe #acd #abf #fcd #c-;inch ,a4 ,a4 shrapnel #aa #ei #b #gb #d4g-;inch gun ,h4 ,e4 #cb #de #dc #df #aff #d4g-;inch gun1 shrapnel #bc #ch #bi #bh #ae #ai #bgg #e-;inch ,s4 ,c4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #g #e #ab #f-;inch ,s4 ,c4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #a #cf #bc #fb #aee-mm4 gun ,h4 ,e4#ba #i #cc #ea #ih #aee-mm4 howitzer ,h4 ,e4#ba #aa #aac #aic #aai #agc #adj #gdi #aee-mm4 shrapnel #ab #bb #ff #da #ic #bcd #h-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #ia #h #ii #i4b-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #ac #h #bd #c #dh #bdj-mm4 howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #b #b #h-;inch ,s4 ,c4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #bj #aa #ca #aj-;inch ,s4 ,c4 gun ,h4 ,e4 #bj #ej #d #aa #he ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #a1jea #a1ihd #b1edh #c1jfb #b1egj #b1jbd #ag1big ,calibers for use in ,united ,states only4 #b4ie-;inch mountain gun ,h4 ,e4 #bb #b4ie-;inch mountain gun shrapnel #i #ad #b #fb #c-;inch ,f4 ,g4 ,h4 ,e4 #a #hd #a1jga #c-;inch ,f4 ,g4 shrapnel #a1fef #c4h-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #aa #c4h-;inch howitzer shrapnel #ac #d4g-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #a #a #ab #ci #d4g-;inch howitzer shrapnel #bc #e #h #aj #aj #fj #f-;inch howitzer ,h4 ,e4 #hc #f-;inch howitzer shrapnel #c #d ---------------------------------------- -- ,total #cd #ajg #aj #aj #bb #c1jba ,grand total #a1jhe #b1jia #b1eeh #a1jgb #b1eib #b1jbd #bj1cah ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ba ,all thick walled type2 not all supplied with fuses4 #bb ,shrapnel only4 ,the following table lists the name of each manufacturer of the various types and sizes of shell for big guns and states the quantity turned out by each3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,forgings4 ,machinings4 ------------------------------------- ,quantity ,quantity ,quantity ,quantity ,contractor4 ordered accepted ordered accepted to to to to ,nov4 #a1 ,nov4 #a1 ,nov4 #a1 ,nov4 #a1 #aiah4 #aiah4 #aiah4 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #c-;inch antiaircraft high-explosive shell4 ,hydraulic ,pressed ,steel ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #a1ich1hjf #ace1dce ,john ,inglis ,co41 ,toronto1 ,ontario #ejj1jjj #aca1edb ,saskatchewan ,bridge ,iron ,works1 ,moose ,jaw1 ,saskatchewan #hd1jjj ,west ,shell ,box ,co41 ,north ,edmonton1 ,alberta #hc1jjj ,manitoba ,b4 ,i4 ,co41 ,winnipeg1 ,manitoba #hc1jjj ,medicine ,hat ,p4 ,b4 ,co41 ,medicine ,hat1 ,alberta #hc1jjj ,dominion ,bridge ,co41 ,winnipeg1 ,manitoba #hd1jjj ,salisbury ,wheel ,axle ,co41 ,jamestown1 ,n4 ,y4 #ejj1jjj #a1jig #c-;inch antiaircraft shrapnel4 ,symington ,machine ,corporation1 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 #a1jeb1jiia1jac1aiia1jjj1jjja1jjj1jjj #ge-millimeter antiaircraft high-explosive shell4 ,moline ,forge ,co41 ,moline1 ,ill4 #ici1hff #edj1ecb ,jackson ,munitions1 ,jackson1 ,mich4 #bbe1jjj ,spencer ,engine ,co41 ,toledo1 ,ohio #ejj1jjj #bh1bic ,chamberlain ,machine ,works1 ,waterloo1 ,iowa #cfe1jjj #bc1ffi #ge-millimeter antiaircraft shrapnel4 ,symington ,manufacturing ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 #fgb1fbe #fgb1fbe #fgb1fbe #fgb1fbe #ge-millimeter gas and high-explosive shell4 ,t4 ,a4 ,gillespie1 ,parlin1 ,n4 ,j4 #a1djj1jjja1djj1jjja1djj1jjja1igg1adi ,american ,international ,corporation1 ,new ,york ,city #c1jjj1jjjb1dcc1dch ,american ,can ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #g1jjj1jjjb1efc1aead1jjj1jjj #cii1gbh ,hydraulic ,pressed ,steel ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #ab1jjj1jjjd1dee1jij ,valley ,forge ,co41 ,verona1 ,pa4 #d1jjj1jjj #hhj1bfc ,new ,york ,air ,brake ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #b1jjj1jjj #aib1ggda1cjj1jjj #ag1feb ,worthington ,pump ,machine ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #b1fej1jjja1dgc1ibib1ffj1jjj #fcd1aei ,the ,canadian ,allis-,chalmers ,co41 ,toronto1 ,ontario #b1bfg1jfba1hjb1aag #dce #adj1fdg ,canada ,car ,foundry ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #a1fef1cjba1eib1hgg ,a4 ,p4 ,smith ,co41 ,orange1 ,n4 ,j4 #abe1jjj ,s4 ,a4 ,wood ,manufacturing ,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 #a1ejj1jjj #dje1cdd ,vermont ,farm ,machine ,co41 ,bellows ,falls1 ,vt4 #gej1jjj #ahh1cjj ,american ,machinery ,corporation1 ,port ,huron1 ,mich4 #bjj1jjj ,consolidated ,car ,heating ,co41 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 #haj1jjj #aha1hhe ,wire ,wheel ,corporation1 ,springfield1 ,mass4 #cjj1jjj #ga1bci ,the ,canadian ,crocker ,wheeler1 ,st4 ,catherines1 ,ontario #dge1jjj #afj1ice ,lachine ,manufacturing ,co41 ,lachine1 ,quebec #ffj1jjj #bee1bfd ,the ,electric ,steel ,metal ,co41 ,welland1 ,ontario #aa1deh #aa1deh ,j4 ,bertram ,co41 ,dundas1 ,ontario #ajj1jjj #ea1ada ,canadian ,fairbanks ,morse1 ,toronto #a1ehd1edha1cgg1hjj ,w4 ,h4 ,banfield ,sons1 ,toronto #a1fbj1jjj #fgj1jjj ,canadian ,bridge ,co41 ,walkerville1 ,ontario #a1dej1jjj #def1iic ,canadian ,metal ,co41 ,toronto #c1bej1jjja1aed1cga ,goldie ,mc,cullough1 ,galt1 ,ontario #a1ajj1jjj #iba1bjf #daj1jjj #fa1dgf ,john ,inglis ,co41 ,toronto #a1gjj1jjj #gge1jcc #ge1jjj #db1djj ,cluff ,ammunition ,co41 ,toronto #fjj1jjj #eji1cdc ,g4 ,w4 ,mc,farland ,engineering ,co41 ,paris1 ,ontario #a1ejj1jjj #bhe1cce ,dayton1 ,ohio1 ,products ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #c1ejj1jjj #gcb1hdb ,e4 ,w4 ,bliss ,co41 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 #a1cjj1jjj #gja1hjd ,lymburner 7,ltd47 ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #hjj1jjj #fcj1ighb1dgd1jjja1abf1eef ,moline ,forging ,machining ,co41 ,moline1 ,ill4 #a1ejj1jjj #dga1bha ,laconia ,car ,co41 ,laconia1 ,n4 ,h4 #eej1jjj ,symington ,machine ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 #d1jbe1jjj #f1jbe1jjja1bjj1fhf ,roberts ,filter ,co41 ,darby1 ,pa4 #fjj1jjj #aea1ige ,auto ,transportation ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 #cej1jjj #ajg1dda ,dominion ,bridge ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #gie1jjj #cja1add ,canadian ,ingersoll ,rand ,co41 ,sherbrooke1 ,quebec #a1ajj1jjj #bij1dca ,steel ,co4 of ,canada1 ,brantford1 ,ontario #eae1jjj #afb1cii ,allis-,chalmers ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 #a1ebj1jjj #cdg1fce ,jackson ,munitions1 ,jackson1 ,mich4 #gge1jjj #fg1egj ,maxwell ,motor ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #hjj1jjj #fa1gfa ,batavia ,steel ,products1 ,batavia1 ,n4 ,y4 #a1age1jjj #caa1dag ,wheeling ,mold ,foundry1 ,wheeling1 ,w4 ,va4 #ejj1jjj #aah1dif ,eddystone ,munitions1 ,eddystone1 ,pa4 #a1jjj1jjj #aij1ajj ,lachine ,manufacturing ,co41 ,lachine1 ,quebec ,the ,international ,clay ,machine1 ,dayton1 ,ohio #abd1jjj #c1hab ,smead ,co41 ,jersey ,city1 ,n4 ,j4 #a1ajj1jjj #bdf1hda ,manufacturing ,production ,co41 ,dayton1 ,ohio #a1fjj1jjj #cdj1hhe ,chicago ,pneumatic ,tool ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #bej1jjj #acb1cba ,mueller ,manufacturing ,co41 ,port ,huron1 ,mich4 #ejj1jjj #gh1cjj ,the ,westfield ,manufacturing ,co41 ,westfield1 ,mass4 #a1gdj1jjj #dac1egh ,the ,platt ,iron ,works1 ,dayton1 ,ohio #a1fjj1jjj #agj1cab ,the ,mueller ,metal ,co41 ,wayne1 ,mich4 #gej1jjj #ge-millimeter field-gun shrapnel4 ,american ,can ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #ifi1jci #ifi1jci #ijd1jfg #ijd1jfg ,eddystone ,munitions ,co41 ,eddystone1 ,pa4 #gfi1ifa #gfi1ifa #gej1jjj #gej1jjj ,bartlett-,hayward ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 #f1efe1eaid1bgb1ijjf1bjj1jjjc1dib1hfc ,symington ,machine ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 #e1dei1cghd1hfh1idbh1cge1jjjc1cbi1jbe ,frankford ,arsenal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #fej1jjj #d1gac #gej1jjj #d1gac ,laconia ,car ,co41 ,laconia1 ,n4 ,h4 #dej1jjj #cfi1dhc ,bossert ,corporation1 ,utica1 ,n4 ,y4 #bjj1jjj ,hydraulic ,pressed ,steel ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #b1bhe1jjj #aj1jjj ,canada ,forge ,co41 ,welland1 ,ontario #gcj1jjj ,the ,liberty ,ordnance ,co41 ,bridgeport1 ,conn4 #a1jjj1jjj #bg1jjj #aee-millimeter howitzer high-explosive shell1 ,mark ,i1 type ,b4 ,whittaker ,glessner1 ,portsmouth1 ,ohio #acj1jjj #acg1djf ,american ,rolling ,mills1 ,middletown1 ,ohio #ajj1jjj #di1ghe ,pressed ,steel ,car ,co41 ,pittsburgh ,pa4 #fjj1jjj #eeb1hfg ,american ,car ,foundry ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #b1hjj1jjja1aaj1ifd ,new ,york ,air ,brake ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #cej1jjj #a1aeh #ach1caf ,wm4 ,wharton ,manufacturing ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #bhj1jjj #fa1bbd ,standard ,steel ,car ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #dej1jjj ,standard ,forging ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #ba1ada ,curtis ,co41 ,manufacturing ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #ejj1jjj #djd1fde ,american ,steel ,foundry ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #dab1jdb #dab1jdb ,midvale ,steel ,ordnance ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #acj1jjj #acj1jjj ,detroit ,shell ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #ejj1jjj #de1efc ,j4 ,j4 ,cavrick1 ,batavia1 ,n4 ,y4 #cjj1jjj #ib1igd ,standard ,sanitary ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #fjj1jjj #id1dji ,potter ,johnson1 ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 #age1jjj ,north ,american ,motor ,co41 ,pottstown1 ,pa4 #cj1jjj #bi1ddf ,minneapolis ,steel ,machine ,co41 ,minneapolis1 ,minn4 #djj1jjj #bde1cdd ,w4 ,j4 ,oliver ,manufacturing ,co41 ,knoxville1 ,tenn4 #acj1jjj #hh1ffb ,twin ,city ,forge ,foundry ,co41 ,stillwater1 ,minn4 #fjj1jjj #ed1dhc ,winslow ,bros4 ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #fjj1jjj #agf1jha ,american ,brake ,shoe ,foundry ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #gej1jjj #ahd1fig ,american ,clay ,machine ,co41 ,bucyrus1 ,ohio #gjj1jjj ,elyria ,machine ,co41 ,elyria1 ,ohio #ajj1jjj #cb1aci ,american ,machine ,manufacturing ,co41 ,atlanta1 ,ga4 #bdj1jjj #ge1jfc ,haroun ,motor ,corporation1 ,wayne1 ,mich4 #bjj1jjj #bc1hii ,wagner ,electric ,manufacturing ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #cjj1jjj #ab1efi #aee-millimeter howitzer high-explosive shell1 ,mark ,,iv1 type ,d4 ,national ,tube ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #hjj1jjj #dh1bfc ,p4 ,lyall ,sons1 ,montreal1 ,quebec #djj1jjj #d1ggd #aej1jjj #b1eei ,national ,iron ,works1 ,toronto1 ,ontario #djj1jjj #i1acg ,dominion ,steel ,foundry1 ,hamilton1 ,ontario #djj1jjj #bc1bgj ,studebaker ,corporation1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #hjj1jjj #hjj1jjj ,fairfax ,forge ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #djj1jjj #aej1jjj ,pressed ,steel ,car ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #a1jjj1jjj #ae1abb ,cleveland ,crane ,co41 ,wickliffe1 ,ohio #ejj1jjj ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 ,south ,bethlehem1 ,pa4 #fjj1jjj #aci1ajc ,g4 ,w4 ,mc,farland1 ,paris1 ,ontario #cgj1jjj #eba ,la,clede ,gas ,light ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #hej1jjj #hej1jjj ,standard ,forging ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #ejj1jjj ,whittaker ,glessner ,co41 ,portsmouth1 ,ohio #ijj1jjj #ca1iji ,curtis ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #acj1jjj ,warden ,king ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #ahj1jjj ,john ,inglis ,co41 ,toronto1 ,ontario #djj1jjj ,canada ,iron ,foundry ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #ajj1jjj #ajj1jjj ,cluff ,ammunition ,co41 ,toronto1 ,ontario #ejj1jjj ,taylor ,forbes 7,ltd471 ,toronto1 ,ontario #ij1jjj ,moon ,motor ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #bjj1jjj ,standard ,sanitary1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #aej1jjj ,holden ,morgan ,thread ,co41 ,toronto1 ,ontario #ajj1jjj ,e4 ,leonard ,sons1 ,london1 ,ontario #hj1jjj ,otis ,fenson ,elevator ,co41 ,hamilton1 ,ontario #bjj1jjj ,dominion ,copper ,products1 ,montreal1 ,quebec #aej1jjj #b1jef ,caron ,bros41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #abe1jjj #bce ,potter ,johnson1 ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 #cej1jjj ,biscoe ,motor1 ,jackson1 ,mich4 #cbe1jjj ,hudson ,motor1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #djj1jjj ,munition ,m4 ,n4 7,ltd471 ,sorel #ej1jjj ,john ,bartram ,sons1 ,dundas1 ,ontario #dej1jjj #aee-millimeter howitzer gas shell4 ,american ,rolling ,mills1 ,middletown1 ,ohio #ejj1jjj #dib1cii ,midvale ,steel ,ordnance ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #abj1jjj #if1gii ,american ,radiator ,co41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #fbe1jjj #ejj #daf1ffg ,wilson ,foundry ,machine ,co41 ,pontiac1 ,mich4 #djj1jjj #cjj1jjj ,rathbone ,sard ,co41 ,aurora1 ,ill4 #fjj1jjj #djj1jjj #aee-millimeter gun high-explosive shell1 ,mark ,,iii1 type ,b4 ,standard ,steel ,car ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #a1jjj1jjj #efh1jiba1jjj1jjj #dca1bch ,whittaker ,glessner ,co41 ,portsmouth1 ,ohio #cej1dga #cej1dga ,standard ,forging ,co41 ,indiana ,harbor1 ,ind4 #hjj1jjj #gcj1iej ,mead ,morris ,co41 ,gloucester1 ,mass4 #cjj1jjj #b1jef ,twin ,city ,forge ,foundry ,co41 ,stillwater1 ,minn4 #dbe1jjj #acf1jec ,chicago ,rlg4 ,equipment ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #djj1jjj #bc1cef ,minneapolis ,steel ,machine ,co41 ,minneapolis1 ,minn4 #bjj1jjj #da1bed ,international ,arms ,fuse1 ,bloomfleld1 ,n4 ,j4 #ejj1jjj #caj1acj ,north ,american ,motors1 ,pottstown1 ,pa4 #gj1jjj ,potter ,johnson1 ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4 #ajj1jjj #gc1hcf ,templer ,motor ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #dej1jjj #de1jad ,new ,york ,air ,brake ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #baa1fhd ,jackson ,munitions1 ,jackson1 ,mich4 #agg1ejj #be1iha ,pullman ,co41 ,pullman1 ,ill4 #cjj1jjj ,new ,home ,sewing ,machine ,co41 ,orange1 ,mass4 #bjj1jjj #aee-millimeter gun high-explosive shell1 ,mark ,v1 type ,d4 ,symington ,chicago ,corporation1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #a1jjj1jjj #hje1jjj ,american ,rolling ,mills1 ,middletown1 ,ohio #gee1jjj #cf1afa ,milton ,manufacturing ,co41 ,milton1 ,pa4 #aj1jjj ,whittaker ,glessner ,co41 ,portsmouth1 ,ohio #gej1jjj ,dominion ,foundry ,steel ,co41 ,hamilton1 ,ontario #ejj1jjj ,winslow ,bros41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #djj1jjj ,grant ,motor ,car ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #bfj1jjj ,cribbon ,sexton ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #bjj1jjj #aee-millimeter gun gas shell4 ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 ,south ,bethlehem1 ,pa4 #ajj1jjj #ib1dcj ,kohler ,co41 ,kohler1 ,wis4 #hej1jjj #ajj #feg1jjj #ajj ,american ,radiator ,co41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #abe1jjj #hc1ccc ,whittaker ,glessner ,co41 ,portsmouth1 ,ohio #e1jjj #e1jjj ,american ,car ,foundry ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #a1cej1jjj #fc1iad #aee-millimeter gun and howitzer shrapnel4 ,dayton1 ,ohio1 ,production ,co41 ,dayton1 ,ohio #hej1jjj #aca1cbi ,wm4 ,wharton1 jr41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #edj1idg #cde1deg ,bartlett-,hayward ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 #bjj1jjj #a1fjj1jjj #ace1eij ,frankford ,arsenal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #ajj1jjj #c4h-;inch howitzer shell4 ,frankford ,arsenal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #a1jjj #a1jjj #ae1ibh #aa1geg ,hydraulic ,pressed ,steel ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #aje1jjj ,f4 ,r4 ,wilford ,co4 #aje1jjj #c4h-;inch howitzer shrapnel4 ,frankford ,arsenal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #ah1ebb #ad1bfd #dc1ebb #ad1bfd ,hydraulic ,pressed ,steel ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #ce1jjj #d4gb-;inch shell4 ,national ,tube ,co41 ,christie ,pks4 ,works #ab1ejj #e1fad ,united ,states ,government #a1hej #a1hej #a1hej #a1hej ,buffalo ,pitts ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 #ab1gje ,twin ,city ,forge1 ,stillwater1 ,minn4 #b1ejj #d4g-;inch antiaircraft shell4 ,national ,tube ,co41 ,christie ,pks4 ,works #bcj1jjj #ahh1die ,maritime ,manufacturing ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #ajj1jjj ,spartan ,manufacturing ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #df1jjj #de1aei ,darling ,bros41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #db1ejj #ae1jfj ,alberta ,foundry ,machinery ,co41 ,alberta #db1ejj #f1agj #d4g-;inch antiaircraft shrapnel4 ,the ,e4 ,w4 ,bliss ,co41 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 #aj1jjj ,frankford ,arsenal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #fj1jjj #fj1jjj ,national ,tube ,co41 ,christie ,pks4 ,works #ajj1jjj #db1hdj ,alberta ,foundry ,machinery ,co41 ,alberta #db1ejj #d4g-;inch drill projectile4 ,grand ,rapids ,brass ,co41 ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich4 #b1ige #djd #b1ige #dje #d4g-;inch gun gas shell4 ,milton ,manufacturing ,co41 ,milton1 ,pa4 #djj1jjj #aid1fab #djj1jjj #ib1cdb ,american ,radiator ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahi1cfj #d4g-;inch gun shrapnel4 ,frankford ,arsenal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #bb1hig #bb1ddj #bb1hig #bb1ddj 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,alberta #ej1jjj #h-;inch gun and howitzer high-explosive and gas shell4 ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #efa1edh #baj1aga ,root ,vandervoort ,engineering ,co41 ,east ,moline1 ,ill4 #dj1jjj #dj1ibh #aij1jjj #add1hae ,wagner ,electrical ,manufacturing ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #dj1jjj #dj1jjj #agj1jjj #dh1ehf ,mc,myler ,interstate ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #ejj1jjj #bfc1fgd #dej1jjj #bch1dgj ,pollak ,steel ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #ajj1jjj ,curtis ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #bie1jjj #afg1bjb ,midvale ,steel ,ordnance ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #adj1jjj #ace1agf ,standard ,steel ,car ,co41 ,butler1 ,pa4 #ajj1jjj #f1jgb ,pressed ,steel ,car ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #bej1jjj ,westinghouse ,electric ,manufacturing ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #cfj1jjj #aff1hjc ,willys ,overland ,co41 ,toledo1 ,ohio #fjj1jjj ,motor ,products ,corporation1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #ajj1jjj ,british ,war ,mission1 ,munsey ,building1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #aja1hag #ajj1bgg ,imperial ,munitions ,board1 ,ottawa #h1fab #g1gbb ,pollak ,steel ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #ge1jjj #bb1fha ,american ,steel ,foundry ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #egj1jjj #bdg1fdi ,dominion ,steel ,foundry ,co41 ,hamilton1 ,ontario #ajj1jjj #ia1aia ,canada ,cement ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #aej1jjj #bb1cjd #fej1jjj #d1gjj ,british ,forgings 7,ltd471 ,toronto1 ,ontario #bge1jjj #bd1icc ,dominion ,bridge ,co41 ,montreal1 ,quebec #aej1jjj #ee1cbd ,standard ,forging ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #cjj1jjj #ch1fei ,pressed ,steel ,car ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #bej1jjj #he1gej ,wm4 ,wharton1 jr41 ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #abe1jjj ,dominion ,foundries ,co4 7,ltd471 ,hamilton1 ,ontario #bej1jjj #aj1gdf ,american ,brake ,shoe ,foundry ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #bej1jjj #aig1bej ,maritime ,manufacturing ,corporation1 ,st4 ,john1 ,new ,brunswick #dfj1jjj #bf1jjj #i4b-;inch howitzer high-explosive shell4 ,russell ,motor ,car ,co41 ,toronto1 ,ontario #cce1jjj #ae1jdi ,st4 ,lawrence ,bridge ,co41 ,montreal #cce1jjj #ca1hhj ,united ,states ,ammunition ,corporation1 ,poughkeepsie1 ,n4 ,y4 #bej1jjj #f1dhf ,fisher ,motor ,co41 ,orilla1 ,ontario #ahj1jjj #ajj ,canadian ,bridge ,co41 ,walkersville1 ,ontario #aaj1jjj #bdj-millimeter high-explosive shell4 ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #aij1jjj #ib1caf ,curtis ,co4 ,manufacturing ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #bge1jjj #agd1agd ,american ,car ,foundry ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #ij1jjj #djj1jjj #dg1iec ,american ,steel ,foundries ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #hj1jjj #c1bgg ,scullin ,steel ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #cej1jjj ,a4 ,f4 ,smith ,manufacturing ,co41 ,east ,orange1 ,n4 ,j4 #be1jjj ,motors ,truck 7,ltd471 ,brantford1 ,ontario #abe1jjj ,laclede ,gas ,light ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #ebf1jad #e-;inch seacoast gun shell4 ,cleveland ,crane ,engineering ,co41 ,wickliffe1 ,ohio #bdd1hab #abb1cbd ,mc,myler ,interstate ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #e1jjj #e1ajg ,milton ,manufacturing ,co41 ,milton1 ,pa4 #cj1jjj #bi1aba ,machine ,products ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #ge1jjj #ba1ecb ,a4 ,j4 ,vance ,co41 ,winston-,salem1 ,n4 ,c4 #dj1jjj #a1egh ,twin ,city ,foundry ,co41 ,stillwater1 ,minn4 #djj ,a4 ,b4 ,ormsby ,co4 7,ltd471 ,toronto1 ,ontario #ej1jjj #aj1jbi ,p4 ,tyrall ,construction ,co41 ,montreal #aje1jjj #ch1che #f-;inch seacoast gun shell4 ,frankford ,arsenal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #dj1iej #be1ieg #dj1iej #be1ieg ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 ,bethlehem1 ,pa4 #af1jjj #bb1jec #af1jjj #ae1iaj ,columbian ,iron ,works1 ,chattanooga1 ,tenn4 #dj1jjj #dj1cdf #acb1edb #adi1bha ,the ,pressed ,steel ,car ,co41 ,mc,keesport1 ,pa4 #che1jjj #cgj1fgg ,standard ,steel ,car ,co41 ,hammond1 ,ind4 #djj1jjj #cgf1hbg ,anniston ,steel ,co41 ,anniston1 ,ala4 #bdc1hab ,westinghouse ,electric ,manufacturing ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #ce1jjj #ca1caj #che1jjj #aib1fhd ,wm4 ,wharton1 jr41 ,easton1 ,pa4 #bd1jjj ,the ,southern ,machinery ,co41 ,chattanooga1 ,tenn4 #ddg1deh #ai1ecg #aj-;inch seacoast gun shell4 ,american ,car ,foundry ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #bd1cfj #bd1cfj #bge1jjj #acj1jdj ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #fj1jjj #fa1ggj ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 ,munhall1 ,pa4 #bbe1jjj #acg1afh #ab-;inch seacoast gun shell4 ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 ,mc,kees ,rocks1 ,pa4 #afe1jjj #g1fbg ,watertown ,arsenal1 ,watertown1 ,mass4 #ae1jjj #a1ddi ,washington ,steel ,ordnance ,co41 ,giesboro ,manor1 ,d4 ,c4 #bh1fca #f1abi #ch1jjj #a1ijg ,leaside ,munitions ,corporation1 ,toronto1 ,ontario #aje1jjj #aje1jjj ,standard ,forging ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #ae1jjj ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 ,bethlehem1 ,pa4 #cb1jjj ,american ,clay ,machine ,co41 ,bucyrus1 ,ohio #ae1jjj #ad-;inch seacoast gun shell4 ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 ,mc,kees ,rocks1 ,pa4 #aj1jjj #bbj ,watertown ,arsenal1 ,watertown1 ,mass4 #i1jjj ,washington ,steel ,ordnance ,co41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #hj #af-;inch seacoast howitzer shell4 ,washington ,steel ,ordnance ,co41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #adj #adj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,sights ,,and ,,fire-,,control ,,apparatus4 ,at the threshold of the war with ,germany we were confronted with the problem of providing on a large scale those instruments of precision with which modern artillerists point their weapons4 ,as mysterious to the average man as the sextant and other instruments which help the navigator to bring his ship unerringly to port over leagues of pathless water1 or as those devices with which the surveyor strikes a level through a range of mountains1 are the instruments which enable the gunner to drop a heavy projectile exactly on his target without seeing it at all4 ,the old days of sighting a cannon point-blank at the visible enemy over the open sights on the barrel of the weapon passed with the ,civil ,war4 ,as the power of guns increased and their ranges lengthened1 the artillerists began firing at objects actually below the horizon or hidden by intervening obstacles4 ,these conditions necessarily brought in the method of mathematical aim which is known as indirect fire4 ,in the great war indirect firing was so perfected that within a few seconds after an aviator or an observer in a captive balloon had definitely located an enemy battery1 that battery was deluged with an avalanche of high-explosive shell and destroyed1 even though the attacking gunners were located several miles away and hills and forests intervened to obscure the target from view4 ,with the aid of correlated maps in the possession of the battery gunners and the aerial observer1 a mere whisper of the wireless sufficed to turn a torrent of shell precisely upon the enemy position which had just been discovered4 ,so accurate had indirect artillery fire become that a steel wall of missiles could be laid down a few yards ahead of a body of troops advancing on a broad front1 and this wall could be kept moving steadily ahead of the soldiers at a walking pace with few accidents due to inaccurate control of the guns firing the barrage4 ,the chief difference between the old and the new methods of artillery practice is the degree of precision attained4 ,at the time of the ,civil ,war the artillery was fired relatively blindly1 reliance being placed upon the weight of the fire regardless of its accuracy and its effectiveness2 but modern artillery has recognized the importance of the well-placed shot and demands instruments that must be marvels of accuracy1 since a slight error in the aiming at modern ranges means a miss and the total loss of the shot4 ,such uncanny accuracy is made possible by the use of those instruments of precision known as fire-control apparatus4 ,the gunner who is not equipped with proper fire-control instruments can not aim correctly and is placed at a serious disadvantage in the presence of the enemy4 ,these instruments must not only be as exact as a chronometer1 but they must be sufficiently rugged to withstand the concussion of close artillery fire4 ,equipment classified under ,sights and fire-control apparatus comprises all devices to direct the fire of offensive weapons and to observe the effect of this fire in order to place it on the target4 ,included in this list are instruments of a surveying nature which serve to locate the relative position of the target on the field of battle and to determine its range4 ,for this purpose the artillery officer uses aiming circles1 azimuth instruments1 battery commander telescopes1 prismatic compasses1 plotting boards1 and other instruments4 ,telescopes and field glasses equipped with measuring scales in them are also employed in making observations4 ,instruments of a second group are attached directly to the gun to train it both horizontally and vertically in the directions given by the battery commander4 ,these devices include sights of different types1 elevation quadrants1 clinometers1 and other instruments4 ,the intricate panoramic sight which is used especially in firing at an unseen target is one of the most important instruments of this group4 ,still another set of instruments comprises devices such as range deflection boards1 deviation boards1 and wind indicators which1 together with range tables and other tables1 assist the battery commander to ascertain the path of the projectile under any condition of range1 altitude1 air pressure1 temperature1 and other physical influences4 ,when it is understood that the projectile fired by such a weapon as the ,german long-range gun which bombarded ,paris at a distance of #gj miles mounts so high into the air that it passes into the highly rarified layers of the air envelope surrounding the earth and thus into entirely different conditions of air pressure1 it can be realized how abstruse these range calculations are and how many factors must be taken into account4 ,the fire-control equipment enables the artilleryman to make these computations quickly4 ,in addition to the above items many auxiliary devices are needed by the ,artillery1 notable among these being the self-luminous aiming posts and other arrangements which enable the gunners to maintain accuracy of fire at night4 ,this whole elaborate set of instruments is supplied to the field and railway artillery--the big guns--and in part to trench-mortar batteries and even to machine guns1 which in the latter months of the war were used in indirect firing4 ,still another group of pointing instruments is used by antiaircraft guns against hostile aircraft to ascertain their altitude1 their speed1 and their future location in order that projectiles fired by the antiaircraft guns may hit these high and rapidly moving targets4 ,sights are also used on the airplanes themselves to aid the pilot and the observer in the dropping of bombs and in gunfire against enemy planes or targets4 ,one of these sights corrects automatically for the speed and direction of the airplane4 ,fuse setters1 which enable the gunner to time the fuse in the shell so that the projectile moving with enormous speed explodes at precisely the desired point1 were required in large numbers4 ,the responsibility for the design1 procurement1 production1 inspection1 and supply of the above equipment to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces was lodged in the ,ordnance ,department4 ,the effectiveness of the artillery on the field of battle depended directly on the fire-control equipment furnished by this bureau4 ,the optical industry in this country before the war was in the hands of a few firms4 ,several of these were under ,german influence1 and one firm was directly affiliated with the ,carl ,zeiss ,works1 of ,jena1 ,germany2 the workmen were largely ,germans or of ,german origin2 the kinds and design of apparatus produced were for the most part essentially ,european in character2 optical glass was procured entirely from abroad and chiefly from ,germany4 ,it was easier and cheaper for manufacturers to order glass from abroad than to develop its manufacture in this country4 ,educational and research institutions obtained a large part of their equipment from ,germany and offered no special inducement for ,american manufacturers to provide such apparatus4 ,duty-free importation favored and encouraged this dependence on ,germany for scientific apparatus4 ,with our entrance in the war the ,european sources of supply for optical glass and optical instruments were cut off abruptly and we were brought face to face with the problem of furnishing these items to the ,army and ,navy for use in the field4 ,prior to #aiag only three private manufacturers in the ,united ,states had built fire-control apparatus in any quantity for the ,government4 ,the ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 had made range finders and field glasses for the ,artillery and ,infantry1 and gun sights1 range finders1 and spy glasses and field glasses for the ,navy2 the ,keuffel ,esser ,co41 ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j41 had produced some fire-control equipment for the ,navy2 the ,warner ,swasey ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 with ,j4 ,a4 ,brashear1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 had furnished depression-position finders1 azimuth instruments1 and telescopic musket sights to the ,army4 ,the only other source of supply in this country had been the ,frankford ,arsenal4 ,prior to #aiag the largest order for fire-control equipment which our ,army had ever placed in a single year amounted to #a1bjb1jjj4 ,the total orders for such instruments placed by the ,ordnance ,department alone during the #ai months of war exceeded #ej1jjj1jjj1 while the total orders for fire-control apparatus placed by the ,army and ,navy exceeded #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,to meet the situation1 existing facilities had to be increased1 new facilities developed1 and other1 allied1 industries converted to the production of fire-control material4 ,quantity production had to be secured through the assembling of standardized parts of instruments which heretofore had either never been built in this country or only in a small1 experimental way4 ,a large part of the work had of necessity to be done by machines operated by relatively unskilled labor4 ,the manufacturing tolerances had to be nicely adjusted between the different parts of each instrument1 so that wherever less precise work would answer the purpose the production methods were arranged accordingly4 ,only by a careful coordination of design1 factory operations1 and field performance could quantity production of the desired quality be obtained in a short time4 ,speed of production meant everything if our troops in the field were to be equipped with the necessary fire-control apparatus and thus enabled to meet the enemy on even approximately equal terms4 ,to accomplish this object a competent personnel within the ,army had to be organized and developed2 the ,army requirements had to be carefully scrutinized and coordinated with reference to relative urgency2 manufacturers had to be encouraged to undertake new tasks and to be impressed with the necessity for whole-hearted cooperation and with the importance of their part in the war2 raw materials had to be secured and their transportation assured4 ,these and other factors were faced and overcome4 ,although ,american fire-control instruments did not reach the front in as large numbers as were wanted1 great quantities were under way1 and we had attained in the manufacturing program a basic stage of progress which would have cared for all of our needs in the spring and summer of #aiai4 ,incidentally there has been developed in this country a manufacturing capacity for precision optical and instrument work1 which1 if desired1 will render us independent of foreign markets4 ,at the present time there exists in this country a trained personnel and adequate organization for the production of precision optical instruments greatly in excess of the needs of the country4 ,one of the problems which we now have to consider is the conversion of this development brought about by war-time conditions into channels of peace-time activity4 ,at the present time ,american manufacturers are in a position to make instruments of precision equal to the best ,european product1 and the industry will continue1 provided there is an adequate market for its product4 ,such a market will exist if the universities and commercial laboratories of the country will obtain scientific apparatus from ,american manufacturers rather than import it from abroad as has heretofore been the custom4 ,in ,april1 #aiag1 the most serious problem in the situation was the manufacture of optical glass4 ,prior to #aiad practically all of the optical glass used in the ,united ,states had been imported from abroad2 manufacturers followed the line of least resistance and preferred to procure certain commodities1 such as optical glass1 chemical dyes1 and other materials difficult to produce1 direct from ,europe rather than to undertake their manufacture here4 ,the war stopped this source of supply abruptly1 and in #aiae experiments on the making of optical glass were under way at five different plants--the ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co4 at ,rochester ,n4 ,y42 the ,bureau of ,standards at ,pittsburgh1 ,pa42 the ,keuffel ,esser ,co4 at ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j42 the ,pittsburgh ,plate ,glass ,co4 at ,charleroi1 ,pa42 the ,spencer ,lens ,co4 at ,hamburg1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,by ,april1 #aiag1 the situation had become acute2 some optical glass of fair quality had been produced1 but nowhere had its manufacture been placed on an assured basis4 ,the glass-making processes were not adequately known4 ,without optical glass fire-control instruments could not be produced2 optical glass is a thing of high precision and in its manufacture accurate control is required throughout the factory processes4 ,in this emergency the ,government appealed to the ,geophysical ,laboratory of the ,carnegie ,institution of ,washington for assistance4 ,this laboratory had been engaged for many years in the study of solutions1 such as that of optical glass1 at high temperatures and had a corps of scientists trained along the lines essential to the successful production of optical glass4 ,it was the only organization in the country with a personnel adequate and competent to undertake a manufacturing problem of this character and magnitude4 ,accordingly1 in ,april1 #aiag1 a group of its scientists was placed at the ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co4 and given virtual charge of the plant2 its men were assigned to the different factory operations and made responsible for them4 ,by ,november1 #aiag1 the manufacturing processes at this plant had been mastered and large quantities of optical glass of good quality were being produced4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 the work was extended1 men from the ,geophysical ,laboratory taking practical charge of the plants of the ,spencer ,lens ,co4 and of the ,pittsburgh ,plate ,glass ,co4 ,the cost to the ,geophysical ,laboratory of contributing to the ,government the solution of the optical glass problem amounted to about #bjj1jjj1 but the results attained surely more than justified these expenditures4 ,these results could not have been attained1 however1 without the hearty cooperation of the manufacturers and of the ,army and ,navy1 which assisted in the procurement and transportation of the raw materials4 ,an ordnance officer was in charge of the ,rochester party from the ,geophysical ,laboratory and was responsible for much of the pioneer development work accomplished there4 ,it was at this plant1 that of the ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co4 at ,rochester1 that the methods of manufacture were first developed and placed on a production basis4 ,the ,bureau of ,standards aided in the development of a chemically and thermally resistant crucible in which to melt optical glass2 also in the testing of optical glass1 and especially in the testing of optical instruments4 ,the ,geological ,survey aided in locating sources of raw materials1 such as sand of adequate chemical purity4 ,by ,february1 #aiah1 the supply of optical glass was assured2 but the manufacture of optical instruments was so seriously behind schedule that a military optical glass and instrument section was formed in the ,war ,industries ,board and took charge of the entire optical instrument industry of the country4 ,through the efforts of its chief1 ,mr4 ,george ,e4 ,chatillon1 of ,new ,york1 the entire industry was coordinated4 ,by ,september1 #aiah1 the production of fire-control instruments in sufficient quantities to meet the requirements of both the ,army and ,navy during #aiai was believed to be assured4 ,to the accomplishment of this result the ,ordnance ,department contributed most effectively4 ,the information and long experience of ,frankford ,arsenal in instrument manufacture and in the work of precision optics were placed at the service of contractors2 trained officers of the ,ordnance ,department were stationed at the different factories2 in many factories these officers rendered valuable aid in devising and developing proper and adequate factory operations1 in establishing production on a satisfactory basis1 in securing the proper inflow of raw materials1 in devising testing fixtures1 in establishing proper manufacturing tolerances1 and in testing the performance of the assembled instruments4 ,schools for operatives in precision optics were established at ,frankford ,arsenal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa41 at ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 and at ,mount ,wilson ,observatory1 ,pasadena1 ,cal4 ,to many contractors financial aid had to be extended4 ,the fire-control program required1 in short1 all the available talent and resources of the country to carry it to a successful finish4 ,the general procedure adopted by the ,ordnance ,department was to assign the more difficult instruments to manufacturers who had had experience along similar lines4 ,to others1 who had produced articles allied only in a distant way to fire-control instruments1 less intricate types of instruments were awarded4 ,in certain instances the optical elements were produced by one firm1 the mechanical parts by another1 the final assembly of the instrument being then accomplished by the latter4 ,because our ,army had adopted a number of ,french guns for reproduction here1 it became necessary to build sights for these weapons according to the ,french designs4 ,this gave us much trouble1 not only because of the delay in securing samples and drawings from ,france1 but because of the difficulties in producing articles from these ,french drawings by ,american methods and with ,american workmen4 ,the most intricate of these ,french sights was the ,schneider quadrant sight4 ,it was used with the ,french #aee-millimeter gun1 the #aee-millimeter howitzer1 and the #bdj-millimeter howitzer4 ,the structure of this sight was highly complicated1 and extreme accuracy was required at every stage of production4 ,these sights were put into production by the ,emerson ,engineering ,co4 of ,philadelphia1 the ,raymond ,engineering ,co4 of ,new ,york1 and by ,slocum1 ,avram ,slocum of ,new ,york4 ,the design of this sight was received from ,france early in #aiah1 yet it was the #ast of ,november--#aj days before the armistice was signed--when the first ,schneider sight was delivered to the ,army2 but at all times the progress made was as rapid as could be expected4 ,a total of #g1jjj ,schneider quadrant sights was ordered1 which meant a year's work for #a1jjj men4 ,of this order #c1ejj sights were to be manufactured by the ,schneider ,co4 in ,france and the rest by the three firms in this country4 ,on ,november #aa the ,american factories had delivered #gd sights and since that time over #efj have been completed4 ,the amount of labor involved in the case of ,schneider quadrant sights is shown by the fact that while the raw material for it cost about #be1 the finished sight is worth about #fjj4 ,in order to expedite production the ,government extended financial assistance to some of the factories to aid in the procurement and installation of additional equipment4 ,on ,november #aa the number of these sights completed was short of requirements for installation on completed carriages by about #djj1 but the rate of progress which had been attained in production would have overtaken the output of gun carriages by ,january #a1 #aiai4 ,another difficult task was the construction of telescopic sights for the ,french #cg-millimeter guns1 the ,infantry cannon which we adopted for reproduction in this country4 ,here again we encountered the same difficulty of adapting ,french plans to our methods4 ,the original contract was placed with a firm which had had no experience with optical instruments of precision1 but no other company was available for the work4 ,when by ,may1 #aiah1 this concern had produced only a few sights the contract was taken from it and placed with a subcontractor1 the ,central ,scientific ,co41 of ,chicago1 who had been building mechanical parts for the sights4 ,in this plant the complete force had to be educated in the art before any production could begin4 ,when the armistice was signed the gun factories had produced #hhd of the #cg-millimeter guns1 but only #adb telescopic sights had been completed4 ,the rate of production of these sights by the ,central ,scientific ,co4 was such1 however1 that the shortage would have ceased to exist shortly after ,january #a1 #aiai4 ,the ,french design for the telescopic sight for the #cg-millimeter gun used on the tanks was also adopted by the ,army4 ,here again difficulty was experienced in manufacture1 but excellent progress was made especially by one firm 7,burke ,james of ,chicago1 ,ill471 and the output in adequate quantities was assured for #aiai4 ,the ,french collimator sight for the #ge-millimeter gun presented difficulties to the manufacturer1 especially in the optical parts4 ,these were1 however1 overcome by the ,globe ,optical ,co41 who furnished the optics to the ,electric ,auto-,lite ,corporation and to the ,standard ,thermometer ,co4 of ,boston1 with the result that at the time of the signing of the armistice the production of these sights was progressing well4 ,periscopes from #bj inches to nearly #bj feet in length were produced in quantity4 ,these periscopes enabled the men in the front-line trenches to look over the top with comparative safety4 ,the long periscopes were used in deep-shelter trenches and bomb proofs4 ,the production of the short-base periscopes and also of the battery commanders' periscopes by the ,wollensak ,optical ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 and of the #c-meter and #f-meter periscope by the ,andrew ,j4 ,lloyd ,co4 of ,boston1 ,mass41 was progressing at such a rate that the needs of the ,army for #aiai would be met on time4 ,at the outbreak of the war the policy followed by the ,ordnance ,department was to place orders for standard fire-control apparatus1 such as range finders of different base lengths1 battery commander telescopes1 aiming circles1 panoramic sights1 musket sights1 and prismatic compasses with firms of established reputation and experience4 ,the result was that when requests from the ,army in ,france came for instruments of new design1 new sources of manufacture had to be sought out and these organizations educated in the methods of precision optics4 ,such a procedure necessarily caused delay1 but it was the only course of action left4 ,wherever possible part of the total contract was awarded to an experienced manufacturer1 so that some production was assured4 ,illustration3 ,,panoramic ,,sight4 ,illustration3 ,,battery ,,commander',s ,,telescope4 ,illustration3 ,,battery ,,commander',s ,,periscope4 ,illustration3 ,,aiming ,,circle4 ,illustration3 ,,bracket ,,fuse ,,setter1 ,,model ,,of #aiaf4 ,illustration3 ,,range ,,finder4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,quadrant ,,sight ,,with ,,american ,,panoramic ,,sight4 ,illustration3 ,,sight ,,for #ge-,,millimeter ,,field ,,gun4 ,the records show that the experienced manufacturers overcame the difficulties encountered and had obtained in general a rate of output which was satisfactory at the time of the signing of the armistice4 ,thus the ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co4 had delivered large numbers of range finders of base lengths of #hj centimeters1 #a meter and #ae feet1 and battery commanders' telescopes2 ,keuffel ,esser had made many prismatic compasses and a few range finders2 the ,spencer ,lens ,co4 had produced aiming circles in quantity2 the ,warner ,swasey ,co41 with ,j4 ,a4 ,brashear of ,pittsburgh1 had furnished large numbers of the valuable panoramic sights with which much of the artillery fire is directed4 ,much credit is due the above organizations for the efficient manner in which they placed the manufacture of these items on a high-speed production basis4 ,frankford ,arsenal proved to be a most reliable source of supply for battery commander telescopes1 panoramic sights1 azimuth instruments for #c-;inch telescopes1 plotting boards1 and other ordnance fire-control instruments4 ,the manufacture of many other types of instruments was undertaken in this country4 ,among these the ,french sitogoniometer1 a device which assists the battery commander in obtaining data for the direction of fire1 was successfully produced by the ,martin-,copeland ,co4 of ,providence1 ,r4 ,i42 quadrant sights for the #cg-millimeter gun by the ,scientific ,materials ,co4 of ,pittsburgh2 lensatic compasses and ,brunton compasses were furnished by ,wm4 ,ainsworth ,sons of ,denver1 ,colo42 prismatic compasses by the ,sperry ,gyroscope ,co4 of ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y42 telescopes for sights on antiaircraft carriages by the ,kollmorgen ,optical ,corporation of ,brooklyn2 altimeters1 gunners' quadrants1 elevation quadrants1 and aiming stakes by the ,j4 ,h4 ,deagan ,co4 of ,chicago1 ,ill42 panoramic telescopes and fuse setters by the ,recording ,computing ,machines ,co4 of ,dayton1 ,ohio2 battery commander telescopes by ,arthur ,brock of ,philadelphia2 tripods for fire-control instruments by the ,national ,cash ,register ,co4 of ,dayton1 ,ohio4 ,optics for different sights were furnished by the ,american ,optical ,co4 of ,southbridge1 ,mass41 and by the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory of ,pasadena1 ,calif4 ,these and other organizations entered into the task and devoted their energy to the production of equipment desired by the ,government4 ,at no time during the fighting did our artillery units have a sufficient supply of fire-control instruments4 ,this was due to the fact that we were not able to secure in ,europe the amount of this equipment required to take care of our needs while our own industry was being developed4 ,with almost a total lack of optical glass in this country1 with an equal lack of factories and workmen familiar with military optical instrument-making1 we were suddenly called upon to produce about #bjj different types of instruments in large quantities4 ,these included many new designs of fire-control apparatus made necessary by new artillery developments both among the allies and in our own factories1 by the adoption of trench warfare in place of open warfare1 by the development of weapons for use against aircraft1 by the extension of indirect fire-control methods to weapons which formerly had been fired by direct sighting1 and by the use of railway and seacoast artillery4 ,while we did not solve all the difficulties in this development1 we had met and conquered the worst of them1 and we were making such great strides in production when the war ended that all the requirements of the ,army would have been met early in #aiai4 ,it has been a source of inspiration to witness the high sense of patriotic duty and cooperation shown by the manufacturers which made possible the remarkable expansion of the optical glass and instrument industry in the ,united ,states during the period of the war4 ,the following table shows the principal items of sights and fire-control apparatus1 the firms that did the work1 the quantity of the various kinds of instruments ordered1 and the deliveries made up to ,november #aa1 #aiah1 and to ,february #bj1 #aiai3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,deliveries to-- ,material4 ,firm4 ,total ---------------- ordered4,nov4 #aa1;,feb4 #bj1 #aiah4 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,aiming circle1 ,spencer ,lens ,co41 #a1dgc #gag #a1aag model #aiaf ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,frankford ,arsenal1 #ih #ih #ih ,philadelphia ,aiming stakes ,j4 ,c4 ,deagan ,co41 #af1fah #a1cbj for machine gun ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,aiming posts1 ,metropolitan ,manufacturing #af1gia #be #bej field artillery ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,dahlstrom ,metallic ,door #aj1gia ,co41 ,jamestown1 ,n4 ,y4 ,aiming devices ,national ,vitaphone #e1gjj #aej ,corporation1 ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j4 ,angle of ,atwater ,kent #d1dfh #d1dja #d1dfh site instruments ,manufacturing ,co41 ,philadelphia ,do4 ,blair ,tool ,machine ,co41 #a1jij #a1jij #a1jij ,new ,york ,city ,azimuth instruments1,warner ,swasey ,co41 #abi #abf #abi model #aiaj ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,azimuth instruments1,spencer ,lens ,co41 #ffi #a model #aiah ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,boards1 ,premier ,metal ,etching ,co41 #ac gun deflection ,new ,york ,city ,boards1 ,metallograph ,corporation1 #fbh ,pirie deviation ,new ,york ,city ,boards1 plotting ,mc,farlan ,motor ,co41 #d1haa #d1haa #d1haa ,connersville1 ,ind4 ,boards1 ,pratt range ,f4 ,f4 ,metzger1 #acd #fe ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,boards1 ,gorham ,manufacturing ,co41 #gda range deflection ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,boards1 rocket ,liquid ,carbon ,co41 #c1jjj #fcj ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,chronographs ,precision ,thermometer ,co41 #ai #i #ai ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,chronographs1 ,leeds ,northrup ,co41 #bj #ah #bj ,aberdeen ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,clinometers1 ,atwater ,kent #bf1igb #h1bgj #ba1igb machine-gun ,manufacturing ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,central ,scientific ,co41 #aj1fdd ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,clinometers1 machine,f4 ,f4 ,metzger1 #be #be #be gun1 model #aiab ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,compass1 lensatic ,wm4 ,ainsworth ,sons1 #aa1fea #h1aej #aa1fea ,denver1 ,colo4 ,compass1 prismatic ,sperry ,gyroscope ,co41 #i1ege #fjj #c1jjj ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,keuffel ,esser ,co41 #d1jbh #c1hbh #d1jbh ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j4 ,compass1 transit1 ,wm4 ,ainsworth ,sons1 #a1ejj #a1ejj #a1ejj pocket1 ,brunton ,denver1 ,colo4 ,cylinders1 ,wilton ,tool ,co41 #h1jjj #h1jjj #h1jjj cannon pressure ,boston1 ,mass4 ,depression position ,pratt-,whitney ,co41 #ij #ha #ij finders1 ,lewis ,hartford1 ,conn42 ,j4 ,a4 ,brashear1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,electrical equipment,line ,material ,corporation1 #bf1hhh #aa1gfe for aiming posts ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,electric lighting ,guide ,motor ,lamp ,co41 #e1ceb devices ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,flash lights ,delta ,electric ,co41 #acf1hfa #gc1jff #abe1ddh ,marion1 ,ind4 ,do4 ,novo ,manufacturing ,co41 #ac1efc #ac1efc #ac1efc ,new ,york ,city ,do4 ,american ,ever-ready ,works1 #cda1cgc #aid1hgh #beg1beh ,long ,island ,city1 ,n4 ,y4 ,glass1 optical1 lbs4,pittsburgh ,plate ,glass ,co41 #de1jjj #bc1gfa #bd1jaj ,charleroi1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,spencer ,lens ,co41 ,buffalo1 #c1dij #eag ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co41 #d1dej #d1dej #d1dej ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,goniometers1 ,sloane ,chase #ij model #aiag ,manufacturing ,co41 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,levels1 ,young ,sons1 #a1caj #icd #a1bja longitudinal1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #c-;inch ,levels1 ,arthur ,brock1 jr41 #a1dgd #hfd #hfd longitudinal ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,levels1 sight ,electric ,auto-,lite #a1bgg #efj #a1bgg ,corporation1 ,toledo1 ,ohio ,levels1 testing ,carlson-,wenstrom ,co41 #a1fbj #aif #eij ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,lighting devices for,globe ,machine ,stamping #bg1bdj #h1jjj field carriages ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,night firing boxes ,new ,method ,stove ,co41 #af1fah #c1aif for machine gun ,mansfield1 ,ohio ,do4 ,delta ,electric ,co41 #af1hah #d1dag ,marion1 ,ind4 ,periscopes1 battery do4 #aa1gja #bhi #e1jjj commander's ,periscopes1 mirror ,j4 ,r4 ,young ,co4 7,penn ,toy #fj1jjj #fj1jjj #fj1jjj ,co471 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,seneca ,camera ,co41 #cf1fbe #gb #gb ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,periscopes1 rifle1 ,oneida ,community1 #adj1ebg #aae1bcf #aae1bcf model #aiag ,oneida1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,john ,w4 ,browne #eh1cac #eh1cac #eh1cac ,manufacturing ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,periscopes1 #c m4 ,a4 ,j4 ,lloyd ,co41 #b1bcd #af deep1 shelter ,boston1 ,mass4 ,periscopes1 #f m4 do4 #b1bcd #bgf #gjj deep1 shelter ,periscopes1 trench1 ,wollensak ,optical ,co41 #cb1eab #b1idh #i1beb ,no4 #aj ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,plane tables ,pfau ,manufacturing ,co41 #d1ibh #c1bjj #d1ibh ,norwood1 ,ohio ,protractors1 ,metallograph ,corporation1 #ac1ide ,alidade ,new ,york ,city ,do4 ,wm4 ,ainsworth ,co41 #a1jjj #ajh ,denver1 ,colo4 ,protractors and ,frankford ,arsenal1 #a1bhd #a1bhd #a1bhd straightedges ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,eugene ,dietzgen ,co41 #ce1aab #ce1aab #ce1aab ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,whitehead ,hoag ,co41 #e1jjj #c1ejj ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,do4 ,celluloid ,co41 #ab1dbb #ab1dbb #ab1dbb ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,keuffel ,esser ,co41 #f1eji #f1eji #f1eji ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j4 ,quadrants1 elevation,recording ,computing #bad #gd #ajf ,machine ,co41 ,dayton1 ,ohio ,do4 ,j4 ,c4 ,deagan ,co41 #abj #de #abj ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,quadrants1 gunner's ,international ,register ,co41 #gb #gb #gb ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,central ,scientific ,co41 #f1bde #b1heb ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,j4 ,c4 ,deagan ,co41 #f1bde #b1eeb ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,gorham ,manufacturing ,co41 #dia #acg #cbi ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,quadrants1 range ,talbot ,reel ,manufacturing #bjj #aja #ahf ,co41 ,kansas ,city1 ,mo4 ,do4 ,slocum1 ,avram ,slocum1 #a1chf #dca #idj ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,range finders1 #hj-;cm,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co41 #e1dgj #b1afg #b1fjj ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,keuffel ,esser ,co41 #a1jjj ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j4 ,range finders1 ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co41 #g1aca #a1ejh #a1ffe #a-meter ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,range finders1 do4 #fe #ee #ee #ae-;foot ,range finders1 ,keuffel ,esser ,co41 #hf #i-;foot ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j4 ,recording ,bristol ,co41 #dci #dci #dci thermometers ,waterbury1 ,conn4 ,rules1 battery ,wescott ,jewel ,co41 #bf1djf #bf1djf #bf1djf commander's ,seneca ,falls1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,stanley ,rule ,level ,co41 #a1ejj #a1ejj #a1ejj ,new ,britain1 ,conn4 ,rules1 elevation1 ,j4 ,e4 ,sjostrom ,co41 #bjj #bjj #bjj slide1 model #aiah ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,rules1 ,hitt-,browne1 ,u4 ,s4 ,infantry ,association1 #bd1jeh #bd1jeh for machine gun ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,rules1 musketry ,taft-,pierce ,manufacturing #hj1jjj #hj1jjj #hj1jjj ,co41 ,woonsocket1 ,r4 ,i4 ,do4 ,metallograph ,corporation1 #ee1jfg #ee1jfg ,new ,york ,rules1 slide ,j4 ,h4 ,weil ,co41 #d1heb #d1heb #d1heb ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,rules1 slide1 ,frankford ,arsenal1 #a1ejj #a1ejj #a1ejj model ,e ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,rules1 #b-;foot ,stanley ,rule ,level ,co41 #eb1eai #eb1eai #eb1eai ,new ,britain1 ,conn4 ,do4 ,lufkin ,rule ,co41 #ch1edj #ch1edj #ch1edj ,saginaw1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,upson ,nut ,co41 #ad1ceh #ad1ceh #ad1ceh ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,do4 ,chapin-,stephens ,co41 #g1jdj #g1jdj #g1jdj ,pine ,meadow1 ,conn4 ,rules1 zinc1 for ,clapp ,eastman ,co41 #e1aic #e1aic machine guns ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,rules1 #c-;foot ,l4 ,s4 ,starrett ,co41 #cdc #cdc #cdc ,athol1 ,mass4 ,rules1 boxwood ,stanley ,rule ,level ,co41 #b1jjj #b1jjj #b1jjj ,new ,britain1 ,conn4 ,do4 ,lufkin ,rule ,co41 #ae1fcj #c1jjj #g1eji ,saginaw1 ,mich4 ,rule1 zigzag do4 #b1cab #b1cab #b1cab ,sights1 ,recording ,computing #be #be #be antiaircraft1 ,machines ,co41 model #aiag ,dayton1 ,ohio ,do4 ,new ,britain ,machine ,co41 #fj #a #fj ,new ,britain1 ,conn4 ,sights for do4 #eai #bg #fc antiaircraft carriages ,sights1 telescopes1 ,kollmorgen ,optical ,co41 #eai #ff #bee for antiaircraft ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 carriages ,sights1 telescopes1 do4 #ij #af for goniometers ,sights1 optics1 for ,mount ,wilson ,observatory1 #dfg #dfg altimeter ,pasadena1 ,calif4 telescope1 model #aiag ,sights1 bomb ,globe ,optical ,co41 #ajj #ajj #ajj ,boston1 ,mass4 ,sights1 bore ,benjamin ,electric #b1aia #a #b1aia ,manufacturing ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,poole ,engineering #a1ejj #ebd #a1ceg ,machine ,co41 ,hagerstown1 ,md4 ,do4 ,buffalo ,forge ,co41 #ijj #ijj #ijj ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,sights1 panoramic1 ,atwater-,kent #f1jjj #ebe for machine gun ,manufacturing ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,scientific ,materials ,co41 #d1eaj ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,sights for #aiag ,recording ,computing #abc #abc #abc #f-;inch gun ,machines ,co41 carriages ,dayton1 ,ohio ,sights1 luminous ,radium ,luminous ,material #a1bej #a1bae #a1bej ,corporation ,sights1 luminous1 ,watson ,luminous ,gunsight #abc1bcf #ah1jah #hg1bcf for machine gun ,co41 ,new ,york ,sights1 panoramic1 ,warner ,swasey ,co41 #i1ejj #a1ccf #b1ahj model #aiag ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,do4 ,frankford ,arsenal1 #hjj #hjj #hjj ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,recording ,computing #f1jjj #ajj #bcj ,machines ,co41 ,dayton1 ,ohio ,sights1 panoramic1 ,frankford ,arsenal1 #bcg #bcg #bcg model #aiae ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,sights1 panoramic1 ,recording ,computing #cj #cj #cj for #h-;in gun ,machines ,co41 ,dayton1 ,ohio ,sights1 quadrants1 ,emerson ,engineering ,co41 #hjj ,schneider ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,raymond ,engineering ,co41 #gfd #a ,new ,york ,city ,do4 ,slocum1 ,avram ,slocum1 #c1hjj #gd #efg ,new ,york ,city ,sights1 telescopic1 ,winchester ,repeating ,arms #hi #hi rifle1 style ,b ,co41 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,sights1 telescopic1 do4 #djj #djj #djj rifle1 #e;,a1 mounted on rifle ,sights1 telescopic1 do4 #cb1jjj rifle1 model #aiah ,sights1 telescopic1 ,warner ,swasey ,co41 #d1jjj #d1jjj #d1jjj rifle1 model #aiac ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,sights1 optics for ,eastman ,kodak ,co41 #db1fjg telescopic1 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 rifle1 model #aiah ,sights1 telescopic1 ,central ,scientific ,co41 #d1ajj #adb #egh #cg-mm4 ,infantry ,chicago1 ,ill4 gun ,sights1 ,telescopic1 ,universal ,optical ,co41 #a1bbe for #cg-mm4 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,infantry gun ,sights1 telescopic1 ,globe ,optical ,co41 #ej #ej #ej for #cg-mm gun ,boston1 ,mass4 ,sights1 optics1 ,american ,optical ,co41 #a1fib #iaj #a1fib clinometer1 for ,south ,bridge1 ,mass4 #cg-mm4 gun ,sights1 telescopic1 ,burke ,james ,co41 #f1egf #ej #chf for #cg-mm tank ,chicago1 ,ill4 gun ,sights1 optics for ,american ,optical ,co41 #ghd #ghd #ghd telescopic1 for ,south ,bridge1 ,mass4 #cg-mm gun ,sights1 quadrant1 ,scientific ,materials ,co41 #c1aib #fjj #a1bjg for #cg-mm gun ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,sights for #ge-mm4 ,electric ,auto-lite #b1fcb #bba #a1ajj gun ,corporation1 ,toledo1 ,ohio ,do4 ,standard ,thermometer ,co41 #b1jjj ,boston1 ,mass4 ,sights1 master1 for ,electric ,auto-,lite #hbj #g #ge-mm4 gun ,corporation1 ,toledo1 ,ohio ,do4 ,standard ,thermometer ,co41 #daj #bf ,boston1 ,mass4 ,sights1 optics for ,globe ,optical ,co41 #b1fcb #che #a1ejj model #aija1 for ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 #ge-mm4 gun ,sights1 model #aiah1 ,ansco ,co41 #c1adb for #ge-mm4 gun ,binghamton1 ,n4 ,y4 ,sights1 shanks for ,american ,standard #b1agh telescopic1 model ,motion-,picture ,machine #aiah1 for #ge-mm4 ,co41 ,new ,york gun ,sights1 for #c-;inch ,peerless ,printing ,press #a1def #dee #eia gun1 model #aiaf ,co41 ,palmyra1 ,n4 ,y4 ,sights1 peep1 for ,standard ,thermometer ,co41 #b1jjj #ijj #a1fjj #c-;inch gun ,boston1 ,mass4 ,sights for #c-;inch ,frankford ,arsenal1 #cff #cff #cff gun ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,sights1 model #aiaf1 do4 #dj #dj #dj for #c4h-;inch howitzer carriage ,sights1 peep1 for ,electro ,auto-,lite #b1fcb #if #ifj ,schneider ,corporation1 quadrants ,toledo1 ,ohio ,sights1 peep1 for do4 #gbj #bd #d4g-;inch gun ,sights1 for ,carlson-,wenstrom ,co41 #bhf #gj #abf #d4g-;inch gun ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,emerson ,engineering ,co41 #ejj #abe ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,sights for #e-;inch ,blair ,tool ,machine ,co41 #bf improvised gun ,new ,york ,city carriage ,sights for #f-;inch do4 #adc improvised gun carriage ,sights1 dial1 ,arthur ,brook1 jr41 #ge #h-;inch howitzer ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,sights1 clinometer1 do4 #ge #h-;inch howitzer ,rocking bar1 #h-;inch do4 #ge ,sights1 lens for ,central ,scientific ,co41 #fae #fae master1 for #ge-mm4 ,chicago1 ,ill4 gun ,sitogoniometer ,martin ,copeland ,co41 #e1ajj #e1ajj ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,squares1 zinc ,metallograph ,corporation1 #ac1eea #ac1eea #ac1eea ,new ,york ,squares1 zinc1 for ,clapp ,eastman ,co41 #ab1geb #def #ab1geb machine gun ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,staffs1 sighting ,colson ,co41 ,elyria1 ,ohio #a1bje #a1bje #a1bje ,staffs1 ,jacob's1 ,mc,farlan ,motor ,co41 #ae1gde #ae1gde for field glass ,connersville1 ,ind4 supports ,tapes1 steel1 ,justus ,roe ,sons1 #ej1jjj #ej1jjj #e feet ,patchogue1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,lufkin ,rule ,co41 #ca1gia #ca1gia #ca1gia ,saginaw1 ,mich4 ,tapes1 steel do4 #d1bej #d1bej #d1bej #fj feet ,tapes1 steel do4 #a1dbb ,tapes1 metallic do4 #aj1dda #e1fjh #h1ihh linen ,telescopes1 azimuth ,spencer ,lens ,co41 #a1egi instrument1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 model #aiah ,telescopes1 battery ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co41 #f1dbh #b1hbj #c1fih commander's ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,arthur ,brock1 jr41 #b1jbi ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,central ,scientific ,co41 #b1jjj ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,frankford ,arsenal1 #eb #eb #eb ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,telescopes1 battery ,national ,cash ,register ,co41 #ae1gcj #i1heh #ae1gcj commander's1 ,dayton1 ,ohio tripod ,telescopes for ,recording ,computing #bag #da #ej panoramic #d and ,machines ,co41 #aj power ,dayton1 ,ohio ,telescopes1 ,keuffel ,esser ,co41 #a1egi periscopic ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j4 ,tripods for machine-,herschede ,hall ,clock ,co41 #g1hed gun sights ,cincinnati1 ,ohio ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,motorized ,,artillery4 ,complete motorization of field artillery and its ammunition supply is almost certain to be one of the far-reaching and highly important results of our country's experiences in its participation in the war4 ,practically all field artillery was of the horse-drawn type previous to our entry into the war1 but with the evolution and perfection of the heavier siege artillery1 #e-ton1 #aj-ton1 and even heavier1 traction engines were brought into play as means of motive power for the big guns and howitzers1 with such success that the horse in the field artillery operations was being supplanted to a large degree by mechanical power4 ,strictly speaking1 the foundation for this departure had been laid before #aiag1 in the ,mexican campaign of #aiaf and in experiments that had been conducted at the ,rock ,island ,arsenal4 ,insufficiency of funds1 however1 had prevented the experiments from being either thorough or extensive4 ,a consideration of the difficulties that vehicles of all sorts had to contend with in the battle areas of ,europe made it evident at the outset that two general types of motor carriers would be required by the ,army so far as ordnance was concerned--one type for far-advanced work1 for hauling artillery over the worst possible kind of shell-torn and water-soaked earth1 and the other for bringing up ammunition1 supplies1 equipment for repairs and the like in less advanced zones and areas1 but over roads and country that had been cut and hacked and made almost impassible by the activities of the contending forces4 ,,trucks4 ,the standard four-wheel-drive commercial trucks1 modified to meet the special needs of the service1 were adopted immediately after war began1 while experimental work was put under way to develop a standard type that would set this country far in advance of all others in this line of activity4 ,a total of #cj1jgb of the four-wheel-drive trucks was ordered1 and before the armistice #ab1dih of this number had been completed1 while #bc1dii had been turned out by the #cast of ,january1 #aiai4 ,in round numbers1 #be1jjj of these trucks were to be equipped with bodies for the hauling of ammunition1 and the balance with special bodies and equipment suitable for artillery supply and repair1 for repair of equipment1 and for heavy mobile ordnance4 ,illustration3 ,,artillery ,,supply ,,truck ,,on ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 ,,chassis4 ,this truck was designed with special bodies and loads for varied classes of artillery supply1 and the bodies could be mounted on either ,nash or ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 chassis4 ,illustration3 ,,artillery ,,repair ,,truck ,,on ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 ,,chassis4 ,this is another special body equipped with suitable machinery and tools for minor repairs and capable of being mounted on either ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 or ,nash four-wheel-drive chassis4 ,illustration3 ,,ammunition ,,truck ,,mounted ,,on ,,standard ,,ordnance ,,four ,,wheel ,,drive ,,tractor4 ,this is the vehicle1 designed by the ,ordnance ,department and civilian experts1 that was intended to supersede both the ,nash and the ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 and become the standard ,army wheeled tractor4 ,it is shown here with standard ammunition body mounted thereon4 ,illustration3 ,,ordnance ,,equipment ,,repair ,,truck ,,on ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 ,,chassis4 ,special body1 carrying tools and machinery for doing repair work to harness1 personal equipment1 etc41 and capable of being mounted on either ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 or ,nash four-wheel-drive chassis4 ,special bodies were manufactured by these concerns3 ,american ,car ,foundry ,co41 ,berwick1 ,pa4 ,j4 ,g4 ,brill ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,hale ,kilburn ,corporation1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,dumbar ,manufacturing ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,pullman ,co41 ,pullman1 ,ill4 ,kuhlman ,car ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,c4 ,r4 ,wilson ,body ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,insley ,manufacturing ,co41 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,lang ,body ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,heil ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,variety ,manufacturing ,co41 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,j4 ,e4 ,bolles ,iron ,wire ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,the first contract for these trucks was placed on ,august #ah1 #aiag1 and #i1dbj were shipped to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces overseas by the date of the armistice4 ,it required considerable time to work out and perfect all the details of the special bodies and equipment1 as most of these were exceedingly complicated1 and in a number of cases there were as many as #gjj items of equipment on a single truck4 ,representatives of the allied governments were not hesitant in asserting that the line of artillery repair trucks developed for our ,army was the most complete and well worked out in detail that any army ever received4 ,these manufacturers did the work of turning out the special trucks3 ,nash ,motors ,co41 ,kenosha1 ,wis4 ,four-,wheel-,drive ,auto ,co41 ,clintonville1 ,wis4 ,mitchell ,motor ,car ,co41 ,racine1 ,wis4 ,premier ,motor ,corporation1 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,kissel ,motor ,car ,co41 ,hartford1 ,wis4 ,hudson ,motor ,car ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,national ,motor ,car ,co41 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,paige ,motor ,car ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,commerce ,motor ,car ,corporation1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,white ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,dodge ,motor ,car ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,about #d1jjj of the #e1jjj special body type of trucks were delivered before the middle of ,december1 #aiah4 ,,trailers4 ,there were developed five different types of four-wheeled trailers4 ,each type1 being for a particular use1 required a special study and individual design1 with all the consequent specially prepared machines and specialized shop work4 ,for antiaircraft service1 a #a-ton and a #c-ton trailer were worked out2 for the #ge-millimeter field gun1 a special #c-ton trailer2 for the mobile repair shops1 a #d-ton trailer2 and for the small tank1 a special #aj-ton trailer4 ,by the middle of ,december1 #b1aeg of these trailers had been delivered of the #d1hdg that had been ordered and put in production4 ,concerns engaged in turning out trailers were3 ,sechler ,co41 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,trailmobile ,co4 of ,america1 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,ohio ,trailer ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,grant ,motor ,car ,corporation1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,it might also be stated at this point1 too1 that two special types of passenger motor vehicles were designed and built4 ,one of these was for staff observation and the other for reconnaissance4 ,nearly all of the total of #b1bej that were ordered of these two types were completed by mid-,december1 #aiah1 delivery of them having started in the month of ,april1 #aiah4 ,,caterpillar ,,tractors4 ,it was found after a comprehensive study of the needs of the various branches of ordnance and the requirement of the big guns that five sizes of caterpillar tractors would be required--of capacities of #b tons1 #e tons1 #aj tons1 #ae tons1 and #bj tons4 ,commercial types of machines of the #ae-ton and #bj-ton sort1 with only slight alterations1 were found to be suitable1 but special designs were made for those of #b-ton1 #e-ton1 and #aj-ton capacity4 ,our experience in ,mexico and the experiments at the ,rock ,island ,arsenal had taught us the need of the special designs of machines of those sizes4 ,in all1 #bd1gia of these five types of caterpillar tractors were ordered4 ,the #e-ton machine reached production in the summer of #aiah and the #b-ton machine in the fall4 ,by the end of the following ,january1 #e1idj of the tractors had been delivered4 ,manufacturers who had orders for the caterpillar tractors were3 ,holt ,manufacturing ,co41 ,peoria1 ,ill4 ,chandler ,motor ,car ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,reo ,motor ,car ,co41 ,lansing1 ,mich4 ,maxwell ,motor ,car ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,federal ,motor ,truck ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,interstate ,motor ,co41 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,throughout the production of tractors during the war period there was continuous and persistent experimentation1 and satisfactory solutions of many of the problems were being reached at the time of the signing of the armistice4 ,self-propelled caterpillar gun mounts were the subject of the most important of these experiments4 ,the self-propelled caterpillar gun mounts differ from the ordinary caterpillar tractors in that they have the guns mounted directly on them1 the guns forming an integral part of the entire machine4 ,six types of these were being developed1 and #bgj had been ordered when the armistice came4 ,a #b-ton tractor mounting a #ge-millimeter gun and a #e-ton tractor containing a gun of the same size were far along the road to success in their first state of development4 ,development of caterpillar cargo carriers or caissons for bearing supplies over any sort of terrain1 no matter how rough the going might be and regardless of whether there were roads or not1 was so far along the pathway of success that two sizes were about to go into production on ,november #aa4 ,a #b-ton ammunition trailer1 a #b-ton #aa-;inch trench mortar trailer1 and a #d4g-;inch antiaircraft gun trailer were also in development1 but not in production1 at the time of the signing of the armistice4 ,so successful were the experiments with new types of four-wheel-drive trucks and tractors that orders for what would probably have proven the best type of four-wheel-drive truck and the best type of four-wheel-drive tractor ever produced had been placed1 but the signing of the armistice forced cancellations of these orders4 ,in the course of the experiments1 all types of ,american four-wheel-drive vehicles were examined and two of the best ,french types4 ,the purchase of #cfe1jjj1jjj worth of trucks1 trailers1 and tractors was obligated in about #c1jjj separate orders4 ,,self-,,propelled ,,caterpillar ,,gun ,,mounts4 ,in ,europe1 the ,french had been the only people to experiment with caterpillar mounts for guns4 ,they produced the ,st4 ,chamond type1 but this had not gone far beyond the experimental stages4 ,prior to the early months of #aiah1 our own efforts along this line consisted in the building of one caterpillar mount1 self-propelled by a gasoline engine and carrying an antiaircraft gun4 ,around this nucleus an ambitious caterpillar program was built4 ,an #h-;inch howitzer was placed on this antiaircraft caterpillar mount and fired at angles of elevation varying up to #de4 ,maneuvered over difficult ground1 the machine withstood the firing strains and road tests in a highly satisfactory manner4 ,as a result of the success of these tests1 orders were placed for three more experimental caterpillars to mount #h-;inch howitzers4 ,tests of two of these completed units were so gratifying that it was felt they warranted quantity production4 ,accordingly1 orders were placed for #ej units of the #h-;inch howitzer caterpillars to cost about #cj1jjj apiece1 for #ej caterpillar units mounting #aee-millimeter guns1 and for #bej units mounting #bdj-millimeter howitzers4 ,the ,standard ,steel ,car ,co41 ,hammond1 ,ind41 was to produce the #bdj-millimeter howitzer caterpillars1 the ,harrisburg ,manufacturing ,boiler ,co41 ,harrisburg1 ,pa41 was to turn out the #h-;inch howitzer caterpillars1 and the ,morgan ,engineering ,co41 of ,alliance1 ,ohio1 was to produce the #aee-millimeter gun caterpillars4 ,mountings for the #h-;inch howitzer and #aee-millimeter gun were practically identical4 ,both utilized many of the standard ,holt caterpillar parts4 ,the only real change was in the carriage for the #aee-millimeter gun4 ,this was made sufficiently sturdy to carry higher-powered guns4 ,a #aid-millimeter gun is now being machined in ,france1 and when finished it will be shipped to this country to be mounted upon the #aee-millimeter caterpillar mount for experiment4 ,the #bdj-millimeter howitzer mounts were of two types--one following closely the ,st4 ,chamond type of the ,french and the other being a self-contained unit designed by ,ordnance ,department engineers4 ,the self-contained type is a single unit that mounts both the power plant and the howitzer and for which it is necessary to provide additional cargo-carrying caterpillars to haul ammunition and fuel4 ,two units make up the ,st4 ,chamond type4 ,one mounts the gun and electric motors2 the other1 a limber1 mounts the power plant and carries ammunition4 ,in the battle area the ,st4 ,chamond type had the peculiar advantage that the power-plant unit could be run to shelter and be available for a rapid advance or change of location of the gun mount as the situation might demand4 ,with the self-contained unit a direct hit by the enemy would put both gun and power plant out of commission4 ,contracts for the caterpillar mounts called for the completion of the entire program not later than ,february1 #aiai4 ,all the firms engaged on the work of production were putting forth every effort when the armistice was signed and there was every reason to believe deliveries would be as scheduled4 ,the termination of hostilities caused all contracts to be reduced4 ,provisions have been made for only enough caterpillars of each type to provide for further experimental work4 ,twenty mounts equipped with caterpillar treads and mounting #g-;inch ,navy rifles were built by the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,co4 for the ,navy ,department4 ,these were so successfully operated that orders were placed for #cf similar units for the use of the ,army1 but since the signing of the armistice this order has been cut to #ah4 ,the great gun on a caterpillar mount fires its death-dealing projectile1 and almost before the shot has reached its destination the caterpillar mount has moved the gun to another point4 ,with motor still running the gun is fired again and once more quickly moved on to another location1 so that the enemy's artillery is unable to get its range4 ,illustration3 ,,ten-,,ton ,,artillery ,,tractor4 ,illustration3 ,,fifteen-,,ton ,,artillery ,,tractor4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,and ,,one-,,half ,,ton ,,artillery ,,tractor4 ,illustration3 ,,five-,,ton ,,artillery ,,tractor4 ,illustration3 #bj-,,ton ,,artillery ,,tractor4 ,illustration3 ,,staff ,,observation ,,car4 ,special body for field touring on a ,white one-ton truck chassis4 ,illustration3 ,,reconnaissance ,,car ,,on ,,white ,,chassis4 ,the machine-gun truck is similar except for the addition of gun racks under rear seat and on ,commerce chassis4 ,illustration3 ,,caterpillar ,,tractor ,,with #c-;,,inch ,,gun ,,mounted ,,on ,,it4 ,illustration3 ,,another ,,view ,,of ,,caterpillar ,,tractor ,,with #c-;,,inch ,,gun4 ,illustration3 ,,caterpillar ,,tractor ,,mounting ,,an #h-;,,inch ,,howitzer ,,which ,,has ,a ,,range ,,of #f ,,miles ,,with ,a ,,projectile ,,weighing #bjj ,,pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,light ,,repair ,,truck ,,on ,,dodge ,,chassis4 ,special body with tools for making minor motor repairs4 ,illustration3 ,,three-,,inch ,,field ,,gun ,,trailer4 ,a specially designed vehicle for carrying different loads1 including a #c-;inch field-gun carriage and limber in one load and two #c-;inch field-gun caissons for another load4 ,illustration3 #d-,,ton ,,shop ,,trailer ,,chassis4 ,illustration3 #c-;,,inch ,,antiaircraft ,,gun ,,trailer4 ,illustration3 #bdj-,,millimeter ,,trench ,,mortar ,,truck4 ,ordnance motor production table4 ,,tractors4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,quantity ,quantity ,size4 ,quantity accepted accepted ,floated ordered4 ,nov4 #aa1 ,jan4 #ca1 to ,nov4 #aiah4 #aiai4 #aa1 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #b-ton #e1ehf #aj #be #b #e-ton #aa1aej #a1edc #c1dhj #dei #aj-ton #f1fbc #a1dba #b1jad #fbh #ae-ton #bfg #bfg #bfg #bcb #bj-ton #a1afe #abf #aed #ha ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,trailers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #a-ton antiaircraft machine gun #b1bhi #aej #efb #abf #c-;inch field gun #hcj #bce #dgb #ae #d-ton shop bodies #egf #aja #chd #ab #d-ton shop chassis #egf #bfj #eee #aj-ton #edj #ajd #bde #a #c-;inch antiaircraft #fab #edb #faa #aii ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,trucks4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 chassis #ac1ijg #e1cfa #aj1fae #c1efa ,nash chassis #af1afe #g1acg #ab1hhd #e1hei ,ammunition bodies #bd1gbi #ah1bab #ba1gji ,ammunition mountings #bd1gbi #i1fae #aa1jbd #f1iee ,artillery repair #a1ccb #a1cah #a1ccb #cej ,artillery supply #e1dgd #hac #a1hch #ddd ,light repair #a1jab #a1jab #a1jab #cfb ,dodge chassis #a1jab #a1jab #a1jab #dcf ,commerce chassis #a1ejj #a1ejj #a1ejj #bd ,machine-gun body1 mounted on ,commerce or ,white #a-ton chassis #a1ejj #dhf #a1cjf #bda #a-ton supply #fj #fj #fj #ee ,white chassis #a1fie #a1ibi #b1fie #ege ,reconnaissance #a1jha #gab #a1jjc #cbj ,staff observation #a1age #a1afd #a1age #ahi ,equipment repair #caj #caj #caj #aba ,h4 ,m4 ,r4 ,s4 trucks #fbd #bhg #daf #ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,tanks4 ,the tank1 more than any other weapon born of the great war1 may be called the joint enterprise of the three principal powers arrayed against ,germany--,america1 ,france1 and ,great ,britain4 ,an ,american produced the fundamental invention1 the caterpillar traction device1 which enables the fortress to move4 ,a ,frenchman took the idea from this and evolved the tank as an engine of war4 ,the ,british first used the terrifying monster in actual fighting4 ,there is a common impression throughout ,america that the ,british ,army invented the tank4 ,the impression is wrong in two ways4 ,the ,french government has recently awarded the ribbon of the ,legion of ,honor to the ,french ordnance officer who is officially hailed as the tank's inventor4 ,his right to the honor1 however1 is disputed by a ,french civilian who possesses an impressive exhibition of drawings to prove that he and not the officer is the inventor4 ,as this is written a lively controversy over the point is in progress in ,france4 ,wherever the credit for the invention belongs1 the ,french were first to build tanks1 building them only experimentally1 however1 and not using them until after the ,british had demonstrated their effectiveness4 ,in the second place1 it was not the ,british ,army which adopted them first in ,england1 but the ,british ,navy4 ,the tank as an idea shared the experience of many another war invention in being skeptically received by the conservative experts4 ,the ,british ,navy1 indeed1 produced the first ones in ,england2 but to the ,british ,army goes the glory of having first used them in actual fighting and of establishing them in the forefront of modern offensive weapons4 ,brought forth as a surprise1 the tanks made an effective dbut in the great ,british drive for ,cambrai4 ,later the enemy affected to scoff at their usefulness4 ,the closing months of the tanks' brief history1 however1 found them in greater favor than ever1 and they were used by both sides in increasing numbers4 ,up to the beginning of the summer of #aiag there was little accurate information in this country regarding the tanks4 ,somewhat hazy specifications then began to come from ,europe about the designs of the different tanks at that particular time in use on the battle front1 but these specifications were exceedingly rough and sketchy1 consisting in the main of merely the fact that the machines should be able to cross trenches about #f feet wide1 that each should carry one heavy gun and two or three machine guns1 and that their protection should consist of armor plate about five-eighths of an inch thick4 ,illustration3 ,,three-,,ton ,,tank4 ,weight1 #e1hjj pounds2 crew1 two men 7one gunner1 one driver72 power plant1 two ,ford motors1 geared together1 each motor driving one track2 speed1 nine miles per hour2 climbing ability1 #de4 ,illustration3 ,,six-,,ton ,,tank4 ,this machine is practically a copy of the ,french ,renault tank and carries two men 7one driver1 one gunner74 ,about half of these tanks were equipped with #cg-millimeter cannon and about half with machine guns4 ,certain of these tanks also made with wireless apparatus substituted for the turret of the fighting tanks4 ,power plant1 one ,buda #d-;cylinder motor2 speed1 five to six miles per hour2 grade capacity1 #de2 weight1 #ae1jjj pounds4 ,with these facts as a guide1 two experimental machines were decided upon1 and work on them was begun immediately4 ,with these machines it was determined to test the relative advantages of a specially articulated form of caterpillar tractor with wheeled traction1 making use of very large wheels1 and to develop the possibilities between the gas-electric and steam systems of propulsion4 ,in ,september1 #aiag1 decision had been made to supply the ,american ,army with two types of tanks--one the large size1 typical of that used by the ,british and capable of containing a dozen men1 and the other a smaller one patterned after the ,french two-man model and known as the ,renault4 ,in ,september one of our officers charged with tank production was dispatched to ,europe for a more intimate study of the machines used abroad and for the purpose of getting more detailed information respecting the merits of the various types of tanks1 as well as to make arrangements for sending specimens here4 ,the decision to equip the ,american forces in ,europe with tanks of two sizes was made only after thorough and somewhat protracted conferences with ,british1 ,french1 and ,american officers in ,europe4 ,complete drawings and samples of the small tank were obtained from the ,french and shipped to this country4 ,as all of the drawings were made in accordance with the metric system of measurements1 it was necessary before anything could be done toward actual production to remake the drawings1 as the machine shops here were not equipped to use the metric system4 ,the large ,british tank had been successful in its operations on the battle front1 but its very decided limitations1 recognized by ,british authorities1 caused our officers to think it best to redesign the large tank in preference to copying the existing big ,british tank with its limitations4 ,general fighting specifications for the big tank were laid down by the ,british general staff at the conference at ,british headquarters at which ,american officers were present4 ,it was agreed that this big tank1 known as the ,mark ,,viii1 should be of ,anglo-,american design and construction4 ,arrangements were made for producing #a1ejj of this type4 ,to do this1 ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states entered into a working agreement that provided for ,england to furnish the hulls1 guns1 and ammunition1 while the ,united ,states was to furnish the power plant and driving details of the monster4 ,roughly speaking1 each tank would cost about #ce1jjj1 of which #ae1jjj represented the ,american part of the job1 on which some #gb contractors were at once engaged4 ,about #ej per cent of the work on these tanks had been completed when the armistice was signed1 and the first units were undergoing trials4 ,it was confidently expected that all of the #a1ejj contracted for would have been completed by ,march1 #aiai4 ,while these ,anglo-,american tanks were in the process of construction there were also being built here #a1dej all-,american tanks of the large ,english type1 and for this all-,american tank #ej per cent of the work had also been done at the signing of the armistice4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 a sample ,french tank of the ,renault type reached this country along with detailed drawings and a ,french engineer4 ,much difficulty then ensued in getting ,american concerns to take on production of this machine1 because of the difficult nature of its manufacture4 ,considerable time1 too1 was taken up in changing the drawings from the ,french metric dimensions to the ,american dimensions1 and this involved redesigning many parts4 ,in the manufacture of the armor built for the ,renault type of tank the ,french made no attempt to adhere to simple shapes1 and for this reason practically a new source of supply for this kind of armor had to be developed4 ,contracts for #d1ddj of the ,renault type of tanks were finally made4 ,the approximate cost of each one of these machines was #aa1ejj4 ,manufacturing activities for the various parts had to be divided up among more than a score of plants1 so that many plants were turning out parts for these machines1 while the assembling was done at only three plants1 which also made a portion of the parts4 ,the three assembly plants were the ,van ,dorn ,iron ,works1 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio2 the ,maxwell ,motors ,co41 of ,dayton1 ,ohio2 and the ,c4 ,l4 ,best ,co41 also of ,dayton4 ,finished machines of this type started to come through in ,october4 ,when the armistice was signed #fd of these #f-ton ,renault tanks1 each designed to carry two men and a machine gun1 were completed1 while up to the end of ,december the number of those finished amounted to #bji1 with #bhi in the process of assembly4 ,there is every reason to believe that had the armistice not been signed1 the entire original program would have been completed by ,april4 ,during the summer and fall of #aiah our tank program had been augmented by the development of two entirely new types of tanks4 ,one was a two-man tank weighing #c tons1 built by the ,ford ,motor ,co4 and costing in the neighborhood of #d1jjj4 ,this tank1 mounting one machine gun1 has a speed of about #h miles an hour4 ,of this type #ae had been built2 and1 up to the #ast of ,january1 #aiai1 #ejj were to have been finished1 after which they were to have been turned out by the ,ford ,co4 at the rate of #ajj a day4 ,illustration3 ,,six-,,ton ,,tank ,,being ,,mounted ,,on ,a #aj-,,ton ,,trailer4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of #ce-,,ton ,,tank4 ,,showing ,,the ,,assistant ,,secretary ,,of ,,war1 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,baldwin ,,locomotive ,,works1 ,,and ,,army ,,officers ,,instrumental ,,in ,,designing ,,this ,,machine4 ,the tank has #djj horsepower1 a speed of #f miles an hour1 and can climb a #de grade4 ,it carries a crew of #aa men and is equipped with two #f-pounders and seven machine guns4 ,the other new tank developed was a successor to the ,french ,renault1 designed for production in great volume4 ,this tank was to carry three men1 instead of two1 as the original ,renault machine1 and mount two guns1 one a machine gun and the other a #cg-millimeter gun4 ,some ,renault tanks were equipped with #cg-millimeter cannon instead of machine guns4 ,cost of production of this machine would have been very much less than that of the original ,renault1 while the weight of the machine would have been substantially the same and its fighting power much greater4 ,an outlay of about #age1jjj1jjj was projected in the tank program1 but this1 of course1 was greatly reduced upon the signing of the armistice4 ,this outlay would have included1 besides the cost of the machines1 expenses at various plants for increased facilities for operation4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,quantity ,quantity ,item4 ,quantity accepted accepted ,floated ordered4 ,nov4 #aa1 ,jan4 #ca1 to ,nov4 #aiah4 #aiai4bc #aa1 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,tanks3 #f-ton #d1ddj #fd #bia #f ,mark ,i #a1jjj #c-ton #ae1jae #ae #aj ,mark #h ,a4 ,a4 components #a1ejj #bda #a ,mark #h ,u4 ,s4 complete #a1dej ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #bc ,immediately upon signing of the armistice1 production was slowed down as rapidly and as much as possible4 #bd ,approximately #ej per cent of the production work on components for these #a1ejj tanks had been completed by ,nov4 #aa4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,machine ,,guns4 ,the machine gun is typically and historically an ,american device4 ,an ,american invented the first real machine gun ever produced4 ,another ,american1 who had taken ,british citizenship1 produced the first weapon of this type that could be called a success in war4 ,still a third ,american gave to the allies at the beginning of the great war a machine gun which revolutionized the world's conception of what that weapon might be2 while a fourth ,american inventor1 backed by our ,ordnance ,department1 enabled the ,american forces to take into the field in ,france what is probably the most efficient machine gun ever put into action4 ,the machine gun as an idea is not modern at all4 ,the thought has been engaging the attention of inventors for several centuries4 ,the idea was inherent in guns which existed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 but they should be called rapid-fire guns rather than machine guns1 since no machine principle entered into their construction4 ,they usually consisted of several gun barrels bound together and fired simultaneously4 ,the first true machine gun was the invention of ,richard ,jordon ,gatling1 an ,american1 who in #ahfa brought out what might be termed a revolving rifle4 ,the barrels1 from #d to #aj in number1 were placed parallel to each other and arranged on a common axis about which they revolved in such a manner that each barrel was brought in succession into the firing position4 ,this gun was used to some extent in our ,civil ,war and later in the ,franco-,prussian ,war4 ,in #ahff ,reffye1 a ,french inventor1 brought out the first mitrailleuse--a mounted machine gun of the ,gatling type towing a limber and drawn by four horses4 ,it had #be rifled barrels and could fire #abe shots per minute4 ,the weapon1 however1 during the ,franco-,prussian ,war1 turned out to be a failure for the reason that it proved an excellent target for the enemy's artillery and was not sufficiently mobile4 ,accordingly the ,french government abandoned it4 ,sir ,hiram ,s4 ,maxim1 who was ,american born1 in #ahhd developed a machine gun which operated automatically by utilizing the force of the recoil4 ,this gun was perfected and became a serviceable weapon for the ,british army in the ,boer ,war4 ,the ,maxim gun barrel was cooled by the water-jacket system4 ,when the water became hot it exhausted a jet of steam which could be seen for long distances across the ,south ,african veldt1 making it a mark for the ,boer sharpshooters4 ,this defect was remedied in homemade fashion by carrying the exhaust steam through a hose into a bucket of water where it was condensed4 ,this ,maxim gun fired #ejj shots a minute4 ,meanwhile in this country the ,gatling gun had been so improved that it became one of our standard weapons in the ,spanish-,american ,war4 ,later on it was used in the ,russo-,japanese ,war4 ,the ,colt machine gun also existed in #ahih4 ,this was the invention of ,john ,m4 ,browning1 whose name has been prominently associated with the development of automatic firearms for the last quarter of a century4 ,in ,england the ,maxim gun was taken up by the ,vickers ,co41 eventually becoming what is known to-day as the ,vickers gun4 ,in #aijc or #aijd the ,american ,government bought some ,maxim machine guns which were then being manufactured by the ,colt ,co4 at ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,in no war previous to the one concluded in #aiah did the machine gun take a prominent place in the armaments of contending forces4 ,the popularity of the earlier machine guns was retarded by their great weight4 ,some of them were so heavy that it took several men to lift them4 ,all through the history of the development of machine guns the tendency has been toward lighter weapons1 but it was not until the great war that serviceable machine guns were made light enough to give them great effectiveness and popularity4 ,such intense heat is developed by the rapid fire of a machine gun that unless the barrel can be kept cool the gun will soon refuse to function4 ,the water jacket which keeps the gun cool proved to be the principal handicap to the inventors who were trying to remove weight from the device4 ,the earliest air-cooled guns were generally unsuccessful1 since the firing of a few rounds would make the barrel so hot that the cartridges would explode voluntarily in the chamber1 thus rendering the weapon unsafe4 ,the ,bent-,merci partly overcame this difficulty by having interchangeable barrels4 ,as soon as one barrel became hot it could be quickly removed and its cool alternate inserted in its place4 ,these conditions led to the development of machine guns along two separate lines--the heavy type machine gun1 which must be capable of long sustained fire1 and the automatic rifle1 whose primary requisite is extreme lightness4 ,these requirements brought the ultimate elimination from ground use in ,france and in the ,united ,states of guns of the so-called intermediate weight as being incapable of fulfilling either of the above requirements to the fullest degree4 ,the machine gun produced by the ,american inventor1 ,col4 ,i4 ,n4 ,lewis1 was a revelation when it came to the aid of the allies early in the great war4 ,this was an air-cooled gun which could be fired for a considerable time without excessive heating1 and it weighed only #be pounds1 no great burden for a soldier4 ,the ,lewis machine gun was hailed by many as the greatest invention brought into prominence by the war1 although its weight put it in the intermediate class1 with limitations as noted above4 ,along in the first decade of the present century the ,bent-,merci automatic machine rifle was developed4 ,this was an air-cooled gun of the automatic rifle type and weighed #cj pounds4 ,light as this gun was1 it was still too heavy to be of great service as an automatic rifle1 since a strong man would soon tire of holding #cj pounds up to his shoulder1 and it was therefore in the intermediate class4 ,the ,germans had apparently realized better than anyone else the value of machine guns in the kind of fighting which they expected to be engaged in1 and therefore supplied them to their troops in greater numbers than did the other powers1 having1 an early report stated1 #ej1jjj ,maxim machine guns at the commencement of hostilities4 ,the ,austrian ,army had adopted an excellent heavy type machine gun known as the ,schwarzlose whose chief feature lay in the fact that it operated with only one major spring4 ,such was the machine-gun situation1 although incompletely set forth here1 at the beginning of the great war4 ,the nations1 with the exception of ,germany1 had been slow to promote machine gunnery as a conspicuous phase of their military preparedness4 ,in our ,army we had a provisional machine-gun organization1 but no special officers and few enthusiasts for machine guns4 ,we were content with a theoretical equipment of four machine guns per regiment4 ,the fact was that in no previous war had the machine gun demonstrated its tactical value4 ,the chief utility of the weapon was supposed to lie in its police effectiveness in putting down mobs and civil disorders and in its value in other special situations1 particularly defensive ones4 ,the three years of fighting in ,europe before the ,united ,states was drawn in had demonstrated the highly important place which the machine gun held in modern tactics4 ,because of the danger of our position we had investigated many phases of armed preparedness1 and in this investigation numerous questions had arisen regarding machine guns4 ,the ,secretary of ,war had appointed a board of five ,army officers and two civilians to study the machine-gun subject1 to recommend the types of guns to be adopted1 the number of guns we should have per unit of troops1 how these guns should be transported1 and other matters pertaining to the subject4 ,six months before we declared war this board submitted a report strongly recommending the previously adopted ,vickers machine gun and the immediate procurement of #d1fjj of them4 ,in ,december1 #aiaf1 the ,war ,department acted on this report by contracting for #d1jjj ,vickers machine guns from the ,colt ,co4 in addition to #abe previously ordered4 ,the ,vickers gun belongs to what is known as the heavy type of machine gun4 ,the board found that the tests it had witnessed did not then warrant the adoption of a light-type machine gun1 although the ,lewis gun of the intermediate type was then being manufactured in this country4 ,the board1 however1 recommended that we conduct further competitive tests of machine guns at the ,springfield ,armory1 in ,massachusetts1 these tests to begin ,may #a1 #aiag1 the interval being given to permit inventors and manufacturers to prepare equipment for the competition4 ,the war came to us before these tests were made4 ,on the #fth day of ,april1 #aiag1 our equipment included #fgj ,bent-,merci machine rifles1 #bhb ,maxim machine guns of the #aijd model1 #cec ,lewis machine guns1 and #adh ,colt machine guns4 ,the ,lewis guns1 however1 were chambered for the 4#cjc ,british ammunition and would not take our service cartridges4 ,moreover1 the manufacturing facilities for machine guns in this country were much more limited in extent than the public had any notion of then or to-day4 ,both ,england and ,france had depended mainly upon their own manufacturing facilities for their machine guns1 the weapons which they secured on order from the ,united ,states being supplementary and subsidiary to their own supplies4 ,we had at the outbreak of the war only two factories in the ,united ,states which were actually producing machine guns in any quantity at all4 ,these were the ,savage ,arms ,corporation1 which in its factory at ,utica1 ,n4 ,y41 was nearing the completion of an order for about #ab1ejj ,lewis guns for the ,british and ,canadian ,governments1 and the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation1 which had manufactured a large number of ,colt machine guns of the old lever type for the ,russian ,government4 ,the ,colt factory in the spring of #aiag was equipping itself with machinery to produce the #d1abe ,vickers guns1 the order for #d1jjj of which had been placed the previous ,december by the ,war ,department on recommendation of the ,machine ,gun ,board4 ,none of these guns1 however1 had been completed when the ,united ,states entered the war4 ,the ,colt ,co4 also held a contract for ,vickers guns to be produced for the ,russian ,government4 ,it was therefore evident that we should have to build up in the ,united ,states almost a completely new capacity for the production of machine guns4 ,nevertheless1 we took advantage of what facilities were at hand2 and at once1 in fact within a week after the declaration of war1 began placing orders for machine guns4 ,the first of these orders came on ,april #ab1 when we placed a contract with the ,savage ,arms ,corporation for #a1cjj ,lewis guns1 which1 as manufactured by that corporation1 had by this time been overhauled in design and much improved4 ,this order was subsequently heavily increased4 ,on ,june #b we placed an order with the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation for #b1ejj ,colt guns1 these weapons to be used in the training of our machine-gun units4 ,in this connection the reader should bear continually in mind that throughout the development of machine-gun manufacture we utilized all existing facilities to the limit in addition to building up new sources of supply4 ,in other words1 whenever concerns were engaged in the manufacture of machine guns1 whatever their make or type1 we did not stop the production of these types in these plants and convert the establishments into factories for making other weapons2 but we had them continue in the manufacture in which they were engaged1 giving them orders which would enable them to expand their facilities in their particular lines of production4 ,then when it became necessary for us to find factories to build ,browning guns and some of the other weapons on which we specialized1 we found new capacity entirely for this additional production4 ,since we sent to ,france the first ,american division of troops less than three months after the declaration of war1 they were necessarily armed with the machine guns at hand1 which in this case proved to be the ,bent-,merci machine rifles4 ,meanwhile the development of machine guns in ,europe had been going on at a rapid rate4 ,the standard guns in use by the ,french ,army were now the ,hotchkiss heavy machine gun and the ,chauchat light automatic rifle1 both effective weapons4 ,upon the arrival of our first ,american division in ,france the ,french ,government expressed its willingness to arm this division with ,hotchkiss and ,chauchat guns2 and thereafter the ,french facilities proved to be sufficient to equip our troops with these weapons until our own manufacture came up to requirements4 ,the #ast of ,may1 #aiag1 brought the tests recommended by the investigation board1 these tests continuing throughout the month4 ,to this competition were brought two newly developed weapons produced by the inventive genius of that veteran of small-arms manufacture1 ,john ,m4 ,browning4 ,mr4 ,browning had been associated with the ,army's development of automatic weapons for so many years that he was peculiarly fitted to produce a mechanism that could adapt itself to the quantity production which our forthcoming effort demanded4 ,both the ,browning heavy machine gun and the ,browning light automatic rifle which were put through these tests in ,may had been designed with the view of enormous production quickly attained1 so that their simplicity of design was one of their chief merits4 ,after the tests the board pronounced these weapons the most effective guns of their type known to the members4 ,the ,browning heavy gun with its water jacket filled weighs #cf4ge pounds1 whereas the ,browning automatic rifle weighs only #ae4e pounds4 ,these ,may tests also proved the ,lewis machine gun to be highly efficient4 ,the board recommended the production of large numbers of all three weapons2 the two ,brownings and the ,lewis4 ,the board also approved the ,vickers gun1 which weighs #cg4ej pounds1 and we accordingly continued it in manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,,browning ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiag4 ,illustration3 ,,marlin ,,tank ,,machine ,,gun4 ,illustration3 ,,colt ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiag1 ,,caliber 4#cj4 ,illustration3 ,,lewis ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiag1 ,,caliber 4#cj4 ,the first act of the ,ordnance ,department after this report had been received was to increase greatly the orders for ,lewis machine guns with the ,savage ,arms ,corporation1 and the second to make preparation for an enormous manufacture of ,browning machine guns and ,browning automatic rifles4 ,mr4 ,browning had developed these weapons at the plant of the ,colt's ,patent ,firearms ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,hartford1 ,conn41 which concern owned the exclusive rights to both these weapons under the ,browning patents4 ,this company at once began the development of manufacturing facilities for the production of ,browning guns4 ,in ,july1 #aiag1 orders for #aj1jjj ,browning machine guns and #ab1jjj ,browning automatic rifles were placed with the ,colt ,co4 ,it should be remembered that the ,colt ,co4 was in the midst of preparations for the production of large numbers of ,vickers machine guns2 and the ,government required that the ,browning manufacture should be carried on without interference with the existing contracts for ,vickers guns4 ,this requirement necessitated an enormous expansion of the ,colt plant to take care of its growing contracts for ,browning guns4 ,the concern prepared to make the ,browning automatic rifle1 the lighter gun1 at a new factory at ,meriden1 ,conn4 ,in its arrangements with the ,colt ,co4 the ,government recognized that its future demands for ,browning guns would be far beyond the capacity of this one concern to supply4 ,consequently1 for a royalty consideration1 the ,colt ,co4 surrendered for the duration of the war1 its exclusive rights to manufacture these weapons1 this arrangement being approved by the ,council of ,national ,defense4 ,mr4 ,browning1 the inventor of the guns1 was also compensated by the ,government for weapons of his invention manufactured during the war4 ,in the arrangement the ,government acquired the right to manufacture during the period of the emergency all other inventions that might be developed by ,mr4 ,browning--an important consideration1 since at any time the inventor might add improvements to the original designs or bring out accessories that would add to the efficiency or effectiveness of the weapons4 ,it may also be added that throughout this period ,mr4 ,browning's efforts were constantly directed toward the perfection of these guns and the development of new types of guns and accessories4 ,his services along these lines were of great value to the ,war ,department4 ,when these necessary preliminary matters had been settled the ,ordnance ,department made a survey of the manufacturing facilities of the ,united ,states to determine what factories could best be set to work to produce ,browning guns and rifles1 always with special care that no existing war contracts1 either for the allies or for the ,united ,states1 be disturbed4 ,by ,september this survey was complete1 and also by this time we had definite knowledge of the rate of enlargement of our military forces and their requirements for machine guns4 ,we were ready to adopt the program of machine-gun construction that would keep pace with our needs1 no matter what numbers of troops we might equip for battle4 ,as a foundation for the machine-gun program1 in ,september1 #aiag1 we placed the following orders3 #ae1jjj water-cooled ,browning machine guns with the ,remington ,arms-,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,co41 of ,bridgeport1 ,conn42 #e1jjj ,browning aircraft machine guns with the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation1 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn42 and #bj1jjj ,browning automatic rifles with the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation4 ,in this connection it should be explained that the ,browning aircraft gun is essentially the heavy ,browning with the water-jacket removed4 ,it was practicable to use it thus stripped1 because in aircraft fighting a machine gun is not fired continuously1 but only at intervals1 and then in short bursts of fire too brief to heat a gun beyond the functioning point4 ,at the same time these orders were placed the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co41 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 was instructed to begin its preliminary work looking to the manufacture of ,browning automatic rifles2 and less than a month later1 in ,october1 an order for #be1jjj of these weapons was placed with this concern4 ,then followed in ,december an additional order for #aj1jjj ,browning aircraft guns to be manufactured by the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation4 ,a contract for ,browning aircraft guns was also given to the ,remington ,arms-,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,co4 ,before the year ended the enormous task of providing the special machinery for this practically new industry was well under way4 ,the ,hopkins ,allen factory1 at ,norwich1 ,conn41 had been engaged upon a contract for military rifles for the ,belgian government4 ,before this order was completed the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation took over the ,hopkins ,allen plant and set it to producing parts for the light ,browning automatic rifles4 ,even this concern1 however1 could not produce the parts in sufficient quantities for the ,marlin-,rockwell order1 and the latter concern accordingly acquired the ,mayo ,radiator factory1 at ,new ,haven1 and equipped it with machine tools for the production of ,browning automatic-rifle parts4 ,such expansion was merely typical of what went on in the other concerns engaged in our machine-gun production4 ,immense quantities of new machinery had to be built and set up in all these factories4 ,but still the ,ordnance ,department kept on expanding the machine-gun capacity4 ,the ,new ,england ,westinghouse ,co41 of ,springfield1 ,mass41 in ,january1 #aiah1 completed a contract for rifles for the ,russian government and was at once given an order for ,browning water-cooled guns4 ,for reasons which will be explained later1 the original order for ,browning aircraft guns1 which had been placed with the ,remington ,arms ,co41 was later transferred to the ,new ,england ,westinghouse ,co4 at their ,springfield plant4 ,illustration3 ,,ben,t-,,merci ,,machine ,,gun4 ,illustration3 ,,hotchkiss ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiad1 #h-,,millimeter4 ,this is the machine gun adopted by the ,french ,army4 ,this gun is of a heavy type1 air-cooled1 gas-operated1 and fed from either a strip holding #cj cartridges or a metallic link belt4 ,its rate of fire is about #ejj rounds per minute4 ,illustration3 ,,vickers ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiae1 ,,caliber 4#cj4 ,illustration3 ,,vickers ,,aircraft ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiah1 ,,caliber 4#cj4 ,as soon as our officers in ,france could make an adequate study of our aircraft needs in machine guns1 they discovered that in the three years of war only one weapon had met the requirements of the allies for a fixed machine gun that could be synchronized to fire through the whirling blades of an airplane propeller4 ,this was the ,vickers gun1 which was already being manufactured in some quantity in our country1 and for which three months before we entered the war we had given an order amounting to #d1jjj weapons4 ,on the other hand1 the fighting aircraft of ,europe were also finding an increased need for machine guns of the flexible type--that is1 guns mounted on universal pivots1 and which could be aimed and fired in any direction by the second man1 or observer1 in an airplane4 ,the best gun we had for this purpose was the ,lewis machine gun4 ,for technical reasons that need not be explained here1 the ,vickers gun was a difficult one to manufacture4 ,the ,colt ,co41 which was producing these weapons1 in spite of their long experience in the manufacture of such arms and in spite of their utmost efforts1 had been unable to deliver the finished ,vickers guns on time1 either to the ,russian government or to this country4 ,however1 by expanding the facilities of this factory to the utmost1 by the month of ,may1 #aiah1 the concern achieved a production of over #ej ,vickers guns per day4 ,doubtless1 because of these same difficulties1 neither the ,british nor the ,french governments had been able to procure ,vickers guns as rapidly as they expanded the number of their fighting aircraft1 and consequently when we entered the war we received at once a ,macedonian cry from the allies to aid in equipping the allied aircraft with weapons of the ,vickers type4 ,an arrangement was readily reached in this matter4 ,our first troops in ,france needed machine guns for use on the lines4 ,our own factories had not yet begun the production of these weapons4 ,accordingly1 in the fall of #aiag1 we arranged with the ,french high commissioner in this country to transfer #a1jjj of our ,vickers guns to the ,french air service1 receiving in exchange ,french ,hotchkiss machine guns for ,gen4 ,pershing's troops4 ,now while the demands of the allied service had brought forth only the ,vickers machine gun as a satisfactorily synchronized weapon1 we1 shortly after our entry into the war1 had succeeded in developing two additional types of machine guns which gave every promise of being satisfactory for use as fixed synchronized guns on airplanes4 ,one of these1 of course1 was the heavy ,browning gun1 stripped of its water jacket2 but because this was a new weapon1 requiring an entirely new factory equipment for its production1 the day when ,brownings would begin firing at the ,german battle planes was remote1 indeed1 as time is reckoned in war4 ,on the other hand1 our inventors had been improving a machine gun known as the ,marlin1 which was1 in fact1 the old ,colt machine gun1 ,mr4 ,browning's original invention1 but now of lighter construction and with a piston firing action instead of a lever control4 ,in the face of considerable criticism at the time1 we proposed to adapt this weapon to our aircraft needs as a stop-gap until ,brownings were coming from the factory in satisfactory quantities4 ,we took this course because we were prepared to turn out quantities of the ,marlin guns in relatively quick time4 ,as has been said1 the ,marlin resembled the ,colt4 ,the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation was already tooled up for a large production of ,colt guns1 and this machinery with slight modifications could be used to produce the ,marlin4 ,we decided upon this course shortly after the declaration of war1 and there followed a severe engineering and inventive task to develop a high-speed hammer mechanism and a trigger motor which would adapt the gun for use with the synchronizing mechanism4 ,but then occurred one of those surprising successes that sometimes bless the efforts of harassed and hurried executives at their wits' end to meet the demand of some great emergency4 ,the improvements added to the ,marlin gun eventually transformed it in unforeseen fashion into an aircraft weapon of such efficiency that not only our own pilots but those of the ,french air forces as well were delighted with the result4 ,when it was proposed to adapt the ,marlin gun for synchronized use on airplanes1 the ,ordnance ,department detailed officers to cooperate with the ,marlin company in its efforts4 ,for technical reasons of design the original gun apparently had little or no adaptability to such use4 ,many new models were built only to be knocked to pieces after the failure of some feature to perform properly the work for which it was designed4 ,nevertheless the enthusiasm of the company for its project could not be chilled1 and it continued the development until the gun finally became a triumph in gas-operated aircraft ordnance4 ,in the latter part of ,august we were using the ,marlin gun at the front1 and cablegram after cablegram told us of the surprisingly excellent performances of this weapon in actual service4 ,it is sufficient here to quote one of these messages from ,gen4 ,pershing1 dated ,february #bc1 #aiah3 ,illustration3 ,,maxim ,,machine ,,gun ,,and ,,tripod 7,,american71 ,,model #aijd ,,caliber 4#cj4 ,this was the first automatic machine gun to be developed4 ,it is of the heavy type1 recoil operated1 water cooled1 and belt fed4 ,the gun is capable of sustained fire for long periods of time provided its water supply is properly maintained1 and is adaptable to indirect barrage fire4 ,it is used by the ,british and ,u4 ,s4 forces and in modified form by the ,germans4 ,illustration3 ,,browning ,,automatic ,,rifle ,,equipment4 ,illustration3 ,,lewis ,,aircraft ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiag1 ,,caliber 4#cj4 ,illustration3 ,,marlin ,,aircraft ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,type #h ,m4 ,g4 ,a fixed synchronized gun developed from the ,colt gun solely for aircraft use4 ,it is of the heavy type1 gas operated1 air cooled1 and belt fed4 ,it is the only gas-operated gun which has been successfully synchronized and has been found to give the closest grouping of shot in synchronized fire which has ever been obtained with any gun4 ,illustration3 ,,german ,,maxim ,,machine ,,gun ,,on ,,mount4 ,marlin aircraft guns have been fired successfully on four trips #ac1jjj1 #ae1jjj feet altitude1 and at temperature of minus #bj ,f4 ,on one trip guns were completely covered ice4 ,both metallic links and fabric belts proved satisfactory4 7,cartridges are fed into the fixed aircraft guns inserted in belts made of metallic links which disintegrate as the guns are fired47 ,on ,november #b1 #aiah1 just before the armistice was signed1 ,gen4 ,pershing cabled as follows1 in part3 ,marlin guns now rank as high as any with pilots1 and are entirely satisfactory4 ,the ,french government tested the ,marlin guns and declared them to be the equal of the ,vickers4 ,in order to meet the ever-increasing demands of the ,air ,service for machine guns capable of synchronization1 the original order for #bc1jjj ,marlin guns1 placed in ,september1 #aiag1 with the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation1 was afterwards increased to #ch1jjj4 ,along in #aiah the ,french tried to procure ,marlins from this country1 but by that time the ,browning production was reaching great proportions1 and the equipment at the ,marlin plant was being altered to make ,brownings4 ,the original order for ,lewis guns1 placed with the ,savage ,arms ,corporation1 had contemplated their use by our troops in the line2 but when it became evident that the available manufacturing capacity of the ,united ,states would be strained to the utmost to provide enough guns for our airplanes1 we diverted the large orders for ,lewis guns entirely to the ,air ,service4 ,this action was confirmed by cabled instructions from ,gen4 ,pershing4 ,for this flexible aircraft work the weapon was admirably adapted4 ,to the machine-gun tests1 ,may1 #aiag1 the producers of the ,lewis gun brought an improved model1 chambered for our own standard 4#cj-;caliber cartridges1 instead of for the ,british 4#cjc ammunition1 with some #ae modifications in design in addition to those which had been presented to us before1 and some added improvements in construction and in the metallurgical composition of its materials4 ,from our point of view1 this new model ,lewis was a greatly improved weapon4 ,the fact should be stated here that the ,lewis gun1 as so successfully made for the ,british service by the ,birmingham ,small ,arms ,co41 had never been procurable by the ,united ,states1 even in a single sample for test4 ,the ,lewis accordingly became the standard flexible gun for our airplanes4 ,the ,savage ,arms ,corporation was able to expand its facilities to fulfill every need of our ,air ,service for this type of weapon1 and therefore we made no effort to carry the manufacture of ,lewis guns into other plants4 ,before #aiag came to an end the ,savage company was delivering the first guns of its orders4 ,during the difficulties on the ,mexican border the ,united ,states secured from the ,savage ,arms ,co4 several hundred ,lewis guns made to use ,british ammunition4 ,in order to be sure that the guns would be properly used1 experts from the factory were sent out to instruct the troops who were to receive the guns4 ,ordnance officers also went out on this instruction work and established machine-gun schools along the border4 ,the troops did not find the guns entirely satisfactory1 in spite of expert instruction that they received from men from the factory4 ,the trouble with the guns at this time was due to the fact that the company making them in the ,united ,states had been engaged in the manufacture of machine guns for a short time only and had run into several minor difficulties in the design and manufacture1 difficulties which caused considerable trouble in operating the guns in the field1 and which were subsequently corrected in the #ae changes mentioned above4 ,the machine-gun schools which were established on the border taught not only the mechanism of the ,lewis gun1 but also those of the other types of guns with which the various troops were armed4 ,the first thing that these schools developed was the fact that much of the trouble which had been encountered in machine guns was undoubtedly due to the fact that our soldiers were unfamiliar with the operation of the weapons4 ,in fact1 at that time we had few experts in the operation of any make of machine guns4 ,soon after the establishment of machine-gun schools on the border it became apparent that the system of instruction devised by our ordnance officers had gone a long way toward overcoming the difficulties which the ,army had encountered in the use of machine guns4 ,the advantage of these schools was so marked that on the outbreak of the war with ,germany the ,ordnance ,department established a machine-gun school at ,springfield ,armory4 ,the first class of this school consisted of a large number of technical graduates from the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology and other such schools4 ,these men were employed as civilians1 and were taught the mechanism of machine guns in a theoretical way in as thorough a manner as could possibly be done1 and were given an opportunity to fire the guns and find out for themselves just what troubles were likely to occur4 ,many of these men were afterwards commissioned as officers in the ,ordnance ,department and were sent to the various cantonments throughout the ,united ,states to establish schools of instruction in the mechanism of the various machine guns4 ,after this class of civilians had been graduated from the ,springfield school1 a number of training-camp candidates were instructed and were afterwards commissioned4 ,when the full success of this school was realized1 it was enlarged and expanded1 and it instructed not only civilians and training-camp candidates1 but also officers of the ,ordnance ,department1 who were trained as armament officers1 instructors1 etc4 ,later the school was still further expanded to include a large class of enlisted men for duty as armorers4 ,in all1 over #ejj officers were instructed at the ,springfield school4 ,when the war with ,germany ceased1 the graduates of the ,springfield ,armory machine gun school were found in almost every line of endeavor connected with arms1 ammunition1 and kindred subjects4 ,now1 let us look at the first results of the early effort in machine-gun production4 ,within a month after the first drafted troops reached their cantonments we were able to ship #ej ,colt guns from the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation to each ,national ,army camp1 these guns to be used exclusively for training our machine-gun units4 ,before another #cj days passed we had added to the machine-gun equipment of each camp #bj ,lewis guns of the ground type1 and #cj ,chauchat automatic rifles which we bought from the ,french4 7,the ,lewis ground gun was almost identical with the aircraft type1 except that its barrel was surrounded by an aluminum heat radiator for cooling1 a device not needed on the guns of airplanes because of the latter's shorter periods of fire47 ,also1 in the autumn of #aiag we were able to issue to each ,national ,guard camp a training equipment consisting of #cj ,colt machine guns1 #cj ,chauchat automatic rifles1 and some #ej to #gj ,lewis ground guns4 ,at the beginning of #aiah our machine-gun manufacture was well under way4 ,such was the industrial situation at this time3 the ,savage ,arms ,corporation was producing ,lewis aircraft machine guns of the flexible type2 the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation was manufacturing large quantities of ,marlin aircraft machine guns of the synchronizing type2 the ,colt's ,patent ,fire ,arms ,manufacturing ,co4 was building ,vickers machine guns of the heavy1 mobile type2 and a number of great factories were tooling up at top speed for the immense production of ,browning guns of all types soon to begin4 ,meanwhile we kept increasing our orders as rapidly as conditions warranted4 ,by ,may1 #aiah1 the first #ab divisions of ,american troops had reached ,france4 ,they were all equipped with ,hotchkiss heavy machine guns and ,chauchat automatic rifles--both kinds supplied by the ,french government4 ,during ,may and ,june1 #aa ,american divisions sailed1 and the heavy machine-gun equipment of these troops was ,american built1 consisting of ,vickers guns4 ,for their light machine guns these #aa divisions received the ,french ,chauchat rifles in ,france4 ,after ,june1 #aiah1 all ,american troops to sail were supplied with a full equipment of ,browning guns1 both of the light and heavy types4 ,part of these ,brownings were issued to the troops before they sailed1 and the rest upon their arrival in ,france4 ,the ,savage ,arms ,corporation built nearly #f1jjj ,lewis guns of the ground type before diverting their manufacture to the aircraft type exclusively4 ,on ,may #aa1 #aiah1 this concern had built #af1jjj ,lewis guns for the ,american ,government1 of which more than #aj1jjj were for use on airplanes4 ,by the end of ,july the company had turned out #af1jjj aircraft ,lewis guns1 not to mention #f1jjj of the same sort which it had built and supplied to the ,american ,navy4 ,by the end of ,september we had accepted over #be1jjj ,lewis aircraft guns4 ,on the date of the signing of the armistice approximately #cb1jjj of these guns had been completed4 ,by the first of ,may1 #aiah1 the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation had turned out nearly #ag1jjj ,marlin aircraft guns with the synchronizing appliances4 ,thirty days later its total had reached #bc1jjj4 ,on ,october #a the entire order of #ch1jjj ,marlin guns had been completed1 and the company began the work of converting its plant into a ,browning factory4 ,on ,may #a1 #aiah1 the ,colt ,co4 had delivered more than #b1jjj ,vickers guns of the ground type4 ,before the end of ,july this output totaled #h1jjj1 besides #c1jjj ,vickers guns which were later converted to aircraft use4 ,in addition the ,colt ,co4 had undertaken another machine-gun project of which nothing has been said before4 ,this concern had completed manufacture of about #a1jjj ,vickers guns for the ,russian government4 ,at this time the aviators at the front began using machine guns of large caliber1 principally against observation balloons and dirigible aircraft4 ,the allies had developed an #aa-millimeter ,vickers machine gun for this purpose1 which means a gun with a bore diameter of nearly one-half inch4 ,the ,ordnance ,department undertook to change these ,russian ,vickers guns into #aa-millimeter aircraft machine guns4 ,this undertaking was successfully carried through by the ,colt ,co41 which delivered the first modified weapon in ,july and had increased its deliveries to a total of #hjj guns by ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,when the fighting ceased the ,colt ,co4 had delivered #ab1jjj heavy ,vickers guns and nearly #a1jjj of the aircraft type4 ,as was mentioned before1 a considerable quantity of ,vickers ground guns had been subsequently converted to aircraft use4 ,the production of ground-type ,vickers ceased on ,september #ab1 #aiah1 by which date the manufacture of ,browning guns had developed sufficiently to meet all of our future needs4 ,thereafter the ,colt plant produced the aircraft types of ,vickers guns only4 ,we shipped #f1cji ,vickers ground guns overseas before the armistice was signed1 besides equipping six ,france-bound divisions of troops with these weapons in this country1 making a total of #g1fec ,american-built ,vickers in the hands of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,later1 we planned to replace these weapons with ,brownings1 turning over the ,vickers guns to the ,air ,service4 ,but ,america's greatest feat in machine-gun production was the development of the ,browning weapons4 ,these guns1 as has been noted1 were of three types3 the heavy ,browning water-cooled gun1 weighing #cg pounds1 for the use of our troops in the field2 the light ,browning automatic rifle1 weighing #ae4e pounds1 and in appearance similar to the ordinary service rifle1 also for the use of our soldiers fighting on the ground2 and1 finally1 the ,browning synchronized aircraft gun of the rigid type1 which was the ,browning heavy machine gun made lighter by the elimination of its water-jacket1 speeded up to double the rate of fire1 and provided with the additional attachment of the synchronized firing mechanism4 ,let us take up separately the expansion of the facilities for manufacturing these types4 ,in the first place1 the ,colt ,co41 which owned the ,browning rights1 in ,september1 #aiag1 turned over to the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co4 the task of developing the drawings and gauges for the manufacture of ,browning automatic rifles on a large scale4 ,the latter concern did a splendid job in this work4 ,early in ,march1 #aiah1 the ,winchester ,co4 had tooled up its plant and turned out the first ,browning rifles4 ,these were shipped to ,washington and demonstrated in the hands of gunners before a distinguished audience of officers and other ,government officials1 and their great success assured the country that ,america had an automatic rifle worthy of her inventive and manufacturing prestige4 ,by the first of ,may the ,winchester ,co4 had turned out #a1bjj ,browning rifles4 ,the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation attained its first production of ,browning rifles in ,june1 #aiah1 by which time the ,winchester ,co4 had built about #d1jjj of them4 ,before the end of ,june the ,colt ,co4 added its first few hundreds of ,browning rifles to the expanding output4 ,by the end of ,july the total production of ,browning rifles had reached #ag1jjj1 produced as follows3 #i1gjj by ,winchester2 #e1fej by ,marlin-,rockwell2 and #a1fej by ,colt's4 ,two months later this total had been doubled--the exact figure being #cd1ejj ,browning rifles--and on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 when the flag fell on this industrial race1 the ,government had accepted #eb1bch light ,browning rifles4 ,of these in round numbers the ,winchester ,co4 had built #bg1jjj2 ,marlin-,rockwell1 #af1jjj2 and ,colt's1 #i1jjj4 ,but these figures give only an indication of the ,browning rifle program as it had expanded up to the time hostilities ceased4 ,when the armistice was signed our orders for these guns called for a production of #bhh1agd1 and still further large orders were about to be placed4 ,as an illustration of the size which this manufacture would have attained1 we had completed negotiations with one concern whereby its factory capacity was to be increased to produce #hjj ,browning rifles every #bd hours by ,june of #aiai4 ,after the armistice was signed we canceled orders calling for the manufacture of #ahf1jjj ,browning automatic rifles4 ,of the #dh1jhb of these weapons sent overseas1 #ch1hfj went in bulk on supply transports1 while the rest constituted the equipment of #ab ,yankee divisions which carried their automatic rifles with them4 ,the ,colt ,co4 itself developed the drawings and gauges for the quantity manufacture of the ,browning gun of the ground type4 ,it will be remembered that the ,new ,england ,westinghouse ,co4 was the first outside concern to begin the manufacture of these weapons4 ,the ,new ,england ,westinghouse ,co4 received its orders in ,january1 #aiah1 and within four months had turned out its first completed guns1 being the first company to deliver these weapons to the ,government4 ,by the first of ,may it had delivered #he heavy ,brownings4 ,by the middle of ,may the ,remington ,co4 came into production of the heavy ,brownings4 ,the ,colt ,co41 which was required to continue its production of ,vickers guns1 was also retarded by the duty of preparing the drawings for the other concerns who had contracted to make heavy ,brownings2 and this factory1 the birthplace of the ,browning gun1 was not able to produce any until the end of ,june4 ,by this time the ,westinghouse ,co4 had turned out more than #b1ejj heavy ,brownings1 and ,remington over #a1fjj4 ,by the end of ,july the production of ,browning machine guns at all plants had reached the total of #aj1jjj2 and two months later #bf1jjj heavy ,brownings were in the hands of the ,government4 ,in the following six weeks this production was enormously increased1 the total receipts by the ,government up to ,november #aa amounting to about #db1jjj heavy ,browning guns4 ,in round numbers ,westinghouse produced #cj1jjj of these1 ,remington #aa1jjj1 and ,colt about #a1jjj4 ,we shipped in all #cj1ehb heavy ,brownings to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 #bg1hid going on supply ships and the rest in the hands of #ab divisions of troops4 ,these shipments actually put in ,france before the armistice was signed enough heavy ,brownings to equip completely all the ,american troops on ,french soil4 ,however1 at the time these supplies were arriving the fighting against the retreating ,german ,army was at its height1 and there was no time for the troops on the line to exchange their ,british-built and ,french-built machine guns for ,brownings1 nor to replace their ,chauchat automatic rifles with light ,brownings1 of which there was also an ample supply in ,france4 ,a report of the ,chief ,ordnance ,officer1 ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 as of ,february #ae1 #aiai1 shows that1 except for antiaircraft use1 ,vickers and ,hotchkiss machine guns with troops had been almost entirely replaced by heavy ,brownings on that date1 and that ,chauchat automatic rifles had been replaced by light ,brownings4 ,illustration3 ,,browning ,,expendable ,,cartridge ,,belt ,,box1 ,,mark ,i1 ,,mounted ,,on ,a ,,browning ,,machine ,,gun ,,tripod1 ,,model #aiag4 ,illustration3 ,,belt-,,filling ,,machine ,,for ,,browning ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiag4 ,illustration3 ,,browning ,,tank ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiai1 ,,mounted ,,on ,,tank4 ,illustration3 ,,browning ,,tank ,,machine ,,gun1 ,,model #aiai1 ,,on ,,ball ,,mount1 ,,showing ,,casing4 ,when the armistice was signed we had placed orders for #aaj1jjj heavy ,brownings and were contemplating still further orders4 ,we later reduced these orders by #cg1ejj guns4 ,because the ,marlin aircraft gun had performed so satisfactorily1 and because our facilities for the manufacture of this weapon were large1 the production of the ,browning aircraft guns had not been pushed to the limit1 which latter action would have interfered with the production of the ,marlin gun at a time when it was most essential to obtain an immediate supply of fixed synchronized aircraft guns4 ,only a few hundred ,browning aircraft guns had been completed before the close of the fighting4 ,in its tests and performances this weapon had been speeded up to a rate of fire of from #a1jjj to #a1cjj shots per minute1 which far surpassed the performances of any synchronized gun then in use on the western front4 ,by the spring of #aiah it became evident that we would require a special machine gun for use in our tanks4 ,several makes of guns were considered for this purpose and finally discarded for one reason or another4 ,the ultimate decision was to take #g1bej ,marlin aircraft guns which were available and adapt them to tank service by the addition of sights1 aluminum heat radiators1 and handle grips and triggers4 ,the rebuilding of these guns at the ,marlin-,rockwell plant when the armistice was signed was progressing at a rate that insured the adequate equipment of the first ,american-built tanks4 ,meanwhile the ,ordnance ,department undertook the production of a ,browning tank machine gun4 ,this gun was developed by taking a heavy ,browning water-cooled gun1 eliminating the water jacket and substituting an air-cooled barrel of heavy construction1 and adding hand grips and sights4 ,the work was begun in ,september1 #aiah1 and the completed model was delivered by the end of ,october4 ,before the armistice was signed five sample guns had been built1 demonstrated at the ,tank ,corps training camps1 and unanimously approved by the officers of the ,tank ,corps designated to test it4 ,after a test in ,france1 the report stated3 ,the gun is by far the best weapon for tank use that is now known1 and the ,department is to be congratulated upon its development4 ,an order for #dj1jjj ,browning tank guns was given to the ,westinghouse ,co4 ,this concern1 already equipped for the manufacture of heavy ,browning guns1 was scheduled to start its deliveries in ,december1 #aiah1 and to turn out #g1jjj tank guns per month after ,january #a1 #aiai4 ,after the signing of the armistice1 however1 the order was cut down to approximately #a1hjj guns4 ,by ,march #bg1 #aiai1 the company had delivered #ejj ,browning tank guns1 and the order for the remaining #a1cjj was thereafter canceled4 ,after the entrance of the ,united ,states in the war the armies on both sides developed a new type of machine-gun fighting1 which consisted in indirect firing1 or laying down barrages of machine-gun bullets4 ,this required the development of special tripods1 clinometers for laying angles of elevation1 and other special equipment2 and speedy progress was being made in the quantity production of this matriel when the war came to an end4 ,in a complete machine-gun program not only must the guns themselves be built1 but they must be fully equipped with accessories1 such as tripods1 extra magazines1 carts for carrying both guns and ammunition1 feed belts of various types1 belt-loading machines1 observation and fire control instruments1 and numerous other accessories the manufacture of which is absolutely essential but usually unseen by the public4 ,the extent of our work in accessories is indicated by a few approximate figures of deliveries up to the signing of the armistice3 nonexpendable ammunition boxes1 #a1jjj1jjj2 expendable ammunition boxes1 #g1jjj2 expendable belts1 #e1jjj2 nonexpendable belts1 #a1jjj1jjj2 belt-loading machines1 #be1jjj2 water boxes1 #aaj1jjj2 machine-gun carts1 #ag1jjj2 ammunition carts1 #ae1jjj2 tripods1 #be1jjj4 ,the aircraft machine guns also required numerous accessories1 some of them highly complicated in their manufacture4 ,this special equipment consisted in part of special mounts for the guns1 synchronizing attachments1 metallic disintegrating link belts1 electric heaters to keep the guns warm at the low temperatures at the high altitudes of the aviator's battle field1 and many other smaller items4 ,not only our own forces but the allied armies as well were enthusiastic about the ,browning guns of both types1 as soon as they had seen them in action4 ,the best proof of this is that in the summer of #aiah the ,british1 ,belgian1 and ,french ,governments all made advances to us as to the possibility of the ,united ,states producing ,browning automatic rifles for their respective forces4 ,on ,november #f1 a few days before the end of hostilities1 the ,french high commissioner requested that we supply #ae1jjj light ,browning rifles to the ,french ,army4 ,we would not make this arrangement at the time because we thought it inadvisable to divert any of our supplies of these guns from our own troops until the spring of #aiai1 when we expected that our capacity for making light ,brownings would exceed the demands of our own troops4 ,our demand for the lighter guns1 incidentally1 was far greater than we had originally expected it to be4 ,as soon as the ,browning rifle was seen in action the ,general ,staff of our ,expeditionary ,forces at once increased by #ej per cent the number of automatic rifles assigned to each company of troops1 and we were manufacturing to meet this augmented demand when the war ended4 ,by spring of #aiai we expected to be furnishing light ,brownings to the ,british and ,french ,armies as well as to our own4 ,illustration3 ,,fiat 7,,italian7 ,,machine ,,gun ,,and ,,tripod4 ,illustration3 ,,chauchat ,,machine ,,rifle1 ,,model #aiae1 ,,caliber1 #h ,,millimeters4 ,illustration3 ,,german #jh_/ae 7,,spandau7 ,,machine ,,gun4 ,both types of ,browning guns proved to be unqualified successes in actual battle1 as numerous reports of our ,ordnance officers overseas indicated4 ,the following report from an officer1 in addition to carrying historical information of interest to those following our machine-gun development1 is typical of numerous other official descriptions of these weapons in battle use3 ,the guns heavy ,brownings went into the front line for the first time in the night of ,september #ac4 ,the sector was quiet and the guns were practically not used at all until the advance1 starting ,september #bf4 ,in the action which followed1 the guns were used on several occasions for overhead fire1 one company firing #aj1jjj rounds per gun into a wood in which there were enemy machine-gun nests1 at a range of #b1jjj meters4 ,although the conditions were extremely unfavorable for machine guns on account of rain and mud1 the guns performed well4 ,machine-gun officers reported that during the engagement the guns came up to the fullest expectations and1 even though covered with rust and using muddy ammunition1 they functioned whenever called upon to do so4 ,after the division had been relieved1 #ag guns from one company were sent in for my inspection4 ,one of these had been struck by shrapnel1 which punctured the water jacket4 ,all of the guns were completely coated with mud and rust on the outside1 but the mechanism was fairly clean4 ,without touching them or cleaning them in any way1 except to run a rod through the bore1 a belt of #bej rounds was fired from each without a single stoppage of any kind4 ,it can be concluded from the try-out in this division that the gun in its operation and functioning when handled by men in the field is a success4 ,the ,browning automatic rifles were also highly praised by our officers who had to use them4 ,although these guns received hard usage1 being on the front for days at a time in the rain and when the gunners had little opportunity to clean them1 they invariably functioned well4 ,on ,november #aa we had built #eb1bch ,browning automatic rifles in this country4 ,we had bought #bi1jjj ,chauchats from the ,french4 ,without providing replacement guns or reserves1 this was a sufficient number to equip over #ajj divisions with #gfh guns to the division4 ,this meant light machine guns enough for a field army of #c1ejj1jjj men4 ,in heavy machine guns at the signing of the armistice we had #c1cdj of the ,hotchkiss make1 #i1bcg ,vickers1 and #da1hjd ,brownings1 or a total of #ed1fbg heavy machine guns--enough to equip the #bjj divisions of an army of #g1jjj1jjj men1 not figuring in reserve weapons4 ,the daily maximum production of ,browning rifles reached #gjf before our manufacturing efforts were suddenly stopped1 and that of ,browning heavy machine guns #ege4 ,at the peak of our production a total of #a1gid machine guns and automatic rifles of all types was produced within a period of twenty-four hours4 ,based upon our output in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 #aiah1 we were producing monthly #bg1bgj machine guns and machine rifles of all types1 while the average monthly production of ,france was at this time #ab1abf and that of ,great ,britain #aj1idg4 ,in total production between ,april #f1 #aiag1 and ,november #aa1 #aiah1 we had turned out #aha1ffb machine guns and machine rifles1 as against #bbi1bch by ,france and #aha1djd by ,england in that same period4 ,one of the important features which contributed to the success of the machine-gun program was the cordial spirit of cooperation which the ,war ,department met from the machine-gun manufacturers4 ,competitive commercial advantages weighed not at all against the national need1 and the ,department found itself possessed of a group of enthusiastic and loyal partners with whom it could attack the vast problem of machine-gun supply4 ,without these partners and this spirit1 the problem could not have been solved4 ,the ,united ,states1 starting almost from the zero point1 developed in little more than a year a machine-gun production greater than that of any other country in the world1 although some of those countries had been fighting a desperate war for three years and building machine guns to the limit of their capacity4 ,acceptances of automatic arms1 by months1 in ,united ,states and ,canada on ,united ,states ,army orders only4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aiah ------------------------------------ ,to ,jan4 #a4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,ground machine guns4 ,browning heavy #ab #ibb #b1fbj ,vickers field #b1jca #a1jba #iea #a1chf #a1cda #a1bjh #a1cdi ,colt #b1ejj #cje ,lewis field #b1bji #bia ,lewis caliber 4#cjc #gej #cjj ,aircraft machine guns4 ,browning ,marlin #ab #c1acd #c1hej #c1dai #e1gej #f1bej #bai ,lewis flexible #f #edj #a1jhe #a1efh #a1ccc #b1fbi #d1cdb ,vickers caliber 4#cj ,vickers #aa-mm #gb ,tank machine guns4 ,browning ,marlin ,automatic rifles4 ,browning light #ae #edh #cfc #a1hbb #c1hgf ---------------------------------------- -- ,total #g1ejh #d1ihf #e1ija #f1iba #i1jiiab1hcaab1ghc ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #aiah ------------------------------------ ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,ground machine guns4 ,browning heavy #d1bbe #i1ahb #h1hchad1fci #f1fed #i1eaf #ef1fjh ,vickers field #a1efe #ghi #cha #ajc #ab1abe ,colt #aa #b1haf ,lewis field #b1ejj ,lewis caliber 4#cjc #a1jej ,aircraft machine guns4 ,browning #baa #cfc #f #ehj ,marlin #f1cef #g1bfi #a1fia #ej #ch1jjj ,lewis flexible #d1cch #e1eie #c1igc #e1heg #c1gib #d1adb #ci1bjj ,vickers caliber 4#cj #cjg #ege #cgc #a1bba #b1dgf ,vickers #aa-mm #bfc #ie #bed #aag #afa #bgf #a1bch ,tank machine guns4 ,browning #c #a #d ,marlin #beajc #beibecafbedfjbeehbbea1dgj ,automatic rifles4 ,browning light #h1aifab1eag #f1hifac1fhgaa1cfhaj1fgb #fi1ifj ---------------------------------------- ---- ,total #bd1iedce1ddgbb1cdjce1bcibb1gadbe1hcd #bbf1eeg ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #be ,modified from aircraft1 not included in total4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,service ,,rifles4 ,although in the #ai months of ,american belligerency in the great war we had sent to ,france upward of two million soldiers1 each rifleman among them as he stepped aboard his transport carried his own gun4 ,this weapon1 which was to be his comrade and best friend in the perilous months to come1 was an ,american rifle1 a rifle at least the equal of any in use by soldiers of other nations1 a rifle manufactured in an ,american plant4 ,it may have been one of the dependable ,springfield rifles4 ,more likely1 it was a modified #aiag ,enfield1 built from a design ,british in fundamental character1 but modified for greater efficiency by ,american ordnance officers after the actual entry of the ,united ,states in the great struggle4 ,when it is considered that even a nation of such military genius as ,france1 especially skilled as she was in the construction of military weapons1 was three years developing her full ordnance program1 even though working at top speed1 the rifle production of the ,united ,states stands out as one of the feats of the war4 ,the story of the modified #aiag ,enfield1 which was the rifle on which the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces based their chief dependence1 is an inspiring chapter in our munitions history4 ,to get this weapon we temporarily forsook the most accurate ,army rifle the world had ever seen and straightway produced in great quantities another one1 a new model1 that proved itself to be almost1 if not quite1 as serviceable for the kind of warfare in which we were to engage4 ,it is the story of triumph over difficulties1 of ,american productive genius at its best4 ,america1 since the days of ,daniel ,boone a nation of crack shots1 was naturally the home of good rifles4 ,hence1 perhaps1 it is not surprising that the ,united ,states should be the nation to produce the closest shooting military rifle known in its day4 ,this was the ,united ,states rifle1 model of #aijc1 popularly called the ,springfield4 ,the ,springfield rifle had superseded in our ,army the ,krag1 which we had used in the ,spanish-,american ,war4 ,in that conflict the ,spanish ,army used a rifle of ,german design1 the ,mauser4 ,our ordnance officers at that time considered the ,krag to be a more accurate weapon than the ,mauser4 ,still we were not satisfied with the ,krag1 and1 after several years of development1 in #aijc we brought out the ,springfield1 the most accurate and quickest firing rifle that had ever come from an arsenal4 ,there was no questioning the superiority of the ,springfield in point of accuracy4 ,time after time we pitted our ,army shooting teams against those of the other nations of the earth and won the international competitions with the ,springfield4 ,we won the ,olympic shoot of #aijh over ,england1 ,canada1 ,france1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,greece1 and ,denmark4 ,again1 in #aiab1 we won the ,olympic shoot against ,england1 ,sweden1 ,south ,africa1 ,france1 ,norway1 ,greece1 ,denmark1 ,russia1 and ,austria-,hungary4 ,in #aiab the ,springfield rifle1 in the hands of ,yankee marksmen1 won the ,pan ,american match at ,buenos ,aires1 and in #aiac it defeated ,argentina1 ,canada1 ,sweden1 and ,peru4 ,in all of these matches the ,mauser rifle was fired by various teams2 but the ,springfield never failed to defeat this ,german weapon1 which it was to meet later in the fighting of the great war4 ,altogether the ,springfield rifle defeated the military rifles of #ae nations in shooting competitions prior to the war1 and in #aiab1 at ,ottawa1 an ,american team firing ,springfields set marksmanship records for #hjj yards1 #ijj yards1 and #a1jjj yards that have never been broken4 ,much is to be said for the men behind these guns1 but due credit must be given to the rifles that put the bullets where the marksmen aimed4 ,such was the history of this splendid arm when the ,united ,states neared the brink of the great conflict4 ,but as war became inevitable for us and we began to have a realization of the scale on which we must prosecute it1 our ordnance officers studying the rifle problem became persuaded that our ,army could not hope to carry this magnificent weapon to ,europe as its chief small-arms reliance4 ,a brief examination of the industrial problem presented by the rifle situation in #aiag should make it clear even to a man unacquainted with machinery and manufacturing why it would be humanly impossible to equip our troops with the rifle in developing which our ordnance experts had spent so many years4 ,the ,model #aijc rifle had been built in two factories and only two--the ,springfield ,armory1 ,springfield1 ,mass41 and the ,rock ,island ,arsenal at ,rock ,island1 ,ill4 ,our ,government for several years prior to #aiag had cut down its expenditures for the manufacture of small arms and ammunition4 ,the result was that the ,rock ,island ,arsenal had ceased its production of ,springfields altogether1 while the output of rifles from the ,springfield ,armory had been greatly reduced4 ,this meant that the skilled artisans once employed in the manufacture of ,springfield rifles had been scattered to the four winds4 ,when in early #aiag it became necessary to speed up the production of rifles to the limit in these two establishments those in charge of the undertaking found that they could recover only a few of the old1 trained employees4 ,yet even when we had restaffed these two factories with skilled men their combined production at top speed could not begin to supply the quantity of rifles which our impending ,army would need4 ,therefore1 it was obviously necessary that we procure rifles from private factories4 ,why1 then1 was not the manufacture of ,springfields extended to the private plants8 ,some ante bellum effort1 indeed1 had been made looking to the production of ,springfields in commercial plants1 but lack of funds had prevented more than the outlining of the scheme4 ,any high-powered rifle is an intricate production4 ,the #aiag ,enfield is relatively simple in construction1 yet the soldier can dismount his ,enfield into #hf parts1 and some of these parts are made up of several component pieces4 ,many of these parts must be made with great precision1 gauged with microscopic nicety1 and finished with unusual accuracy4 ,to produce ,springfields on a grand scale in private plants would imply the use of thousands of gauges1 jigs1 dies1 and other small tools necessary for such a manufacture1 as well as that of great quantities of special machines4 ,none of this equipment for ,springfield rifle manufacture had been provided1 yet all of it must be supplied to the commercial plants before they could turn out rifles4 ,we should have had to spend preliminary months or even years in building up an adequate manufacturing equipment for ,springfields1 the while our boys in ,france were using what odds and ends of rifle equipment the ,government might be able to purchase for them1 except for a condition in our small-arms industry in early #aiag that now seems to have been well-nigh providential4 ,among others1 both the ,british and the ,russian ,governments in the emergency of #aiad and #aiae had turned to the ,united ,states to supplement their sources of rifle supply while they1 particularly the ,british1 were building up their home manufacturing capacity4 ,there were five ,american concerns engaged in the production of rifles on these large foreign orders when we entered the war4 ,three of them were the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co41 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn42 the ,remington ,arms-,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,co41 of ,ilion1 ,n4 ,y42 and the ,remington ,arms ,co4 of ,delaware at its enormous war-contract factory at ,eddystone1 ,pa41 later a part of the ,midvale ,steel ,ordnance ,co4 ,these concerns had developed their manufacturing facilities on a huge scale to turn out rifles for the ,british ,government4 ,by the spring of #aiag ,england had built up her own manufacturing facilities at home1 and the last of her ,american contracts were nearing completion4 ,here1 then1 was at hand a huge capacity which1 added to our ,government arsenals1 could turn out every rifle the ,american ,army would require1 regardless of how many troops we were to put in the field4 ,but what of the gun that these plants were making--the ,british ,enfield rifle8 ,as soon as war became a certainty for us the ,ordnance ,department sent its best rifle experts to these private plants to study the ,british ,enfield in detail4 ,they returned to headquarters without enthusiasm for it2 in fact1 regarding it as a weapon not good enough for an ,american soldier4 ,a glance at the history of the ,british ,enfield will make clear some of our objections to it4 ,until the advent of the #aijc ,springfield1 the ,german ,mauser had occupied the summit of military-rifle supremacy4 ,from #aijc until the advent of the great war these two rifles1 the ,mauser and the ,springfield1 were easily the two leaders4 ,the ,british ,army had been equipped with the ,lee-,enfield for some years prior to the outbreak of the great war1 but the ,british ordnance authorities had been making vigorous efforts to improve this weapon4 ,the ,enfield was at a disadvantage principally in its ammunition4 ,it fired a 4#cjc-;caliber cartridge with a rimmed head4 ,from a ballistic standpoint this cartridge was virtually obsolete4 ,in #aiad a new1 improved ,enfield1 known as the ,pattern '#ad1 was brought out in ,england1 and the ,british ,government was on the point of adopting it when the great war broke out4 ,this was to be a gun of 4#bgf caliber and was to shoot rimless1 or cannelured1 cartridges similar to the standard ,united ,states ammunition4 ,the war threw the whole ,british improved ,enfield project on the scrap heap4 ,england was no more equipped to build the improved ,enfields than we were to produce ,springfields in our private plants4 ,the ,british arsenals and industrial plants and her ammunition factories were equipped to turn out in the quantities demanded by the war only the old short ,enfield and its antiquated 4#cjc rimmed cartridges4 ,now ,england was obliged to turn to outside sources for an additional rifle supply1 and in the ,united ,states she found the three firms named above willing to undertake large rifle contracts4 ,having to build up factory equipment anew in the ,united ,states for this work1 ,england found that she might as well have the ,american plants manufacture the improved ,enfield as the older type4 ,to produce the #aiad ,enfield without change in ,america and the older-type ,enfield in ,england would complicate the ,british rifle-ammunition manufacture1 since these rifles used cartridges of different sizes and types4 ,accordingly1 the ,british selected the improved ,enfield for the ,american manufacture1 but modified it to receive the 4#cjc rimmed cartridges4 ,this was the gun1 then1 that we found being produced at ,new ,haven1 ,ilion1 and ,eddystone in the spring of #aiag4 ,the rifle had many of the characteristics of the #aijc ,springfield1 but it was not so good as the ,springfield in its proportions1 and its sights lacked some of the refinements to which ,americans were accustomed4 ,yet even so it was a weapon obviously superior to either the ,french or ,russian rifle4 ,the ammunition which it fired was out of the question for us4 ,not only was it inferior1 but1 since we expected to continue to build the ,springfields at the ,government arsenals1 we should1 if we adopted the ,enfield as it was1 be forced to produce two sizes of rifle ammunition1 a condition leading to delay and unsatisfactory output4 ,the rifle had been designed originally for rimless ammunition and later modified2 so it could be modified readily back again to shoot our standard 4#cj-;caliber ,springfield cartridges4 ,it may be seen that the ,ordnance ,department had before it three courses open1 any one of which it might take4 ,it could spend the time to equip private plants to manufacture ,springfields1 in which case the ,american rifle program would be hopelessly delayed4 ,it could get guns immediately by contracting for the production of ,british 4#cjc ,enfields1 in which case the ,american troops would carry inferior rifles with them to ,france4 ,or1 it could take a relatively brief time1 accept the criticism bound to come from any delay1 however brief such delay might be and however justified by the practical conditions1 and modify the ,enfield to take our ammunition1 in which case the ,american troops would be adequately equipped with a good weapon4 ,the decision to modify the ,enfield was one of the great decisions of the executive prosecution of the war--all honor to the men who made it4 ,the three concerns which had been manufacturing the ,british weapons conceded that it should be changed to take the ,american ammunition4 ,each company sent to the ,springfield ,armory on ,may #aj1 #aiag1 a model modified rifle to be tested4 ,the test showed the weapons still to be unsatisfactory1 principally because they had not been standardized4 ,standardization was regarded as an essential for two reasons1 one of them a matter of practical tactics in the field and the other relating to production speed4 ,to begin with1 the soldier on the battle field is his own rifle repairman4 ,his unit usually has on hand a supply of weapons damaged or out of commission for one reason or another4 ,if1 therefore1 any part of the soldier's rifle is broken or damaged1 he can go to the stock of unused guns on hand and take from another rifle the part which he requires2 and it will fit his gun1 provided there has been standardization in the rifle manufacture at home4 ,but if the guns have not been standardized and each weapon is a filing and tinkering job in the assembly room of the factory1 then the soldier in the field is not likely to be able to find a part that will fit on his gun2 and his rifle1 if damaged1 goes out of commission4 ,or1 if he finds a part which fits but does not fit perfectly1 his gun may break as he fires it1 and he himself may suffer serious injury4 ,in the second place1 standardization is essential to great speed in production4 ,if one plant producing rifles encounters a shortage in any of the parts of the gun1 it can send to another plant and secure a supply of these parts1 a favorable condition in manufacture that is impossible if the weapon has not been standardized4 ,the value of standardization in speeding up manufacture1 however1 is best shown in the actual records of rifle production during the war4 ,the fastest mechanic in any of the three ,enfield factories before #aiag had set an assembly record of #ej rifles in one working day for the ,british gun4 ,after we had standardized the ,enfield the high assembly record was #bhj rifles a day1 while the assemblers in the plants averaged #bej rifles a day per man when the work was well started4 ,the ,enfields sent to the ,springfield ,armory test were not standardized at all1 but were largely hand fitted4 ,little or no attempt had been made to obtain interchangeability of parts among the rifles turned out by the three plants4 ,even the bolt taken from one company's rifle would not enter the receiver of another company's4 ,the ,ordnance ,department was confronted with the dilemma of approving and issuing a weapon pronounced unsuitable by its own experts and thus obtaining speedy production1 or of delaying until interchangeability was established4 ,it chose the latter course4 ,on ,july #ab a second set of rifles had been tested4 ,these came more nearly up to our ideas of standardization1 but were still not entirely satisfactory4 ,nevertheless we decided to go ahead with production and improve the standardization as we went along4 ,the ,winchester and ,ilion plants elected to start work on that understanding1 but ,eddystone preferred to wait for the final requirements4 ,ilion afterwards decided to postpone production until the final specifications were adopted4 ,it would have been well if the same course had been followed at the ,winchester plant1 for word came later from ,europe not to send over rifles of ,winchester manufacture of that period4 ,the final drawings of the standardized and modified ,enfield did not come from the plants until ,august #ah4 ,six days later the thousands of dimensions had been carefully checked and finally approved by the ordnance officers1 and after that production started off in earnest4 ,the wisdom of adopting the ,enfield rifle and modifying it to meet our requirements instead of extending the manufacture of ,springfields was almost immediately apparent1 for in ,august1 almost as soon as the final drawings were approved1 the first rifles were delivered to the ,government4 ,this was possible because the modifications which we adopted did not require any fundamental changing of machinery4 ,the principal equipment of these plants was in place and ready to begin manufacturing ,enfields at once2 and while the changes in the rifle were under discussion1 the manufacturers were producing their gauges and small tools as each modification was decided upon4 ,while we did not succeed in attaining1 nor did we attempt to attain1 in fact1 complete standardization and interchangeability of the parts of the ,enfields1 we did all that was practicable in this direction1 several tests showing that the average of interchangeability was about #ie per cent of the total parts4 ,meanwhile we were building up the working staffs of the ,rock ,island ,arsenal and ,springfield ,armory and speeding the production of ,springfields4 ,before the war ended the ,rock ,island ,arsenal1 which was making spare parts for ,springfields1 reached an output equaling #a1jjj completed rifles a day1 while the ,springfield ,armory attained a high average of #a1ejj assembled rifles a day in addition to spare parts equaling #ajj completed rifles daily4 ,the ,eddystone plant finished its ,british contracts on ,june #a1 ,winchester produced its last ,british rifle on ,june #bh1 and ,ilion on ,july #ba1 #aiag4 ,winchester delivered the first modified ,enfields to us on ,august #ah1 ,eddystone on ,september #aj1 and ,ilion about ,october #bh4 ,the progress in the manufacture was thereafter steadily upward4 ,during the week ending ,february #b1 #aiah1 the daily production of military rifles in the ,united ,states was #i1bdg1 of which #g1hje were modified ,enfields produced in the three private plants1 and #a1ddb were ,springfields built in the two arsenals4 ,the total production for that week was #ej1hgc guns of both types1 or nearly enough for three ,army divisions4 ,in spite of the time that went into the standardization of the ,enfield rifle1 all troops leaving the ,united ,states were armed with ,american weapons at the ports of embarkation4 ,ten months after we declared war against ,germany we were producing in a week four times as many rifles as ,great ,britain had turned out in a similar period after #aj months of war1 and our production was then twice as large in volume as ,great ,britain had attained in the war up to that time4 ,by the middle of ,june1 #aiah1 we had passed the million and one-half mark in the production of rifles of all sorts1 this figure including over #bej1jjj rifles which had been built upon original contracts placed by the former ,russian government4 ,the production of ,enfields and ,springfields during the war up to ,november #i1 #aiah1 amounted to a total of #b1ejf1cjg guns4 ,of these #cab1hgh were ,springfield rifles produced by the two ,government arsenals4 ,we had started the war with a reserve of #fjj1jjj ,springfield rifles on hand1 and in addition stored in our armories and arsenals were #afj1jjj ,krags4 ,these latter had to be cleaned and repaired in large part before they could be used4 ,from the ,canadian ,government we purchased #bj1jjj ,ross rifles4 ,the deliveries of ,russian rifles totaled #bhj1jdi4 ,this gave us a total equipment of #c1ege1cef rifles4 ,since approximately one-half of the soldiers of an army as actually organised carry rifles1 the number of rifles procured in all by the ,ordnance ,department was sufficient to arm both for fighting and for training an army of #g1jjj1jjj men1 disregarding reserve and maintenance rifles4 ,the ,enfield thus became the dominant rifle of our military effort4 ,with its modified firing mechanism it could use the superior ,springfield cartridges with their great accuracy4 ,the ,enfield sights1 by having the peep sight close to the eye of the firer1 gave even greater quickness of aim than the ,springfield sights afforded4 ,in this respect the weapon was far superior to the ,mauser1 which was the main dependence of the ,german ,army4 ,all in all to a weapon that made scant appeal to our ordnance officers in a few weeks we added improvements and modifications that made the #aiag ,enfield a gun that for the short-range fighting in ,europe compared favorably with the ,springfield and was to the allied cause a distinct contribution which ,america substantially could claim to be her own4 ,standardization not only made possible the ultimate speed with which our rifles were produced but1 together with the care of the ,government in purchasing raw materials and in drawing contracts1 it saved a great deal of money in the cost of these weapons4 ,the ,british had been paying approximately #db apiece for ,enfields produced in the ,united ,states4 ,the modified ,enfields cost the ,government approximately #bf each4 ,thus in the total production of #b1bjb1dbi modified ,enfields1 we saved #cg1dda1bic compared with what this weapon had cost in the past4 ,both the ,springfield and the #aiag ,enfield rifle possessed advantages of accuracy and speed of fire over the ,german ,mauser4 ,it is true that the ,mauser fired a heavier bullet than that of our standard ammunition and sent it with somewhat greater velocity2 but at the longer fighting ranges the ,mauser bullet is not so accurate as the ,united ,states bullet4 ,due to its peculiar shape1 the ,mauser bullet is apt to tumble end over end at long ranges--key-holing1 the marksmen call it--particularly when the wind blows across the range4 ,such tumbling causes a bullet to curve as a baseball thrown by a good pitcher1 destroying its accuracy4 ,early in our fighting with ,germany we captured ,mauser rifles and hastened to compare them with the ,springfields and modified ,enfields4 ,we found in the ,american rifles a marked superiority in the rapidity of fire1 the quickness and ease of sighting1 and in the accuracy of shots fired4 ,the accuracy was due not only to our standard ,springfield ammunition1 but also to the greater mechanical accuracy in the finish of the chamber and bore of the ,american rifles4 ,the rapidity of fire of the ,american guns was due to the position and shape of the bolt handle1 which is the movable mechanism on the rifle with which the soldier ejects a spent shell and throws in a fresh one4 ,how we developed this bolt handle is an interesting story in itself4 ,in #aijc1 when we brought out the first ,springfield rifle1 we decided to abandon the old carbine which had been carried by our ,cavalry regiments and1 by making a rifle with a comparatively short barrel1 furnish a gun which could be used by both ,infantry and ,cavalry4 ,the original bolt handle of the ,springfield1 like the one on the present ,mauser1 had projected horizontally from the side of the chamber4 ,it was found that this protuberance did not fit well in the saddle holster of the cavalryman1 but jammed the side of the rifle against the leather of the holster1 with frequent injury to the rifle sight4 ,for this primary reason the rifle designers bent the bolt handle down and back4 ,this modification incidentally brought the bolt handle much nearer to the soldier's hand as he fingered the trigger than it had been before4 ,the ,enfield design had carried this development even farther1 so that the bolt handle was practically right at the trigger1 and the rifleman's hand was ready to pull the trigger the instant after it had thrown in a new cartridge4 ,let us see what effect this design of the bolt handle had in the recent war4 ,the ,mauser still clung to the old horizontal bolt handle well away from the trigger grip4 ,some of our best riflemen practiced with the captured ,mausers and1 firing at top speed with them1 could not bring the rate of shooting anywhere near up to the marks set by the ,enfields and ,springfields4 ,one enthusiast has even maintained that the speed of the ,mauser is not over #ej per cent of that of the #aiag ,american rifle1 but this may be an underestimate4 ,on such a basis the result was that under battle conditions with equal numbers of men on a side the ,americans had in effect two rifles to the ,germans one4 ,to put it another way1 by bending back the bolt handle we had placed two men on the firing line where there was only one before2 but the added man required no shelter1 nor any clothing1 nor rations1 nor water1 nor pay4 ,although he sometimes needed repairing1 he did not get sick1 nor did he ever become an economic burden nor draw a pension4 ,his only added cost to the ,government was an increased consumption of cartridges4 ,when ,american troops were in the heat of the fighting in the summer of #aiah1 the ,german government sent a protest through a neutral agency to our ,government asserting that our men were using shotguns against ,german troops in the trenches4 ,the allegation was true2 but our ,state ,department replied that the use of such weapons was not forbidden by the ,geneva ,convention as the ,germans had asserted4 ,manufactured primarily for the purpose of arming guards placed over ,german prisoners1 these shotguns were undoubtedly in some instances carried into the actual fighting4 ,the ,ordnance ,department procured some #cj1jjj to #dj1jjj shotguns of the short-barrel or sawed-off type1 ordering these from the regular commercial manufacturers4 ,the shell provided for these guns each contained a charge of nine heavy buckshot1 a combination likely to have murderous effect in close fighting4 ,such was the rifle record of this ,government in the war4 ,the ,americans carried into battle the best rifles used in the war1 and ,america's industry produced these weapons in the emergency at a rate which armed our soldiers as rapidly as they could be trained for fighting4 ,success in such a task looked almost impossible at the start2 but that it was attained should forever be a source of gratification to the ,american people4 ,rifle production to ,nov4 #i1 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,months4 ,eddystone4,winchester4 ,ilion4,spring- ,rock ,total4 field ,island ,armory4,arsenal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,before ,august1 #aiag #ad1ihf #a1fhj #af1fff ,aug4 #a1 #aiag to ,dec4 #ca1 #aiag #agd1afj #ajb1cfc #bf1cfd #hi1dgi #bb1ccj #dad1fif #aiah ,january #ha1hdf #ci1bjj #cb1dec #bc1hij #g1fhj #ahe1jfi ,february #ih1cde #cb1ffj #ci1heb #f1iaj #b1dfj #ahj1bbg ,march #fh1djd #db1bjj #di1ech #abj #dbj #afj1fhb ,april #hg1ejh #dc1fjj #cf1cgg #b1fca #agj1aaf ,may #hd1ibi #da1fbh #ed1dgg #c1dbj #eej #ahe1jjd ,june #ajd1aaj #cd1bdi #eb1iie #f1adj #fai #aih1aac ,july #ace1jhj #ce1gjj #fj1dac #ad1hda #b1jch #bdh1jgb ,august #ajf1eie #bj1jcj #fe1add #bg1jbj #a1eig #bbj1chf ,september #aaj1jeh #ca1eej #eh1jbg #bi1ggj #c1hac #bcc1bah ,october #ajj1bad #cc1gjj #ec1efc #ce1ibj #c1bef #bbf1fec ,nov4 #a-i1 #aiah #cj1fei #i1ajj #af1cch #aj1ejj #hjh #fg1dje ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,total #a1aha1ijh #dfe1ihjede1edabfe1fbg #dg1beab1ejf1cjg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,note4--,eddystone1 ,winchester1 and ,ilion plants turned out the ,united ,states rifle1 caliber 4#cj1 model #aiag1 popularly known as the ,enfield1 while the ,springfield ,armory and the ,rock ,island ,arsenal produced the ,united ,states rifle1 caliber 4#cj4 model #aijc1 popularly known as the ,springfield rifle4 ,the months marked by a drop in the production at ,springfield and at ,rock ,island were months in which the components manufactured were not assembled but were used for spare parts4 ,illustration3 ,,remington ,,repeating ,,shotgun1 #ab-;,,gauge1 ,,with ,,bayonet1 ,,model #aiag4 ,illustration3 ,,winchester ,,repeating ,,shotgun1 #ab-;,,gauge1 ,,with ,,bayonet1 ,,model #aiag4 ,illustration3 ,,browning ,,automatic ,,rifle1 ,,model #aiah1 ,,caliber 4#cj4 ,illustration3 ,u4,s4 ,,modified ,,enfield ,,rifle1 ,,caliber 4#cj1 ,,model #aiag1 ,,bayonet1 ,,model #aiag4 ,u4,s4 ,,magazine 7,,springfield7 ,,rifle1 ,,caliber 4#cj1 ,,model #aijc1 ,,bayonet1 ,,model #aije4 ,illustration3 ,,colt ,,double ,,action ,,revolver1 ,,caliber 4#de1 ,,model #aiag4 ,illustration3 ,,smith ,,wesson ,,double ,,action ,,revolver1 ,,caliber 4#de1 ,,model #aiag4 ,illustration3 ,,automatic ,,pistol1 ,,caliber 4#de1 ,,model #aiaa4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,pistols ,,and ,,revolvers4 ,the ,american pistol was one of the great successes of the war4 ,for several years before the war came the ,ordnance ,department had been collaborating with private manufacturers to develop the automatic pistol2 but none of our officers realized until the supreme test came what an effective weapon the ,colt 4#de would be in the hand-to-hand fighting of the trenches4 ,in our isolation we had suspected1 perhaps1 that the bayonet and such new weapons as the modern hand grenade had encroached upon the field of the pistol and revolver4 ,we were soon to discover our mistake4 ,in the hands of a determined ,american soldier the pistol proved to be a weapon of great execution1 and it was properly feared by the ,german troops4 ,we had long been a nation of pistol shooters1 we ,americans1 but not until the year #aiaa did we develop a pistol of the accuracy and rapidity of fire demanded by our ordnance experts4 ,the nations of ,europe had neglected this valuable arm almost altogether1 regarding it principally as a military ornament which only officers should carry4 ,the result of ,europe's neglect was that the small-caliber revolvers of the ,germans and even of the ,french and ,english were toys in comparison with the big ,colts that armed the ,american soldiers4 ,america owed the ,colt 4#de to the experiences of our fighters in the ,philippines1 and to the inventive genius of ,john ,browning of machine-gun fame4 ,in the earlier ,philippine campaigns our troops used a 4#ch-;caliber pistol4 ,our soldiers observed that when the tough tribesmen were hit with these bullets and even seriously wounded they frequently kept on fighting for some time4 ,what was needed was a hand weapon that would put the adversary out of fighting the instant he was hit1 whether fatally or not4 ,we therefore increased the caliber of the automatic pistol to 4#de and slowed down the bullet so that it tore flesh instead of making a clean perforation4 ,these improvements gave the missile the impact of a sledge hammer1 and a man hit went down every time4 ,moreover1 in this development great improvement had been made in the accuracy of the weapon1 the #aiaa ,colt being the straightest-shooting pistol ever produced in this country4 ,even the best of the older automatics and revolvers were accurate only in the hands of expert marksmen4 ,but any average soldier with average training can hit what he shoots at with a ,colt4 ,the improvements in the automatic features brought it to the stage where it could be fired by a practiced man #ba times in #ab seconds4 ,in this operation the recoil of each discharge ejects the empty shell and loads in a fresh one4 ,only a few men of each infantry regiment carried pistols when our troops first went into the trenches4 ,but in almost the first skirmish this weapon proved its superior usefulness in trench fighting4 ,such incidents as that of the single ,american soldier who dispersed or killed a whole squad of ,german bayoneteers which had surrounded him struck the enemy with fear of ,yankee prowess with the pistol4 ,the tenderfoot's gun1 as the westerners loved to call it1 had come to its own4 ,by midsummer of #aiag the decision had been made to supply to the infantry a much more extensive equipment of automatic pistols than had previously been prescribed by regulations--to build them by hundreds of thousands where we had been turning them out by thousands4 ,in ,february1 with war in sight1 realizing the limitations of our capacity then for producing pistols1 the ,colt automatic being manufactured exclusively by the ,colt's ,patent ,firearms ,manufacturing ,co4 at ,hartford1 ,conn41 and for a limited period by the ,springfield ,armory1 we took up with the ,colt ,co4 the proposition of securing drawings and other engineering data which would enable us to extend the production of this weapon to other plants4 ,this work was in progress when in ,april1 #aiag1 it was interrupted by the military necessity for calling upon every energy we had in the production of rifles4 ,in order to supplement the pistol supply1 although the ,colt automatic was the only weapon of this sort approved for the ,army1 the ,secretary of ,war authorized the ,chief of ,ordnance to secure other small arms1 particularly the double-action 4#de-;caliber revolver as manufactured by both the ,colt ,co4 and the ,smith ,wesson ,co4 ,these revolvers had been designed to use the standard ,army caliber-4#de pistol cartridges4 ,the revolver was not so effective a weapon as the automatic pistol1 but it was adopted in the emergency only to make it possible to provide sufficient of these arms for the troops at the outset4 ,at the start of hostilities the ,colt ,co4 indicated that it could tool up to produce pistols at the rate of #f1jjj per month by ,december1 #aiag1 and could also furnish #fjj revolvers a week beginning in ,april4 ,as soon as funds were available we let a contract to the ,colt ,co4 for #ejj1jjj pistols and #ajj1jjj revolvers1 and to the ,smith ,wesson ,co4 one for #ajj1jjj revolvers4 ,although these contracts were not placed until ,june #ae1 in the certainty that funds would eventually be available both concerns had been working on the production of weapons on these expected contracts for many weeks4 ,when the order came from ,france to increase the pistol equipment1 in addition to efforts to increase production at the plants of the two existing contractors we made studies of numerous other concerns which might undertake this class of manufacture4 ,the proposal to purchase 4#ch-;caliber revolvers as a supplementary supply was abandoned for the reason that any expansion of this manufacture and of that for the necessary ammunition would be at the expense of the ultimate output of 4#des and ammunition therefor4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 the ,remington ,arms-,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,co4 was instructed to prepare for the manufacture of #aej1jjj automatics1 ,colt model #aiaa1 at a rate to reach a maximum production of #c1jjj per day4 ,considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary drawings and designs1 because the manufacture of these pistols at the ,colt ,co4 plant had been largely in the hands of expert veteran mechanics1 who knew tricks of fitting and assembling not apparent in the drawings4 ,the result was that the drawings in existence were not completely representative of the pistols4 ,finally complete plans were drawn up that covered all details and gave interchangeability between the parts of pistols produced by the ,remington ,co4 and those by the ,colt ,co41 which was the goal sought4 ,during the summer of #aiah in order to fill the enormously increased pistol requirements of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 contracts for the ,colt automatic were given to the ,national ,cash ,register ,co41 at ,dayton1 ,ohio2 the ,north ,american ,arms ,co41 ,quebec2 the ,savage ,arms ,co41 ,utica1 ,n4 ,y42 ,caron ,bros41 ,montreal2 the ,burroughs ,adding ,machine ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich42 the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co41 ,new ,haven1 ,conn42 the ,lanston ,monotype ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa42 and the ,savage ,munitions ,co41 ,san ,diego1 ,calif4 ,all of these concerns1 none of which had ever before produced the 4#de-;caliber pistol1 were proceeding energetically with their preparations for manufacture when the armistice came to cancel their contracts4 ,no pistols were ever obtained from any except the ,colt's ,patent ,fire ,arms ,manufacturing ,co4 and the ,remington ,arms-,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,co4 ,difficulty was experienced in securing machinery to check the walnut grip for the pistols1 and to avoid delay in production the ,ordnance ,department authorized the use of ,bakelite for pistol grips in all the new plants which were to manufacture the gun4 ,bakelite is a substitute for hard rubber or amber1 invented by the eminent chemist ,dr4 ,baekeland4 ,at the outbreak of the war the ,army owned approximately #ge1jjj 4#de-;caliber automatic pistols4 ,at the signing of the armistice there had been produced and accepted since ,april #f1 #aiag1 a total of #fdc1gee pistols and revolvers4 ,the production of pistols was #cge1djd and that of revolvers #bfh1cea4 ,in the four months prior to ,november #aa1 #aiah1 the average daily production of automatic pistols was #a1iic and of revolvers #a1bcc4 ,this was at the yearly production rate of approximately #fjj1jjj pistols and #cgj1jjj revolvers4 ,these pistols were produced at an approximate cost of #ae each4 ,production of pistols and revolvers to ,dec4 #ca4 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,pistols4 ,revolvers4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,total pistols ,reming- ,total ,smith ,total and ,colt4 ton pistols4 ,colt4 ,wesson4revolv-revolv- ,u4,m4,c4 ers4 ers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,apr4 #f to ,dec4 #eh1ejj #eh1ejj #bj1ijj #i1eac #cj1dac #hh1iac #bi1 #aiag ,january1 #aiah #aa1jjj #aa1jjj #h1gjj #g1ejj #af1bjj #bg1bjj ,february1 #aiah #ad1ejj #ad1ejj #h1hjj #h1eej #ag1cej #ca1hej ,march1 #aiah #ba1cjj #ba1cjj #aa1hjj #ab1djj #bd1bjj #de1ejj ,april1 #aiah #bb1djj #bb1djj #aj1djj #aj1fej #ba1jej #dc1dej ,may1 #aiah #ce1jjj #ce1jjj #aa1ajj #ab1aej #bc1bej #eh1bej ,june1 #aiah #cg1hjj #cg1hjj #aa1ajj #ad1bej #be1cej #fc1aej ,july1 #aiah #ci1hjj #ci1hjj #aa1fjj #aa1eee #bc1aee #fb1iee ,august4 #aiah #dj1djj #dj1djj #aa1cjj #ac1ceh #bd1feh #fe1jeh ,september1 #aiah #cb1ajj #fdj #cb1gdj #aa1ajj #ab1fej #bc1gej #ef1dij ,october1 #aiah #db1cjj #c1hha #df1aha #ac1ejj #af1fge #cj1age #gf1cef ,november1 #aiah #de1hjj #d1ajb #di1ijb #aa1ijj #ab1ffj #bd1efj #gd1dfb ,december1 #aiah #bd1fjj #d1ebi #bi1abi #i1ejj #aa1djj #bj1ijj #ej1jbi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total #dbe1ejj #ac1aeb #dch1febaea1gjjaec1caacje1jaagdc1ffc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,small-,,arms ,,ammunition4 ,prior to the war with ,germany the ,ordnance ,department1 in providing 4#cj-;caliber ammunition for our ,army rifles and machine guns1 had thought in terms of millions and had placed its ammunition orders on that scale4 ,but when hostilities were at hand and steel and walnut were being assembled into rifles to arm the indefinitely increasing millions of ,yankee soldiers that we would send and keep on sending to ,europe until victory was ours1 small-arms ammunition stepped out of the million class and became an industry whose units of production were reckoned by the billion4 ,the war increased the human strength of the ,american ,army approximately thirty times4 ,that ratio of increase was carried over into a production of ammunition for rifles and machine guns4 ,the story of ammunition in the war is the story of a three-billion output forced from a hundred-million capacity4 ,in this effort we find another of those frequent industrial romances which the war produced in ,america2 for1 when called upon to do more than an industrial possibility1 as we regarded such things in #aiag1 the contriving executive and organizing ability and the skillful hands of the ammunition industry made good4 ,our 4#cj-;caliber ammunition capacity in the ,united ,states prior to the war was about #ajj1jjj1jjj cartridges per year4 ,we actually produced in the war period the huge total of #c1ejg1jbc1cjj small-arms cartridges4 ,pushed at feverish haste1 such expansion naturally recorded its mistakes and its failures2 but none of these was fatal or irremediable4 ,the fact will always remain that a difficult art was enlarged in time to take care of every demand of the ,american ,army for small-arms ammunition1 and that no military operation on our part was held up by lack of this ammunition4 ,hence it is submitted that the production of small-arms cartridges was one of the genuine achievements of our ,ordnance ,department4 ,let us consider first the production of the 4#cj-;caliber service ammunition1 which may be regarded as the standard product of the ammunition industry4 ,this was the ammunition used in our two service rifles1 the ,springfield or ,united ,states model of #aijc and the ,united ,states model of #aiag1 which is a modification of the ,british rifle1 pattern #aiad1 and in most of the machine guns which we fired in ,france1 although we used the #h-millimeter cartridge with the ,chauchat machine rifle4 ,when the war broke out we had on hand approximately #bjj1jjj1jjj rounds of 4#cj-;caliber cartridges4 ,most of these had been manufactured by the ,government at the ,frankford ,arsenal1 which was1 in fact1 practically the only plant in the ,united ,states equipped to produce this ammunition in any appreciable quantities4 ,for some years prior to the war1 however1 the ,government had adopted the policy of encouraging the manufacture of ,army ammunition in private plants4 ,this was done by placing with various concerns small annual orders for this type of ammunition4 ,these orders were usually in the neighborhood of #a1jjj1jjj rounds each4 ,the purpose of such orders1 insignificant as they were1 was to scatter throughout the principal private ammunition factories the necessary jigs1 fixtures1 gauges1 and other tooling required in the production of cartridges for ,army rifles and machine guns4 ,these small orders might also be expected to educate the operating forces of the private plants in this manufacture4 ,by this means the ,government hoped to have in an emergency a nucleus of skill and equipment which could be quickly expanded to meet war requirements4 ,as a further means of stimulating interest in this peace-time undertaking the ,ordnance ,department conducted each year a sort of competition among the private manufacturers of small-arms ammunition4 ,the output of each factory accepting the ,government orders was tested for proper functioning and accuracy2 and those cartridges which won in this competition were used as the ammunition shot in the national rifle matches4 ,thus the winning concern could use its achievement in its advertising4 ,but these educational efforts on the part of the ,government failed to create a capacity that was anywhere near to being adequate to meet the demands of such a war as that into which we were plunged in the year #aiag4 ,we had built up no large reserves of ammunition1 and the orders placed with private manufacturers had been so small that they had resulted in virtually no factory preparation at all for great quantity production4 ,to all practical purposes the entire ammunition manufacturing capacity of 4#cj-;caliber cartridges in #aiag was encompassed within the walls of the ,frankford ,arsenal4 ,there was1 however1 in the ammunition industry a fortunate condition existing when we entered the war4 ,for some time numerous ,american concerns had been working on the manufacture of cartridges for both the ,british and the ,french ,governments4 ,the cartridges being turned out under these contracts were not suitable for our use1 being of different caliber than those taken by ,american weapons1 and this meant that the machinery in existence could not be converted to the production of ,american ammunition without radical and time-consuming alteration of tools1 etc4 ,however1 cartridges are cartridges1 regardless of their size2 and the manufacture which was supplying ,france and ,england had resulted in educating thousands of mechanics and shop executives in the production of ammunition4 ,consequently1 when we went into the war1 we had the men and the skill ready at hand2 we needed only to produce the tools and the machinery in addition to the raw materials4 ,yet this in itself was a problem4 ,how should we meet it8 ,three courses seemed to be possible for the ,government4 ,in the first place1 we could build from the ground up an immense ,government arsenal having an annual capacity of #a1jjj1jjj1jjj rounds1 or ten times that of the great ,frankford ,arsenal4 ,or we could interest manufacturers in a project of building a private cartridge factory capable of producing #a1jjj1jjj1jjj rounds per year4 ,both of these methods were predicated on the assumption that the existing cartridge factories had their hands full with orders4 ,the third plan was to place our cartridge demands with the existing ammunition plants and let them increase their facilities to take care of our orders4 ,as soon as the early orders had been given and all available capacity had been set going1 this problem engaged the study and attention of the ,ordnance ,department4 ,in the early fall of #aiag a meeting of the manufacturers of small-arms ammunition was held in ,washington to discuss the matter4 ,principally on account of the difficulties in providing a trained working force for a new ,government arsenal or private plant1 the opinion was unanimous that the existing concerns should expand in facilities and trained personnel to handle the cartridge project4 ,out of this meeting grew the ,american ,society of ,manufacturers of ,small ,arms and ,ammunition4 ,thereafter until the close of the war this society or its committees met about once every two weeks to discuss problems arising in the work4 ,the officers of the ,ordnance ,department in charge of the ammunition project attended all of these meetings4 ,the result of such cooperation was gratifyingly shown not only in the standardization of manufacturing processes in the various plants but also in the output of cartridges4 ,the success of this effort is best shown in the production figures in the period from ,april1 #aiag1 to ,november #cj1 #aiah4 ,in that time the ,united ,states ,cartridge ,co4 turned out #fhd1ccd1cjj rounds of our caliber-4#cj service ammunition2 the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co41 #dfh1ifg1ejj rounds2 the ,remington ,arms-,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,co41 #a1bah1igi1cjj2 the ,peters ,cartridge ,co41 #hd1afi1hjj2 the ,western ,cartridge ,co41 #dh1jah1hjj2 the ,dominion ,arsenal1 #ejb1jjj2 the ,frankford ,arsenal1 #gf1gci1cjj2 and the ,national ,brass ,copper ,tube ,co41 #bb1gjj1djj4 ,this production record to some extent was made possible by a leniency on the part of the ,ordnance ,department which we had not displayed before the war4 ,when we could take plenty of time in ammunition manufacture our specifications for cartridges were extremely rigid4 ,it soon became apparent that if we adhered to our earlier specifications we would limit the output of cartridges4 ,it was found in a joint meeting of ordnance officers and ammunition manufacturers that certain increased tolerances could be permitted in our specifications without affecting the serviceability of the ammunition4 ,consequently new specifications for our war ammunition were drawn1 enabling the plants to get into quantity production much more quickly than would have been possible if we had not relaxed our prewar attitude4 ,the ordinary service cartridge consists of a brass cartridge case1 a primer1 a propelling charge of smokeless powder1 and a bullet made with a jacket or envelope of cupronickel inclosing a lead slug or core4 ,cupronickel is a hard alloy of copper and nickel4 ,steel would be the ideal covering for a bullet because of its cheapness and availability1 but steel has not been used because it is liable to rust and to destroy the delicate rifling of the gun barrel4 ,cupronickel is a compromise1 being strong enough to hold the interior lead from deforming1 but not so hard as to wear down excessively the rifling in the gun barrel4 ,even as we entered the war the long continued fighting in ,europe had created a shortage in cupronickel1 and by the time the armistice came it was apparent that this shortage would soon become so acute that we would have to find a substitute for cupronickel4 ,this shortage had already occurred in ,germany1 where the enemy ordnance engineers had produced a bullet incased in steel which in turn was clothed with a slight covering of copper4 ,the soft copper coating kept the steel from injuring the gun barrel4 ,we ourselves were experimenting with copper-coated steel bullets when peace came1 and would have been prepared to furnish a substitute had cupronickel failed us4 ,some of the earliest ammunition sent to our forces in ,france developed a tendency to hang fire and to misfire2 and a liberal quantity of it1 amounting to six months' production of the ,frankford ,arsenal1 was condemned and withdrawn from use4 ,this matter was aired fully in the newspapers at the time it occurred4 ,it developed that the faulty ammunition had been produced entirely in the ,frankford ,arsenal and that the cause of the trouble was the primer in the cartridge4 ,the primer in a cartridge performs the same function that the flint did on the old-fashioned squirrel guns--it touches off the explosive propellant charge4 ,but whereas the flint sent only a spark into the powder1 the modern primer produces a long1 hot flame4 ,the primers in the ammunition manufactured at the ,frankford ,arsenal had given ordinarily satisfactory results in #ab years of peace-time use4 ,the flame charge in this primer contained sulphur1 potassium chlorate1 and antimony sulphide4 ,produced under normal conditions1 with plenty of time for drying1 this primer was satisfactory4 ,but sulphur when oxidized changes to an acid extremely corrosive to metal parts1 and oxidized primers are liable not to function perfectly4 ,heat and moisture accelerate the change of sulphur to acid2 and if there happens to be bromate in the potassium chlorate of the priming charge1 the change is even more rapid4 ,an investigation of the ,frankford ,arsenal showed that these very elements were present4 ,because of the haste of production of cartridges1 too much moisture had been allowed to get into the arsenal dry houses4 ,the potassium chlorate was also found to contain appreciable quantities of bromate4 ,the condition was remedied by adopting another primer composition4 ,and then1 to play doubly safe1 the ,government specifications were amended to prevent the use of potassium chlorate containing more than #j4ja per cent of bromate4 ,however1 this condemned ammunition was but a trifling fraction of the total output or even of the production then going on4 ,the primers used by the various private manufacturers of ammunition functioned satisfactorily4 ,while we were not rigid in our specifications for the bulk of the service ammunition1 in one respect we were most meticulous1 and this was in respect to the ammunition used by the machine guns mounted on our airplanes4 ,for these weapons we created an ,a-#a class of service 4#cj-;caliber cartridges1 since it was highly important that there be no malfunctioning of ammunition in the air4 ,every cartridge of this class had to be specially gauged throughout its manufacture4 ,this care resulted in a slower production of airplane cartridges than that of those for use on the ground1 but we always had enough for our needs4 ,until we went to war with ,germany our ,army had known only the cartridge firing the hard-jacketed lead bullet4 ,but we entered a conflict in which several novel sorts of small-arms projectiles were in familiar use2 and it became necessary for us to take up the manufacture of these strange missiles at once4 ,these included such special types as tracer bullets to indicate the path of fire in the air1 incendiary bullets for setting on fire observation balloons1 hostile planes1 and dirigible airships1 and1 finally1 armor-piercing bullets for use against armor plate with which airplanes and tanks are equipped4 ,we had developed none of these in this country before the war1 except that in the ,frankford ,arsenal our designers had done some little experimental work with armor-piercing ammunition1 in fact carrying it to the point of an efficient design4 ,one of the first acts of the ,ordnance ,department was to send an officer to visit the ammunition factories of ,france and ,england to study the methods of manufacturing these special types of bullets4 ,these friendly nations willingly gave us full information at first hand with respect to this complicated manufacture1 which we were thus enabled to begin in ,september1 #aiag4 ,special machinery was required for loading the tracer bullet and also for producing the incendiary projectile4 ,we adopted ,british practice for both of these4 ,we ourselves were well equipped to begin the production of armor-piercing bullets1 for which we had previously solved the problems of design2 yet the production of metals to be used in this missile required some further experimental work4 ,by ,february1 #aiah1 however1 our production of armor-piercing bullets was well under way and by the time the war came to an end we had produced nearly #e1jjj1jjj of them4 ,the tracer bullet which we manufactured contained a mixture of barium peroxide and magnesium and in flight burned with the intensity of a calcium light4 ,these bullets were principally used by machine gunners of aircraft1 since in the air it is impossible to tell where machine-gun projectiles are going unless there is some device enabling the gunner to see the trajectory of the bullets4 ,this is done by inserting tracer bullets at intervals in the belts of cartridges fed into the machine gun4 ,the common conception of a tracer bullet is one that leaves a trace of smoke in its flight2 whereas the truth is that our tracer and the ,british tracer were practically smokeless1 the gunner observing the direction of aim by following the bright lights of the tracer bullets with his eye4 ,these lights were plainly visible in the brightest sunlight4 ,although the slight quantity of the flaming mixture burned but a few seconds1 it was sufficient to trace the flight for #ejj yards or more from the muzzle of the machine gun4 ,the tracer bullet consisted of a cupronickel shell1 the nose of which contained a leaden core to balance the bullet properly4 ,the rear chamber of the bullet held a cup containing the mixture of barium peroxide and magnesium4 ,the rear end of the bullet was left slightly open1 and through this opening the mixture was ignited by the hot flame of the propelling powder discharge4 ,an entirely different principle was used in the construction of the incendiary bullet4 ,this bullet was also incased in cupronickel2 but the incendiary chemical1 which was phosphorus1 was contained in a chamber in the nose of the bullet4 ,a serrated plug held the phosphorus in its chamber1 and behind this plug was a solid plug of lead coming flush with the base of the bullet and soldered thereto4 ,on one side of the missile was a hole drilled through the cupronickel into one of the grooves of the serrated plug4 ,this hole was stopped by a special kind of solder4 ,the heat of friction developed in the infinitesimal space of time while the projectile was passing through the gun barrel served the double purpose of melting out the solder from the hole and igniting the phosphorus within the chamber4 ,thereafter the centrifugal force of the revolving bullet whirled the burning phosphorus out through the unplugged hole4 ,seen in the air the fire of the phosphorus could not be discerned1 but the burning chemical threw off considerable smoke1 so that the eye of the gunner could follow the blue spiral to its mark4 ,our incendiary bullet had an effective range of #cej yards1 after which distance the phosphorus was burned out4 ,illustration3 #h-,,millimeter ,,french ,,cartridge1 4#cjc ,,british ,,cartridge--7,,machine ,,gun71 #aa-,,millimeter ,,french ,,incendiary ,,bullet1 ,,and ,a ,,shotgun ,,shell4 ,illustration3 ,,left ,,to ,,right--,,armor ,,piercing1 ,,tracer1 ,,incendiary1 ,,ordinary4 ,illustration3 ,,upper ,,row--4#cj ,,caliber ,,rifle ,,cartridges ,,with ,,bullets ,,from ,,left ,,to ,,right1 ,,as ,,follows3 ,,armor ,,piercing1 ,,tracer1 ,,incendiary1 ,,ordinary4 ,,lower ,,row--4#de ,,caliber ,,ammunition ,,in ,,clip ,,for ,,revolver--4#de ,,caliber ,,ammunition ,,for ,,pistol4 ,equally interesting was the construction of the armor-piercing bullet4 ,heavy and solid as the jacketed lead bullet used in our service guns seems to be1 when fired against even light armor plate it leaves only a small mark upon its objective4 ,as soon as the cupronickel jacket strikes the armor plate it splits and the lead core flattens out and flies into fragments4 ,the armor plate may not even be dented by this impact4 ,yet change the core of this missile from lead to hardened steel and an entirely different result is produced4 ,our armor-piercing bullet was made with a cupronickel jacket for the sake of the gun barrel4 ,the inner side of this jacket was lined with a thin coat of lead which was made thicker in the nose of the bullet4 ,finally a core of specially heat-treated steel completed the construction of the projectile4 ,when this missile is fired against armor plate the jacket splits and the lead lining virtually disappears from the impact1 but the pointed steel core keeps on and bores a hole through the plate as it might through soft wood4 ,the production figures show the degree of success which we attained in the manufacture of this special ammunition4 ,up to ,november #cj1 #aiah1 the ,e4 ,i4 du ,pont de ,nemours ,co4 had produced #f1jeg1jjj tracer cartridges of 4#cj caliber and #a1efj1jjj incendiary cartridges of the same size4 ,the ,frankford ,arsenal turned out #bb1bde1jjj tracer cartridges of this size1 #ad1adh1jjj incendiary cartridges1 and #d1gdf1ijj armor-piercing cartridges4 ,we placed an additional order for armor-piercing projectiles with the ,dominion arsenals1 which delivered to us #a1ihj1jjj of such cartridges4 ,we also set out to develop new manufacturing facilities for the production of this special aircraft ammunition4 ,excellent tracer bullets were produced by the ,national ,fireworks ,co41 of ,west ,hanover1 ,mass41 and that company was getting into a satisfactory production stride when the armistice was signed4 ,the ,hero ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 ,pa41 also was turning out an approved incendiary bullet when peace came4 ,these various special bullets were loaded in cartridges at the ,frankford ,arsenal4 ,when the fighting ceased we were working on the development of armor-piercing bullets that would also be incendiary2 and armor-piercing bullets that would also contain a tracing mixture4 ,it was thought that bullets of these types would be particularly valuable for aircraft use4 ,while we had done considerable experimenting along both lines1 no satisfactory types had yet been developed4 ,there was another class of small arms for which we also had to produce ammunition on a war scale4 ,our automatic pistols and revolvers demanded 4#de-;caliber ball cartridges4 ,in normal times the ,frankford ,arsenal had been almost our sole producer of these cartridges1 and it had attained an annual output of approximately #aj1jjj1jjj rounds of them4 ,this quantity was nowhere nearly adequate for our war needs1 especially after the decision to equip our troops much more numerously with pistols and revolvers than had formerly been the case4 ,consequently it was necessary for us to develop additional manufacturing facilities for 4#de-;caliber ammunition4 ,we did this by placing orders with some of the same manufacturers who were developing the 4#cj-;caliber production4 ,because it was necessary for us to give preference always to the rifle and machine-gun ammunition1 the manufacture of pistol cartridges was not carried through as rapidly as some other phases of the ammunition program4 ,however1 a satisfactory output was reached in time to meet the immediate demands of our forces in the field1 and this production was expanding and keeping ahead of the increased needs for this sort of cartridges4 ,the total war production of 4#de-;caliber ammunition by the various factories was as follows3 ,united ,states ,cartridge ,co4 #ge1ejj1jjj ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co4 #df1ddf1hjj ,remington ,arms-,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,co4 #add1hbe1gjj ,peters ,cartridge ,co4 #ee1eba1jjj ,frankford ,arsenal #ab1cdi1bjj ,early in #aiah our ,air ,service field forces saw the need of a machine gun of larger caliber than the quick-firing weapons in general use4 ,the flying service of the principal allies had developed an #aa-millimeter machine gun for use in attacking the captive balloons of the enemy4 ,this gun fired a projectile only slightly less than one-half inch in diameter4 ,to meet this new demand our ,ordnance ,department found at the ,colt factory about #a1jjj ,vickers machine guns which were being built on order for the former ,russian ,government4 ,the department took over these guns and modified them to take #aa-millimeter ammunition1 and that step made it necessary for us to produce machine-gun cartridges for these new weapons4 ,we at once developed a modified ,french #aa-millimeter tracer incendiary cartridge1 which in later use proved to be highly satisfactory4 ,in an experimental order the ,frankford ,arsenal turned out about #ajj1jjj of these cartridges1 while at the time the armistice was signed the ,western ,cartridge ,co4 was prepared to produce this class of ammunition on a large scale4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,showing ,,successive ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,the ,,primer ,,bullet ,,and ,,clip ,,for 4#cj ,,caliber1 ,,model ,,of #aijf1 ,,ammunition4 ,the top row shows the development of the primer cup and anvil4 ,the second and third rows show the development in the manufacture of the cartridge case4 ,the fourth and fifth rows show the development in the manufacture of the bullet jacket and the lead slug that fits into the jacket and finally the finished cartridge4 ,the bottom row shows the development in the manufacture of the cartridge clip4 ,illustration3 ,,leading ,,ends ,,of ,,cartridge ,,belts3 ,,browning ,,at ,,top1 ,,colt ,,in ,,center1 ,,and ,,vickers ,,at ,,bottom4 ,in the belts1 the bullets in black cases are loaded with tracer ammunition1 those with black noses with incendiary ammunition1 those having a ring just above the bullet casing with armor-piercing ammunition1 while the rest are ordinary service cartridges4 ,certain ,american concerns before ,april1 #aiag1 had been producing #h-millimeter ammunition for the ,french government for use in its machine guns4 ,when we entered the war our ,ordnance ,department found it necessary to continue the manufacture of these cartridges for the machine guns obtained from the ,french4 ,up to ,november #cj1 #aiah1 a total of #bfi1fca1hjj rounds had been produced under our supervision4 ,these cartridges were manufactured by the ,western ,cartridge ,co4 and by the ,remington ,arms ,co4 at its ,swanton plant4 ,how well and amply we were producing ammunition for our machine guns and rifles is indicated by the fact that our average monthly production1 based upon our showing in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 #aiah1 was #bgg1hid1jjj rounds as against a monthly average for ,great ,britain of #bei1gfi1jjj rounds and for ,france of #aci1hde1jjj4 ,our total production of machine-gun and rifle ammunition during the #ai months of warfare was #b1hgi1adh1jjj rounds1 while in that period ,england produced #c1dhf1abg1jjj rounds and ,france #b1ihc1fge1jjj1 but it must be remembered that they had been keyed up to that voluminous production by three years of fighting and that our monthly production rate indicated we would soon far surpass them in quantities4 ,the following table shows how our total production of ammunition for all small arms1 including machine guns1 rifles1 pistols1 and revolvers1 grew month by month during the war3 ,rounds4 ,nov4 #cj1 #aiag #aef1ajb1gib ,dec4 #ca1 #aiag #cea1aag1ibh ,jan4 #ca1 #aiah #egc1iha1gab ,feb4 #bh1 #aiah #gfj1dhe1fhh ,mar4 #ca1 #aiah #a1jba1faj1ief ,apr4 #cj1 #aiah #a1cah1bih1dib ,may #ca1 #aiah #a1faf1adb1jeb ,june #cj1 #aiah #a1ieh1fhf1ghd ,july #ca1 #aiah #b1cjf1iii1bhd ,aug4 #ca1 #aiah #b1fbc1hdg1edf ,sept4 #cj1 #aiah #b1idb1hge1ghf ,oct4 #ca1 #aiah #c1bcf1cif1ajj ,nov4 #cj1 #aiah #c1ejg1jbc1cjj ,dec4 #ca1 #aiah #c1gda1feb1bjj ,jan4 #ca1 #aiai #c1idj1fhb1gdd ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,trench-,,warfare ,,material4 ,like many of the other war implements produced by the ,ordnance ,department for use in ,france1 the weapons employed in fighting from the trenches were entirely novel to ,american industry2 and in the production of them we find the same story of the difficulties in the adoption of foreign designs1 of the development of our own designs1 of the delays encountered and mistakes made in equipping a new industry from the ground up1 but1 finally1 of the triumphant arrival at quantity production in a marvelously brief time1 considering the obstacles which had to be overcome4 ,when the movements of armies in the great war ceased and they were held in deadlock in the trenches1 the fighters at once began devising weapons with which they could kill each other from below ground4 ,for this purpose they borrowed from the experience of man running back to time immemorial4 ,they took a leaf from the book of the ,roman fire-ball throwers and developed the hand grenade beyond the point to which it had been brought in the ,european warfare of the last century4 ,they called upon an industry which had once existed solely for the amusement of the people1 the fireworks industry1 for its golden rain and rainbow-hued stars for signals with which to talk to each other by night4 ,other geniuses of the trenches took empty cannon cartridges and1 setting them up as ground mortars1 succeeded in throwing bombs from them across ,no ,man's ,land into the enemy ranks4 ,they even for a time resurrected the catapult of ,trojan days1 although this device attained no great success4 ,but from all such activities new weapons of warfare sprang1 crude at first1 but later refined as only modern science and manufacture could perfect them4 ,america entered the war when this development of ordnance novelties had reached an advanced state4 ,it became necessary for us1 then1 to make a rapid study of what had been done and then go ahead with our own production either from foreign designs or with inventions of our own4 ,to this end in ,april1 #aiag1 a few days after we declared war with ,germany1 the ,trench ,warfare ,section was organized within the ,ordnance ,department and given charge of the production of these novelties4 ,the section did not entirely confine itself to trench-warfare materials1 since one of its chief production activities was concerned with the manufacture of the various sorts of bombs to be dropped from airplanes4 ,also1 at the start of its existence it had charge of the production of implements for fighting with poison gas and flame4 ,although in large part this phase of its work was taken away from it in the summer of #aiag and was later placed under the jurisdiction of the newly organized ,chemical ,warfare ,service1 the ,trench ,warfare ,section continued to conduct certain branches of gas-warfare manufacture1 in particular the production of the famous ,livens projectors of gas and also the manufacture of the portable toxic-gas sets for producing gas clouds from cylinders4 ,all in all1 the ,trench ,warfare ,section was charged with the responsibility of producing some #dg devices1 every one of them new to ,american manufacture and some extremely difficult to make4 ,the backbone of the program consisted of the production of grenades1 both of the hand-thrown and the rifle-fired variety1 trench mortars1 trench-mortar ammunition1 pyrotechnics of various sorts1 and bombs for the airplanes1 with their sighting and release mechanisms4 ,in the production of these new devices there arose a new form of cooperation between ,government and private manufacturers under the tutelage of the ,trench ,warfare ,section4 ,the manufacturers engaged in the production of various classes of these munition novelties joined in formal associations4 ,there was a ,hand ,grenade ,manufacturers' ,association1 under the capable leadership of ,william ,sparks1 president of the ,sparks-,withington ,co41 of ,jackson1 ,mich42 the ,drop ,bomb ,manufacturers' ,association1 headed by ,j4 ,l4 ,sinyard1 president of ,a4 ,o4 ,smith ,corporation1 ,milwaukee2 the ,six-inch ,trench-mortar ,shell ,manufacturers' ,association1 ,r4 ,w4 ,millard1 president of ,foster-,merriam ,co41 ,meriden1 ,conn42 the ,rifle ,grenade ,manufacturers' ,association1 under the leadership of ,f4 ,s4 ,briggs1 president of the ,briggs ,stratton ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,wis42 and the ,livens ,projector ,manufacturers' ,association4 ,a similar association of manufacturers engaged in army contracts existed in the production of small-arms ammunition2 but in no other branch of the ,ordnance ,department was the development of such cooperation carried on to the extent of that fathered by the ,trench ,warfare ,section4 ,the existence of these associations was of inestimable benefit in securing the rapid development1 standardization for quantity manufacture1 and production of these strange devices4 ,each association had its president1 its other officers1 and its regular meetings4 ,these meetings were attended by the interested officers of the ,trench ,warfare ,section4 ,in the meetings the experiments of the manufacturers and the short-cut methods developed in their shops were freely discussed2 and1 if modifications of design were suggested1 such questions were thrashed out in these meetings of practical technicians1 and all of the contractors simultaneously received the benefits4 ,the ,trench ,warfare ,section produced its results under the handicap of being low in the priority ratings1 many other items of ordnance being considered in ,washington of more importance than the trench-fighting materials and therefore entitled to first call upon raw materials and transportation4 ,in the priority lists the leader of #dg trench-warfare articles1 the #bdj-millimeter mortars1 stood twenty-second1 and the others trailed after4 ,,grenades4 ,the first of the trench-warfare weapons with which the rookie soldier became acquainted was the hand grenade1 since this1 at least in its practice or dummy form1 was supplied to the training camps in this country4 ,to all intents and purposes the hand grenade was a product of the war against ,germany1 although grenades had been more or less used since explosives existed4 ,all earlier grenades had been crude devices with only limited employment in warfare1 but in the three years preceding ,america's participation in the war the grenade had become a carefully built weapon4 ,the extent of our production of hand grenades may be seen in the fact that when the effort was at its height #aj1jjj workers were engaged exclusively in its manufacture4 ,the firing mechanism of the explosive grenades which we built was known as the ,bouchon assembly4 ,in the production of this item #ai of every #bj workers were women4 ,in fact no other item in the entire ordnance field was produced so exclusively by women4 ,incidentally1 at no time during the war was there a strike in any grenade factory4 ,for a long time in the trenches of ,france only one type of hand grenade was used4 ,this was the so-called defensive grenade1 built of stout metal which would fly into fragments when the interior charge exploded4 ,as might be expected1 such a weapon was used only by men actually within the trenches1 the walls of which protected the throwers from the flying fragments4 ,but1 as the war continued1 six other distinct kinds of grenades were developed1 ,america herself contributing one of the most important of them2 and during our war activities we were engaged in manufacturing all seven4 ,the defensive1 or fragmentation1 type grenade was the commonest1 most numerous1 and perhaps1 the most useful of all of them4 ,another important one1 however1 was that known as the offensive grenade1 and it was ,america's own contribution to trench warfare4 ,the body of the offensive grenade was made of paper1 so that the deadly effect of it was produced by the flame and concussion of the explosion itself4 ,it was quite sure to kill any man within #c yards of it when it went off1 but it was safe to use in the open offensive movements1 since there were no pieces of metal to fly back and hit the thrower4 ,a third development was known as the gas grenade4 ,it was built of sheet metal1 and its toxic contents were effective in making enemy trenches and dugouts uninhabitable4 ,a fourth1 a grenade of similar construction1 was filled with phosphorus1 instead of gas1 and was known as the phosphorus grenade4 ,this grenade scattered burning phosphorus over an area #c to #e yards in diameter and released a dense cloud of white smoke4 ,in open attacks upon machine-gun nests phosphorus grenades were thrown in barrages to build smoke screens for the attacking forces4 ,as a fifth class there was a combination hand and rifle grenade1 a ,british device adopted in our program4 ,the sixth class of grenades was known as the incendiary type4 ,these were paper bombs filled with burning material and designed for use against structures intended to be destroyed by fire4 ,finally1 in the seventh class were the thermit grenades1 built of terneplate and filled with a compound containing thermit1 which develops an intense heat while melting4 ,thermit grenades were used principally to destroy captured guns4 ,one of them touched off in the breech of a cannon would fuse the breech-block mechanism and destroy the usefulness of the weapon4 ,all of these grenades except the incendiary grenades used the same firing mechanism1 and the incendiary grenade firing mechanism was the standard one modified in a single particular4 ,the earliest ,american requirement in this production was for defensive grenades1 of the fragmentation type4 ,our first estimate was that we would need #ba1jjj1jjj of these for actual warfare and #b1jjj1jjj of the unloaded type for practice and training work4 ,but1 as the war continued and the ,american plans developed in scale1 we saw we would require a much greater quantity than this2 and orders were finally placed for a total of #fh1jjj1jjj live grenades and over #c1jjj1jjj of the practice variety4 ,by ,august #bj1 #aiag1 the ,trench ,warfare ,section had developed the design and the drawings for the defensive grenade4 ,the first contract--for #e1jjj grenades--was let to the ,caskey-,dupree ,co4 of ,marietta1 ,ohio4 ,this concern was fairly entitled to such preference1 because the experimentation leading up to the design for this bomb was conducted almost entirely at its plant in ,marietta4 ,next came an interesting industrial development by a well-known ,american concern which had previously devoted its exclusive energy to the production of high-grade silverware1 but which now1 as a patriotic duty1 undertook to build the deadly defensive grenades4 ,this was the ,gorham ,manufacturing ,co4 of ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,this firm contracted to furnish complete1 loaded grenades1 ready for shipment overseas1 and was the only one to build and operate a manufacturing and loading plant4 ,elsewhere contracts were let for parts only1 these parts to converge at the assembling plants later2 and such orders were rapidly placed until by the middle of ,december1 #aiag1 various industrial concerns were tooling up for a total production of #ba1jjj1jjj of these missiles4 ,the grenade which these contractors undertook to produce was an ,american product in its design1 although modeled after grenades already in use at the front4 ,its chief difference was in the firing mechanism1 where improvements1 or what were then thought to be improvements1 had been installed to make it safer in the hands of the soldier than the grenades then in use at the front4 ,this firing mechanism with its pivoted lever was1 in fact1 a radical departure from ,european practice4 ,the body of this grenade was of malleable iron1 and the grenade exploded with a force greater than that of any in use in ,france4 ,the remodeling of factories1 the building of machines1 and the manufacture of tools for this undertaking1 pushed forward with determined speed1 was completed in from #ij to #abj days1 and by ,april almost all of the companies had reached the stage of quantity production4 ,and then1 on ,may #i1 #aiah1 came a cablegram from the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces that brought the entire effort to an abrupt halt4 ,the officers of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in no uncertain terms condemned the ,american defensive grenade4 ,the trouble was that in our anxiety to protect the ,american soldier we had designed a grenade that was too safe4 ,the firing mechanism was too complicated4 ,in the operation required to touch off the fuse five movements were necessary on the part of the soldier1 and in this the psychology of a man in battle had not been taken sufficiently into consideration4 ,the well-known story of the negro soldier who1 in practice1 threw his grenade too soon because he could feel it swelling in his hand1 applies to most soldiers in battle4 ,in using the new grenade the ,american soldier would not go through the operations required to fire its fuse4 ,cases came to light1 too1 showing that in the excitement of battle the ,american soldier forgot to release the safety device1 thus giving the ,german an opportunity to hurl back the unexploded grenade4 ,as the result of this discovery all production was stopped in the ,united ,states and the ordnance engineers began redesigning the weapon4 ,the incident meant that #ae1jjj1jjj rough castings of grenade bodies1 #c1ejj1jjj assembled but empty grenades and #a1jjj1jjj loaded grenades had to be salvaged1 and that on ,july #a1 #aiah1 the production of live fragmentation grenades in this country was represented by the figure zero4 ,some of the machinery used in the production of the faulty grenades was useless and had to be replaced by new1 while the trained forces which had reached quantity production in ,april had to be disbanded or transferred to other work while the design was being changed4 ,by ,august #a the new design had been developed on paper and much of the new machinery required had been produced and installed in the plants1 which were ready to go ahead immediately with the production4 ,it is a tribute to the patriotism of the manufacturers who lost time and money by this change that little complaint was heard from them by the ,government4 ,in the production of hand grenades the most difficult element of manufacture and the item that might have held up the delivery of completed mechanisms was the ,bouchon assembly4 ,there was an abundant foundry capacity in the ,united ,states for the production of gray-iron castings for grenade bodies1 and so this part of the program gave no anxiety4 ,the ,bouchon assembly threatened to be the choke point4 ,in order to assure the success of defensive-grenade production1 the ,precision ,castings ,co4 of ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 and the ,doehler ,die ,castings ,co4 of ,toledo1 ,ohio1 and ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 worked their plants #bd hours a day until they had built up a reserve of ,bouchons and screw plugs and removed all anxiety from that source4 ,the total production of ,bouchons eventually reached the figure #fd1fjj1jjj4 ,the first thought of the ,ordnance ,department was to produce grenades by the assembling and quantitative method2 that is1 by the production of parts in various plants and the assembling of those parts in other plants4 ,but1 due to delay in railway shipments and difficulties due to priorities1 it was discovered that this method of manufacture1 however adaptable it might be to other items in the ordnance program1 was not a good thing in grenade production2 and when the war ended the tendency was all in the direction of having the assembly contractors produce their own parts either by purchase from subcontractors or by manufacture in their own plants4 ,the orders for the redesigned grenades called for the construction of #dd1jjj1jjj of them4 ,so rapidly had the manufacturers been able to reach quantity production this time that a daily rate of #bej1jjj to #cjj1jjj was attained by ,november #aa1 #aiah1 and by ,december #f1 less than a month after the fighting stopped1 the factories had turned out #ba1jed1cci defensive grenades4 ,it should be remembered that the great effort in ordnance production in this country was directed toward the ,american offensive expected on a tremendous scale in the spring of #aiai4 ,had the war continued the fragmentation grenade program1 in spite of the delays encountered in its development1 would have produced a sufficient quantity of these weapons4 ,special consideration is due the following-named firms for their efforts in developing the production of defensive grenades3 ,caskey-,dupree ,co41 ,marietta1 ,ohio4 ,spacke ,machine ,tool ,co41 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,stewart-,warner ,speedometer ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,miami ,cycle ,manufacturing ,co41 ,middletown1 ,ohio4 ,american ,radiator ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,international ,harvester ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,doehler ,die ,castings ,co41 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,precision ,castings ,co41 ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the ,american offensive grenade was largely the production of the ,single ,service ,package ,corporation of ,new ,york1 both in the development of its design and in its manufacture4 ,the body of this grenade was built of laminated paper spirally wound and waterproofed by being dipped in paraffine4 ,the top of this body was a die casting1 into which the firing mechanism was screwed4 ,practically no changes were made in the design of this weapon from the time it was first produced1 and the production record is an excellent one4 ,our earliest thought was that we would need some #g1jjj1jjj of these grenades and orders for that quantity of bodies were placed in ,january and ,march1 #aiah1 with the ,single ,service ,package ,corporation4 ,then it became necessary to discover factories which could produce the metal caps4 ,the orders for these were first placed with the ,acme ,die ,castings ,co4 and the ,national ,lead ,casting ,co4 for #c1cge1jjj castings from each concern4 ,but these companies failed to make satisfactory deliveries1 and in ,may1 #aiah1 a contract for #e1jjj1jjj caps was let to the ,doehler ,die ,castings ,co4 which reached quantity production in ,august4 ,after that the ,single ,service ,package ,corporation1 the chief contractor1 forged ahead in its work and on ,november #aa was producing the bodies for offensive grenades at the rate of #ee1jjj to #fj1jjj daily4 ,by ,december #f1 #aiah1 the ,government had accepted #f1agi1cba completed bodies4 ,the signing of the armistice brought to an end a project to build #ag1eii1jjj additional grenades of this type4 ,the production of gas grenades offered some peculiar difficulties4 ,we set out at first to produce #c1fhd1ecj of them4 ,by ,january1 #aiah1 the engineers of the ,ordnance ,department had completed the plans and specifications for the ,american gas grenade1 and on ,february #ab1 an order for #a1jjj1jjj of them was placed with the ,maxim ,silencer ,co41 of ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,the gas grenades were to be delivered at the filling plants complete except for the detonator thimbles1 which seal both gas and phosphorus grenades and act as sockets for the firing mechanism4 ,it was seen that the construction of these thimbles might be a choke point in the construction of grenades of both types1 and orders were early placed for them--#a1ejj1jjj to be delivered by the ,maxim ,silencer ,co4 and an equal quantity by the ,bassic ,co41 of ,bridgeport1 ,conn4 ,on ,december #f1 #aiah1 these concerns had produced #a1ihb1gca detonator thimbles4 ,the body of the gas grenade is built of two sheet-metal cups welded together to be gas-tight4 ,since1 when we started out on this production1 we did not know what kind of gas would be used or at what pressure it would be held within the grenade1 we set the specifications to make grenade bodies to hold an air pressure of #bjj pounds4 ,the welding of the cups frequently failed to hold such pressure1 so that the rejections of gas-grenade bodies under this test ran as high as #ej per cent4 ,but in ,june1 #aiah1 the gas for the grenades had been developed1 and we were thereupon able to reduce the pressure of the standard test to #ej pounds4 ,under such a test the bodies readily passed inspection4 ,in ,september1 #aiah1 we let additional contracts for gas grenades--#ejj1jjj to the ,evinrude ,motor ,co41 of ,milwaukee2 #ejj1jjj to the ,john ,w4 ,brown ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,columbus1 ,ohio2 and #djj1jjj to the ,zenite ,metal ,co41 of ,indianapolis4 ,on ,november #aa gas grenade bodies were being produced at the rate of #bb1jjj per day1 and the total production up to ,december #f was #icf1cid4 ,the phosphorus grenade was similar to the gas grenade in construction4 ,the plans and specifications for this weapon were ready in ,january1 #aiah4 ,in ,february the following contracts were let3 ,metropolitan ,engineering ,co41 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 #gej1jjj2 ,evinrude ,motor ,co41 ,milwaukee1 #gej1jjj2 ,zenite ,metal ,co41 ,indianapolis1 #ejj1jjj4 ,on ,december #f1 #aiah1 these concerns had delivered a total of #eba1idh phosphorus grenade bodies4 ,the difficulties which had been experienced in the production of gas grenades were repeated in this project4 ,the ,evinrude ,co4 was especially quick in getting over the obstacles to quantity production4 ,the ,metropolitan ,engineering ,co4 was already engaged with large orders for adapters and boosters in the heavy-gun ammunition manufacture for the ,ordnance ,department and found that the order for phosphorus grenades conflicted to a considerable extent with its previous war work4 ,the matter was thrashed out in the ,ordnance ,department1 which gave the priority in this plant to the adapters and boosters1 with the result that this firm was able to make only a small contribution to the total production of phosphorus grenade bodies4 ,the development of thermit grenades was still in the experimental stage when the armistice was signed4 ,there was no actual production in this country of grenades of this character4 ,in ,october1 however1 the development of the grenade in design had reached a stage where we felt justified in letting a contract for #fee1dej die-casting parts to the ,doehler ,die ,castings ,co41 at its ,toledo plant1 and for an equal number of bodies with firing-mechanism assemblies to the ,stewart-,warner ,speedometer ,corporation at ,chicago4 ,the incendiary grenade not only did not get out of the development stage1 but even a perfected model was regarded as of doubtful value by the officers of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,nevertheless1 the ,chemical ,warfare ,service was of the opinion that such a grenade should be worked out1 and an order for #ha1jjj had been given to the ,celluloid ,co41 of ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,experimental work was progressing satisfactorily when the armistice was signed4 ,when the war ended1 we were adapting to ,american manufacture a combination hand and rifle phosphorus grenade1 borrowed from the ,english4 ,the body of this grenade was built of terneplate and it had a removable stem1 so that it could be thrown by hand or fired from the end of a service rifle4 ,the ,american ,can ,co4 built #a1jjj of these to try out the design and strengthen the weak features4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,article4 ,completed to ,completed to ,sent overseas4 ,nov4 #h1 #aiah4 ,feb4 #a1 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,dummy hand grenade #dae1hgj #dae1hgj ,practice hand grenade #c1fje1hfd #c1fje1hfd ,defensive hand grenade #ag1dgg1bde #be1cab1gid #eaf1ecc ,offensive hand grenade #e1cei1cba #g1jjj1jjj #agc1acf ,gas hand grenade #fce1efa #a1eja1agf #bdi1bci ,phosphorus hand grenade #eje1aib #eba1idh #aej1fjj ,thermit hand grenade ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,note4--,in above figures all grenades are unloaded with the exception of those sent overseas1 which were loaded4 ,,rifle ,,grenades4 ,in the construction of our rifle grenades there was another unfortunate experience due to a faulty design4 ,the rifle grenade fits in a holder at the muzzle of an ordinary service rifle4 ,when the rifle is fired the bullet passes through a hole in the middle of the grenade1 and the gases of the discharge following the bullet throw the grenade approximately #bjj yards4 ,any man within #ge yards of an exploding rifle grenade is likely to be wounded or killed4 ,the rifle grenade is used both as a defensive and offensive weapon1 since the firer is well out of range of the exploding missile4 ,in developing a rifle grenade for ,american manufacture our engineers adopted the ,french ,viven-,bessiere type4 ,the ,french service ammunition is larger than ours1 and it was therefore necessary to design our grenade with a smaller hole4 ,but in the anxiety to produce this weapon in the shortest time possible the models were not sufficiently tested1 and no consideration was taken of the difference in design between a ,french bullet and an ,american bullet4 ,the result was that the ,french grenade did not function well with our ammunition1 due to the splitting of the ,springfield bullet as it passed through the grenade4 ,the result was that in ,may1 #aiah1 several months after the manufacture of this grenade had been in progress1 the entire undertaking was canceled pending the development of new designs2 and #c1ejj1jjj completed grenades had to be salvaged4 ,illustration3 ,,left ,,to ,,right--,,defensive ,,hand ,,grenade1 ,,offensive ,,hand ,,grenade1 ,,gas ,,hand ,,grenade1 ,,phosphorus ,,hand ,,grenade4 ,illustration3 ,,throwing ,a ,,hand ,,grenade4 ,,first ,,operation3 ,,withdrawing ,,the ,,cotter ,,pin4 ,illustration3 ,,throwing ,a ,,hand ,,grenade4 ,,second ,,operation3 ,,releasing ,,the ,,grenade ,,and ,,firing ,,lever4 ,illustration3 ,v4 ,b4 ,,rifle ,,grenade1 ,,live1 ,,mark #a4 ,illustration3 ,v4 ,b4 ,,rifle ,,grenade1 ,,mark #a1 ,,and ,,discharger4 ,illustration3 #f-;,,inch ,,trench ,,mortar ,,shell4 ,the original contract for rifle grenades had been let to the ,westinghouse ,electric ,manufacturing ,co4 of ,pittsburgh4 ,this called for the production of all parts by the ,westinghouse ,co4 and the assembling of them in the ,westinghouse plant to the number of #e1jjj1jjj grenades4 ,but there was such a diversity of material employed in the manufacture of rifle grenades that succeeding contracts were let for parts and for assembling separately4 ,after the rifle grenade had been redesigned new contracts were let for a total of #cj1aae1dji of them4 ,in ,august1 a few weeks later1 the daily production of these grenades in the various plants had reached a total of #acj1jjj and by the end of ,october the daily production was #bej1jjj4 ,the goal toward which this production was aiming was the expected spring offensive of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in #aiai4 ,we should have met this event adequately because1 while only #fhe1bjj ,american rifle grenades had actually been shipped overseas when the fighting ceased1 we had #bj1jjj1jjj of them ready for loading at that time and the production was already heavy and constantly increasing4 ,special consideration is due the following-named firms for their efforts in developing the production of rifle grenades3 ,westinghouse ,electric ,manufacturing ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,briggs ,stratton ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,holcomb ,hoke1 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,stewart-,warner ,speedometer ,corporation1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,cutler-,hammer ,manufacturing ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,american ,radiator ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,link-,belt ,co41 ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,doehler ,die ,castings ,co41 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,toxic ,,gas ,,equipment4 ,america entered the war nearly two years after the ,germans had made their first gas attack4 ,in those intervening months gas warfare had grown to be a science in itself1 requiring special organizations with each army to handle it4 ,the employment of toxic gas had developed along several lines4 ,the original attack by the ,germans upon the mask-less ,canadians at ,ypres had been in the form of a gas cloud from projectors1 these latter being pressure tanks with nozzle outlets4 ,for some time the ,germans continued the use of gas solely by this method4 ,retaliation on the part of the allies quickly followed4 ,however1 the employment of gas cloud attacks involved great labor of preparation and was absolutely dependent upon certain combinations of weather conditions4 ,in consequence1 the launching of a gas attack in this form could not be timed with regard to other tactical operations4 ,therefore the allies were put to the necessity of developing other means of throwing toxic gases1 and this they did by inclosing the gas in shell shot from the big guns of the artillery1 in grenades thrown by hand from the trenches1 and--most effectively of all--by the agency of an ingenious invention of the ,british known as the ,livens projector4 ,the ,livens projector was deadly in its effect1 since it could throw suddenly and in great quantity gas bombs1 or drums1 into the enemy's ranks4 ,it is notable that although the ,british used this device with great success throughout much of the latter period of the war1 and though the ,french and ,americans also adopted it and used it freely1 the ,germans were never able to discover what the device was that threw such havoc into their ranks1 nor were they ever able to produce anything that was similar to it4 ,the ,livens projector remained a deep secret until the close of hostilities1 and the ,government offices in ,washington1 where the design was adapted to ,american manufacture1 and the ,american plants producing the parts1 were always closely guarded against enemy espionage4 ,without going into details of the construction of the ,livens projector it may be said that it was usually fired by electricity in sets of #be or multiples thereof4 ,the drums1 which were cylindrical shell about #bd inches long and #h inches in diameter1 were ejected from long steel tubes1 or barrels1 buried in the ground resting against pressed-steel base plates4 ,at the throwing of an electric switch a veritable rain of these big shell1 as many as #b1ejj of them sometimes1 with their lethal contents1 would come hurtling down upon the enemy4 ,the ,livens projectors could throw their gas drums nearly a mile4 ,the projector was entirely a new type of munition for our manufacturers to handle4 ,the ,trench ,warfare ,section of the ,ordnance ,department took up the matter late in #aiag and by ,may1 #aiah1 had designed the weapon for home manufacture4 ,early in ,june the contracts were allotted for barrels and gas drums1 or shell4 ,the production of barrels was exclusively in the hands of the ,national ,tube ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 and the ,harrisburg ,pipe ,pipe-,bending ,co41 of ,harrisburg1 ,pa4 ,these companies reached the production stage in ,august1 #aiah1 and completed about #fc1jjj barrels before the armistice was signed4 ,their respective plants reached a daily production rate of approximately #fjj barrels per day4 ,somewhat later in the spring of #aiah the contracts for base plates1 on which the barrels rest when ready for firing1 muzzle covers1 and for various other accessories were closed4 ,over #ajj1jjj base plates were produced by the ,gier ,pressed ,steel ,co41 of ,lansing1 ,mich41 and the ,american ,pulley ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,the ,perkins-,campbell ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 built the muzzle covers1 #ff1ahj of them4 ,cartridge cases were manufactured by ,art ,metal 7,inc471 of ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 and the ,russakov ,can ,co41 of ,chicago1 the former producing #bhh1hch and the latter #dg1eaa4 ,illustration3 ,,eight-,,inch ,,livens ,,projector1 ,,mark ,,ii1 ,,with ,,powder ,,charge ,,and ,,shell4 ,vertical cross section as laid in the ground ready for firing at #de elevation4 ,illustration3 ,,effects ,,of ,,livens ,,projector ,,shell4 ,the ,ensign-,bickford ,co41 of ,simsbury1 ,conn41 produced #ccd1cjj fuses for ,livens shell2 the ,artillery ,fuse ,co41 of ,wilmington1 ,del41 assembled #bf1jjj firing mechanisms2 the ,e4 ,i4 du ,pont ,co41 at its ,pompton ,lakes 7,n4 ,j47 plant1 manufactured #bj1jjj detonators1 and #dhg1cej detonators were produced by the ,aetna ,explosives ,co41 at ,port ,ewan1 ,n4 ,y42 while the ,american ,can ,co41 at ,lowell1 ,mass41 assembled #bef1bca firing mechanisms4 ,shear wire pistols were used in the operation of the ,livens projector4 ,the ,edison ,phonograph ,co41 of ,orange1 ,n4 ,j41 produced #aha1ijj of these1 and the ,artillery ,fuse ,co41 of ,wilmington1 ,del41 #aa1gdg4 ,the adapters and boosters of the shell were all built by the ,john ,thompson ,press1 of ,new ,york4 ,the ,waterbury ,brass ,goods ,co41 of ,waterbury1 ,conn41 made the fuse casing4 ,adapters and boosters to the number of #ccd1ejj were turned out by the former1 and #bii1ijj fuse casings by the latter4 ,the manufacture of gas drums for the projectors was delayed for some time because of difficulties in welding certain parts of the drums4 ,acetylene and arc welding processes were tried out1 and a good many shell were made by such welding2 but the lack of expert welders for these processes1 and the rejections of shell due to leakage in the welded joints1 caused the manufacturer to turn to fire welding1 the process for which had been developed by the ,air-tight ,steel ,tank ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,at the time the armistice was signed the welding problem had been overcome and the production was going forward at a rate to meet the requirements of the expected fighting in the spring of #aiai4 ,the shell delivered were produced as follows3 ,by the ,federal ,pressed ,steel ,co41 of ,milwaukee1 ,wis41 #e1fji2 by the ,pressed ,steel ,tank ,co41 also of ,milwaukee1 #bj1ecf2 by the ,air-tight ,steel ,tank ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 #fjj2 by the ,national ,tube ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 #bg1jih2 by the ,truscon ,steel ,co41 of ,youngstown1 ,ohio1 #ai1hhj4 ,the entire ,livens shell program1 as it existed in ,november1 #aiah1 called for the production of #ccd1jjj shell4 ,,trench ,,mortars4 ,the production of trench mortars was not only an important part of our ordnance program but it was an undertaking absolutely new to ,american experience4 ,not only did we have to produce mortars1 but we had to supply them with shell in great quantities1 this latter in itself an enterprise of no mean proportions4 ,some seven different types of mortars were in use when we came into the war4 ,our ordnance program contemplated the manufacture of all seven of them1 but we actually succeeded in bringing only four types into production4 ,these four were the ,british ,newton-,stokes mortars of the #c-;inch1 #d-;inch1 and #f-;inch calibers1 and the ,french #bdj-millimeter mortar1 which had also been adopted by the ,british4 ,as usual in the adoption of foreign devices1 we had to redesign these weapons to make them adaptable to ,american shop methods4 ,we encountered much difficulty throughout the whole job1 largely because of insufficient information furnished from abroad1 and because in spite of this handicap we had to produce mortars and ammunition that would be interchangeable with ,french and ,british munitions stocks4 ,the first one of these weapons which we took up for production here was the #c-;inch ,newton-,stokes4 ,the first contract for the manufacture of mortars of this size was placed with the ,crane ,co41 of ,chicago1 on ,november #h1 #aiag1 for #a1hcj mortars4 ,this concern at once arranged with the ,ohio ,seamless ,tube ,co41 of ,shelby1 ,ohio1 for the drawing of steel tubes for the mortar barrels4 ,this latter concern1 however1 was already handling large contracts for the ,navy and for the aircraft program1 and these operations took priority over the mortar contracts4 ,but the ,crane ,co4 took advantage of the interim to build the accessories for the weapons--the tripods1 clinometers1 base plates1 and tool boxes4 ,in the spring of #aiah the company received the first barrel tubes and began producing completed weapons4 ,but when these mortars were sent to the proving ground the test-firing deformed the barrels and broke the metal bases4 ,finally it was decided that the propelling explosive used was not a suitable one for the purpose4 ,another was substituted4 ,the new propellant permitted as great a range of fire without damage to the mortar in firing4 ,the ,crane ,co4 was eventually able to reach a production of #cc of the #c-;inch mortars a day1 and up to ,december #e1 #aiah1 it had built #a1hjc completed weapons1 together with the necessary tools and spare parts4 ,in the early fall of #aiah an additional contract for #fgg of these mortars was placed with the ,crane ,co4 and another for #b1jjj mortars of this size with the ,international ,harvester ,co41 of ,chicago4 ,neither of these two latter contracts ever came to the production stage4 ,a few days after the original contract for #c-;inch mortars was let the ,trench ,warfare ,section took up the matter of producing ammunition for these weapons4 ,two sorts of shell were to be required--live shell filled with high explosive and practice shell made of malleable iron4 ,the original program adopted in ,november1 #aiag1 called for the production of #e1cdb1jjj live shell for the #c-;inch mortars and #a1ejj1jjj practice shell4 ,illustration3 #c-;,,inch ,,stokes ,,trench ,,mortar4 ,illustration3 #d-;,,inch ,,stokes ,,trench ,,mortar ,,and ,,ammunition4 ,illustration3 #f-;,,inch ,,sutton ,,trench ,,mortar4 ,illustration3 #aa-;,,inch ,,sutton ,,trench ,,mortar4 ,the plan was adopted of building these shell of lap-welded1 #c-;inch steel tubing1 cut into proper lengths4 ,the contracts for the finished machined and assembled shell were placed with the ,general ,motors ,corporation at its ,saginaw 7,mich47 plant1 with ,h4 ,c4 ,dodge 7,inc471 at ,south ,boston1 ,mass41 and with the ,metropolitan ,engineering ,co41 of ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in order to facilitate production1 the ,government agreed to furnish the steel tubing4 ,for this purpose it ordered from the ,national ,tube ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 #a1fah1ibi pieces of steel tubing1 each #aa inches in length1 and from the ,allegheny ,steel ,co41 at ,brakenridge1 ,pa41 #b1ccb1cai running feet of tubing4 ,these tube contracts were filled by the early spring of #aiah4 ,the railroad congestion of ,february and ,march1 #aiah1 held up the delivery of tubing1 but the assembly plants utilized the time in tooling up for the future production4 ,all the plants thereafter soon reached a quantity production1 the ,general ,motors ,corporation in particular tuning up its shop system until it was able to reach a maximum daily production in a #aj-;hour shift of #ce1fah completed shell4 ,the casting of malleable iron bodies for the practice shell of this caliber was turned over to the ,erie ,malleable ,iron ,co41 of ,erie1 ,pa41 and to the ,national ,malleable ,castings ,co41 with plants at ,cleveland1 ,chicago1 ,indianapolis1 and ,toledo4 ,the former concern cast #aif1fgc bodies and the latter #a1jae1jje4 ,the ,gorham ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,providence1 ,r4 ,i42 the ,standard ,parts ,co41 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio2 and the ,new ,process ,gear ,corporation1 of ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 machined and assembled the practice shell4 ,when the armistice was declared1 these three contracts were approximately seven-tenths complete4 ,we were dissatisfied with our #c-;inch shell1 for the reason that they tumbled in air and were visible to the eye4 ,the ,french had developed a mortar shell on the streamline principle which was invisible in flight and had twice the range of ours4 ,had the war continued the ,trench ,warfare ,section would have produced streamline shell for mortars4 ,the second mortar project undertaken was the manufacture of the #bdj-millimeter weapon4 ,this was the largest mortar which we produced1 its barrel having a diameter of approximately #aj inches4 ,it proved to be one of the toughest nuts to crack in the whole mortar undertaking4 ,the ,british designs of this ,french weapon we found to be quite unsuited to our factory methods1 and for the sake of expediency we frequently modified them in the course of the development4 ,the total contracts called for the production of #ich mortars4 ,it was obvious that the manufacture of this and of other larger mortars would fall into three phases4 ,the forging of barrels1 breechblocks1 and breech slides was a separate type of work1 and we allotted the contracts for this work to the ,standard ,forging ,co41 of ,indiana ,harbor1 ,ind4 ,the machining of these parts to the fine dimensions required by the design was an entirely separate phase of manufacturing1 and we placed this work with the ,american ,laundry ,machine ,co41 of ,cincinnati4 ,still a third class of work was that of assembling the completed mortars1 and this contract went to the ,david ,lupton ,sons ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 who also engaged to manufacture the metal and timber bases and firing mechanisms4 ,these big mortars had to have mobile mountings1 and the contract for the mortar carts we placed with the ,international ,harvester ,co41 of ,chicago4 ,these contracts were signed in ,december1 #aiag4 ,the ,lupton plant had difficulty in securing the heavy machinery it needed for this and for other mortar contracts1 its machinery being held up by the freight congestion4 ,early in #aiah the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces advised us to redesign the #bdj-millimeter mortar to give it a stronger barrel4 ,consequently all work was stopped until this could be done4 ,the first mortars of the new design to be tested were still unsatisfactory with respect to the strength of the barrels2 and as a consequence the ,standard ,forging ,co4 urged that nickel steel be substituted for basic open-hearth steel as the material for the barrels4 ,this change proved to be justified4 ,there was also trouble at the shops of the ,american ,laundry ,machine ,co41 its equipment not having the precision to do machining of the type required in these weapons4 ,accordingly a new machining contract was made with the ,symington-,anderson ,co41 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 which concern was eventually able to reach a production of #bj machined barrels per week4 ,in all we produced #bd of the #bdj-millimeter mortars in this country4 ,certain of the parts were manufactured up to the total requirements of the contracts1 but others were not built in such numbers4 ,the ,international ,harvester ,co4 built all #iii carts ordered4 ,the production of shell for these big mortars was another difficult undertaking4 ,after consultation with manufacturers we designed shell of two different types4 ,one of these was a shell of pressed plates welded together longitudinally2 and a contract for the production of #bhc1jif of these was placed with the ,metropolitan ,engineering ,co4 ,the other form was that of two steel hemispheres welded together4 ,the ,michigan ,stamping ,co41 of ,detroit1 undertook to build #ej1jjj of these4 ,these shell contracts were placed in ,december1 #aiag4 ,the ,michigan ,stamping ,co4 had to wait five months before it could secure and install its complete equipment of machinery4 ,it was ,september before all of the difficulties in the ,detroit plant's project could be overcome and quantity production could be started4 ,the concern eventually1 before and after the signing of the armistice1 built #i1ahe shell of this type at a maximum rate of #ef per day4 ,greater promise seemed to be held forth by the ,metropolitan ,engineering ,co4's project to build shell of pressed-out plates1 electrically welded4 ,the ,government undertook to furnish the steel plates for this work and secured from the ,american ,rolling ,mills ,co41 of ,middletown1 ,ohio1 a total production of #f1geg tons of them4 ,the ,metropolitan ,engineering ,co4 had great difficulty in perfecting a proper welding process2 and the concern lost a great deal of money on the contract1 yet cheerfully continued its development without prospect of recompense in order that we might have in this country the knowledge of how to build such shell4 ,in all1 including production after the armistice was signed1 the ,metropolitan ,engineering ,co4 built #acf1ahi shell bodies of this size at a maximum rate of #ihg per day4 ,during the summer of #aiah a single-piece shell body of the #bdj-millimeter size1 produced by a deep-drawing process1 was worked out4 ,a contract for #abe1jjj of them was given to the ,ireland ,matthews ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,the armistice brought this contract to an end before it had produced any shell of this new and most promising type4 ,early in #aiah we received the first samples of the #f-;inch trench mortar4 ,by ,april all the plans were ready for ,american production4 ,again this work was divided by types4 ,the ,national ,tube ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 contracted to build #eaj rough forgings of mortar barrels at its ,christy ,park plant4 ,the ,symington-,anderson ,co4 undertook to machine these barrels4 ,the ,david ,lupton ,sons ,co4 agreed to assemble the mortars1 as well as to produce the metal and timber bases for them4 ,the first machined barrels reached the ,lupton plant in ,june and found bases ready for them4 ,but1 as the assembling was in progress1 the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces cabled that the ,british producers of mortars had changed their designs1 and that we must suspend our manufacture until we also could adopt the changes4 ,the altered plans reached us some weeks later2 yet1 nevertheless1 we were able to make good our original promise to deliver #dh of the #f-;inch ,newton-,stokes mortars at the port of embarkation in ,october1 #aiah4 ,meanwhile we had increased the contracts by an additional requirement of #a1egg mortars of this size4 ,the ,national ,tube ,co4 eventually reached a maximum daily production of #fj barrel forgings4 ,the ,symington-,anderson ,co4 machined the barrels finally at a #cc-per-day clip4 ,as many as #aa proof-fired guns per day came from the ,david ,lupton ,sons ,co4 ,an interesting fact in connection with the production of shell for the #f-;inch mortars is that they were built principally by ,american makers of stoves4 ,the #f-;inch mortar-shell bodies were of cast iron instead of steel1 and thus were adaptable to manufacture in stove works4 ,each shell weighed #dj pounds without its explosive charge4 ,such shell were used at the front for heavy demolition purposes4 ,the contracts for these shell were placed in ,march1 #aiah4 ,the ,trench ,warfare ,section was immediately called upon to secure favorable priority for the pig iron required for this purpose4 ,the various stove works did not have the necessary machinery for building these shell1 and so a special equipment in each case had to be built4 ,at the tests the first castings which came through the foundry were found to leak1 and this required further experiments in the design1 holding up production until ,july1 #aiah4 ,because of the many troubles encountered in this work the various stove makers in the summer of #aiah formed an association which they called the ,six-inch ,trench-mortar ,shell ,manufacturers' ,association4 ,this association held monthly meetings and its members visited the various plants where shell castings were being made4 ,the ,united ,states ,radiator ,corporation1 the ,foster-,merriam ,co41 and the ,michigan ,stove ,co41 were especially active in improving methods for making these shell4 ,the various concerns producing #f-;inch mortar shell and the amounts turned out were as follows3 ,foster ,merriam ,co41 ,meriden1 ,conn4 #cc1iei ,u4 ,s4 ,radiator ,corporation1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #bdj1gjj ,globe ,stove ,range ,co41 ,kokomo1 ,ind4 #ag1dfj ,rathbone1 ,sard ,co41 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 #ig1aad ,michigan ,stove ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #ajj1jjj ,the following concerns shortly before the armistice was signed received contracts for the production of #f-;inch mortar shell1 orders ranging in quantity from #ej1jjj to #aej1jjj1 but none of these concerns started production3 ,wm4 ,crane ,co41 ,jersey ,city1 ,n4 ,j4 ,frontier ,iron ,works1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,henry ,e4 ,pridmore1 7,inc471 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,best ,foundry ,co41 ,bedford1 ,ohio4 ,mc,cord ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,it was not until ,july1 #aiah1 that the plans were ready for the #d-;inch ,newton-,stokes trench mortars4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces estimated that they would require #dhj of these weapons4 ,a total of #ejj drawn barrel tubes was ordered from the ,ohio ,seamless ,tube ,co41 of ,shelby1 ,ohio4 ,this concern was able to ship one-fifth of its order within #aj days after receiving it4 ,the barrels were sent to the ,rock ,island ,arsenal for machining4 ,the ,crane ,co41 of ,chicago1 held the contract for building the bases1 tripods1 spare parts1 and tools1 and also for the assembling of the completed mortars4 ,this factory was already equipped with tools for this work1 since it had been building similar parts for #c-;inch mortars4 ,consequently1 the ,crane ,co41 in ,august1 almost within a month of receiving its contract1 was producing completed #d-;inch mortars and sending them to the ,rock ,island ,arsenal for proof firing4 ,the ,ohio ,seamless ,tube ,co4 reached a high daily production of #hc barrel forgings per day2 the ,rock ,island ,arsenal1 #aj machined barrels per day2 and the ,crane ,co41 #ai assembled mortars per day4 ,illustration3 #bdj-,,millimeter ,,trench ,,mortar4 ,illustration3 #bdj-,,millimeter ,,trench ,,mortar ,,shell4 ,we planned to build only smoke shell and gas shell for the #d-;inch mortars4 ,large contracts for various parts of these shell were placed and the enterprise was gaining great size when the armistice was declared1 but no finished smoke shell and only a few gas shell for #d-;inch trench mortars had been produced4 ,the contracts for the smoke shell were let in ,october1 #aiah1 and work had not started further than the procurement of raw material before the armistice came4 ,a large number of contractors expected to produce the parts for the #d-;inch gas shell1 and considerable of the raw materials were actually produced2 but only one of the machining and assembling contractors1 the ,paige-,detroit ,motor ,car ,co41 actually completed any of these shell1 and production at this plant did not start until ,december #e1 #aiah4 ,production of trench mortars and trench-mortar ammunition4 ,,trench ,,mortars4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,completions to ,completions to ,shipped ,character4 ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 ,feb4 #a1 #aiai4 overseas4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #c-;inch #a1fji #a1hcj #hdc #d-;inch #ddd #ggh #f-;inch #cfh #ejj #dh #bdj-millimeter 7#i4de inches7 #bi #cj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,trench-,,mortar ,,ammunition4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,completions ,completions ,shipped ,character4 to ,nov4 #aa to ,feb4 #a overseas #aiah 7unloaded74 #aiai 7unloaded74 7loaded74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,rounds4 ,rounds4 ,rounds4 #c-;inch live #c1acf1bge #c1gda1bcg #aeg1ghe #c-;inch practice #fjg1agh #ghb1cdj #d-;inch gas #bab #d-;inch smoke #f-;inch live #bib1hhb #dib1djd #bdj-millimeter 7#i4de inches7 #fg1hbi #aca1abd ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,toxic ,,gas ,,sets4 ,another extensive project in the trench-warfare program was the manufacture of the so-called toxic gas sets4 ,each set consisted of a one-man portable cylinder equipped with a nozzle and a firing mechanism4 ,each set was ready for firing as soon as it was placed in position4 ,in ,august1 #aiah1 the toxic-gas-set project was taken up by the ,trench ,warfare ,section4 ,contracts for cylinders were awarded to the ,ireland-,matthews ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,detroit1 ,mich41 who produced #ac1fdb cylinders1 and to the ,american ,car ,foundry ,co4 at its ,milton1 ,pa41 plant1 which concern turned out #aa1jdf cylinders4 ,the ,pittsburgh ,reinforcing1 ,brazing ,machine ,co4 produced #i1gfe valves for the cylinders in two months after receiving the contract4 ,the ,yale ,towne ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,stamford1 ,conn41 which received the contract for nozzles on ,september #e1 #aiah1 manufactured #bj1eja of them before the armistice was signed2 and ,j4 ,n4 ,smith ,co41 of ,detroit1 ,mich41 who did not receive their contract until ,september #bf1 built #c1beb nozzles before the fighting stopped4 ,the ,liquid ,carbolic ,co41 of ,chicago1 and the ,ruud ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 had the contracts for the firing mechanism2 but none of these was produced because at the time the armistice was signed the firing mixture to be used with the cylinders had not been developed4 ,in connection with the production of materials for gas warfare the ,ordnance ,department also designed several types of containers for the shipment of poison gas1 these including not only the portable cylinders but larger tanks and even tank cars4 ,,pyrotechnics4 ,a few years ago1 when we allowed the adventurous ,american boy to blow off his fingers and hands by the indiscriminate use of explosives in celebrating the ,nation's birthday1 we had an extensive fireworks industry in this country4 ,but the spread of the sane ,fourth reform had virtually killed this manufacture1 so that when we entered the war there were only three or four plants in the ,united ,states making fireworks4 ,these concerns kept the trade secrets closely guarded4 ,however1 as we approached the brink of hostilities it was evident we would have to build up a large production capacity for the pyrotechnics demanded by the various new types of fighting which had sprung into existence since #aiad4 ,fireworks were extensively used principally for signaling at night and as an aid to aviators in the dark4 ,one of the men to foresee this need was ,lewis ,nixon1 who had long been in the public eye and was known especially for his advocacy of an ,american merchant marine4 ,he organized a pyrotechnics concern known as the ,nixon ,fulgent ,products ,co41 built a plant at ,brunswick1 ,n4 ,j41 and was ready to talk business with the ,government when the war began4 ,also there had long been in existence that perennial delight of children and adults alike known as ,paine's ,fireworks1 whose spectacular exhibitions are familiar to most city dwellers in the ,united ,states4 ,this concern had its own manufacturing plant1 which was ready to expand to meet ,government war requirements4 ,in addition1 two other concerns of the formerly declining industry were ready to increase their facilities and produce pyrotechnics for war purposes4 ,these were the ,unexcelled ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,new ,york1 and the ,national ,fireworks ,co41 of ,west ,hanover1 ,mass4 ,the four concerns proved to be able to meet every war requirement we had4 ,prior to the war some few military pyrotechnics had been procured by the ,signal ,corps1 the ,coast ,artillery1 the ,engineer ,corps1 and also by the ,navy2 but on ,september #bg1 #aiag1 the design of all ,army pyrotechnics was centralized in the ,trench ,warfare ,section4 ,much experimentation was necessary before specifications could be prepared1 since the entire fire-signaling field had long been in confusion4 ,we had made our own designs and were proceeding with production in the spring of #aiah1 when the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces made the positive recommendation that the entire ,french program of pyrotechnics be adopted by the ,united ,states4 ,this meant a fresh start in the business1 but nevertheless pyrotechnic devices were developed to meet all of our needs4 ,these devices included signal rockets1 parachute rockets1 signal pistols and their ammunition1 position and signal lights1 flares1 smoke torches1 and lights to be thrown by the ,v4 ,b4 discharger1 the ,french device attached to the end of the rifle in which a rifle grenade fits4 ,at the outset of our efforts we started to build signal rockets1 position lights1 rifle lights1 signal lights1 and lights for use with the ,very signal pistol4 ,the ,very signal pistol1 which we adopted first1 had the caliber of a #aj-;gauge shotgun1 and its cartridges resembled shotgun shells in appearance1 although containing ,roman candle balls of various colors instead of leaden shot4 ,the orders from abroad in the spring of #aiah changed the caliber of the ,very pistol to #be millimeters and brought into our requirements some #af different styles of star and parachute cartridges4 ,in addition to these1 there were required about #bj styles of star and parachute cartridges for the ,french ,v4 ,b4 discharger4 ,the recommendations from ,france brought in #ac new styles of signal rockets1 as well as smoke torches1 wing-tip flares for airplanes1 parachute flares for lighting the ground under bombing airplanes1 and also #ab styles of cartridges for a new #ce-millimeter ,very pistol for the use of aviators4 ,after we received these instructions there was great uncertainty here as to the quantity of each item that should be produced2 and this matter was not settled until ,august #e1 #aiah1 when an enormous program of requirements was issued4 ,at first it seemed that the ,government itself must build new factories to take care of these needs1 but a careful examination showed that the existing facilities could be expanded to take care of the production4 ,the placing of contracts in this undertaking was under way when the armistice stopped the work4 ,the following table indicates the size of the pyrotechnic undertaking and also what was accomplished4 ,all of this production came from the plants of the four companies which have been named4 ,in addition to the fireworks themselves1 accessories were produced by a number of other concerns4 ,the ,japan ,paper ,co41 ,new ,york ,city1 manufactured and imported from ,japan approximately #c1jjj1jjj paper parachutes4 ,the ,remington ,arms ,co41 ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 built about #b1ejj1jjj #aj-;gauge signal-pistol cartridges1 except for the stars they contained4 ,the ,empire ,art ,metal ,co41 ,college ,point1 ,n4 ,y41 produced nearly #b1jjj1jjj ,very pistol cartridge cases4 ,the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co41 ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 supplied nearly #e1jjj1jjj primers for these cartridges4 ,rose ,bros4 ,co41 ,lancaster1 ,pa41 produced #fe1fjj silk parachutes for ,very cartridges4 ,cheney ,bros41 ,south ,manchester1 ,conn42 ,d4 ,g4 ,dery 7,inc471 ,allentown1 ,pa42 ,stehli ,silk ,corporation1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,sauquoit ,silk ,co41 ,philadelphia2 ,lewis ,roessel ,co41 ,hazleton1 ,pa42 ,schwarzenback-,huber ,co41 ,new ,york ,city2 and the ,duplane ,silk ,corporation1 ,hazleton1 ,pa41 produced a total of #a1bca1gbh yards of silk for parachutes to float airplane flares4 ,the parachutes themselves for the airplane flares1 a total of #bh1egj of them1 were manufactured by the ,duplane ,silk ,corporation2 ,folmer-,clogg ,co41 ,lancaster1 ,pa42 and ,jacob ,gerhardt ,co41 ,hazleton1 ,pa4 ,the ,edw4 ,g4 ,budd ,manufacturing ,co41 ,philadelphia1 built #da1jbj metal cases for the airplane flares4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,articles4 ,ordered4 ,completed to ,completed to ,nov4 #h1 #aiah4 ,feb4 #a1 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,signal rockets #fae1jjj #dcg1aja #edd1cee ,position lights #b1jgb1jjj #a1ahg1ecb #a1fgj1jgj ,rifle lights #ee1jjj #ee1jjj #ee1jjj ,signal lights #c1aaj1jjj #b1ffa1jjh #b1gaj1bfh ,v4 ,b4 cartridges #a1bae1jjj #aaj #jjj #fgc1bjj ,very cartridges1 #be-millimeter #cjj1jjj ,smoke torches #ejj1jjj #ca1jjj #ahh1ajb ,wing-tip flares #aab1jjj #gj1jjj #ajj1hfe ,airplane flares #ej1jhc #b1ajj #h1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,we also contracted for the production of many thousands of ,very signal pistols4 ,before the original program was canceled the ,remington ,arms ,co4 had produced #bd1dfj of the #aj-;gauge pistols in contracts calling for a total output of #ce1jjj4 ,in ,august1 #aiah1 we let contracts for #ace1jjj of the #be-millimeter pistols and for approximately #cj1jjj of the #ce-millimeter pistols4 ,the ,a4 ,h4 ,fox ,gun ,co4 completed #d1aic of the smaller pistols and the ,scott ,fetzger ,machine ,co4 turned out #g1gej of them4 ,other concerns which had taken contracts but had not come into production when the armistice was signed were the ,national ,tool ,manufacturing ,co41 the ,doehler ,die ,castings ,co41 the ,hammond ,typewriter ,co41 and ,parker ,bros4 ,considerable experimental work of an interesting nature was carried out looking toward the development of incendiary devices4 ,three types of flame projectors1 flaming bayonets1 an airplane destroyer1 incendiary darts1 and the smoke knapsack were among the projects undertaken4 ,owing in large measure to changes in requirements by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces none of these devices was actually turned out on any considerable scale4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,ordnance ,,equipment4 ,the miscellaneous ordnance equipment of the ,american soldier in the recent war--that is1 articles which he carried with him and which added to his comfort1 his safety1 or his efficiency as a fighter--while in many respects identical with the equipment used by our troops for many years1 at the same time contained several novelties4 ,in the novelty class were helmets and armor4 ,there is a widespread impression that helmets and body armor passed away with the invention of gunpowder and because of that invention4 ,this impression is not at all true4 ,body armor came to its highest development long after gunpowder was in common use in war4 ,the sixteenth century witnessed the most extensive use of armor2 yet at that time guns and pistols formed an important part of the equipment of every army1 and even a weapon which is generally fancied to be ultramodern1 the revolver1 had been invented4 ,the fact is that not gunpowder but tactics caused the decline of armor4 ,not that armor was unable to stop many types of projectiles shot from guns1 but that its weight hampered swift maneuvering1 caused it to be laid aside by the soldier4 ,the decline of armor may be said to date from the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,the armies in that period1 and particularly that of the ,swedes1 began making long marches for surprise attacks1 and the body armor of the troops was found to be a hindrance in such tactics4 ,thereafter armor went out of fashion4 ,yet it never completely disappeared in warfare4 ,gen4 ,rochambeau is said to have worn body armor at the siege of ,yorktown4 ,great numbers of corselets and headpieces were worn in the ,napoleonic wars4 ,the corselet which ,john ,paul ,jones wore in his fight with the ,serapis is preserved at the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art in ,new ,york4 ,the ,japanese army was mailed with good armor as late as #ahgj4 ,breastplates were worn to some extent in the ,civil ,war in the ,united ,states1 and an armor factory was actually established at ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 about #ahfb4 ,in the museum at ,richmond1 ,va41 is an equipment of armor taken from a dead soldier in one of the trenches at the siege of that city4 ,there was a limited use of armor in the ,franco-,prussian ,war4 ,some of the ,japanese troops carried shields at ,port ,arthur4 ,helmets were worn in the ,boer ,war4 ,a notorious ,australian bandit in the eighties for a long time defied armed posses to capture him because he wore armor and could stand off entire squads of policemen firing at him with ,martini rifles at close range4 ,thus it can not be said that armor1 in coming into use again in the great war1 was resurrected2 it was merely revived4 ,in its static condition during most of the four-year period1 the war against ,germany was one in which armor might profitably be used4 ,this opportunity could scarcely be overlooked1 and indeed it was not4 ,everybody knows of the helmets that were in general use2 yet body armor itself was coming into favor again1 and only the welcome but unexpected end of hostilities prevented it1 in all probability1 from becoming again an important part of the equipment of a soldier4 ,as a consequence of the attenuated but persistent use of armor by soldiers during the past two centuries and of the demand of the aristocratic for helmets and armor as ornaments1 the armorer's trade had been kept alive from the days of ,gustavus ,adolphus to the present4 ,the war efforts of the ,united ,states in #aiag and #aiah demanded a wide range of human talents and special callings2 but surely the strange and unusual seemed to be reached when in the early days of our undertaking the ,engineering ,division of the ,ordnance ,department sought the services of expert armorers4 ,through the advice of the ,national ,research ,council1 which had established a committee of armor experts1 the ,ordnance ,department commissioned in its service ,maj4 ,bashford ,dean1 a life-long specialist in armor1 curator in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 an institution which1 learning of the ,government's need1 at once placed at its disposal its wonderful specimens of authentic armor1 its armor repair shop where models could at once be made1 and the services of ,maj4 ,dean's assistant there whom he had brought from ,france1 ,daniel ,tachaux1 one of the few surviving armorers1 who had inherited lineally the technical side of the ancient craft4 ,it may be said that there were but two nations in the great war which went to the ,middle ,ages for ideas as to protective armor--ourselves and ,germany4 ,the ,germans1 who applied science to almost every phase of warfare1 did not neglect it here4 ,germany at the start consulted her experts on ancient armor and worked along lines which they suggested4 ,the ,german helmet used in the trenches was undoubtedly superior to any other helmet given a practical use4 ,the first helmets to be used in the great war were of ,french manufacture4 ,they were designed by ,gen4 ,adrien1 and #b1jjj1jjj of them were manufactured and issued to the ,french ,army4 ,these helmets were the product of hasty pioneer work1 but the fact that they saved from #b to #e per cent of the normal casualties of such a war as was being fought at once impelled the other belligerents to adopt the idea4 ,great ,britain1 spurred by the necessity of producing quickly a helmet in quantity1 designed the most simple helmet to manufacture1 which could be pressed out of cold metal4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,and ,,exterior ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,steel ,,helmet ,,worn ,,by ,,our ,,troops4 ,illustration3 ,,aviator',s ,,helmet4 ,illustration3 ,,visor ,,helmet ,,for ,,snipers ,,and ,,machine ,,gunners4 ,when ,america entered the war she had1 naturally1 no distinctive helmet2 and the ,english type1 being easiest to make1 was adopted to fill the gap until we could design a more efficient one ourselves4 ,consequently #djj1jjj ,british helmets were bought in ,england and issued to the vanguard of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,our men wore them1 became accustomed to them1 and came to feel that they were the badge of ,english-speaking troops4 ,the ,british helmet thus became a habit with our men1 one difficult to change1 a fact which mitigated against the popularity of the more advanced and scientific models which we were to bring out4 ,now1 the ,british helmet possessed some notable defects4 ,it did not afford a maximum of protective area4 ,the center of gravity was not so placed as to keep the helmet from wobbling4 ,the lining was uncomfortable and disregarded the anatomy of the head4 ,it was vulnerable at the concave surface where bowl and brim joined4 ,it is not an astonishing circumstance that some of the earlier helmets worn by the men-at-arms of the days of knighthood possessed certain of these same defects1 notably1 that they were apt to be top-heavy and uncomfortable4 ,only by centuries of constant application and improvement were the armorers of the ,middle ,ages able to produce helmets which overcame these defects and which embodied all of the principles of defense and strength which science could put into them4 ,the best medieval helmets stand at the summit of the art4 ,it was the constant aim of the modern specialist1 aided by the facilities of the twentieth century industries1 to produce helmets as perfect technically as those rare models which are the pride of museums and collectors4 ,certainly in one respect we had the advantage of the ancients in that we have nowadays at our disposal the modern alloy-steels of great resistance4 ,an alloy of this kind having a thickness of #j4jcf of an inch is able to stop at a distance of #aj feet a jacketed1 automatic pistol ball1 4#de caliber1 traveling at the rate of #fjj feet a second4 ,this was important not only from the standpoint of helmet production1 but from the further inference that body armor of such steel might still be profitably used4 ,the records of the hospitals in ,france show that #g or #h of every #aj wounded soldiers were wounded by fragments of shell and other missiles which even thin armor plate would have kept out4 ,the ,german troops used body armor in large numbers1 each set weighing from #ai to #bd pounds4 ,in this country we believed it possible to produce body armor which would not be difficult to carry and which would resist the impact of a machine-gun bullet at fairly close range4 ,the production of helmets1 however1 was our first concern2 and in order to be sure of a sufficient quantity of these protective headpieces1 we adopted the ,british model for production in the ,united ,states and went ahead with it on a large scale4 ,for the metal we adopted after much experimentation a steel alloy with a high percentage of manganese4 ,this was practically the same as the steel of the ,british helmet4 ,its chief advantage was that it was easy to work in the metal presses in existence and it required no further tempering after leaving the stamping presses4 ,its hardness1 however1 wore away the stamping tools much more quickly than ordinary steel sheets would do4 ,while we adopted the ,british helmet in design and substantially in metal used1 we originated our own helmet lining4 ,the lining was woven of cotton twine in meshes three-eighths of an inch square4 ,this web1 fitting tightly upon the wearer's head1 evenly distributed the weight of the two-pound helmet1 and in the same way distributed the force of any blow upon the helmet4 ,the netting1 together with small pieces of rubber around the edge of the lining1 kept the helmet away from the head1 so that even a relatively large dent could not reach the wearer's skull4 ,it is an interesting fact that the linings for the ,american helmets were produced by concerns whose ordinary business was the manufacture of shoes4 ,there were #aj of these companies taking such contracts4 ,steel for the helmet was rolled by the ,american ,sheet ,tin ,plate ,co4 ,the helmets were pressed and stamped into shape by seven companies which had done similar work before the war4 ,these concerns were3 ,contractor4 ,delivered4 ,edward ,g4 ,budd ,manufacturing ,co41 ,philadelphia #a1aej1gge ,sparks1 ,withington ,co41 ,jackson1 ,mich4 #dgc1dfi ,crosby ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 #dfi1ifh ,bossett ,corporation1 ,utica1 ,n4 ,y4 #aaf1gce ,columbian ,enameling ,stamping ,co41 ,terre ,haute1 ,ind4 #bfh1hej ,worcester ,pressed ,steel ,co41 ,worcester1 ,mass4 #aic1hdj ,benjamin ,electric ,co41 ,des ,plaines1 ,ill4 #cc1fjj --------- ,total #b1gjg1bcg ,the metal helmets and the woven linings were delivered to the plant of the ,ford ,motor ,co4 at ,philadelphia1 where they were painted and assembled4 ,the helmets were painted in the olive-drab shade for protective coloring4 ,while on dull days such objects could not be discerned at a great distance1 in bright weather their rounded surfaces might catch and reflect sunbeams1 thus betraying the positions of their wearers4 ,to guard against this1 as soon as the helmets were treated to a first coat of paint fine sawdust was blown upon the wet surface4 ,when this had dried1 another coat of paint was applied1 and a nonreflective1 gritty surface was thus produced4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,experimental ,,models ,,of ,,helmets1 ,,light ,,breastplates1 ,,and ,,arm ,,guards4 ,illustration3 ,american ,helmet4 ,experimental ,model ,no4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,american ,helmet ,no4 #h4 7,visor up47 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,light ,,back ,,plate4 ,,experimental ,,model4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,heavy ,,armor ,,for ,,machine ,,gunners4 ,,experimental ,,model #aiag4 ,we began receiving substantial quantities of finished helmets by the end of ,november of the first year of the war4 ,on ,february #ag1 #aiah1 practically #gjj1jjj had been shipped abroad or were ready for shipment at the ports of embarkation4 ,later in the spring of #aiah1 when we began sending men to ,france much beyond our earlier expectations1 the orders for helmets were greatly expanded4 ,in ,july the total orders reached #c1jjj1jjj1 in ,august #f1jjj1jjj1 and in ,september #g1jjj1jjj4 ,this would give us enough to meet all requirements until ,june1 #aiai4 ,when the armistice was signed the factories were producing more than #ajj1jjj helmets every four days1 and were rapidly approaching the time when their daily output would be #fj1jjj4 ,the ,government canceled all helmet contracts as soon as the fighting ceased1 having received up to that time a total of #b1gjj1jjj of them4 ,while this manufacture was going on we were developing helmets of our own4 ,major ,dean went to ,france to collect information dealing with the actual needs of the service and to present numerous experimental models of helmets for the comment and criticism of the ,general ,staff4 ,in numerous cases these models were accepted for manufacture here in experimental lots4 ,in all we developed four models which seemed to have merits recommending their adoption4 ,the first distinctive ,american helmet was known as model ,no4 #b4 ,the ,ford ,co4 at ,detroit pressed about #a1bjj of these helmets4 ,the helmet1 however1 was similar in appearance to the ,german helmet1 and for that reason was disapproved by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,helmet model ,no4 #c was of a deep-bowl type1 but it was rejected when the ,hale ,kilburn ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 after a great deal of experimentation1 found that the helmet was too deep for successful manufacture by pressing4 ,model ,no4 #d was designed by the master armorer of the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art4 ,it was also found too difficult to manufacture4 ,helmet ,no4 #e was strongly recommended by ,american experts1 but was not accepted by the ,general ,staff4 ,it was designed by the armor committee at the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art in conjunction with the ,engineering ,division of the ,ordnance ,department4 ,hale ,kilburn undertook to manufacture these helmets1 which were to be painted1 assembled1 and packed by the ,ford ,motor ,co4 at its ,philadelphia plant4 ,various component parts of the helmet were sublet in experimental quantities to numerous manufacturers4 ,the ,no4 #e helmet1 complete1 weighed #b pounds1 #f ounces4 ,it combined the virtues of several types of helmets4 ,it gave a maximum of protection for its weight4 ,it was comparatively easy to produce4 ,this helmet1 with slight variations1 was later adopted as the standard helmet of the ,swiss ,army4 ,the latest ,german helmet1 it is interesting to note1 was approaching similar lines4 ,we also produced helmets for special services--one with a visor to protect machine gunners and snipers1 and another1 known as model #ad1 for aviators1 it being little heavier than the leather helmet which airmen wore in the war and twenty times as strong a defense for the head4 ,a third special helmet1 known as model #ae1 was for operators of tanks4 ,it was provided with a neck guard of padded silk to stop the lead splash which penetrated the turret of the tank4 ,the ,ordnance ,department turned out #be of these in #aj days and sent them by courier to ,france for a test4 ,the ,germans issued body armor only to troops holding exposed positions under heavy machine-gun and rifle fire2 but such use was distinctly valuable1 as was shown by captured ,german reports4 ,the ,engineering ,division of the ,ordnance ,department developed a body defense including a light front and body plate1 these together weighing #i pounds4 ,one lot of #e1jjj sets was manufactured by the ,hale ,kilburn ,corporation4 ,the linings of these plates were of sponge rubber1 and they were made by the ,miller ,rubber ,co41 of ,akron1 ,ohio4 ,all of these sets were shipped abroad for testing2 but the report was not favorable1 as the ,american soldier did not wish to be hampered with armor4 ,he had learned to wear his helmet1 but he had yet to be convinced of the practical value of body armor4 ,we developed a heavy breast plate with thigh guards1 weighing #bg pounds1 which stopped machine gun bullets at #aej yards4 ,an experimental lot of these were completed in #bf days by the ,mullins ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,salem1 ,ohio4 ,these were also shipped abroad for test4 ,a few defenses for arms and legs were prepared which1 although light in weight1 would protect the wearer from an automatic-pistol ball at #aj feet4 ,about #gj per cent of the hospital cases in ,france were casualties caused by wounds in the arms and legs4 ,these defenses1 however1 were rejected on account of their impeding to a certain degree the movements of the wearer4 ,our development in armor also produced an aviator's chair weighing #fj pounds4 ,it would protect the pilot from injury from below and from the back1 withstanding armor-piercing bullets fired at a distance of #ej yards4 ,since the piercing of the gas mask canister by a bullet might result in the death of the soldier by admitting gas directly into the breathing system of his mask1 the ,ordnance ,department designed an armored haversack for the gas mask and its canister1 this haversack incidentally serving as a breast defense4 ,,bayonets ,,and ,,trench ,,knives4 ,another large ordnance operation was the production of bayonets for the service rifles4 ,the ,british bayonet had proved to be highly satisfactory in the war2 and1 since it was already designed to fit the ,enfield rifle1 which we had adopted for our own1 we took the ,british bayonet as it was and1 with only one slight alteration1 set out to produce it in this country4 ,the ,government found both the ,remington ,arms-,union ,metallic ,cartridge ,co4 at its ,bridgeport1 ,conn41 works1 and the ,winchester ,repeating ,arms ,co4 building these bayonets for the ,english ,government4 ,the latter's bayonet needs by #aiag were being well supplied by home manufacture1 and this permitted us to buy approximately #ede1ejj bayonets which had already been manufactured for the ,british4 ,the ,ordnance ,department at once started out these two concerns on contracts for bayonets for the ,american ,government1 ,remington with total orders for #b1hbj1hjc bayonets and ,winchester with orders for #fgb1ejj4 ,remington delivered in all #a1efe1fdd bayonets and ,winchester #cie1hid4 ,this was a total of #a1ifa1ejj bayonets4 ,the total production of #aiag rifles was about #b1ebj1jjj4 ,these figures indicate that we were short over #ejj1jjj bayonets at the time hostilities ceased2 and as a matter of fact this shortage had already become acute1 especially in the training camps4 ,the bayonets had not come as rapidly as we had expected1 because to produce them at the rate originally planned would have interfered with the more essential production of rifles by these same companies4 ,accordingly in #aiah additional contracts for bayonets were made4 ,landers1 ,frary ,clark1 of ,new ,britain1 ,conn41 engaged to manufacture #ejj1jjj bayonets1 and the ,national ,motor ,vehicle ,co41 #bee1jjj4 ,these latter contracts1 however1 were suspended after the armistice was signed4 ,the additional orders had made it certain that there would be no bayonet shortage by the spring of #aiai4 ,while this production was under way we were also manufacturing bayonets for the model #aijc ,springfield rifle4 ,the ,springfield ,armory produced #cdg1ecc of these and the ,rock ,island ,arsenal #cf1hjj4 ,in addition the ,springfield ,armory delivered #ej1jjj bayonet blades as spare parts4 ,we not only had to provide bayonets but also the scabbards to hold them in4 ,the scabbard of the #aiag bayonet was of simple manufacture and there were no difficulties in securing sufficient quantities4 ,the ,jewell ,belt ,co4 delivered #a1haj1fge of them2 ,graton ,knight delivered #a1ffi1eha2 while the ,rock ,island ,arsenal produced #c1jjj4 ,this gave us a total of #c1dhj1jjj scabbards1 a quantity greatly in excess of the production of either bayonets or rifles4 ,a new weapon which had come into use during the great war as part of the soldier's individual equipment was the trench knife4 ,the question of making such knives was taken up by the ,government with various manufacturers throughout the country and they were given a general idea of what was required and1 in conjunction with the ,ordnance ,department1 were requested to develop details4 ,the design submitted by ,henry ,disston ,sons1 of ,philadelphia1 received the most favorable consideration4 ,this knife was manufactured and known as model #aiag4 ,it was a triangular blade #i inches long4 ,the triangular blade was deemed the most efficient because of the ease with which it would pierce clothing and even leather4 ,this knife was slightly changed as regards handle and given a different guard to protect the man's knuckles1 and was known as model #aiah4 ,these knives were sent abroad in large quantities to be used by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,landers1 ,frary ,clark produced #aac1jjj of these knives and the ,oneida ,community 7,ltd471 ,oneida1 ,n4 ,y41 #aj1jjj4 ,on ,june #a1 #aiah1 the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces made an exhaustive test1 comparing the various trench knives used abroad4 ,the four knives tested were as follows2 ,united ,states1 model #aiag2 ,hughes2 ,french2 and ,british knuckle knife4 ,these tests were made to determine the merits of the different knives as to the following points3 7a7 ,serviceability--ability to carry in hand and function other arms4 7b7 ,quickness in action4 7c7 ,if the soldier were knocked unconscious1 would knife drop from hand8 7d7 ,suitability to carry in hand when crawling4 7e7 ,probability of being knocked out of hand4 7f7 ,weight1 length1 shape of blade4 7g7 ,shape of handle4 ,it was found that the model #aiag1 although a satisfactory knife1 could be improved4 ,therefore the trench knife known as ,mark ,i was developed partially by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces and partially by the ,engineering ,division of ,ordnance4 ,this knife was entirely different from the model #aiag1 having a flat blade1 metal scabbard1 and a cast-bronze handle4 ,it was a combination of all the good points of all the knives used by the foreign armies4 ,the ,government placed orders for #a1bcb1ghj of the new knives4 ,deliveries were to have begun in ,december1 but before that time peace had come and the orders had been reduced to #aai1dbd4 ,the new model knives were to have been manufactured by ,a4 ,a4 ,simons ,son1 ,dayton1 ,ohio2 ,henry ,disston ,son1 ,philadelphia2 ,landers1 ,frary ,clark1 and the ,oneida ,community 7,ltd474 ,all contracts were canceled except the one with ,landers1 ,frary ,clark4 ,illustration3 #aiag ,,model ,,of ,,trench ,,knife ,,and ,,scabbard4 ,illustration3 ,,mark ,i ,,trench ,,knife ,,with ,,flat ,,blade1 ,,designed ,,by ,a4 ,e4 ,f4 ,illustration3 ,,wire ,,cutter 7,,one ,,hand74 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,wire ,,cutters4 ,illustration3 ,,wire ,,cutter1 ,,model #aiah1 ,,showing ,,special ,,rubber ,,handles4 ,,tested ,,at #aj1jjj ,,volts4 ,,periscopes1 ,,belts1 ,,etc4 ,another new article in the equipment of our soldiers was the trench periscope1 a device enabling a man to look over the edge of the trench without exposing himself to fire4 ,the ordinary periscope was merely a wooden box #b inches square and #ae inches long1 with an inclined mirror set at each end4 ,production was commenced in ,october1 #aiag1 by two companies1 and #ha1jjj were delivered by the middle of ,january4 ,in ,august1 #aiah1 an additional lot of #fj1jjj was ordered1 but the deliveries of these were slow4 ,an even simpler periscope was merely a mirror about three inches long and an inch and a half wide which could be placed on a bayonet or a stick and set up over the trench so that it gave a view of the ground in front4 ,a total of #ajj1jjj of these was delivered before the end of ,july1 #aiah1 and #ej1jjj additional ones before ,november4 ,further facts about periscopes are set down in the chapter in this report relating to sights and fire-control apparatus4 ,at the beginning of the war all textile equipment1 such as cartridge belts1 bandoleers to carry ammunition1 haversacks1 pack carriers1 pistol holsters1 canteen covers and similar material were supplied in woven material4 ,only two concerns in this country could manufacture articles of this quality4 ,they were the ,mills ,woven ,cartridge ,belt ,co41 ,worcester1 ,mass41 and the ,russell ,manufacturing ,co41 ,middletown1 ,conn4 ,although these two concerns practically doubled their output and worked day and night to supply the material1 the demand was too great1 and belts and carriers were designed to be stitched and sewn and not woven4 ,equipment made in this manner is inferior to the woven article4 ,however1 the ,mills ,woven ,cartridge ,belt ,co4 produced approximately #c1bjj1jjj of these articles and the ,russell ,manufacturing ,co41 #a1ejj1jjj4 ,large producers of the stitched and sewn material were the ,plant ,brothers ,co41 ,boston1 ,mass42 ,r4 ,h4 ,long ,co41 ,framingham1 ,mass42 ,l4 ,c4 ,chase ,co41 ,watertown1 ,mass4 ,for the ,browning automatic rifle and the ,browning machine gun there were specially designed belts and bandoleers4 ,the rifleman had his own special belt1 and his first and second assistants had their own individual belts1 and the assistants also had two bandoleers each1 one right and one left1 which were carried across their shoulders4 ,these were manufactured in quantities by the following manufacturers3 ,r4 ,h4 ,long ,co41 ,framingham1 ,mass4 #age1jjj ,plant ,bros41 ,boston1 ,mass4 #ge1jjj ,l4 ,c4 ,chase ,co41 ,watertown1 ,mass4 #bj1jjj ,many small articles of textile equipment were produced in immense quantities4 ,there were approximately four and a half million canteen covers produced prior to ,november #a4 ,large contracts were placed with the following concerns3 ,perkins-,campbell ,co41 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio2 ,brauer ,bros41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 ,l4 ,c4 ,chase ,co41 ,watertown1 ,mass42 ,miller-,hexter ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio2 ,powers ,manufacturing ,co41 ,waterloo1 ,iowa2 ,r4 ,h4 ,long ,co41 ,framingham1 ,mass42 ,bradford ,co41 ,st4 ,joseph1 ,mich42 ,galvin ,bros41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio2 ,progressive ,knitting ,works1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,approximately four and a half million haversacks were produced and delivered prior to ,november #a1 #aiah4 ,large manufacturers producing these were as follows3 ,canvas ,products ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 ,rock ,island ,arsenal1 ,rock ,island1 ,ill42 ,plant ,bros41 ,boston1 ,mass42 ,simmons ,hardware ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 ,r4 ,h4 ,long ,co41 ,framingham1 ,mass42 ,liberty1 ,durgin 7,inc471 ,haverhill1 ,mass42 ,wiley1 ,bickford ,sweet1 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,it is impossible here to enumerate the entire range of ordnance munitions produced1 outside of the development of guns and their ammunition2 but their manufacture1 in orders that ordinarily amounted to the millions of individual pieces1 engaged the activities of a large number of manufacturers of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,government ordered about #a1bjj1jjj axes to be used in trench operations1 of which #ffa1fij were delivered4 ,bags of all sorts for horse feed1 grain1 rations1 and supplies totaled in their deliveries about #b1bej1jjj4 ,the ,government received #hji1eda saddle blankets2 about #c1gej1jjj carriers for entrenching shovels1 axes1 and picks2 nearly #d1dej1jjj covers for the breech locks of rifles2 over #a1jjj1jjj currycombs2 #gf1bcj lariats2 #gbg1jjj entrenching picks2 nearly #d1gej1jjj first-aid pouches1 and over #b1jjj1jjj pouches for small articles2 #bcd1fhi ,cavalry saddles2 #acd1jib ,field ,artillery saddles2 #ae1bhg mule saddles2 #dhb1dei saddle bags2 nearly #a1hjj1jjj entrenching shovels2 #b1hdc1jib spur straps2 #gj1eef steel measuring tapes each #e feet long4 ,these figures selected at random from thousands of miscellaneous items indicate to some extent the scale on which ,america went into the war4 ,the old model #aiaj ,american wire cutter1 although efficient in times past1 was not capable of cutting specially constructed manganese wire which the ,germans used4 ,therefore it became necessary for this country to develop a better cutter4 ,a meeting of the plier manufacturers of the country was called and the question was put before them4 ,the spirit of cooperation of the ,american manufacturers was evident1 inasmuch as over #ij per cent of the manufacturers attended the meeting4 ,illustration3 ,,cartridge ,,belt1 ,,cal4#cj1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj 7,,dismounted7 ,,cartridge ,,belt1 ,,cal4#cj1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj 7,,mounted7 ,,garrison ,,belt1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj1 ,,for ,,enlisted ,,men4 ,,garrison ,,belt1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj1 ,,for ,,non ,,com ,,staff ,,officers ,,and ,,first ,,sergeants4 ,,magazine ,,pocket1 ,,web1 ,,double4 ,,wire ,,cutter ,,carrier1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj4 ,illustration3 ,,garrison ,,belt1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj1 ,,for ,,mounted ,,orderlies1 ,,mounted ,,scouts ,,and ,,members ,,of ,,machine ,,gun ,,platoons4 ,,garrison ,,belt1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj1 ,,trumpeter ,,sergeant ,,and ,,musicians4 ,,pouch ,,model ,,of #aiaj1 ,,for ,,first ,,aid ,,packet4 ,,slide ,,web4 ,,shovel ,,carrier1 ,,model ,,of #aiai4 ,,canteen ,,cover1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj4 ,,hand ,,ax ,,carrier1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj4 ,,pick ,,mattock ,,carrier1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj4 ,illustration3 ,,meat ,,can1 ,,model #aiah4 ,illustration3 ,,canteen1 ,,model #aiaj4 ,illustration3 ,,pack ,,carrier1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj4 ,,haversack1 ,,model ,,of #aiaj4 ,,meat ,,can ,,pouch4 ,illustration3 ,,condiment ,,can1 ,,model #aiaj4 ,illustration3 ,,knife1 ,,model #aiaj4 ,illustration3 ,,fork1 ,,model #aiaj4 ,the model submitted by ,kraeuter ,co41 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 was adopted and #e1jjj were manufactured and sent to ,france4 ,although this was the best cutter developed in this short time1 it was evident that it was not the right article1 and the ,engineering ,division of ,ordnance continued experimenting to make a more satisfactory one4 ,in this connection a one-hand wire cutter was developed by the ,william ,schollhorn ,co41 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,this cutter was a very efficient and satisfactory article1 and1 although it was never adopted by the ,american ,army during the war1 it is worthy of consideration4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces eventually sent back drawings and sample of the ,french wire cutter1 which was developed abroad and known as model #aiah4 ,this was a large1 two-handed cutter4 ,production was started4 ,the article was found difficult to manufacture1 but the manufacturers undertook it with a will and production was well under way when the armistice was signed4 ,the mess equipment of the soldier included the following items3 meat can1 condiment can1 canteen and cup1 knife1 fork1 and spoon4 ,these articles were practically the same as the ,army had always used1 with one exception--the meat can4 ,advice was received from the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces that the meat cans in which the soldiers' food was placed by the cooks of the various organizations were not large enough to hold the portions that the ,american doughboys needed when they were fighting at the front4 ,although production was well under way with various ,american manufacturers on the old model1 a new model can was designed which was half an inch deeper4 ,the ,american manufacturers immediately1 with a great deal of trouble to themselves1 changed their dies and tools and manufactured a new meat can which was larger than the old4 ,thousands of cans were turned out daily4 ,production data4 ,,condiment ,,cans4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,contractor4 ,contract4 ,completed and delivered4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,american ,can ,co41 ,new ,york ,city #c1eec1idj #c1eec1idj ,tin ,decorating ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 #b1jjc1fdj #b1jjc1fdj ,gotham ,can ,co41 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 #ejj1jjj #ejj1jjj ----------------------- ,total #f1jeg1ehj #f1jeg1ehj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,bacon ,,cans4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,sturgis ,burns1 ,chicago #b1cjc1hjj #a1gca1jjj ,landers1 ,frary ,clark1 ,new ,britain1 ,conn4 #ecd1cfj #ecd1cfj ,rock ,island ,arsenal1 ,rock ,island1 ,ill4 #a1feh1jjj #a1ceh1egj ,wisconsin ,metal ,products ,co41 ,racine1 ,wis4 #ej1jjj #ej1jjj ,acklin ,steel ,co41 ,toledo1 ,ohio #bej1jjj #bej1jjj ,cleveland ,metal ,products ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio #cjj1jjj #ba1gej ,whittaker1 ,glessner ,co41 ,wheeling1 ,w4 ,va4 #ejj1jjj #aca1hhj ----------------------- ,total #e1eif1afj #d1jgg1efj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,meat ,,cans4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,aluminum ,co4 of ,america1 ,pittsburgh #c1che1iee #c1che1iee ,landers1 ,frary ,clark1 ,new ,britain1 ,conn4 #c1jjj1jjj #c1jjj1jjj ,j4 ,w4 ,brown ,co41 ,columbus1 ,ohio #fda1ide #fda1ide ,wheeling ,stamping ,co41 ,wheeling1 ,w4 ,va4 #idj1hab #idj1hab ,edmunds ,jones ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #ach1cfj #ach1cfj ,rock ,island ,arsenal #ach1hfb #ach1hfb ----------------------- ,total #h1bde1icd #h1bde1icd ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,canteens4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,aluminum ,co4 of ,america1 ,new ,york #c1dgj1jjj #c1dgj1jjj ,landers1 ,frary ,clark #b1hfb1aej #b1hfb1aej ,aluminum ,goods ,co41 ,manitowoc1 ,wis4 #b1cgj1jjj #b1cgj1jjj ,j4 ,w4 ,brown ,co4 #hfa1dga #hfa1dga ,buckeye ,aluminum ,co41 ,wooster1 ,ohio #ggf1jad #ggf1jad ,rock ,island ,arsenal #cfa1jjj #cfa1jjj ----------------------- ,total #aj1gjj1fce #aj1gjj1fce ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,knives4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,american ,cutlery ,co41 ,chicago #b1hfe1iaj #b1hfe1iaj ,landers1 ,frary ,clark #g1bhf1eej #g1bhf1eej ,rock ,island ,arsenal #ebg1fjj #ebg1fjj ,international ,silverware ,co4 #dgc1jjj #dgc1jjj ,hinckley ,manufacturing ,co4 #acj1jjj #acj1jjj ----------------------- ,total #aa1bhc1jfj #aa1bhc1jfj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,forks4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,r4 ,wallace ,co4 #h1ehe1jjj #h1ehe1jjj ,wallace ,bros4 #cfg1haj #cfg1haj ,rock ,island ,arsenal #bjj1jjj #bjj1jjj ,charles ,parker ,co41 ,meriden1 ,conn4 #haj1jjj #haj1jjj ,wm4 ,b4 ,durgin ,co41 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h4 #ejj1jjj #ejj1jjj ----------------------- ,total #aj1dfb1haj #aj1dfb1haj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,spoons4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,r4 ,wallace ,co4 #h1jcg1fjj #h1jcg1fjj ,national ,enameling ,stamping ,co4 #ijf1djj #ijf1djj ,wm4 ,b4 ,durgin ,co4 #ejj1jjj #ejj1jjj ,charles ,parker ,co4 #ijb1jjj #ijb1jjj ----------------------- ,total #aj1cdf1jjj #aj1cdf1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,book ,,ii4 ,,the ,,air ,,service4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,aircraft ,,problem4 ,when the ,united ,states entered the war against ,germany in #aiag there was no phase of her forthcoming industrial effort from which so much was expected as from the building of airplanes and equipment for aerial warfare2 yet there was no phase of the immense undertaking in which the ,united ,states was so utterly unprepared4 ,in many other branches of the work of providing matriel for a modern army1 however inadequately acquainted ,america might be with the developments which had gone on in ,europe since #aiad1 yet she had splendid resources of skill and equipment which could quickly turn from the pursuits of peace to the arts attending warfare4 ,but there was no large existing industry in the ,united ,states which could turn easily to the production of airplanes1 since such airplanes as were known in ,europe in #aiag had never been built in the ,united ,states4 ,it seems difficult now for us to realize how utterly unlearned we were1 both in official and technical quarters1 in the design1 the production1 or the use of aeronautical equipment in those early days of #aiag4 ,here in ,america mechanical flight had been born2 but we had lived to see other nations develop the invention into an industry and a science that was a closed book to our people4 ,in the three years of warfare before ,american participation1 the airplane had been forced through a whole generation of normal mechanical evolution4 ,of this progress we were aware only as nontechnical and distant observers4 ,such military study of the progress as we had conducted was casual4 ,it had1 in fact1 brought to ,america scarcely a single basic fact on which we could build our contemplated industry4 ,when the ,united ,states became a belligerent no ,american-built airplane had ever mounted a machine gun or carried any other than the simplest of necessary instruments4 ,such things as oxygen apparatus1 electrically heated clothing for aviators1 radio-communication with airplanes1 landing and bombing flares1 electric lighting systems for planes1 bomb-dropping devices1 suitable compasses1 instruments for measuring height and speed1 and the like--in short1 all the modern paraphernalia that completes the efficiency of combat airplanes--these were almost entirely unknown to us4 ,the best of the prewar activities of ,america in this line had produced some useful airplane engines and a few planes which the countries then at war were willing to use only in training of aviators4 ,within the ,army itself there was small nucleus of skill around which could be built an organization expert and sophisticated4 ,we had in the official files no adequate information as to sizes1 capacities1 and types of planes or engines1 or character of ordnance1 armament1 or aeronautical appliances demanded by the exacting service in which our young birdmen were soon to engage4 ,even the airplanes on order in ,april1 #aiag 7over #cej of them71 proved to be of such antiquated design that the manufacturers of them1 in the light of their increased knowledge of war requirements a few months later1 asked to be released from their contracts4 ,nor was there in the ,united ,states any industry so closely allied to airplane manufacture that its engineers and designers could turn from one to the other and take their places at once abreast of the progress in ,europe4 ,there was little or no engineering talent in the ,united ,states competent to design fully equipped military aircraft which could compete with ,europe4 ,our aircraft producers must first go to ,france and ,england and ,italy1 and ground themselves in the principles of a new science before they could attempt to produce their own designs or even before they could be safe in selecting ,european designs for reproduction in this country4 ,the first consideration of the whole program by the ,joint ,army and ,navy ,technical ,board indicated a figure of #bb1jjj as the number of airplanes1 including both training and battle types1 which should be furnished for the use of the ,army during the #ab months following ,july #a1 #aiag4 ,this figure represented the determination of ,america to play a major part in aerial warfare4 ,it was not possible for the board to realize at that time all of the problems which would be encountered1 and the figures indicated confidence in the ability of the industrial organizations of the ,united ,states to meet a difficult situation1 rather than an exact plan under which such production might be developed4 ,it is probable that it was not fully realized that the production of this program1 with the proper proportion of spare parts required for military operations1 meant the manufacture of the equivalent of about #dj1jjj airplanes4 ,without an industry then1 and with little knowledge or understanding of the problems of military aerial equipment1 we faced the task of securing the equivalent of #dj1jjj airplanes in #ab brief months beginning ,july1 #aiag4 ,in one respect we were in a degree prepared in professional skill and mechanical equipment to go ahead on broad lines4 ,this was in the matter of producing engines4 ,the production of aviation engines in ,america had1 indeed1 been comparatively slight1 but in the automobile industry had been developed a vast engine-building capacity4 ,the detail equipment of automobile shops was not entirely suited to aviation engines1 but1 nevertheless1 it furnished the basis for the future successful production of the ,liberty engine and the other engines called for by the air program4 ,illustration3 #bej ,,airplanes ,,in ,,the ,,air ,,at ,,one ,,time ,,over ,,san ,,diego1 ,,calif4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,rows ,,of ,,airplanes ,,lined ,,up ,,at ,a ,,texas ,,flying ,,field4 ,america succeeded1 once the requirements were known1 in producing the various accessories of aerial warfare4 ,it was necessary first to learn from foreign sources what these accessories were and how they should be built2 but as a rule it was possible to adapt ,american production resources to the problem1 and the difficulties experienced were rather those of determining requirements and the exact adaptation of the various articles to specific airplanes4 ,the achievements of ,america in aircraft production during the war period may be summarized as follows3 ,in our #ai months of warfare we outdid any one of the belligerent nations in ,europe in the production of airplanes in its first #ai months of intensive production4 ,in our second year of war we nearly equaled the record of ,england in her third4 ,at the end of the effort1 after our designers had saturated themselves in the science and were abreast of the developments of ,europe1 they produced several typical ,american airplanes which gave promise of being superior to any that ,europe was turning out4 ,we created one of the three or four best airplane engines1 if not the best of all1 that the world had seen1 and produced it in great quantities4 ,we took a standard but complicated aero-engine from ,europe and not only duplicated it in quantity here but turned out a finer product than the original ,french makers had been able to obtain with their careful and more leisurely methods4 ,in the steel cylinders of all the aero-engines we built was a capacity for producing some seven or eight million horsepower1 an energy equivalent to one-fifth of the commercially practicable water power of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,liberty engines built could alone do the work of the entire flood of ,niagara and have a million horsepower to spare4 ,in three years of warfare the allies had been able to develop only a single machine gun that could be successfully synchronized to fire through a revolving airplane propeller4 ,in #ab months of actual effort ,america produced two others as good1 both susceptible of factory quantity production4 ,we developed new airplane cameras4 ,we carried to new stages the science of clothing aviators4 ,we developed in quantity the wireless airplane telephone that stilled in the ears of the pilot the bedlam of wind and machine guns and engine exhaust and placed him within easy speaking radius of his ground station and his commander in the air4 ,we built balloons at a rate to supply more than our own needs4 ,when the shortage of linen threatened the entire airplane output of the nations opposing ,germany1 we developed cotton wing fabric that not only substituted for linen1 but proved to be better2 and in producing a liquid filler to make this fabric wind-tight we established on a large scale an entirely new chemical industry in the ,united ,states4 ,such were the high points in the history of ,america's aircraft production for war4 ,the details of the developments which led to these results are set forth on the following pages4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,airplane ,,in ,,flight ,,taken ,,from ,,another ,,machine4 ,illustration3 ,,parachute ,,jump ,,from ,,an ,,altitude ,,of #g1ijj ,,feet1 ,,november #ab1 #aiah4 ,picture taken at ,love ,field1 ,tex41 from an airplane4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,airplane ,,production4 ,sketchy and incomplete as was our knowledge of airplane construction in the early days of #aiag1 it was no more hazy than our notion of how many planes to build4 ,what would constitute overwhelming superiority in the air8 ,as an indication of the rapidity with which history has moved1 it may be stated that in ,january and ,february of #aiag the ,signal ,corps discussed the feasibility of building #a1jjj planes in a year of construction4 ,this seems now to us a ridiculously low figure to propose as representative of ,american resources1 but in the early weeks of #aiag the construction of a thousand airplanes appeared to be a formidable undertaking4 ,in ,march1 when war was inevitable1 we raised this number to #b1ejj planes within #ab months2 in ,april1 when war was declared1 we raised it again to #c1gjj4 ,but once we were in the war1 through the exchange of military missions our designers were taken into the confidence of the aviation branches of the ,french1 ,british1 and ,italian ,armies and shown then for the first time a comprehensive view of the development of the war plane1 both what had been done in the past and what might be expected in the future4 ,as a result our ,joint ,army and ,navy ,technical ,board in the last week of ,may and the early part of ,june1 #aiag1 recommended to the ,secretaries of ,war and the ,navy that a building program be started at once to produce the stupendous total of #ai1gge planes for our own use and #c1jjj additional ones1 if we were to train foreign aviators1 or approximately #bb1jjj in all4 ,this was a program worthy of ,america's industrial greatness4 ,of these proposed planes1 #g1jej were for training our flyers1 #gbe for the defense of the ,united ,states and insular possessions1 and #ab1jjj for active service in ,france4 ,such was the task assigned to an industry that in the previous #ab months had manufactured less than #hjj airplanes1 and those consisting principally of training planes for foreign governments4 ,the expanding national ambition for an aircraft industry was also shown by the mounting money grants4 ,on ,may #ab ,congress voted #aj1hjj1jjj for military aeronautics4 ,on ,june #ae an appropriation of #dc1dej1jjj was voted for the same purpose4 ,finally on ,july #bd1 #aiag1 the ,president signed the bill appropriating #fdj1jjj1jjj for aircraft4 ,this was the largest appropriation ever made by ,congress for one specific purpose1 and this bill was put through both ,houses within the period of a little more than a week4 ,the figure #bb1jjj1 however1 scarcely indicates the size of this undertaking1 as we were to realize before long4 ,we little understood the infinite complications of fully equipping battle planes4 ,lacking that invaluable experience which ,europe had attained in three years of production1 we had no practical realization of the fact that for each #ajj airplanes an equivalent of #hj additional airplanes must be provided in spare parts4 ,in other words1 an effective fighting plane delivered in ,france is not one plane1 but it is one plane and eight-tenths of another2 which means that the program adopted in ,june1 #aiag1 called for the production in #ab months of not #bb1jjj airplanes but rather the equivalent of #dj1jjj airplanes4 ,let us set down the inventory of the ,government's own resources for handling this project4 ,the ,american ,air ,service1 which was then part of the ,signal ,corps1 had had a struggling and meager existence1 working with the old pusher type of planes until in #aiad an appropriation of #bej1jjj was made available for the purchase of new airplanes and equipment4 ,shortly after this appropriation was granted1 five officers were sent to the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology for a course in aeronautics4 ,when the war broke out in ,europe in ,august1 #aiad1 these men constituted the entire technically trained personnel of the ,air ,service of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,april #f1 #aiag1 we had #fe officers in the ,air ,service1 an enlisted and civilian personnel of #a1ccj1 two flying fields1 and a few serviceable planes of the training type4 ,this equipment may be compared with that of ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england at the time they went to war4 ,germany is believed to have had nearly #a1jjj airplanes in ,august1 #aiad2 ,france had about #cjj2 and ,england barely #bej4 ,america's #bbd1 delivered up to ,april #f1 #aiag1 were nearly all obsolete in type when compared with the machines then in effective service in ,france4 ,no sooner had the ,united ,states embarked upon the war than the agents of the ,european manufacturers of airplanes descended upon the ,aircraft ,board in swarms4 ,france and ,italy had both adopted the policy of depending upon the private development of designs for their supplies of airplanes1 with the result that the builders of each country had produced a number of successful types of flying machines and an even greater number of types of engines4 ,on the assumption that the ,united ,states would adopt certain of these types and build them here1 the agents for the ,sopwiths1 the ,capronis1 the ,handley-,pages1 and many others proceeded to demonstrate the particular excellences of their various articles4 ,out of this confusion of counsel stood one pertinent fact in relief--the ,united ,states would have to pay considerable royalties for the use of any of these ,european devices4 ,as to the relative merits of types and designs1 it was soon apparent that no intelligent decision could be reached in ,washington or anywhere but in ,europe4 ,because of our distance from the front and the length of time required to put the ,american industrial machine into operation on a large scale1 it was necessary that in advance we understand types and tendencies in aircraft construction1 so that we might anticipate aircraft development in such special designs as we might adopt4 ,otherwise1 if we accepted the types of equipment then in use in ,europe1 by the time we had begun producing on a large scale a year or so later we would find our output obsolete and out of date1 so rapidly was the aircraft art moving4 ,consequently1 in ,june the ,united ,states sent to ,europe a commission of six civilian and military experts1 headed by ,maj4 ,r4 ,c4 ,bolling1 part of whose duties was to advise the ,american ,war ,department as to what types of planes and engines and other air equipment we should prepare to manufacture4 ,also1 in ,april the ,chief of the ,signal ,corps had cables sent to ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy1 requesting that aviation experts be sent at once to this country2 and shortly after this we dispatched to ,europe more than #ajj skilled mechanics to work in the foreign engine and airplane plants and acquire the training that would make them the nucleus of a large mechanical force for aircraft production in this country4 ,but while these early educational activities were in progress1 much could be done at home that need not await the forthcoming reports from the ,bolling mission4 ,we had1 for instance1 in this country several types of planes and engines that would be suitable for the training fields which were even then being established4 ,the ,signal ,corps1 therefore1 bent its energies upon the manufacture of training equipment1 leaving the development of battle aircraft to come after we should know more about that subject4 ,it was evident that we could not equip an airplane industry and furnish machines to our fliers abroad before the summer of #aiah2 and so we arranged with ,france for this equipment by placing orders with ,french factories for #e1hge planes of regular ,french design4 ,these were all to be delivered by ,july #a1 #aiah4 ,in the arrangement with the ,french factories we agreed to supply from the ,united ,states a great deal of the raw materials for these machines1 and the contract for furnishing these supplies was given to ,j4 ,g4 ,white ,co4 of ,new ,york ,city4 ,this concern did a creditable job1 shipping about #e1jjj1jjj feet of lumber1 much necessary machinery1 and a multitude of items required in the fabrication of airplanes1 all to the value of #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,the total weight of the shipments on this contract was something like #bc1jjj tons1 this figure including #g1ejj tons of lumber4 ,the other tonnage consisted of tubing of steel1 brass1 copper and aluminum2 sheets of steel1 copper1 lead1 and aluminum2 as well as bar steel1 tool steel1 structural steel1 ball bearings1 crank shafts1 turnbuckles1 radiator tubes1 wire1 cable1 bolts1 nuts1 screws1 nails1 fiber cloth1 felt1 and rubber4 ,all of this was in addition to approximately #a1jjj machine tools1 such as motors1 lathes1 and grinders4 ,the orders for ,french planes were divided as follows3 #gbe ,nieuport training planes1 #aej ,spad training planes1 #a1ejj ,breguet service planes2 #b1jjj ,spad service planes2 and #a1ejj ,new ,spad or ,nieuport service planes4 ,the decision between the ,new ,spad or ,nieuport service planes was to be made as soon as the ,new ,spad could be tested4 ,these planes were to be delivered in specified monthly quantities increasing in number until the total of #a1cfj planes should be placed in our hands during the month of ,march1 #aiah1 alone4 ,the contracts were to be concluded in ,june with the delivery of the final #a1aae planes4 ,we also contracted for the manufacture of #h1ejj service engines of the ,renault1 ,hispano and ,gnome makes1 all of these to be delivered by the end of ,june4 ,when the armistice ended the fighting1 we had produced a total of #aa1ged airplanes in ,america1 together with most of the necessary spare parts for about one-third of them4 ,while a large part of the ,american airplanes built in the war period were of the training type rather than the service1 or battle1 type1 nevertheless it was necessary that we have a large equipment of training planes in order to prepare the swiftly expanding personnel of the ,air ,service for its future activity at the front4 ,the nations associated with us in the war1 however1 had produced their training equipment prior to our participation as a belligerent1 and at the time we entered the war the ,french1 ,british1 and ,italians were producing only enough training planes to maintain their training equipment and were going in heavily with the rest of their airplane industries for the production of service planes4 ,with these considerations in mind1 the reader may make an interesting comparison of ,british and ,american plane production1 the ,british figures being for both the ,british ,army and the ,british ,navy1 whereas the ,american figures are for the ,american ,army alone4 ,in the following table of comparison the ,british figures are based on the ,lockhart ,report of ,november #a1 #aiah3 ,comparative rate of airplane production--,british and ,united ,states ,army4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,british ,united ,calendar year4 ,army and ,states ,navy4 ,army4 ---------------------------------------- ------ #aiae1 ,jan4 #a to ,dec4 #ca #b1jdj #bj #aiaf1 ,jan4 #a to ,dec4 #ca #f1jjj #bfhc #aiag1 ,jan4 #a to ,dec4 #ca #ad1djj #bga1hjg #aiah1 ,jan4 #a to ,dec4 #ca #cj1jjj #bhaa1iej ---------------------------------------- ------ #bf ,experimental4 #bg #a1dgf built in last seven months only4 #bh ,inclusive of #ace secured by ,engineering ,department4 ,american total #ab1hcg if ,october production had continued through ,november and ,december4 ,broadly stated1 and without reference to types of planes produced1 these figures mean that the ,united ,states in her second year of the war produced for the ,american ,army alone almost as many airplanes as ,great ,britain in her third year of the war built for both her army and navy4 ,in ,october1 #aiah1 factories in this country turned out #a1fea planes1 which1 without allowing for the monthly expansion in the production1 was at the rate of #bj1jjj planes per year4 ,assuming no increase in the ,october rate of production1 we would have attained the #bb1jjj airplanes in #bc months after ,july #a1 #aiag1 the date on which the production effort may be said to have started4 ,our production of fighting planes in the war period was #c1cbh4 ,on the day the armistice was signed we had received from all sources #af1ieb planes4 ,of these #e1aih had been produced for us by the allies4 ,we had #dh flying fields1 #bj1efh ,air ,service officers1 and #agd1def enlisted men and civilian personnel4 ,these figures do not mean that we had more than #ag1jjj planes on hand at that time1 because the mortality in airplanes is high from accidents and ordinary wear and tear4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,material4 ,once we had started out on this enterprise we soon discovered that the production of airplanes was something more than a mere manufacturing job4 ,with almost any other article we might have made our designs1 given orders to the factories1 and rested in the security that in due time the articles would be forthcoming4 ,but with airplanes we had to create the industry2 and this meant not only the equipping of factories1 but the procurement and sometimes the actual production of the raw materials4 ,for instance1 the ideal lubricant for the airplane motor is castor oil4 ,when we discovered that the supply of castor oil was not nearly sufficient for our future needs1 the ,government itself secured from ,asia a large quantity of castor beans1 enough to seed more than #ajj1jjj acres in this country and thus to provide for the future lubrication for our motors4 ,this actual creation of raw materials was conducted on a much larger scale in the cases of certain other commodities used in airplane construction1 particularly in the production of lumber and cotton and in the manufacture of the chemicals for the dope with which the airplane wings are covered and made air-tight4 ,an airplane must have wings and an engine with a propeller to make it go2 and1 like a bird1 it must have a tail to make it fly straight and a body 7fuselage7 to hold all together4 ,part of the tail 7the rudder7 moves sideways and steers the airplane from left to right2 part moves up and down 7the elevators7 and makes the airplane go up or down1 and parts of the wings 7the ailerons7 move up and down and make the airplane tip from side to side4 ,all of these things must be connected to the controls in the hands of the pilot4 ,the front edges of the wings are raised above the line of flight2 and when the propeller driven by the engine forces the wings through the air1 the airplane is lifted and flies4 ,all of the airplanes built for the ,united ,states during the war were tractor biplanes4 ,in a plane of the tractor type the propeller is in front and pulls the machine4 ,the biplane is so called because it has two planes or wings1 one above the other4 ,the biplane has been the most largely used of all types in war for two reasons3 first1 the struts and wires between the planes form a truss structure1 and this gives the needed strength2 and second1 there is less danger of enemy bullets wrecking a biplane in the air because its wing support is greater than that of the monoplane or single-winged machine4 ,since the airplane can lift only a limited weight1 every part of the mechanism must be as light as possible4 ,an airplane engine weighs from #b to #c pounds per horsepower1 whereas an automobile motor weighs from #h to #aj pounds per horsepower4 ,the skeleton of the airplane is made of wood1 mostly spruce1 with sheet-steel fittings to join the wood parts together1 and steel wires and rods to make every part a truss4 ,this skeleton is covered with cloth1 and the cloth is stretched and made smooth by dope4 ,wood1 sheet steel1 wire1 cloth1 varnish--these are the principal components of an airplane4 ,as raw materials they all seem easy to obtain in ,america4 ,and so they are in peace times and for ordinary purposes4 ,but never before had quality been so essential in an ,american industry1 from the raw material up to the finished product--quality in the materials used1 and quality in the workmanship which fashions the parts4 ,but combined with this quality we were forced to produce in quantities1 bounded only by our own physical limitations1 and these quantities must include not only the materials for our own air program but also some of the principal raw materials used by the airplane builders in ,france and ,england1 specifically1 all of the spruce which the allies would require and1 later1 much of the wing fabric and dope for their machines4 ,quite early it was apparent to us that we had on our hands a problem in spruce production which the ,government itself must solve1 if the airplane undertaking were not to fail at the outset4 ,when we entered the war linen was exclusively used for the covering of wings2 and it developed almost immediately that the ,united ,kingdom was practically the sole source of linen4 ,but the ,irish looms could not begin to furnish us with our needs for this commodity4 ,later on came up the question of supplying dope and castor oil4 ,finally1 during the last months of the war1 it became necessary for us to follow up the production of all classes of our raw material1 particularly in working out a suitable supply of steel tubing4 ,but our great creative efforts in raw materials were confined to spruce1 fabric1 and dope4 ,the lumber problem involved vast questions of an industrial and technical character4 ,we had to conduct a campaign of education in the knowledge of aircraft requirements that reached from the loggers themselves in the woods to the sawmill men1 to the cut-up plants1 and then followed through the processes of drying and sawing to the proper utilization of the lumber in the aircraft factories4 ,in working out these problems1 while we drew heavily upon the experience in ,europe1 yet we ourselves added our own technical skill to the solution4 ,the ,signal ,corps was assisted by the forest products laboratory at ,madison1 ,wis41 and by the wood section of the inspection department of the ,bureau of ,aircraft ,production4 ,the ,united ,states ,forest ,service contributed its share of technical knowledge4 ,at the end of the war we considered that our practice in the handling of aircraft lumber was superior to that of either ,france or ,england4 ,,the ,,spruce ,,problem4 ,each airplane uses two distinct sorts of wood--first1 the spruce or similar lumber for the wing beams or other plane parts2 and second1 mahogany1 walnut1 or other hardwoods for propellers4 ,in each case the ,army production authorities were involved both in securing the lumber and in educating manufacturers to handle it properly4 ,in an ordinary biplane there are two beams for each lateral wing1 eight beams to the plane4 ,these form the basis of strength for the wings4 ,because of the heavy stresses put upon the airplanes by battle conditions1 only the most perfect and straight-grained wood is suitable for these beams4 ,all cross-grained or spiral-grained material1 or material too coarse in its structure1 is useless4 ,spruce is the best of all woods for wing beams4 ,our problem was to supply lumber enough for the wing beams1 disregarding the other parts1 as all other wood used in the manufacture of planes could be secured from cuttings from the wing-beam stock4 ,at the beginning we built each beam out of one piece of wood2 and this meant that the lumber must be extra long1 thick1 and perfect4 ,until we learned how to cut the spruce economically we found that only a small portion of the lumber actually logged was satisfactory for airplanes4 ,an average sized biplane uses less than #ejj feet of lumber4 ,in the hands of skilled cutters this quantity can be worked out of #a1jjj feet of rough lumber4 ,but in the earlier days of the undertaking as high as #e1jjj feet of spruce per plane were actually used because of imperfections in the lumber1 lack of proper inspection at the mills1 and faulty handling in transit and in the factories4 ,we also used certain species of fir in building training planes4 ,this wood is1 like spruce1 light1 tough1 and strong4 ,the only great source of supply of these woods was in the ,pacific ,northwest1 although there was a modest quantity of suitable timber in ,west ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,new ,england4 ,while at first we expected to rely upon the unaided efforts of the lumber producers1 labor difficulties almost immediately arose in the ,northwest to hinder the production of lumber4 ,the effort1 too1 was beset with difficulties of a physical nature1 since the large virgin stands of spruce occurred only at intervals and often at long distances from the existing railroads4 ,by the middle of ,october1 #aiag1 it became evident that the northwestern lumber industry unaided could not deliver the spruce and fir2 and the ,chief of ,staff of the ,army formed a military organization to handle the situation4 ,on ,november #f1 #aiag1 ,col4 ,brice ,p4 ,disque took command of the ,spruce ,production ,division of the ,signal ,corps1 this organization later being transferred to the ,bureau of ,aircraft ,production4 ,when ,col4 ,disque went into the ,northwest he found the industry in chaotic condition4 ,the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 was demoralizing the labor forces4 ,the mills did not have the machinery to cut the straight-grained lumber needed and their timber experts were not sufficiently skilled in the selection and judging of logs to secure the maximum footage4 ,the whole industry was organized along lines of quantity production and desired to avoid all high quality requirements insisted upon by the ,government4 ,one of the first acts of the military organization was to organize a society called the ,loyal ,legion of ,loggers and ,lumbermen1 the ,l4 ,l4 ,l4 ,l41 to offset the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 propaganda1 its platform being1 no strikes1 fair wages1 and the conscientious production of the ,government's requirements4 ,on ,march #a1 #aiah1 #ge1jjj lumbermen and operators agreed without reservation to give ,col4 ,disque power to decide all labor disputes4 ,the specifications for logs were then standardized and modified as far as practicable to meet the manufacturers' needs4 ,we arranged financial assistance that they might equip their mills with the proper machinery4 ,we instituted a system of instruction for the personnel4 ,finally1 the ,government fixed a price for aircraft spruce that stabilized the industry and provided against delays from labor disputes4 ,while these basic reforms were being instituted our organization had energetically taken up the physical problems relating to the work4 ,we surveyed the existing stands of spruce timber1 built railroads connecting them with the mills1 and projected other railroads far into the future4 ,we began and encouraged logging by farmers in small operations4 ,by these and other methods employed1 the efficiency of this production effort gradually increased4 ,in all1 we took #ahj1jjj1jjj feet of aircraft lumber out of the northwestern forests4 ,to the allies went #abj1jjj1jjj feet2 to the ,united ,states ,army and ,navy1 #fj1jjj1jjj feet4 ,illustration3 ,,assembling ,,de ,,haviland-#d ,,wings ,,at ,,the ,,dayton-,,wright ,,plant4 ,illustration3 ,,sewing ,,fabric ,,on ,,airplane ,,wings4 ,illustration3 ,,applying ,,the ,,dope ,,to ,,airplane ,,wings4 ,yet when we had resolved the difficulties in the forests only part of the problem had been met4 ,next came the intricate industrial question of how to prepare this lumber for aircraft use4 ,we possessed little knowledge as to the proper methods of seasoning this timber4 ,the vast majority of woodworking plants in this country1 such as furniture and piano makers1 had always dried lumber to the end that it might keep its shape4 ,we now were faced with the technical question of drying lumber so as to preserve its strength4 ,the forest products laboratory worked out a scientific method for this sort of seasoning4 ,incidentally they discovered that ordinary commercial drying had seldom been carried on scientifically4 ,the country will receive a lasting benefit from this instruction carried broadcast over the industry4 ,in the progress of our wood studies we discovered a method of splicing short lengths of spruce to make wing beams and in the later months of the production used these spliced beams exclusively at a great saving in raw materials4 ,the use of laminated beams would probably have become universal in another year of warfare4 ,,cotton ,,fabric ,,and ,,dope4 ,the flying surfaces of an airplane are made by stretching cloth over the frames4 ,when we came into war it was supposed that linen was the only common fabric with sufficient strength for this use1 and linen was almost exclusively used by the airplane builders1 although ,italian manufacturers were trying to develop a cotton fabric4 ,of the three principal sources of flax1 ,belgium had been cut off from the allies1 ,russia was isolated entirely after the revolution there1 and ,ireland was left as the sole available land from which flax for airplane linen could be obtained4 ,as late as ,august1 #aiag1 ,england assured us that she could supply all of the linen that would be needed4 ,it rapidly became evident that ,england had underestimated our requirements4 ,an average airplane requires #bej yards of fabric1 while some of the large machines need more than #ejj yards4 ,and these requirements do not take into consideration the spare wings which must be supplied with each airplane4 ,this meant a demand for millions of yards put upon the ,irish supply1 which had no such surplus above allied needs4 ,for some time prior to ,april #f1 #aiag1 the ,bureau of ,standards at ,washington had been experimenting with cotton airplane cloths4 ,out of the large variety of fabrics tested several promising experimental cloths were produced4 ,the chief objection to cotton was that the dope which gave satisfactory results on linen failed to work with uniformity on cotton4 ,therefore1 it became apparent that if we were to use cotton fabric1 we should have to invent a new dope4 ,two grades of cotton airplane cloth were finally evolved--,a1 which had a minimum strength of #hj pounds per inch1 and ,b1 with a minimum strength of #ge pounds per inch4 ,grade ,a was later universally adopted4 ,this cloth weighed four and one-half ounces per square yard4 ,we placed our first orders for cotton airplane fabric in ,september1 #aiag--orders for #bj1jjj yards--and from that time on the use of linen decreased4 ,by ,march of #aiah the production of cotton airplane cloth had reached #djj1jjj yards per month4 ,in ,may the production was about #ijj1jjj yards2 and when the war ended this material was being turned out at the rate of #a1bjj1jjj yards per month4 ,starting with a few machines1 our cotton mills had gradually brought #b1fjj looms into the enterprise1 each loom turning out about #abj yards of cloth in a week4 ,a total of #aj1bdh1cee yards of cotton fabric was woven and delivered to the ,government--over #e1hjj miles of it1 nearly enough to reach from ,california to ,france4 ,the use of cotton fabric so expanded that in ,august1 #aiah1 we discontinued the importations of linen altogether4 ,there was1 however1 danger that we would be limited in our output of cotton fabric if there were any curtailment in the supply of the long-staple sea-island and ,egyptian cotton of which this cloth is made4 ,to make sure that there would be no shortage of this material the ,signal ,corps in ,november1 #aiag1 went into the market and purchased #ae1jjj bales of sea-island cotton4 ,this at all times gave us an adequate reserve of raw material for the new fabric4 ,cotton proved to be not only an admirable substitute for linen but even a better fabric than the original cloth which had been used4 ,no matter how abundant the supply of flax may be1 it is unlikely that linen will ever again be used in large quantities for the manufacture of airplane wings4 ,thus1 as the airplane situation was saved by the prompt action of the ,signal ,corps in organizing and training the spruce industry1 so again its decision to produce cotton fabric and its prompt action in cornering the necessary cotton supply made possible the uninterrupted expansion of the allied aviation program4 ,the wings of an airplane must not only be covered with fabric1 but the fabric must be filled with dope1 which is a sort of varnish4 ,the function of the dope is to stretch the cloth tight and to create on it a smooth surface4 ,after the dope is on the fabric the surface is protected further by a coat of ordinary spar varnish4 ,we found in the market two sorts of dope which were being furnished to airplane builders of all countries by various chemical and varnish manufacturers4 ,one of these dopes was nitrate in character and was made from nitrocellulose and certain wood-chemical solvents including alcohol4 ,this produced a surface similar to that of a photographic film4 ,the other kind of dope had an acetate base and was made from cellulose-acetate and such wood chemical solvents as acetone4 ,the nitrate dope burned rapidly when ignited but the acetate type was slow burning4 ,thus in training planes not subject to attack by enemy incendiary bullets the nitrate dope would be fairly satisfactory1 but in the fighting planes the slow-burning acetate dope was a vital necessity4 ,up to our participation in the war the dopes produced in the ,united ,states were principally nitrate in character4 ,it was evident that we should make our new dope acetate in character to avoid the danger of fire4 ,but for this we would require great quantities of acetone and acetate chemicals1 and a careful canvass of the supply of such ingredients showed that it would be impossible for us to obtain these in anything like the quantities we should require without developing absolutely new sources of production4 ,already acetone and its kindred products were being absorbed in large quantities by the war production of the allies4 ,the ,british ,army was absolutely dependent upon cordite as a high explosive4 ,acetone is the chemical basis of cordite2 and therefore the ,british ,army looked with great concern upon the added demand which the ,american aviation program proposed to put upon the acetone supply4 ,we estimated that in #aiah we would require #be1jjj tons of acetone in our dope production4 ,the ,british war mission in this country submitted figures showing that the war demands of the allies1 together with their necessary domestic requirements1 would in themselves be greater than the total world production of acetone4 ,there was nothing then for us to do but to increase the source of supply of these necessary acetate compounds2 and this was done by encouraging1 financially and otherwise1 the establishment of #aj large chemical plants4 ,these were located in as many towns and cities1 as follows3 ,collinwood1 ,tenn42 ,tyrone1 ,pa42 ,mechanicsville1 ,n4 ,y42 ,shawinigan ,falls1 ,canada2 ,kingsport1 ,tenn42 ,lyle1 ,tenn42 ,freemont1 ,mo42 ,sutton1 ,w4 ,va42 ,shelby1 ,ala42 and ,terre ,haute1 ,ind4 ,but it was evident that before these plants could be completed the airplane builders would be needing dope2 and therefore steps were taken to keep things going in all the principal countries fighting ,germany until the acetate shortage could be relieved4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 we commandeered all the existing ,american supply of acetate of lime1 the base from which acetone and kindred products are made4 ,then we entered into a pool with the allied governments to ration these supplies of chemicals1 pending the era of plenty4 ,our agency in this pool was the wood-chemical section of the ,war ,industries ,board1 whereas the allies placed their demands in the hands of the ,british war mission4 ,these two boards allocated the acetate chemicals among the different countries according to the urgency of their demands4 ,since it was evident there might be financial losses incurred as the result of the commandeering order or in the project of the new ,government chemical plants1 the ,british war mission agreed that any deficit should be shared equally by the ,american and ,british ,governments4 ,it was also agreed we should not have any advantage in prices paid for acetates of ,american origin4 ,under this arrangement we were able to produce #a1cbd1cef gallons of fabric dope during the period of hostilities1 without upsetting any of the ,european war-production projects4 ,had the war continued1 the output from the #aj chemical plants in which the ,government was a partner would have cared for all ,american and allied requirements1 allowing the production of private plants to go exclusively for the ordinary commercial purposes4 ,,the ,,training ,,planes4 ,the actual building of the airplanes gave a striking example of the value of previous experience1 either direct or of a kindred nature1 in the quantity production of an article4 ,what airplanes we had built in the ,united ,states--and the number was small1 being less than #hjj in the #ab months prior to ,april1 #aiag--;had been entirely of the training type4 ,these had been produced principally for foreign governments4 ,but this slight manufacture gave us a nucleus of skill and equipment that we were able to expand to meet our own training needs almost as rapidly as fields could be equipped and student aviators enlisted4 ,the training-plane program can be called a success1 as the final production figures show4 ,of the #aa1ged airplanes actually turned out by ,american factories1 #h1efg were training machines4 ,this was close to the #aj1jjj mark set as our ambition in ,june1 #aiag4 ,there are two types of training planes--those used in the primary instruction of students and those in the advanced teaching1 the latter approaching the service planes in type4 ,the primary plane carries the student and the instructor4 ,each occupant of the fuselage has before him a full set of controls which are interconnected so that the instructor at will can do the flying himself1 or correct the student's false moves1 or allow the student to take complete charge of the machine4 ,these primary planes fly at the relatively slow speed of #ge miles per hour on the average and require engines so reliable that they need little attention4 ,for our training planes we adopted the ,curtiss ,,jn-#d1 with the ,curtiss ,,ox-#e engine1 and as a supplementary equipment the ,standard ,aero ,corporation's ,j-#a plane1 with the ,hall-,scott ,a-#g-;,a engine4 ,both of these planes and both engines had been previously manufactured here4 ,the ,curtiss equipment1 which was the standard at our training camps1 gave complete satisfaction4 ,the ,j-#a plane was later withdrawn from use1 partly because the plane itself was not liked1 partly because of the vibration resulting from this ,hall-,scott engine1 it having only four cylinders1 and partly because of the uncertainty of the engine in cold weather4 ,illustration3 ,,curtiss ,,jn#d-;,d1 ,,used ,,as ,a ,,primary ,,training ,,machine4 ,,engine1 ,,curtiss ,,ox-#e4 ,this machine has a dual control and is used solely for training purposes4 ,illustration3 ,v4 ,e4 #g4 ,,equipped ,,with #ahj-;,,horsepower ,,hispano-,,suiza ,,engine4 ,an ,american designed training plane4 ,it was evident that at the start we must turn our entire manufacturing capacity to the production of training planes1 since we would need these first in any event1 and we were not yet equipped with the knowledge to enable us to make intelligent selections of service types4 ,in taking up the manufacturing problem the first step was to divide the existing responsible airplane plants between the ,army and ,navy1 following the general rule that a single plant should confine its work to the needs of one ,government department only4 ,there were1 of course1 exceptions to this rule4 ,this division gave to the ,army the plants of the-- ,curtiss ,aeroplane ,motor ,corporation1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,standard ,aircraft ,corporation1 ,elizabeth1 ,n4 ,j4 ,thomas-,morse ,aircraft ,corporation1 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y4 ,wright-,martin ,aircraft ,corporation1 ,los ,angeles1 ,calif4 ,sturtevant ,aeroplane ,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,the factories which fell to the ,navy were those of the-- ,curtiss ,aeroplane ,motor ,corporation1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the ,burgess ,co41 ,marblehead1 ,mass4 ,l4 ,w4 ,f4 7,lowe1 ,willard ,fowler7 ,engineering ,co41 ,college ,point1 ,long ,island4 ,aeromarine ,engineering ,sales ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,gallaudet ,aircraft ,corporation1 ,new ,york4 ,boeing ,airplane ,co41 ,seattle1 ,wash4 ,of these concerns1 ,curtiss1 ,standard1 ,burgess1 ,l4 ,w4 ,f41 ,thomas-,morse1 and ,wright-,martin were the only ones which had ever built more than #aj machines4 ,these factories were quite insufficient in themselves to carry out the enterprise4 ,therefore it became necessary to create other airplane plants4 ,two new factories thereupon sprang into existence under ,government encouragement4 ,the largest producer of automobile bodies was the ,fisher ,body ,co41 at ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,the manufacture of automobile bodies is akin to the manufacture of airplanes to the extent that each is a fabrication of accurate1 interchangeable wood and sheet-steel parts4 ,the ,fisher organization brought into the enterprise not only machinery and buildings but a skilled organization trained in such production on a large scale4 ,at ,dayton1 ,ohio1 the ,dayton-,wright ,airplane ,corporation was created4 ,with this company was associated ,orville ,wright1 and its engineering force was built up around the old ,wright organization4 ,a number of immense buildings which had been recently erected for other purposes were at once utilized in this new undertaking4 ,as an addition to these two large sources of supply1 ,j4 ,g4 ,white ,co4 and ,j4 ,g4 ,brill ,co41 the well-known builders of street cars1 formed the ,springfield ,aircraft ,corporation at ,springfield1 ,mass4 ,also certain forward-looking men on the ,pacific coast created in ,california several airplane plants1 some of which ultimately became satisfactory producers of training planes4 ,at this point in the development we were not aware of the great production of spare parts that would be necessary4 ,yet we did understand that there must be a considerable production of spares2 and in order to take the burden of this manufacture from the regular airplane plants1 and also to educate other factories up to the point where they might undertake the construction of complete airplanes1 we placed many contracts for spare parts with widely scattered concerns4 ,among the principal producers of spares were the following3 ,the ,metz ,co41 ,waltham1 ,mass4 ,sturtevant ,aeroplane ,co41 ,jamaica ,plains1 ,mass4 ,wilson ,body ,co41 ,bay ,city1 ,mich4 ,west ,virginia ,aircraft ,corporation1 ,wheeling1 ,w4 ,va4 ,the ,rubay ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,engel ,aircraft ,co41 ,niles1 ,ohio4 ,hayes-,ionia ,co41 ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich4 ,for a long time the supply of spare parts was insufficient for the needs of the training fields4 ,this was only partly due to the early lack of a proper realization of the quantity of spares that would be required4 ,the production of spares on an adequate scale was hampered by numerous manufacturing difficulties incident to new industry of any sort in shops unacquainted with the work1 and by a lack of proper drawings for the parts4 ,as to the training planes themselves1 with all factories in the country devoting themselves to this type exclusively at the start1 the production soon attained great momentum4 ,the ,curtiss ,co4 particularly produced training planes at a pace far beyond anything previously obtained4 ,the maximum production of ,,jn-#d machines was reached in ,march1 #aiah1 when #gef were turned out4 ,advanced training machines are faster1 traveling at about #aje miles per hour2 and they carry various types of equipment to train observers1 gunners1 photographers1 and radio men4 ,for this machine we adopted the ,curtiss ,,jn-#d;,h1 which was substantially the same as the primary training plane1 except that it carried a #aej-;horsepower ,hispano-,suiza engine4 ,we also built a few penguins1 a kind of half airplane that never leaves the ground2 but this ,french method of training with penguins we never really adopted4 ,the finishing school for our aviators was in ,france1 where the training was conducted in ,nieuports and other fighting machines4 ,in ,july1 #aiah1 we reached the maximum production of the advanced training machines1 the output being #dbg4 ,as the supply of primary training planes met the demands of the fields1 the production was reduced1 since the original equipment1 kept up by only enough manufacture to produce spares and replacement machines1 would suffice to train all of the aviators that we would need4 ,the actual production of training planes by months was as follows3 ------------------------------- ,primary ,advanced training training planes1 planes1 ,,sj-#a1 ,,jn-#d and ,,jn-#d;,d1 #f;,h1 ,s-#d;,b ,penguin4and ,c1 ,e-#a1 ,,se-#e4 ------------------------------- #aiag ,april ,may ,june #i ,july #ef ,august #ajc ,september #aic ,october #cdj ,november #cca #a ,december #dbc #bj #aiah ,january #gjj #bi ,february #ebf #aii ,march #gef #agh ,april #fde #ha ,may #dai #aff ,june #abf #cac ,july #bcf #dbg ,august #bif #aic ,september #bcc #acb ,october #bab #cbj ,november #ahf #big ,december #afb #bei -------------------- ,total #e1ieb #b1fae ------------------------------- ,,the ,,service ,,planes4 ,it was not until we took up the production of fighting1 or service1 airplanes that we came into a full realization of the magnitude of the engineering and manufacturing problems involved4 ,we had perhaps a dozen men in the ,united ,states who knew something about the designing of flying machines1 but not one in touch with the development of the art in ,europe or who was competent to design a complete fighting airplane4 ,we had the necessary talent to produce designs and conduct the manufacture of training planes2 but at the outset1 at least1 we were unwilling to attempt designs for service planes on our own initiative4 ,at the beginning we were entirely guided by the ,bolling mission in ,france as to types of fighting machines4 ,in approaching this1 the more difficult phase of the airplane problem1 our first act was to take an inventory of the engineering plants in the ,united ,states available for our purposes4 ,with the ,curtiss ,co4 was ,glenn ,curtiss1 a leader of airplane design1 and several competent engineers4 ,the ,curtiss ,co4 had been the largest producers in the ,united ,states of training machines for the ,british and had had the benefit of assistance from ,british engineers1 and so possessed more knowledge and experience to apply to the service-plane problem than any other company4 ,for this reason we selected this plant to duplicate the ,french ,spad plane1 the story of which undertaking will be told further on4 ,orville ,wright1 the pioneer of flying1 was not in the best of health1 but was devoting his entire time to experimental work in ,dayton4 ,willard1 who had designed the ,l4 ,w4 ,f4 airplane and was then with the ,aeromarine ,co42 ,chas4 ,day1 formerly with the ,sloane ,manufacturing ,co41 and then with the ,standard ,aero ,corporation2 ,starling ,burgess1 with the ,burgess ,co41 of ,marblehead1 ,mass42 ,grover ,c4 ,loening1 of the ,sturtevant ,co42 and ,d4 ,d4 ,thomas1 with the ,thomas-,morse ,co41 were all aviation engineers on whom we could call4 ,one of the best experts of this sort in the country was ,lieut4 ,commander ,hunsaker1 of the ,navy4 ,in the ,signal ,corps we had ,capt4 ,v4 ,e4 ,clark1 who was also an expert in aviation construction1 and he had several able assistants under him4 ,the ,burgess factory at ,marblehead1 the ,aeromarine plants at ,nutley and ,keyport1 ,n4 ,j41 and the ,boeing ,airplane ,co4 at ,seattle were to work exclusively for the ,navy1 according to the mutual agreement1 taking their aeronautical engineers with them4 ,this gave the ,army the engineering resources of the ,curtiss1 ,dayton-,wright1 and ,thomas-,morse companies4 ,quite early we decided to give precedence in this country to the observation type of service plane1 eliminating the single-place fighter altogether and following the observation planes as soon as possible with production of two-place fighting machines4 ,this decision was based on the fact1 not always generally remembered1 that the primary purpose of war flying is observation4 ,the duels in the air that occurred in large numbers1 especially during the earlier stages of the war1 were primarily to protect the observation machines or to prevent observation by enemy machines4 ,the first service plane which we put into production and which proved to be the main reliance of our service-plane program was the ,de ,haviland-#d1 which is an observation two-place airplane propelled by a ,liberty #ab-;cylinder engine4 ,as soon as the ,bolling mission began to recommend types of service machines1 it sent samples of the planes thus recommended4 ,the sample ,de ,haviland was received in ,new ,york on ,july #ah1 #aiag4 ,after it had been studied by various officers it was sent to ,dayton4 ,it had reached us without engine1 guns1 armament1 or many other accessories later recommended as essential to a fighting machine4 ,before we could begin any duplication the plane had to be redesigned to take our machine guns1 our instruments1 and our other accessories1 as well as our ,liberty engine4 ,the preliminary designing was complete1 and the first ,american-built ,de ,haviland model was ready to fly on ,october #bi1 #aiag4 ,figure #aa does not tell quite the complete story of ,de ,haviland production1 since in ,august and ,september1 #bjd ,de ,haviland planes which had been built were shipped to ,france without engines and were there knocked down to provide spare parts for other ,de ,havilands in service4 ,these #bjd machines1 therefore1 do not appear in the production total4 ,adding them to the figures above1 we find that the total output of ,de ,haviland airplanes up to the end of ,december1 #aiah1 was in number #d1ehg4 ,illustration3 ,,de ,,haviland-#d4 ,,used ,,for ,,observation1 ,,reconnaissance1 ,,combat1 ,,day ,,bombing1 ,,and ,,defensive ,,fighting4 ,engine1 ,liberty #ab-;cylinder1 #djj-;horsepower4 ,weight1 empty1 #b1cia pounds4 ,weight1 full load1 #c1ehb pounds4 ,ground speed is #abd4g miles per hour4 ,speed at #aj1jjj feet1 #aag miles per hour4 ,speed at #ae1jjj feet1 #aac miles per hour4 #aj1jjj feet is reached in #ad minutes with full load4 ,ceiling1 #ai1ejj feet4 ,illustration3 ,,united ,,states ,,de ,,haviland #i-;,a4 ,this is the ,american development of the ,british ,,dh-#d4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #aa4 ,,de ,,haviland-#d ,,airplanes ,,produced ,,each ,,month ,,during #aiah4 ,jan4 #j ,feb4 #i ,mar4 #d ,apr4 #ae ,may4 #aec ,june4 #ccf ,july4 #dhj ,aug4 #abh ,sept4 #fec ,oct4 #ajig ,nov4 #ajcf ,dec4 #dgb ,the production of the model machine only served to show us some of the problems which must be overcome before we could secure a standard design that could go into quantity production4 ,experimental work on the ,de ,haviland continued during ,december1 #aiag1 and ,january and ,february1 #aiah4 ,the struggle1 for it was a struggle1 to secure harmony between this ,english design and the ,american equipment which it must contain ended triumphantly on the #hth day of ,april1 #aiah1 when the machine known as ,no4 #ca was completely finished and established as the model for the future ,de ,havilands4 ,the characteristics of the standard ,american ,de ,haviland-#d were as follows3 ,endurance at #f1ejj feet full throttle1 #b hours #ac minutes4 ,endurance at #f1ejj feet half throttle1 #c hours #c minutes4 ,ceiling1 #ai1ejj feet4 ,climb to #aj1jjj feet 7loaded7 #ad minutes4 ,speed at ground level1 #abd4g miles per hour4 ,speed at #f1ejj feet1 #abj miles per hour4 ,speed at #aj1jjj feet1 #aag miles per hour4 ,speed at #ae1jjj feet1 #aac miles per hour4 ,weight1 bare plane1 #b1cia pounds4 ,weight1 loaded1 #c1ehb pounds4 ,endurance here means the length of time the fuel supply will last4 ,the ceiling is the maximum altitude at which the plane can be maneuvered in actual service4 ,ground level means only far enough above the ground to be clear of obstructions4 ,the first ,de ,havilands arriving in ,france were immediately put together1 such remediable imperfections as existed were corrected then and there1 and the machines were flown to the training fields4 ,the changing and increasing demands of the service indicated the advisability of certain changes of design4 ,the foreign manufacturers had brought out a covering for the gasoline tanks1 making them nearly leak-proof1 even when perforated by a bullet4 ,in the first ,de ,havilands the location of the principal gas tanks between the pilot and the observer was not the best arrangement in that the men were too far apart from each other so that1 if the machine went down1 the pilot would be crushed by the gas tank4 ,also the radius of action was not considered to be great enough1 even though the later machines of this type carried #hh gallons of gasoline4 ,as a result the ,american aircraft designers brought out an improved ,de ,haviland known as the #i-;,a4 ,this carried a ,liberty-#ab engine2 and the main differences between it and the ,de ,haviland-#d were new locations for pilot and tanks1 their positions being changed about1 increased gasoline capacity1 and increased wing surface4 ,the machine was a cleaner1 more finished design1 showed slightly more speed1 and had a greater radius of action than the ,de ,haviland-#d which it was planned to succeed4 ,we ordered #d1jjj of these new machines from the ,curtiss ,co41 but the armistice cut short this production4 ,the difficulties in the way of producing new service planes on a great scale without previous experience in such construction is clearly shown in the attempts we made to duplicate other successful foreign planes4 ,on ,september #ab1 #aiag1 we received from the aviation experts abroad a sample of the ,french ,spad4 ,we had previously been advised to go into a heavy production of this model and had made arrangements for the ,curtiss ,co4 at ,buffalo to undertake the work4 ,this development was well under way when in ,december a cablegram was received from ,gen4 ,pershing advising us to leave the production of all single-place fighters to ,europe4 ,as a result we canceled the ,spad order1 and after that we attempted to build no single-place pursuit planes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lepere ,,corps ,,observation ,,plane4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lepere 7,,camouflaged74 ,,the ,,engine ,,is ,a ,,liberty #ab-;,,cylinder1 #djj-;,,horsepower4 ,this plane was developed in the ,united ,states4 ,at the time this course seemed to be justified4 ,the day of the single seater seemed to be over4 ,the lone occupant of the single seater can not keep his attention on all directions at once2 and as the planes grew thicker in the air1 the casualties among flyers increased4 ,but the development of formation flying restored the single-place machine to favor4 ,the formation had no blind spot1 thus removing the principal objection to the single seater4 ,the end of the war found the one-man airplane more useful than ever4 ,our concentration here1 however1 was upon two-place fighters4 ,on ,august #be1 #aiag1 we received from abroad a sample of the ,bristol fighting plane1 a two-seat machine4 ,the ,government engineers at once began redesigning this machine to take the ,liberty-#ab engine and the ,american ordnance and accessories4 ,the engine which had been used in the ,bristol plane developed #bge horsepower4 ,we proposed to equip it with an engine developing #djj horsepower4 ,the ,bristol undertaking was not successful4 ,the fact that later in the airplane program ,american designers successfully developed two-seater pursuit planes around the ,liberty-#ab engine shows that the engine decision was not the fault in the ,bristol failure4 ,there were repeated changes in the engineering management of the ,bristol job4 ,first the ,government engineers alone undertook it2 then the ,government engineers combined with the drafting force of the airplane factory2 finally the ,government placed on the factory the entire responsibility for the job1 without1 however1 permitting the manufacturer to correct any of the basic principles involved4 ,all in all1 the development of an ,american ,bristol was most unsatisfactory1 and the whole project was definitely abandoned in ,june1 #aiah4 ,the fundamental difficulty in all of these attempts was that we were trying to fit an ,american engine to a foreign airplane instead of building an ,american airplane around an ,american engine4 ,it was inevitable that this difficulty should arise4 ,we had skill to produce a great engine and did so1 but for our earliest models of planes for this engine we relied upon the foreign models until we were sufficiently advanced in the art to design for ourselves4 ,we were successful in making the adaptation only in the case of the ,de ,haviland and then only after great delay4 ,but eventually we were to see some brilliantly successful efforts to design a two-place fighter around the ,liberty-#ab4 ,we had need of such a mechanism to supplement the ,de ,haviland observation-plane production and make a complete service-plane program4 ,on ,january #d1 #aiah1 ,capt4 ,lepere1 a ,french aeronautical engineer1 who had formerly been with the ,french ,government at ,st4 ,cyr1 began experimental work on a new plane at the factory of the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 ,by ,may #ah his work had advanced to a stage where the ,government felt justified in entering into a contract with the ,packard ,co4 to provide shop facilities for the production of #be experimental planes under ,capt4 ,lepere's direction4 ,the result of these efforts was a two-place fighting machine built around a ,liberty engine4 ,from the start this design met with the approval of the manufacturer and engineers because of its clean-cut perfection4 ,the performance of the ,lepere plane in the air is indicated by the following figures3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 revolutions made ,climb4 ,speed4 by propellers in a minute4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,altitude4 ,time4 ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,miles ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 an hour4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- min4 sec4 ,ground #j #j #a1ejj #acf #a1hjj #aj1jjj feet #aj #ce #a1ebj #acb #a1gdj #ae1jjj feet #ai #ae #a1ejj #aah #a1fbj #bj1jjj feet #da #a1dhj #ajb #a1eej ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,here at last was a machine that performed brilliantly in the air and contained great possibilities for quantity production1 because it was designed from the start to fit ,american manufacturing methods4 ,we placed orders for #c1ebe ,lepere machines4 ,none of the factories1 however1 had come into production with the ,lepere on ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,seven sample machines had been turned out and put through every test4 ,it was the belief of those in authority that at last the training and technique of the best aeronautical engineers of ,france had been combined with the ,liberty1 probably the best of all aerial engines2 and it was believed that the spring of #aiai would see the ,yankee fliers equipped with ,american fighting machines that would be superior to anything they would be required to meet4 ,nor were these expectations without justification4 ,the weeks and months following the declaration of the armistice and extending through to the spring of #aiai were to witness the birth of a whole brood of new typically ,american designs of airplanes of which the ,lepere was the forerunner4 ,in short1 when the armistice brought the great aviation enterprise to an abrupt end1 the ,american industry had fairly caught that of ,europe1 and ,america designers were ready to match their skill against that of the master builders of ,france1 ,great ,britain1 ,italy1 and the central powers4 ,the ,lepere #b-seated fighter was quickly followed by two other ,lepere models--one of them1 known as the ,lepere ,c-#ba1 being armored1 and driven by a ,bugatti engine1 and the other a triplane driven by two ,liberty engines and designed to be a day bomber4 ,then the first ,american designed single-seat pursuit planes began making their appearance--the ,thomas-,morse pursuit plane1 its #afd miles an hour at ground level1 making it the fastest airplane ever tested by our ,government1 if it were not the speediest plane ever built2 the ,ordnance ,engineering ,corporation's ,scout1 an advanced training plane2 and several others4 ,in two-seater fighting planes there was the ,loening monoplane1 an extremely swift and advanced type4 ,there were several other new two-seaters designed experimentally in some instances and some of them giving brilliant promise4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,loening ,,monoplane4 ,this is one of the new distinctively ,american planes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,loening ,,two-,,place ,,pursuit ,,plane4 ,perhaps the severest and most exacting critic of aviation material is the aviator who has to fly the plane and fight with the equipment at the front4 ,brig4 ,gen4 ,william ,mitchell1 then a colonel1 was sent to ,france in #aiag4 ,he became in succession chief of the air service of the ,first ,army ,corps1 chief of the air service of the ,first ,army1 and finally chief of the air service of the ,american group of armies in ,france4 ,he commanded the aerial operations at the reduction of the ,st4 ,mihiel salient1 where he gained the distinction of having commanded more airplanes in action than were ever assembled before under a single command4 ,at ,st4 ,mihiel there were #a1bjj allied planes in action1 including1 with our own1 ,french1 ,english1 and ,italian planes4 ,gen4 ,mitchell1 therefore1 is a high authority as to the relative merits of air equipment from the airman's standpoint4 ,in the spring of #aiai1 after a thorough investigation of the latest types of ,american planes and aerial equipment at the ,wilbur ,wright ,field at ,dayton1 he sent to the ,director of ,air ,service1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 the following telegram under date of ,april #bj1 #aiai3 ,i recommend the following airplanes in the numbers given be purchased at once3 #ajj ,lepere #b-place corps observation1 #ej ,loening #b-place pursuit1 #ajj ,ordnance ,engineering ,corporation #a-place pursuit1 #ajj ,thomas-,morse #a-place pursuit1 #ej ,,usd#i-;,a day bombardment1 #gjj additional ,hispano-,suiza #cjj-;horsepower engines1 #b1jjj parachutes4 ,all of the above types are the equal of or better than anything in ,europe4 ,,mitchell4 ,now1 let us see some of the specifications and performances of these new models4 ,the ,,usd#i-;,a1 being the redesigned and improved ,de ,haviland #d1 may be given a place as a latest model4 ,it is a two-place bombing plane of the tractor biplane type1 equipped with a ,liberty #ab engine and weighing #d1hgb pounds1 loaded with fuel1 oil1 guns1 and bombs1 and with its crew aboard4 ,with this weight its performance record in the official tests at ,wilbur ,wright ,field in ,dayton was as follows3 ,speed 7miles per hour73 ,at ground #aba4e4 ,at #f1ejj feet #aah4e4 ,at #aj1jjj feet #aae4e4 ,at #ae1jjj feet #ie4e4 ,climb3 ,to #f1ejj feet1 time #aa minutes #dj seconds4 ,to #aj1jjj feet1 time #ai minutes #cj seconds4 ,to #ae1jjj feet1 time #di minutes4 ,service ceilings 7feet7 #ad1djj4 ,the ,lepere ,c-#aa1 a tractor biplane equipped with a ,liberty #ab engine1 ,packard make1 weighing with its load aboard #c1fee pounds1 performed as follows in the tests at the ,wilbur ,wright ,field3 ,speed 7miles per hour73 ,at ground #acf4 ,at #f1ejj feet #acj4 ,at #aj1jjj feet #abg4 ,at #af1jjj feet #aah4 ,climb3 ,to #f1ejj feet1 time #f minutes4 ,to #aj1jjj feet1 time #aj minutes #ce seconds4 ,to #ae1jjj feet1 time #ai minutes #ae seconds4 ,service ceiling 7feet7 #ba1jjj4 ,endurance at full speed at ground 7hours7 #b4e4 ,the ,lepere carries two ,marlin guns synchronized with the propeller and operated by the pilot and two ,lewis guns operated by the observer4 ,a total of #a1gbj rounds of ammunition is carried4 ,the ,loening monoplane1 a tractor airplane equipped with an ,hispano-,suiza #cjj-;horsepower engine and representing1 loaded1 a gross weight of #b1fhj pounds1 its military load including two ,marlin and two ,lewis machine guns1 performed as follows at the ,wilbur ,wright ,field3 ,speed 7miles per hour73 ,at ground #adc4e4 ,at #f1ejj feet #ach4b4 ,at #aj1jjj feet #ace4 ,at #ae1jjj feet #abg4f4 ,climb3 ,to #f1ejj feet1 time #e minutes #ab seconds4 ,to #aj1jjj feet1 time #i minutes #ab seconds4 ,to #ae1jjj feet1 time #ah minutes #bd seconds4 ,service ceiling 7feet7 #ah1ejj4 ,the ,ordnance ,scout with a ,le ,rhone #hj-;horsepower engine1 weighing1 loaded1 #a1aag pounds1 is an advanced training plane4 ,in its official test at ,wilbur ,wright ,field it performed as follows3 ,speed 7miles per hour73 ,at #f1ejj feet #ij4 ,at #aj1jjj feet #hc4g4 ,at #ae1jjj feet #fi4h4 ,climb3 ,to #f1jjj feet1 time #h minutes #cj seconds4 ,to #aj1jjj feet1 time #ag minutes #dj seconds4 ,to #ad1jjj feet1 time #dc minutes #bj seconds4 ,the ,thomas-,morse ,,mb-#c pursuit plane1 a tractor biplane equipped with an ,hispano-,suiza #cjj-;horsepower engine1 weighing1 including its crew but without military load1 #a1hhj pounds1 in unofficial tests at ,wilbur ,wright ,field1 performed as follows3 ,speed1 at ground level 7miles per hour7 #afc4fh4 ,climb1 to #aj1jjj feet #d minutes #eb seconds4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thomas-,,morse ,,pursuit ,,plane4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,e4 #e4 ,,equipped ,,with #ahj-;,,horsepower ,,hispano-,,suiza ,,engine4 ,the ,thomas-,morse pursuit plane is armed with two ,browning machine guns synchronized with the propeller and carries #a1ejj rounds of ammunition4 ,uncertain as we were originally as to types of pursuit and observation planes to produce in this country1 we were still more uncertain as to designs of night-bombing machines4 ,these relatively slow weight-carrying planes were big and required the motive power of two or three engines1 with the complications attendant upon double or triple power plants4 ,they really presented the most difficult manufacturing problem which we encountered4 ,until the summer of #aiah there were only two machines of this type which we could adopt1 the ,handley-,page and the ,caproni4 ,we put the ,handley-,page into production1 not because it was necessarily as perfect as the ,caproni1 but because we could get the drawings for this machine and could not get the drawings for the ,caproni1 owing to complications in the negotiations for the right to construct the ,italian airplane4 ,we were not entirely satisfied with the decision to build ,handley-,pages1 because the ceiling1 or maximum working altitude which could be attained by this machine1 was low2 and1 #ab months later1 when we were in production1 we might find the ,handley-,pages of doubtful value because of the ever-increasing ranges of antiaircraft guns4 ,we secured a set of drawings1 supposed to be complete1 for the ,handley-,page in ,august1 #aiag2 but twice during the following winter new sets of drawings were sent from ,england1 and few1 if any1 of the parts as designed in the original drawings escaped alteration4 ,the ,handley-,page has a wing spread of over #ajj feet4 ,therefore1 it was evident from the start that such machines could not have the fuselage1 wings1 and other large parts assembled in this country for shipment complete to ,europe4 ,we decided to manufacture the parts in this country and assemble the machines in ,england1 the ,british air ministry in ,london having entered into a contract for the creation of an assembling factory at ,oldham1 ,england1 in the ,lancashire district4 ,when it is realized that each ,handley-,page involves #ajj1jjj separate parts1 the magnitude of the manufacturing job alone may be somewhat understood4 ,but after they were manufactured1 these parts1 particularly the delicate members made of wood1 had to be carefully packed so as to reach ,england in good condition4 ,the packing of the parts was in itself a problem4 ,we proposed to drive the ,american ,handley-,pages with two ,liberty #ab engines in each machine4 ,the fittings1 which were extremely intricate pieces of pressed steel work1 were practically all to be produced by the ,mullins ,steel ,boat ,co4 at ,salem1 ,ohio4 ,contracts for the other parts were placed with the ,grand ,rapids ,airplane ,co41 a concern which had been organized by a group of furniture makers at ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich4 ,all of the parts were to be brought together previously to ocean shipment in a warehouse built for the purpose at the plant of the ,standard ,aero ,corporation at ,elizabeth1 ,n4 ,j4 ,the ,standard ,aero ,corporation was engaged under contract to set up #aj per cent of the ,handley-,page machines complete in this country4 ,these were to be used at our training fields4 ,again1 in the case of the ,handley-,page1 the engineering details proved to be a serious cause of delay4 ,we found it difficult to install the ,liberty engines in this foreign plane4 ,when the armistice cut short operations1 #ajj complete sets of parts had been shipped to ,england1 and seven complete machines had been assembled in this country4 ,none of the ,american-built ,handley-,page machines saw service in ,france4 ,there had been great delay in the construction of the assembling plant in ,england1 and the work of setting up the machines had only started when the armistice was signed4 ,the performance table of the ,handley-,page shows its characteristics as follows3 ,speed at ground level1 #ig miles per hour4 ,climb to #g1jjj feet1 #ah minutes #aj seconds4 ,climb to #aj1jjj feet1 #bi minutes4 ,ceiling #ad1jjj feet1 #fj minutes4 ,on its tests #cij gallons of gasoline1 #bj gallons of oil1 and #g men were carried1 but no guns1 ammunition1 nor bombs4 ,after a long delay1 about ,january #a1 #aiah1 tentative arrangements had been made with the ,caproni interests looking toward the production of ,caproni biplanes in this country4 ,these machines had a higher ceiling and a greater speed than the ,handley-,page4 ,capt4 d',annunzio with #ad expert ,italian workmen1 bringing with him designs and samples1 came to this country and initiated the redesigning of the ,caproni machine to accommodate three ,liberty engines4 ,the actual production of ,caproni planes in this country was limited to a few samples which were being tested when the armistice was signed4 ,the factories had tooled up for the production1 however1 and in a few months ,capronis would doubtless have been produced in liberal quantities4 ,the performance of the sample planes in two tests is shown by the following figures3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,test #a4 ,test #b4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,speed at ground level #ajj miles per hour #ajc4b miles per hour4 ,climb to #f1ejj feet #af minutes #ah seconds #ad minutes #ab seconds4 ,climb to #aj1jjj feet #cc minutes #ah seconds #bh minutes #db seconds4 ,climb to #aa1bjj feet #di minutes ,climb to #ac1jjj feet #df minutes #cj seconds4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,small ,,thomas-,,morse ,,scouts ,,beside ,a ,,giant ,,handley-,,page ,,machine4 ,illustration3 ,,armored ,,german ,,airplane ,,shot ,,down ,,on ,,the ,,western ,,front4 ,illustration3 ,,nieuport ,,scout ,,beside ,a ,,loening ,,monoplane4 ,as we had produced fighting planes built around the ,liberty motor1 so1 too1 in the night-bombing class ,american invention1 with the experience of several months of actual production behind it1 was able to bring out an ,american bombing plane that promised to supersede all other types in existence4 ,this machine was designed by ,glen ,l4 ,martin in the fall of #aiah4 ,it was a night-bomber equipped with two ,liberty #ab-;cylinder engines4 ,the ,martin spread of #ge feet gave it a carrying capacity comparable with that of the ,handley-,page4 ,its speed of #aah miles an hour at ground level far exceeded that of either the ,caproni or ,handley-,page1 and it was evident that its ceiling would be higher than that of the ,caproni1 the estimated ceiling of the ,martin being #ah1jjj feet4 ,the machine never reached the state of actual quantity production1 but several experimental models were built and tested4 ,being built around its engine it reflected clean-cut principles of design1 and its performances in the air were truly remarkable for a machine of its type4 ,the following table shows the results of the preliminary tests of the ,martin bomber3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,test #a4 ,test #b4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,speed at ground level #aac4c miles per hour #aah4h miles per hour4 ,climb to #f1ejj feet #aj minutes #de seconds #g minutes4 ,climb to #aj1jjj feet #ba minutes #bj seconds #ad minutes4 ,climb to #ae1jjj feet #cj minutes #cj seconds4 ,total weight #i1ffc pounds #h1acg pounds4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the total delivery of airplanes to the ,united ,states during the period of the war was #af1ieb4 ,these came from the following sources3 ,united ,states contractors1 #aa1ged2 ,france1 #d1hha2 ,england1 #beh2 ,italy1 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ab4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,squadrons ,,at ,,the ,,front4 ,a squadron is equipped with from #ae to #be planes4 ,apr4 #cj1 #aiah4 #c ,may #ca1 #aiah4 #ab ,june #cj1 #aiah4 #ac ,july #ca1 #aiah4 #ad ,aug4 #ca1 #aiah4 #bf ,sept4 #cj1 #aiah4 #cb ,oct4 #ca1 #aiah4 #dc ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 #de ,estimates of aircraft strength on the front were always uncertain1 due to variations in the estimates of the number of planes in a squadron4 ,the standing of the ,united ,states in aeroplanes at the front is indicated in the estimate of the ,american ,air ,service as of ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,the figures of this estimate are as follows3 ,france #c1jjj ,great ,britain #b1ajj ,united ,states #hfj ,italy #fjj ----- ,total #f1efj ,these figures represent fighting planes equipped ready for service1 but do not include replacement machines at the front or in depots or training machines in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ac4 ,,comparison ,,enemy ,,planes ,,brought ,,down ,,by ,u4 ,s4 ,,forces ,,and ,u4 ,s4 ,,planes ,,brought ,,down ,,by ,,the ,,enemy4 ,u4 ,s4 planes lost to enemy4 #bga ,enemy planes lost to ,u4 ,s4 forces#bi #dia #bi ,confirmed losses2 in addition there were #ced unconfirmed4 ,the actual strength of the central powers in the air is at this time not definitely known to us4 ,such figures as we have are viewed with suspicion because of the two methods of observation in reporting an enemy squadron4 ,this may be #bd planes to a squadron1 that number representing the planes in active service in the air4 ,but each squadron had a complement of replacement planes equalling the number of active planes1 so that the squadron could be listed with #dh planes4 ,however1 as some indication of the relative air strengths of the central powers we have a report from the chief of the ,air ,service of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces showing that on ,july #cj1 #aiah1 ,germany had #b1eib planes on the front and ,austria #gag4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,glenn ,,martin ,,bomber4 ,the gross weight of this machine is #i1ffc pounds4 ,it can be equipped with five ,lewis machine guns4 ,its ground speed is #aac miles an hour and its service ceiling is #ab1hjj feet4 ,it climbs to a height of #f1ejj feet in #aj minutes #de seconds and to #aj1jjj feet in #ba minutes #bj seconds4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,caproni1 ,,equipped ,,with ,,three ,,liberty #ab-;,,cylinder ,,engines4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,liberty ,,engine4 ,the ,liberty engine was ,america's distinctive contribution to the war in the air1 and her chief one4 ,the engine was developed in those first chaotic weeks of preparation of #aiag1 when our knowledge of planes1 instruments1 and armament as then known in ,europe was still a thing of the future4 ,the manufacture of engines for any aeronautical purpose was one which we might approach with confidence4 ,we possessed in the ,united ,states motor engineering talent at least as great as any in ,europe1 while in facilities for manufacture--in plants which had built our millions of automobile engines--no other part of the world could compare with us4 ,therefore1 while waiting word from ,europe as to the best type of wings1 fuselages1 instruments and the like1 we went ahead to produce for ourselves a new1 typically ,american engine which would uphold the prestige of ,america in actual battle4 ,many ,americans have doubtless wondered why we built our own engine instead of adopting one or more of the highly developed ,european engines then at hand2 and no doubt our course in this vital matter has sometimes been set down to mere pride in our ability and to an unwillingness to follow the lead of other nations in a science in which we ourselves were preeminent--the science of building light internal-combustion engines4 ,but national pride1 aside from giving us confidence that our efforts in this direction would be successful1 had little other weight in the decision4 ,there were other reasons1 and paramount ones1 reasons leading directly from the necessity for the ,united ,states to arrive at her maximum aerial effort in a minimum of time1 that irresistibly compelled the aircraft production organization to design a standard ,american engine4 ,let us examine some of these considerations4 ,if there was anything to be observed from this side of the ,atlantic with respect to the tendencies of aircraft evolution in ,europe it was that the horsepowers of the engines were continually increasing1 these expansions coming almost from month to month as newer and newer types and sizes of engines were brought out by the ,european inventors4 ,it was evident to us that there was not a single foreign engine then in use on the western front that was likely to survive the test of time4 ,each might be expected to have its brief day of supremacy1 only to be superseded by something more modern and more powerful4 ,yet time was an element to which in this country we must give grave consideration4 ,to produce in quantities such as we were capable of producing would ordinarily require a year of maximum industrial effort to equip our manufacturing plants with the machines1 tools1 and skilled workmen necessary for the production of parts4 ,the finished articles would under normal circumstances begin coming in quantity during the second year of our program4 ,it would have been fatal to tool up our plants for the manufacture of equipment that would be out of date by the time we began producing it a year later4 ,the obvious course for the ,united ,states to adopt1 not only with engines but with all sorts of aeronautical equipment1 was to come into the manufacturing competition not abreast with ,european progress but several strides ahead of it1 so that when we appeared on the field it would be with equipment a little in advance in type and efficiency of anything the rest of the world had to offer4 ,this factor of time was a strong element in the decision to produce a standard ,american engine1 since with the possible exception of the ,rolls-,royce there was no engine in ,europe of sufficient horsepower and proved reliability to guarantee that it would retain its serviceability for the necessary two years upon which we must reckon4 ,there was no other course that we could safely adopt4 ,but there were other conditions that influenced our conclusion4 ,we believed that we could design and produce an engine much more quickly and with much better results than we could copy and produce any approved foreign model4 ,this proved to be true in actual experience4 ,along with the production of ,liberty engines we went into the quantity manufacture of a number of ,european engines in this country2 and the experience of our engineers and factory executives in this work was anything but pleasant4 ,among others we produced in ,american factories the ,gnome1 the ,hispano-,suiza1 ,le ,rhone1 and the ,bugatti engines4 ,now ,european manufacture of mechanical appliances differs from ours largely in the degree to which the human equation is allowed to enter the shop4 ,in continental practice much of the metallurgical specifications and also of the details of mechanical measurements1 limits of requisite accuracy1 variations which can be allowed1 etc41 are not put on paper in detail for the guidance of operators1 but are confided to the recollections of the individual workmen4 ,a machine comes in its parts to the assembly room of a foreign factory1 and after that it is subject to adjustments on the part of the skilled workmen before its operation is successful4 ,it must be tinkered with before it will go1 so to speak4 ,nothing of the sort is known in an ,american factory4 ,when standard parts come together for assembly the calibrations must have been so exact that the machine will function perfectly when it is brought together2 and assembling becomes mere routine4 ,thus when we came to adopt foreign plans and attempt to adapt them to our practices1 we encountered trouble and delay4 ,thirteen months were required to adapt the ,hispano-,suiza #aej-;horsepower engine to our factory methods and to get the first engine from production tools1 while eight months were similarly spent in producing the ,le ,rhone #hj-;horsepower engines4 ,both of these engines had been in production in ,european factories for a long time1 and we had the advantage of all the assistance which the foreign manufacturers could give us4 ,these experiences merely confirmed the opinions of ,american manufacturers that the preparations for the production of any aviation engine of foreign design--if any such suitable and adequate engine could be found--would require at least as much time as to design and tool up for the production of an ,american engine4 ,when to this was added the necessity of waiting for several weeks or months for a decision on the part of our aviation authorities1 either in the ,united ,states or in ,europe1 as to which of the many types of engines then in use by the allies should be put into production here1 procuring and shipping to this country suitable samples1 drawings1 and specifications1 negotiating with foreign owners for rights to manufacture1 etc41 there was but one answer to be made on this score1 and that was to design and build an all-,american engine4 ,another factor in the decision was that of our distance from ,france1 a fact making it necessary for us to simplify as much as possible the problem of furnishing repair parts4 ,at the time we entered the war the ,british air service was using or developing #cg different makes of engines1 while ,france had #df4 ,should we be lured into any such situation it might have disastrous results1 if only because of the difficulties of ocean transportation4 ,germany was practically concentrating upon not more than #h engines4 ,the obvious thing for us to do was to produce as few types of engines as possible1 thus making simpler the problem of manufacturing repair parts and shipping them to the front4 ,with these considerations in mind1 the ,equipment ,division of the ,signal ,corps in ,may of #aiag determined to go ahead with the design and production of a standard engine for the fighting forces of the aviation branch of the ,army4 ,in the engineering field two men stood out who combined in themselves experience in designing internal-combustion engines which approached nearest to combat engines1 with experience also in large quantity production4 ,j4 ,g4 ,vincent1 with the engineering staff of the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co41 had for approximately two years been engaged in research work1 developing several types of #ab-;cylinder aviation engines of approximately #abe to #bbe horsepower1 which1 however1 were not suitable for military purposes because of their weight per horsepower4 ,this work had resulted in the acquirement of a large amount of data and information which would be invaluable in the design of such an engine as the one proposed2 and also had resulted in the upbuilding of an efficient experimental organization4 ,he had also had wide experience in designing internal-combustion motors for quantity production4 ,e4 ,j4 ,hall1 of the ,hall-,scott ,motor ,car ,co41 for eight years had been developing and latterly producing several types of aeronautical engines1 which he had delivered into the service of several foreign governments1 including ,russia1 ,norway1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,australia1 ,canada1 and ,england4 ,he had also completed and tested a #ab-;cylinder engine of #cjj horsepower1 which1 however1 was of too great weight per horsepower to be suitable in its form at that time for military purposes4 ,he had thus acquired a large experience and fund of information covering the proper areas and materials for engine parts1 and proper methods of tests to be applied to such engines1 and in addition he had general experience in quantity production4 ,all of this information and experience was of invaluable assistance not only in designing the new engine1 but in determining its essential metallurgical and manufacturing specifications4 ,these two men were thus qualified in talent and in practice to lay down on paper the lines and dimensions of the proposed engine1 an engine that would meet the ,army's requirements and still be readily capable of prompt quantity production4 ,they had in their hands the power to draw freely upon the past experience and achievement of practically the entire world for any features they might decide to install in the model power plant to be produced4 ,and this applied not only to the patented features of ,american motors1 but also of foreign engines2 for each man had exhaustively studied the leading ,european engines1 including the ,mercedes upon which ,germany largely pinned her faith up to the end of the war4 ,with respect to ,american motor patents1 an interesting situation had arisen in the automobile industry4 ,the leading producers of motor cars were in an association which had adopted an arrangement known as the cross-licensing agreement4 ,under this agreement all patents taken out by the various producers 7with a few exceptions7 were thrown into a pool upon which any producer at will was permitted to draw without payment of royalties4 ,a similar arrangement was adopted with respect to the ,liberty engine1 except that the ,government pledged itself to pay an agreed royalty for the use of patents4 ,thus the engineers designing the engine might reach out and take what they pleased regardless of patent rights4 ,the result was likely to be a composite type embracing the best features of the best engines ever built4 ,theoretically1 at least1 a super-engine ought to result from such an effort4 ,the ideal aviation engine should produce a maximum of power with a minimum of weight2 it must run at its maximum power during a large proportion of its operating time1 a thing that an automobile motor seldom1 if ever1 does for more than a few minutes at a time2 and it should consume oil and fuel economically to conserve space and weight on the airplane4 ,such was the problem1 the design of an engine to meet these requirements1 that confronted these two engineers when they were called to ,washington and asked to undertake the work4 ,there have been so many versions of the story of how the ,liberty engine was designed and produced in its experimental models that it is fitting that the exact history of those memorable weeks should be set down here4 ,the engine was put on paper in the rooms occupied by ,col4 ,e4 ,a4 ,deeds at the ,willard ,hotel in ,washington4 ,col4 ,deeds had been the man of broad vision who1 by taking into consideration the elements of the problems enumerated above1 determined that ,america could best make her contribution to the aviation program by producing her typically own engine4 ,he had proposed the plan to his associate1 ,col4 ,s4 ,d4 ,waldon1 who had thereupon studied the matter and agreed entirely with the plan4 ,the two officers persuaded ,messrs4 ,hall and ,vincent to forego further efforts on their individual developments and to devote their combined skill and experience to the creation of an all-,american engine4 ,the project was further taken up with the ,european authorities in ,washington1 and it was supported unanimously4 ,in these conferences it was decided to design two lines of combat engines4 ,each should have a cylinder diameter of #e inches and a piston stroke #g inches long2 but one type should have #h cylinders and the other #ab4 ,the #h-;cylinder engine should develop #bbe horsepower1 as all the experts believed then1 in ,may1 #aiag1 that such a motor would anticipate the power requirements as of the spring of #aiah1 while the #ab-;cylinder engine should develop #ccj horsepower1 as it was believed that this would be the equal of any other engine developed through #aiai and #aibj4 ,every foreign representative in ,washington with aeronautical experience agreed that the #h-;cylinder #bbe-;horsepower engine would be the peer of anything in use in the spring of #aiah2 yet1 so rapidly was aviation history moving that inside of #ij days it became equally clear that it was the #ab-;cylinder engine of #ccj horsepower1 and not the #h-;cylinder engine1 upon which we should concentrate for the spring of #aiah4 ,with these considerations in mind ,messrs4 ,hall and ,vincent set to work to lay out the designs on paper4 ,with them were ,col4 ,deeds and ,col4 ,waldon1 the officers to insist that nothing untried or experimental be incorporated in the engines1 the engineers to direct their technical knowledge by this sine qua non4 ,the size of the cylinders1 #e by #g inches1 was adopted not only because the ,curtiss and the ,hall-,scott ,companies1 the largest producers of aviation engines in the ,united ,states1 had had experience with engines of this size1 but also because a new and promising ,french engine1 the ,lorraine-,dietrich1 had just made its appearance in experimental form1 and it was an engine approximately of that size4 ,on ,may #bi1 #aiag1 ,messrs4 ,vincent and ,hall set to work4 ,within two or three days they had outlined the important characteristics of the engine sufficiently to secure--on ,june #d--the approval of the ,aircraft ,production ,board and of the ,joint ,army and ,navy ,technical ,board to build five experimental models each of the #h cylinder and the #ab cylinder sizes4 ,the detail and manufacturing drawings of the two engines were made partly by the staff of the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co41 under ,mr4 ,o4 ,e4 ,hunt1 and partly by an organization recruited from various automobile factories and put to work under ,mr4 ,vincent at the ,bureau of ,standards at ,washington4 ,due credit must here be given to ,dr4 ,s4 ,w4 ,stratton1 the director of that important governmental scientific bureau4 ,the ,liberty engine pioneers woke him up at midnight and told him of their needs4 ,he promptly tendered all the facilities of the ,bureau of ,standards1 turning over to the work an entire building for use the following morning4 ,thereafter ,dr4 ,stratton gave the closest cooperation of himself and his assistants to the work4 ,while the detail drawings were being made1 the parts for the #aj engines were at once started through the tool rooms and experimental shops of various motor car companies4 ,this work centered in the plant of the ,packard ,co41 which gave to it its entire energy and wonderful faculties4 ,every feature in the design of these engines was based on thoroughly proven practice of the past4 ,that the engine was a composite is shown by the origin of its various parts3 ,cylinders3 ,the ,liberty engine derived its type of cylinders from the ,german ,mercedes1 the ,english ,rolls-,royce1 the ,french ,lorraine-,dietrich1 and others produced both before and during the war4 ,the cylinders were steel inner shells surrounded by pressed-steel water jackets4 ,the ,packard ,co4 had developed a practical production method of welding together the several parts of a steel cylinder4 ,cam shafts and valve mechanism above cylinder heads3 ,the design of these was based on the general arrangement of the ,mercedes and ,rolls-,royce1 and improved by the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 for automatic lubrication without wasting oil4 ,cam-shaft drive3 ,the general type as used on the ,hall-,scott1 ,mercedes1 ,hispano-,suiza1 ,rolls-,royce1 ,renault1 ,fiat1 and others4 ,illustration3 ,,welding ,,jacket ,,on ,,cylinder ,,for ,,liberty ,,engine4 ,,cadillac ,,motor ,,car ,,co41 ,,detroit1 ,,mich4 ,illustration3 ,,drilling ,,cylinder ,,flanges ,,with ,,multiple ,,drill4 ,,packard ,,motor ,,car ,,co4 ,illustration3 ,,machining ,,the ,,connecting ,,rods ,,for ,,the ,,liberty ,,engine4 ,,cadillac ,,motor ,,co4 ,illustration3 ,,gauging ,,valves ,,and ,,pistons ,,for ,,the ,,liberty ,,engine4 ,,lincoln ,,motor ,,co4 ,angle between cylinders3 ,in the ,liberty the included angle between the cylinders is #de4 ,this angle was adopted to save head resistance1 to give greater strength to the crank case1 and to reduce periodic vibration4 ,this decision was based on the experience of the ,renault and ,packard engines4 ,electric generator and ignition3 ,the ,delco system was adopted1 but specially designed for the ,liberty to provide a reliable double ignition4 ,pistons3 ,the die-cast aluminum-alloy pistons of the ,liberty were based on development work by the ,hall-,scott ,co4 under service conditions4 ,connecting rods3 ,these were of the forked or straddle type as used on the ,de,dion and ,cadillac automobile motors and also on the ,hispano-,suiza and other aviation engines4 ,crank shaft3 ,a design of standard practice1 every crank pin operating between two main bearings1 as in the ,mercedes1 ,rolls-,royce1 ,hall-,scott1 ,curtiss1 and ,renault4 ,crank case3 ,a box section carrying the shaft in bearings clamped between the top and bottom halves by means of long through bolts1 as in the ,mercedes and ,hispano-,suiza4 ,lubrication3 ,the system of lubrication was changed1 this being the only change of design made in the ,liberty after it was first put down on paper4 ,the original system combined the features of a dry crank case1 such as in the ,rolls-,royce1 with pressure feed to the main crank-shaft bearings and scupper feed to the crank-pin bearings1 as in the ,hall-,scott and certain foreign engines4 ,the system subsequently adopted added pressure-feed to the crank-pin bearings1 as in the ,rolls-,royce1 ,hispano-,suiza1 and other engines4 ,propeller hub3 ,designed after the practice followed by such well-known engines as the ,hispano-,suiza and ,mercedes4 ,water pump3 ,the conventional centrifugal type was adapted to the ,liberty4 ,carburetor3 ,the ,zenith type was adapted to the engine4 ,as the detailed and manufacturing drawings were completed in ,washington and ,detroit they were taken to various factories where the parts for the first engine were built4 ,the ,general ,aluminum ,brass ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,detroit1 made the bronze-back1 babbitt-lined bearings4 ,the ,cadillac ,motor ,car ,co41 of ,detroit1 made the connecting rods1 the connecting-rod upper-end bushings1 the connecting-rod bolts1 and the rocker-arm assemblies4 ,the ,l4 ,o4 ,gordon ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,muskegon1 ,mich41 made the cam shafts4 ,the ,park ,drop ,forge ,co41 of ,cleveland1 made the crank-shaft forgings4 ,these forgings1 completely heat treated1 were turned out in three days1 because ,mr4 ,hall gave the ,cleveland concern permission to use the ,hall-,scott dies4 ,the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 machined the crank shafts and all parts not furnished or finished elsewhere4 ,the ,hall-,scott ,motor ,car ,co41 of ,berkeley1 ,calif41 made all the bevel gears4 ,the ,hess-,bright ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 made the ball bearings4 ,the ,burd ,high-,compression ,ring ,co41 of ,rockford1 ,ill41 made the piston rings4 ,the ,aluminum ,castings ,co41 of ,cleveland1 made the die-cast alloy pistons and machined them up to grinding4 ,the ,rich ,tool ,co41 of ,chicago1 made the valves4 ,the ,gibson ,co41 of ,muskegon1 ,mich41 made the springs4 ,the ,packard ,co4 made all the patterns for the aluminum castings1 which were produced by the ,general ,aluminum ,brass ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,detroit4 ,the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 used many of its own dies in order to obtain suitable drop forgings speedily1 and also made all necessary new dies not made elsewhere4 ,as these various parts were turned out they were hurried to the tool room of the ,packard ,co41 where the assembling of the model engines was in progress4 ,before the models were built1 however1 extraordinary precautions had been taken to insure that the mechanism would be as perfect as ,american engineering skill could make it4 ,the plans as developed were submitted to ,h4 ,m4 ,crane1 the engineer of the ,simplex ,motor ,car ,co4 and of the ,wright-,martin ,aircraft ,corporation1 who had made a special study of aviation engines in ,europe1 and who for upward of a year had been working on the production of the ,hispano-,suiza #aej-;horsepower engine in this country4 ,he looked the plans over1 and so did ,david ,fergusson1 chief engineer of the ,pierce-,arrow ,motor ,car ,co4 ,many other of the best experts in the country in the production of internal-combustion motors constructively criticized the plans1 these including such men as ,henry ,m4 ,leland and ,george ,h4 ,layng1 of the ,cadillac ,motor ,car ,co41 and ,f4 ,f4 ,beall and ,edward ,roberts1 of the ,packard ,car ,co4 ,when the engineers were through1 the practical production men were given their turn4 ,the plane and engine builders examined the plans to make sure that each minute part was so designed as to make it most adaptable to quantity production4 ,the scrutiny of the ,liberty plans went back in the production scale even farther than this2 for the actual builders of machine tools were called in to examine the specifications and to suggest modifications1 if necessary1 that would make the production of parts most feasible in machine tools either of existing types or of easiest manufacture4 ,thus scrutinized and criticized1 the plans of the engine were the best from every point of view which ,american industrial genius could produce in the time which was available4 ,it was due to this exhaustive preliminary study that no radical changes were ever made in the original design4 ,the ,liberty engine was not the materialization of magic nor the product of any single individual or company1 but it was a well-considered and carefully prepared design based on large practical aviation-engine experience4 ,on ,july #d1 #aiag1 the first #h-;cylinder liberty engine was delivered in ,washington4 ,this was less than six weeks after ,messrs4 ,hall and ,vincent drew the first line of their plans4 ,the same procedure was even then being repeated in the case of the #ab-;cylinder engine4 ,by the #beth day of ,august the model #ab-;cylinder liberty had successfully passed its #ej-;hour test4 ,in this test its power ranged from #cja to #cbj horsepower4 ,as an achievement in speed in the development of a successful new engine this performance has never been equaled in the motor history of any country4 ,no successful ,american automobile motor was ever put in production in anything under a year of trial and experimentation4 ,we may well believe that in the third year of war the ,european aviation designers were working at top speed to improve the motive power of airplanes2 yet in #aiag the ,british war cabinet report contains the following language3 ,experience shows that as a rule1 from the date of the conception and design of an aero engine1 to the delivery of the first engine in series by the manufacturer1 more than a year elapses4 ,but ,america designed and produced experimentally a good engine in six weeks and a great one in three months1 and began delivering it in series in five months4 ,this was due to the fact that we could employ our best engineering talent without stint1 to the further fact that there were no restrictions upon our use of designs and patents proved successful by actual experience1 and to the fact that the original engine design produced under such conditions stood every expert criticism and test that could be put upon it and emerged from the trial without substantial modification4 ,as soon as the first ,liberty models had passed their official tests plans were at once made to put them in manufacture4 ,the members of the ,aircraft ,production ,board chose for the chief of the engine production department ,harold ,h4 ,emmons1 an attorney and manufacturer of ,detroit1 ,mich41 who1 as a lieutenant in the ,naval ,reserve ,force1 was just being called by the ,navy ,department into active service4 ,the production of all aviation engines1 for both ,army and ,navy1 was in his hands throughout the rest of the war4 ,he placed orders for #ajj1iic aviation engines of all types1 which involved the expenditure of #dej1jjj1jjj and more of ,government funds4 ,of these #ca1had were delivered ready for service before the signing of the armistice4 ,the ,united ,states reached a daily engine production greater than that of ,england and ,france combined4 ,in ,august1 #aiag1 it was intended to manufacture both engines1 the #h-;cylinder and the #ab-;cylinder1 and an agreement was reached with the ,ford ,motor ,co4 of ,detroit to produce #h-;cylinder ,liberty engines to the number of #aj1jjj4 ,but before this contract could be signed the increasing powers of the newest ,european air engines indicated to our commission abroad that we should concentrate our manufacturing efforts upon the #ab alone1 that being the engine of a power then distinctly in advance in the rapid evolution of aviation engines4 ,the engine production department1 therefore1 entered into contracts for the construction of #bb1ejj of the #ab-;cylinder ,liberties1 and the first of these contracts was signed in ,august1 a few days after the endurance tests had demonstrated that the #ab-;cylinder engine was a success4 ,of this number of ,liberty engines the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 contracted to build #f1jjj2 the ,lincoln ,motor ,co41 #f1jjj2 the ,ford ,motor ,co41 #e1jjj2 ,nordyke ,marmon1 #c1jjj2 the ,general ,motors ,corporation 7,buick and ,cadillac plants71 #b1jjj2 while an additional contract of #ejj engines was let to the ,trego ,motors ,corporation4 ,early in the liberty engine project it became apparent that one of the great stumbling blocks to volume production would be the steel cylinder1 if it were necessary to machine it out of a solid or partially pierced forging such as is used for shell making4 ,this problem was laid before ,henry ,ford and the engineering organization of the ,ford ,motor ,co41 at ,detroit1 and they developed the unique method of making the cylinders out of steel tubing4 ,one end of the tube was cut obliquely1 heated1 and in successive operations closed over and then expanded into the shape of the combustion chamber1 with all bosses in place on the dome4 ,the lower end was then heated and upset in a bulldozer until the holding-down flange had been extruded from the barrel at the right place4 ,by this method a production of #b1jjj rough cylinders a day was reached4 ,the final forging was so near to the shape desired that millions of pounds of scrap were saved over other methods1 to say nothing of an enormous amount of labor thus done away with4 ,the development of this cylinder-making method was one of the important contributions to the quantity production of ,liberty engines4 ,illustration3 ,,experimental ,,work ,,on ,,new ,,ideas ,,for ,,liberty ,,engine4 ,illustration3 ,,test ,,cylinders ,,for ,,the ,,liberty ,,engine ,,at ,,the ,,plant ,,of ,,nordyke ,,marmon1 ,,indianapolis1 ,,ind4 ,illustration3 ,,crank-,,shaft ,,die ,,for ,,the ,,liberty ,,engine4 ,,buick ,,engine ,,co41 ,,detroit4 ,illustration3 ,,accepted ,,liberty ,,engines ,,being ,,boxed ,,for ,,shipment4 ,it was evident that in the actual production of the ,liberty engine there would continually arise practical questions of manufacturing policy that might entail modifications of the manufacturing methods1 while our aviation authorities in ,europe could be expected to advance suggestions from time to time that might need to be embodied in the mechanism4 ,consequently it was necessary to create a permanent development and standardization administration for the ,liberty engine4 ,nor could this supervision be located in ,washington1 because of the extreme need for haste1 but it must exist in the vicinity of the plants doing the manufacturing4 ,for this reason the production of the ,liberty engine was centered in the ,detroit manufacturing district1 since in this district was located the principal motor manufacturing plant capacity of the ,united ,states4 ,james ,g4 ,heaslet1 formerly general manager of the ,studebaker ,corporation and an engineer and manufacturer of wide experience1 was installed as district manager4 ,the problems incident to the inspection and production of the ,liberty engine were placed in charge of a committee consisting of ,maj4 ,heaslet 7chairman72 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,hall1 one of the designers of the engine2 ,henry ,m4 ,leland2 ,c4 ,harold ,wills1 of the ,ford ,motor ,co42 and ,messrs ,f4 ,f4 ,beall and ,edward ,roberts1 of the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 ,with them were also associated ,d4 ,mc,call ,white1 the engineer of the ,cadillac ,motor ,co41 and ,walter ,chrysler1 of the ,buick ,co4 ,the creation of this committee virtually made a single manufacturing concern of the several1 previously rival1 motor companies engaged in producing the ,liberty engine4 ,to these meetings the experts without reservation brought the trade secrets and shop processes developed in their own establishments during the preceding years of competition4 ,such cooperation was without parallel in the history of ,american industry1 and only a great emergency such as the war with ,germany could have brought it about4 ,but the circumstance aided wonderfully in the development and production of the ,liberty engine4 ,moreover1 the ,government drew heavily upon the talent of these great manufacturing organizations for meeting the special problems presented by the necessity of filling in the briefest possible time the largest aviation engine order ever known4 ,short-cuts that these firms might have applied effectively to their own private advantage were devised for the ,liberty engine and freely turned over to the ,government4 ,the ,packard ,co4 gave a great share of its equipment and personnel to the development4 ,the most conspicuous success in the science of quantity production in the world was the ,ford ,motor ,co41 which devoted its organization to the task of speeding up the output of ,liberty engines4 ,in addition to the unique and wonderfully efficient method of making rough engine cylinders out of steel tubing1 the ,ford organization also perfected for the ,liberty a new method of producing more durable and satisfactory bearings4 ,messrs4 ,h4 ,m4 and ,w4 ,c4 ,leland1 whose names were indissolubly linked with the ,cadillac automobile1 organized and erected the enormous plant of the ,lincoln ,motor ,co4 and equipped it for the production of the ,liberty1 at a total expense of approximately #h1jjj1jjj4 ,balanced against these advantages brought by highly trained technical skill and unselfish cooperation were handicaps such as perhaps no other great ,american industrial venture had ever known4 ,in the first place1 an internal-combustion engine with cylinders of a #e-;inch bore and pistons of a #g-;inch stroke--the ,liberty measurements--was larger than the automobile engines then in use in this country4 ,this meant that while we apparently had an enormous plant--the combined ,american automobile factories--ready for the production of ,liberty engines1 actually the machinery in these plants was not large enough for the new work1 so that new machinery therefore must be built to handle this particular work4 ,in some cases machinery had to be designed anew for the special purpose4 ,to produce every part of one ,liberty engine something between #b1ejj and #c1jjj small jigs1 tools1 and fixtures are employed4 ,for large outputs much of this equipment must be duplicated over and over again4 ,to provide the whole joint workshop with this equipment was one of the unseen jobs incidental to the construction of ,liberty engines--unseen by the general public1 that is--yet it required the ,united ,states to commandeer the capacity of all available tool shops east of the ,mississippi ,river and devote it to the production of jigs and tools for the ,liberty engine factories4 ,then there was the question of mechanical skill in the factories4 ,it soon developed that an automobile motor is a simple mechanism compared with an intricate aviation engine4 ,the machinists in ordinary automobile plants did not have the skill to produce the ,liberty engine parts successfully4 ,consequently it became necessary to educate thousands of mechanics1 men and women alike1 to do this new work4 ,it was surprising to what extent unfriendly influence in the ,united ,states1 much of it probably of a pro-,german character1 cut a figure in the situation4 ,this was particularly true in the supply factories furnishing tools to the ,liberty engine plants4 ,approximately #he per cent of the tools first delivered for this work were found to be inaccurate and incorrect4 ,these had to be remade before they could be used4 ,such tools as were delivered to the ,liberty plants would mysteriously disappear1 or vital equipment would be injured in unusual ways2 in several instances cans of explosives were found in the coal at power plants2 fire-extinguishing apparatus was discovered to be rendered useless by acts of depredation2 and from numerous other evidences the builders of ,liberty engines were aware that the enemy had his agents in their plants4 ,difficulty was also experienced in the production of metals for the new engines4 ,the materials demanded were frequently of a much higher grade than the corresponding materials used in ordinary automobile motors4 ,here was another unseen phase of development which had to be worked out patiently by the producers of raw materials4 ,illustration3 ,,liberty ,,engine ,,ready ,,for ,,test ,,at ,,the ,,lincoln ,,motor ,,co41 ,,detroit1 ,,mich4 ,illustration3 ,,liberty ,,engine ,,on ,,instruction ,,stand1 ,,wilbur ,,wright ,,field4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,showing ,,liberty ,,engine ,,with ,,propeller ,,hub ,,attached4 ,illustration3 ,,test ,,shed ,,and ,,stand ,,with ,,liberty ,,engine ,,mounted ,,with ,,test ,,propeller4 ,,packard ,,motor ,,car ,,co4 ,difficulties in transportation during the winter of #aiag-ah added their share to the perplexing problems of the engine builders1 while at times the scarcity of coal threatened the complete shutdown of some of the plants4 ,under such obstacles the engine-production department forced the manufacture of the ,liberty engine at a speed never before known in the automotive industry4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 the ,government received the first #bb ,liberty engines of the #ab-;cylinder type1 durable and dependable1 a standardized1 concrete product1 only seven months after the ,liberty engine existed merely as an idea in the brains of two engineers4 ,these first engines developed a strength of approximately #ccj horsepower1 and this was true also of the first #cjj ,liberty engines delivered1 these deliveries being completed in the early spring of #aiah4 ,when the ,liberty engine was designed our aviation experts believed that #ccj horsepower was so far in advance of the development of aero engines in ,europe that we could safely go ahead with the production of this type on a quantity basis4 ,but again we reckoned without an accurate prophetic knowledge of the course of engine development abroad4 ,we were building the first #cjj ,liberty engines at #ccj horsepower when our aviation reports informed us from overseas that an even higher horsepower would be desirable4 ,therefore our engineers stepped up the power of the ,liberty #ab-;cylinder engine to #cge horsepower4 ,several hundred motors of this power were in process of completion when again our observers in ,france advised us that we could add another #be horsepower to the ,liberty1 making it #djj horsepower in strength1 and be sure of leading all of the combatant nations in size and power of aviation engines during #aiah and #aiai4 ,this last step1 we were assured1 was the final1 definite one4 ,but to anticipate possible extraordinary development of engines by other nations1 our engineers went even further than the mark advised by our overseas observers and raised the power of the ,liberty engine to something in excess of #djj horsepower4 ,this enormous increase over the original power of the ,liberty engine required changes in the construction1 notably in increasing the strength of practically all of the working parts1 including the crank shaft1 the connecting rods1 and the bearings4 ,the change also resulted in making scrap iron of a large quantity of the jigs and special tools employed in making the lighter engines4 ,a still further change had to come in the character of some of the steel used in some of the parts1 and this went back to the smelting plants1 where new and better methods of producing steel and aluminum for the ,liberty engine had to be developed4 ,thus while there were no fundamental changes in the design of the engine1 the increase of its power required a considerable readjustment in the engine plants4 ,yet so rapidly were these changes made that on the first anniversary of the day when the design of the ,liberty engine was begun--,may #bi1 #aiah--the ,signal ,corps had received #a1bdc ,liberty engines4 ,in this achievement motor history was written in this country as it had never been written before4 ,from a popular standpoint it may seem that the ,liberty engine was radically changed after its inception1 but such an assertion is entirely unwarranted2 for in the fundamental thing1 the design1 there was but one change made after the engine was laid down on paper in ,may1 #aiag1 namely1 in the oiling system4 ,the original ,liberty engine was partially fed with oil by the so-called scupper system1 whereas this later was changed to a forced feed under compression4 ,the scupper feed worked successfully1 but the forced feed is foolproof and was therefore installed upon the advice of the preponderance of expert criticism4 ,it is also true that in working out certain practical manufacturing processes some of the original measurements were altered4 ,but this is a common experience in the manufacture of any internal-combustion engine1 and alterations made for factory expediency are not regarded as design changes1 nor are they important4 ,the delivery of #bb motors in ,december of #aiag was followed by the completion of #dj in ,january1 #aiah4 ,in ,february the delivery was #gj4 ,in ,march this jumped to #abb2 then a leap in ,april to #dae2 while in ,may deliveries amounted to #fbj4 ,the quantity production of ,liberties may be said to have started in ,june1 #aiah1 one year after the engine's conception in ,washington4 ,in that month #a1ajb motors of the most powerful type were delivered to the service4 ,in ,july the figure was #a1ehi2 in ,august1 #b1big2 in ,september1 #b1cfb4 ,then in ,october came an enormous increase to the total of #c1hgh ,liberty engines4 ,during the month before the armistice was signed the engine factories were producing #aej engines a day4 ,in all1 up to ,november #bi1 #aiah1 #ae1egb ,liberty engines were produced in the ,united ,states4 ,in the disposal of them the ,american ,navy received #c1gdb for its seaplanes2 the plants manufacturing airplanes in this country took #e1cbc of them2 #ijg were sent to various aviation fields for training purposes2 to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in ,france1 in addition to the engines which went over installed in their planes1 we sent #d1eaa ,liberty engines2 while #a1jhi went to the ,british1 ,french1 and ,italian air services4 ,some of the earliest ,liberties were sent to ,europe4 ,in ,january1 #aiah1 we shipped #c to our own forces in ,france4 ,in ,march we sent #aj to the ,british1 #f to the ,french1 and #e to the ,italians4 ,by ,june #g the ,english tests had convinced the ,british air minister that the ,liberty engine was in the first line of high powered aviation engines and a most valuable contribution to the allied aviation program4 ,the ,british air minister so cabled to ,lord ,reading1 the ,british ambassador in ,washington4 ,again on ,september #bf the ,british air ministry reported that in identical airplanes the ,liberty engine performed at least as well as the ,rolls-,royce engine4 ,birkight1 who designed the ,hispano-,suiza engine in ,france1 declared that the ,liberty engine was superior to any high-powered aviation engine then developed on the ,continent of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,installing ,,liberty ,,engine ,,in ,,the ,,lepere ,,fuselage ,,at ,,packard ,,plant1 ,,showing ,,progressive ,,assembly4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #ad4 ,,liberty ,,engines ,,produced ,,each ,,month ,,during #aiah4 ,jan4 #dj ,feb4 #gj ,mar4 #abb ,apr4 #dae ,may4 #fbj ,june4 #aajb ,july4 #aehi ,aug4 #bbig ,sept4 #bcfb ,oct4 #chgh ,nov4 #cjef ,dec4 #bdcg ,a more concrete evidence of the esteem in which this ,american creation was held by the ,european expert lies in the size of the orders which the various allied ,governments placed with the ,united ,states for ,liberty engines4 ,the ,british took #a1jjj of them immediately and declared that they wished to increase this order to #e1ejj to be delivered by ,december #ca1 #aiah4 ,the ,french directed inquiries as to the possibility of taking one-fifth of our complete output of ,liberty engines4 ,the ,italians also indicated their intention of purchasing heavily for immediate delivery4 ,this increased demand for the engine had not been anticipated in our original plans1 as we had no idea that the allied ,governments would turn from their own highly developed engines to ask for ,liberty engines in such quantities4 ,the original program of #bb1ejj engines was only sufficient for our own ,army and ,navy requirements4 ,as soon as the foreign ,governments1 however1 came in with their demands we immediately increased the orders placed with all the existing ,liberty engine builders1 and in addition contracted to take the entire manufacturing facilities of the ,willys-,overland ,co4 at its plants in ,toledo and ,elyria1 ,ohio1 and ,elmira1 ,n4 ,y4 ,we also engaged the entire capacity of the ,olds ,motor plant at ,lansing1 ,mich4 ,in addition we had subsequently contracted for the production of #h1jjj of the #h-;cylinder engines4 ,thus the number of engines which would have been delivered under contract1 if peace had not cut short the production1 would have been #ef1ajj engines of the #ab-;cylinder type and #h1jjj of the #h's4 ,the foreign ,governments associated with us in the war against ,germany showered their demands upon us for great numbers of the ,american engines1 not only altogether because of the excellence of the ,liberty1 but because partially their plane production exceeded their output of engines4 ,mr4 ,john ,d4 ,ryan1 ,director of ,aircraft ,production1 verbally agreed to deliver to the ,french #a1ejj ,liberty engines by ,december #ca1 and further agreed to deliver motors to the ,french at the rate of #gej per month during the first six months of #aiai4 ,the ,british had already received #a1jjj ,liberty motors1 and this order was increased with ,mr4 ,ryan personally by several thousand additional engines to be delivered in the early part of #aiai4 ,when the armistice was signed the ,liberty engine was being produced at a rate which promised to make it the dominant motive power of the war in the air before many months had passed4 ,the engine was originally named the ,united ,states ,standard #ab-;cylinder ,aviation ,engine4 ,in view of the service which it promised to render to the cause of civilization1 ,admiral ,d4 ,w4 ,taylor1 the chief construction officer of the ,navy1 suggested during the early part of the period of production that the original prosaic name be discarded and that the engine be rechristened the ,liberty4 ,under this name the engine has taken its place in the history of the war as one of the most efficient agencies which was developed and employed by this country4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,other ,,airplane ,,engines4 ,the production of the ,liberty engine so captured popular attention that the public never fairly understood nor appreciated the extent of another production enterprise on the part of those providing motive power for our war airplanes4 ,this was the supplementary manufacture of aero engines other than those which bore the proud appellation of ,liberty4 ,let the production figures speak for themselves4 ,in those #ai months1 starting with nothing1 we turned out complete and ready for service #cb1dbj aero engines4 ,of these thousands of engines less than one-half--the exact figure being #ae1egb--were ,liberty engines4 ,the rest were ,hispano-,suizas1 ,le ,rhones1 ,gnomes1 ,curtisses1 ,hall-,scotts1 and some others1 a total of #af1hdh in all--built largely for the training of our army of the air4 ,this production would have been even more notable had the war continued1 for at the date of the signing of the armistice the ,united ,states had contracted for the construction of #ajj1iic aircraft engines4 ,of these #fd1ajj were to be ,liberty engines1 so that the total plan of construction of engines other than the ,liberty would have produced about #cg1jjj of them4 ,the total cost of carrying through the combined engine project would have been in the neighborhood of #dej1jjj1jjj4 ,while at the outbreak of the war ,american knowledge of military aviation may have been meager1 still it was evident from the start that we would be able to go ahead with certain phases of production on a huge scale without waiting for the precise knowledge of requirements that would come only from an exhaustive study of the subject in ,europe4 ,in the first place we knew that we must train our aviators4 ,for this purpose there was at the start no particular need of the highly-developed machinery then in use on the western front4 ,the first aircraft requirement of the early training program was for safe planes1 regardless of their type1 and motive power to drive them4 ,later on1 when we were better prepared1 would come the training that would afford our aviators experience with the fighting equipment4 ,so at the start there was no reason why we should not proceed at once with the construction of such training machines as we knew how to build4 ,an aviation program for war falls into these two divisions--the equipment required for training and that required for combat4 ,while our organization1 particularly through the ,bolling commission which we had sent to ,europe1 was making a study of our combat requirements and while we were pushing forward the design and production of the ,liberty engine1 we forthwith developed on an ambitious scale the manufacture of training planes and engines in this country4 ,the training of battle aviators1 on the other hand1 also separates into two parts1 the elementary training and the advanced training4 ,the elementary training merely teaches the cadet the new art of maintaining himself in the air4 ,later1 when he has mastered the rudiments of mechanical flight1 he goes into the advanced training1 the training in his fighting plane1 where he requires equipment more nearly of the type used at the front4 ,for the elementary training we had some good native material to start with4 ,the ,curtiss ,airplane ,co4 had been building training planes and engines both for the ,english and ,canadian air authorities4 ,this was evidently the most available ,american airplane for our first needs4 ,the ,curtiss plane was known as the ,,jn-#d and it was driven by a #ij-;horsepower engine called the ,curtiss ,,ox4 ,in the production of this equipment on the scale planned by the ,signal ,corps1 the embarrassing feature1 the choke point1 was evidently to be the manufacture of the engine4 ,the ,curtiss plant at ,buffalo for the manufacture of planes could be quickly expanded to meet the ,government demands2 but the ,curtiss engine plant at ,hammondsport1 ,n4 ,y41 could not develop the production of ,,ox engines up to our needs and at the same time complete the orders which it was filling for the ,english and ,canadian air services4 ,consequently1 contracts were awarded to the ,curtiss ,co4 for its capacity in the production of ,,ox engines1 and then the ,american aviation authorities came to an agreement with the ,willys-,morrow plant at ,elmira1 ,n4 ,y41 for an additional #e1jjj of these motors4 ,ordinarily it would require from five to six months to equip a plant with the large machine tools and the smaller mechanical appliances necessary for such a contract as this4 ,but the ,willys-,morrow plant tooled up in three months and was ready to start on the ,,ox manufacturing job4 ,illustration3 ,,curtiss ,,engine1 ,,model ,,ox-#e4 ,illustration3 ,,hall-,,scott ,,engines ,,being ,,installed ,,in ,,airplane ,,fuselages4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of ,,le ,,rhone #hj-;,,horsepower ,,engine4 ,this is one of the successful rotary engines4 ,if speed in production was required at any point in the aviation development it was here in the manufacture of the elementary training planes and engines4 ,without training material1 no matter how many aviation fields we set in order nor how many student aviators we enlisted1 the movement of our flying forces toward the front could not even begin4 ,and here entered an interesting engineering and executive problem that had to be worked out quickly by those in charge of our aircraft construction4 ,if it were plotted on paper1 the curve of requirements for aircraft training material would climb swiftly to its peak during the first six or eight months of the war and then decline with almost equal swiftness until it reached a low level4 ,in other words1 we must produce the great number of training machines in the shortest time possible in order to put our thousands of student aviators into the air at once over the training fields2 but when this training equipment had been brought up to initial requirements1 thereafter our needs in this direction could be met by only a small production1 since the rate of wastage of such material is relatively low4 ,once our fields were fully equipped1 the same apparatus could be used over and over again as the war went on1 with little regard to the improvements of the type of battle planes1 so that the ultimate manufacture need be large enough only to keep this equipment in condition4 ,it soon became evident that the production of ,curtiss planes and engines1 even under the heavy contracts immediately placed1 would not be sufficient to take care of our elementary training needs2 and the aviation administration began looking around for other types of aircraft that would fit into our plans4 ,the experts in all branches of war flying which the principal allied nations had sent to the ,united ,states1 warned us against the temptation to adopt many types of material in order to secure a quick early production4 ,if the training equipment were not closely standardized in types1 it would result in confusion and delay1 both in training the aviator to fly and in preparing him for actual combat4 ,such had been the experience in ,europe2 and we were now given the benefit of this experience1 so that we might avoid the mistakes which others had made4 ,we were advised to adopt a single type of equipment for each class of training2 but if that were not consistent with the demands for speed in getting our service in the air1 then at the most we should not have more than two types either of planes or engines4 ,in the elementary training program it was evident that we could not equip ourselves with a single type of plane1 except at considerable expense in time4 ,consequently we went ahead to develop another4 ,we found a training airplane being produced by the ,standard ,aero ,corporation and known as the ,standard-,j4 ,the company had been developing this machine for approximately a year1 and its plant could be expanded readily to meet a large contract4 ,for the engine to drive this plane we adopted the ,hall-,scott ,a#g;,a4 ,this was a four-cylinder engine4 ,it had the fault of vibration common to any four-cylinder engine1 but it was regarded otherwise by experts as a rugged and dependable piece of machinery4 ,the ,hall-,scott ,co4 was equipped to produce this motor on an extensive scale1 since at the time this concern was probably the largest manufacturer of aviation engines in the ,united ,states1 with the possible exception of the ,curtiss ,co4 ,the engine had been used in airplanes built by the ,standard ,aero ,corporation1 the ,aero ,marine ,co41 and the ,dayton-,wright ,co4 ,therefore the ,joint ,army and ,navy ,technical ,board recommended the ,standard-,j plane and the ,hall-,scott ,a#g;,a engine as the elementary training equipment to alternate with the ,curtiss plane and engine4 ,the ,government placed contracts with the ,hall-,scott ,co4 for #a1bej engines1 its capacity4 ,but1 since a large additional number would be required1 a supplementary contract for #a1jjj ,a#g;,a's was given to the ,nordyke ,marmon ,co4 ,the ,hall-,scott ,co4 cooperated with this latter concern by furnishing complete drawings1 tools1 and other production necessities4 ,when it came to the advanced training for our aviators1 more highly developed mechanical equipment was required4 ,there must be two sorts of this equipment4 ,the advanced student must become acquainted with rotary engines such as were used by the ,french and others to drive the small1 speedy chass planes1 while he must also come to be familiar with the operation of fixed cylinder engines1 possessing upwards of #ajj horsepower4 ,these latter were the engines in commonest use on observation and bombing planes4 ,for each type1 the rotary and fixed1 we were permitted by our policy to have two sorts of engines in order to get into production as quickly as possible1 but not more than two4 ,here again we had to survey the field of engine manufacture and select closely1 at the same time making in point of speed approximately as good a showing as if we had adopted every engine with claims for our consideration and had told manufacturers of them to produce as many as they could4 ,in this case of rotary engines1 our aviation representatives in ,europe advised the production here of ,gnome and ,le ,rhone motors4 ,there were two models of the ,gnome engine1 one developing #aaj horsepower and the other #aej4 ,the ,le ,rhone engine produced #hj horsepower4 ,the ,bolling commission had recommended that the ,gnome #aej be used in some of our combat planes4 ,in the spring of #aiag we were producing a few ,gnome #aaj horsepower engines in this country4 ,the ,general ,vehicle ,co4 at some time previously had taken a foreign order for these engines4 ,but neither the ,gnome #aej nor the ,le ,rhone #hj had been built in the ,united ,states1 both of these having been developed and used exclusively in ,france4 ,the first recommendations from our observers in ,france advised us to produce #e1jjj of the more powerful ,gnome #aej's and #b1ejj ,le ,rhone #hj's4 ,the production of ,gnome engines in this country forms a good illustration of the manner in which aircraft requirements at the front were constantly shifting1 due to the rapid evolution of the science of mechanical flight4 ,our officers did not hesitate to overrule their previous decisions1 if such a course seemed to be justified1 even at the cost of rendering useless great quantities of work already done and material already produced4 ,this has been shown in the case of the ,liberty engine4 ,at the start we set out to build ,liberty #h-;cylinder engines on a large scale1 only to discontinue this work before it was fairly started2 but later on we again took up a ,liberty #h-;cylinder project on almost as great a scale as had been planned originally4 ,so with the production of the heavy #aej-;horsepower ,gnome engine4 ,our ,european advisors were first of the opinion that we should go heavily into this production4 ,consequently the equipment end of the ,signal ,corps projected a program of #e1jjj of the large ,gnome engines4 ,such a contract was entirely beyond the capacity of the ,general ,vehicle ,co41 which had been building the lighter ,gnomes4 ,so the ,government entered into negotiations with the ,general ,motors ,co4 to assume the greater burden of this undertaking4 ,under the pilotage of the aircraft authorities1 an agreement was reached for the industrial combination of the ,general ,motors ,co4 and the ,general ,vehicle ,co4 ,the former concern brought its vast resources and numerous factories into the consolidation2 while the latter furnished the only skilled knowledge and experience there was in the ,united ,states in the art of making rotary engines4 ,this seemed to be a great step in our progress and an achievement in itself2 but just as the undertaking of the construction of large ,gnome engines was about to be started1 events in ,europe had caused our observers there to revise their first judgment1 and we received cabled instructions recommending that we discontinue the development of the ,gnome #aej4 ,the entire program for ,gnome #aej's was canceled1 and thereafter the ,general ,vehicle ,co41 with its relatively small capacity1 was called upon to produce as many of the small ,gnome #aaj's as it could4 ,as a matter of record the production of these engines amounted to #bhj in number4 ,the ,signal ,corps found it difficult to induce manufacturers in this country to undertake the construction of foreign designed engines at all4 ,the plans and specifications of mechanical appliances furnished by foreign engineers and manufacturers are so different from ours that trouble is invariably experienced in attempts to use them here4 ,successful concerns in this country naturally hesitated to pick up contracts on which they might fail and thus tarnish their reputations4 ,our advisors in ,europe were insistent that we should produce ,le ,rhone engines in quantity in the ,united ,states1 yet it was hard to find any manufacturing concern willing to undertake such a development4 ,nevertheless1 the production of ,le ,rhone engines proved to be one of the most successful phases of the whole aircraft program4 ,its story illustrates the obstacles encountered in adapting a foreign device to ,american manufacture1 and it also shows how ,american production genius can overcome these handicaps4 ,it was only after strenuous efforts on our part that the ,union ,switch ,signal ,co41 of ,swissvale1 ,pa41 a member of the ,westinghouse chain of factories1 was induced to take up the ,le ,rhone contract4 ,this project called for the production of #b1ejj rotary ,le ,rhones of #hj horsepower each4 ,let us see how the manufacturers took this totally unfamiliar machine and went about it to reproduce it in this country4 ,one might think that it would be necessary only to take the ,french drawings1 change the metric system measurements to our own scale of feet and inches1 and proceed to turn out the mechanism4 ,but it was not so simple as that4 ,we did receive the drawings1 the specifications1 the metallurgical instructions and the like1 but these we found to be unreliable and unsatisfactory from our point of view4 ,for instance1 according to the ,french instructions the metallurgical requirements for the engine crank-shaft called for mild steel4 ,this was obviously incorrect2 and if an error had crept into this part of the plans there was no telling how faulty the rest of them might be4 ,so from the metallurgical standpoint alone this became a laboratory job of analysis and investigation4 ,a sample engine had been sent to us from ,france4 ,every piece of metal in this engine was examined by the chemists to determine its proper constituents1 and from this original investigation new specifications were made for the steel producers4 ,the drawings of the engine were quite unsatisfactory from the point of view of ,american mechanics4 ,they were found to be incorrect1 and there were not enough of them4 ,consequently this required another study on the part of engineers and a new set of drawings to be made up4 ,all of this fundamental work monopolized the time of a large force of draughtsmen and engineers for several months1 working under the direction of ,e4 ,j4 ,hall and ,frank ,m4 ,hawley4 ,the engine could not be successfully built without this preliminary study1 yet this is a part of manufacture of which the uninitiated have little knowledge4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,views ,,of ,,bugatti #daj-;,,horsepower ,,engine4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,hispano-,,suiza ,,engine4 ,the production of the ,le ,rhone engine might have been materially delayed by these difficulties1 except for the organizing ability of the executives handling the contract4 ,while the metallurgists were specifying the steel of the engine parts and the engineers were drafting correct plans1 the factory officials1 with the assistance of the engine production division of the ,air ,service1 were procuring machinery and tooling up the plant for the forthcoming effort4 ,by the time this equipment was installed the plans were ready1 the steel mills were producing the proper qualities of metal1 and all was ready for the effort4 ,the ,gnome-,le ,rhone factories in ,france sent one of their best engineers1 ,m4 ,georges ,guillot1 and he assisted in the work at the ,union ,switch ,signal ,co4 ,so rapidly was the whole development carried out that the first ,american ,le ,rhones were delivered to the ,government in ,may1 #aiah1 considerably less than a year after the project was assumed by the ,union ,switch ,signal ,co41 which concern had not received the plans of the engine until ,september1 #aiag4 ,by the time the armistice was signed the company had delivered #a1jeg ,le ,rhone engines4 ,subsequent contracts had increased the original order to #c1ijj ,le ,rhones1 all of which would have been delivered before the summer of #aiai1 had the coming of peace not terminated the manufacture4 ,although ,france is the home of the rotary aviation engine1 ,m4 ,guillot has certified to the ,aircraft ,board that these ,american ,le ,rhones were the best rotary engines ever built4 ,when it came to the selection of fixed cylinder engines for our advanced training program1 all of the indications pointed to a single one1 the ,hispano-,suiza engine of #aej horsepower4 ,this was a tried and true engine of the war1 tested by a wealth of experience and found dependable4 ,france had used the engine extensively in both its training and combat planes4 ,in #aiaf it had been brought to the ,united ,states for production for the allies1 and when we entered the war the ,wright-,martin ,aircraft ,corporation was producing ,hispano-,suizas in small quantity4 ,by the early summer of #aiag1 however1 the motor had fallen behind in the development of combat engines because of the increasing horsepowers demanded by the fighting aces on the front1 but it was still a desirable training engine and could1 if necessary1 be used to a limited extent in planes at the front4 ,the plane adopted by the ,american aircraft authorities for this type of advanced training was known as the ,curtiss ,,jn #d;,h4 ,it was readily adapted for the use of the ,hispano-,suiza #aej-;horsepower engine4 ,contracts for several thousand of these engines were placed with the ,wright-,martin ,aircraft ,corporation1 and up to the signing of the armistice #c1dce engines were delivered4 ,before we could start the production of this engine it was necessary for the ,government to arrange with the ,hispano-,suiza ,co4 for the ,american rights to build it1 this arrangement including the payment of royalties4 ,incidentally it is interesting to note that royalty was the chief beneficiary of the royalties paid by the ,american ,government1 ,king ,alfonso of ,spain being the heaviest stockholder of the ,hispano-,suiza ,co4 ,although our policy permitted us to produce a second training engine of the fixed cylinder type1 no engine other than the ,hispano-,suiza was taken up by us4 ,a number presented their claims for consideration1 but they were one and all rejected4 ,among these were the ,curtiss engines ,,oxx and ,v4 ,a few of both of these had been used by the ,navy1 but neither one seemed to the ,signal ,corps to meet the requirements4 ,the ,sturtevant ,co4 had developed a #ace-;horsepower engine and built a few of them1 while ,thomas ,bros41 at ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 had taken the ,sturtevant engine and modified it in a way that they claimed improved it1 although the changes had not substantially increased the horsepower4 ,this engine was rejected on the ground that it was too low in horsepower to endure as a useful machine through any considerable period of manufacture1 and also because it was too heavy per horsepower to accomplish the best results4 ,to sum it up1 our training program was built around the above named engines--the ,curtiss ,,ox and the ,hall-,scott ,a#g;,a for the elementary training machines2 the ,gnome and ,le ,rhone1 for the rotary engine types of planes in the advanced training2 and the ,hispano-,suiza #aej-;horsepower1 for the advanced training in fixed-cylinder-engine machines4 ,between the dates of ,september #a1 #aiag1 and ,december #ai1 #aiah1 we sent to #bg fields #ac1bej cadets and #i1jge students for advanced training4 ,they flew a total of #hhh1dje hours and suffered #cjd fatalities1 or an average of #a fatality for every #b1ibb4ch flying hours4 ,at one field the training fliers were in the air #ai1dhd hours before there was #a fatality2 another field increased this record to #bj1bfi hours2 while a third made the extraordinary record of #a casualty in #cj1ihb flying hours4 ,although we do not possess the actual statistics1 the best unofficial figures show that the ,british averaged #a fatality for each #a1jjj flying hours at their training camps1 the ,french #a for each #ijj flying hours1 while the ,italian training killed #a student for each #gjj flying hours4 ,these figures are significant1 although varying conditions in the types of training programs may account to some extent for the wide differences in numbers of casualties at ,american as compared with allied training camps4 ,but while we were producing engines for the training airplanes1 both elementary and advanced1 we were not staking our whole combat program on the ,liberty engine alone1 although we expected that engine to be our main reliance in our battle machines4 ,our organization1 both at home and abroad1 was on the alert continually for other engines that might be produced in ,europe or the ,united ,states and which would be so far in advance of anything in use by the air fighters in ,europe in #aiag as to justify our production of them on a considerable scale4 ,one of these motors which seemed to promise great results for the future was the ,rolls-,royce1 which had even then1 in #aiag1 taken its place at the head of the ,british airplane engines4 ,considerable difficulty was experienced in reaching a satisfactory arrangement with the ,rolls-,royce ,co4 ,we expected to duplicate this engine at the plant of the ,pierce-,arrow ,motor ,car ,co41 at ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y41 but the ,british concern objected to this arrangement on the ground that the ,pierce-,arrow people were commercial competitors4 ,it was several months before we could agree on a factory and arrive at a contract satisfactory to both sides4 ,meanwhile the ,liberty engine had scored its great success1 and the expected enormous production of ,liberties tended to cool the enthusiasm of our aircraft authorities for the ,rolls-,royce1 as it was evident that the ,liberty itself would be as serviceable and as advanced in type as the ,british product4 ,the ,rolls-,royce ,co4 wished to manufacture here its #aij1 an engine developing from #bej to #bgj horsepower2 and for this effort it was prepared to send to the ,united ,states at once a complete set of jigs1 gauges1 and all other necessary tooling of a ,rolls-,royce plant4 ,with this equipment ready at hand the company expected to produce about #ejj ,american-built ,rolls-,royce engines before the #ast of ,july1 #aiah4 ,but so rapidly was the evolution of aircraft engines going ahead that even during the time of these negotiations it became evident that something more than #bej horsepower would soon be needed in the fighting planes on the ,western front4 ,we therefore abandoned the ,rolls-,royce model #aij and started negotiations for the #bgj-;horsepower engine1 the latest and most powerful one produced by the ,rolls-,royce ,co4 ,but for this engine the ,british concern could not furnish the tooling1 which would have to be made new in this country1 and this would reduce the schedule of deliveries4 ,as a result no ,american-built ,rolls-,royce engine was ever made4 ,another disappointing experience in attempting to produce a foreign designed motor in this country was the project to bring the manufacture of ,bugatti engines to the ,united ,states4 ,when our ,european aircraft commission arrived in ,france1 the first experimental ,bugatti engine had just made its appearance4 ,it was apparently a long step in advance of any other motor that had been produced4 ,this ,french mechanism was a geared #af-;cylinder engine4 ,it weighed approximately #a1ajj pounds and was expected to develop #eaj horsepower4 ,it seemed to be the motor to supplement our own ,liberty engine construction4 ,although heavier than a ,liberty1 it was much more powerful4 ,the first ,bugatti engine built in ,france was purchased by the ,bolling commission and hurried to the ,united ,states with the urgent recommendation that we put it into production immediately and push its manufacture as energetically as we were pushing that of the ,liberty engine4 ,the ,signal ,corps acted immediately upon this advice and prepared to proceed with the ,bugatti on a scale that promised to make its development as spectacular as that of the ,liberty4 ,the ,duesenberg ,motor ,corporation1 of ,elizabeth1 ,n4 ,j41 was even then tooling up for the production of ,liberty engines4 ,we took this concern from its ,liberty work and directed it to assume leadership in the production of ,bugattis4 ,the ,liberty engine construction had been centered in the ,detroit district4 ,we now prepared to establish a new aviation engine district in the ,east1 associating in it such concerns as the ,fiat ,plant at ,schenectady1 ,n4 ,y41 the ,herschell-,spillman ,co41 of ,north ,tonawanda1 ,n4 ,y41 and several others4 ,for a time the expectation for the ,bugatti production ran almost as high as the enthusiasm for the ,liberty engine1 but the whole undertaking ended virtually in failure1 a failure again due to the tremendous difficulty in adapting foreign engineering plans to ,american factory production4 ,this was the story of it4 ,in due time the sample ,bugatti engine arrived1 and with it were several ,french engineers and expert mechanics4 ,but1 once set up1 the ,bugatti motor would not function1 nor was it in condition to run2 for1 as we discovered1 during its test in ,france a soldier had been struck by its flying propeller4 ,his body had been thrown twice to the roof of the testing shed1 and the shocks had bent the engine's crank shaft4 ,then1 too1 we learned for the first time that the design and development of this engine had not been carried through to completion and that a great deal of work would be required before the device could be put into manufacture4 ,the tests in ,france had developed that such a fundamental feature as the oiling system needed complete readjustment1 and this was only indicative of the amount of work yet to be done on the engineering side of the production4 ,we did our best with this engine2 but to redesign it and develop it so that it could pass the severe #ej-;hour test demanded by our ,joint ,army and ,navy ,technical ,board was the work of months1 and after that the tooling up of plants had to be accomplished4 ,the ,american ,bugatti was just getting into production when the armistice was signed1 a total of only #aa having been delivered4 ,as we have seen1 we were already building several hundred ,hispano-,suiza #aej-;horsepower engines for our training planes4 ,soon after the arrival of our aircraft commission in ,france we were advised to go into the additional manufacture of the latest ,hispano-,suiza geared engine of #bbj-;horsepower4 ,consequently the ,washington office at once arranged with the ,wright-,martin ,aircraft ,corporation1 which was building the smaller ,hispano-,suizas1 to undertake the production of this newer model also4 ,the preparations for this manufacture had gone on in the ,wright-,martin plant for a considerable period of time when further advice from ,europe informed us that the ,hispano-,suiza #bbj was not performing successfully on account of trouble with the gearing4 ,this fact1 of course1 canceled the new contract with the ,wright-,martin ,co41 the incident being another of those ups and downs with which the undertaking was replete4 ,along in the summer of #aiah the ,hispano-,suiza designers in ,europe brought out a #cjj-;horsepower engine4 ,by this date the development of military flying had made it apparent that engines of such great horsepower could be used advantageously on the smaller planes4 ,however1 the engine plants of the allied countries were already taxed to their capacities by their existing contracts1 and the demands of these countries for high-powered engines could not be supplied unless we in ,america could increase our manufacturing facilities even further4 ,in following out this ambition1 we placed contracts for the production of #aj1jjj ,hispano-,suiza #cjj-;horsepower engines4 ,of these1 #e1jjj were to be built by the ,wright-,martin ,aircraft ,corporation4 ,to enable this company to fulfill the new contract we leased to it the plant owned by the ,government in ,long ,island ,city which had formerly been owned by the ,general ,vehicle ,co4 ,the other #e1jjj of these engines were to be built by the ,pierce-,arrow ,motor ,car ,co4 at ,buffalo4 ,we also contracted for the entire manufacturing facilities of the ,h4 ,h4 ,franklin ,co41 of ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 to aid both the ,wright-,martin ,corporation and the ,pierce-,arrow ,co41 in this contract4 ,the first of these high-powered ,hispano-,suiza engines were expected to be delivered in ,january1 #aiai1 but this project1 of course1 was interrupted by the armistice4 ,to summarize the complete engine program of the aviation development1 the total contracts for engines provided for the delivery of #ajj1iic engines4 ,these were divided as follows3 ,,ox #i1dej ,a#g;,a #b1bej ,gnome #cdb ,le ,rhone #c1ijj ,lawrence #dea ,hispano-,suiza3 #ahj-;horsepower #d1ejj ,hispano-,suiza3 #aej-;horsepower #d1jjj ,hispano-,suiza3 #cjj-;horsepower #aj1jjj ,bugatti #b1jjj ,liberty-#ab #ef1ajj ,liberty-#h #h1jjj ,the delivery of aviation engines of all types to the ,united ,states ,government1 engines produced as part of our war program1 were as follows1 by months3 ,july1 #aiag #ff ,august1 #aiag #aci ,september1 #aiag #aij ,october1 #aiag #bgf ,november1 #aiag #fch ,december1 #aiag #eif ,january1 #aiah #gjd ,february1 #aiah #a1jbd ,march1 #aiah #a1fff ,april1 #aiah #b1bad ,may1 #aiah #b1eag ,june1 #aiah #b1fjd ,july1 #aiah #c1aea ,august1 #aiah #c1fbe ,september1 #aiah #c1hjb ,october1 #aiah #e1big ------ ,total #bh1eji ,the production by types was as follows to ,november #bi1 #aiah3 ,,ox #h1deh ,hispano-,suiza #d1ajj ,le ,rhone #a1bih ,lawrence #dea ,gnome #bhj ,a#g;,a #b1bej ,bugatti #aa ,liberty #ae1egb ,at the signing of the armistice the ,united ,states had produced about one-third of the engines projected in its complete aviation program4 ,of the output of training engines to ,november #bi1 #aiah1 the various airplane plants took #i1jfi for installation in planes1 #cbe 7all of these being ,le ,rhone rotaries7 went to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in ,france1 #eae 7all of which were ,hispano-,suizas7 were taken by the ,navy1 a single ,a#g;,a model was sent to one of the allied countries1 while #f1cgf engines were sent directly to the training fields4 ,of the combat engines produced to ,november #bi1 #aiah 7which classification includes all of the ,liberties1 the two more powerful types of the ,hispano-,suiza1 and the ,bugatti engine71 #e1cbg went to the various airplane plants for installation in planes1 #e1jcj of them were sent directly to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 #c1gdf were turned over to the ,navy1 #a1jij went to the several allied nations1 and #ida were taken by the training fields4 ,the shipment of aviation engines to ,europe1 however1 does not imply the immediate use of them by our airplane squadrons at the front4 ,in this report shipment to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces means the shipment of engines from the ,american factories producing them4 ,as a matter of fact several months usually elapsed from the dispatch of an engine from an ,american shop until it actually reached the ,air ,service in ,france1 and even then another month might be required to put the engine into actual service4 ,as a result1 of the #e1jjj and more aviation engines sent to ,france by the ,american engine producers1 outside of those installed in their planes1 less than #c1jjj are recorded in the annals of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces as having been received by them up to the end of ,december1 #aiah1 the missing #b1jjj being in that period either somewhere in transit or in warehouses on the route to their destination4 ,it is of interest to note what makes of foreign engines were used by our airmen in the war operations4 ,an appended table shows the list of those received1 their names1 their rated powers1 the numbers received month by month1 and the totals4 ,the records of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces show that the squadrons in all received from all sources #d1gae aviation engines up to the end of the year #aiah1 but it should be borne in mind that this figure does not include more than #b1jjj engines1 principally ,liberties1 recorded on this side of the ,atlantic as having been shipped to the ,army abroad4 ,of the #d1gae engines noted as received1 #b1gaj were ,liberties4 ,none of the foreign engines used by our pilots even approached the ,liberty in power4 ,the nearest in power were a ,renault and an ,hispano-,suiza1 both rated at #cjj horsepower4 ,table of engines received from foreign sources in ,american ,expeditionary ,forces monthly4 ,legend for ,name and horsepower3 ,a ,hispano-,suiza #ahj ,b ,hispano-,suiza #bbj ,c ,hispano-,suiza #cjj ,d ,renault #aij ,e ,renault #cjj ,f ,le ,rhone #hj ,g ,le ,rhone #abj ,h ,clerget #abj ,i ,clerget #adj ,j ,salmson #bcj ,k ,fiat #cjj ,l ,gnome #aej ,m ,peugeot #bcj ,n ,beardmore #afj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,name and ,jan4 ,mar4 ,may4 ,july4 ,sept4 ,nov4 ,total4 horse- ,feb4 ,apr4 ,june4 ,aug4 ,oct4 ,dec4 power4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,a #h #aa #ai ,b #c #ag #afd #acd #ff #ae #cii ,c #a #a ,d #d #d #ah #bf ,e #d #aj #ad #c #cb #bj #hc ,f #aj #ai #he #aad ,g #f #h #ad #dc #dc #aad ,h #c #f #ab #h #ad #bi #gb ,i #aj #aj ,j #d #f #b #bc #ie #ib #ib #h #cbb ,k #bc #aj #aej #ahc ,l #ab #bj #ff #hf #bb #bjj #djf ,m #b #b ,n #ad #ad ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,total #af #af #cj #bb #afj #cbd #ceg #cab #ebh #a1gfe ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,chapter ,v4 ,,aviation ,,equipment ,,and ,,armament4 ,on one of the early days in the great war a ,russian aviator1 aloft in one of the primitive airplanes of that time1 was engaged in locating the positions of the enemy when he chanced upon a ,german birdman engaged in a similar mission4 ,in those ancient times--for they seem ancient to us now1 although less than five years have elapsed--actual fighting in the air was unknown4 ,the aviators had no equipment for battle2 indeed1 it was doubtful if the thought had occurred to either side to keep down the enemy's aircraft by the use of armed force borne upon wings4 ,in the first months of aviation in the great war the fliers of both sides recognized a sort of noblesse oblige of the air1 which1 if it did not make for actual friendship or fraternizing between the rival air services1 at least amounted to a respect for each other often evidenced by an innocuous waving of hands as hostile flying machines passed each other4 ,but now the wounds of war had begun to smart2 and when the ,russian saw the ,german flier going unhindered upon a work that might bring death to thousands of soldiers in the ,czar's army1 a sudden rage filled his heart1 and he determined to bring down his adversary1 even at the cost of his own life4 ,maneuvering his craft1 presently he was flying directly beneath the ,german and in the same direction and was but a short distance below his enemy's plane4 ,then1 with a pull on his control lever1 the ,russian shot his machine sharply upward1 hoping to upset the ,german and to escape himself4 ,the result was that the machines collided1 and both crashed to the ground4 ,this was probably the first aerial combat of the war4 ,it seems strange to us to-day that the highly complicated and standardized art of fighting with airplanes was developed entirely during the great war and1 indeed1 was only started after the war had been in progress for several months4 ,yet such was the case4 ,at the beginning of the war there was no such thing as armament in aircraft1 either of the offensive or defensive sort4 ,it is true that a small amount of experimentation in this direction had occurred prior to the war and also in the early months of fighting1 but it was not until the summer of #aiae that air fighting1 as it is so well known to the entire world to-day1 was begun4 ,in this country we had successfully fired a machine gun from an airplane in #aiab1 while at the beginning of the war the ,french had a few heavy airplanes equipped to carry machine guns4 ,yet in ,august1 #aiae1 ,maj4 ,eric ,t4 ,bradley1 of the ,united ,states ,air ,service1 but then a flight sublieutenant in the ,royal ,flying ,corps1 frequently flew over the lines hunting for ,germans2 and his offensive armament consisted of a ,lee-,enfield rifle or sometimes a #ab-;gauge double-barreled shotgun4 ,the aviators in those pioneer days usually carried automatic pistols1 but the danger to one side or the other from such weapons was slight1 owing to the great difficulty of hitting an object moving as swiftly as an airplane travels4 ,the earlier planes also packed a supply of trench grenades for dropping upon bodies of troops4 ,another pioneer offensive weapon for the airplane was the steel dart1 which was dropped in quantities upon the enemy's trenches4 ,great numbers of these darts were manufactured in the ,united ,states for the allies1 but the weapon proved to be so ineffective that it had but a brief existence4 ,it is said that before the pilots carried any weapons at all the first war aviators used to shoot at each other with ,very pistols1 which projected ,roman candle balls4 ,the start of air fighting may be said to have come when the ,lewis machine guns were brought out for use in the trenches4 ,presently these ground guns were taken into the planes and fired from the observers' shoulders4 ,then for the first time war flying began to be a hazardous occupation so far as the enemy's attentions were concerned4 ,it was soon discovered that the machine gun was the most effective weapon of all for use on an airplane1 because only with rapid firers could one hope to hunt successfully such swiftly moving prey as airplanes4 ,it had become patent to the strategists that it was of supreme importance to keep the enemy's aircraft on the ground4 ,hence invention began adapting the machine gun to airplane use4 ,the swiftest planes of all were those of the single-seater pursuit type4 ,it was obviously impossible for the lone pilot of one of these to drop his controls and fire a machine gun from his shoulder4 ,this necessitated a fixed gun that could be operated while the pilot maintained complete control of his machine1 and such necessity was the mother of the invention known as the synchronizing gear4 ,this ingenious contrivance1 however1 did not come at once4 ,most of the war planes were of the tractor type2 that is1 that they had the engine and propeller in front1 this arrangement giving them better maneuvering and defensive powers in the air than those possessed by planes with the rear1 pushing propellers4 ,the first fixed machine gun was carried on the upper plane of the biplane so as to shoot over the arc described by the propeller4 ,with the gun thus attached parallel to the line of flight1 the pilot needed only to point the airplane itself directly at the target to have the gun trained on its objective4 ,but such an arrangement proved to be unsatisfactory4 ,a single belt or magazine of cartridges could1 indeed1 be fired from the gun1 but there was no more firing on that trip1 because the pilot could not reach up to the upper plane to reload the weapon4 ,so the fixed gun was brought down into the fuselage and made to fire through the whirling propeller4 ,at first the aviators took their chances of hitting the propeller blades1 and sometimes the blades were armored at the point of fire1 being sheathed in steel of a shape calculated to cause the bullets to glance off4 ,this system was not satisfactory4 ,then1 since a single bullet striking an unprotected propeller blade would often shatter it to fragments1 attempts were made to wrap the butts of the blades in linen fabric to prevent this splintering1 and this protection actually allowed several shots to pierce the propeller without breaking it4 ,this was the state of affairs on both sides early in #aiae4 ,the ,french ,nieuports had their fixed guns literally shooting through the propellers1 the bullets perforating the blades1 if they did not wreck them4 ,as late as ,february1 #aiag1 ,maj4 ,bradley1 who was by that time a flight commander in the ,british service1 worked a ,lewis gun over the ,bulgarian lines with the plane propellers protected only by cloth wrappings4 ,all of this makeshift operation of fixed machine guns was changed by the invention of the synchronizing device4 ,this is an appliance for controlling the fire of the fixed gun so that the bullets miss the blades of the flying propeller and pass on in the infinitesimal spaces of time when the line of fire ahead of the gun is clear of obstruction4 ,the term synchronizing is not accurate1 since that word implies that the gun fires after each passage of a propeller blade across the trajectory4 ,such is not the truth4 ,the propeller revolves much more rapidly than the gun fires4 ,the device is also called an interrupter1 another inexact term1 since the fire of the gun is not interrupted1 but only caused at the proper moments4 ,technicians prefer the name gun control for this mechanism4 ,who first invented the synchronizer is a matter of dispute1 but all observers agree that the ,germans in the ,fokker monoplanes of #aiae were the first to use it extensively4 ,not until some time after this did the allies generally install similar devices4 ,some have attributed the original invention to the famous ,french flier1 ,roland ,garros4 ,two types of synchronizers were developed1 one known as the hydraulic type and the other as the mechanical4 ,in operation they are somewhat similar4 ,in each case there is a cam mounted on the engine shaft so that each impulse of the piston actuates a plunger4 ,the plunger passes on the impulses to the rest of the mechanism4 ,in the mechanical control the impulse is carried through a series of rods to the gun1 causing the latter to fire at the proper moments4 ,in the hydraulic control the impulse is transmitted through oil held at a pressure in a system of copper tubes4 ,the hydraulic synchronizer is known as the ,constantinisco control1 commonly called the ,c4 ,c4 after the military fashion of using initials4 ,this was the device copied for ,american planes in the war4 ,in ,april1 #aiag1 we knew practically nothing about the use or manufacture of aircraft guns4 ,we had used airplanes at the ,mexican border1 but not one of them carried a machine gun4 ,the ,lewis gun1 which is a flexible type of aircraft weapon pointed on a universal pivot by the observer in a two-place plane1 was being manufactured by the ,savage ,arms ,corporation for the ,british ,government2 but we had never made a gun of the fixed type in this country1 nor did we know anything about the construction or manufacture of synchronizers4 ,one special requirement of the aircraft machine gun is that it must be reliable in the extreme4 ,it is bad enough to have a gun jam on the ground1 but in the air it may be fatal1 for little can be done there to repair the weapon4 ,a jam leaves the gunner to the mercy of his adversary1 so in the production of aircraft armament there must be not only special care in the manufacture of the guns1 but the ammunition1 too1 must be as perfect as human accuracy can make it4 ,the cartridges must be either hand-picked and specially selected from the run of service ammunition1 or else manufactured slowly and expressly for the purpose1 with minute gauging from start to finish of the process4 ,another requirement for the aircraft gun is that it must function perfectly in any position4 ,on the ground a machine gun is fired essentially in a horizontal position1 but the airman dives and leaps in his maneuvering and must be able to shoot at any instant4 ,aircraft guns are subject to extreme variations of temperature1 and so they must be certain to function perfectly in the zero cold of the high altitudes1 regardless of the contraction of their metal parts4 ,then1 too1 such guns must be able to fire at a much greater rate than those of the ground service4 ,five hundred shots per minute is regarded as sufficient for a ground gun1 but aircraft guns have been brought up to a rate of fire as high as #iej to #a1jjj shots per minute4 ,the ,browning aircraft gun1 never used by us1 but in process of development when the armistice was signed1 had been speeded up to #a1cjj shots per minute1 with all shots synchronized to miss the blades of the propeller4 ,the rate of fire in the air can not be made too swift4 ,suppose an airplane were flying past a long1 stationary target1 such as a billboard1 at the relatively slow speed of #ajj miles an hour4 ,assume on this plane a flexible machine gun aimed at the billboard at right angles to the line of flight4 ,if this is a fast machine gun1 it may shoot #hhj times a minute1 at which rate the shots will come so fast that the explosions will merge into a continuous roar4 ,yet the bullets fired at such a rate from a machine moving at even such low speed will be spaced out along the billboard at intervals of #aj feet4 ,but most of the fighting planes traveled much faster than #ajj miles per hour4 ,thus it is entirely possible for two antagonists in the air to aim with complete accuracy at each other and both to pass unscathed through the lines of fire4 ,the faster1 therefore1 the aircraft gun fired1 the better the chances of bringing down the enemy plane4 ,the ,lewis gun1 invented by ,col4 ,lewis1 of the ,united ,states ,army1 was the weapon most generally used by the allies as the flexible gun for their airplanes1 operated on a universal mount which permitted it to be pointed in any direction4 ,the ,lewis aircraft gun was the ground gun modified principally by stripping it of the cooling radiator and by the addition of a gas check to reduce the recoil4 ,the ,lewis was fed by a drum magazine1 a more desirable feed for flexible guns than any belt system4 ,the ,german flexible gun1 the ,parabellum1 had the unsatisfactory belt feed4 ,the ,vickers gun was the only successful weapon of the fixed type developed in the war before we became a belligerent4 ,we were manufacturing ,vickers guns in the ,united ,states prior to ,april1 #aiag2 but when the ,signal ,corps faced the machine-gun problem1 in ,september1 #aiag1 it found that the ,infantry branches of the ,army had contracted for the entire ,vickers production in this country4 ,accordingly1 the equipment division of the ,signal ,corps1 in the face of marked opposition1 took up the development of the ,marlin gun as an aircraft gun of the fixed type4 ,this gun1 however1 proved to be extraordinarily successful and was regarded by our ,flying ,service and by the aviators of the allies to be the equal of the ,vickers in efficiency4 ,because of this development1 when there came the need of tank guns1 in ,june1 #aiah1 the ,aircraft ,board1 which had succeeded the ,signal ,corps as the director of aerial activities1 was able to supply #g1bbj ,marlin machine guns within two weeks for this purpose4 ,the first order for ,marlin guns was placed on ,september #be1 #aiag2 and over #cg1ejj of them had been produced before ,december1 #aiah4 ,the ,marlin-,rockwell factory began producing #b1jjj guns per month in ,january1 #aiah1 and increased this rapidly until as many as #g1jjj guns were built in one month4 ,the ,marlin gun shoots at the rate of #fjj to #fej shots per minute and is fed by a belt of the disintegrating metal-link type4 ,as to ,lewis guns1 which we adopted as our flexible weapon1 more than #ce1jjj of them were delivered to the ,air ,service up to ,december1 #aiah4 ,in ,february1 #aiah1 the ,savage ,arms ,corporation built #a1ejj of them1 increasing their monthly deliveries until in the month of ,october1 #aiah1 they turned out #e1ddh of these weapons4 ,the ,lewis gun which the ,british had been using carried #dg cartridges in its magazine4 ,a notable accomplishment of the manufacture of ,lewis guns for our use was to increase the capacity of the magazine to hold #ig cartridges4 ,in our ,de ,haviland-#d planes we installed two ,marlin fixed guns1 each firing at the rate of #fej shots per minute1 equipping the weapons with ,constantinisco controls to give the plane a maximum fire of #a1cjj shots per minute through the blades of a propeller whirling at a rate as high as #a1fjj revolutions per minute4 ,four fixed guns have also been successfully fitted to one plane and timed so that none of the bullets struck the propeller blades4 ,at the time the armistice was signed the rate of production of special aircraft ammunition1 a classification including tracer bullets1 incendiary bullets1 and armor-piercing bullets1 exceeded #aj1jjj1jjj rounds per month4 ,the original estimate for the quantity of ammunition our ,flying ,service should have was later greatly increased because the squadrons at the front began installing as many as four guns on a single observation plane4 ,although different aviators had their own notions about the loading of ammunition belts1 certain sequences in the use of the three types of special ammunition were usually observed4 ,first usually came the tracer cartridge1 which assists the gunner in directing his aim2 then two or three armor-piercing cartridges1 relied upon to injure the hostile engine or tap the gasoline tank2 and finally one or two incendiary cartridges to ignite the enemy's gasoline as it escaped1 sending him down in flames4 ,such a sequence would be repeated throughout the ammunition belt or magazine container4 ,the belts for the fixed guns carry a maximum of #ejj rounds of cartridges4 ,the belt which we furnished to our fliers at the front was made of small metallic links fastened together by the cartridges themselves4 ,as the gun was fired and the cartridges ejected1 the links fell apart and cleared the machine through special chutes4 ,the total production of such belting in this country amounted to #ei1jdd1gee links4 ,although the links are extremely simple in design1 the great accuracy required in their finish made production of them a difficult manufacturing undertaking4 ,the production and inspection of each link involved over #cf separate operations4 ,it actually cost more to inspect belt links than to manufacture them4 ,we produced #ab1fba ,british unit sights for airplane guns and sent #a1eej of them overseas4 ,we also bought an adequate number of small electric heaters to keep the gun oil from congealing in the cold of high altitudes4 ,a novel undertaking for our photographic manufacturers was the production of the so-called gun cameras which are used to train airplane gunners in accuracy of fire4 ,target practice with a machine gun in an airplane is dangerous to the innocent bystander2 and it was found to be impracticable1 moreover1 to tow suitable targets for actual machine-gun fire4 ,consequently1 quite early in the war1 the air services of the allies adopted the practice of substituting cameras for the machine guns on the practice planes4 ,one of these gun cameras1 invented by ,thornton ,pickard1 of ,altringham1 ,england1 imitated in design a ,marlin aircraft machine gun2 and in order to make a picture with it1 the gunner must go through the same movements that he would employ in firing a ,marlin gun4 ,thus1 if the gun were pointed directly on the target1 the target would appear squarely in the center of the picture taken2 and this showed the gunner's accuracy as well as if he had fired cartridges from the actual weapon4 ,these gun cameras were of two sorts4 ,one type took a single picture each time the trigger was pulled4 ,those of the other sort took a number of pictures automatically at a speed approximately that of the firing of a machine gun4 ,this latter type was much the same as a moving picture camera1 the resulting film being a string of silhouettes of the target1 each exposure showing whether the aim of the gunner was exact at the instant the picture was taken4 ,in ,september1 #aiag1 the ,eastman ,kodak ,co4 began the development of a camera gun of the burst or automatic moving-picture type4 ,after our authorities had seen the model1 the ,navy ordered a number of them1 while the ,air ,service placed increasing orders for these instruments until #a1jeg had been produced and delivered to the ,government by ,november1 #aiah4 ,this camera was not used in the fixed airplane guns1 but was designed to train the operators of the flexible ,lewis gun4 ,the camera exactly replaced the ammunition magazine on a ,lewis gun4 ,of the single-shot gun cameras #aej were delivered during the hostilities4 ,this design was obtained from ,canada and duplicated here4 ,the use of the so-called ,bromotype paper in gun cameras was one of the interesting phases of this development4 ,as everyone acquainted with photography knows1 a picture is made ordinarily by exposing a sensitized plate or film1 developing the latter to make a negative1 then exposing sensitive print paper to the light that comes through the negative1 thus reversing the lights and shadows and creating a positive in the exact semblance of the subject photographed4 ,a concern in ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 the ,positype ,co41 produced ,bromotype paper which could be exposed directly in the camera1 coming out of the developing process as a positive without the intervention of a film or plate negative4 ,bromotype paper is much more highly sensitized than ordinary print paper1 so that it may be adequately exposed in an instantaneous1 high-speed snapshot4 ,the exposure is then developed in the ordinary way in the dark room1 the familiar negative image appearing on the surface in the ruby light of the lantern4 ,at this point the special developing process enters4 ,the paper negative1 without being fixed1 is immersed in a bath of chemicals that dissolves away the sensitized surface that has been oxidized by the light from the camera lens--that is1 the image--leaving on the paper only the unoxidized1 or unexposed1 parts of the sensitization4 ,the paper now presents an unbroken white surface4 ,it is then redeveloped by a special solution1 and the picture in its true values of light and shade thus comes into existence4 ,the entire development and finishing of this paper requires only #b to #c minutes4 ,under this system1 of course1 only one finished print of each exposure can be made2 but the airplane gunners needed only one print to show their aim4 ,positype paper was thus admirably adapted for use in the airplane gun cameras2 and because of its cheapness and the simplicity and rapidity of its use1 it was rapidly supplanting film at the training camps in this country when the armistice was signed4 ,,airplane ,,bombs4 ,the ,american production of bombs to be dropped from airplanes was not started so soon as production in some of the other branches of ordnance development1 due to numerous difficulties encountered in working up the design of this new matriel4 ,although aerial bombing was steadily increasing in effectiveness and magnitude when hostilities ended1 yet this kind of fighting was a development that came relatively late in the war2 and the lack of perfected standards at the time this country became a belligerent helped to impede our program4 ,some of the bombs first designed and put into production were later rejected by our forces in ,france1 as they had become obsolete before being shipped overseas4 ,we managed to manufacture a great quantity of unloaded bombs by the time the armistice was signed1 enough1 in fact1 to provide for the ,army's needs during another year of warfare4 ,these had to be loaded with explosives before they were ready for use4 ,we lacked adequate facilities for loading bombs with explosives1 although these facilities were being provided rapidly when the war ended4 ,the result was that the thousands of completed ,american bombs remained unloaded1 while practically all the bombs used by our fliers in ,france were of foreign manufacture4 ,military science had had some small experience with aerial bombing prior to the great war4 ,italian aviators had dropped bombs of an ineffective sort during ,italy's war in ,africa4 ,when ,mexico was having a civil war in #aiad ,american air-sailors of fortune on one side or the other dropped bombs on troops from their planes4 ,in the great war the first nation to attempt bombing on any systematic scale was ,germany1 who sent her ,zeppelins over ,london and ,paris early in the conflict and released bombs upon the heads of the helpless civilians4 ,yet this early and impressive effort was1 in its difficulties1 out of all proportion to the actual damage done to the city of ,london1 largely due to the fact that ,germany had not yet produced effective aerial bombs4 ,the frightful scenes and noises of a bomb raid probably did more to reduce the morale in these early days than the destruction caused by the exploding missiles4 ,it is an exceedingly difficult trick to drop a bomb from any considerable altitude and hit what you are aiming at4 ,the speed of the airplane1 its height above the ground1 the shape of the bomb itself1 and the currents of air acting on the falling missile influence its line of flight4 ,the aviator approaching an enemy target drops the bomb long before his airplane is directly above the object aimed at4 ,the line of the bomb's flight is a parabolic curve4 ,the speed at which the airplane travels at first propels the bomb forward1 almost as if it had been shot from a stationary gun4 ,as the downward velocity of the bomb increases very rapidly1 it soon becomes so great in proportion to velocity forward that the course of the missile bends sharply downward until1 as it nears the ground1 it is falling nearly in a vertical line4 ,hence1 it becomes evident that accurate bomb dropping is an art attained only by much practice on the part of the aviator4 ,the latest bombing machines were equipped with sights which enabled the birdman to drop these deadly objects with greater accuracy than had been possible earlier in the war4 ,while some of the expert ,european bombers scorned the new inventions in sights and preferred to continue the use of makeshift sights which they themselves had invented and installed on their planes1 the average accuracy of bomb dropping was considerably greater after bomb sights came into general use4 ,these sights were adjusted to height1 air speed1 and strength of wind4 ,when these adjustments had been made1 the two sighting points were in such position that1 if the bomb were dropped when the target was in line with them1 an accurate hit would be registered4 ,we adopted a ,british sight1 tested and found satisfactory by the ,royal ,flying ,corps1 and known as the ,high ,altitude ,wimperis1 and in the ,united ,states as the ,bomb ,sight ,mark ,i-,a4 ,on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 ,american factories1 working on contracts placed by the ,ordnance ,department1 had produced #h1ejj of them4 ,the job of turning out this intricate mechanism was turned over to ,frederick ,pearce ,co41 of ,new ,york ,city1 in ,january1 #aiah4 ,later in the year additional contracts were given to the ,edison ,phonograph ,works and to the ,gorham ,manufacturing ,co4 ,these contracts called for #ae1jjj sights4 ,by ,december #ab1 #aiah1 these concerns had completed a total of #ab1gjj of them4 ,illustration3 ,a #bej-,,pound ,,demolition ,,bomb ,,carrying #abe ,,pounds ,,of ,,explosive ,,and ,,having ,,heavy ,,cast-,,steel ,,nose ,,and ,,pressed ,,sheet ,,steel ,,rear ,,body4 ,illustration3 ,a #be-,,pound ,,fragmentation ,,bomb ,,carrying #c ,,pounds ,,of ,,explosives1 ,,designed ,,for ,,use ,,against ,,troops4 ,illustration3 ,a #dj-,,pound ,,incendiary ,,bomb ,,of ,,the ,,intensive ,,type1 ,,with ,,steel ,,nose ,,and ,,fusible ,,zinc ,,rear ,,casing4 ,illustration3 ,,airplane ,,flare4 ,illustration3 ,,mark ,i1 ,,high ,,capacity ,,drop ,,bomb4 ,a #aje-,,pound ,,demolition ,,bomb1 ,,carrying #ee ,,pounds ,,of ,,explosive4 ,illustration3 ,,mark ,,ii1 ,,high ,,capacity ,,drop ,,bomb1 ,,now ,,obsolete1 ,,having ,,been ,,found ,,too ,,small ,,for ,,demolition ,,purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,mark ,,ii--,a ,,fragmentation ,,drop ,,bomb4 ,a #bj-pound fragmentation bomb1 made from a converted #c-;inch artillery shell1 carries #a pounds of explosives to be used against troops4 ,projection at nose causes burst to take place above ground4 ,illustration3 ,,drop ,,bomb1 ,,mark ,,iii4 ,airplane bombs are shaped so as to offer the least possible resistance to the air4 ,they have fins on their tails to steady them lest they tumble over and over4 ,on the smaller types of bombing planes1 such as the ,de ,haviland-#d1 the bombs were usually carried underneath the lower wings or under the fuselage1 hanging horizontally by hooks or fastened by bands around the bodies of the bombs1 according to their type4 ,the bombs were dropped by a quick-release mechanism operated by a small lever within the fuselage4 ,the production of these release mechanisms1 of which several types were made1 was one of the troublesome jobs in connection with the airplane bombing4 ,all bombs are carried on the planes either suspended under the wings or fuselage of the plane or in a compartment in the fuselage4 ,the manner of carrying and the design of the release mechanism is determined by the type of plane used4 ,since the weight-carrying capacity of the planes is limited1 release mechanisms must be designed with a view to lightness as well as safety4 ,these mechanisms are so designed that the observer can release any desired number of bombs either as a salvo or in a trail fire1 and the order of releasing must be so arranged that the balance of the plane will be disturbed as little as possible2 that is1 if bombs are carried under the wings they should be released alternately from each wing4 ,all bombs are fitted with a safety mechanism which enables the observer to drop them either armed or safe1 i4 e41 so that they will explode or not as desired4 ,an occasion might develop where the aviator would have to get rid of his bombs over his own lines4 ,these various points are all taken care of in the design of the release mechanism and are controlled by the observer with an operating-control handle placed in the observer's cockpit4 ,all of the bombs used by our fliers and by the fliers of the other nations at war were of three distinctive types--demolition bombs1 fragmentation bombs1 and incendiary bombs4 ,our ,ordnance ,department built demolition bombs in five different weights3 #ej pounds1 #ajj pounds1 #bej pounds1 #ejj pounds1 and1 finally1 the enormous bomb weighing #a1jjj pounds--half a ton4 ,the most frequently used demolition bombs1 however1 were those of the #ajj-pound and #bej-pound sizes4 ,the demolition bombs were for use against ammunition dumps1 railways1 roads1 buildings1 and all sorts of heavy structures where a high-explosive charge is desired4 ,these bombs had a shell of light steel which was filled with trinitrotoluol--,t4 ,n4 ,t41 as it is more commonly known--or some other explosive of great destructive power4 ,the charge was set off by a detonator held apart from the dangerous contents of the bomb by a pin4 ,as the bomb was released by the mechanism the pin was automatically drawn out1 and the detonator slid down into position so as to explode the bomb the instant it struck its object4 ,the first contract let for drop bombs of any type was given to the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation of ,philadelphia in ,june1 #aiag4 ,this contract was for the construction of #e1jjj heavy drop bombs of the design known as the ,barlow1 and also for #bej sets of release mechanisms for this bomb4 ,we were able to go ahead with the production of this bomb at this early date since it was the only one of which we had completed designs and working drawings when we entered the war4 ,in ,november1 #aiag1 this order was increased to #ac1jjj1 and in ,april1 #aiah1 to #bh1jjj4 ,the ,barlow bomb1 however1 was destined never to cut any figure in our fighting in ,france4 ,the production was slow1 due to the necessity of constant experimentation to simplify a firing mechanism which was regarded as too complicated by the experts of the ,war ,department4 ,finally1 in ,june1 #aiah1 when #i1jjj of these bombs and #bej sets of release mechanisms had been produced1 a cablegram came from the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces canceling the entire contract4 ,meanwhile1 the final type of demolition bomb1 known variously as the ,mark ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv1 ,v1 or ,,vi1 depending upon its size1 had been developed here4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 a contract for #gj1jjj of the size known as ,mark ,,ii1 weighing #be pounds1 was given to the ,marlin-,rockwell ,corporation4 ,but in ,june the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces informed us that this bomb would not be of value to the ,air ,service abroad because of its small explosive charge1 and the contract was cut down to #dj1jjj bombs1 which number the ,army could use in training its aviators4 ,by the end of ,november1 #aiah1 bomb bodies of the ,mark ,,ii size to the number of #cf1hdj had been completed4 ,by the end of ,march1 #aiah1 we had developed here a series of demolition bombs that promised to meet every need of our ,air ,service abroad in projectiles of their class4 ,we let contracts for the manufacture of #cjj1jjj of the #ej-pound ,mark ,,iii size1 these contracts being reduced later to a total of #bbj1jjj4 ,the manufacturers were the ,a4 ,o4 ,smith ,corporation1 an automobile parts concern of ,milwaukee1 ,wis42 the ,edward ,g4 ,budd ,manufacturing ,co4 of ,philadelphia2 and ,hale ,kilburn of ,philadelphia4 ,six months later the ,a4 ,o4 ,smith ,corporation had reached a production of #a1bjj of these bombs a day1 and completed their contract in ,october4 ,both the other concerns also completed their contracts in the autumn of #aiah4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,of ,,the ,,largest ,,demolition ,,drop ,,bombs4 ,the larger of these two bombs weighs #a1jjj pounds and carries #egj pounds of explosive4 ,the smaller weighs #eej pounds and carries #bhj pounds of explosive4 ,they are both made with a heavy cast-steel nose and pressed metal rear body4 ,illustration3 ,,mark ,,ii ,,bomb ,,release ,,mechanism ,,for ,,handley-,,page ,,machine1 ,,showing ,,mark ,i ,,and ,,mark ,,iv ,,bombs ,,in ,,place4 ,illustration3 ,,mark ,,ix-,a ,,release ,,mechanism ,,as ,,attached ,,to ,,mark ,,ii ,,release ,,for ,,handley-,,page ,,plane4 ,the ,a4 ,o4 ,smith ,corporation had tooled up their factory so as to become one of our largest producers of airplane bombs4 ,in addition to the contract already mentioned1 during #aiah this concern received orders for approximately #cjj1jjj demolition bombs of the #ajj-pound 7,mark ,i7 size4 ,by ,november #aa1 #aiah1 they had turned out #aec1jjj of these and had developed a capacity for building #g1jjj drop bombs daily4 ,another large manufacturer of drop bombs was ,mc,cord ,co41 of ,chicago1 a concern which in #aiah received orders for nearly #ajj1jjj bombs of the #bej-pound1 #eej-pound1 and #ajjj-pound sizes4 ,by the day the armistice was signed this concern had produced #ci1djj completed bombs4 ,these bombs were the heaviest and largest ones intended for use by our service abroad4 ,the fragmentation bombs differ from the demolition bombs in that they have thick metal walls and consequently smaller charges of explosive4 ,they throw showers of fragments like those of high-explosive artillery shell4 ,the demolition bombs contain1 on the other hand1 the maximum possible amount of explosive and produce destruction by the force of explosion4 ,fragmentation bombs always have instantaneous firing mechanisms1 while demolition bombs are usually provided with delayed fuses1 allowing them to penetrate the target before explosion4 ,the fragmentation bombs produced by the ,ordnance ,bureau were smaller than the demolition type1 the size most commonly used weighing #bd pounds4 ,these bombs had thick cases and were constructed so that they would explode a few inches above the ground4 ,as the bombs reach a velocity downward of over #ejj feet per second1 the mechanism had to operate to an accuracy of less than one-thousandth of a second4 ,they were designed for use against bodies of troops4 ,the fragmentation bombs were a late development in this class of work4 ,the timing device to explode the bomb at the proper distance from the ground was undertaken by three concerns4 ,the contracts for approximately #fjj1jjj of these devices were let in ,july1 #aiah4 ,the ,john ,thomson ,press ,co4 of ,new ,york ,city completed its contract for #ajj1jjj mechanisms by the end of ,october1 #aiah4 ,the ,national ,tool ,manufacturing ,co4 of ,st4 ,louis completed its contract for #ajj1jjj shortly after the armistice was signed4 ,the ,yale ,towne ,manufacturing ,co41 ,stamford1 ,conn41 which had contracted to build approximately #djj1jjj of these devices1 had turned out #aej1jjj by the end of ,november1 #aiah4 ,other concerns which manufactured various parts for the fragmentation bombs were the ,american ,seating ,co4 of ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich41 makers of school desks and seats1 and the ,dail ,steel ,products ,co4 of ,lansing1 ,mich4 ,some idea of the quantity of fragmentation bombs in our program may be gained from the fact that the contract for the ,cordeau-,bickford fuse used in the fragmentation bomb1 let to the ,ensign-,bickford ,co4 of ,simsbury1 ,conn41 called for the manufacture of #eej1jjj linear feet of fuse1 or more than #ajj miles of it4 ,the contracts for fuse were placed in ,august and ,september1 #aiah1 and the ,ensign-,bickford ,co4 finished up the job on ,november #g1 four days before the armistice was signed4 ,the ,government discovered that #c-;inch shell rejected for various reasons could be re-machined and used to make these airplane fragmentation bombs4 ,the various arsenals had a large supply of them in storage4 ,in ,august and ,september1 #aiah1 contracts were let to large numbers of concerns to convert over #ejj1jjj of these shell into fragmentation bombs1 and by ,november #cj1 nearly #ba1jjj of the new bombs had been delivered4 ,these bombs1 made from the #c-;inch shell1 as far as the machining of the bodies is concerned were turned out in various quantities by the following firms3 ,vermont ,farm ,machinery ,co41 ,bellows ,falls1 ,vt4 ,richmond ,forgings ,corporation1 ,richmond1 ,va4 ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 ,bethlehem1 ,pa4 ,consolidated ,car ,heating ,co41 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,s4 ,a4 ,woods ,machine ,co41 ,south ,boston1 ,mass4 ,westfield ,manufacturing ,co41 ,westfield1 ,mass4 ,wheeling ,mold ,foundry ,co41 ,wheeling1 ,w4 ,va4 ,a4 ,p4 ,smith ,manufacturing ,co41 ,east ,orange1 ,n4 ,j4 ,watervliet ,arsenal1 ,watervliet1 ,n4 ,y4 ,keystone ,machine ,co41 ,york1 ,pa4 ,mc,kiernan ,terry ,drill ,co41 ,dover1 ,n4 ,j4 ,the nose-firing mechanism for these bombs was produced by the ,yale ,towne ,manufacturing ,co41 ,stamford1 ,conn42 the ,national ,tool ,manufacturing ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 and the ,john ,thomson ,press ,co41 ,new ,york ,city2 while the rear cap stabilizer assemblies were produced by the ,dail ,steel ,products ,co41 ,lansing1 ,mich41 and the ,american ,seating ,co41 ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich4 ,the last item on the bomb program to come into production was the fragmentation bomb ,mark ,,ii-,b1 which was an exact copy of the ,british ,cooper bomb1 the most effective bomb of this type in use by the allied nations4 ,contracts for this bomb were not let until ,august #ag1 #aiah1 to the ,lycoming ,foundry ,machine ,co41 of ,williamsport1 ,pa41 and the ,paige-,detroit ,motor ,car ,co41 of ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,the former company by ,december #a was producing these bombs at the rate of #ejj per day and the latter was just coming into quantity production the first week in ,december4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views1 ,,mark ,v ,,release ,,trap 7,,right ,,hand7 ,,with ,,universal ,,nose ,,and ,,tail ,,beam1 ,,mounted ,,on ,t-,,rails ,,under ,,right ,,wing ,,of ,,dh-#d ,,plane4 ,upper--,front view1 showing operating tube connected to alternating cam in fuselage4 ,two ,mark ,,iii demolition drop bombs 7#aej pounds7 held by supporting straps2 one bomb released1 showing free supporting strap4 ,lower--,rear view1 showing method of retaining stabilizer by tail clip with three ,mark ,,iii demolition drop bombs4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of ,,mark ,x ,,release ,,trap ,,on ,,planes4 ,shows ,mark ,x release trap 7,cooper7 mounted upon ,t-rails under wing of ,,dh-#d plane4 ,bowden control wire and casing connected to fuselage4 ,two ,mark ,,ii-,b fragmentation bombs suspended--one arming vane retained1 the other free4 ,when the ,united ,states entered the war no satisfactory incendiary bombs had yet been produced by any country1 and consequently a long period had to be given over to experimentation before quantity production could be attained4 ,we produced two types of incendiary bombs1 the first being of the scatter type1 designed for use against light structures1 grain fields1 and the like1 and the second of the intensive type1 for use against large structures4 ,later on in our program we abandoned the manufacture of the scatter type incendiary bombs on cable instructions from abroad1 as it was found that the wet climate made a bomb of this type of little value4 ,the ,american intensive bomb1 while it had not yet come up to our ideal and was in process of evolution during its manufacture1 nevertheless was regarded by our officers as more effective than any other bomb of its type in existence1 since it produced a larger and hotter flame4 ,our intensive incendiary bombs weighed about #dj pounds each and contained charges of oil emulsion1 thermit1 and metallic sodium1 a combination of chemicals that burns with intense heat4 ,these bombs were used against ammunition depots or any structures of an inflammable nature4 ,the sodium in the charge was designed to have a discouraging effect upon anyone who attempted to put out the fire of the burning charge1 since metallic sodium explodes with great violence if water is poured upon it4 ,of the scatter bombs we built #de1jjj before abandoning the manufacture1 an action taken in ,september1 #aiah4 ,when hostilities ceased we had out contracts for #abb1hhf of the intensive bombs and about #hf1jjj of them had been delivered ready for loading4 ,one of the large manufacturers of incendiary bombs was the ,conron-,mc,neal ,co41 of ,kokomo1 ,ind41 manufacturers of skates4 ,the company had to equip its plant with new machinery especially for handling this novel manufacturing enterprise4 ,in all1 they produced #ej1jjj bombs and were turning them out at the rate of #djj per day when the armistice was signed4 ,this concern was the pioneer in the manufacture1 the subsequent contractors profiting by the experience of the ,conron-,mc,neal ,co41 and consequently being able to obtain quantity production more quickly than the ,kokomo plant had been able to reach it4 ,the ,globe ,machine ,stamping ,co41 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 built #cj1jjj bombs and #cf1djj firing mechanisms before hostilities closed1 and eventually reached a production rate of #ejj bombs and #a1jjj firing mechanisms per day4 ,parrish ,bingham1 also of ,cleveland1 produced #ac1jjj1 and were turning them out at the rate of #djj daily when the production was stopped4 ,the ,c4 ,r4 ,wilson ,body ,co41 of ,detroit1 built #db1efb of the intensive bombs and reached a daily production of #ejj4 ,the ,new ,home ,sewing ,machine ,co41 of ,orange1 ,mass41 manufactured #bj1jjj firing mechanisms for the scatter-type bombs4 ,one of the interesting phases of the bomb manufacturing program grew out of the necessity for target practice for our aviators4 ,for this work we built dummy bombs of terra cotta1 costing about a dollar apiece4 ,instead of loading these bombs with explosive1 we placed in each a small charge of phosphorus and a loaded paper shotgun shell1 so that the bomb would eject a puff of smoke when it hit its object4 ,the aviators could see the smoke puffs and thereby determine the accuracy of their aim4 ,the ,gathmann ,ammunition ,co4 of ,texas1 ,md41 was the first contractor for dummy bombs1 building #aj1jjj1 which were delivered in the spring of #aiah4 ,in the spring and summer of #aiah1 the ,atlantic ,terra ,cotta ,co41 the ,new ,jersey ,terra ,cotta ,co41 both of ,perth ,amboy1 ,n4 ,j41 and the ,federal ,terra ,cotta ,co4 of ,woodbridge1 ,n4 ,j41 each built #be1jjj of these bombs4 ,in ,september additional contracts for #ej1jjj dummy bombs were given to each of these three concerns1 while another contract for #be1jjj went to the ,northwestern ,terra ,cotta ,co4 of ,chicago4 ,by the end of ,november these concerns had delivered nearly #cd1jjj of the #age1jjj bombs contracted for1 and were turning them out at the rate of #a1cjj per day4 ,the ,essex ,specialty ,co4 manufactured #aj1jjj phosphorus rolls for dummy bombs1 and the ,remington ,arms-,u4 ,m4 ,c4 ,co4 supplied #aj1jjj shotgun shells for the first bombs produced4 ,later the ,remington ,arms ,co4 produced #ajj1jjj shotgun shells for dummy bombs4 ,,airplane ,,photographic ,,supplies4 ,in four days of the final drive of the ,yankee troops in the ,argonne district the ,american photographic sections of the ,air ,service made and delivered #ajj1jjj prints from negatives freshly taken from the air above the battle lines4 ,this circumstance is indicative of the progress made by military intelligence from the days when a commander secured information of the enemy's positions only by sending out patrols1 or from spies4 ,the coming of the airplane destroyed practically all possibility for the concealment by day of moving bodies of men or of military works4 ,mere observation by the unaided eye of the airmen1 however1 soon proved inadequate to utilize properly the vantage point of the plane4 ,the insufficient and often crude and inaccurate drawings brought in by the airplane observer were early succeeded by the almost daily photographing of the entire enemy terrain by cameras1 which recorded each minute feature far more accurately than the human eye could possibly do4 ,the airplane1 to quote the common saying1 had become the eye of the ,army1 but the camera was the eye of the airplane4 ,this development in military information-getting from start to finish was entirely the product and an evolution of the great war4 ,when the war broke out in #aiad there were no precedents for the military photographer to go by1 nor had any specialized apparatus ever been designed by either side for this purpose4 ,as a result the first crude makeshifts were rapidly succeeded by more and more highly developed equipment4 ,at the outset of the war1 before antiaircraft guns were brought to efficiency1 it was possible for the observation planes of the ,british1 the ,french1 and the ,germans to fly at low altitudes and take satisfactory pictures with such photographic appliances as were then in common use4 ,but as the ,archies forced the planes to go higher in the air1 special equipment had to be designed for longer distance work under the adverse conditions of vibration and speed1 such as exist on airplanes4 ,it is a tribute to the photographic technicians of the world that they were able to produce at all times equipment to meet these increasing demands4 ,illustration3 ,,type ,,dr-#d1 ,,de ,,ram ,,camera4 ,illustration3 ,,type ,a-#c1 ,,hand-,,held ,,airplane ,,camera4 ,illustration3 ,,type ,l1 #d x #e ,,plate ,,camera4 ,illustration3 ,,mobile ,,field ,,photographic ,,outfit1 ,,used ,,for ,,air ,,service4 ,it includes a dark room1 printing lantern1 and light-generating plant4 ,as the airplanes moved into higher altitudes1 longer focus lenses had to be employed1 special dry plates developed1 and special color filters provided to overcome the haze created by humidity in the long spaces between the cameras and the ground4 ,when the war ended1 cameras were in common use taking photographs at an altitude of #d miles with such microscopic fidelity as to show even where a single soldier had recently walked across a field4 ,the ,american ,army came into the war almost innocent of any information at all on the subject of war photography4 ,such technical information as the allied nations had developed during the war had been most carefully guarded from us and all other neutral countries1 with the result that what information we had was of a meager and conflicting sort4 ,although in the early months of our participation in the war the ,signal ,corps1 which then had charge of all phases of aerial warfare1 made large purchases of motion-picture cameras1 hand cameras1 and view cameras1 it was not until the end of #aiag that our officers were able to begin their real development of aerial photography4 ,by this time we had received much valuable information from the foreign high commissions and samples of their earlier apparatus4 ,aerial photography had become one of the leading activities of the air service4 ,thus in ,april1 #aiag1 the ,british service made #bhj1jjj pictures at the front1 and a great part of all flying was done to secure photographs4 ,moreover1 the art was advancing at such a pace that practices in approved use one week at the front appeared likely to become obsolete the next1 as new methods and new equipment superseded the old4 ,for years ,america had been second to none as a photographic country1 and it was to be expected that this country would make notable contributions to the new science4 ,it may indeed be wondered why1 with the experimental laboratories and the skilled technicians at our command1 we did not start at once to develop our own aerial designs and equipment4 ,our officers1 however1 felt that such a course would be likely to duplicate much of the work already done by the allied countries1 who stood ready then to furnish to us the results of their experiences4 ,while original research work might result in the invention here of certain equipment of superlative merit1 yet we would be sure1 in the course of such an undertaking1 to adopt methods which had been tried and discarded by the allies and which we ourselves would have to discard when experience had proven them to be without value4 ,the information in our hands in ,december1 #aiag1 showed that the ,british system of air photography differed radically from that of the ,french4 ,the ,french cameras made a relatively large negative1 #ah by #bd centimeters in dimension1 on a glass plate4 ,the magazines of the ,french cameras held #ab plates1 and extra magazines were carried in the plane4 ,these cameras were fitted with lenses of relatively long focus--#bj inches4 ,three operations were necessary to make an exposure4 ,the photographer must change the plate1 set the focal plane shutter1 and press the release4 ,when the negatives were developed1 fixed1 washed1 and dried1 prints were made by contact4 ,the ,british used a smaller-sized plate1 #d by #e inches in size4 ,their cameras were equipped with the only lenses available in ,england in the early part of the war--lenses of relatively short focus1 ranging from #h to #ab inches in this respect4 ,instead of making contact prints from these plates1 the ,british made enlargements1 measuring #f by #h inches4 ,in the earlier period of our development of aerial photographic apparatus1 we were in the same position as the ,british as regards lenses4 ,we had no adequate supply of long-focus lenses4 ,consequently we followed the ,british designs of cameras and adopted the ,british system almost explicitly in the training of aerial photographers4 ,it had been our first thought to use films to a great extent on the front1 since ,america was the country which had perfected the photographic film1 and was therefore1 presumably1 best equipped in skill to adapt it to war uses4 ,but plates had been used practically exclusively by the ,british1 the ,french1 and the ,italians2 and it appeared wisest to follow their experience at first1 though all agreed that film1 with its small bulk and weight1 would be greatly superior for airplane use4 ,the ,photographic ,experimental ,department of the ,air ,service1 which was organized in ,january1 #aiah1 had as its major problems the design and test of aerial cameras and all their parts and accessories4 ,equally important with this problem was that of sensitive plates1 papers1 color filters1 and photographic chemicals4 ,the corps of photographic and optical experts1 into whose hands these matters were placed1 early secured the active cooperation of the chief manufacturers of photographic apparatus and materials in this country4 ,in the laboratories in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c1 ,langley ,field1 ,va41 and ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 comprehensive development work was inaugurated1 leading ultimately to perfection of new designs of cameras and the development of plates and other photographic materials equal or superior to any available abroad4 ,the first airplane camera which it was decided to put into production in ,america was a close copy of the ,british type ,l1 which use had proven to be one of the best mechanisms employed at the front4 ,the operation of this camera was semiautomatic1 the operator having nothing to do except to press the shutter-release to keep the camera at work4 ,the operating power was derived from a small windmill or air propeller driven by the rush of air past the plane4 ,the automatic mechanism changed the plate and set the shutter after each exposure4 ,because of the situation with respect to lenses these cameras were constructed to use lenses of #h-;inch to #ab-;inch focus1 and the ,english #d by #e plate4 ,some #gej of these cameras were constructed4 ,they played an indispensable part in the training of nearly #c1jjj aerial photographers in this country4 ,they were also used by our bombing squadrons at the front4 ,at the same time it was generally agreed that we should plan to follow the ,french practice as soon as lenses of greater focal length could be manufactured in this country4 ,increase in focal length was becoming imperative1 because aerial photographers were being compelled to make exposures from much greater heights than in the earlier part of the war4 ,for the sake of those unacquainted with photography it may be stated here that lenses of short focal lengths will not record the details of objects a great distance away from the camera1 the longer-focus1 rarer1 and more expensive lenses being required for distance work4 ,as a basis for the design of cameras of longer focus a sample of the #bj-;inch focus camera used by the ,french had been sent to this country by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,the first camera authorized of this focal length was similar in general character to this ,french camera4 ,it was constructed on the unit system1 each part--shutter1 camera body1 lens cone1 and magazine--being of standardized dimensions4 ,it was understood that these standard dimensions were to be followed in all subsequent cameras both in this country and in the countries of the allies4 ,the idea constantly put before all designers of aerial cameras has been that of the automatic type1 in the use of which the observer or pilot will have a minimum of work4 ,late in #aiag the ,photographic ,section of the ,air ,service1 ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 secured the rights for the manufacture of an ingenious design of automatic plate camera invented by ,lieut4 ,de,ram1 of the ,french ,army1 and requested that this be put in production4 ,in this camera the magazine1 which carries #ej plates1 #ah by #bd centimeters in size1 rotates between each exposure1 while the exposed plate is removed from the front of the pile and carried to the back4 ,after some study here of the incomplete model1 this camera was redesigned in such form as to fit it for methods of ,american manufacture4 ,it was made semiautomatic in operation2 that is1 the work of the observer or pilot consisted merely in releasing the shutter at will1 a fresh plate always being in place4 ,at the time of the armistice #bjj of these cameras were rapidly approaching completion4 ,meanwhile experiments were actively pushed in the matter of the utilization of film4 ,various difficulties and problems had to be solved before film could be considered practical4 ,considerable time was consumed in overcoming the peculiar static electrical discharges which occur on film in cold1 dry regions1 such as in high mountains or the upper atmosphere1 and fog the sensitive surface by their light4 ,the film camera finally decided upon was based on a fundamental design by the ,folmer ,schwing organization of the ,eastman ,kodak ,co4 ,this camera1 known as the ,k type1 carries a film on which #ajj exposures1 #ah by #bd centimeters in dimension1 can be made at one loading4 ,the film is held flat by an ingenious device4 ,the film strip passes over a flat perforated sheet behind which a partial vacuum is set up by a suction1 or ,venturi1 tube extending outside the body of the airplane4 ,the camera is entirely automatic1 and is driven either by a wind turbine of adjustable aperture or1 in war planes1 by electric current from the heating and lighting circuit4 ,the observer in the airplane needs only to start the camera and regulate its speed according to the speed with which the airplane is passing over the ground below1 and the camera thereafter will1 of itself1 take pictures at such intervals as to map completely the terrain under observation4 ,in conjunction with the use of film in cameras came the question of handling the film in the dark-room2 that is1 the ordinary manipulations of developing1 fixing1 washing1 and drying--a serious problem when the large dimensions of the film1 its length1 and difficult characteristics in handling are taken into consideration4 ,this problem was attacked and a film developing1 handling1 and drying machine was produced4 ,some #bjj of these automatic film cameras were on order at the close of the war4 ,altogether over #a1ajj airplane cameras of all types had been and were about to be delivered when the armistice came4 ,these were built by the ,eastman ,kodak ,co41 ,rochester2 the ,burke ,james ,co41 ,chicago2 the ,g4 ,e4 ,m4 ,engineering ,co41 of ,philadelphia2 and ,arthur ,brock1 jr41 of ,philadelphia4 ,one of the most serious problems in aerial photography is the proper mounting of the camera in the plane4 ,not only does the plane travel at great speed1 which makes necessary exceedingly short exposures and therefore highly sensitive photographic materials1 but the motor causes a continuous vibration which1 communicated to the camera itself1 would be fatal to obtaining sharp pictures4 ,the experimenters of the ,air ,service carried out a long1 extensive1 and most interesting investigation at ,langley ,field to make clear the whole question of preventing the vibration of the airplane camera4 ,the scientists worked out a method of making the camera itself record the vibrations communicated to it by the plane when the box was not held by a proper vibration-neutralizing suspension4 ,the plan adopted was to send up a camera thus mounted on an airplane1 focus it on a light on the ground below1 open the shutter1 and take a time exposure from the swiftly-flying plane4 ,the result1 of course1 was a streak1 or trail1 written on the plate by the point of light below1 the jagged or wavy character of this trail indicating the vibrations of the camera and determining the proper principles of a suitable mounting4 ,the first thought was to do this work at night1 as the ,british had done1 when the light below would pierce the darkness distinctly4 ,but night flying is hazardous1 and a better plan was called for4 ,nor would the proposal to use an extremely strong light in broad daylight do1 because1 while the light would indeed be photographed continuously across the plate1 so also would the surrounding ground1 and the general result would be a fogging or blurring of the outlines of the streak4 ,finally the problem was solved by conducting the aerial experimental work over woodland in the late afternoon4 ,a strong1 reddish light was placed in the woods so as to be visible from above4 ,the surrounding green foliage supplied a frame of sufficient contrast to the light to make its impression distinct on the plate4 ,to emphasize the contrast1 the camera lens was covered with a reddish colored ray filter1 and this brought out sharply the outline of the streak4 ,these tests resulted in the design and production of new and unique camera mountings which successfully stopped all vibrations of the camera4 ,a problem on which it was necessary to have the closest cooperation of the plane designers was that of installing the large #bj-;inch focus cameras in the airplane4 ,there is little room at best in a plane1 and the demands for armament1 wireless1 and bombing space all had to receive attention4 ,in the ,american service a distinct advance was made in the design of a special plane intended primarily for photographic reconnaissance4 ,several of these planes1 which were the most completely equipped for photographic purposes of any designed during the war1 were built and would have been put into quantity production in the late fall of #aiah4 ,parallel with this development of apparatus went studies of the sensitive materials and methods of photography from the air4 ,because of the swift motion of the plane extremely short exposures are imperative4 ,consequently1 the most advanced technique of instantaneous photography had to be applied4 ,the cooperation of various plate manufacturers was obtained1 who brought out especially for the ,government several new plates which showed on test to be superior to any which had appeared in the war on either side4 ,as an airplane rises higher and higher in the sky1 the moisture of the intervening atmosphere between the machine and the ground creates a haze which makes aerial photography above a certain height unsatisfactory and even impossible with the naked lenses as used on the ground4 ,the problem of finding the best means for piercing aerial haze occupied the attention of a corps of experts working both in the laboratory and in the field4 ,the solution lay in the use of special color filters of general yellow hue which obscured the bluish light characteristic of haze4 ,filters of new materials specially adapted to airplane use were made available as a result of this study4 ,field equipment of quite new and special design for performing photographic operations had to be designed and built4 ,among the most interesting of these developments was the photographic truck or mobile photographic laboratory4 ,this consisted of a specially designed truck and trailer containing all the equipment necessary for the rapid production of prints in the field4 ,the truck body was equipped with a dynamo for furnishing the electrical current required for lights and drying fans1 while each unit was provided with an acetylene generator for emergency use1 if the electrical apparatus should break down4 ,the mobile dark room carried on the trailer of each unit was equipped with tanks1 enlarging camera1 printing boxes1 and other necessary apparatus4 ,in all1 some #ge of these field laboratories were constructed4 ,while the development of apparatus and new materials was from a popular standpoint in many ways the most interesting phase of the work of the photographic scientists1 nevertheless it should be remembered that the great problem in this1 as in all other fields of ,american endeavor1 was to produce the supplies in tremendous quantities4 ,in ,october1 #aiah1 we shipped overseas #a1ejj1jjj sheets of photographic printing paper1 #cjj1jjj dry plates and #bj1jjj rolls of film4 ,we also sent #bj tons of photographic chemicals4 ,these were merely the principal items in the consignment4 ,besides paper1 plates and chemicals1 the field force required developing tents1 trays1 printing machines1 stereoscopes1 and travelling dark rooms1 to name only some of the principal items4 ,much of the material already on the market was not suitable for the purpose1 a fact requiring the production of specially manufactured supplies4 ,,the ,,fireworks ,,of ,,flying4 ,it is interesting to consider that without fireworks1 and particularly some of the familiar forms of them used to celebrate the ,fourth of ,july1 war flying would have lost much of its efficiency4 ,night flying would have been well-nigh impossible1 while day flying would have had to invent substitutes for fireworks had the latter not been available4 ,illustration3 ,,marlin ,,machine ,,gun ,,with ,,fixed ,,mounting1 ,,on ,a ,,jn-#d ,,fuselage4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,lewis ,,machine ,,guns ,,with ,,movable ,,mounting1 ,,in ,,the ,,observer',s ,,cockpit ,,of ,a ,,de ,,haviland-#d4 ,illustration3 ,,airplane ,,flare4 ,illustration3 ,,holt ,,wing-,,tip ,,flare ,,holder4 ,the squadron fields near the front were kept as dark as possible at night for obvious reasons4 ,the first inkling that a squadron commander might have of the approach of one of his aviators at night would be the sudden appearance high in the air of a green or red or white ,roman-candle ball4 ,this would be the signal inquiring if the landing field were clear4 ,a pyrotechnic star of a predetermined color1 shot from the ground1 would answer the homing birdman2 and1 if the signal were in the affirmative1 he would descend through the sheer blackness1 unable to see clearly1 yet confident that he would make his landing safely4 ,as the plane neared the ground suddenly under one of the wings a flare of dazzling power would commence to burn1 for a few seconds flooding the field with light4 ,in that brief space of time the plane would have made its landing1 and soon field and quarters would again be obscured under the protecting blanket of darkness4 ,every service airplane at the front was equipped with one or more signaling pistols4 ,in appearance these weapons were more murderous than the gat carried by a desperado of the movies1 but1 like the prize bulldog with the undershot jaw1 they were more deadly in looks than in deeds4 ,their formidable-appearing cartridges were larger than the shells used in shotguns1 resembling the latter almost identically in appearance2 but every one of these shells contained only a ,roman-candle ball and a sufficient charge of powder to eject the star a good distance into the air4 ,the sound of the discharge was a mere whisper of the shattering roar that might be expected from such a redoubtable piece of ordnance4 ,these aviation pistols were similar to the ,very signal pistols used in the trenches4 ,the stars shot were three colors1 red1 green and white1 and the color of a cartridge's star was painted on the end of the shell4 ,this base was also ridged with a different pattern for each color1 so that the aviator at night could feel with his fingers and tell the color of the cartridge without seeing it4 ,codes of numerous messages were worked out in different combinations of these three colors4 ,the stars were quite visible in broad daylight1 too1 and were used for many signaling purposes4 ,they indicated the position of enemy troops or the presence of hostile aircraft1 they called for help from other airplanes1 and they signaled squadron orders when the machines were flying in formation4 ,but the signal pistol had a more sinister use4 ,if the pilot were driven down in enemy territory1 it became his duty to destroy his machine4 ,in some cases the signal pistol was used effectively to set airplanes on fire under such conditions4 ,the pilot had only to open his gasoline tank and fire a ,roman candle ball into the escaping fluid4 ,in other cases when the aviator landed amid enemy troops he was able to hold them at bay with his signal pistol until his plane was burned beyond the possibility of salvage4 ,while we manufactured ,very pistols in this country1 all of those actually used by our fliers in ,france were purchased abroad4 ,night-flying is one of the most hazardous duties of the aviator1 the chief danger being in landing4 ,the fields well back of the front were usually brightly illuminated by flood lights at night1 but those nearer the enemy were left in darkness1 as a rule1 to protect them from the attacks of hostile aircraft4 ,the aviator at night can usually see the ground faintly1 but he is unable to make an accurate judgment of the distance of his machine above the ground4 ,this danger was greatly alleviated when the wing-tip flares were invented4 ,the wing-tip flare consisted of a small cylinder of magnesium material in a metallic holder1 one flare being fitted under each lower wing of the plane4 ,each flare was controlled by a push button in the pilot's cockpit4 ,pressure on the button sent an electric spark into the magnesium and touched it off4 ,when the descending pilot at night judged that he was near the ground he pushed one of the buttons4 ,immediately the flare ignited and burned for about #ej seconds with the brilliant light of #bj1jjj candle power4 ,being hidden by the wing1 this light did not dazzle the eyes of the aviator1 but the reflection from the under surface of the wing lighted up the field for an adequate distance in all directions4 ,another important use of pyrotechnics occurred in those enterprises known as night-bombing raids4 ,since both sides kept their vulnerable ammunition dumps and their important buildings completely unlighted at night1 even though the night raider knew he was in the general vicinity of his objective1 hits from bombs dropped from aloft were almost accidental4 ,to enable the night bomber to see his target the interesting piece of pyrotechnics known as the airplane flare was invented4 ,this was a great charge of magnesium light held in a cylindrical sheet-iron case nearly four feet long and half a foot in diameter1 the exact dimensions being #df inches by #e inches4 ,the flare weighed #cb pounds4 ,within the cylinder was not only the magnesium stick but also a silk parachute #bj feet in diameter4 ,the entire cartridge was attached to the airplane by a release mechanism similar to those holding the drop-bombs4 ,when over his objective at night the pilot or observer touched a button and the entire cartridge1 iron case and all1 dropped from the plane4 ,a pin wheel on the lower end of the case was instantly spun by the rush of air1 and the resulting power not only ignited the magnesium but at the same time detonated a charge of black powder sufficient in force to eject from the case the flare and its tightly rolled parachute4 ,the parachute immediately opened2 and the burning flare descended slowly1 flooding a large area of the ground below with a light of #cbj1jjj candlepower1 this light burning for about #aj minutes4 ,such a light not only enabled the bomber to drop his destructive missiles accurately1 but it was found by experience that it dazzled the eyes of antiaircraft gunners below and made their aim inaccurate4 ,the light of this flare was so strong that it was possible for the airplane above to obtain photographs of good detail on the darkest of nights4 ,we were just starting to produce these flares when the war ended4 ,in fact the actual production of pyrotechnic supplies in this country was small1 the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces depending almost exclusively for these supplies upon ,french and ,british sources4 ,,keeping ,,our ,,fliers ,,warm4 ,when the commander of an airplane squadron sends an aviator into the high altitudes1 he sends him into climate that much of the year is colder and more severe than any known on earth1 even at the ,north ,pole4 ,not only is the temperature of the air likely to be many degrees below zero at the heights which war planes attained1 but the flier must face this bitter cold in the gale of wind that is never blowing less than #ajj miles per hour4 ,consequently when we trained a corps of aviators to fly at altitudes of #ah1jjj to #bj1jjj feet above the western front1 it was necessary for us to design and manufacture for them the warmest clothing ever made4 ,they were dressed more warmly than any ,polar exploration party that ever set forth1 more warmly in fact than any other class of men in the world4 ,for we not only gave them the protection of all the fine wool1 leather1 and fur that they could wear without hindering their movements1 but in addition we literally wrapped them in flexible electric heaters4 ,the first purchases of aviators' flying clothes were made by the coordinated action of the ,council of ,national ,defense and the ,quartermaster's ,department4 ,it was soon apparent that the design of such clothing was a special matter which the aviation authorities themselves should control1 and purchases thereafter were all made by the ,bureau of ,aircraft ,production4 ,there were no standard styles at the time1 so it became necessary for us to develop our own equipment4 ,this development resulted in an output for the flier that became standard4 ,in moderate weather the flier wore upon his head a woolen hood1 or helmet1 extending well down over the forehead to the eyes1 and around the neck to the shoulders4 ,in cold weather1 or for high-flight work1 this headgear was augmented by a silk helmet of double thickness1 having between its layers an electrically heated pad connected by copper wire to the electric generator on the plane's engine4 ,outside of this was worn a soft leather helmet lined with fur1 extending down over the back of the head1 covering the ears and cheeks1 and fastening under the chin4 ,then the face was entirely covered with a leather face mask lined with wool and having an opening for the eyes1 over which were worn a pair of goggles4 ,when the pilot was also required to operate the radio system1 in place of the fur-lined helmet he wore the radio helmet4 ,this was of leather and resembled the other in appearance1 but it contained the receiver of the wireless telephone1 enabling the flier to hear what was spoken to him in an ordinary tone of voice several miles away4 ,in addition to this equipment the aviator who went up to the great heights wore the oxygen mask4 ,this was of rubber1 and1 besides supplying oxygen1 it contained a transmitter1 allowing him to speak as well as to hear by wireless4 ,over the body was worn a one-piece flying suit extending from the feet to the throat1 belted and buttoned tight at the ankles and wrists4 ,the outer material of this suit was waterproof1 and when it was buttoned on there were no gaps through which the air might penetrate4 ,this suit was lined throughout with fur4 ,it was a considerable problem to find a fur of extreme warmth with a pelt strong enough to withstand rough usage and still not be too great in bulk1 and purchasable at a price not too extravagant4 ,after the furs of many beasts had been examined and tested1 it was determined that the hide and fur of a ,chinese ,nuchwang dog met these requirements better than any other4 ,we were making so many of these suits that we required all of the dogskins we could get1 not only in this country1 but in ,china4 ,merely the final purchase of these pelts before the armistice was signed was for nearly #ejj1jjj of them1 and that many dogs in an interior ,chinese province gave up their lives that the ,american aviation warfare might succeed4 ,with its waterproof outer surface and its furry lining1 it might seem that such a garment would be warm enough for any work4 ,but the aircraft authorities of the ,united ,states were not content until they had installed between the fur and the outer covering thin1 flexible1 electric-heat units connected by silk-covered wire with the dynamo on the engine4 ,similar heating pads were placed in the gloves and moccasins of the fliers4 ,on their hands1 besides the electrically heated gloves1 the fliers wore gauntlets of muskrat fur1 these extending well up the arms and being of special design which allowed the fingers of each glove to remain in a fur-lined pocket or to be withdrawn from the pocket without removing the gloves from the hand4 ,over the electrically heated moccasins were worn leather moccasins extending well up the calf of the leg and lined with heavy sheep wool4 ,these were fastened with straps and buckles4 ,thus clad1 our aviators were acknowledged generally to be the most warmly and efficiently equipped of any at the front4 ,besides these special garments for warmth1 the fliers required many other items of clothing1 such as sweaters1 leather coats1 fur-lined coats1 helmets1 and many styles of goggles4 ,the total cost of air clothing1 provided or in course of manufacture on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 was over #e1jjj1jjj4 ,some of the major items in round numbers were #ej1jjj fur-lined flying suits 7at #cf4be71 #ajj1jjj leather helmets1 an equal number of leather coats1 costing anywhere from #aj to #cj each1 and over #hj1jjj goggles at #c4ej apiece4 ,,protection ,,in ,,high ,,altitude ,,flying4 ,even to-day the veteran of the air squadron scoffs at the newfangled outfits of oxygen masks and tanks carried in an experimental way on some of the high-flying planes at the western front when hostilities ceased4 ,nevertheless1 had the war continued a few months longer1 it is probably true that the oxygen apparatus would have been included in the indispensable equipment of every airplane in the front areas4 ,such a development1 had it occurred1 would have been due largely to the efforts of the ,american ,aircraft ,service4 ,many aviators who have gone into high altitudes1 fought there1 and lived to tell about it1 doubt the necessity of oxygen-supplying apparatus1 since they themselves returned safely without it4 ,nevertheless the experiments conducted by the ,bureau of ,aircraft ,production demonstrated conclusively that the flyer artificially supplied with oxygen in the high altitudes is much more efficient than one who is without it4 ,these experiments were conducted in a room which duplicated the conditions at high altitudes4 ,at #ai1jjj feet the pressure of the atmosphere is one-half the atmospheric pressure at sea level4 ,the lack of pressure in itself causes no appreciable physical or mental reaction2 but the reduced pressure at #ai1jjj feet means that in a given amount of air there is only one-half the oxygen that there is in a similar amount at sea level4 ,the lack of oxygen is serious4 ,experienced aviators were placed in an air-tight chamber under the observation of ,government scientists4 ,the air in this chamber was then exhausted until it corresponded to the atmosphere at the #ai1jjj feet level4 ,the subjects were then set at small mechanical tests1 such as the pushing of certain buttons when different colored lights were turned on1 these tasks requiring a degree of mental concentration4 ,in this and similar tests it was discovered that not only do the subjects lose accuracy in the attenuated air1 but their movements become conspicuously slower4 ,in the parlance of the pilot they become dopey4 ,more than one returning aviator has confessed to this feeling when at a high altitude4 ,when the ,british analyzed their air casualties during the first year of the war they found that #b of each #ajj fliers in the casualty list were killed or hurt by the enemy1 #h of them owed their misfortune to defects in the planes1 while the other #ij came to the hospital or the grave because of themselves1 their carelessness or recklessness1 their physical failings1 and all other things which may be summed up in the human equation4 ,a thorough study on the part of the ,british disclosed the fact that practically all of the flying personnel was suffering from what became known as oxygen fatigue1 caused by flying so many hours each day in altitudes where there was not enough oxygen to feed the body properly4 ,before the war broke out the aviation record was #bf1bdf feet above sea level4 ,in ,january1 #aiai1 this record had been lifted nearly a mile1 the high point being an altitude of #cj1ejj feet4 ,early in the war pilots at the #g1jjj feet level could laugh at antiaircraft fire1 and few machines ever went above #aj1jjj feet4 ,thus with the first equipment the ceiling--that is1 the average high level to which every day flying goes--was about #ab1jjj feet4 ,when the war closed1 a pilot was not safe under the #ae1jjj feet level1 due to the development of antiaircraft guns1 and the safest machine had become that which could fly highest4 ,the aviators were demanding a working ceiling of #ah1jjj feet1 and were obtaining it1 too1 from the latest type of planes4 ,it was evident that the reduced oxygen at this ceiling was responsible for casualties among the fliers1 and we could expect the ceiling to be pushed even higher as antiaircraft guns became more powerful4 ,the need of oxygen equipment was plainly indicated4 ,even at #ah1jjj feet the aviator relying upon the normal oxygen supply at that altitude1 while he may feel perfectly fit1 is actually slow to judge distances1 to aim his guns1 to fire them1 and to maneuver his plane4 ,the first oxygen apparatus was designed for the ,british ,air ,service and was made at the plant of de ,lestang in ,paris4 ,the demand for the apparatus was so great that an automobile was constantly kept waiting at the factory that as soon as each set was finished it could be rushed straight to the front4 ,the first ,british squadron which used oxygen equipment reported that its men gave six times the service of any other ,british squadron4 ,our ,air ,service adopted the ,dreyer oxygen apparatus1 which was the original device produced by the ,british4 ,we found it to be a hand-made appliance1 but under our direction we adapted it to ,american methods of manufacture4 ,the ,british apparatus was built to supply oxygen to one man only4 ,we changed it to take care of two men4 ,the model received was too heavy2 we reduced the weight4 ,finally we added improvements to make it more efficient and reliable and redesigned it to meet ,american factory methods4 ,illustration3 ,,gunner ,,in ,,cockpit ,,equipped ,,with ,,oxygen ,,helmet ,,and ,,telephone ,,receiver1 ,,operating ,,movable ,,machine ,,gun4 ,illustration3 ,,aviator',s ,,oxygen ,,helmet ,,equipped ,,with ,,telephone ,,receiver4 ,illustration3 ,,oxygen ,,apparatus ,,for ,,breathing ,,at ,,high ,,altitudes4 ,such an equipment has to be entirely automatic in its operation and as reliable as human ingenuity can make it4 ,the ,dreyer device embodies several instruments all of which must work perfectly under widely varying conditions4 ,in use its tanks will contain oxygen under pressure ranging from #ajj pounds to #b1bej pounds per square inch1 yet the mechanism must deliver the oxygen to the aviator at a constant rate regardless of its tank pressure4 ,then the whole apparatus is subjected to temperatures that may be as high as #hj above zero or as low as #cj below4 ,it must function evenly in the atmospheric pressure at any altitude up to #cj1jjj feet1 delivering more oxygen as the atmosphere thins4 ,such was the problem of manufacture4 ,yet1 taking up the work in ,january1 #aiah1 we turned out six complete equipments by ,may #c1 #aiah1 sending them overseas by special messenger for actual test on the front4 ,twenty-eight days later we shipped #bjj sets4 ,by the end of the war we had built #e1jjj complete oxygen equipments4 ,of this number #c1fjj had been sent to ports of embarkation awaiting shipment1 and over #b1cjj of these had been shipped overseas4 ,in ,october we had reached a production rate of #a1jjj sets per month4 ,some of the difficulties of this production may be read in the description of the complicated character of the apparatus4 ,the equipment consists of a small tank or tanks1 the pressure apparatus1 the tube leading from the reservoir1 and finally the face mask covering the mouth and nose4 ,the mask has combined with it either the interphone1 a mechanism which cuts off the roar of the engine from the ears of the passengers and allows the pilot and observer to talk freely with each other1 or in certain cases the receiver of the radio telephone or telegraph4 ,the flow-regulating apparatus consists of five parts4 ,in front of the pilot is a high-pressure gauge to indicate the supply of oxygen in the tank4 ,in the tank there is a high-pressure valve with an upper chamber which compensates for the temperature4 ,there is also a shut-off valve1 hand operated1 which can be set to provide a flow of oxygen to one man1 to two men1 or to none at all4 ,then there is a regulating valve operated by an aneroid barometer which adjusts the oxygen flow to the altitude1 the flow increasing as the machine goes higher4 ,finally in the pilot's view there is a flow indicator consisting of a small fan wheel which tells the aviator that the oxygen is actually flowing4 ,the mask presented a difficult problem1 as it must be big enough to contain the radio receivers and still enable the aviator to see and work4 ,yet the mask must keep its adjustment in a gale of wind at least #ajj miles per hour in velocity4 ,the actual use of the equipment on the front was just starting when the armistice was signed4 ,we sent across to ,france a special division of experts to take charge of the installation of these equipments on the planes4 ,at the close of hostilities we required all military planes flying above an altitude of #aj1jjj feet to be equipped with oxygen apparatus4 ,this class included day bombing1 pursuit1 and chass planes1 and a certain number of night bombing planes1 and ,army and corps observation planes4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of ,,bomb ,,sights ,,used ,,on ,,airplanes4 ,upper picture shows bomb sight on ,de ,haviland #d4 ,lower picture shows high-altitude bomb sight4 ,set from readings of instruments showing altitude and air speed4 ,it indicates to the bomber the precise instant for release of the bomb in order to reach the target4 ,illustration3 ,,aviators ,,equipped ,,with ,,telephone ,,transmitters ,,and ,,head ,,sets ,,to ,,communicate ,,with ,,each ,,other4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,airplane ,,radio ,,telephone4 ,electrical science was called upon to furnish marvels and prodigies indeed during the recent war as aids to the ,american arms1 but in no respect did it respond in more successful and spectacular fashion than it did when asked to produce a wireless telephone system that would make possible the transmission of human speech to and from moving airplanes4 ,it is doubtful if any other branch of science enlisted for war work produced any instrument or mechanism so far in advance of what was known before the war as the airplane wireless phone was in its class4 ,to be sure1 we had the radio telephone some time before ,america entered the war or even before the war broke out in ,europe in #aiad4 ,ever since the scientists began experimenting with wireless electricity it has been axiomatic that1 at least theoretically1 whatever you can do with wires you can do without wires4 ,and so following the development of the wireless telegraph came the production of the wireless telephone1 and the invention had been so perfected in #aiae and #aiaf that in the ,united ,states ,navy's official test at the ,arlington ,station1 across the ,potomac ,river from ,washington1 human speech sent out by the transmitters there was heard simultaneously at the ,eiffel ,tower in ,paris and at the ,government's own wireless station in ,hawaii4 ,but there is a vast difference between using the wireless telephone in the quiet of the radio rooms aboard ship or in the shore stations and using it amid the roar of the powerful engine propelling an airplane4 ,the equipment1 too1 that had been used on the ground was altogether too cumbersome to go into the fuselage of an airplane4 ,as early as ,august1 #aiaj1 ,american genius had successfully accomplished wireless telegraph transmission from airplane to ground1 and in ,october of the same year the idea of aerial fleet command by telephone was conceived and plans for its development discussed by ,army officers on duty at the ,international ,aviation ,tournament at ,belmont ,park1 ,long ,island4 ,in #aiaa a message was successfully transmitted from an ,army airplane over a distance of #b miles4 ,in #aiab the ,signal ,corps had increased the distance to #ej miles4 ,two years later1 in the ,philippine ,islands1 a message had been successfully received on an airplane in flight over a distance of #f miles4 ,in #aiae the ,aviation ,section entered upon a definite plan of development of aircraft wireless at the ,signal ,corps ,aviation ,school1 ,san ,diego1 ,calif4 ,this plan was based upon the ,belmont ,park idea and discussions1 with the voice-commanded tactical air fleet as the ultimate goal4 ,the airplane had changed from the pusher to the tractor type1 with the noise of the motor of the latter driven back by the blast of the propeller into the face of the aviator4 ,the airplane wireless problem was thus quite completely changed4 ,under these new conditions1 however1 the development was entered upon1 and it has since been continuous4 ,in ,october a spring-driven dictaphone was taken into the air and a record of speech made in the noise of the motor4 ,this was contemporaneous with the successful long-range experiments in radio telephony at ,arlington1 referred to above4 ,a study of this dictaphone record convinced the aviation officers that the idea of the radio telephone for airplanes was entirely practicable4 ,experiments during the fall and winter with various means of driving the wireless power plant resulted in a decision to develop the air fan as a source of power rather than the gear or belt system4 ,this development continuing through #aiaf1 transmission by telegraph from airplane was accomplished up to #adj miles1 means for receiving in the noise of the motor were worked out1 and a message successfully telegraphed between airplanes in flight4 ,the radio telephone was under construction1 and in ,february1 #aiag1 the voice was first transmitted by telephone from airplane to ground4 ,like ,alexander ,graham ,bell's first wire telephone1 the apparatus was crude4 ,but the door was unlocked and ready to be opened upon the new field of development4 ,when on ,may #bb1 #aiag1 ,gen4 ,squier1 the ,chief ,signal ,officer of the ,army1 called upon the scientists to develop at once an airplane telephone1 he was not only introducing them into what was to many of them a new field1 but he was asking them to produce what the science of ,europe had been unable to create in nearly three full years of acquaintance with the successful ground system1 although the needs of airplane fighting demanded this invention as they demanded almost nothing else4 ,it will thus be seen that when we began this development as a war measure we had a considerable basis of experience to work upon4 ,the ,army had established the foundation of operation on the airplane1 made a study of the tactical requirements1 and knew what it wanted4 ,the ,western ,electric ,co4 in #aiad and #aiae had conducted extensive experiments with the radio wireless telephone at a ground station at ,montauk1 ,long ,island1 and had played an important part in the long-range experiments at the ,arlington station4 ,there had been wireless voice communication before this time1 but the apparatus and systems perfected at ,montauk set the standard on which all subsequent development was built4 ,the ,french ,scientific ,mission and other officers of the allies had arrived and enabled us to check up what had been done abroad and to confirm or modify our ideas of the tactical requirements4 ,at the conference with ,gen4 ,squier in ,may was ,col4 ,rees of the ,royal ,air ,force of ,great ,britain2 ,col4 ,c4 ,c4 ,culver1 ,united ,states ,army1 then a captain2 and ,f4 ,b4 ,jewett and ,e4 ,b4 ,craft1 respectively the chief engineer and the assistant chief engineer of the ,western ,electric ,co4 ,at this meeting ,gen4 ,squier outlined the future of the part the airplane was to play in the war1 and pointed out how invaluable would be a successful means of communication between battle planes when flying in squadron formation4 ,mr4 ,jewett had received his commission as a major in the ,signal ,corps1 and he was ordered to take charge of the work of developing radio communication for aircraft4 ,capt4 ,culver had taken part in the #aiaj experiments and discussions1 and since #aiae had been conducting the ,army development of airplane wireless at the aviation school at ,san ,diego1 ,calif4 ,he was detailed to work with ,maj4 ,jewett and his engineers1 bringing to their assistance the result of his experience and the point of view of the trained military man and the aviator4 ,the first development was carried on in the laboratories of the ,western ,electric ,co4 on ,west ,street1 in ,new ,york4 ,men and materials were drafted from every department of the company1 and the laboratories were soon seething with activity4 ,in a few weeks the first makeshift apparatus was assembled1 and the first practical test of a radio phone on an airplane was made at ,langley ,field at ,hampton1 ,va41 less than six weeks after the ,signal ,corps had given the go-ahead4 ,three employees of the ,western ,electric ,co4 on that day established telephone communication between an airplane in flight and the ground4 ,a few days later the first apparatus produced successful communication between planes in the air4 ,it is not possible here to go into a technical description of the wireless telephone4 ,the most vital part of the apparatus1 however1 and the essential factor in airplane wireless telephone communication is a vacuum tube containing an incandescent filament1 a wire mesh or grid1 and a metal plate4 ,by means of electrical current the wire filament is heated to incandescence4 ,the tube has the property of receiving the energy of the direct current of a dynamo and1 through the medium of the wireless antenn1 of throwing it out into space as a high-frequency alternating current4 ,such is the sending tube4 ,a modification of the same tube picks up from the antenn the high-frequency alternating vibrations from another sending apparatus and transforms them into direct current1 carrying the sound waves of the human voice along with them4 ,the design of the radio apparatus itself was relatively simple for the experts who had undertaken the work1 for the company had already developed some highly successful forms of vacuum tubes1 and it was an easy matter for these technicians to assemble tubes with the necessary coils1 condensers1 and other apparatus of the transmitting and receiving elements and produce a system of such small compass that it could be carried on an airplane4 ,but working this apparatus under ordinary conditions in the quiet laboratories and in a swift-moving and tremendously noisy airplane were two different propositions4 ,one of the first problems was to design a comfortable head set which would exclude all undesirable noises and admit only the telephone talk4 ,a form of helmet was finally devised with telephone receivers inserted to fit the ears of the pilot or observer4 ,cushions and pads adjusted the receiver to the ears1 and the helmet fitted close to the face so as to prevent as far as possible the transmission of undesirable sounds either through the ear passages or through the bony structure of the head1 these bones acting as a sort of sounding board4 ,the designers finally developed a helmet that solved this portion of the problem4 ,not only was it necessary to exclude the roar of the engine and the rattle of the machine gun from the ears of the men receiving the radio communication1 but it was also necessary to filter out these sounds from the telephone transmitter4 ,every person who has ever shouted into a telephone knows how sensitive the ordinary telephone transmitter is to extraneous noises4 ,it requires no wide stretch of the imagination to hear in fancy how an ordinary transmitter would behave when beside the exhaust of a #djj-;horsepower ,liberty engine4 ,a brilliant line of experimentation conducted by one of the scientists at the laboratory resulted in a telephone transmitter or microphone which possessed the extraordinary quality of being insensitive to engine and wind noises and at the same time highly responsive to the tones of the human voice4 ,with the receiver and the transmitter perfected the scientists thought that the problem of airplane telephoning was solved2 but nevertheless three months of hard work were required before the entire system could be adjusted and put in such shape that it might be considered a practical device for everyday use4 ,the question of weight was of utmost importance1 and a structure that would adequately house and protect the delicate parts of the mechanism from the vibration and jars of flying and landing and at the same time not be too heavy for practical use on the plane was a difficult problem in mechanical design4 ,day after day the inventors took the mechanism up in flying machines and brought it back night after night for more work in the laboratory4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,view4 ,,airplane ,,radio ,,telephone ,,set ,,box4 ,illustration3 ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,same4 ,this was a period1 however1 of rapid progress4 ,officials appearing on ,langley ,field from time to time witnessed informal demonstrations of this development4 ,in ,august ,mr4 ,baker1 ,secretary of ,war1 and ,gen4 ,scott1 ,chief of ,staff1 listened to a conversation being carried on in the air1 and some six weeks later ,brig4 ,gen4 ,foulois witnessed a similar demonstration and from the ground directed the movements of the airplane in flight4 ,the experimental apparatus had reached such a state of efficiency that on ,october #af1 at ,langley ,field1 communication by voice was carried on between airplanes in flight #be miles apart and from airplane to ground over a distance of #de miles4 ,by ,september cables had been sent abroad telling of the progress made in this country on the development of this apparatus4 ,our officers abroad were skeptical and could not believe that this country could outdistance the scientists of the allies who had had three years of war experience to draw upon4 ,by ,october the designers had brought the system to a perfection where they were willing to risk its use in actual war flying1 and ,col4 ,culver took to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in ,france several trunk-loads of the apparatus to acquaint those abroad with what had been done and to test the apparatus under service conditions4 ,meanwhile the development work continued in this country4 ,early in ,december the operation of the apparatus was exhibited in an official test at the ,morraine ,flying ,field at ,dayton1 ,ohio4 ,a large number of military and civilian officials not only of our own country but of the allies had been invited to witness this test4 ,it must be remembered that at this time even those who had heard about the progress being made were skeptical of the possibilities of the successful adaptation of the radio telephone to airplane work4 ,the designers of aircraft never look with favor upon additional equipment which may clutter up the machine with trailing wires and the like and possibly compel alterations in standard lines4 ,the pilots1 also1 do not usually give a friendly reception to new equipment for their planes4 ,the exhibitors at ,dayton planned to have two planes in the air at once1 so that the officials might listen in on their conversation at a ground station located on the top of a hill near the flying field4 ,by hard work the inventors got their equipment installed1 and just at dark on the evening before the day of the trial one machine equipped with wireless went up into the air and held successful communication with the ground4 ,the next morning when the official party arrived the members viewed the apparatus in the planes while the inventors explained what it was expected to do4 ,the visitors were then conducted to the station on the hill1 where those who were putting on the show had rigged up a megaphone attached to the wireless receiver so that everyone could hear without putting on a head set4 ,the attitude of some of the officials1 particularly those from the foreign nations who had had experience in war flying1 was skeptical1 if not bored4 ,the planes left the ground1 and when the machines had gone up so high that they were but specks in the sky the receiver began emitting the premonitory noises that indicated that the men in the planes were getting ready to perform4 ,suddenly out of the horn of the loud-speaking receiver came the words3 ,hello1 ground station6 ,this is plane ,no4 #a speaking4 ,do you get me all right8 ,looks of amazement came over the faces of all those who had never heard the wireless phone in operation before4 ,soon came the signal from plane ,no4 #b1 and then the demonstration was on4 ,under command from the ground the planes were maneuvered over much of that part of the country4 ,they were sent on scouting expeditions and reported what they saw as they traveled through the air4 ,continuous conversation was carried on1 and finally1 upon command1 the planes came back out of space and landed as directed4 ,from that moment there was nothing but enthusiasm in all quarters for the radiophone upon airplanes4 ,it was no longer a question whether the device would work or was any good1 but a question of how soon the company could start manufacture and in what quantities the device could be produced4 ,the demonstrations ,col4 ,culver had been conducting in ,france began1 too1 to bear fruit4 ,both the ,british and the ,french had developed experimental apparatus by this time and this was examined and tested4 ,then cablegrams began to arrive from abroad requisitioning the ,american apparatus in large quantities--convincing evidence that it had greater promise than any other4 ,but still difficulties were ahead1 for at this stage the wireless telephone consisted of a few experimental parts built by hand4 ,it remained a heavy task to standardize the equipment and perfect the multitude of designs and drawings that must be in existence before quantity manufacture could begin4 ,all sorts of mechanical details slighted in the experimenting and taken care of by makeshift devices had to be worked out as practical manufacturing undertakings4 ,it was another case of day-and-night work to put the mechanism into condition for production4 ,the factory of the ,western ,electric ,co4 is in ,chicago but its drafting rooms and laboratories are in ,new ,york4 ,as soon as any detail was finally worked out the drawings were taken by messengers and rushed to ,chicago where the work of producing the manufacturing tools had begun4 ,only the fastest passenger trains between ,new ,york and ,chicago were patronized in this part of the development4 ,as every detail was perfected it had to be checked by actual test in the field1 so that the company's engineers were almost constantly in the air4 ,one of these experts made #cjb flights himself2 and a total of #fij flights1 of a combined duration of #dhd hours1 was required in the experimental stage of the mechanism4 ,immediately after the official trial in ,december the ,government ordered thousands of sets of the radio telephone4 ,in spite of the enormous detail involved in making ready for production1 the first systems were turned out early in #aiah1 well ahead of the delivery of the airplanes in which they were to be used4 ,all through this development the designers had to confine their activities within limits set by the producers of the aircraft4 ,this in itself created some puzzling problems4 ,for instance1 a constant current of electricity must be supplied to heat the filaments of the vacuum tubes and to operate the transmitter4 ,a simple way to provide this current would seem to be to connect a dynamo with the driving shaft of the airplane engine1 but the airplane constructors would not allow any such connection with the engine4 ,current could be supplied from storage batteries1 but the planes were already loaded down with all the gear they could carry1 and the use of heavy batteries was out of the question4 ,therefore it was the task of the phone designers to supply a dynamo plant that would not add appreciably to the weight of the plane4 ,this was done by installing on the outside of the plane a wind propeller1 which was driven by the rushing air and had power enough to turn the dynamo4 ,the dynamo must deliver a constant and unvarying voltage to the radio phone1 if its operation is to be possible1 yet a wind propeller on the airplane would be driven by air rushing by at speeds varying from #ij or #ajj to #afj miles per hour1 the latter figure being the speed of a diving plane4 ,this meant that the wind propeller1 and hence the armature of the dynamo1 would revolve at a speed varying from #d1jjj to #ad1jjj revolutions per minute4 ,it would seem to be impossible to procure current at a constant rate from a dynamo varying so widely in its speed of operation2 yet one of the experts engaged in this enterprise solved the problem1 and the dynamo thereafter performed always in a most steady going and dependable manner4 ,incidentally as a sort of by-product of the undertaking the special transmitter and helmet may be employed as a means of communication between the pilot and observer in a two-seated machine4 ,when the helmet is used for this purpose1 the wireless is not employed at all1 but the head sets are connected by wires so that notwithstanding the fact that one can not hear himself talk because of the noise on the plane the pilot and observer can converse over the telephone with ease4 ,then at any time by throwing a switch they can connect themselves with the radio apparatus and talk with the men in another plane #c or #d miles away or to their squadron headquarters on the ground4 ,one good result of the airplane telephone was to speed up the training of aviators in this country and to make that training safer4 ,but the primary object of the wireless phone was to make it possible for the leader of an air squadron at the front to control the movements of his men in the air4 ,for this purpose extra-long range was not required1 and the distance over which the machines could talk was purposely limited to #b or #c miles so that the enemy could not overhear the conversation except when the planes were actually engaged in fighting each other4 ,the ,navy made use of the wireless telephone sets in the seaplanes1 and here the range of the equipment was made greater4 ,the ,navy also adopted a modified form of the set for the #aaj-;foot submarine chasers4 ,the subchasers hunted the submarines in packs1 and by means of the radio telephone the commanders of the boats kept in constant touch with each other1 thereby greatly increasing the effectiveness of their operations4 ,altogether there were produced for the ,army airplanes about #c1jjj combined transmitting and receiving sets of the radio telephone and about #f1ejj receiving sets alone4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,balloons4 ,when ,stephen ,montgolfier and his brother ,joseph1 in ,november1 #aghb1 sent a sheep1 a rooster1 and a duck into the sky1 lifted by a paper bag inflated with hot air1 these ,columbuses of ballooning could scarcely foresee the importance that their invention was to have in the great war #ace years later4 ,to the humble observation balloon in ,france rather than to his dashing hero of a cousin1 the airplane1 must go the chief credit for that marvelous accuracy which long-range artillery attained during the great struggle4 ,the balloon itself was spectacular enough once its true character was known4 ,the fact that the ,american production of observation balloons during our #ai months as a belligerent was a complete and unqualified success makes the story of ballooning in ,france of particular interest to the ,american reader4 ,after the animals of the ,montgolfier barnyard had made their ascent1 two friends of the brothers1 ,m4 ,pilatre de ,rozier and ,girond de ,villette1 essayed to be the first human beings to take an aerial flight1 ascending to a height of #cjj feet and returning to earth sound of limb and body4 ,thereafter and until the great war in ,europe the balloon remained the awe of the circus and country fair grounds and the delight of the handful of sportsmen who took up the adventurous pursuit2 but1 except for a limited use of captive balloons in our ,civil ,war and in the siege of ,paris1 in #ahgj and #ahga1 the balloon had no important military use4 ,the hot-air balloon never could have become of great value to armies4 ,in the first place1 it would descend when the balloon cooled off4 ,this defect was overcome by the use of lighter-than-air gas4 ,moreover1 the free balloon was subject to the whims of the breezes4 ,to overcome this characteristic the balloon must be fastened by a cable or propelled by a portable engine4 ,it was obvious1 however1 to military experts that a stationary observation post anchored thousands of feet in the air would be ideal in war operations2 yet for all of this obvious need1 until the great war military science had perfected nothing better than the spherical balloon4 ,the spherical1 anchored to a cable1 bobbed aloft in the gales and zephyrs as a cork does on the ocean waves4 ,although there had been some experimentation with kite balloons before #aiad1 it was not until the great war had been in progress for some months that the principles of streamline shape were applied to the captive balloon2 and the kite balloon1 the well-known sausage1 made its appearance1 to be the target for enemy aerial operations and the chief dependence of its own ,artillery4 ,the term kite balloon effectively describes the captive observation balloon as we knew it in the war4 ,it rides the air on the end of its cable much in the manner of an ordinary kite1 and some of the early sausages even flaunted steadying tails such as kites carry4 ,these principles applied to the captive balloon gave to its observation basket a stability unknown by the pioneer aeronauts under their spherical bags4 ,in the first stages of the war the ,artillery relied principally upon airplanes for firing directions4 ,but1 while the airplane observers could locate the targets fairly well1 they frequently lost touch with their batteries because of the difficulty of sending and receiving wireless or visual signals upon their swiftly moving craft4 ,this disadvantage brought the captive balloon into use1 gradually at first1 but before the end of the war on a scale which had practically displaced the airplane as a director of gun fire4 ,the balloon came to be the very eye of the ,artillery1 which1 thanks to the development of this apparatus1 reciprocated with an efficiency beyond anything known before in the history of warfare4 ,sitting comfortably aloft1 the observer in the kite balloon basket had the whole panorama of his particular station spread before him4 ,his powerful glasses could note accurately everything transpiring in a radius of #aj miles or more4 ,he was constantly in touch with his batteries by telephone and not only could give by coordinated maps the exact location of the target and the effect of the bursting shell1 but could and often did supply most valuable information of enemy troop movements1 airplane attacks1 and the like4 ,he was a sentinel of the sky with the keen1 long-range vision of the hawk4 ,he played a part less spectacular than the scout airplane with its free and dazzling flights1 but his duties were not less important4 ,nor did he suffer from ennui during his period aloft4 ,when a kite balloon went up it became the subject of alert attention by the enemy1 because it was up there on hostile and damaging business4 ,long-range high-velocity guns turned their muzzles on it1 and planes swooped down upon it from dizzy heights1 seeking to pass through the barrier of shell from antiaircraft guns and get an incendiary bullet through the fabric of the gas bag1 an eventuality which meant the ignition of the highly inflammable hydrogen gas1 the quick destruction of the balloon and perhaps of the luckless occupants of the basket as well1 unless they could get away in their parachutes4 ,only quick work could save the men in the basket in such a case4 ,from the time the gas leaped into flame until the explosion and fall of the balloon there was an interval of rarely over #ae or #bj seconds4 ,the pilot of the airplane could dodge and slip away from the guns1 but not so the pilot of the kite balloon anchored to a windlass from #b to #e miles behind his own lines4 ,he had to take what was coming to him without means of defense4 ,he must carry on his scientific calculations unconcernedly and in his spare moments experience the questionable pleasure of watching on some distant hill the flash of an enemy gun trained upon him and then of waiting the #bj or #cj seconds for the whizzing messenger to reach him1 the while he pondered on the accuracy of the enemy gunner's aim4 ,while the artillery on both sides paid considerable attention to the observation balloons1 the fact was that few of them were brought down by direct shell hits4 ,the diving airplane with its incendiary bullets was a far more deadly enemy to the balloon than the ground artillery4 ,certain pilots in all the air services made a specialty of hunting sausages1 the nickname given to kite balloons because of their shape4 ,in the #ag days between ,september #bf and ,november #aa1 #aiah1 our ,army lost #ba balloons1 of which #ae were destroyed by enemy planes and #f by enemy shell4 ,but it may be noted that our aviators and artillery exacted a toll of #ej ,german balloons in the same period and on the same front4 ,of #ajj balloons lost at the front1 an average of #fe were destroyed by enemy attacks and #ce by natural wear and tear4 ,the ,german general staff so strongly appreciated the work of the allied kite balloons that in its system of rating aviators it ranked a balloon brought down as the equal of one and one-half planes4 ,the average life of a kite balloon on an active sector of the western front was estimated to be about #ae days4 ,some of them lived only a few minutes4 ,one ,american balloon passed unscathed through the whole period of ,american activity on a busy sector4 ,while ordinarily five or six months of nonwar service will deteriorate the balloon fabric1 there are many cases of useful service longer than this4 ,when the war broke out ,germany is said to have had about #ajj balloons of the kite type4 ,france and ,england had few of them4 ,the ,german balloon was known as the ,drachen4 ,its gas cylinder of rubberized cotton cloth was approximately #fe feet long and #bg feet in diameter1 the ends being rounded4 ,to give it a kite-like stability in the air a lobe1 which was a tube of rubberized fabric1 of a diameter approximately one-third of the diameter of the main balloon1 was attached to the underbody of the gas bag as a sort of rudder1 which curved up around the end of the balloon4 ,this lobe was not filled with gas1 but the forward end of it was open so that when the balloon rose the breeze filled the lobe with air4 ,the inflated rudder then held the ,drachen in line4 ,the lobe automatically met the emergency4 ,in calm1 windless weather the balloon needed no steadying and the lobe was limp4 ,let the gale blow1 and the lobe inflated and held the nose of the ,drachen into the wind4 ,as a further stabilizer three tailcups1 with mouths open to the breeze1 were attached #aj feet apart on a line descending from the rear of the balloon4 ,in a strong wind these helped to keep the contrivance from swinging4 ,the tail-cup was made of rubberized fabric1 circular in shape1 about #d feet in diameter1 and about #b feet deep when inflated by the breeze4 ,it looked like an inverted umbrella1 and was attached to the tail end of the balloon for exactly the same purpose and with the same effect as the tail attached to a kite4 ,the ,drachen type of balloon was still in the experimental stage here and in ,france and ,england when the ,germans swept over ,belgium4 ,the ,drachen balloon was clumsy and relatively unstable in high winds1 yet its importance to the ,artillery could not be ignored by the allies4 ,the results of its work daily became more apparent4 ,the first effort of the allies was to improve the ,drachen to give it greater stability and permit it to go to higher altitudes4 ,while this work was going on1 ,capt4 ,caquot1 of the ,french ,army1 produced a kite balloon so superior that it quickly superseded what had been in use4 ,germany clung to the ,drachen for a time1 but finally abandoned it for the ,caquot principles of design4 ,the earlier balloons of the sausage type had been merely cylinders with hemispherical ends4 ,now for the first time1 in the ,caquot model1 appeared a captive that was sharply stream lined4 ,stream lines are lines so curved as to offer the least possible resistance to the medium through which a mobile object1 such as a yacht1 an automobile1 or an airship1 moves4 ,the ,caquot gas bag was #ic feet long1 as compared with the ,drachen's #fe feet of length1 yet its largest diameter was only #bh feet1 being but a foot thicker than the pioneer ,german type4 ,the ,caquot1 as all balloons developed in the war1 was made of rubberized cotton cloth4 ,its capacity of #cg1ejj cubic feet of hydrogen gas lifted the mooring cable1 the basket1 two observers1 and the mass of necessary equipment1 and in good weather the balloon could ascend to a maximum altitude of over #e1jjj feet4 ,the principal innovation in the design of the ,caquot balloon was the location of the balloonette or air chamber within the main body of the gas envelope4 ,this chamber was in the forward instead of the rear part of the bag and along the bottom of the envelope4 ,it was separated from the gas chamber by a diaphragm of rubberized cotton cloth1 which was sewn1 cemented1 and taped to the inner envelope somewhat below the equator or median line from the nose to the tail of the gas bag4 ,illustration3 ,,caquot1 ,,type ,r1 ,,captive ,,observation ,,balloon4 ,this balloon is #ic feet long and #bh feet in diameter4 ,its gross lifting power is #b1fjj pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,balloon ,,controlled ,,by ,,windlass ,,on ,a ,,motor ,,truck4 ,illustration3 ,,windlass ,,for ,,caquot ,,balloon ,,made ,,by ,,james ,,cunningham ,,sons4 ,when a balloon of the ,caquot type is fully inflated1 the diaphragm rests upon the underbody of the gas envelope1 and there is no air in the balloonette4 ,then1 as the balloon begins to ascend1 at the higher levels the surrounding air pressure is reduced and the gas in the balloon expands4 ,this expansion would normally burst the envelope when the balloon is at a high altitude1 except for a safety valve which pops at the danger point and relieves the pressure4 ,also1 when the balloon is anchored it gradually loses gas1 since no fabric can be made entirely gas-tight4 ,a flabby balloon in a gale of wind is dangerous to the men in the basket4 ,this flabbiness might be expected to increase1 too1 as the balloon was hauled down into the heavier air pressures4 ,it was to overcome this flabbiness that the interior balloonette was first invented1 but the new location not only accomplished this end but increased the stability1 lessened the tension on the cable and allowed an almost horizontal position of the balloon itself4 ,as the balloon rises the wind blows into the balloonette through a simple scoop placed under the nose of the balloon4 ,this forces up the diaphragm and compensates for any loss of gas from the envelope above4 ,if the day is calm and no air is driven into the balloonette1 there is no danger from a flabby balloon anyhow1 and hence no need for the air chamber4 ,the thing is automatic4 ,the ,caquot was equipped with lobes of rubberized fabric to act as rudders4 ,these lobes1 which were spaced equidistantly around the circumference of the rear third of the balloon1 filled with wind when wind was blowing and there was need of rudders4 ,in calm weather the lobes1 particularly the two upper ones1 hung loosely1 resembling elephant ears4 ,on account of this characteristic the ,caquots were nicknamed elephants by the soldiers4 ,the ,caquot maintained its stability without tailcups1 and its construction caused it to ride nearly horizontally and directly above its mooring1 regardless of winds4 ,in this position it put much less strain on the anchoring cable than the old-fashioned sausage4 ,this balloon has been operated successfully in winds as high as #gj miles an hour1 so that apparently no gale could keep it on the ground4 ,when we went into the war both our ,army and ,navy were practically without observation balloons1 and we knew little about their construction1 although we had been watching the developments in ,europe4 ,one local ,national ,guard organization had taken to the ,mexican border a locally designed captive balloon1 the gift of the ,goodyear ,tire ,rubber ,co41 of ,akron1 ,ohio4 ,in ,april1 #aiag1 the total production capacity of the ,united ,states was for only two or three military observation balloons in a month4 ,but when the emergency came the various concerns whose plants were adaptable to this class of manufacture--the list including the ,goodyear and ,goodrich organizations at ,akron1 the ,united ,states ,rubber ,co41 the ,firestone ,tire ,rubber ,co41 the ,connecticut ,aircraft ,co41 and the ,knabenshue ,manufacturing ,co4--all joined wholeheartedly with the ,signal ,corps to solve our balloon problems4 ,one of these problems was the production of balloon cloth1 for which there had never been any commercial call in this country4 ,such cloth obviously must be of cotton1 for in cotton we had our largest supply of textile raw material4 ,the cloth must be closely woven1 smooth1 and strong1 to serve as a base for the rubberizing process4 ,the standard balloon cloth should have a weave of approximately #adj threads to the inch both ways4 ,in our vast cotton industry only a few mills had ever made such a cloth1 and then only in small quantities4 ,in fact we found only a few looms in existence capable of weaving such cloth1 which must be from #ch to #de inches wide4 ,a single loom could turn out only an average of ten yards of this cloth in a day4 ,our balloon program was to call for millions of yards of high-count cloth1 and this meant the construction of thousands of new looms1 as well as the training of hundreds of weavers4 ,naturally our cotton manufacturers were reluctant to undertake such a production1 and their fears were justified when we found that the earliest deliveries of balloon cloth were frequently as high as #fg per cent imperfect4 ,by the middle of #aiah1 however1 the mills had so perfected their methods that the wastage amounted to only #aj per cent of the cloth woven4 ,this wastage was largely caused by slubs1 knots1 and other imperfections which prevented an even surface for rubberizing4 ,because of the lives which depended upon having perfect balloon cloth1 the fabric was literally inspected inch by inch1 and hundreds of men and women had to be educated especially in this inspection work4 ,the development of the new art of weaving balloon cloth was an achievement of no mean degree4 ,in ,april1 #aiag1 all of our cotton mills put together could produce only enough cloth to build two balloons a week4 ,in ,november1 #aiah1 our looms were turning out cloth sufficient for #aj balloons a day1 an expansion in the industry amounting to #c1jjj per cent in #ai months4 ,this expansion proceeded at a rate that always kept us a little ahead of the military schedule4 ,to produce #aj balloons a day the cotton mills had to turn out #fjj1jjj yards of special cloth a month4 ,in addition to the small army of weavers1 this production called into service #c1bjj looms4 ,had the war continued another year1 we would have reached our goal of #ae complete new kite balloons produced every day4 ,our complete project of balloons and dirigibles of all types called for a total output of #bj1jjj1jjj yards of balloon cloth4 ,had we reached the quantity production planned1 we would have been able to supply not only our own needs but also all of the balloon needs of the allies in ,europe4 ,america had the raw materials necessary for the whole anti-,german balloon program4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,and ,,cementing ,,balloon ,,panels ,,in ,,the ,,goodrich ,,plant ,,at ,,akron4 ,illustration3 ,,spreader ,,room ,,at ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,,rubber ,,co4 ,,factory1 ,,showing ,,machines ,,that ,,rubberize ,,the ,,cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,final ,,balloon ,,assembly ,,room ,,at ,,goodrich ,,factory4 ,as it was1 we supplied to ,france and ,england a considerable number of balloons when the materials shortage in those countries was becoming acute4 ,the foreign users of this ,american made equipment reported that it was equal to the best ,european product4 ,it should have been4 ,no war material was ever manufactured more conscientiously than this4 ,in addition to the painstaking care of the producers1 from start to finish a large force of inspectors watched every step in the construction of each balloon1 and when ,america sent a balloon to the front it was right for the work it had to perform4 ,the weaving of the cloth was but the first step in the production of the balloon fabric4 ,the fabric of the balloon envelope resembles a sandwich in its construction1 there being a thin film of specially compounded rubber between two plies of the cotton cloth4 ,the outer ply of the cloth is cut on the bias4 ,this method prevents any long straight tear down the grain of the fabric4 ,the threads of the inner ply are set at an angle of #de to those of the outer ply1 thus distributing strain sufficiently to stop a snag practically where it starts4 ,the cotton cloth alone can not resist the seepage of gas1 and1 therefore1 it is necessary to rubberize it1 the rubber film being really the gas-resisting envelope4 ,in this rubberizing process the cloth must be run through the spreading machine #cj to #ce times in order to build up the thin rubber film without a flaw in it of any kind4 ,the outside ply of the balloon fabric is spread1 that is1 painted with a rubber compound containing a coloring matter4 ,this compound makes the fabric waterproof2 it gives also protective coloring to the balloon when in the air1 making it less visible to the enemy2 and1 finally and most important1 this coloring absorbs the actinic rays of the sun which are so fatal to the life of rubber4 ,in some of the fabric the rubber film itself was colored to withstand both the heat and ultra-violet rays1 thus both protecting the rubber and reflecting the heat which would otherwise expand the gas in the balloon4 ,while in general we adopted the ,european standards of construction1 we had to develop our own rubber compounds and cures as well as our various fabrication processes4 ,the latest reports we received from the front stated that the ,american fabric not only was successful1 but that it had an added characteristic which was a direct means of saving life4 ,it was discovered that the ,american fabric burned more slowly than the ,european balloon fabric1 giving the men in the observation basket more time to get away in the parachutes when the balloons were destroyed by hostile attack4 ,when we went into the war we had never built a windlass for a kite balloon4 ,the ability of the ,american manufacturer solved this problem as it did almost every other problem in the development of war instruments4 ,steam was the motive power first used for windlasses1 but before the fighting came to an end ,america had developed both gas and electric windlasses which were thoroughly efficient4 ,the best known type of gasoline windlass was that having two motors1 one to turn the cable drum controlling the balloon's ascent and descent1 and one for moving the windlass itself along the road4 ,a record pull-down speed of #a1fjj feet a minute1 or more than three times the speed of the fastest passenger elevator1 has been attained by the gasoline windlass4 ,the electric windlass1 while pulling down the balloon at the slower rate of #a1bjj feet per minute1 was smoother in operation4 ,the mobile windlass would move on a road under its own power at #bj miles an hour and could tow the balloon in the air at the rate of #e miles an hour1 or even faster if necessity demanded4 ,to play on the safe side at the start1 we adopted a satisfactory windlass that had been developed in ,france4 ,it was difficult to manufacture this entirely ,french machine with ,american materials and methods2 yet ,james ,cunningham1 ,sons ,co41 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 succeeded in obtaining a delivery of four complete windlasses per week4 ,in addition to this windlass we designed two of our own4 ,one of these was the product of the ,united ,states ,army ,balloon ,school and was manufactured by the ,mc,keen ,motor ,car ,co41 of ,omaha1 ,nebr42 the other windlass was designed and manufactured by the ,n4 ,c4 ,l4 ,engineering ,co41 of ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,both were put into quantity production1 assuring us a sufficient number of the best windlasses ever manufactured4 ,the first cable used to hold the balloon captive was approximately a quarter-inch in diameter1 weighed #a pound for each #h feet of length had a breaking strength of #f1ijj pounds1 and was made of seven twisted strands of plow-steel wire1 containing in all #acc separate wires4 ,this cable1 while it accomplished the original purpose1 was early seen to have fine possibilities of development4 ,the observers in the basket must be kept in constant communication with the ,artillery and their own windlass and this communication could best and most efficiently be obtained by means of the telephone4 ,the balloon telephone1 as first used1 was an entirely individual unit with its own separate cable from the basket to the ground4 ,in this way communication was indeed established1 but only at the cost of a decrease in possible altitude1 increased cable resistance1 and the necessity of an extra windlass for winding and unwinding the telephone cable4 ,illustration3 ,,balloonists ,,ready ,,to ,,ascend4 ,the picture shows balloonist with telephone equipment1 also a parachute on side of basket4 ,illustration3 ,,balloon ,,packed ,,for ,,overseas ,,shipment4 ,illustration3 ,,balloon ,,in ,,goodrich ,,factory ,,inflated ,,to ,,be ,,subjected ,,to ,,air ,,test4 ,illustration3 ,,nurse ,,balloon ,,containing #e1jjj ,,cubic ,,feet ,,of ,,gas4 ,it is used in the field to replenish kite balloons with hydrogen4 ,previous to the entrance of the ,united ,states in the war1 preliminary experiments in ,france were being made with the view of putting the telephone wires in the center of the main cable1 thus doing away entirely with the second cable and windlass4 ,but there had never been developed a satisfactory cable of this construction4 ,american inventiveness at the ,john ,a4 ,roebling ,sons ,co4 and the ,american ,steel ,wire ,co4 was set to work on this problem with the result that not only was a satisfactory cable developed but a steady production was attained1 #ej1jjj feet per week being delivered regularly by the ,john ,a4 ,roebling ,sons ,co4 alone4 ,this new cable consisted of #aad separate wires of special steel besides the telephone center of #c copper wires properly insulated and armored4 ,the specifications demanded a breaking strength of #g1bjj pounds while the actual test of the finished ,roebling cable showed #h1bej pounds4 ,another of the balloon problems was the supply of hydrogen gas4 ,before the war only a little hydrogen was used in this country1 the element being a by-product in the manufacture of commercial oxygen4 ,we met the additional demand for millions of cubic feet of hydrogen for our balloons by establishing ,government gas plants and expanding privately owned plants already in existence4 ,there were two methods of supplying hydrogen to our balloon units at home and abroad4 ,one of these was by furnishing portable plants which would generate hydrogen at the place where it was to be used4 ,the other was to take the hydrogen from the stationary plants1 condense it by pressure in steel cylinders1 and ship it to points of demand4 ,by far the greater part of the gas which we used not only in this country but in ,france was produced at the permanent supply stations and shipped in cylinders4 ,each cylinder held about #aia cubic feet of gas under a pressure of #b1jjj pounds per square inch at #fh ,f4 temperature4 ,when the war ended we had placed orders for #agb1hjj of these cylinders1 of which #hi1bbe had been delivered and were in use4 ,we developed a manifold filler which would take the gas from #ab to #bd cylinders at the same time and quickly inflate a kite balloon1 a speed of #bc minutes for a complete inflation having been reported from one training camp4 ,in the production of portable hydrogen generators we had to produce not only the machine but the chemicals required in the process4 ,we adopted the ferrosilicon and caustic soda process by which it was possible to produce #aj1jjj cubic feet of hydrogen per hour in a field generator4 ,there was plenty of caustic soda to be had1 but high grade ferrosilicon1 a production of large electrolytic furnaces1 was scarce1 because of its heavy consumption in the steel industry4 ,we procured1 however1 #b1dhb tons of it for our generators1 of which over #b1cfj tons were supplied by the ,electro-,metallurgical ,sales ,corporation alone4 ,an interesting feature of the gas supply in the field was the use of nurse balloons4 ,the nurse balloon was simply a large rubberized-fabric bag with a capacity of #e1jjj cubic feet of gas4 ,it was used for storage of gas1 and the observation balloons were fed from it4 ,we have not received the exact figures of the quantity of gas used by the entire ,balloon ,service2 but1 as one item alone1 private manufacturers previous to the signing of the armistice produced and delivered #ag1fcd1cec cubic feet of hydrogen and were in position to meet practically any demand for the gas4 ,this figure is only a small part of the total1 since it does not include the hydrogen produced in the permanent ,government stations or by the field generators4 ,hydrogen itself1 while the lightest of cheap gases1 and therefore the one universally used in balloons1 has the grave fault of being dangerous to the balloonist4 ,when mixed with the air it is highly explosive1 if touched off by a spark of fire or electricity4 ,for years balloonists have dreamed of a gas light enough to have great lifting power1 but which would not burn nor explode4 ,there was such a gas known to chemistry1 and this was helium1 discovered first in spectroscope examinations of the corona of the sun1 but later found by chemists to exist rather freely in the atmospheric envelope of the earth4 ,although one of every #ajj parts of air is pure helium1 it was not until comparatively recent years that this light nonexplosive gas was discovered in our atmosphere4 ,now helium was rare and expensive1 and until the ,united ,states entered the war no one had considered its production as a commercial possibility4 ,up to two years ago the total world production of helium since its discovery had not been more than #ajj cubic feet in all1 and the gas cost about #a1gjj per cubic foot4 ,it had been discovered that certain natural gases issuing from the ground in the ,united ,states contained limited quantities of helium4 ,the question was whether we could extract this helium in sufficient quantities to make its use practical4 ,the ,signal ,corps1 the ,navy1 and the ,bureau of ,mines combined in a cooperative plan to develop a practical helium production4 ,by adopting a method of obtaining the helium from liquefied gas produced in the processes of the ,linde ,air ,products ,co4 and the ,air ,reduction ,co41 and also by the ,norton process1 we attained astonishing success in this enterprise4 ,on the day the armistice was signed we had at the docks ready for loading on board ships #adg1jjj cubic feet of helium4 ,at its prewar value this gas would have been worth about #bej1jjj1jjj4 ,on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 we were building plants which would produce helium at the rate of #ej1jjj cubic feet per day1 and the cost of obtaining it had dropped from #a1gjj per cubic foot to approximately #aj cents4 ,none of this gas was actually used in the war1 but its production by our chemists was hailed as the greatest step ever taken in the development of ballooning4 ,it now seems to have opened a new era in lighter-than-air navigation4 ,in war helium will nullify the incendiary bullet which destroyed so many balloons and airships4 ,in peace it brings the possibilities of new types of construction of dirigible airships1 since its use eliminates entirely all of the frightful dangers from lightning1 static electricity1 or sparks and flames from gasoline engines or any other source4 ,the ,army and ,navy cooperated in the production of balloons4 ,the ,army furnished the balloon cloth to the ,navy4 ,navy balloons had two automatic safety valves for the expanding gas1 one on each side of the balloon a third of the way back from the nose and just above the equator2 while the ,army held to the ,french and ,british idea of a single valve in the nose itself4 ,the ,navy adopted a ,caquot-type balloon which rides at an angle of about #be to the horizontal and is somewhat smaller than the ,army model4 ,the ,navy used these balloons as spotters for submarines and mines4 ,they were towed on cables from the decks of war ships1 and were connected with the ships by telephone4 ,the use of parachutes with balloons is a comparatively recent development1 the man who first successfully descended to earth in a parachute being not only still active and enthusiastic over aerial development1 but being in fact the chief inspector of all ,united ,states ,army balloons and parachutes4 ,this is ,maj4 ,thomas ,s4 ,baldwin1 known the world over as ,capt4 ,tom ,baldwin1 hero of innumerable aerial exploits of all kinds under all conditions and in all parts of the world1 and at present chief of the ,united ,states ,army balloon inspection4 ,the ,yankee balloon observer in ,france went up to his observation post in the security of knowing that the equipment on which his life depended had been ,o4 ,k4'd by men who knew the business from beginning to end4 ,the parachute as it is known at the county fair and the parachute used in the recent war were far apart in type1 the latter embodying all the improvements that the world's aeronautical experts could add to it4 ,the need for parachutes developed when hostile aviators began shooting down the sausages4 ,at first the one-man parachute was used exclusively1 the men in the basket leaping overboard the instant their balloon was fired over their heads4 ,any delay on their part would be fatal1 since the entire bag would be consumed in #ae or #bj seconds and the observer would then be unable to leap out of the falling basket4 ,when the individual parachutes were used1 the maps and records in the balloon basket were usually lost4 ,to overcome these difficulties1 the designers invented the basket parachute4 ,this was considerably larger than the individual parachute1 and to operate it the balloonists pulled a cord which cut the basket away from the balloon entirely4 ,the spreading parachute overhead then floated the basket1 with the men themselves and all else it contained1 safely and quickly to the ground4 ,although hundreds and even thousands of parachute jumps occurred during the war1 there were few fatalities from this cause4 ,during all the time our forces were at the front only one of our men was killed as the direct result of a parachute drop4 ,in that particular instance the burning balloon fell on top of the open parachute1 setting it on fire and allowing the observer to fall unprotected the rest of the distance to the ground4 ,one of our observers was known to make four jumps from his balloon on the same busy day1 and another leaped thrice in four hours4 ,in the ,argonne offensive #cj balloon jumps were made by our men4 ,as to the safety of our parachute equipment1 the only complaint from the ,yankee balloonists at the front was that they were too safe4 ,the man who is escaping from a ,german airplane nose-diving at him with a machine gun spitting fire is in a hurry and does not wish to be detained by a parachute which floats him too slowly to the earth4 ,in the rigging of each kite balloon there are about #b1jjj feet of rope of different sorts4 ,there was a shortage of proper cordage in the ,united ,states at first1 and the ,french thought they could furnish this rigging to us4 ,but this attempt proved to be unsuccessful1 and we were forced to develop a cordage manufacture in this country of high quality and great quantity4 ,we did this so swiftly that there was no serious delay to the balloon production4 ,up to ,november #aa1 #aiah1 we produced over #a1jjj balloons of all kinds1 #fdb of these being of the final ,caquot type which we adopted4 ,this production included many propaganda balloons for carrying printed matter over the lines into the enemy's country4 ,we supplied several target balloons for gun practice on our aviation fields4 ,we developed new types of parachutes and built acres of canvas hangars for balloons4 ,we produced #a1bba1ehb feet of steel mooring cable4 ,these are only the major items in the balloon enterprise1 and do not include hundreds of others of less importance4 ,the balloon production was one of the most important and successful of all our war projects4 ,although we had a limited knowledge of the subject in the beginning1 our balloons stood the hard test of actual service and could bear comparison in every way with the best balloons of ,europe1 where the art of balloon building had been in existence for many years4 ,once our production actually started1 we never had any shortage of balloons for our own ,army2 and soon we would have been in a position to produce the observation balloons for all of the armies fighting ,germany1 if called upon to do so4 ,balloon production figures4 ,,balloons ,,and ,,parachutes4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,observation ,supply ,miscellaneous ,parachutes balloons balloons balloons produced to-- produced to-- produced to-- produced to-- ,firm4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,nov4#aa1,mar4#a1,nov4#aa1,mar4#a1,nov4# aa1,mar4#a1 ,nov4#aa1,mar4#a1 #aiah4 #aiai4 #aiah4 #aiai4 #aiah4 #aiai4 #aiah4 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,goodyear ,tire #cjc #cjc ,rubber ,co41 #deh #efe #ci #ci #cae #cag #bj #bj ,akron1 ,ohio #cbeccbec ,b4 ,f4 ,goodrich ,rubber ,co41 #cjc #cjc ,akron1 ,ohio #afi #bgi #aj #aj #caa #caa #ae #ae ,connecticut ,aircraft ,corporation1 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 #bb #cg #gb #gb #caa #cac ,united ,states ,rubber ,co41 ,east ,cambridge1 ,mass4 #bc #cg ,knabenshue ,manu- facturing ,co41 ,east ,northport1 ,long ,island #c #be #a #a #caa #caa ,french-,american ,balloon ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #a #a #cab #cab ,scott-,omaha ,tent ,awning ,co41 ,omaha1 ,nebr4 #cbafacbafa #ec #bbh ,new ,york ,tent ,awning ,co41 ,new ,york #fc ,follemer-,clogg ,co41 ,lancaster1 ,pa4 #ajd #aca ,bickford ,bros41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 #a #a ,firestone ,tire ,rubber ,co41 ,akron1 ,ohio #g #g ,columbia ,mills 7,inc471 ,wilkes-,barre1,pa4 #cba #cba ---------------------------------------- ------------- #cjf #cjf ,total #fgf #idd #abi #abi #caaj #caad #bef #deh manufactured #cbbaecbbae ,total shipped to ports #dha #f #d ,total shipped #cjf to camps1 etc4 #dfc #abc #caad #dah #cbbae ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #cj ,target4 #ca ,spherical4 #cb ,propaganda4 ,,windlasses4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,produced to-- ,firm4 --------------------------- ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 ,mar4 #a1 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,mc,keen ,motor ,car ,co41 ,omaha1 ,nebr4 #bc #ce ,chris ,d4 ,schramm ,son1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 #bj #bj ,jas4 ,cunningham ,sons ,co41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 #e #ce ,n4 ,c4 ,l4 ,engineering ,corporation1 ,providence1 ,r4 #a #cg ,i4 ,deloies ,hoisting ,co41 ,new ,york #a #a --------------------------- ,total manufactured #ej #abh ,total shipped to camps and depots #abd ,total shipped to ports ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,cable4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,feet4 ,feet4 ,john ,a4 ,roeblings ,sons ,co41 ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j4 #dgf1gjj #hfj1gjj ,american ,steel ,wire ,co41 ,worcester1 ,mass4 #gdd1hhb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,total manufactured #a1bba1ehb #hfj1gjj ,total shipped to ports #dhf1jjj ,total shipped to camps and depots #a1aai1ehb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,hydrogen ,,gas4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,cubic feet4 ,cubic feet4 ,oxygen ,gas ,co41 ,kansas ,city1 ,mo4 #b1gae1hde #c1efh1fjj ,southern ,oxygen ,co41 ,south ,washington1 ,va4 #ide1dab #a1fjh1ggh ,international ,oxygen ,co41 ,new ,york #b1aff1ffh #b1aff1ffh ,walker ,refining ,co41 ,austin1 ,tex4 #dif1jjj #eie1ghc ,tarrifville ,oxygen ,chemical ,co41 ,tarrifville1 ,con4 #a1jgb1eij #a1jgb1eij ,louisiana ,oxygen ,co41 ,new ,orleans #dgg1ejj #ijd1egf ,kentucky ,oxygen ,co41 ,louisville1 ,ky4 #bgf1ggi #edj1geb ,burdett ,oxygen ,co41 ,chicago #i1ecb1eei #aa1cdg1iii --------------------------- ,total produced #ag1fhc1cec #ba1hje1gdf ,total shipped overseas #g1cdi1egh ,total shipped to camps #ad1def1afh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,hydrogen ,,cylinders4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,national ,tube ,co41 ,mc,keesport1 ,pa4 #ce1hjj #dc1cjj ,harrisburg ,pipe ,pipe ,bending ,co41 ,harrisburg1 ,pa4 #ch1dbe #fe1ejj ,tindel-,morris ,co41 ,north ,eddystone1 ,pa4 #ae1jjj #ae1jjj --------------------------- ,total manufactured #hj1bbe #abc1hjj ,total to ports #cj1jjj ,total to camps and warehouses #ie1hjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,book ,,iii4 ,,the ,,engineer ,,corps4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,engineers ,,in ,,france4 ,in describing the activities of the ,engineers1 we are carried to the front itself1 into the zone beaten by enemy fire1 where machine-gun bullet1 bursting shell1 and deadly gases have brought sudden death and painful wounds to many members of the technical services4 ,a large proportion of the ,engineers are combatant troops1 constituting in the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces about #h per cent of the total combatant troops engaged4 ,these troops1 trained and equipped to march and fight as ,infantry1 demonstrated their fighting qualities during the war on numerous occasions1 both when used as ,infantry to increase the rifle strength of that arm and when fighting as ,engineers to obtain possession of terrain as a preliminary to the exercise of their technical art in its organization4 ,from the day the first sector was taken over by ,american troops in ,november1 #aiag1 until the ,meuse ,river was passed and the enemy1 in flight1 sought an armistice to save his armies from destruction1 the combatant ,engineers--the sappeurs of ,french soldier lore and song--- fought and bled in a manner never to be forgotten4 ,railroad engineers1 nominally considered noncombatant1 at ,cambrai dropped their tools to take arms and stand stubbornly shoulder to shoulder with their ,british brothers with whom they were learning to work under the special conditions of the front4 ,from ,cantigny to ,chateau ,thierry1 ,engineer troops fought as well as worked1 and often not only advanced with the ,infantry under or through the barrage1 but actually led the first wave1 to demolish or remove the obstacles placed in its path4 ,through the days when from ,march #ba1 #aiah1 until ,july #ah1 #aiah1 the ,german army made its rapid plunges toward ,paris until checked and thrown back across the ,marne at ,chateau ,thierry1 the sapper troops fought and worked with the ,infantry of their divisions1 enduring the same dangers1 privations1 and hardships1 and winning equal honors and commendation4 ,in the drive at ,st4 ,mihiel and through the ,argonne1 the combatant ,engineers played a conspicuous part4 ,advancing with the tanks1 they made possible the passage of many difficult points for these lumbering monsters1 against which was directed a particularly destructive fire4 ,using elongated torpedoes of high explosive1 known as ,bangalore torpedoes1 they prepared passages for the ,infantry through the broad barbed-wire entanglements1 echeloned in depth by numerous separate lines1 each to be breached and passed before the objective could be gained4 ,in this work the ,engineers reduced the machine-gun nests that hindered their operation1 cleaned up the strong points that delayed the advance of the tanks they were assisting1 and threw extemporized footbridges across the streams which barred the further advance of the ,infantry4 ,the combatant ,engineers did their part in the winning of the reconquered ground as well as the lion's share of its organization for the defense and the maintenance of the communications behind it4 ,in this last respect alone1 the ,engineers1 as combatant troops1 opened across ,no ,man's ,land the first communications practicable for the light field artillery1 which pressed forward immediately behind the ,infantry troops to their support and protection4 ,filling in trenches1 removing wire entanglements1 building trestles across wide mine craters1 searching for and rendering inoperative treacherous mines and traps of extreme ingenuity and destructiveness1 the sapper found a wide field for the exercise of his functions4 ,shattered and obliterated by four years of shelling and mining1 trenching1 and countermining1 the roads across ,no ,man's ,land existed only on the map2 and as they retreated the ,germans demolished and obstructed the highways behind the old front from which they had been driven1 with the thoroughness and attention to detail for which they are noted4 ,as our ,infantry advanced1 upon their heels1 literally speaking1 came our ,engineers1 to attack the problem of providing for the ,artillery and supply trains a means of following4 ,from the standpoint of the road builder in civil life1 their methods were crude in the extreme1 but for the military purpose and the pressing immediate needs1 their road building achievement was adequate4 ,the ,engineers sometimes reopened abandoned quarries1 and sometimes started them where none had existed before1 to obtain a supply of road metal1 which supply was sometimes supplemented and in some cases replaced by the use of debris from ruined villages and shattered farmhouses4 ,from demolished structures many useful materials were extracted and adapted to the military purpose by the ,engineers4 ,where bridge and trestle timbers were lacking1 deserted buildings--in one case the tower of a ruined church--filled the need4 ,where shell hole or crater yawned a remnant of a stable wall might be pulled down by ropes and man power1 and broken up to fill the void4 ,through the dense woods the soft forest floor offered no support even to the light artillery1 and miles of corduroy and brush path were built to permit the guns to advance to the reinforcement of the attack4 ,in many places the tactical situation admitted of insufficient time to build even the crudest paths1 and then the ,engineers fell to and assisted artillery and supply wagons to get through and over the bad spots1 replacing guns on the road where they had run into the ditch1 righting and reloading combat wagons when they had turned over in shell holes or deep ruts4 ,while thus engaged the sapper troops were subjected to the fire of enemy artillery seeking to prevent the advance of the supporting guns1 and1 further1 they were working within the zone of combat of enemy aviators1 the rattle of whose deadly machine guns1 as they plunged at low altitude toward a busy working party1 was as much to be dreaded as the high-explosive bombs which they dropped4 ,behind the combatant ,engineer troops1 extending through the service of supply to the base ports and across the ocean to the ,united ,states was an organization of technical noncombatant supply and administration4 ,the work of these production1 construction1 and supply departments of the ,engineer service in ,france was organized in the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces under the administration of three divisions of the office of the ,chief ,engineer4 ,these were the division of military engineering and engineering supplies1 the division of construction and forestry1 and the division of light railways and roads4 ,,engineering ,,supplies4 ,the division of military engineering and engineering supplies was charged with the procurement1 standardization1 and distribution of all classes of supplies used by ,engineer troops4 ,during the #ai months of warfare this division handled #c1bbe1aba tons of supplies1 storing them and distributing them from immense depots aggregating #be acres of covered storage and over #gef acres of open storage4 ,this service was further charged with the current investigations into new developments of the art of military engineering1 and with the development1 operation1 and administration of certain technical branches of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 such as electrical and mechanical troops1 water-supply troops1 searchlight regiments1 etc4 ,at its seven storage depots in the base1 intermediate1 and advance sections1 this division had in service #bc locomotive cranes1 mostly of #ae tons capacity and capable of handling an enormous amount of freight and material at warehouses and cars4 ,the following table of principal items of engineer material shows the kinds and quantities of supplies which were received in ,france for issue through this division up to ,december #ae1 #aiah3 ,table of engineer supplies received in ,france4 ,,from ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,item4 ,tonnage4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,general machinery #de1ded ,iron and steel products #bdb1bbf ,hardware and hand tools #bf1ghj ,railway rolling stock #cdc1hhh ,railway motive power #add1jff ,lumber #ci1jhf ,track materials and fastenings #dhh1gic ,automotive transportation1 etc4 #bb1abg ,horse-drawn transportation #g1ifg ,building materials and supplies #ih1fga ,liquids #g1jfg ,explosives and accessories #ieb ,unit accountability #g ,engineer supplies #eb1ajf ,miscellaneous office supplies #b1bci ,floating equipment and accessories #aj1jic ,material and tools for locomotive and car repair and erection shops #aj1djg ---------- ,total ,united ,states #a1eda1ibi ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,from ,,european ,,sources4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,tools and equipment #dfb1jbg ,machinery #ac1adf ,office supplies and equipment #a1gha ,auto and track supplies #dfd ,track and ties #aae1dch ,locomotives and cars #h1fdi ,water supply1 machinery #f1baj ,water supply1 supplies #dh1daf ,electric service1 machinery #b1cdb ,electric service1 supplies #d1jhc ,construction materials #ahh1hcj ,boats and barges #e1idj ,motorcycles and bicycles #ab ,general engineer supplies #eha1adi ,cement from ,american ,expeditionary ,forces mills #ed1hfj ,barracks #bfc1eij ,bunks #i1hib ,latrines #b1adc ,miscellaneous #di1bjj ---------- ,total ,european sources #a1hah1agb ,total ,united ,states and ,european sources #c1cfj1aja ---------------------------------------- -------- ,to facilitate the procurement of supplies in the existing world markets1 this division established in ,paris a purchasing board1 having branches in ,england1 ,switzerland1 and ,spain4 ,when the war ended this board had accomplished the tremendous task of buying over #a1hjj1jjj tons of engineer supplies1 with a total value of #bje1bdb1gbh4 ,in addition to this material1 our own country furnished over #a1ejj1jjj tons1 with a value of #bdh1iic1cbb4 ,france sold to us through this board #a1bcd1ifh tons1 valued at #acd1cic1hgj1 and ,england #cif1jjj tons1 valued at #ef1ade1hah4 ,in ,switzerland1 purchases consisting principally of sectional barracks and technical equipment1 totaled #if1hfg tons1 with a value of #ad1fdc1daj4 ,purchases from ,spain amounted to only #gig tons1 with a value of #ei1fcj4 ,much work was done in standardizing supplies of all classes1 so that quantity-production methods could be used in their fabrication1 thus promoting economy and stimulating the rapidity of supply4 ,in the procurement of cement for the use of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 the ,engineers dealt successfully with a problem of large magnitude and importance4 ,by contract with ,english and ,french mills1 by direct purchase for specific jobs from local mills1 and by their own manufacturing operations1 the ,engineers secured enough cement to supply the demands for construction both at the front and in the ,s4 ,o4 ,s41 as the service of supply was generally known4 ,three large cement mills were leased from the ,french owners and operated by special troops organized in the ,united ,states4 ,to certain other ,french mills the ,engineers furnished labor and materials in return for a certain proportion of their output4 ,it is estimated that about #bae1jjj tons of cement were thus procured1 representing a total cost of about #g1jjj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,engineers1 ,,assisted ,,by ,,infantry1 ,,building ,a ,,road ,,over ,,what ,,was ,,no ,,man',s ,,land ,,one ,,week ,,before4 ,the stones from tottering walls of buildings are broken into small pieces and laid on the road bed1 making a good military road4 ,fay on ,haye1 ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,warehouses ,,and ,,docks ,,from ,,the ,,river4 ,,bassens ,,docks1 ,,bordeaux1 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,northern ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,docks ,,at ,,old ,,bassens1 ,,bordeaux1 ,,france4 ,the ,engineers operated shops at various points near the front in which were manufactured standard material for dugout1 trench1 and emplacement construction1 such as concrete beams1 concrete slabs for overhead protection against high-angle shell fire1 trench frames1 revetment material1 trench duck boards1 mine and gallery timbers1 knockdown bunk sets1 etc4 ,,construction ,,and ,,forestry4 ,the division of construction and forestry was charged with all construction work in the service of supply1 and also with the procuring of forest products for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,at the signing of the armistice its organization totaled #aej1hbc men1 of whom about #abg1jjj were constantly engaged in production work4 ,using standardized building plans1 this force performed a huge amount of construction work in ,france4 ,it was assumed that one-third of the ,american troops in ,france would have to be housed in new buildings erected specially for the purpose4 ,thus accommodations for about #gej1jjj men had to be built at the rate of #af barracks1 each #bj by #ajj feet in size1 for every #a1jjj men4 ,contracts were let to ,british and ,french contractors for #bc1jjj demountable barracks1 this order being based on the ultimate probable size of the ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,during ,august1 ,september1 and ,october1 #aiah1 these barracks were being received at the rate of #a1jjj per month4 ,to supplement a supply of even such magnitude1 our own type of barrack was developed to be built with lumber furnished by the ,american forestry forces in ,france4 ,one cantonment project involved the construction of #ejj barracks1 accommodating #ee1jjj men4 ,a total of #aa1hfb barracks were erected for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in ,france1 representing #bbe miles of length1 if all the barracks were placed singly end to end4 ,it was the policy of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces to provide hospital room sufficient to give beds1 if necessary1 to #ae of every #ajj ,american soldiers in ,france4 ,on this basis the ,engineers set out to provide hospitals with a total of #bhj1jjj beds4 ,of these1 #aci1jjj beds were in hospitals taken over from the ,french1 #be1jjj beds being added to this capacity by new construction4 ,in entirely new base1 camp1 evacuation1 and convalescent hospitals1 #aaf1jjj beds were ultimately made available for the casualties of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 requiring the erection of #g1gjj hospital barracks of special type1 all of which would have totaled #abg miles in length if placed singly end to end4 ,as to the progress of this construction1 on ,november #ad1 #aiah1 there were #aij1cef beds occupied in ,american hospitals in ,france1 but all #bhj1jjj beds originally specified were ready and available4 ,the base hospital plants were complete municipalities in themselves1 and had capacities varying from #a1jjj to #f1jjj beds4 ,these units were built where nothing had existed before but little ,french rural communities1 devoid of the improvements and modern conveniences with which we in this country are so familiar4 ,to establish a modern military hospital1 capable of caring for the varied casualties and illness arising from action and abnormal living conditions1 it required the construction of roads1 sidings1 unloading platforms1 sorting and classification buildings1 operating rooms1 surgical and medical wards1 dormitories1 morgues1 cemeteries1 complete water supplies1 fire protection systems1 sewage and garbage disposal plants1 recreation buildings1 electric light plants1 and all that goes to make complete a modern installation for the care of the wounded and sick4 ,many of the camp and evacuation hospitals required construction of the same character1 but differing in magnitude4 ,the ,engineers developed port faculties at ,st4 ,nazaire1 ,bordeaux1 ,la ,pallice1 ,marseilles1 ,brest1 and at less important harbors4 ,in general1 at these places the existing facilities were expanded to meet the needs for the debarkation of troops and the unloading and shipment of supplies4 ,originally #bc ship berths were placed at our disposal by the ,french4 ,the ,engineers expanded this equipment to a total of #hi berths1 with authorized projects for #afj berths by ,june1 #aiai4 ,our overseas shipments grew from #bj1jjj tons in ,july1 #aiag1 to #a1jjj1jjj tons in ,october1 #aiah1 but the port expansion kept abreast of this development4 ,fifty-eight #cjj-ton lighters were built by ,engineer troops with ,french timber1 and twenty-six #ejj-ton lighters with ,american timber4 ,the ,engineers constructed seven derrick barges with lifting capacities ranging from #cj to #ajj tons4 ,the existing ,french railroads running from the base ports to the advanced zone were quite inadequate1 so that it was necessary to supplement their facilities with many miles of new track and other construction1 including important storage1 classification1 arrival1 and departure yards1 warehouse tracks1 engine terminals1 water points1 and repair shops4 ,at ,bassens1 ,st4 ,sulpice1 ,miramas1 and ,montoir1 enormous storage depots were constructed to handle the supplies entering ,france for our forces4 ,the ,american-built railroad yards at these points were comparable in magnitude and completeness to the important yard developments undertaken in this country in recent years by the large railroad systems1 the yards at ,st4 ,sulpice having a trackage totaling #adg miles of single track4 ,those at ,bassens and ,st4 ,sulpice were virtually completed during the war1 while the construction at ,miramas was well under way at the signing of the armistice4 ,at ,st4 ,sulpice the project was designed on the basis of receiving1 storing1 and forwarding the supplies for #a1jjj1jjj men for #cj days4 ,the others were of like magnitude4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,subsistence ,,warehouse ,,at ,,nevers1 ,,france1 ,,march1 #aiah ,,showing ,,french ,,women ,,trucking ,,rations4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,large ,,warehouses ,,at ,,bassens ,,docks1 ,,bordeaux1 ,,france4 ,picture taken in ,april1 #aiah4 ,illustration3 ,,ice ,,plant1 ,,built ,,for ,,the ,,american ,,expeditionary ,,forces ,,at ,,gievres1 ,,france4 ,,it ,,is ,,the ,,third ,,largest ,,plant ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,freezing ,,room ,,of ,,ice ,,plant ,,at ,,gievres4 ,at ,nevers1 in the intermediate section1 a condition existed requiring the construction of six miles of new double-track line1 with a bridge over the ,loire ,river #b1aij feet long4 ,this piece of construction is known as the ,nevers ,cut ,off4 ,it relieved the railroad congestion at this important point4 ,at ,is-sur-,tille1 in the advance section1 was built a regulating station at which train loads of supplies and troops were dispatched to points where needed4 ,still farther toward the front1 at ,liffol-le-,grand1 was another and smaller regulating station1 controlling troop movements and the distribution of munitions and subsistence4 ,both of these projects were entirely new and were in useful operation when the war terminated4 ,in addition to the above projects1 many storage yards1 hospital tracks1 ordnance depot yards1 aviation center tracks1 and construction tracks were laid out and built4 ,in all #icg miles of single track were laid1 thus fulfilling in the equivalent the prediction that to supply an ,american ,army at the front we should have to build a double-track railroad from the ,french coast to the trenches4 ,storage depots1 remount depots1 and veterinary hospitals erected by the ,engineers proved entirely adequate for the needs of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces at all times4 ,a grand total of #ecf acres of covered storage was built or acquired1 of which about #dhb acres was new construction4 ,space was provided in remount depots for #bi1jjj animals1 and it was projected to accommodate #dh1gjj animals had it been necessary4 ,veterinary hospital space was provided for #ag1bej sick animals4 ,each veterinary hospital required much special construction1 such as concrete dipping tanks for the treatment of mange1 operating rooms1 exercising paddocks1 hay sheds1 living quarters for attendants and veterinary surgeons1 and administration buildings4 ,at ,gievres1 in connection with the important storage depot built there1 was constructed the third largest refrigerating plant in the world4 ,this plant1 built by the ,engineers from plans prepared by experts1 was capable of caring for #e1bjj tons of meat at once1 and of producing #bej tons of ice per day4 ,another similar plant at ,bassens had a capacity for #d1jjj tons of meat4 ,miscellaneous construction work in ,france covered many fields of activity4 ,the question of adequate water supply was ever present1 and in most places where hospitals1 depots1 shops1 or warehousing plants were built1 a water supply development was incidentally necessary4 ,many systems were installed complete from the collection of the water at its source to its distribution to the points of consumption1 while in some other cases only extensions and ameliorations of existing systems were undertaken4 ,water supply in the service of supply was placed under as fine and complete a system of bacteriological inspection and examination as is customary under more normal conditions4 ,at ,tours1 ,vierzon1 ,st4 ,nazaire1 and ,dijon1 where unfavorable bacteriological conditions existed1 arrangements were entered into with these municipalities whereby the existing water supplies were chlorinated by the ,american water supply service4 ,at ,is-sur-,tille was built a mechanical bakery at which #ejj1jjj pounds of bread1 fresh for immediate shipment to the troops at the front1 could be produced in one day4 ,another such plant was built and put into service at ,neufchateau1 and at ,liffol-le-,grand it was proposed1 and plans had been prepared1 to construct a third plant for #djj1jjj pounds of bread per day1 but this project was canceled just after the armistice4 ,in addition to these plants1 bakery capacity for #bdj1jjj pounds per day was provided at the base ports4 ,oil storage was provided for #age1jjj barrels of oil and gasoline4 ,the large plants1 with tanks having a capacity of #be1jjj barrels each1 built with enduring concrete foundations and equipped with connections and pumping plant for the loading of tank cars destined for the front1 rivaled in size the installations at large refineries of this country4 ,for the operation of these many plants numerous power developments were undertaken1 and a total of #e1jjj kilowatts of new power1 being provided for at the time of the armistice1 was canceled4 ,plants of the capacity of #gej kilowatts each1 providing #c1ejj kilowatts of electric power in all1 were in operation when the armistice was signed1 not to mention numerous smaller units installed at various points where needed4 ,ordnance repair shops were erected1 as were also assembling plants for ordnance material1 and heavy gun-mounting plants4 ,repair shops of enormous extent were established near the front1 equipped with machine-tool equipment for the repair and maintenance of tank and motor transport material4 ,schools for the line and staff were constructed1 the first and largest being at ,gondrecourt and ,longres4 ,laundry plants1 salvage depots1 aviation assembly plants1 sewage disposal plants1 refuse incinerators1 mechanical repair shops1 locomotive assembly plants and locomotive round-houses were placed at convenient points4 ,at ,chalmdray and at ,colombey-les-,belles1 both within a short day's automobile ride of the front1 were the tank and air-service repair depots1 each one covering many acres of ground and each provided with full equipment for any job of manufacture or repair in their respective fields4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,engineers ,,quarrying ,,stone ,,to ,,repair ,,military ,,roads ,,destroyed ,,by ,,german ,,shell ,,near ,,menil-,,la-,,tour1 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,sawmill ,,at ,,largest ,,lumber ,,camp ,,in ,,france4 ,,twentieth ,,engineers ,,near ,,eclaron1 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,hauling ,,logs ,,by ,,motor ,,truck1 ,,camp ,,kellog1 ,,bordeaux1 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,storage ,,dam ,,at ,,savenay1 ,,france1 ,,and ,,the ,,land ,,that ,,will ,,be ,,inundated ,,when ,,it ,,is ,,completed4 ,the forestry work of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces was developed to meet the heavy demands of our armies for forest products of all kinds4 ,the first move in this direction was the dispatch to ,france of the ,tenth ,engineers1 a forestry regiment of two battalions4 ,this was in ,september1 #aiag4 ,by the spring of #aiah we had recruited and trained the ,twentieth ,engineers1 a forestry regiment of #aj battalions4 ,later additional forestry troops were sent across4 ,shortly before hostilities ceased all these troops were consolidated into a single regiment of #ac1jjj men1 known as the ,twentieth ,engineers4 ,to this force were added negro service troops to the number of #i1jjj1 making #bb1jjj men engaged exclusively in the work of cutting down ,french forests and turning them into lumber required by our forces4 ,at first we had difficulty in supplying the necessary machinery4 ,until the sawmills came the forestry troops were engaged in building camps and hewing out railroad ties4 ,in ,january1 #aiah1 the machine equipment began to arrive4 ,in ,february our troops cut about #c1ejj1jjj feet of lumber2 while in ,october the cut for the single month had reached the enormous figure of #ej1jjj1jjj feet4 ,when the war ended we were expanding our forestry operations in ,france to produce #a1jjj1jjj1jjj feet of lumber in a year4 ,the lumber produced by our sawmills in ,france up to ,november #cj1 #aiah1 would build completely enough barrack buildings #bj feet wide to stretch out to a distance of #fjj miles if placed end to end1 quarters enough for #c1ajg1fjj men4 ,in addition to this output the railroad ties produced would build #a1jia miles of standard-gauge railway and the small ties for the #bd-;inch track would build a double-track railroad behind #ahe miles of trenches4 ,just the posts and poles produced1 if all cut into #f-;foot posts1 would be sufficient to support a wire fence1 with posts one rod apart1 reaching one-third of the distance around the earth4 ,the piling1 if stood end to end1 would make a flagpole #cfb miles high4 ,the cord-wood produced would make a rack #a yard wide1 #a yard high1 and #fjj miles long4 ,the sawmill machinery installed to accomplish such a production comprised #cj mills of #bj1jjj feet per day capacity1 #ef mills of #aj1jjj feet per day capacity1 and #ib smaller mills capable of producing ties and rough timber4 ,in the base and intermediate sections a large amount of work was necessary in the maintenance of the existing roads and highways1 and in the construction of new roads in the vicinity of the various new projects4 ,experienced road engineers1 drawn from civil life and commissioned as officers of the ,army1 were put in charge of this work1 and specialist engineer troops and labor battalions were assigned to them4 ,quarrying the rock1 grading the road1 surfacing it1 and maintaining it in good condition thereafter--all these duties fell within the province of the engineers4 ,,light ,,railways ,,and ,,roads4 ,the light railway and road regiments of engineers attached to the armies at the front1 while their duties did not carry them so far or so much into the zone of enemy fire1 may be considered as combatant units1 since they operated with and in support of combatant troops in the field4 ,to the light railway regiments were assigned the construction1 operation1 and maintenance of the light railroads of #fj-;centimeter gauge 7about #bd-;inch gauge74 ,a great quantity of such trackage was used during the war4 ,these narrow-gauge railroads1 capable of being operated under extreme conditions of grade and curvature1 and powered with light steam and gasoline locomotives1 were essential to the proper supply of a stabilized sector4 ,they were the lines of communication between the railheads of the broad-gauge system and the dumps and depots within the front sectors4 ,at the very front1 sometimes within a few hundred meters of the ,german lines1 these light railroads were operated by hand or animal traction1 while further back the gasoline locomotive1 less conspicuous than the steam engine1 came well within range of the enemy's light field pieces4 ,in periods of activity and during an advance these railroads did a tremendous service1 not only in transporting troops1 munitions1 materials1 and subsistence stores1 but in affording a means of bringing up rapidly a certain class of railway artillery adapted for use upon #fj-;centimeter gauge trucks4 ,built of light rail and steel ties assembled in portable sections1 this track was easily destroyed by shell fire1 and such was often its fate1 yet it was but short work for the engineers to replace broken sections with new material1 a work frequently done under heavy fire4 ,engineer troops suffered many casualties in this service4 ,in cooperation with the ,engineer ,department in the ,united ,states1 a practical1 efficient1 and standard type of narrow-gauge motive power and rolling stock was developed by ,american manufacturers4 ,this material was shipped to ,france knocked down1 and was assembled and set upon the rails at ,gondrecourt1 where a plant for this purpose had been established4 ,up to ,november #cj1 #aiah1 there had been built and placed in operation #ech miles of #fj-;centimeter track1 with #cdg steam and gasoline locomotives furnishing motive power for the operation of #c1bha cars of different types4 ,illustration3 ,,type-,,printing1 ,,base ,,printing ,,plant1 #bi,,th ,,engineers1 ,a4 ,e4 ,f4 ,illustration3 ,,lithographic ,,pressroom1 ,,base ,,printing ,,plant1 #bi,,th ,,engineers1 ,a4 ,e4 ,f4 ,illustration3 ,,binding ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,printing ,,plant ,,of ,,the ,,soci,t ,,publications ,,periodiques4 ,the new pay books were manufactured at this plant and were turned out at the rate of #ajj1jjj a day1 using #cf tons of print paper1 #af tons of parchment cover1 #ae tons of paper for envelopes1 #f tons of paste1 #aj1jjj rolls of moleskin4 ,paris1 ,france4 ,the road-building regiments in the zone of the armies built and maintained the roads immediately behind the front4 ,equipped with modern road-building machinery and motor trucks1 these regiments maintained the roads in shape to handle the abnormally dense and heavy traffic incidental to operations at the front4 ,the ,army road troops were recruited from among men accustomed in civil life to road building1 quarrying1 and construction operations4 ,they usually worked well within sound of the enemy guns1 and frequently under their direct fire4 ,during the advances made from the stabilized line of ,june1 #aiah1 these regiments improved and perfected the hasty roads thrown across ,no ,man's ,land by the sapper regiments of the fighting divisions1 so that transport of supplies and troops could be maintained to the advancing armies4 ,to furnish materials for this construction many quarries were opened or taken over from the ,french road service4 ,a total of #db1jjj cubic meters of rock was quarried and prepared for use in quarries operated exclusively by ,american engineers1 while in quarries jointly operated with ,french forces #ge1jjj cubic meters were produced4 ,,map ,,making ,,and ,,printing4 ,a vitally important part of the work of ,engineer troops was the making and reproduction of the many maps required for the conduct of tactical and strategic operations by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,a highly specialized regiment was organized to conduct the topographic surveying operations1 map reproduction1 and printing work in ,france4 ,many of the officers of this regiment had been formerly connected with the ,american ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey and the ,geological ,survey1 and they were well qualified for the work of war-map making4 ,at ,chateau ,thierry a portion of this organization rapidly mapped to a large scale the new region in which the theater of operations suddenly found itself1 thus supplementing the excellent small-scale map which was in existence for the whole of ,france1 but which was not sufficiently precise for the conduct of our artillery fire4 ,this work was done under pressure1 but it contributed its share to the later ,american successes in that locality4 ,these troops also were charged with furnishing to the ,artillery the mathematical azimuths and coordinates1 on the basis of which artillery indirect fire was executed4 ,the maps in use even on stabilized fronts were in a constant process of revision and change4 ,the data and information on which these changes and revisions were based were constantly pouring in from the photographic branch of the air service1 from the intelligence service1 the ,artillery1 and from the sapper regiments at the front4 ,consequently new maps had to be prepared continually and furnished to all the organizations and officers concerned with their use4 ,then1 too1 an ,army as large as ours required an impressive amount of field printing in order to distribute its orders and information4 ,as soon as our forces reached ,france it was apparent that the ,french map-production plant could not take care of our needs4 ,the ,chief of ,engineers in the ,united ,states thereupon ordered the purchase of equipment for a base printing plant large enough to take care of all the map printing for an army of #a1jjj1jjj men4 ,the special machinery ordered in the ,united ,states for this plant did not arrive in ,france during #aiag1 and so the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces purchased abroad five large rotary lithographic presses1 several type presses1 and a number of linotype machines and other printing equipment4 ,the base printing plant was established at ,langres1 ,france4 ,in the spring of #aiah the ,american equipment arrived1 and thereafter the base printing plant was able to print not only the current maps required but also the base maps which the ,french had been supplying4 ,in addition1 during the heavy fighting in ,july and ,august1 #aiah1 our printing plant supplied to the ,seventh and ,eighth ,french ,armies the base maps of their fronts4 ,the demands for maps and printing steadily increased until the base printing plant grew to have a working force of #ce officers and #gej men4 ,from ,july #ae until ,september #ae1 #aiah1 the plant worked continuously #bd hours a day to turn out the work required4 ,by this time the shop had #aj rotary lithographic presses1 #d linotype machines1 and several job presses1 printing each month an average of over #a1bjj1jjj lithographic impressions and #ejj1jjj sheets of printed matter4 ,in ,november the plant turned out #a1ijj1jjj lithographic impressions and over #a1jjj1jjj sheets of type work4 ,to supplement the base printing plant we had at each army headquarters an advanced printing shop to supply maps when they were needed within a few hours4 ,at the base printing plant we had a department for making relief maps1 which work had been done for us previously by the ,french ,government4 ,the equipment for military map making was enriched during this period by an invention of ,maj4 ,james ,n4 ,bagley1 ,united ,states ,engineers1 called the aerial cartograph1 or map camera4 ,the ,bagley camera's three lenses at the height of #e1jjj feet could photograph a strip of territory #c miles wide4 ,,military ,,bridges4 ,the science of building military bridges is an old one4 ,when war with ,germany was declared the ,united ,states had developed its heavy ponton equipment1 which was standard in design and yet which had changed but little since the ,civil ,war4 ,as soon as we formally took the step to send troops against ,germany the ,engineers ordered great quantities of this equipment and by the latter part of #aiag had plenty of it ready to go overseas4 ,our deliveries to ,france1 however1 were hindered by the shortage in ocean tonnage1 particularly after we had begun to use every available ship for the transport of men4 ,illustration3 ,,trucks ,,loaded ,,with ,,piling ,,en ,,route ,,to ,,french ,,railway ,,yards ,,near ,,bruyers1 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,pile ,,driving ,,for ,,footbridge ,,by ,,engineers ,,in ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,footbridge ,,built ,,by ,,engineers ,,across ,,canal ,,de ,l',,est ,,near ,,the ,,village ,,of ,,brieulles1 ,,france4 ,this bridge was constructed under heavy fire from enemy guns4 ,meanwhile the efforts of the ,engineers were being directed to the development of standard ponton equipment strong enough to carry tanks and the ponderous artillery of the present day4 ,the old ponton bridge was first strengthened to carry loads of #e tons on each of two axles spaced #aj feet or more apart4 ,the standard prewar equipment would support only #c tons similarly spaced4 ,the next step was to develop a bridge that would hold up axle loads of #aj tons with a distance of #ab feet or more between axles1 although in actual use this bridge showed itself capable of supporting a load of #ae tons concentrated on one axle4 ,as soon as these developments were made1 the plans were mailed to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 so that the ,engineer ,corps abroad could provide the beams and metal parts at its own mills and shops in ,france4 ,when the fighting ceased1 the ,engineers were designing a raft capable of transporting the heaviest portable ordnance then under manufacture in the ,united ,states4 ,in #aiag the ,engineer ,department made designs for a standard sectional steel bridge1 consisting of short latticed steel truss sections capable of being assembled to form trusses varying by increments of #aa feet up to a maximum span of about #ij feet4 ,two of these trusses with the span mentioned were capable of supporting a load of #cj tons1 and they could be erected in a matter of hours over abutments prepared in advance or extemporized from the ruins of a demolished structure4 ,these bridges had been manufactured in quantity in this country and were ready for shipment when the armistice was signed4 ,in the ,argonne push ,army bridge troops repaired and replaced the bridges destroyed by the retreating enemy as fast as material and labor could be provided at the points needed4 ,for this work much heavy timber was utilized1 and1 in general1 trestle structures were erected as best meeting the conditions of relatively soft crossings and soft river bottoms4 ,the fighting in the ,french terrain with its numerous narrow but deep streams and canals indicated to us the desirability of a portable floating footbridge4 ,such a bridge was designed and produced by the ,engineers in ,france4 ,many of the crossings of the ,meuse ,river and near-by canals under machine-gun and artillery fire from the high hills on the eastern side were made possible by the use of these bridges4 ,,camouflage4 ,while camouflage has existed in nature since the beginning of time1 its application to warfare on a grand1 scientific scale was almost solely a development of the great war4 ,camouflage1 due to the great developments of aerial observation and aerophotography1 as well as of air bombing and indirect artillery fire1 became a vital necessity for every branch of the service1 far back in the rear as well as at the front4 ,any matriel or personnel the position of which was observed was at the mercy of the enemy1 but1 further1 such observation might betray strategic plans4 ,the need for camouflage became universal4 ,camouflage organization was carefully developed for both the field and the factory1 while one of the most important duties1 that of instruction1 was carried out in ,army and corps schools and artillery camps1 where thousands of officers and men were taught both the necessity and the methods of camouflage4 ,our undertakings in this direction were based largely upon the methods developed by the ,french and ,british4 ,in one respect camouflage was a matter of quantity production4 ,this was in the manufacture of material used for concealing guns1 roads1 and other strategic locations which fall under the eyes of enemy observers on the ground or in the air4 ,in this work the ,british did nothing without the most careful scientific investigation1 including the aerial photography of all their materials used1 while the ,french relied more on their innate artistic sense of color and form4 ,the camouflage material produced in quantity by the ,british consisted principally of burlap cut in strips about #a inch wide and #ab inches long1 colored in the desired hues with oil-emulsion paint4 ,for artillery cover this was knotted in fish nets and chicken wire4 ,the ,french for this purpose used raffia1 a common product of ,madagascar1 whose natives use it largely for making their fantastic garments4 ,the raffia was dyed and then knotted on nets and wire in the ,french camouflage factories4 ,after a careful study we adopted the ,british system and used burlap4 ,our ,engineers made this decision because of the impossibility of finding permanent dyes for raffia and because raffia is more inflammable than burlap and scarcer and higher in price4 ,the first demand for camouflage material which we received embraced coverings for guns1 sniper's suits1 dummy heads1 silhouettes1 and some airplane hangar covers4 ,in order to supply this material at the outset the engineering forces abroad leased a factory building in ,paris and turned out a sufficient quantity with a working force of #cj enlisted soldiers and #ajj ,french women4 ,but1 as the ,american troops at the front increased in number1 the demands for camouflage material became rapidly heavier4 ,battery positions of some types required about #d1jjj square yards of camouflage cover4 ,aviation hangar covers were demanded in large numbers1 and each one was a special order due to the varying conditions of terrain encountered4 ,it became evident that we needed a vast increase in our camouflage-factory space4 ,in ,january1 #aiah1 the ,engineers secured about #bj acres of ground in ,dijon1 ,haute ,marne1 a city on the main supply line north through the regulating station at ,is-sur-,tille4 ,they started to erect buildings immediately1 and within #bj days this plant began turning out material4 ,by ,november the ,dijon factory numbered about #dj buildings1 including blacksmith and machine shop1 a sewing shop1 a paint shop1 laboratory1 and a toy shop where dummies and silhouettes were made4 ,the factory turned out artillery cover at the rate of #ej1jjj square yards per day4 ,the total output of camouflage cover for all purposes required about #c1jjj1jjj square yards of burlap per month4 ,when the fighting stopped the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were using camouflage materials to the value of #a1ejj1jjj monthly4 ,by new methods of manufacture1 we succeeded in reducing the weight of fish-net covers4 ,we designed two important field devices1 one being an improved frame and set for mobile artillery protection1 this equipment being later adopted by the ,british1 and the other an umbrella machine-gun cover having special advantages4 ,the central camouflage works of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces at ,dijon was declared by unprejudiced observers to be the best equipped and most efficient of any on the western front4 ,when the ,dijon camouflage plant was projected it was expected that the ,american forces would require great quantities of camouflaged observation posts1 silhouettes1 dummy heads1 snipers' suits1 and other concealing devices4 ,it was for this production that the toy shop at ,dijon was erected1 this shop being a kind of studio for the painters and sculptors connected with the ,fortieth ,engineers1 which was the camouflage regiment4 ,these various devices for deceiving the enemy1 however1 were used principally in the stagnant action of the trench warfare deadlock4 ,by the time ,american forces came into the war in large numbers the struggle had become one of movement in which the trenches were left far behind4 ,also1 ,american troops found themselves largely in sectors which were well wooded and therefore provided plenty of secure observation4 ,the result was that there was never a great use on the part of ,american troops of these clever and interesting exploits in camouflage with which the public is familiar4 ,one of the best observation posts was the imitation of a tree trunk made of armor plate and set up in advanced positions during the night4 ,both the ,british and the ,french made considerable use of these4 ,the ,british tree consisted of an oval shell of manganese steel4 ,this was covered with tin1 crimped in imitation of bark1 and further camouflaged with paint and plaster and natural bark4 ,when it was desired to set up such a post a camouflage artist would surreptitiously make a faithful sketch of the tree trunk to be duplicated in armor plate4 ,this sketch was then taken back to the workshop1 where the spurious tree was built in exact duplication4 ,the metal tree was built to rest on a base with hinges holding it down on one side4 ,during the night two saps1 or trenches1 would be dug to the natural tree selected4 ,workers in one of these trenches would fell the branchless stub and carry it back out of the way4 ,the armor plate tree would be drawn up in the other trench4 ,the base would be set in place1 and then the whole tree was raised on its hinges by means of ropes until it was upright and as life-like as artistry could make it4 ,inside the tree was a flight of iron steps leading to a seat in the upper part of the trunk4 ,at this seat were peepholes and a stand for the phone which was connected up with the exchange at the adjoining trench4 ,the sap1 covered over1 served as the gallery leading back to the trench4 ,the ,american camouflage force built only a single one of these trees1 using it as a training device4 ,such objects were useless in an advancing movement1 since1 under such circumstances1 they would play an important part only a short while and would then be left far in the rear4 ,the ,dijon factory1 however1 turned out a number of small observation posts for use at the edges of shell holes4 ,these were known to our troops as beehives and to the ,english soldiers as domes4 ,each one was built of light metal and covered with chicken wire and plaster4 ,it was camouflaged with paint and bits of grass to simulate the appearance of the surrounding terrain1 often being studded with tin cans or old shoes to make it appear to be an accumulation of rubbish4 ,the favorite way of making the peephole for a beehive was to cover with gauze a hole cut in the bottom of an old shoe1 which was then fastened to the observation post4 ,another device built by the ,dijon factory was the trench periscope4 ,this was built and set up to look like an ordinary stick1 thrown down casually upon the ground4 ,for periscopes1 too1 we also used imitation stakes placed naturally in the barbed-wire entanglements4 ,the ,british on occasions used imitation trench telephone poles to mask their periscopes4 ,the ,dijon shop turned out large numbers of silhouettes and dummies4 ,they were drawn from life by artists at ,dijon and then cut out from ordinary wall board4 ,soldiers of the ,fortieth ,regiment posed as models for these silhouettes4 ,all sorts of postures were employed1 but nearly all of them represented soldiers in the act of climbing out of a trench or running1 gun in hand1 towards the enemy4 ,the uniforms were painted in neutral shades1 but the faces and hands were highly colored to be visible at considerable distances during the gray and mist of dawn1 when silhouettes were usually employed4 ,the object of these dummy heads and silhouettes was to draw the fire of the enemy so as to make him reveal his strength and positions4 ,the usual method of use was to place a number of silhouettes1 possibly several dozen of them1 in shell holes out in front of the trenches4 ,the silhouettes were mounted so that they could be made to stand erect instantly whenever the ropes were pulled from the trenches4 ,at the appointed moment the ropes would all be pulled at once1 and the appearance to the enemy would be that of a raiding party starting out at top speed4 ,the ,british troops called this operation the ,chinese attack4 ,the ,germans made no extensive employment of it4 ,the silhouettes nearly always fooled the enemy1 as indeed they would deceive anybody in such light and under such circumstances4 ,the ,british were often amused to read in the ,german communiques that these ,chinese attacks were regarded by the enemy as the real thing4 ,more than one such repulse of silhouettes has gone down into the ,german records as a local success4 ,on one occasion the ,germans took a ,chinese attack so seriously that they concentrated troops against it with the result that the ,british were able to gain considerable ground at the points weakened on both sides of the pseudo attack4 ,the ,dijon factory made a thousand or so silhouettes1 as well as a large number of dummy heads1 these latter devices to draw the fire of snipers4 ,these simulacra1 however1 had their principal use at the training schools in ,france1 since they were peculiarly adapted to trench warfare1 and by the time the ,american forces reached the front in strength the war of movement was in progress4 ,several thousand sniper suits were turned out at ,dijon4 ,these suits were made of burlap1 resembling in appearance the teddy-bear pajamas which little children wear4 ,they were colored to match the terrain1 either painted to resemble rocks or fitted with a grasslike covering4 ,an adjunct to this suit was the cloth cover for the sniper's rifle4 ,sniper suits were so deceptive that they would protect a man from observation even at short distances1 and if exceptional care were used in the making of one1 a man could conceal himself so effectually that an observer might step on him before seeing him4 ,an ,american camouflage officer upon his return from ,france brought a sniper's suit with him and found a novel but practical use for it when he was invited to go duck hunting with a party of sportsmen4 ,the other hunters stayed in their blinds1 but the officer in the sniper suit went out in the open and shot more ducks than all the other gunners together were able to bring down4 ,the ,dijon camouflage factory also turned out a large number of covers for the so-called ,bessenaux hangars for airplanes4 ,these hangars were large tents set up at aviation fields near the front4 ,it was soon found to be impracticable to attempt to camouflage such tents by day1 as they gave plenty of indication of their position in spite of the best efforts at concealment on the ,american and allied sides4 ,however1 the great danger at aviation fields came at night when the ,german bombing planes were abroad4 ,even on a dark night a white tent proved to be a good mark for the hostile airmen4 ,consequently the attempt was made to camouflage ,bessenaux hangars at night only4 ,it was found impracticable to paint the tents themselves1 since the waterproof canvas would not take the paint readily4 ,the solution was a large cover of burlap4 ,this was painted in broken patches of color1 much as artillery was painted in camouflage4 ,at the factory such covers were spread out on the ground and painted with floor brushes dipped into water color4 ,all machinery at ,dijon1 with the exception of two lathes1 two drill presses1 and a shearing machine1 was designed and built at the plant itself4 ,the work of providing camouflage cover required enormous quantities of burlap to be cut up into strips4 ,the ,english camouflage shops used stationary knives and a machine operated by a crank4 ,american ,engineers at ,dijon designed a power-driven cutting machine with a large number of circular1 whirling knife blades4 ,the invention of this machine increases the production of burlap strips #ijj per cent with the same force4 ,the engineers at the plant also designed paint tanks and special machinery that would mix #d1jjj gallons of color in a day4 ,there were about #a1jjj ,french women employed in this plant4 ,the executives paid great attention to their welfare4 ,a special nursery1 the ,creche1 was built for their children4 ,american ,red ,cross nurses cared for the babies during the time their mothers were at work4 ,many of the women employed were refugees driven from once comfortable homes4 ,their children fattened up with the good food provided by the army mess1 and the mothers were correspondingly happy4 ,entertainments were frequently provided for the operators of the factories4 ,the artists at the shop worked during their leisure moments and eventually produced the scenery and equipment for a genuine ,yankee circus1 animals and all1 the menagerie1 however1 being made principally of papier-mch with human operatives inside the beasts4 ,the first performance of the circus was given on ,thanksgiving ,day1 #aiah1 and the audience was so delighted that it demanded a repetition4 ,after three encores of this sort it was suggested that performances be given in ,dijon1 a city of upward of #ej1jjj population1 with admittance charged4 ,this advice was followed1 and the circus made such a hit that the ,engineers were able to turn over to the ,french orphan fund a considerable sum of money4 ,,conclusion4 ,the foregoing account gives in a broad way an idea of the scope of activities and the achievements of the ,engineers during the #ai months of actual warfare in ,france4 ,to furnish the organization of technical troops and specialists which made all this possible1 the original ,engineer ,arm of the ,united ,states ,army was increased to #aca4e times its prewar strength1 and the proportion of ,engineer troops relative to the total forces was increased from #a4f per cent to #aj4h per cent4 ,to accomplish this1 a heavy demand was made upon the technical professions and upon the industries of this country4 ,in filling this demand most necessary assistance was given by the engineer societies and the engineering journals1 whose patriotic work demands the highest praise4 ,in situations requiring special knowledge almost always there could be found some specialist capable of adapting himself and his work to the military needs4 ,engineer officers for the combatant regiments were younger members of the technical professions1 who were sent to the training camps provided for the purpose and there given the essentials of strictly military knowledge4 ,this training was later supplemented by courses in ,engineer and line schools located in ,france4 ,the training officers of the regiments were supplied from the ,corps of ,engineers1 these men having both the military and technical knowledge fitting them for the command4 ,the diversity of education and experience necessary in all branches of the ,engineer service may be understood by a consideration of the duties of the different units sent to ,france during the war--specialist units1 in addition to the strictly combatant divisional regiments1 who also numbered among their commissioned and enlisted personnel many technical specialists of high attainment4 ,we had1 for instance1 seven railway construction regiments1 two railway construction battalions1 one regiment and five battalions for railway maintenance of way1 two battalions for maintenance of railway equipment1 four regiments and one battalion to operate our main military railways in ,france1 three regiments to operate the light railways in ,france and their repair shops1 two regiments for operating the regular railway shops1 two regiments and six battalions for constructing buildings and other general construction work1 two regiments for storing and transporting ,engineer supplies1 a forestry regiment1 a light railway construction regiment1 a regiment for building roads1 a water supply regiment1 a mining regiment1 a quarrying regiment1 a technical regiment for handling surveying1 sound ranging1 and location of enemy positions by means of special apparatus1 three survey and printing battalions1 two railway transportation battalions1 an electrical and mechanical regiment1 several companies to operate cranes1 a camouflage service1 five inland waterway companies1 five ponton trains1 a ponton park1 a railway transportation and stores battalion1 and a searchlight regiment4 ,utilizing and applying the new knowledge and scientific achievements of recent years1 drawing upon the fund of experience acquired by the ,regular ,army in its theoretical studies and past wars1 making available the vast amount of technical skill which has assisted this ,nation to its present commercial and industrial status1 the ,engineers of the ,united ,states ,army worked and fought1 planned1 and accomplished in ,france a work which in magnitude exceeds any similar undertaking recorded in ,american history4 ,from base port to first waves of an assault upon the enemy's position1 ,engineer troops have been constantly in action first to last and have carried on always with the high ideals of the profession and with the motto of the ,corps of ,engineers1 ,essayons1 before them4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,military ,,railways4 ,in establishing contact between our great bases of supply on the ,french coast and interior points1 as well as with the fighters in the various fields of operations1 the ,department of ,military ,railways of the ,engineer ,corps found it necessary to provide thousands of miles of railway track ranging from the standard gauge down to the narrow #fj-;centimeter type built right up to the border of ,no ,man's ,land1 to construct and ship across seas thousands of almost every kind of freight cars1 to build hundreds of locomotives and transport them to ,europe1 to provide in addition fabricated track that could be laid under heavy shell fire1 and hospital trains that could care for our wounded4 ,it was on ,july #aj1 #aiag1 that ,gen4 ,pershing cabled stating that the ,french had asked for #cjj locomotives and #b1jjj kilometers of track1 in addition to numerous items of accessories that go with an order of this size4 ,delivery of the locomotives was requested by ,october #ae1 #aiag1 and of the track by ,december #ca1 #aiag4 ,it was ascertained that the ,american ,locomotive ,works had built consolidation engines for ,france of an entirely satisfactory type1 and that similar locomotives for the use of ,british forces on ,french soil had been turned out by the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works4 ,after the decision to adopt the consolidation type of locomotive1 which is generally used in freight service in the ,united ,states1 arrangements were made at once with these two concerns to build #aej locomotives each4 ,the consolidation locomotive weighs #aff1djj pounds1 and is about the heaviest that can be used in ,france4 ,it has one pair of engine truck wheels and four pairs of drivers4 ,the engine is just as large as it is possible to use within the ,french tunnel and platform clearances4 ,the type sent to ,france was1 however1 not nearly so large nor so heavy as the general run of freight engines used here4 ,the order for #aej engines was placed with the ,baldwin concern on ,july #ai1 #aiag1 and the first locomotive of this order was ready for shipment on ,august #aj1 #aiag1 just #bj working days elapsing between the date of the placing of the order and the day when the first engine was completed and all set up ready for shipment4 ,this is believed to have established a new record for locomotive construction in the ,united ,states and probably in the world for an engine of this size4 ,all the other locomotives in this order were delivered promptly--#cf of the ,baldwin engines being freighted from the factory in ,august1 #ga in ,september1 and the final #dc in ,october4 ,of the locomotives ordered from the ,american ,locomotive ,works1 #acc were freighted in ,october and the remaining #ag in ,november4 ,on account of differences in the details of construction the original price fixed for the locomotives turned out by the ,american ,locomotive ,works was #ea1jjj each and for those of the ,baldwin ,works #df1jjj apiece4 ,advance payments on these engines reduced the price by #a1jjj each4 ,changes in the painting and other small details resulted in a saving of #fj additional on each locomotive built by the ,baldwin ,works and #djj on each engine turned out by the ,american ,works1 so that the net cost of each ,baldwin locomotive was #dd1idj1 and of each ,american locomotive #di1fjj4 ,after much consideration1 and after this initial order had been disposed of1 it was determined that the ,baldwin type of engine should be made the standard1 and all subsequent orders for engines went to the ,baldwin ,works4 ,as orders were placed from time to time with the ,baldwin people1 reductions were made in price1 so that the last engines of the total of #c1cdj ordered from this concern were obtained for #cg1jjj each4 ,orders for #a1ejj of these engines eventually were canceled without cost to the ,united ,states ,government4 ,the saving effected by the reduction in price on the engines ordered1 using the original price as a basis of comparison1 was #bb1ihi1che4 ,there were shipped in all to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces #a1cjc locomotives1 of which #ijh had been put into service by ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,during the severe winter weather of #aiag-ah and the simultaneous shortage of motive power on ,american railways1 #adb of these consolidation engines built for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were turned over to the ,american railways to help out a critical situation in this country4 ,it was possible to use these engines here by making changes in the couplers and some other slight additions to meet the requirements of our safety appliance laws4 ,at the time these engines were turned over to the ,railway ,administration we were producing locomotives for ,france much more rapidly than it was possible to provide tonnage to transport them overseas4 ,these locomotives were in service helping out the transportation facilities in this country an average of #f months and #bh days each before being recalled for shipment to ,france4 ,they earned profits for the ,government while in service for the ,railroad ,administration at the rate of #cb4c per cent a year4 ,illustration3 ,,standard ,,gauge #aj-,,wheel ,,consolidation 7,,baldwin7 ,,locomotive4 ,,cylinder1 #ba ,,inches #bh ,,inches4 ,driving wheels1 #ef inches2 wheel base1 engine1 #bc feet #h inches2 wheel base1 engine and tender1 #eg feet #d inches2 weight in working order1 engine #aff1djj pounds1 tender #aab1jjj pounds2 tractive power #ce1fjj pounds2 capacity1 water #e1djj gallons1 fuel #i tons4 ,illustration3 ,,ration ,,train ,,near ,,menil-,,la-,,tour1 ,,france4 ,it might also be noted that the ,director ,general of ,military ,railways was appointed custodian of undelivered locomotives ordered by the ,russian government from the ,baldwin and ,american ,works4 ,in ,january1 #aiah1 a total of #bjj of these ,russian locomotives was purchased1 and the engines were converted to meet ,american requirements by a change in the gauge from #e feet to #d feet1 #h inches1 and a change in the coupling system to meet our standard4 ,the price of these was #ee1jjj each4 ,the ,baldwin ,works turned its #ajj over to the ,railroad ,administration between ,february #c and ,may #bj1 #aiah1 and the ,american ,works made its deliveries between ,february #ai and ,may #cj1 #aiah4 ,the combined cost of these locomotives was #aa1jjj1jjj and their total rental revenue from the railroads was #b1ehe1dge up to ,december #ca1 #aiah1 or #bc4e per cent of the cost price1 or at the rental rate of #bi4h per cent per annum4 ,orders for #ij1ajc freight cars to be used by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were also placed with ,american contractors4 ,of these the orders for nearly half--#dj1iae cars1 in exact figures--had been placed just before the armistice1 and these contracts were canceled at slight cost to the ,government4 ,up to the end of the year #aiah a total of #ah1cac freight cars had been shipped overseas1 nearly all of these cars being of the #fj1jjj-pound size4 ,close bargaining in the purchase of these cars resulted in a saving of #ae1gcg1fcc under the prices originally quoted4 ,for the first time in history ,american locomotives were shipped across the ,atlantic stacked in ships on their own wheels4 ,in our normal foreign trade1 and even in the early locomotive shipments to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 both engines and cars had been disassembled at the seaboard and their parts put up in packages for convenient and economical loading on ships4 ,each of the first locomotives sent to ,france was crated in #ai packages1 while the parts for an ordinary box car were put up in #bf packages4 ,on ,october #bi1 #aiag1 however1 ,gen4 ,atterbury called attention to the fact that the ,english were shipping locomotives across the ,channel on their own wheels and stated that it would result in very great economies of time1 money1 and man power if such an arrangement could be made for shipments from the ,united ,states4 ,manufacturers of the locomotives1 however1 advised against this4 ,so did our own embarkation people and the ,shipping ,control ,committee4 ,efforts were unsuccessful to get car ferries from the ,key ,west and ,habana line and from ,quebec for the transport of locomotives on their own wheels over the ocean4 ,finally1 however1 after numerous efforts to get ships with large hatches the ore steamer ,feltore was loaded with #cc locomotives on their own wheels1 packed in baled hay4 ,this steamer sailed ,may #ah1 #aiah1 and its arrival in ,france resulted in the following cable from ,gen4 ,pershing3 ,shipment of erected locomotives transmitted on the ,feltore very satisfactory4 ,boat completely discharged of locomotives and cargoes in #ac days with saving of #ae ship's days in unloading the #cc locomotives erected as compared with same number of locomotives not erected and further saving of #ad days of erecting forces4 ,observations of ,capt4 ,byron1 who came with these locomotives1 show that by loading locomotives in double tiers1 placing cab parts and tools1 now in separate packages1 within tender space and fire boxes1 #dj to #de locomotives can be loaded4 ,subsequently the steamers ,cubore1 ,firmore1 and ,santore were assigned to the task of carrying these engines over on their own wheels4 ,the total number of locomotives that went abroad in this manner was #ecc4 ,after the signing of the armistice we sold the ,french ,government #dhe locomotives1 of which #adb had been shipped up to ,january #a1 #aiai4 ,efforts were likewise made to ship over freight cars already set up but this was also met with much objection4 ,finally1 #a1jjj cars were built to go over complete but the signing of the armistice stopped the shipment4 ,the saving in the cost of shipping locomotives on their own wheels amounted to #gge for each one1 and an average of #bj a car would have been saved by sending the cars over on their own wheels4 ,but1 in addition to this1 the cost of erection on the other side1 amounting to #hjj for each locomotive1 should also be added to the saving4 ,the number of cars actually shipped overseas for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 if made into one solid train1 would be #adj miles long4 ,in ,august1 #aiah1 there came a call from abroad to produce locomotives at the rate of #cjj a month and freight cars at the rate of #h1bjj monthly4 ,machinery for getting this production was started at once and was so effectual that during the months of ,september and ,october and up to the signing of the armistice engines were actually being produced and shipped from the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works at this rate4 ,this company was turning out the greatest number of locomotives ever produced by any one company in the same length of time4 ,arrangements for increasing production of freight cars to meet every possibility of tonnage facilities on the ocean were also made1 and had the armistice not been signed we had planned to produce during the month of ,december #aa1jjj complete freight cars and to maintain this production rate until we had filled all orders from ,gen4 ,pershing4 ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,railway ,,locomotives1 ,,complete1 ,,aboard ,,ship4 ,illustration3 #fj-;,,centimeter ,,gauge ,,tank ,,car4 ,capacity in gallons #b1ejj4 ,in pounds #bb1jjj4 ,length over end sills #bb feet #a inches2 width over side sills1 #e feet #g inches2 weight1 #ab1jjj pounds4 ,illustration3 #fj-;,,centimeter ,,gauge ,v-,,shaped ,,dump ,,cars4 ,capacity1 #bg cubic feet4 ,length over couplers1 #f feet #i inches4 ,width of body1 #dh-e_/h inches4 ,illustration3 ,,railroad ,,locomotives ,,packed ,,with ,,baled ,,hay ,,in ,,the ,,hold ,,of ,a ,,ship4 ,on our first purchase of rails1 amounting to #ajb1jjj tons1 the price paid was #ch a ton for ,bessemer steel and #dj a ton for open-hearth steel1 as against a price of #ei a ton that the ,russians were paying and prices between #ed4cf and #fa4hg that were being paid by the ,french4 ,there was a saving in this item of approximately #b1jdj1jjj as compared with the prices paid by the ,russians and of #a1ich1jjj compared with the prices paid by the ,french4 ,in connection with our first purchase of this steel rail1 it should be stated that the ,lackawanna ,steel ,co4 and the ,united ,states ,steel ,products ,co4 agreed to sell us rail on this basis4 ,orders were placed with these companies1 but not with two other companies--the ,cambria ,steel ,co4 and the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4--who declined to accept the price offered4 ,all subsequent orders for steel rail were on the basis of #ee and #eg a ton for ,bessemer and open hearth1 respectively1 which figure was established by the ,war ,industries ,board pursuant to the ,government policy to stabilize industry by establishing fixed prices alike for all purchasers--the ,government itself1 the allies1 and the public4 ,a total of #icg miles of standard-gauge railway track was laid in ,france with material shipped from this country4 ,a big money saving was effected by changing the design of the freight cars asked for by our overseas forces4 ,their original call was for #ag1jjj four-wheel cars of the ,french type1 these varying from #aj to #bj tons capacity per car4 ,our investigations here convinced us that the ,american type of car with #cj-ton capacity could be used on the ,french railroads4 ,consequently we recommended that #f1jjj of the #cj-ton ,american-type cars be sent abroad instead of smaller-capacity ,french cars4 ,our recommendation was approved by officers abroad1 and as a result there was a saving of #ab1fdj1jjj in the cost of this initial order of cars4 ,from that time all cars shipped from the ,united ,states were of the ,american #h-wheel type1 a fact which resulted in a saving of approximately #ahi1fjj1jjj over what it would have cost to build and ship the lighter ,french cars4 ,had the light ,french type of cars1 as originally suggested1 been adopted1 #bgj1cji cars would have been required instead of #ij1ajc cars1 and probably twice as much tonnage would have been necessary to transport these cars overseas4 ,most of the steel rails were purchased from the ,cambria ,steel ,co41 the ,lackawanna ,steel ,co41 the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 the ,united ,states ,steel ,products ,co41 and the ,sweets ,steel ,co4 ,raised pier1 gantry1 and locomotive cranes were turned out by the several crane builders in proportion to their ability to produce4 ,the ,standard ,steel ,car ,co4 made millions of dollars' worth of metallic parts for freight cars1 and the ,colorado ,fuel ,iron ,co4 produced rails and bars4 ,as previously mentioned1 the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works got the bulk of the orders for locomotives1 although the ,american ,locomotive ,co41 the ,vulcan ,co41 the ,h4 ,e4 ,porter ,co41 and the ,davenport ,locomotive ,works also made locomotives for our ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,,hospital ,,trains4 ,ambulance trains were called for by ,gen4 ,pershing in his cablegram of ,july #ae1 #aiag4 ,it was stated in this message that plans for these ambulance trains would be furnished by the ,surgeon ,general of the ,army4 ,to build these ambulance trains1 with their complicated designs and specialized equipment1 in this country would have entailed lengthy delay and very heavy expense1 as after they had been constructed it would have been necessary to knock them down for shipment4 ,with this fact in mind our officers here took up the question with ,sir ,francis ,dent1 of the ,british railway commission1 who was in this country at the time4 ,he stated that ambulance trains built by the ,london ,north ,western ,railway1 which had proved wholly satisfactory in three years of service1 could be turned out by that same concern there quickly if the ,english design were adopted for our ,army4 ,after considerable discussion and consideration the ,english design was followed1 and orders for our ambulance trains were placed abroad4 ,up to ,december #g1 #aiah1 there had been completed for our ,army #ai of these trains1 with a total of #cjd cars1 and there were in the course of completion at that time or under order #bi additional ambulance trains4 ,information from ,england shows that it was indeed the part of wisdom to order these ambulance trains abroad1 as figures from ,england stated that the first #ad of these trains were produced at a cost to us of #c1hde per car1 including repair parts4 ,this means that at the present rate of exchange the cost of each coach was #ah1cjb4bj1 while to have built these cars in this country1 knocked them down1 and shipped them overseas would have cost #dj1jjj each4 ,,narrow-,,gauge ,,railway ,,equipment--,,fabricated ,,steel ,,track4 ,the urgent necessity for narrow-gauge railway equipment for our armed forces in ,europe was first brought home to us when ,gen4 ,pershing cabled on ,july #ae1 #aiag4 ,in this message he asked for large quantities of #fj-;centimeter locomotives1 cars1 and track4 ,the types requested were entirely new in this country4 ,specifically1 there were required #aie #fj-;centimeter steam locomotives with a low center of gravity and with a maximum of #c tons axle load2 #abf #dj-;horsepower gasoline locomotives2 #fc #bj-;horsepower gasoline locomotives2 and #c1ccb freight cars of various types1 including box cars and flat cars of #aj-ton capacity1 tank cars1 and dump cars4 ,to aid in the building of this new equipment many photographs and designs brought over from ,france were used4 ,it was decided to build the #aj-ton cars fitted with small #d-wheel trucks at each end1 rather than to make them of the #d-wheeled type1 as with this construction they would be better adapted for the rounding of short curves4 ,illustration3 #fj-;,,centimeter ,,gauge ,,steam ,,locomotive2 ,,tractive ,,power1 #f1bbe ,,pounds4 ,,cylinders1 #i #ab1 ,,driving ,,wheels #bc ,,inches1 ,,wheel ,,base #e ,,feet #aj ,,inches2 ,,weight ,,in ,,working ,,order #cd1ejj ,,pounds2 ,,capacity3 ,,water #dgf ,,gallons1 ,,fuel #a1gjj ,,pounds4 ,illustration3 #fj-;,,centimeter ,,gauge ,,steam ,,locomotive2 #ej ,,horsepower4 ,,cylinders #e #g1 ,,driving ,,wheels #cj ,,inches1 ,,wheel ,,base #d ,,feet2 ,,weight ,,in ,,working ,,order #ad1jjj ,,pounds2 ,,fuel ,,capacity1 #cj ,,gallons4 ,illustration3 ,,armored ,,railway ,,motor ,,car4 ,,hall-,,scott ,,gasoline ,,engine2 ,,length #fb ,,feet #i ,,inches1 ,,width #i ,,feet #aa ,,inches1 ,,truck ,,centers #df ,,feet4 ,illustration3 ,,armored ,,motor ,,car1 ,,oil-,,electric ,,engine4 ,illustration3 ,,armored ,,car ,,equipped ,,with #c-;,,inch ,,gun ,,and ,,searchlight ,,on ,,car ,,attached4 ,in turning out the different kinds of locomotives for the #fj-;centimeter railways new designs were made in order to produce locomotives that would run with equal facility in either direction4 ,for the gasoline locomotives1 designs of types similar to standard-gauge engines1 a few of which had been in the service in this country1 were made1 and orders were placed with the ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works for the first lot4 ,the first steam locomotives were delivered by the builders on ,october #c1 #aiag1 and the first gas locomotives on ,november #g1 #aiag4 ,orders for the freight cars for these narrow-gauge railways were placed with a number of the larger car-building companies of the country4 ,the first of these cars were delivered ,november #bd1 #aiag4 ,when the armistice was signed a total of #a1hda locomotives and #aa1bbi cars of the narrow-gauge type had been ordered and #dbg locomotives and #f1acd cars completed4 ,up to the #aath of ,november #cfa of the locomotives and #e1fia of the cars had been shipped overseas4 ,of the #cfa locomotives sent to ,france1 #aia were steam engines1 #ajh had #ej-;horsepower gasoline engines1 and #fb had #ce-;horsepower gasoline engines4 ,of the #e1fia cars that went to the ,expeditionary ,forces prior to the signing of the armistice1 #fjj were box cars1 #aff were tank cars1 #ejj were flat cars1 #a1eee were #h-wheeled gondola cars1 #ccj were dump cars1 #ajj were artillery truck cars1 #igj were motor cars1 #ahj were inspection cars1 #cjj were hand cars1 and #iij were push cars4 ,for the construction of the narrow-gauge railroad used in the combat areas behind the front line trenches a special type of fabricated track was designed4 ,this consisted of short sections of rail bolted to steel crossties4 ,the ,american narrow-gauge railway was so arranged that it could be packed in knockdown shape to save shipping space4 ,most of this track was in #e-meter lengths1 although many shorter sections were used4 ,all1 however1 were in multiples of #a meters1 accurately sawed so as to insure absolute fit of intermediate sections when shell fire made replacement necessary4 ,vast quantities of curved track1 as well as innumerable switches and turnouts1 also were built4 ,in all about #fje miles of fabricated1 narrow-gauge steel track were purchased and #dfj miles shipped to ,france4 ,all but #aib miles of the fabricated track was built at the ,lakewood ,engineering ,co41 near ,cleveland4 ,the balance was obtained through the ,united ,states ,steel ,products ,co4 ,the cost of the straight track was about #g1djj a mile1 while the cost of the curved sections was #h1jjj a mile4 ,much of this narrow-gauge track that went to ,france was manufactured at the rate of between #e and #f miles of completed track a day4 ,great quantities of the fabricated track produced by the ,lakewood ,engineering ,co4 were loaded upon camouflaged steamers in ,cleveland in ,may1 #aiah1 and sent direct to ,france1 via ,lake ,erie1 the ,welland ,canal1 and the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,engineer ,,activities ,,at ,,home4 ,a vast quantity of motorized or portable equipment was required by the ,engineer units of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces and this had in the main to be furnished under the supervision of the ,engineers in this country4 ,the extent to which this material was produced is shown by such items as #f1ibc trucks of all kinds1 #b1jhb portable buildings1 #abd portable shop and material trucks1 #ea portable pile drivers1 #ij electric storage trucks1 #f1jjf boilers1 and #c1ejd dump cars4 ,two-thirds of this equipment was shipped overseas before the armistice was signed4 ,the development of mobile shops was one of the most interesting phases of this branch of engineering work4 ,quite early in the war1 when we began the construction of the great base shops in ,france1 we developed these portable machine shops1 blacksmith shops1 carpenter shops1 and storeroom shops in demountable truck bodies1 to be used for general service in the field4 ,the shops were so constructed that they could be entirely closed up when the unit was in motion2 but when the shop was ready for use the sides and ends of the inclosing structure were lowered1 forming work tables when the shop was left on the truck chassis4 ,if the shop were entirely demounted1 these sides and ends1 let down1 formed extensions of the floor4 ,with this arrangement a wide range of general repair and construction work could be handled on the spot on short notice4 ,if it were necessary for the shop to stay in one place for several days or weeks1 the body could be demounted1 and the truck chassis was then used for transporting materials to and from the shop4 ,each portable shop contained about #hjj different items of tools and equipment4 ,each was mounted on a #e ton truck4 ,the portable machine shop contained a workbench1 a drill press1 a portable electric drill1 a grinder1 and a #ad-;inch lathe1 these being operated by an electric power plant carried on the truck2 and it also had an equipment of necessary small tools and supplies1 including an oxyacetylene welding outfit4 ,the portable blacksmith1 plumbing1 and tin shops each contained a workbench1 forges1 hoists1 pipe-fitting machines1 a shear and punch1 vises1 and a welding and cutting outfit1 together with a power plant and switchboard and the necessary small tools and supplies4 ,the portable carpenter shop contained boring machines1 a drill press1 a bench grinder1 a workbench1 a saw bench1 a winch1 power plant and switchboard1 small tools and supplies4 ,a complete machine shop on wheels cost the ,government about #h1ejj4 ,the carpenter shop cost #g1fjj4 ,as supply units for the portable shops1 the ,government built #cj material trucks1 each containing about #fjj items of tools and supplies4 ,these material trucks cost #f1ajj apiece4 ,another successful development of this nature was the portable photolithographic press truck1 already referred to in the account of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces' lithographic equipment4 ,these automobile presses1 which were at our front soon after our troops went into the trenches1 were able to print and distribute lithographic sketches and maps within #ab hours after the original sketches were submitted for reproduction4 ,the ,french and ,british armies also had mobile photolithographic units which were much less portable than ours and much slower in operation4 ,the best time made by the ,french and ,british outfits was four days for the same work4 ,we also supplied to the ,engineering forces abroad special water sterilizers and water tanks1 mounted on trucks4 ,the ,engineers put small job-printing shops on trucks and photographic dark rooms on trucks for use in the field4 ,they equipped trucks with derricks1 capstans1 and wrecking machinery4 ,they furnished automotive road sprinklers and oilers1 as well as trucks with special dump bodies for highway work4 ,they developed a light1 portable pile driver unlike anything used theretofore in commercial work4 ,this machine was constructed of structural steel and had a total weight of #d tons4 ,it was mounted on a truck drawn by horses or mules1 and the pile driver itself was operated by a #be-;horsepower gasoline engine4 ,the pile driver could be used within #af minutes after its arrival at any point4 ,one development of this sort1 the mobile clam-shell derrick1 is worth noting4 ,this unique piece of machinery was built by the ,winther ,motor ,truck ,co41 of ,kenosha1 ,wis4 ,when the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces issued a requisition for #abj clam-shell derricks mounted on motor trucks1 no such piece of equipment was in existence anywhere on earth4 ,the ,winther ,co4 volunteered to attempt to produce the machine4 ,by giving a wider tread of rear axle to the ,winther motor truck1 the company could provide a suitable vehicle1 but1 search as they might1 they could not find a derrick of sufficient power to operate a half-yard clam shell and also light enough to mount on a #g-ton truck4 ,no such derrick existed4 ,the company1 therefore1 without knowing anything about the manufacture of derricks1 put its engineering force to work to produce a design4 ,this design was developed in two weeks1 and the derrick built from it was less than half the weight of any derrick of equal capacity4 ,after being perfected1 the mobile derrick in tests showed that it could move #cej cubic yards of sand or gravel per day or #ejj or #fjj tons of coal4 ,one man could operate it and the motive power was a #d-;cylinder gasoline engine4 ,illustration3 ,,engineers' ,,tool ,,wagon4 ,illustration3 ,,engineers' ,,blacksmith ,,shop1 ,,closed4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,engineers' ,,portable ,,machine ,,shops4 ,the ,engineering ,department approved this design and ordered #cb such clam-shell units4 ,nine of these were delivered before the armistice was signed4 ,the company has continued production of these derricks with a view of selling them to road builders and excavators in civil life4 ,for use of the various ,engineer units we manufactured #a1faj tool wagons and shipped most of them to ,france4 ,because of the rough nature of the shell-torn ground over which these wagons must be used1 we designed each to be uncoupled and operated as two #b-wheeled carts4 ,the development of mobile industrial units mounted on motor trucks is likely to have a profound effect on ,american industry in the future4 ,for instance1 the special derrick or crane trucks which we built are almost certain to be adopted in commercial use4 ,the locomotive crane has always been a useful machine1 but its chief use has been in handling heavy materials which were being loaded on or off railway cars4 ,a crane which can be moved rapidly to places where railway tracks are not located should be of almost equal importance4 ,an accompanying illustration shows in operation one of the derrick trucks which we built for overseas use4 ,in the same way the mobile pile drivers designed by the ,engineer ,corps should be of great future service in road building in this country4 ,the various machine shops which were built for war purposes will1 in their duplications and adaptations1 undoubtedly serve a useful purpose in future commercial activities in this country4 ,the increased use of motive power on farms has created a demand for machine repairs4 ,the day may come when the traveling machine shop will be a familiar sight on our rural highways4 ,the ,engineer troops required a great quantity of hoisting machinery4 ,our purchases in this respect amounted to #gjj cranes1 mostly of the locomotive type1 and #hhf hoisting engines1 at a total cost of #d1iif1jjj4 ,about two-thirds of this equipment was sent to ,france and installed at the ports of debarkation and at depots4 ,the rest was used at the shipping points in this country4 ,this machinery was of great aid in the rapid handling of materials at tidewater4 ,a vast amount of small tools and construction material was required4 ,some #ba1jjj tons of barbed wire1 shipped abroad to be used principally in the construction of entanglements in front of ,american battle positions1 were manufactured principally by the ,united ,states ,steel ,products ,co41 ,jones ,laughlin1 the ,gulf ,states ,steel ,co41 and the ,colorado ,fuel ,iron ,co41 although several other firms also supplied barbed wire4 ,the ,engineering ,department ordered in the ,united ,states1 during the fighting1 equipment and supplies which cost approximately #ged1bja1djg4 ,we furnished in all #he1abj steel shelters of various sizes1 of which #ch1cbj were of the individual type which could be carried by one man4 ,the steel used in these individual shelters was about one-eighth of an inch thick4 ,there may be expected to be great incidental benefit to future ,american industry from improvements and inventions brought out by ,american military engineering in #aiag and #aiah4 ,one important work1 for instance1 which the ,engineer ,department undertook was that of standardizing the requirements for paints and varnishes4 ,at the outset our ,army needs ran into #bi shades of color in #cae different paint and varnish mixtures4 ,without affecting any of our camouflage projects or other important undertakings1 we reduced the number of shades required from #bi to #af and brought the total number of commodities down from #cae to #ii4 ,this reduction in the range of commodities will be of great use to the paint and varnish industry in the future4 ,at the beginning of the war the mechanical rubber industry had but few standard specifications4 ,the ,engineers1 after considerable research1 developed #cj standard specifications for mechanical rubber goods1 which class included such materials as hose1 packing1 and sleeves4 ,the representatives of the rubber industry verbally stated that the ,engineer ,department in this short time did more good to the trade than it had been able to accomplish for itself in the previous three or four years of effort4 ,immediately after hostilities stopped rubber concerns began asking the ,engineer ,department for its standard specifications4 ,in the manufacture of hardware and kitchen utensils there was also considerable standardization done1 and changes in manufacturing methods were recommended which were put into effect by the producers4 ,all spun goods were eliminated1 and the industry confined itself to straight stamping1 which meant a reduction in labor4 ,a standard cobalt coating for enamelware was developed by which the industry conserved about #cj tons of nitre per month and made a more durable and satisfactory enamel coating1 with the result that to-day the ,army is purchasing its vast quantities of enamelware subject to certain tests1 whereas1 in the past1 practically all this material was bought purely upon the manufacturers' statements4 ,the shortage of tin was of considerable importance4 ,upon the recommendation of an ,engineer officer enormous quantities of cafeteria trays were coated with zinc and large amounts of tin thereby conserved4 ,the finished tray was entirely satisfactory and gave essentially the same service as that plated with tin4 ,horseshoe nails1 formerly a variable product1 were standardized and tested1 and methods were devised by which the ,army was enabled to control their quality4 ,before the war there was no standard rating for internal-combustion engines1 each manufacturer rating his motors according to his own ideas4 ,our studies of small engines of the type used for driving pumps or operating woodworking and metal-working machines resulted in many improvements1 which have been adopted by the manufacturers of internal-combustion engines4 ,out of these studies came the so-called army rating1 a standard which is bound to result in the more careful rating of commercial engines4 ,the ,engineer ,department brought out a modification of the design of the existing line of gasoline-driven shovels by applying caterpillar traction to the larger sizes1 thus doing away with the labor required to plank up and block shovels that move on wheels4 ,when we entered the war1 the explosive trinitrotoluol was standard for our ,army for mining and demolition purposes4 ,the ,bureau of ,mines1 in cooperation with the ,engineer ,department1 developed an explosive which is cheaper than ,t4 ,n4 ,t4 and promises to replace it for engineering operations4 ,we also improved the devices commercially used in electrical detonation of distributed charges1 our improved detonators being more certain and reliable than anything in use4 ,commercial machines for detonating as many as #bej standard ,no4 #h caps were developed for the ,panama ,canal1 but the machines in common use had seen little improvement for #be years4 ,as a result of the development by the ,engineer ,corps1 a machine capable of detonating #abj caps was obtained1 weighing no more than the #cj-;cap commercial blasting machine and costing slightly less4 ,a second machine was developed1 capable of exploding #ejj caps1 at a price not greatly above the price of a #cj-;cap commercial machine4 ,mining engineers who saw this development stated that it would have a high commercial value1 as these improved machines would make electric blasting more positive and dependable than any other form of detonation1 as well as making it possible to set off a large series of charges simultaneously4 ,the ,panama ,canal machine weighed #ce pounds and cost #abf4 ,our #ejj-;cap machine weighed #cj pounds and cost #ce4 ,the du ,pont #cj-;cap machine weighed #be pounds and cost #be4 ,our small machine weighed #bj pounds1 cost #bb4ej1 and would fire #abj caps4 ,in addition to this there might be mentioned other projects developed primarily for war purposes but which will be available for the industrial uses of peace4 ,these included portable well-drilling outfits of a new type1 alcohol stills of a small size for the utilization of waste products in small units1 sound reducers on the exhaust pipes of gasoline engines1 air strainers to minimize the chances of dust and grit entering gasoline engines4 ,when the war ended we were working on the problem of hastening the setting of concrete and were also studying the production in this country of photographic colors and tone chemicals formerly secured only from ,germany4 ,in general1 mention should be made of the exhaustive tests in many industries conducted by the ,engineer depot and by special detachments of ,engineers4 ,tests were made of hundreds of pieces of apparatus1 and these tests led to many improvements in ,american manufacture4 ,illustrating how these tests were regarded by individual concerns1 the ,cleveland ,tractor ,co41 after a test of its equipment conducted by ,army ,engineers1 stated3 ,our people consider this test to be the most valuable ever undertaken by this company4 ,this is indicative of benefits scattered throughout ,american industry by the engineering war tests4 ,while practically all of the research work which resulted in the developments and improvements noted was conducted by ,engineer officers while on duty at the ,general ,engineer ,depot in ,washington1 since the transfer of the functions of the ,general ,engineer ,depot to the ,division of ,purchase1 ,storage and ,traffic1 ,november #a1 #aiah1 much of this research work has been and still is being carried on by the latter division4 ,for handling ,engineer materials there were established the ,general ,engineer ,depot at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c1 embarkation depots at ,south ,kearney1 ,n4 ,j41 and ,norfolk1 ,va41 and shipping depots at ,baltimore1 ,md41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa41 ,jacksonville1 ,fla41 ,new ,orleans1 ,la41 and ,mobile1 ,ala4 ,in addition1 subdepots were organized at all of the divisional camps and cantonments4 ,the war demanded the production in ,america of quantities of precision instruments4 ,these were required not only by the ,ordnance ,department for the equipment of artillery with sights and indirect fire-control apparatus but also by the ,engineer ,corps1 the ,signal ,corps1 the ,bureau of ,aircraft ,production1 and the ,medical ,department4 ,these instruments were such things as aneroid barometers1 pocket compasses1 measuring tapes1 surveyors' equipment generally1 map-drawing outfits1 draftsmen's supplies1 and so on4 ,for a large period of the war the procurement of precision instruments was in the hands of the ,general ,engineer ,depot4 ,later1 when the ,war ,department's supply activities were being consolidated1 the purchasing of precision instruments1 except the highly technical sound-ranging devices1 was taken over by the ,director of ,purchase and ,storage1 the organization of the ,general ,engineer ,depot going along in the transfer4 ,the development and the production of searchlights and sound-ranging apparatus remained in the hands of the ,engineer ,corps4 ,in ,april1 #aiag1 there were probably not more than a dozen recognized ,american manufacturers of high-grade precision instruments4 ,as an indication of the expansion of manufacturing capacity required by the war1 one concern1 the ,taylor ,instrument ,cos41 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 which had manufactured in peace times watch-pocket compasses at the rate of #ae1jjj a year1 were called upon to turn them out at the rate of #aj1jjj weekly to fill an order for #bjj1jjj of them4 ,in order to handle this contract the ,taylor ,instrument ,cos4 built a new factory building in #bj days4 ,a certain type of aneroid barometer required by the exigencies had never before been produced in ,america4 ,the ,taylor ,instrument ,cos4 succeeded in producing #a1bdj of these barometers4 ,the ,lufkin ,rule ,co41 of ,saginaw1 ,mich41 was called upon to manufacture #gjj band chain measuring tapes for surveying1 graduated throughout according to the metric system1 and also #a1bdj special outfits for repairing such tape4 ,these band tapes when broken are fastened together by tiny rivets1 which are produced by special machinery4 ,because of the inability of the machine-tool industry1 swamped as it was with war demands1 to produce the special rivet-making machines1 it was necessary to reduce in the specifications for repair outfits the quantity of metal rivets for each kit from #d ounces of rivets to #b ounces4 ,field artillery required a precision instrument known as the miniature telescopic alidade of the ,gale type4 ,it is unlikely that #aej of these instruments had been made in the ,united ,states during #aj years1 yet the ,artillery demands called for the production of #a1aaj of them4 ,the ,w4 ,l4 ,e4 ,gurley ,co41 of ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 not only manufactured half of this order1 but1 in order that the ,government might obtain a sufficient supply of these instruments1 it turned over to a competing firm1 the ,eugene ,dietzgen ,co41 of ,chicago1 the lenses1 prisms1 hermetically-sealed bubbles1 and other parts for #eee instruments4 ,the ,army required large numbers of hand tally registers to be used by checkers and observers4 ,the ,benton ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,new ,york1 had been making less than #ae1jjj registers of this sort in a year1 yet it increased its facilities and turned out #fb1jjj of them for the ,army within two months4 ,the ,army required #ce1jjj complete sketching outfits for the use of military observers4 ,the contents of these outfits were manufactured by a dozen different concerns4 ,drawing instrument sets were produced by the ,eugene ,dietzgen ,co4 ,each set included a pair of proportional dividers4 ,our draftsmen had always obtained their dividers from ,europe4 ,the divider1 which nearly everyone has seen1 appears to be a simple device1 yet it must be made with the utmost precision1 or else it is valueless4 ,in manufacture it goes through more than #ajj distinct factory operations4 ,marching compasses for troops were made by the ,sperry ,gyroscope ,co41 of ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 the quantity in manufacture being over #bjj1jjj instruments4 ,many other delicate instruments of most difficult manufacture1 whose description is too technical to be set down here1 were produced successfully in ,america during the war period4 ,illustration3 ,,derrick ,,truck ,,for ,,overseas ,,use4 ,illustration3 ,,light ,,microphone ,,set4 ,illustration3 ,,geophone ,,sound ,,ranging ,,set4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,t-,m ,,surface ,,sound-,,ranging ,,set4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,sound ,,and ,,flash ,,ranging ,,and ,,searchlights4 ,in childhood we were enthralled by the tales of those magic persons whose keen hearing could detect even the whisper of the growing grass4 ,as camouflage developed1 modern warfare yearned for such supernatural gifts of sense that troops might detect the unseen presence of the enemy4 ,accordingly ,science1 the fairy godmother of today's soldiers1 raised her wand1 and lo1 the ,army was equipped with the wonderful ears of the fairy tale1 uncanny no longer1 but a concrete manufacturing proposition4 ,artillery practice nowadays abhors the wasted shot4 ,the time when cannon fired in the general direction of the enemy1 and hoped to hit something1 passed when the long-range rifles and howitzers1 with their marvelously accurate sighting instruments1 came into existence4 ,whole books have been written on the subject of pointing a modern cannon in the modern way4 ,a great proportion of our industrial effort in the recent conflict was devoted to the sole end that we might aim our artillery accurately4 ,for instance1 to this end almost exclusively was devoted the enormous production of aircraft material4 ,the observer in the airplane or balloon trusted not to his eyes but to the finer sight of the photographic camera2 and this again occasioned a large war industry--the production of cameras and their operation in the field1 which included the production of finished photography in the field dark rooms4 ,but1 as the airplane and aerial camera were perfected1 camouflage was undertaken as a protection from discovery from aloft2 and so might be brought in another chapter--the production of camouflage material and the work of camouflage experts in the field4 ,presently camouflage succeeded in baffling the camera to a great extent1 and this made necessary the development of instruments that could detect the location of the enemy by sound4 ,since the unaided ear was not keen enough to supply the desired information1 applied science came to the rescue with the various devices embraced in the general classification of sound-ranging equipment4 ,the production of this equipment was under the direction of the ,engineer ,department of the ,army4 ,in three classes of military work we needed hearing refined to the razor-edge4 ,with keen enough ears we could detect those subterranean operations of the enemy known as mining2 with ears of that sort we could detect and locate the positions of hostile cannon2 and still again we could employ such sensitiveness of hearing to find in the darkest sky at night the hostile raiding airplane4 ,one of these long-distance ear drums which man invented for himself as an aid to his military operations was known as the geophone4 ,the first geophone used by the western powers in the war was invented by the ,french4 ,it was a simple mechanism4 ,the device or drum which received the sound waves and magnified them consisted of a small closed box with a confined air space4 ,this box was weighted with a leaden disk to give it the required inertia4 ,the geophone was placed upon the ground and the vibrations of the earth were communicated through the medium of the confined air space4 ,the sounds then reached the listener's ears via a rubber tube and an ordinary stethoscope horn4 ,by means of this device the slightest vibrations of the ground were rendered audible4 ,the geophone was used to detect enemy mining operations4 ,the listener placed the weighted box on the floor of an underground gallery or on solid earth or rock4 ,if the enemy were burrowing in the ground anywhere within a distance of #ge yards the geophone would tell about it4 ,in order to enable the listener to know in what direction the sounds came1 two geophone boxes were provided1 one connected with each ear4 ,by placing the boxes a small distance apart from each other and them moving them until the vibrations in both ear horns were equalized1 the listener could tell approximately in what direction the enemy mining operation was located4 ,geophones were used by both sides1 and so effective did they prove to be that it is reported that they were largely instrumental in stopping mining operations altogether4 ,if an enemy mine were located by one of these devices1 a counter mine could be started at once and carried through1 usually with disastrous results to the hostile miners4 ,as our first step in the production of geophones1 we adopted the ,french device2 but later on we developed an instrument with nearly one-third greater range than the ,french geophone had4 ,this improvement was developed by the ,engineers and bureau specialists at the ,bureau of ,standards in ,washington with money provided by the ,engineering ,department4 ,we produced the improved model in sufficient quantities to meet the requirements of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,we also developed an electromechanical geophone that could be connected up by wire to a central listening station some distance back from an exposed location4 ,the sound-receiving boxes or microphones were placed out in ,no ,man's ,land and hidden under trash or earth4 ,they were so sensitive that they would not only record any subterranean activities of the enemy within their range1 but at night would betray enemy raiding parties attempting to cross to our positions1 the sensitive boxes picking up the vibrations of their speech or footsteps4 ,the central listener could locate approximately the position of hostile operations by observing which boxes were receiving the sounds in greatest intensity4 ,the boxes could also pick up and send to the central listening stations conversations carried on by the enemy parties even in low tones1 the apparatus thus acting as the dictatorship of the war4 ,but by far the most important work done by listening instruments was in locating the positions of enemy gun batteries4 ,this was one scientific instrument1 at any rate1 which the ,germans were never able to produce successfully for themselves4 ,during the final months of the war more enemy guns were located by listening instruments than by any other means4 ,an ,american instrument with the ,army spotted #aag ,german gun positions in a single day by surface sound ranging4 ,this was the high ,american record set in the war1 but at all times our sound-detecting equipment had an uncanny accuracy4 ,up to the end of the fighting1 no way had been discovered to conceal the location of a gun from sound-ranging instruments suitably placed and properly operated4 ,the instruments used for locating gun positions were of such a highly complicated and technical nature that no one but designers and mechanics skilled in the production of complex electrical equipment could build them at all4 ,the recording instruments1 or microphones1 were of a sort so delicate that their use theretofore had never been considered outside of laboratories4 ,yet they were required to operate successfully amid the din and concussion of heavy bombardments4 ,all useless sounds and jars were filtered out so that only the sought-for vibrations could come to the central recording mechanism4 ,studies of gunfire showed that when a cannon fires an explosive shell of high velocity there are three distinct concussions4 ,one of these is the sharp crack produced in the air when the shell1 dragging a short vacuum trail behind it1 passes over the head of the observer4 ,as the air rushes into this vacuum and collides with itself1 it produces a crack that is similar in origin to ordinary thunder4 ,the second concussion to be heard is that produced at the muzzle of the gun by the expanding gases that propel the shell4 ,there is still a third1 the break1 or explosion4 ,in order to locate a battery or gun exactly only one of these concussions--the explosion at the muzzle of the gun--must be picked up by the microphone4 ,the first and third shocks1 and all other sounds not useful to the work should be damped out and excluded4 ,a number of these microphones would be placed in scattered positions1 usually in a trench1 and then connected with the central recording mechanism4 ,when a microphone picked up a hostile gun explosion the disturbance was instantly transmitted through several miles of wire4 ,an ingenious and complicated mechanism actuated an electromagnetic needle1 which instantly recorded this disturbance on a tape of photographic paper1 calibrated to show fifths of seconds in time4 ,each microphone on outpost duty was represented on this tape by a parallel line2 and1 as six microphones were usually used1 the tape was striped with six parallel lines4 ,as the other microphones at the front picked up the concussion of the gun1 their records were made on their respective lines2 and the observers at the central station1 by noting the difference in time between the reports of the various microphones1 and by making calculations based on the rate at which sound travels1 could locate the gun that set up the disturbances by means of ordinary surveyor's triangulations4 ,so accurately would this mechanism do the work that a gun position could be determined within #ej or #fj feet4 ,incidentally1 it is interesting to note that the practice of our ,army was to secure in advance1 by means of surface sound ranging and other methods1 the positions of all the enemy's guns that could be learned4 ,then1 often after intervals of hours or even days1 the fire began simultaneously upon all these gun positions just as our attack started4 ,in this country we had two experimental stations for the development of sound-ranging apparatus4 ,we began experiments in this work in ,june1 #aiag4 ,before we had perfected any satisfactory instruments1 the ,british had met with great success with the ,bull-,tucker system2 and we adopted that type for the use of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,from plans and models sent to this country we produced an ,american ,bull-,tucker machine1 utilizing standard ,american electrical equipment wherever we could4 ,at the close of the war we had in operation along the ,american front #ab complete ,american outfits4 ,the six microphones of each recording machine in action were set about #e1jjj feet apart along the front1 so that each sound-ranging section covered a frontage of approximately #e miles4 ,the #ab outfits in use were sufficient to locate the guns of the enemy on a #fj-mile front4 ,about a month before the fighting stopped we sent to ,france a new model sound-ranging set which had been developed with the cooperation of the ,bureau of ,standards4 ,the reports from the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces indicated that this ,american development was superior in several important particulars to anything else in use when the war came to an end4 ,the ,american instruments were lighter1 easier to carry about1 easier to install1 and much cheaper than those of the ,british type1 and would operate under more adverse weather conditions4 ,the impulses received by the microphone in this equipment were recorded on a running tape smoked by an acetylene flame4 ,sound ranging for the detection of airplanes at night requires an equipment which consists fundamentally of a sound-gathering device and a listening mechanism1 the combination enabling the observer to tell the direction from which the sound is coming4 ,when a bombing plane approaches at night the hum of the motor can be heard at a distance from #a to #c miles1 or even more1 depending upon conditions4 ,but the direction of this sound is elusive to the unaided ear1 as anyone can testify who has heard an airplane in broad daylight but could not locate it with his eyes4 ,before the invention of aerial sound ranging the searchlights hunting for the hostile airplane were obliged to sweep the sky aimlessly in an endeavor to locate it2 and the pilot of the plane could often maneuver to keep out of the light4 ,but by use of the sound detectors not only can the approach of the airplane be detected at a distance beyond the hearing range of the unaided ear1 but1 what is more important1 its direction can be determined within an angle of #c4 ,the use of these sound detectors greatly increased the chances of locating airplanes at night by searchlight4 ,the ,engineer ,department conducted extensive experiments in the development of aerial sound detectors4 ,one form developed consisted of a set of long horns with listening tubes attached to the small ends and leading to receivers on the observer's head set4 ,these horns were mounted on a turntable which the observer could revolve1 so that the horns could be turned in the general direction of the sound4 ,four horns were used in this mechanism--two to indicate the direction of the airplane on a horizontal circle 7in azimuth71 and the other pair to indicate the direction on the vertical arc 7in elevation74 ,under favorable conditions the sensitiveness of this device was three times that of the unaided ear1 and the airplane could be located within an angle of #a4 ,the horn detector1 however1 was large and cumbersome and not satisfactory for a mobile unit4 ,for field sound ranging1 when the listener may wish to move from place to place1 the parabloid sound reflector was developed4 ,this hemispherical object1 like a huge fountain basin in shape1 was made of material similar to building board and shaped in parabolic lines4 ,such a sound collector echoed or reflected the sound from every point of its surface to a focal point where the listening instrument was located4 ,the observer turned the parabloid on its universal mount until the sound was equalized in his ears1 and then the exact direction of the airplane would be indicated by the azimuth and elevation pointers on the machine4 ,the paraboloids developed by our ,engineering ,department had a sensitiveness three times that of the unaided ear and could locate sound within #c of arc4 ,we were not pioneers in developing the parabloid1 however1 the ,french having built them ahead of us2 but our apparatus possessed marked advantages over that of the ,french4 ,in the first place1 the ,french collecting device weighed #c tons and was so heavy and cumbersome that it could scarcely be moved at all4 ,the total weight of the ,american collecting device was only #a1cjj pounds4 ,the ,american instrument was thus much lighter and more portable4 ,it was so simple that it could be set up in about one-sixth the time that it took to erect the ,french device4 ,the cost of our machine was only about two-fifths that of the ,french mechanism4 ,although valuable work in detecting gun positions was done by sound ranging1 yet both sides located guns by watching their flashes4 ,we improved flash-ranging sets of the allies4 ,these were simple in principle4 ,a number of observers at posts commanding good views were equipped with observation telescopes mounted on tripods to watch for the flashes of enemy guns4 ,whenever two or more of them observed the same flash and reported its direction1 the position of the gun could be determined by ordinary triangulation4 ,however1 in operation the system was not so simple1 because of the fact that the observers reporting might not have turned their instruments upon the same flash4 ,this difficulty was met by furnishing each observer with an outpost switch set4 ,as soon as he observed the flash through his telescope he closed the switch1 and that action turned on a small electric light at the headquarters station1 which might be miles away4 ,then1 as soon as he could1 he telephoned in the direction of the flash observed4 ,if the operator at the switchboard saw two or three of the lights flash simultaneously1 he knew the observers at the front had probably caught the same flash4 ,lights that came on a little ahead or a little behind the simultaneous lights were disregarded when the observers telephoned reports4 ,in developing the telescope for this system considerable difficulty was experienced on account of the shortage of the proper optical glass in this country4 ,we were1 therefore1 obliged to buy our telescopes in ,france until our supply would be available4 ,these telescopes were expensive mechanisms1 and in some of the work of the flash-ranging sections two of them were originally required at each observing station--one to determine the position of a shell burst in elevation and the other its position on the horizontal circle in azimuth4 ,since the declaration of the armistice an ,american ,engineer officer has designed a telescope eyepiece which enables this work to be done by observing through a single instrument1 thus effecting a marked saving in the number of telescopes which might be required in the future4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,parabloid ,,type ,,acoustic ,,detector4 ,illustration3 #fj-;,,inch ,,open ,,type ,,portable ,,searchlight4 ,illustration3 #fj-;,,inch ,,high ,,intensity ,,seacoast ,,type ,,searchlight4 ,when the fighting stopped our military scientists and others cooperating with them were developing a type of ground sound-ranging apparatus which it was hoped could be utilized to give troops warning of the firing of heavy artillery shells in their general direction4 ,preliminary experiments show that at a distance of #d4a miles this mechanism could record the firing of a gun some #ai seconds before the arrival of the shell4 ,under proper circumstances this elapsed time would enable troops properly warned to seek cover from the explosion of the projectile4 ,this development of sound-ranging apparatus and its application to the protection of personnel was made possible by the far greater speed with which shock vibrations travel through a dense medium like the earth than through the usual sound-conveying medium1 the atmosphere4 ,,searchlights4 ,the searchlight equipment of the ,united ,states ,army prior to #aiad consisted chiefly of lights located at our coast defenses4 ,in #aiaf we began the development of mobile searchlight-and-power units for field-army work1 four horse-drawn equipments1 with #cf-;inch lights1 being ordered first1 and later eight other sets1 with extensible towers and gasoline electric generators4 ,when the war was approaching we ordered #he sets of the limber-and-caisson type4 ,the caissons of these sets carried #bd-;inch lights on extensible towers4 ,in ,january1 #aiag1 we ordered #ej high-intensity lights to replace as many low-intensity lamps at our seacoast fortifications4 ,the first war order was placed in ,april1 #aiag1 and consisted of #bj additional searchlights of the #fj-;inch dimension1 the largest light ordered by the ,war ,department4 ,after the entrance of ,america in the war the ,engineer ,department began studying the requirements abroad for searchlights used in defense against hostile aircraft2 and in ,september1 #aiag1 this investigation resulted in orders for #cfj high-intensity searchlights1 #fic high-intensity arc mechanisms1 and #a1jjj glass mirrors of standard design4 ,about this time we began looking to the improvement of existing searchlight equipment4 ,the cooperation of leading scientists1 manufacturers1 and ,government bureaus was obtained1 and the product of exhaustive experiments was #ah different new kinds of searchlights either partially or wholly developed4 ,the first of these were produced1 shipped1 and were in operation with the ,second ,field ,army in ,france on ,october #a1 #aiah4 ,this was a new form of searchlight more powerful than any that had been produced before that time4 ,it weighed one-eighth as much as lights of former design1 cost only one-third as much1 was about one-fourth as large in bulk1 and threw a light #aj per cent stronger than any other portable projector in existence4 ,without going into the details of this mechanism its most striking innovation1 from the standpoint of the nontechnical observer1 was the absence of the front glass through which the beams of the older type lamps are sent4 ,the absence of the glass1 while reducing the weight and cost of a light1 also increased the intensity of the beam of the searchlight1 since any glass1 no matter how conducive to rays1 absorbs light to a considerable extent4 ,in the first part of the war we took the #cf-;inch lights which the ,government had on hand and mounted them on motor trucks4 ,for generating power for the lights1 motor trucks were equipped with electric generators operated by the crank-shaft of the truck engine4 ,in moving about each truck carried not only the light and power unit and accessories1 but provided space for the crew and their equipment4 ,when we went into the war there was only one firm in the ,united ,states that could make the large searchlight mirrors1 but two other concerns developed the art and the faculties during the hostilities4 ,these mirrors were of glass and cost about #a1jjj at prewar prices4 ,the maximum output in the ,united ,states before the war was three #fj-;inch mirrors per week4 ,as the result of governmental encouragement the production of the #fj-;inch mirrors increased until it reached the stage of #ae a week in ,november1 #aiah2 and the price was reduced to about #ijj per mirror1 even under war-time conditions with respect to labor and material4 ,this was equivalent to a price of about #gjj per mirror under normal conditions1 or a saving of #cj per cent4 ,a remarkable contribution of the ,united ,states to searchlight science was the production of a satisfactory metal mirror for projecting the beam4 ,the metal mirror not only weighed a little less than the glass mirror1 but it cost only one-third as much as the glass one1 could be produced in one-fifth the time1 was much less fragile1 and extended the possibility of manufacture to a wide number of industries4 ,the metal mirror possessed #ig per cent of the reflectivity of the glass mirror4 ,this slight dullness is inappreciable in searchlight work and more than compensated for by the other qualities of the metal reflector4 ,this type of mirror1 however1 had not yet been put in production when the war ended4 ,our inventors during the #ai months of hostilities succeeded in reducing the size of carbons used in #bjj-;ampere lamps from #b inches in diameter to #a-a_/h inches4 ,this cut the cost of carbons in two1 but the improvements tripled the amount of light developed4 ,in ,november1 #aiah1 we were working with assurance of success to develop a simple system whereby field searchlights could be pointed and controlled from a distance4 ,such controls had been used in experimental work prior to #aiag1 but the mechanisms were complicated and not suitable for field service4 ,the searchlight section of the ,corps of ,engineers also developed optical finding devices1 which doubled the range of all searchlights without requiring any modification of the lights themselves4 ,neither the ordinary telescope nor night glass is suitable for target finding by searchlight4 ,the result of our investigation was the development of a combined observer's chair1 eye protector1 and searchlight target finder1 the new equipment adding only #aj per cent to the cost of the searchlight unit4 ,the range of our modern high-power searchlight1 whose target is a ship at sea1 is about #ae1jjj yards2 the range of this searchlight when its target is an airplane is about #ae1jjj feet4 ,,book ,,iv4 ,,chemical ,,warfare4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,toxic ,,gases4 ,the first recorded use of suffocating gases in warfare was about #dca ,b4 ,c41 sulphur fumes having been used in besieging the cities of ,platea and ,belium in the war between the ,athenians and the ,spartans4 ,similar uses of toxic substances are recorded during the ,middle ,ages4 ,in ,august1 #ahee1 the ,english ,admiral ,lord ,dundonald1 having observed the deadly character of the fumes of sulphur in ,sicily1 proposed to reduce ,sebastopol by sulphur fumes1 and worked out the details of the proposition4 ,the ,english ,government disapproved the proposition on the ground that the effects were so horrible that no honorable combatant could use the means required to produce them4 ,that the probable use of poison gases was still in the minds of military men is evidenced by the fact that at ,the ,hague conference in #ahii several of the more prominent nations of ,europe and ,asia pledged themselves not to use any projectiles whose only object was to give out suffocating or poisonous gases4 ,many of the ,powers did not sign this declaration until later4 ,germany signed and ratified it on ,september #d1 #aijj1 but the ,united ,states never signed it4 ,further1 this declaration was not to be binding in case of a war in which a non-signatory was or became a belligerent4 ,admiral ,mahan1 a ,united ,states delegate1 stated his position in regard to the use of gas in shell1 at that time an untried theory1 as follows3 ,the reproach of cruelty and perfidy addressed against these supposed shells was equally uttered previously against firearms and torpedoes1 although both are now employed without scruple4 ,it is illogical and not demonstrably humane to be tender about asphyxiating men with gas1 when all are prepared to admit that it is allowable to blow the bottom out of an ironclad at midnight1 throwing four or five hundred men into the sea to be choked by the water1 with scarcely the remotest chance to escape4 ,the ,second ,hague ,peace ,congress in #aijg adopted rules for land warfare1 and among them was article #bc which read as follows3 ,it is expressly forbidden to employ poisons or poisonous weapons4 ,the use of toxic gas in the great war dates back to ,april #bb1 #aiae1 on which day the ,germans employed chlorine1 a common and well-known gas1 in an attack against the ,french and ,british lines in the northeastern part of the upper ,ypres salient4 ,the methods of manufacturing toxic gases1 the use of such gases1 and the tactics connected with their use were new developments of this war2 yet during the year #aiah from #bj to #cj per cent of all ,american battle casualties were due to gas1 showing that toxic gas is one of the most powerful implements of war4 ,the records show1 however1 that when armies were supplied with masks and other defensive appliances1 only about #c or #d per cent of the gas casualties were fatal4 ,this indicates that gas can be made not only one of the most effective implements of war1 but one of the most humane4 ,it will1 of course1 be necessary to remove the noncombatant population from a greater depth of country immediately in the rear of the fighting lines than formerly1 in order that women and children may not be gassed4 ,this additional sacrifice of territory for war uses is another element of effectiveness in the weapon4 ,since ,germany had chosen to utilize toxic gas in warfare1 the allied nations were compelled to adopt like tactics2 accordingly ,england and ,france1 faced with the desperate situation resulting from advantages secured by the ,germans through the employment of these new weapons1 immediately turned their attention not only to devising methods for protecting their own troops1 but also to securing supplies and equipment necessary for the utilization of toxic gas as an agent of warfare against the ,german ,army4 ,germany originated thereafter the use of most of the new forms of gas1 but the allied nations and ,america were actually producing1 at the time of the armistice1 gases on a much greater scale than ,germany was ever able to attain4 ,in fact1 ,america itself was producing gases at a rate several times as great as was possible in ,germany4 ,prior to the entry of ,america in the war our overseas observers had been collecting information bearing upon gas warfare1 referring the facts so obtained to the ,ordnance ,department in ,washington1 where the information was turned over to ,lieut4 ,col4 ,e4 ,j4 ,w4 ,ragsdale1 who was then in charge of the ,trench ,warfare ,section4 ,in the early days of our belligerency it was seen that we should need a plant for filling artillery shell with toxic gases4 ,the ,government in the fall of #aiag bought a large tract of land near ,aberdeen1 ,md41 to be an artillery proving ground4 ,approximately #c1djj acres of this reservation1 about one-tenth of it in area1 was set aside as the site for the gas shell-filling plant4 ,this reservation was known as ,edgewood1 and the plant erected on the site was called the ,edgewood ,arsenal4 ,work started on the construction of the arsenal on ,november #a1 #aiag4 ,none of the toxic gases in use in ,europe1 except chlorine and small amounts of phosgene1 had ever been commercially prepared in the ,united ,states4 ,it was the original intention to interest existing chemical firms in the manufacture of these gases2 but there were many difficulties in the way of such a project1 not the least of which was the ruling of the ,director ,general of ,railways that such products as poison gas be transported only on special trains4 ,also we discovered that the private chemical companies were loath to undertake such manufacture4 ,the exhaustive investigations necessary before quantity methods of manufacture could be devised would be uncertain and expensive4 ,there would be great danger to the lives of those employed in such work4 ,many of the private concerns were already crowded with war work4 ,finally1 the new plant equipment which must be set up would be worth nothing when the war ended1 since the manufacture of such gases would be limited to the period of hostilities4 ,these and other considerations explain the reluctance of the commercial chemical industry to undertake the production of war gases4 ,consequently the ,government was forced to adopt the plan of building various chemical plants at the ,edgewood ,arsenal in connection with the filling plant4 ,by ,december #a1 #aiag1 it had been decided to build at ,edgewood a chlorpicrin plant and a phosgene plant4 ,the contracts were immediately let1 and the work was pushed through the rigorous winter of #aiag-ah4 ,in ,march1 #aiah1 the ,edgewood project was taken from the ,trench ,warfare ,section of the ,ordnance ,department and made an independent division under the command of ,col4 ,wm4 ,h4 ,walker4 ,in ,june1 #aiah1 the ,chemical ,warfare ,service was organized1 and the ,edgewood ,arsenal was transferred to it4 ,gen4 ,w4 ,l4 ,sibert1 ,director of the ,gas ,service1 took charge of the activities of the arsenal in ,may prior to the official transfer4 ,chlorine1 the raw material for the manufacture of which is common salt1 was one of the principal materials required in the gas-production program4 ,although chlorine was a standard product in the ,united ,states prior to the war1 it was soon seen that we had an inadequate commercial supply to meet the requirements of our proposed gas offensive4 ,chlorine was used not only by itself1 but it was also the active agent in the manufacture of nearly all the other toxic gases which we required4 ,consequently we decided to build a ,government chlorine plant with two #ej-ton units1 giving a daily capacity of #ajj tons of liquid chlorine4 ,the ground for this plant at ,edgewood was broken on ,may #aa1 #aiah1 and the actual production of chlorine begun on ,september #a4 ,in ,july1 #aiag1 the ,germans introduced the so-called mustard gas4 ,it was immediately realized that for certain purposes of fighting this chemical was the most effective product so far employed1 and a large number of ,government experts here at once concentrated their energies in developing methods for its manufacture on a large scale4 ,not only were the uniformed experimenters busy at the ,gas ,service's ,american ,university ,camp1 at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 but experimental units were established at the plant of the ,dow ,chemical ,co41 at ,midland1 ,mich41 at the plant of ,zinsser ,co41 ,hastings-on-,hudson1 ,n4 ,y41 and at the ,government plant which had been started by the ,trench ,warfare ,section1 at ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,eventually it was decided to erect a large plant at ,edgewood for the manufacture of mustard gas4 ,not until ,april1 #aiah1 however1 did we feel that we possessed sufficient knowledge and information to justify the construction of a mustard-gas plant on a large scale4 ,france and ,england also were long in working out satisfactory methods of mustard-gas production4 ,we began to make mustard in ,june1 and continued with rapidly increasing output until the signing of the armistice4 ,it soon became evident that we could not depend upon civilian labor in the operation of the various chemical plants at ,edgewood because of the danger involved4 ,it was decided1 therefore1 to utilize enlisted men in the working crews4 ,as the projects at ,edgewood increased in size and number1 the forces at the arsenal grew1 until at one time there were #g1djj troops at this point4 ,meanwhile the ,government had at last been able to persuade a number of private chemical firms to manufacture toxic gases4 ,the ,government agreed to finance all new construction1 but the operation was to be in the hands of the contracting companies4 ,at each plant the ,government stationed one of its representatives with necessary assistants4 ,in the spring of #aiah1 these scattered factories by official order were made part of the ,edgewood ,arsenal1 each plant being designated by the name of the city or town where it was located4 ,thereafter in ,army usage the term ,edgewood ,arsenal embraced not only the group of factories on the ,edgewood reservation1 but also included the following projects3 ,niagara ,falls plant1 operated by the ,oldbury ,electro-,chemical ,co4 ,project--the manufacture of phosgene4 ,midland1 ,mich41 plant1 operated by the ,dow ,chemical ,co4 ,project--the sinking of #ag brine wells for the purpose of securing adequate supplies of bromine4 ,charleston1 ,w4 ,va41 plant1 operated by the ,charleston ,chemical ,co4 ,project--the manufacture of sulphur chloride4 ,bound ,brook1 ,n4 ,j41 plant1 operated by ,frank ,hemingway 7,inc474 ,project--the manufacture of phosgene4 ,buffalo plant1 operated by the ,national ,aniline ,chemical ,co4 ,project--the manufacture of mustard gas4 ,in addition to these1 the ,edgewood ,arsenal built at points advantageous to supplies of raw materials four other plants1 and operated them as well4 ,these were as follows3 ,stamford1 ,conn41 plant4 ,project--the manufacture of chlorpicrin4 ,hastings-on-,hudson1 ,n4 ,y41 plant4 ,project--the manufacture of mustard gas4 ,kingsport1 ,tenn41 plant4 ,project--the manufacture of brombenzylcyanide4 ,croyland1 ,pa41 plant4 ,project--the manufacture of diphenylchlorarsine4 ,in constructing and equipping the ,edgewood ,arsenal we laid #ba miles of standard-gauge railway and #ae miles of narrow-gauge railway1 built nearly #ae miles of improved roadway1 and set up two water systems1 one with a capacity of #a1ejj1jjj gallons per day for the manufacturing purposes of the chemical plants1 and the other providing a fresh-water supply pumped #d miles with a daily capacity of #b1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,in all #eeh buildings were put up on the grounds of the arsenal4 ,there were #hf cantonment buildings1 with a capacity of #h1djj men1 as well as adequate quarters for officers and civilian employees4 ,three field hospitals1 a complete base hospital1 and separate buildings for ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 and ,k4 of ,c4 activities indicated the extent of the building equipment4 ,three power houses were provided1 with a total capacity of #bf1ejj kilowatts4 ,in the construction of buildings every precaution was taken to avoid accidents from the handling of toxic gas1 the ventilating systems being as near perfection as human science could make them4 ,it is notable that out of the thousands of men employed only four met their death by gas poisoning4 ,three of these casualties were due to phosgene and one to mustard gas4 ,to show that all of the danger of the war was not confined to the front1 the following table of casualties in #aiah at the ,edgewood ,arsenal proper is here given3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,toxic agent4 ,june4 ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,mustard gas #ad #da #aij #aec #bbg #dg #b #fgd ,stannic chloride #c #h #ae #ba #c #ej ,phosgene #c #g #b #ag #a #ej ,chlorpicrin #ad #ah #i #c #dd ,bleach chlorine #b #ci #b #a #dd ,liquid chlorine #a #c #b #g #e #ah ,sulphur chloride #b #a #f #i ,phosphorus #b #g #e #a #ae ,caustic soda #c #c #d #aj ,sulphuric acid #d #c #a #h ,picric acid #b #b ,carbon monoxide #a #a ---------------------------------------- ----- ,totals #ad #fc #bgi #aig #bic #gf #c #ibe ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,as has been noted1 chlorine was the only war gas produced on a commercial scale in ,america prior to the war4 ,at the ordinary temperatures chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas of strong1 suffocating odor4 ,through the combined effects of cold and pressure it is readily condensed to a liquid and is ordinarily shipped in this form1 stored in strong cylinders4 ,chlorine is prepared commercially by the electrolytic process4 ,a current of electricity is passed through a solution of common salt4 ,the greenish gas at once arises1 leaving behind it a residue of caustic soda4 ,the apparatus in which the salt is decomposed by the electric current is known as a cell4 ,the ,government plant used ,nelson cells1 each with a capacity of #fj pounds of chlorine and #fe pounds of caustic soda per #bd hours4 ,the ,government chlorine plant at ,edgewood was ready for operation in ,august1 #aiah1 but was not actually started until ,september #a4 ,the plant consisted of 7#a7 a cell house1 which had a total capacity of #ajj tons of chlorine per #bd hours2 7#b7 an electric substation for supplying the current2 7#c7 a brine building1 where the salt was mixed with water and the resulting brine purified2 7#d7 a boiler and evaporation building1 for concentrating the caustic soda from the cells2 7#e7 a caustic fusion building1 for drying the caustic soda and fusing it into solid form for shipment2 and 7#f7 a liquefying plant to condense and liquefy #ej tons of chlorine per day4 ,with the exception of chlorine1 chlorpicrin was the first war gas to be manufactured on a large scale in this country4 ,when pure1 chlorpicrin is a colorless liquid which boils at a temperature approximately of #aab ,c4 ,the compound has been known since #ahdh4 ,while not so poisonous as some of the other products used in gas warfare1 it is1 nevertheless1 an active poison1 and has the additional advantage of being a fair lachrymator1 or tear producer4 ,chlorpicrin is made by the reaction between picric acid and chlorine4 ,the chlorine is best supplied in the form of so-called bleaching powder1 which is ordinary chloride of lime4 ,in the manufacturing process as originally carried out1 free picric acid was mixed with bleaching powder held in suspension with water4 ,later it was found advantageous to use calcium picrate instead of picric acid4 ,accordingly1 the final process was as follows3 ,the bleaching powder was creamed with water and mixed with a solution of calcium picrate in large stills holding #e1jjj gallons or more4 ,a jet of live steam was then introduced at the bottom of the still1 and the reaction began at once1 the rapidity depending upon the amount of steam introduced4 ,the resulting chlorpicrin1 together with a certain quantity of steam1 passed out of the still and was liquefied in the condenser4 ,the resulting mixture of chlorpicrin and water was run into tanks1 where the chlorpicrin1 being insoluble in water1 gradually settled to the bottom and was run off and used directly in gas shell4 ,in developing this process the ,government was assisted by the ,dow ,chemical ,co41 the ,semet-,solvay ,co41 and the ,american ,synthetic ,color ,co41 of ,stamford1 ,conn41 the principal work being done by representatives of the ,bureau of ,mines at the ,stamford plant4 ,illustration3 ,,airplane ,,view ,,of ,,chlorine ,,plant1 ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,illustration3 ,,chlorine ,,plant1 ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,this is the largest single chlorine and caustic soda plant in the country4 ,its capacity1 when entirely completed1 is #ajj tons of chlorine and #aab tons of fused caustic soda per day4 ,illustration3 ,,chlorpicrin ,,plant ,,at ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,bleaching powder1 lime1 and picric acid are received by rail4 ,in the mixers appearing in the right foreground lime1 picric acid1 and water are mixed to form a solution of calcium picric1 and bleach and water are mixed to form a cream4 ,these solutions are pumped together into any of the several stills1 where they react to form chlorpicrin4 ,this plant was rated at #ab tons of chlorpicrin a day1 but reached a production as high as #ca tons on one day4 ,illustration3 ,,mixer ,,building ,,of ,,phosgene ,,plant ,,at ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,the capacity of this building is #bj tons of liquid phosgene per day4 ,dry #ih per cent gaseous chlorine1 as obtained directly from the cells of the chlorine plant1 and pure carbon monoxide obtained from the producers1 are mixed in approximate equal volumes and the mixture passed through catalyzers1 where the two gases combine to form phosgene4 ,the resultant gas is liquefied in the condensers1 appearing in the left4 ,illustration3 ,,chlorine ,,plant1 ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,one of eight cell rooms1 capacity #ab tons gaseous chlorine per day4 ,each cell room consists of six circuits--#gd cells per circuit1 or a total of #ddd cells per room4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,the ,,foreground ,,the ,,chlorine ,,pipe ,,line ,,from ,,chlorine ,,plant ,,passing ,,to ,,chemical ,,plants ,,in ,,right ,,center ,,of ,,the ,,picture4 ,,on ,,the ,,extreme ,,right ,,the ,,mustard ,,gas ,,plant4 ,,in ,,upper ,,left ,,and ,,center1 ,,view ,,of ,,filling ,,plants ,,and ,,shell ,,dumps4 ,illustration3 ,,filling #a-,,ton ,,containers ,,with ,,phosgene4 ,each empty cylinder weighs #a1cjj pounds and will contain #a1fej pounds of liquid4 ,the plant shown fills #be cylinders per day4 ,illustration3 ,,machine ,,filling #ge-,,millimeter ,,shell ,,with ,,mustard ,,gas4 ,illustration3 ,,filling ,,hand ,,grenades ,,with ,,white ,,phosphorus4 ,empty grenades are first completely immersed in a shallow hot-water bath1 shown on extreme left in photo4 ,in a tank that is not shown in picture white phosphorus is melted under water1 and this molten phosphorus is pumped by a small centrifugal pump into a system of distributing pipes4 ,through a flexible tube and by hand1 each grenade is completely filled with molten phosphorus1 displacing the water in them4 ,while the grenades are still immersed in the water bath1 a suction tube is inserted in each grenade to remove the molten phosphorus to a certain depth below the top of the grenade1 this molten phosphorus being displaced by water in the bath4 ,the operation shown in the photo depicts the grenades thus filled with molten phosphorus to a definite heighth and with the remaining heighth filled with water1 having the water removed from the top of the phosphorus by suction1 after being taken out of the bath4 ,illustration3 ,,filling ,,mustard ,,gas ,,shell ,,at ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,inspected empty shell1 as shown inverted on the left in the foreground1 are placed on small filling trucks1 shown in the right middle ground1 and run under filling machine4 ,filled shell with boosters screwed down leave the tunnel1 as shown in center of picture1 where any possible mustard gas liquid on them is vaporized by gasoline torch4 ,a draft from this operation into the tunnel prevents the distribution of mustard gas vapor throughout the plant4 ,the loaded shell are then placed on trucks1 as shown in foreground of photo4 ,illustration3 ,,filling ,,livens ,,drums ,,at ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,this photo shows the ,livens drums being filled with phosgene4 ,the range of this special type of projectile1 known as the ,livens drum1 is about #a1ejj yards4 ,its empty weight is about #cj pounds1 and it contains a charge of about #cj pounds of gas4 ,illustration3 ,,painting ,,and ,,striping ,,filled ,,shell ,,at ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,after leaving the filling plants1 shell are classified by weight into four groups and each group maintained separately4 ,the shell then are stored in an inverted position to detect leaks4 ,after testing for #bd hours1 the shell are buffed1 painted1 and striped by spray painting1 as shown on the endless conveyor1 and then are ready for packing4 ,in the left background will be noted ,livens drums being similarly painted4 ,illustration3 ,,shell ,,dump ,,at ,,edgewood ,,arsenal4 ,this picture shows filled shell being stored for leakage test before being painted4 ,illustration3 ,,filled ,,containers ,,of ,,phosgene1 ,,ready ,,at ,,edgewood ,,arsenal ,,for ,,overseas ,,shipment4 ,each container holds approximately #a ton of liquid4 ,illustration3 ,,phosphorus ,,clouds ,,from ,,bursts ,,of #ge-,,millimeter ,,shell ,,at ,,lakehurst1 ,n4 ,j41 ,,proving ,,grounds4 ,illustration3 ,,gas ,,cloud ,,from #d4g-;,,inch ,,gas ,,shell ,,exploding #h1ecc ,,yards ,,away ,,from ,,the ,,gun ,,at ,,lakehurst4 ,america's whole supply of chlorpicrin during the war came from the ,american ,synthetic ,color ,co4 and the ,edgewood ,arsenal4 ,the ,stamford plant was the first to reach large-scale production4 ,the contract with the ,american ,synthetic ,color ,co4 was dated ,december #ac1 #aiag2 and the company shipped over #aaa1hec pounds of the gas to ,edgewood on ,march #aa4 ,this1 when mixed with the necessary stannic chloride1 supplies of which were already on the ground1 was sufficient to fill approximately #ajj1jjj #ge-millimeter shell4 ,in the spring of #aiah1 due to certain internal troubles at the ,stamford plant1 it was agreed that the ,united ,states should lease this factory and operate it as a ,government plant4 ,under ,government operation the total production of chlorpicrin at the ,stamford plant amounted to #c1bbf1jjj pounds1 of which #b1gjc1cjj pounds were shipped overseas in #ffj-pound drums4 ,the chlorpicrin plant at ,edgewood went into entire operation on ,june #ad1 #aiah4 ,up to the signing of the armistice this plant had produced #b1cbj1jjj pounds of chlorpicrin4 ,phosgene was one of the deadliest gases employed in the war4 ,numerous other gases were used to annoy the enemy and force the wearing of masks1 but phosgene was a killer employed to produce as many casualties as possible4 ,the gas did not persist long in the air or on the ground after the shell had exploded1 so that it was an ideal chemical for use in an attack4 ,the gas would clear away by the time the troops following reached the place of gas concentration4 ,phosgene at ordinary temperatures is a colorless gas1 but it condenses to a liquid at #h ,c4 ,it is formed by the combination of two gases1 chlorine and carbon monoxide1 in the presence of a catalyzer4 ,the reaction is best conducted in iron boxes lined with lead and filled with charcoal of proper quality1 into which boxes a stream of the reacting gases1 mixed in proper proportions1 is introduced4 ,the reaction creates heat1 and means must usually be taken to keep the reaction boxes cooled4 ,the resulting phosgene is condensed to a liquid by passing the gas through a condenser which is surrounded by brine kept cold by refrigeration4 ,the liquid is then stored in strong steel containers or run directly into ,livens drums or artillery shell4 ,prior to #aiag1 the ,oldbury ,electro-,chemical ,co41 of ,niagara ,falls1 ,n4 ,y41 had set up a small experimental phosgene plant in the hope that the experiments might lead to the commercial utilization of carbon monoxide which was obtained by this company as a by-product in the manufacture of phosphorus4 ,when we entered the war the company had developed its process to such efficiency as to warrant the construction of a large phosgene plant1 and the ,government entered into a contract with the company for the creation of facilities with a capacity of #aj tons of phosgene per day4 ,also1 because of the great importance of phosgene in warfare1 it was decided at the same time to build a ,government phosgene plant at ,edgewood4 ,a little later the ,government financed a phosgene plant at the factory of ,frank ,hemingway 7,inc471 at ,bound ,brook1 ,n4 ,j4 ,the total output of the original small experimental plant at ,niagara ,falls1 which was later leased by the ,united ,states1 was #hc1jgj pounds of phosgene1 of which #bd1hjj pounds were shipped overseas4 ,the contract with the ,oldbury ,chemical ,co4 for its main phosgene plant was signed on ,january #ae1 #aiah4 ,production here began on ,august #e and by ,august #bj had reached a daily average of #e tons4 ,on ,november #a the average daily production was #g tons4 ,the total quantity produced at this plant was #dce tons4 ,the plant loaded #ah1gfh ,livens drums with phosgene1 each drum holding about #cj pounds4 ,this plant was operated by enlisted men4 ,the contract with ,frank ,hemingway 7,inc47 called for a factory producing #e tons of phosgene per day by a secret process controlled by the company4 ,the construction of the plant was begun on ,february #b1 #aiah1 and phosgene was first manufactured on ,may #ag4 ,this concern reached its maximum of #e tons per day by ,august #a1 and produced in all #bje tons of phosgene4 ,construction of the phosgene plant at ,edgewood was begun on ,march #a1 #aiah4 ,the plant consisted of four catalyzer buildings1 each building having four units1 each unit possessing a projected capacity of #e tons of phosgene per day4 ,the total capacity1 therefore1 was designed to be #hj tons per day4 ,the carbon monoxide used in the process was produced by passing a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide over heated coke in a gas producer1 the oxygen being supplied by a ,claude machine with a capacity of #ajj1jjj cubic feet of oxygen every #bd hours4 ,the chlorine used came partly from the ,edgewood chlorine plant and partly from outside sources4 ,the actual production of phosgene at ,edgewood began on ,july #e1 #aiah1 and worked up to an output of #bj tons per day by the date of the armistice4 ,the total production of phosgene at ,edgewood was #ice tons4 ,the total output of phosgene from all three plants1 ,edgewood and the ,bound ,brook and ,niagara ,falls operations1 at the date of the armistice was #ce tons per day2 and this was increasing to reach #ie tons per day by ,may #a1 #aiai4 ,the total phosgene produced by all the plants before the armistice was #a1faf tons4 ,the ,germans1 in spite of their attainments in chemistry1 were never able to improve their clumsy and expensive methods of producing mustard gas4 ,the best reports we have show that at the time the fighting ended1 all of ,germany's chemical warfare facilities could not produce more than #f tons of mustard per day4 ,the ,united ,states alone had ten times that capacity on the same date1 while ,france and ,england both reached a heavy output4 ,so concerned was the ,german high command because of the fact that ,germany was being outdistanced in the production of mustard gas that the ablest spy of the ,german ,empire was sent into ,france in ,october1 #aiah1 to find out the ,french method of making mustard4 ,one of the ,chemical ,warfare officers who accompanied our forces into ,german territory reported that the ,germans had decided to adopt the ,american method of making mustard gas and to stop their former process4 ,mustard gas was by no means a child of the great war1 having been prepared in experimental quantities since #ahhf4 ,it is a colorless1 slightly oily liquid1 boiling at #bbj ,c4 with some decomposition4 ,when perfectly pure it freezes at #ad ,c42 but1 since it usually contains small percentages of impurities1 it usually remains liquid at #j ,c1 or even below that4 ,in chemistry the substance is known as dichlorethyl sulphide4 ,the first commercial process proposed for the manufacture of mustard gas depended upon the use of ethylene chlorhydrin2 and on ,april #ac1 #aiah1 a contract was made with the ,commercial ,research ,co41 ,flushing1 ,long ,island1 for the manufacture of #aj tons per day by this process4 ,in the spring and summer of #aiah a new process was developed both abroad and in the ,united ,states1 one which used sulphur monochloride4 ,accordingly1 the contract with the ,commercial ,research ,co4 was canceled1 and efforts were concentrated on the later process4 ,this process consisted in blowing gaseous ethylene into liquid sulphur monochloride in large iron reaction vessels4 ,the reaction developed much heat4 ,sulphur is set free by this reaction1 and the temperature must be controlled in order to prevent the formation of solid sulphur in the reaction machine4 ,at the date of the armistice three mustard gas plants were either completed or nearing completion4 ,the construction of the ,edgewood plant was begun on ,may #ah1 #aiah1 and the first mustard was produced exactly a month later4 ,the changing of processes1 however1 hampered production somewhat1 but by ,september #bj1 the arsenal was producing #aj tons per day1 and by ,november #aa had increased this to #cj tons per day4 ,the total production of mustard gas at ,edgewood during the war period was #gaa tons1 of which approximately #cjj tons went into shell4 ,on ,july #h1 #aiah1 the ,government began the construction of a mustard gas plant at ,hastings1 ,n4 ,y4 ,this factory was to have a capacity of #be tons per day1 afterwards increased to #ej tons per day4 ,the first unit of this plant was ready to operate when the armistice was signed4 ,on ,july #f1 #aiah1 the ,government signed a contract with the ,national ,aniline ,chemical ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y41 calling for a mustard gas plant with a capacity of #ej tons daily4 ,on ,november #aa this plant was #hj per cent complete4 ,the cost of the plant was met by the ,government1 but the operation was to be in the hands of the ,buffalo concern4 ,the total daily capacity of all three plants when complete was estimated to be #bjj tons4 ,to insure an adequate supply of sulphur monochloride for its mustard gas production the ,government built a special plant at ,edgewood with a capacity of #cjj tons of sulphur monochloride per day4 ,as soon as toxic gas warfare had developed to a considerable extent1 the perfection of gas-absorbing masks had given almost a complete protection against this new weapon1 if the soldier put on his gas mask in time4 ,but the mask1 especially the earlier forms of it1 was not easy upon the wearer1 due to the difficulty of breathing through it and also because it restricted the soldier's vision4 ,it was soon discovered that a force compelled to wear its gas masks for any considerable period lost in efficiency4 ,the employment of gas by both sides for the purpose of forcing the opposite sides to wear masks continually was an important element in war at the close of hostilities4 ,for this purpose the so-called tear gases were produced4 ,gassing the enemy with tear gas was much cheaper than with poison gas1 yet it forced him to remain masked4 ,the tear gases were highly effective4 ,even a trace of tear gas in the air would in a few moments blind a man temporarily4 ,a single tear-gas shell could force the wearing of masks over an area so wide that it would require from #ejj to #a1jjj phosgene shell to produce the same effect4 ,most of the tear gases had bromine bases2 so it was early determined that we should have to increase the ,american supply of bromine considerably if we were to meet our gas-warfare requirements4 ,bromine is a deep red liquid which boils at #fc ,c4 ,the domestic source of bromine is principally in certain subterranean brines found in the ,united ,states1 these solutions containing bromine in its compounds4 ,the brines obtained in the vicinity of ,midland1 ,mich41 are especially rich in bromine1 and by far the largest amount of bromine obtained in this country comes from that locality4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 at a conference with ,mr4 ,dow1 of the ,dow ,chemical ,co41 ,midland1 ,mich41 it was decided that the ,government should finance the sinking of #ag brine wells near ,midland1 the ,dow ,chemical ,co4 to supervise the work and to produce the bromine from the brine4 ,the work on this project was not begun until ,march1 #aiah1 but the entire project was practically completed when the armistice was signed4 ,this plant is a future war asset of the ,united ,states4 ,it is capable of yielding approximately #fej1jjj pounds of bromine per year4 ,the tear gas which we prepared to manufacture was brombenzyl cyanide4 ,it is a brownish oily liquid which solidifies to white or brownish crystals at #bi ,c4 ,the production of brombenzyl cyanide involves a fairly intricate chemical process4 ,the first step is to chlorinate ordinary toluol1 one of the coal tar bases1 to produce benzyl chloride4 ,this chloride is then mixed with sodium cyanide in alcoholic solution and distilled1 benzyl cyanide being the result4 ,it is then only necessary to brominate the benzyl cyanide by treating it with bromine vapor4 ,the first manufacture of brombenzyl cyanide in the ,united ,states was conducted at an experimental plant at the ,american ,university ,station at ,washington4 ,after this a large scale plant was authorized at the plant of the ,federal ,dye ,chemical ,co41 at ,kingsport1 ,tenn4 ,the construction of this factory began on ,july #h1 #aiah1 and operations started on ,october #bi1 the total production of brombenzyl cyanide being a trifle over #e tons4 ,in ,november the plant reached a capacity of #c tons per day4 ,the bromine gases were not poisonous in the sense of being killers1 but were merely highly irritating to the membranes of the eye4 ,the killing gases were phosgene1 chlorpicrin1 and chlorine4 ,mustard gas in sufficient amount was also fatal1 its effect being identical to that of a deep burn4 ,it attacked the lungs1 the eyes1 the skin1 and even the intestines if food contaminated with mustard gas were swallowed4 ,an insidious feature of mustard gas is the fact that its action is practically always delayed4 ,it might be several hours after a man was gassed1 even fatally1 with mustard before he became aware of it1 and then it was too late to administer the treatment that might save his life4 ,goggles alone would have been sufficient protection against tear gas1 except for the fact that it was invariably mixed with the deadlier gases4 ,the various experiments preliminary to our production of gases were conducted in provisional laboratories at the ,bureau of ,standards1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,bureau of ,mines1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 the ,geophysical ,laboratory1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 the ,ohio ,state ,university1 ,columbus1 ,ohio1 and ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,a control laboratory for the solution of problems arising in manufacture was eventually established at ,edgewood4 ,a total of #afg1jib single chemical determinations were made at these laboratories under the direction of #bj commissioned officers1 #de noncommissioned officers1 and #bjd privates4 ,the production of gases and other chemicals was only part of the work of the ,edgewood ,arsenal and its subsidiary plants4 ,the other chief activity was that of filling artillery shell with the toxic substances4 ,the description of the plant which filled shell with phosgene will indicate the scale upon which this operation was conducted4 ,the empty shell1 after being inspected1 were loaded on trucks1 together with the proper number of loaded boosters4 ,the booster was the device which exploded the shell and scattered the gas4 ,electric locomotives then pulled the shell trucks to the filling buildings4 ,there were four of these to a single shell-filling plant1 radiating at right angles from a common center4 ,from the trucks the empty shell were lifted by hand to a belt conveyor and the conveyor carried the shell slowly through a room kept cold by artificial refrigeration4 ,although the shell moved only #gj feet through this room the conveyor traveled so slowly that they were #cj minutes in transit1 and during this time they were cooled to a temperature of about #j ,f4 ,this chilling was necessary because phosgene has a low boiling point1 and it was necessary to keep the temperature of the metal of the shell considerably below the boiling point of phosgene in order that the gas might remain in liquid form while the filling was going on4 ,the chilled shell cases were next transferred to small trucks1 each carrying six of them4 ,the loaded truck was then drawn through a filling tunnel by means of a chain haul4 ,this tunnel was so ingeniously contrived that the human assistance to the filling and closing machinery could all be conducted from the outside4 ,the phosgene1 kept liquid by refrigeration1 was run into the shell by an automatic filler4 ,the truck was then moved forward a few feet to a point where the boosters were inserted into the noses of the shell by the hands of the operator reaching in through an aperture in the tunnel4 ,the final closing of the shell was then accomplished by motors4 ,the air in the filling tunnel was constantly withdrawn by strong ventilation1 the exhaust air being washed in stone towers by chemical agents to neutralize any gases that might be present4 ,the filled1 inclosed shell were next conveyed to a dump1 where they were classified and then stood nose down for #bd hours to test them for leaks4 ,then they were painted1 striped1 and stenciled by air paint brushes4 ,the final process was to pack them in boxes and store them for shipment4 ,this was done in large storage magazines on the grounds of the ,edgewood ,arsenal4 ,a similar method was used for filling shell with chlorpicrin1 except that refrigeration was unnecessary4 ,mustard gas required another sort of filling machine4 ,several filling plants were designed and constructed for filling grenades with stannic chloride and with white phosphorus1 and also one for filling incendiary drop bombs4 ,the capacity of each of these plants per day was as follows3 ,stannic chloride plant1 hand grenades1 #be1jjj4 ,white phosphorus grenade plant1 #cj1jjj4 ,white phosphorus smoke-shell plant1 #aee millimeter shell1 #b1jjj2 or #d4g-;inch or #e-;inch shell1 #d1jjj2 or #ge-millimeter shell1 #f1jjj4 ,incendiary drop-bomb plant1 #b1jjj4 ,the following sentences summarize the production and expectations of the ,edgewood ,arsenal3 7#a7 ,the gas program as of ,march #aiah called for approximately #ede tons of toxic gas weekly4 7#b7 ,the ,chemical ,warfare ,service program of ,august #ab1 #aiah1 called for a much larger amount1 viz1 about #d1ebe tons per week4 7#c7 ,the approximate filling capacity of the ,edgewood ,arsenal plant from ,august to ,november1 #aiah1 was nearly #a1jjj tons per week4 7#d7 ,the toxic gas production during this same period increased from #dej to #fge tons per week4 7#e7 ,the capacity of all projectiles received1 unlimited by boosters1 varied during the same period from #abe to #dej tons per week4 7#f7 ,the maximum capacity corresponding to boosters received was less than #ajj tons per week4 ,in these facts it will be seen that the numbers of empty shell delivered to the plant was far less than the number required to accommodate the gas production4 ,many of the shell received were without boosters and therefore without value until boosters were provided1 so that the limiting factor was really the supply of boosters4 ,the booster supply was sufficient to take care of only a relatively small fraction of the toxic gas actually produced4 ,the filling capacity of the plant was also in excess of the delivery of shell and boosters4 ,the #ge-millimeter shell-filling plant had a capacity of #a1bjj1jjj shell per month1 eventually double that1 while delivery of shell was slightly over #cjj1jjj per month and of boosters less than #bjj1jjj4 ,because of the nature of toxic gas it is impossible to store it up in any large quantities4 ,early in the summer of #aiah large amounts were shipped in bulk overseas and there loaded into shell4 ,later we received instructions to stop all shipments in bulk except a limited amount of chlorine1 and thereafter our production was limited to the number of shell and boosters available4 ,in ,june1 #aiah1 we shipped in bulk #ae tons of mustard gas1 #gje tons of chlorpicrin1 and #dh tons of phosgene4 ,this was to be exchanged for gas shell produced by the ,french4 ,in late ,july the ,french had no more extra shell to be filled with ,american gas and this fact terminated the arrangement4 ,however1 we sold excess gas both to ,england and to ,france4 ,england received #ijj tons of our chlorpicrin and #cfh tons of ,american phosgene4 ,france took #cjj tons of chlorpicrin and #a1djh tons of chlorine1 equivalent to #a1bbf tons of phosgene1 since phosgene is #hj per cent chlorine including allowance for wastage in manufacture4 ,france furnished phosgene shell to us in exchange for chlorine4 ,in addition #bjj tons of mustard gas were shipped to ,england and utilized by the ,english4 ,we therefore shipped to ,europe in bulk #c1ffb tons of gas or its equivalent1 which gas was largely loaded in shell and used by the ,united ,states troops or those of the allies4 ,this quantity was sufficient to load #a1fjj1jjj shell1 two-thirds of them being of the #ge-millimeter caliber and the other one-third #aee-millimeter1 the total number being thought to be at least equal to the total number of gas shell fired by ,american troops in action4 ,thus while ,american gas was not actually fired in ,american shell against the ,germans1 ,american gas was used against the enemy and ,america furnished at least as much gas as she fired4 ,in addition to this we shipped #ah1fjj ,livens drums loaded with phosgene4 ,these contained #bgi tons of gas1 and some of them were fired at the enemy4 ,we began producing loaded gas shell in the summer of #aiah and by ,august #i had shipped #ge1jjj loaded #ge-millimeter shell4 ,these shell were unassembled for firing in the guns1 the ,ordnance ,department having decided in ,june to assemble gas shell in their cartridge cases in ,france4 ,the ,chemical ,warfare production organization developed and manufactured a large number of special containers for the shipment of toxic gases4 ,these were of special construction in order to guard against dangers that would result from leaks1 and all had to stand the tests required by the ,bureau of ,explosives before they would be received for railroad shipment4 ,the #a-ton containers1 all of which would hold #a ton of liquid chlorine1 were designed by the ,ordnance ,department and would withstand a pressure of #ejj pounds per square inch4 ,the #cjj-pound phosgene cylinders1 designed by the ,ordnance ,department1 were made to withstand a #ejj-pound hydrostatic pressure and a #bej-pound air test4 ,we purchased standard #ee-;gallon acid drums and standard-pattern cylinders for holding #ge pounds of chlorine4 ,we constructed chlorine tank cars1 each tank with a capacity of #ae tons and a strength that could withstand a pressure of #ejj pounds to the square inch4 ,we also designed a tank car originally for the shipment of chlorpicrin and later used it for shipping sulphur monochloride4 ,,chemical ,,warfare ,,production ,,data4 ,production of toxic material4 ,all figures are for tons of #b1jjj pounds4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,tita- #aiah ,liquid ,gaseous,chlor- ,phos-,mus- ,brom- ,white ,tin nium chlor- chlor- picrin4gene4tard benzyl phos- tetra-tetra- ine4#cc;ine4#cd oil4 cyanide phorus chlor-chlor- ide ide4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,january #aj ,february #bg #cd ,march #dj #ei #gd #ch ,april #agf #cc #ae #ei #aaf ,may #cgh #acj #ah #gj #ea #ej ,june #edf #bfc #bc #f #fj #ie ,july #eab #dii #ajj #ba #hj #aab #bg ,august #bdc #fdf #cad #cf #afb #id #ec ,september #dch #aia #efd #cbg #add #abe #if #bf ,october #bdb #fdi #dde #ffd #cfa #bfe #ge #be ,november #adh #bfd #ajj #aee #adc #e #gg #ah ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,total #b1gbc #a1ajd #b1ggf #a1faf #gaa #e #a1jjf #fie #aha ,amount #a1dhh #a1ijc #dbj #aij #aga #ajf shipped overseas ,total #hie #a1ejj #a1ejja1jej #ijj #ij #ajj #ia #cj monthly producing capacity1 ,nov4 #a1 #aiah ,estimated #a1ajj #b1bej #a1ejja1fejd1jjj #ij #ajj #ia #cj capacity1 ,jan4 #a1 #aiai ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #cc ,procured from commercial agencies4 #cd ,manufactured at ,edgewood4 ,shell1 grenades1 ,livens drums1 and drop bombs filled4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ge-mm4 shell4 ,grenades4 ,livens ,incendiary drop drums4 bombs4 #aiah ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,chloro-,phos-,mustard ,white ,tin ,phos- picrin gene oil phos- tetra- gene ,mark ,i ,mark ,,ii4 phorus chloride ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,july #fb1hff #h1fif #a1fci ,august #abe1iea #agj1afj #ef1gfc #a1gch #cej ,september#aaj1ceha1ihh #ge1ebi #ea1dba #abg1cai #f1cee #a1iih ,october #ji1gjd #ab #gi1bgbaaj1ibh #adg1ffi #ab1jbf #ahd #ajj ,november #ae1hib #i #bbd #ih1idh #cj1chf #e1egj #h #f ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total #dbd1ggab1jji #aee1jbeddj1aec #cfc1ggf #be1fhi #edb #b1ajd ,total #cjj1jjj #aej1jjjbbd1ihd #age1jhj #ah1fjj number shipped overseas ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,total monthly capacity of filling plants on date of armistice 7,stokes shell1 drop bombs1 and other special containers not included74 #ge-mm4 shell 7ultimate capacity7 #b1djj1jjj #d4g-;inch shell #dej1jjj #aee-mm4 shell #edj1jjj #f-;inch shell #ahj1jjj ,gas grenades #gej1jjj ,smoke grenades #dhj1jjj ,livens drums #cj1jjj ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,gas ,,defense ,,equipment4 ,during the spring and summer of #aiag two marked tendencies were to be observed in the fighting in ,france4 ,one of these was the greatly increased use by both sides of poisonous gases and chemicals1 frightful in their effect2 the other the almost complete censorship that hid the knowledge of this tendency not only from the people of ,europe but particularly from those of the newest belligerent1 ,america4 ,the ,french and ,british ,governments1 who then controlled all news from the front1 feared1 and perhaps with reason1 that if the picture of gas warfare1 as it was then developing1 should be placed before the ,american people1 it would result in an unreasonable dread of gases on the part of the ,american ,nation and its soldiers4 ,one year later1 with tens of thousands of ,american troops facing the ,germans1 there was almost no censorship upon the details of fighting with chemicals4 ,the mysterious gases of #aiag were then known to almost every reading individual in the civilized world4 ,the once secret formulas were published in the technical journals4 ,non-censored photographs of defensive equipment were freely published1 and masks and other paraphernalia were exhibited for the public interest4 ,except for secret plans for the future and the various surprises being prepared by one or more of the belligerents1 the whole subject of chemical warfare had become an open book4 ,what occasioned this change in policy on the part of governing authorities8 ,the reason was that the ,american troops brought with them to ,france the best and most protective gas masks the world had seen2 and they brought these with them by the millions4 ,starting a mask-production effort in ,may1 #aiag1 ,america turned out a total of #e1bej1jjj gas masks before the armistice was signed1 and sent more than #d1jjj1jjj of them overseas4 ,as to the quality of these masks1 it is only necessary to say that they gave twenty times the protection afforded by the best ,german gas masks4 ,in other words1 we protected our soldiers against the poisons which ,germany had brought into warfare1 and protected them completely4 ,no ,american soldier was ever gassed due to the failure of an ,american gas mask1 and such gas casualties as did occur were due to the fact that the masks were not quickly enough utilized when gas was thrown over1 or because the soldier was unaware of the presence of gas4 ,with such protection there was no longer reason to fear that the frightfulness of chemical warfare would reduce ,american morale4 ,the production of gas masks was one of the most picturesque and successful phases of our entire war preparation4 ,it engaged the attention of some of the principal chemical engineers of the country1 and millions of men1 women1 and children in the ,united ,states contributed something to the success of the undertaking1 if only to obey the ,eat ,more ,coconut slogan or to save peach stones for the benefit of the production of the charcoal essential to efficient gas masks4 ,the problem of making masks in such quantity and under such supreme demands for perfection was one which might well stagger manufacturers accustomed to large-scale operations4 ,we started in with practically no knowledge whatsoever of the fundamental principles of a perfect mask4 ,yet the apparatus was as difficult to build as a rifle4 ,it must1 perforce1 be made of perishable materials1 and this fact brought the question of durability to the fore at the very start4 ,it was evident that no chemical substances known in our past commercial life would give protection against the new poisons which had been developed in ,europe4 ,with the exception of phosgene and chlorine1 the various war gases which had been brought out prior to our entrance in the struggle were completely unknown in our trade or commerce and had existed only in our experimental laboratories4 ,then it was discovered that as these toxins increased in power they could penetrate the ordinary fabrics known in commerce1 and this necessitated the creation of new types of materials to be used in the masks4 ,finally the increasing use of gases forced the soldiers to wear their masks for much longer periods than had been necessary at the beginning of gas warfare2 so that the problem of comfort became one of great importance4 ,all of these basic considerations indicate to some extent the difficulty of the undertaking4 ,the chlorine1 which floated in a pale greenish-yellow cloud down upon the defenseless ,canadian troops at ,ypres1 with such terrible effect upon the men1 was1 as has been said1 the first gas used4 ,chlorine1 though easy to obtain1 the principal source of supply being common table salt1 was1 from the standpoint of strategy1 far from being the ideal gas of warfare4 ,troops could be quickly and easily protected from it4 ,but even as it was1 only lack of faith in their new weapon prevented the ,germans from winning the war with it then and there4 ,had they brought into the fighting a sufficient supply of this chlorine1 they might have gassed their way to ,paris in short order4 ,in fact1 they brought to the line an almost negligible supply and they themselves were insufficiently protected to go through their own gas and follow up the attack4 ,by the time they were able to renew gas warfare the ,french and ,british had equipped themselves with masks which were sufficient to protect men against chlorine4 ,thereafter the tendency was toward new and strange gases which were heavy in weight and highly toxic in their physiological action4 ,this development led to new1 slightly volatile liquids1 the so-called mustard gas being the best example4 ,mustard gas 7properly called dichlorethyl sulphide7 is similar to lubricating oil in many of its physical characteristics but smells like ordinary mustard4 ,ground soaked with the mustard gas remains impregnated for days1 the vapor rising continually4 ,a perfect mask is one which will remove completely every trace of gas or poisonous vapor before the air can reach the eyes1 nose1 or mouth of the soldier4 ,the first masks adopted by the allies were simply gauze pads saturated with neutralizing chemicals4 ,these became unsuitable as soon as new varieties of powerful poisons were brought out4 ,the mask development thereafter progressed to the box respirator type4 ,this consisted of a mask or helmet connected to a box filled with absorbing and neutralizing chemicals which purified the air for the mask wearer4 ,this was the type of respirator in use to the end of the fighting4 ,it is quite clear to us now that only such a mask could be efficient in chemical warfare1 but in the early part of #aiag the matter was not clear either to us or to the allies4 ,the first requisitions from the ,a4 ,e4 ,f4 called for masks of two types1 each soldier to be supplied with one of each4 ,the reserve mask was to be of the gauze type and the regular mask of the box respirator type1 affording protection from the more powerful poisons that were then just coming into use4 ,we wasted considerable energy at the beginning in our attempt to produce both types4 ,eventually1 however1 when we were just ready to start manufacturing the gauze-type mask1 orders came to abandon the effort1 since it was even then apparent that our soldiers must be prepared at all times to withstand all gases4 ,the box respirator equipment1 the general principle of which was finally adopted by all the nations at war1 fell into two classes4 ,in a single-protection mask the wearer breathed air from inside of the face piece1 so that any leakage around the edges of the face piece would result in a casualty when the wearer was in a strong concentration of gas4 ,the other sort1 known as the double-protection mask1 consisted of a gas-tight face piece1 similar to that of the single-protection mask4 ,in this type1 to guard against any possible leakage around the edges between the mask and the wearer's skin1 the breathing system was sealed away from the air inside the face piece by means of a rubber mouthpiece and a nose clip1 the wearer inhaling through the mouthpiece4 ,illustration3 ,,various ,,types ,,of ,,gas ,,masks4 ,top row1 left to right4--,first type ,u4 ,s4 ,navy mask1 now obsolete2 ,u4 ,s4 ,navy mask as finally developed2 ,u4 ,s4 ,c4 ,e4 respirator 7production started ,october1 #aiag72 ,u4 ,s4 ,r4 ,f4 ,k4 respirator 7production started ,february1 #aiah72 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,t4 respirator 7production started ,august1 #aiah72 ,u4 ,s4 ,k4 ,t4 mask 7production started ,august1 #aiah72 ,u4 ,s4 model #aiai mask 7ready for production when armistice was signed74 ,middle row1 left to right--,british black veil mask 7first mask used after initial gas attack in ,april1 #aiae72 ,british ,p4 ,h4 helmet 7stops phosgene but not tear gases72 standard ,british box respirator used by all ,british forces after #aiaf2 ,french ,m-#b mask used by the ,french2 ,french ,tissot mask used by artillerymen2 ,french ,a4 ,r4 ,s4 mask4 ,bottom row1 left to right4--,late type of ,german mask2 ,experimental mask2 ,italian mask 7similar to ,french ,m-#b mask72 ,british ,motor ,corps respirator2 ,u4,s4 rear area emergency respirator2 ,u4 ,s4 ,connell mask 7never passed the experimental stage74 ,illustration3 ,,american ,c4 ,e4 ,,type ,,of ,,box ,,respirator4 ,this side view shows face piece1 harness1 hose1 flutter valve1 and knapsack4 ,this is the mask most used by our troops4 ,the ,united ,states and ,english double-protection masks consisted of #aa principal parts as follows3 #a4 ,a knapsack slung from the shoulder or neck4 ,this contained the canister and a pocket for storing away the mask when not in use4 #b4 ,a metal canister in which was contained the absorptive neutralizing chemicals4 #c4 ,a flexible hose reaching from the canister to the face piece4 #d4 ,a flutter1 or exhalation1 valve1 which opened when the wearer exhaled his breath and closed when he inhaled1 thus bringing the inhalation through the canister but allowing the exhalation from the lungs to pass out without polluting the chemicals of the canister4 #e4 ,the face piece1 or hood1 fitting snugly around the edges and covering the eyes1 cheeks1 lower forehead1 nose1 mouth1 and chin4 #f4 ,the eyepieces1 or lenses1 through which vision was maintained4 #g4 ,an elastic harness for the head1 to hold the face piece in place4 #h4 ,a body cord to tie around the chest and hold the knapsack firmly1 so that the mask could be seized in both hands and pulled out of the knapsack4 #i4 ,a metal flange connection or angle tube which carried the hose through the face piece to the mouthpiece4 #aj4 ,a rubber mouthpiece through which the wearer breathed and which helped to hold the mask in place4 #aa4 ,a wire nose spring and rubber nose pad to hold the nostrils shut and force breathing through the mouth4 ,the first order for gas masks was issued on ,may #af1 #aiag1 when the ,chief of ,staff asked the ,surgeon ,general to supply #a1ajj1jjj masks before ,june #cj1 #aiah1 or within about one year4 ,meanwhile #be1jjj masks were needed at once in order to equip ,gen4 ,pershing's first division1 then about to sail overseas4 ,there was but one man in the ,army who knew anything at all about the subject and who could even attempt to produce this quantity in three weeks4 ,this was ,maj4 7later colonel7 ,l4 ,p4 ,williamson1 of the ,surgeon ,general's ,department1 who had been spending some months at the ,army ,war ,college at ,washington studying as a side issue such papers on gas warfare as came from abroad4 ,it was due to his knowledge and the volunteer staff of the ,bureau of ,mines that we were able to begin the actual manufacture of masks within a few days after the requirements were fixed1 and actually to turn out #be1jjj masks in but little more than three weeks' time4 ,col4 ,williamson's first step was to consult with ,dr4 ,van4 ,h4 ,manning1 the ,director of the ,bureau of ,mines1 and with his assistant1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,a4 ,burrell4 ,since ,february1 #aiag1 the ,bureau of ,mines had been experimenting with gas masks and had built up a corps of scientists for this work4 ,within this organization was ,mr4 ,bradley ,dewey1 a chemical engineer1 who1 though then director of the research laboratory of the ,american ,sheet ,tin ,plate ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 had been loaned to the ,bureau of ,mines4 ,to ,mr4 ,dewey was turned over the job of directing the production of the first #be1jjj masks for the ,american troops then sailing4 ,to produce #be1jjj gas masks in three weeks meant to compress ,england's two years of experience into #ba days4 ,the military authorities of this country at that time could plead entire ignorance of the qualifications of an efficient gas mask4 ,the prevailing idea seemed to be that you could go out into the market and buy them by the hundreds of thousands1 as you might buy ,halloween masks4 ,but this was not any ordinary poison which we were to fight4 ,these powerful chemicals attacked the human tissues as would acid4 ,as the result of the effort1 we did supply the first division going overseas in ,july4 ,however1 the masks were inferior to the ,british and were quickly replaced in ,france by ,british equipment4 ,it was not until the following ,january that we developed an apparatus which we regarded as satisfactory to undergo the supreme test of battle4 ,to indicate some of the difficulties overcome between ,may and ,december1 #aiag1 there are here set forth some of the features of an effective mask4 ,in the first place1 the face piece must fit perfectly2 it must not leak gas around the edges4 ,it must fit into the hollows of the temples and must give the jaws a free space in which to work1 and yet not slip back and press against one's ,adam's apple4 ,the pressure of the mask on the forehead must come above the supraorbital nerves which are just above the eyebrows1 or else intense headaches will result from a few moments' wear4 ,moreover1 to fit all faces and heads1 several graduated sizes of masks are required4 ,we first attained the gas-tight fit with a padded band around the edge of a flexible rubber-cloth face piece4 ,later we developed a thicker1 stiffer face piece1 but maintained a gas-tight fit by the elasticity of the face piece and the head harness4 ,then the material of the face piece must be gas-tight in itself4 ,at first we manufactured a fabric made by spreading rubber on cotton sailcloth2 and1 after testing it1 we found that the smallest molecule known1 that of hydrogen1 would not pass through it in large amounts4 ,this seemed to be a suitable fabric1 until tested by the newer gases4 ,then we found that some of these gases were soluble in rubber compounds and could dissolve their way through thin rubber so quickly that the face piece cloth offered practically no protection at all4 ,another difficulty with the rubber fabric was that it was likely to absorb and hold certain of the poisons1 so that a man might be gassed by the mask itself4 ,the rubber companies1 principally at ,akron1 ,ohio1 experimented continually until they discovered a coating that would not only withstand gas concentrations for a sufficient time1 but would also aerate promptly and lose as much gas as it had absorbed4 ,the eyepieces or lenses offered another problem4 ,celluloid is strong but it is not so transparent as glass4 ,it ignites easily and is easily scratched4 ,glass is ideal in transparency and will not burn1 but is fragile4 ,it was evident that we must provide eyepieces which would not break easily1 since even so slight an accident as the breaking of a lens might cost a soldier his life by admitting concentrated gas to the mask4 ,a material known as triplex glass had been experimentally made4 ,this consisted of a thin celluloid strip sandwiched between two layers of glass1 all three welded together4 ,this glass would not splinter1 and even if cracked or broken1 would still be gas-tight4 ,however1 this had never been made in quantity and it was necessary to work out many kinks and to start a large plant to provide the necessary millions of lenses4 ,then there was also to be overcome the tendency of the eyepieces to dim1 particularly in cold weather1 as the wearer breathed moist breath into the mask4 ,the answer to this problem was a soapy compound which put a slippery surface on the glass and avoided the droplets of mist4 ,the first masks were also equipped with deep plaits so that the wearer could wipe off the lens with the interior of the face-piece itself1 though the final development 7the invention of a ,frenchman by the name of ,tissot7 was to bring the cold air into the mask so that it flowed directly against the lenses and evaporated any condensed moisture4 ,this kept them clear under all ordinary circumstances4 ,it was evident that the metal tube passing through the face piece must not contain pinholes and must be able to stand rough handling without pulling loose4 ,the harness must maintain a gas-tight connection between the wearer's face and the face piece1 but not at the cost of pain or chafing of the face or head4 ,the flutter valve must fit with absolute tightness and must work perfectly and instantaneously at all times4 ,the flexible hose leading from the canister to the face piece must be strong and without flaws or leaks1 and yet flexible in the extreme4 ,a stiff hose would be likely to swing and displace the face piece whenever the wearer moved4 ,the mouthpiece must be comfortable and must be built along lines to prevent irritation to the gums or lips1 yet it must be reinforced so that in his excitement the soldier can not bite down and shut off his air supply4 ,the canister must withstand corrosion and must be gas-tight4 ,smooth sided canisters can not be used1 for the gas would slip up the sides without coming in contact with much of the chemical filling4 ,the sides of the canisters were1 therefore1 ribbed so that the charcoal and other ingredients working into these ribs baffled the gas and threw it out into the body of the chemicals4 ,the canister1 moreover1 must be equipped with a perfectly working check valve which will stop exhalation through the canister and force the air to pass out through the flutter valve4 ,the web sling of the knapsack must not curl and chafe the neck or shoulders of the wearer4 ,the knapsack must be waterproof and must have easily and quickly workable fastenings4 ,the canisters were filled with charcoal and with cement granules4 ,these were crushed into carefully sized small bits about the size of a pinhead and packed in layers in the canisters4 ,the air could pass through them easily and the particles of both substances absorbed gas4 ,the chief quality requirements for the carbon and the cement were that they must have long life and great activity4 ,of the canister ingredients the charcoal offered the more difficult technical problem4 ,it had long been known that charcoal was highly absorptive of certain gases1 but except in rare instances no thorough study had ever been made of the subject4 ,it was evident1 however1 that the more charcoal or carbon which could be packed into the canister and still allow the free passage of air the greater the amount of gas that would be absorbed4 ,consequently a search was made for carbon existing in the natural state in the most compact form4 ,this search is described later4 ,each canister also contained concrete granules in a definite proportion to the carbon pieces4 ,these granules were made of cement mixed with strong alkalis and oxidizing agents to digest the poisons as they passed through the canister4 ,it will be seen that the manufacture of good gas masks was a highly technical undertaking1 one calling for the best talents of eminent men of science4 ,the mask was not something that could be improvised on the spur of the moment1 but each part of it must be worked out after the most painstaking research4 ,the ,gas ,defense ,division of the ,chemical ,warfare ,service never at any time approved a type of mask which its own officers or men did not themselves wear in the most deadly concentrations of gas4 ,to get back to the chronological order of development1 on ,may #ba1 #aiag1 the making of the first #be1jjj masks was started with frantic haste2 though1 as it developed later1 there was no need for such an effort1 since there were available in ,england and ,france plenty of masks for the first ,american troops4 ,working to produce in the shortest possible time some sort of protection for the first overseas division1 the officers in charge were forced to adopt methods which1 had they been followed throughout the manufacturing program1 would have been extremely costly4 ,there was no time then to stop and study the problem either here or abroad4 ,before the end of ,june #bj1jhh masks had been started overseas1 and #e1jjj more were ready a little later4 ,the most that can be said for this effort was that it gave our officers the experience which was the groundwork of the solid development later on4 ,the production of these first #be1jjj masks called upon the services of various manufacturers4 ,the assembling of the masks was conducted by the ,american ,can ,co41 at ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the ,b4 ,f4 ,goodrich ,co41 of ,akron1 manufactured the face pieces with the eyepieces inserted1 also the connecting hose1 the check valve of the canister1 the flutter valve1 and the rubber mouthpiece4 ,the ,american ,can ,co4 produced the canisters4 ,the ,day ,chemical ,co41 of ,westline1 ,pa41 gave the charcoal its first burning4 ,the ,ward ,baking ,co41 of ,brooklyn1 patriotically baked the charcoal--to activate it--in their bread ovens free of charge4 ,the ,general ,chemical ,co41 of ,new ,york1 supplied the soda-lime granules4 ,the ,doehler ,die ,casting ,co41 of ,brooklyn1 manufactured the angle tubes4 ,the ,simmons ,hardware ,co41 of ,st4 ,louis1 produced the waterproof knapsacks4 ,the ,seaver ,howland ,press1 of ,boston1 printed the cards of instructions that went with the mask outfit2 and the ,beetle ,mac,lean ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,boston1 printed the record tags4 ,though ,maj4 7now colonel7 ,williamson was formally in charge of this emergency work1 he requisitioned the masks from the ,bureau of ,mines1 which took entire charge of the first contract4 ,following this1 on ,august #ca1 #aiag1 the ,gas ,defense ,service of the ,surgeon ,general's ,department was established by official order1 and ,mr4 ,dewey1 who had been working as a volunteer in the ,bureau of ,mines1 was commissioned major and put in charge4 ,the next step was to prepare for the permanent development and manufacture of gas masks4 ,contracts were let for the manufacture of #cbj1jjj component parts of masks as we then knew them1 and a price was fixed for the assembling of the entire original requirement of #a1ajj1jjj masks4 ,the assembling contract went to the ,hero ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 which remained until the end of the war the sole private contractor assembling our gas masks4 ,the spirit of cooperation and desire to serve the ,government was evident from the start4 ,the ,b4 ,f4 ,goodrich ,co4 had been the only producers of the rubber parts of the first #be1jjj masks4 ,in this original contract it had gained valuable technical and cost knowledge2 but in order that the ,government might not be limited to one source of supply for such parts1 the ,goodrich ,co4 voluntarily imparted to the ,goodyear ,tire ,rubber ,co4 and to the ,united ,states ,rubber ,co4 the information that would enable them to bid intelligently for portions of the work4 ,this was a distinct departure from the usual practice in competitive industry4 ,all during the fall of #aiag and early winter of #aiag-ah the development of the mask continued1 the ,government experts working hand in hand with private contractors4 ,because of the newness of this sort of manufacture and because of the wide variety of unusual articles required1 entailing in some instances the actual creation of hitherto unknown commodities1 the ,government at all times was required to act as the procurer of raw materials for the masks4 ,in this period of development ,america designed her own typical mask--a gradual evolution1 but one which1 though based on the ,british design1 arrived at a perfection which had been unknown in warfare before4 ,the triplex glass used in the eyepieces was a patented commodity produced only in one small factory in ,philadelphia4 ,it was necessary to expand the facilities for the production of this necessary material4 ,meanwhile some of the men engaged in the work had improved the eyepiece by providing it with an aluminum mounting4 ,but this very improvement brought embarrassment to the work1 since the ,akron rubber contracts had provided for eyepieces inserted in the fabric itself1 and to apply the aluminum frame brought about a radical change in the manufacturing methods at the rubber factories4 ,there were also many other problems that had to be solved before our authorities were satisfied to go ahead in quantity production4 ,there was the matter of rubberizing the face-piece fabric1 for instance4 ,two methods of rubberizing cloth were in use4 ,the first method was to roll out a thin sheet of rubber and then press it into the cloth fabric by running the whole thing under heavy rollers4 ,this was known as the calender method4 ,the other method1 called the spreader method1 was more intricate4 ,in this process the sailcloth1 tightly stretched1 was carried around a roller4 ,above the roller a few thousandths of an inch was a knife blade extending from edge to edge4 ,the rubber compound in liquid form was then fed upon the roller in such manner that a thin film of it pressed under the knife blade and upon the cloth on the roller4 ,the rubberizing method finally adopted was a combination of the calender and spreader methods4 ,the rubber was applied green to the cloth4 ,the curing process thereafter was highly important4 ,if the curing process were too short1 the rubber would be sticky and would pull off the sailcloth too easily4 ,if the rubber were over-cured1 it would crack and split4 ,nothing short of absolute perfection in every part would do1 since the slightest imperfection anywhere was likely to cost a man his life4 ,consequently we installed at the various producing plants not only #ajj per cent inspection1 but we constructed laboratories for putting the materials through the most elaborate and exhaustive sorts of control tests1 and then reinspected the parts at the assembly plants1 both before and after the assembly4 ,illustration3 ,,chemical ,,development ,,department ,,of ,,long ,,island ,,laboratory1 ,,gas ,,defense ,,division1 ,,showing ,,intermittent ,,flow ,,canister ,,testing ,,machine4 ,illustration3 ,,photo ,,taken ,,at ,,philadelphia ,,control ,,laboratory ,,of ,,gas ,,defense ,,division1 ,,showing ,,apparatus ,,used ,,in ,,experimental ,,work ,,on ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,resistance ,,to ,,inhalation ,,and ,,exhalation ,,of ,,masks4 ,illustration3 ,,side ,,view ,,of ,,gas ,,chamber ,,at ,,chemical ,,development ,,laboratory1 ,,showing ,,subjects ,,on ,,outside ,,breathing ,,tests4 ,illustration3 ,,another ,,view ,,of ,,gas ,,chamber ,,at ,,chemical ,,development ,,laboratory1 ,,showing ,,subjects ,,inside4 ,all the rubber used was continually sampled and analyzed in the laboratories4 ,the tensile strengths of all fabrics were determined by standard destructive tests4 ,we also tested the adhesion of the rubber coating by standard chemical methods and worked out flexibility tests for the breathing tube4 ,after all of the factory inspection and material-control tests1 the masks themselves were sampled and worn in highly toxic atmospheres4 ,in this work thousands of our masks were worn by the officers and men of the ,gas ,defense ,division in concentrated atmospheres of the most deadly gases4 ,for such work we constructed testing rooms whose atmosphere could be completely exhausted and changed in #ij seconds4 ,the efficiency of canisters was tested either by the lungs of the inspectors or by mechanical breathing into telltale solutions4 ,the story of the carbon 7charcoal7 which went into the ,american canister is one of the most interesting phases of the whole undertaking4 ,investigations carried on by the research staff of the ,national ,carbon ,co41 aided by a clue from the ,university of ,chicago1 led to the selection of coconut shell as a raw material4 ,any carbon absorbs a definite number of times its weight of gas4 ,therefore the densest carbons will be most efficient1 volume for volume1 as gas absorbers in a given space4 ,coconut shells and other nut shells were found to be the most compact form in which carbon exists in nature in commercially practicable quantities1 being considerably superior in this respect to anthracite coal and to such woods as ironwood and mahogany4 ,another essential for charcoal used in the canisters was that it must be so hard that it would not crumble easily and produce dust that would clog up the air passages and prevent easy breathing through the canister4 ,coconut shell fulfilled both of these conditions better than any other known material4 ,further study by the ,national ,carbon ,co41 backed up by wonderful large-scale development work1 paid for and carried out by the ,national ,electric ,lamp ,association under the direction of their ,mr4 ,f4 ,n4 ,dorsey 7who later became ,col4 ,dorsey and chief of the ,development ,division of the ,chemical ,warfare ,service71 gave us the details of a new process for treating the charcoal to make it absorptive4 ,after the original burning of the nut shells1 or other carbon materials1 the resulting carbon was given a second highly specialized heat treatment1 and this activated it until it had a powerful affinity for gas4 ,such carbon1 made from nutshell material1 would absorb #aej times its own volume of chlorpicrin1 one of the most deadly of the war gases1 the action being approximately instantaneous4 ,it must not be supposed1 however1 that investigation of carbons stopped with these experiments4 ,in the search for the ideal carbon we experimented with almost every hard vegetable substance known4 ,literally1 hundreds of kinds of carbon were tested4 ,next to coconut shells1 the fruit pits1 several common varieties of nuts abundant in the ,united ,states1 and several tropical nuts1 were found to make the best carbon4 ,pecan nuts1 and all woods ranging in hardness from ironwood down to ordinary pine and fir1 were found to be in the second class of efficiency4 ,among other substances tested were almonds1 ,arabian acorns1 grape seeds1 ,brazil-nut husks1 balsa1 osage oranges1 ,chinese velvet beans1 synthetic carbons1 cocoa bean shells1 coffee grounds1 flint corn1 corn cobs1 cottonseed husks1 peanut shells and oil shale4 ,while many of these substances might have been used in an emergency1 none of them would produce carbon as efficient1 volume for volume1 as that of the coconut shells and other hard nuts4 ,some idea of the scale of the ,american mask production may be seen in our requirements for coconut shells4 ,in our survey of raw materials we included the entire coconut resources of the world4 ,such figures were relatively easy to obtain because the copra1 or dried coconut meat1 industry is an important one1 particularly in southern ,asia and the ,south ,sea ,islands of the ,pacific4 ,ceylon was the greatest single source of coconuts1 #b1cjj1jjj1jjj nuts being gathered there annually4 ,british ,india was next with #a1ejj1jjj1jjj nuts4 ,our own ,philippine ,islands were third1 with an annual production of #ijj1jjj1jjj nuts4 ,then followed in order the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,british ,malaya1 ,french ,indo-,china1 ,siam1 and the ,pacific archipelagos1 the total production of the ,orient being #g1dej1bjj1jjj nuts annually4 ,this was a supply that would provide #d1jjj tons of coconut shells every day4 ,the total production of coconuts in ,central ,america1 the ,west ,indies and the ,caribbean coast of ,south ,america amounted to #aca1jjj1jjj nuts annually1 equal to a supply of #ge tons of shells daily4 ,when we first began to build masks our demands for carboniferous material ranged from #dj to #ej tons a day of raw material2 but by the end of the war1 due to vastly increased mask requirements1 we were in need of a supply of #djj tons of coconut shells per day4 ,this demand would absorb the entire coconut production of the tropical ,americas five times over4 ,it was equal to one-tenth of the total coconut production of the ,orient4 ,since transportation from the oriental countries was out of the question on the scale demanded by our mask program1 it was evident that we were likely to be seriously embarrassed by the lack of raw materials2 and1 indeed1 at no time before ,september1 #aiah1 did we have on hand a reserve supply of shells and other charcoal materials that would last for more than a few days1 though at no time after the start was the actual output of masks retarded by lack of these materials4 ,illustration3 ,,airplane ,,picture ,,of ,,carbon ,,plant ,,and ,,cantonment ,,of ,,gas ,,defense ,,division ,,at ,,astoria1 ,,long ,,island4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,carbon ,,plant ,,no4 #c ,,on ,,left ,,at ,,gas ,,defense ,,division ,,plant1 ,,astoria1 ,l4 ,i4 ,storage bins are in central background1 with administration building and carbon plant ,no4 #b in the right foreground4 ,illustration3 ,,carbon ,,plant ,,no4 #b ,,at ,,astoria1 ,l4 ,i41 ,,showing ,,also ,,office ,,and ,,laboratory4 ,in building up our supply of coconut shells we naturally turned first to the resources in the ,united ,states4 ,america normally consumes fresh coconuts at a rate sufficient to supply about #ej tons of shells daily4 ,the war restrictions on the use of sugar had the effect of cutting down the consumption of coconuts1 used largely in candy and cakes1 and consequently one of our efforts was to increase by widespread propaganda the use of coconut4 ,the ,eat-,more-,coconut campaign more than doubled the ,american consumption of coconut in a brief space of time2 and the #ej tons of shells daily1 which had been the original supply1 grew in volume until in ,october1 #aiah1 with the help of importations of shell1 we averaged about #aej tons per day exclusive of the ,orient4 ,the first heating of coconut shells to make charcoal reduces their weight #ge per cent4 ,therefore it was evident that we could most economically ship our oriental supply in the form of charcoal produced on the other side of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,for this purpose1 in ,august1 we established under the direction of an officer of the ,chemical ,warfare ,service a charcoal plant in the ,philippine ,islands4 ,from this plant agents were sent to ,ceylon1 ,india1 ,siam1 and other oriental countries to purchase enormous supplies of nutshells4 ,this work was only gaining momentum when the armistice was declared4 ,as it was1 the ,philippine charcoal plant actually shipped over #cjj tons of coconut shell carbon to the ,united ,states and had #a1jjj tons on hand ready for shipment on ,november #aa4 ,the method adopted in the ,philippines was to burn the shells in long1 shallow trenches4 ,as soon as the smoke had disappeared and the flames came clear and lambent through the incandescent mass1 the bed of coals was smothered by means of galvanized-iron lids thrown over the trenches4 ,it is interesting to note that the coolies hired by the ,chemical ,warfare ,service in the ,philippines would not work at charcoal burning more than a few hours each day1 because they declared that the heat from the pits would give them tuberculosis and other lung troubles4 ,meanwhile agents and officers of the ,gas ,defense ,division were searching the tropical regions of ,central and ,south ,america for other nuts valuable for this purpose4 ,the best of these was found to be the cohune or corozo nut4 ,these nuts are the fruit of the ,manaca palm tree4 ,they grow in clusters1 like bananas or dates1 one to four clusters to a tree1 each cluster yielding from #fj to #ge pounds of nuts4 ,cohune nuts grow principally on the west coast of ,central ,america in low1 swampy regions from ,mexico to ,panama1 but are also found along the ,caribbean coast4 ,before the war created a demand for cohune nuts none of them had ever been imported commercially in this country1 although it is understood that ,france had a prewar commercial use for them4 ,the chief virtue of the cohune nut from our point of view was its extreme thickness of shell1 the kernel of this large nut1 which is #c inches or more in length and nearly #b in diameter1 being relatively small4 ,we were importing cohune nuts at the rate of #d1jjj tons per month at the time of the armistice4 ,a disadvantage in the use of cohune nuts was that their husks contained a considerable amount of acid which rotted the jute bags and also caused the heaps of nuts to heat in storage4 ,the fire department at the ,chemical ,warfare ,service nut storehouse at ,astoria1 ,n4 ,y41 was kept busy putting out spontaneous blazes in the storage piles of cohune nuts4 ,we also sent agents to ,west ,africa and there arranged for the shipment of some hundred tons of palm nuts a month4 ,a third source of tropical material was in the ivory nuts used in considerable quantities in this country by the makers of buttons4 ,in the button factories in this country there is considerable waste of this nut material1 amounting to #djj or #ejj tons a month1 this waste including the nut dust which was useless to us and had to be screened out4 ,the price of ivory-nut waste was high1 because of the use of this material in the manufacture of lactic acid4 ,nevertheless1 we used a considerable quantity of it4 ,another great branch of activity in securing carbon supplies was undertaken in this country4 ,in the search for fruit pits and for domestic nuts it was found that the quantity of apricot pits1 peach pits1 cherry pits 7largely from the canning industry71 and walnut shells on the ,pacific coast amounted to #bc1fjj tons annually4 ,we arranged for the whole ,pacific coast supply of these commodities and converted a part of a ,san ,francisco plant of the ,pacific ,gas ,electric ,co4 into a plant for the preliminary carbonization of #ajj tons a day of these materials4 ,the next step was to turn to the consumers of the country and ask them to save their peach and apricot stones1 their prune1 plum1 and olive pits1 their date seeds1 cherry pits1 butternut shells1 ,brazil nut shells1 and their walnut and hickory nut shells4 ,the work of securing these and advertising the ,government's need to the public was turned over to the ,american ,red ,cross4 ,there was some question at the start as to whether the charter of the ,red ,cross would permit it to undertake such a war activity2 but1 since it was determined that this was purely a defensive operation1 the legal forces of the ,red ,cross decided that the organization could go into a campaign of this kind4 ,illustration3 ,,barefooted ,,negroes ,,in ,,spanish ,,honduras ,,shoveling ,,corozo ,,nuts ,,into ,,baskets ,,to ,,be ,,loaded ,,into ,,boats ,,for ,,shipment ,,to ,,gas ,,defense ,,division4 ,illustration3 #e1jjj ,,tons ,,of ,,peach ,,pits ,,piled ,,up ,,at ,,san ,,francisco4 ,this is enough to produce #a1fjj tons of carbon for use in gas mask canisters4 ,illustration3 ,,nut ,,shells ,,stored ,,on ,,dock ,,of ,,east ,,river ,,wharf1 ,,astoria1 ,l4 ,i41 ,,after ,,being ,,unloaded ,,from ,,barges4 ,,shell-,,cracking ,,tower ,,also ,,shown4 ,illustration3 #a1bjj ,,tons ,,of ,,apricot ,,pits ,,at ,,san ,,francisco ,,ready ,,to ,,be ,,reduced ,,to ,,carbon ,,for ,,gas ,,masks4 ,illustration3 ,,troops ,,in ,,trench ,,at ,,long ,,island ,,city ,,ready ,,for ,a ,,gas ,,attack4 ,illustration3 ,,troops ,,wearing ,,gas ,,masks ,,charging ,,in ,,open ,,order ,,at ,,long ,,island ,,city4 ,illustration3 ,,gas6 ,,troops ,,hastily ,,don ,,their ,,masks ,,at ,,the ,,alarm4 ,illustration3 ,,troops ,,wearing ,,gas ,,masks ,,cutting ,,barbed-,,wire ,,entanglements ,,in ,,tests ,,at ,,long ,,island ,,city4 ,help us to give him the best gas mask4 ,that was the slogan which was carried on the posters1 catching the attention of almost every person in the ,united ,states4 ,more than #a1jjj1jjj pieces of literature were distributed4 ,the ,red ,cross established #afc collection points1 and collection barrels appeared on the streets of practically every community in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,junior ,red ,cross1 the ,food ,administration1 and the ,department of ,agriculture gave valuable assistance4 ,the ,boy ,scouts organized nut gathering parties4 ,the governor of ,massachusetts proclaimed ,november #i1 #aiah1 to be gas mask day for the collection of carbon material1 and #bh other ,states fixed gas mask days in ,november4 ,two reels of motion pictures were shown through the country4 ,journalists aided the campaign in newspapers and magazines4 ,frederic ,j4 ,haskin sent out a valuable article which was published in many of the important newspapers of the ,united ,states4 ,one ,oklahoma town took a day off en masse and gathered a whole carload of nuts4 ,this campaign started ,september #ac1 #aiah1 but was abruptly cut short on the #aath of ,november4 ,thus it is impossible to give exactly the result of it1 since many of the scheduled shipments of nuts and fruit pits were canceled and found their way into fuel bins4 ,however1 at one time there were on the rails1 en route to the carbon plant at ,astoria1 #ajj carloads of materials supplied by the patriotism of the ,american people4 ,it was estimated that some #d1jjj tons were collected in this brief period1 exclusive of the material from the ,california canning industry4 ,the procurement of the nuts1 however1 was but the first step in the production of carbon for use in our mask canisters1 for after charcoal is first burned its pores are still filled with various impurities which may be summed up by the word tar4 ,when the charcoal was given a second heating1 under careful temperature regulation1 this tar was burned out1 with the result that the charcoal itself became much more active in its absorption of gas4 ,in fact1 properly activated charcoal is more than absorptive--it is catalytic in its action toward the gaseous poisons used in the war1 not only absorbing them but hastening their breakdown 7digestion7 into less injurious substances4 ,the activating of charcoal offered at the start considerably more of a problem than the question of making the charcoal itself1 since activating had never before been conducted on a commercial scale4 ,two months of experimentation showed us that the best distillation of shells and pits for charcoal was that conducted in illuminating-gas-making retorts4 ,the activation thereafter had to be done in special equipment permitting of fine control of temperature4 ,the ,government eventually spent more than #a1jjj1jjj in a charcoal activating plant1 providing for ,america the best protection known to science against the poisons which ,germany had introduced into warfare4 ,the cement granules1 which also had to go into the canisters1 supplied another problem4 ,we originally used a special soda-lime for this material1 but only obtained a satisfactory product after ,maj4 ,h4 ,w4 ,dudley1 ,r4,e41 came to ,america as our ,british advisor and brought to us the ,british granule formula4 ,the basis of this cement was lime1 to absorb gases of an acid nature4 ,portland cement was used1 to give hardness and prevent disintegration and the formation of dust in the canister4 ,then infusorial earth was added1 to make the compound porous in texture4 ,a little sodium hydroxide was put in1 to increase the alkalinity of the mixture4 ,finally there was an infusion of sodium permanganate1 which is a powerful oxidizing agent4 ,this latter chemical was added as a precaution against arsine4 ,arsine and arsenical compounds were difficult to use in warfare1 but the ,germans had introduced them to some extent1 justifying us in adding this protection4 ,in making the granules the sodium permanganate solution was mixed with the cement4 ,the mixture was roughed out into slabs1 allowed to set for three days1 dried1 ground up1 screened to the proper size1 and packed in drums for future use4 ,as has been noted1 the charcoal and cement were packed in the canister in alternate layers4 ,the cement had the virtue of working while the carbon slept--that is1 the carbon was active when there were gases present to be absorbed1 but the cement kept on thereafter1 digesting the gases which had been absorbed by the charcoal4 ,the cement was not quick in action1 but it had a remarkable capacity for consuming some poisons4 ,to return to the chronological development of manufacturing facilities1 after we had placed the contracts for the first #a1jjj1jjj masks in the early fall of #aiag1 we began looking around for facilities for producing carbon and cement in the quantities which we should need in the near future4 ,we found at ,astoria1 the district near ,hell ,gate at the junction of the ,east ,river and ,long ,island ,sound in ,new ,york1 the large gas works of the ,astoria ,light1 ,heat ,power ,co4 perhaps the largest illuminating-gas plant in the world4 ,this was a subsidiary of the ,consolidated ,gas ,co4 of ,new ,york1 which concern readily agreed to turn over to the ,government some of its retorts and to permit the construction of a ,government-operated plant on its grounds4 ,we might have been seriously delayed in the production of gas masks except for the extraordinary and continuing efforts of ,mr4 ,w4 ,cullen ,morris1 ,chief ,construction engineer of the ,consolidated ,gas ,co41 and ,mr4 ,addicks1 its vice president4 ,it was due to ,mr4 ,morris that a #aej1jjj granule plant was constructed1 heavy complicated equipment installed1 and operations started in the short space of #cj days4 ,let us now go back to the history of actual mask production4 ,at the start it was estimated that when the ,hero ,manufacturing ,co4 had reached full capacity it could assemble and turn out #f1jjj masks a day4 ,the fuel shortage and the railroad congestion of the late fall and early winter of #aiag-ah hampered our supplying the ,hero ,manufacturing ,co4 with parts1 until the mask production1 averaging #b1dcj a day as it had in ,november1 dwindled to #a1ejj a day in ,december4 ,the ,goodyear ,co4 at ,akron had meanwhile established its ,akron-,boston motor track line4 ,this was put at the service of the ,gas ,defense ,division1 hauling various supplies from both ,akron and ,boston to the assembling plant at ,philadelphia4 ,sometimes in the mountains of ,pennsylvania the trucks would be blocked in snow and the patriotic citizens of the community would get out with shovels and work until the supplies again started on their way4 ,illustration3 ,slabbing the doughlike mixture of carbon and spreading it on screen-bottomed trays at carbon plant ,no4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,chemical laboratory showing apparatus for testing the absorbent power of the carbon and gran powder4 ,illustration3 ,retort house4 ,discharging machine drawing out the nearer half and pushing out the far half of the hot carbon4 ,illustration3 ,carbon plant ,no4 #c1 showing treater room and west side batteries of ,dorsite treaters4 ,,four ,,views ,,of ,,carbon ,,plant ,,at ,,astoria1 ,l4 ,i4 ,illustration3 ,zigzagging and combing work on masks4 ,illustration3 ,doping the masks4 ,illustration3 ,assembly department4 ,illustration3 ,final inspection department4 ,,four ,,interior ,,views ,,of ,,gas ,,mask ,,plant4 ,all of the masks produced in the fall of #aiag were still regarded as experimental and not yet up to the standard of masks which we were willing to supply for actual service at the front4 ,consequently1 not one of them was exported1 but the entire #aiag production1 after the first order of #be1jjj1 was sent only to the training camps in this country4 ,by ,january #h1 #aiah1 we were producing masks which we were willing to put into actual service1 and on that date the manufacture of masks for export was started4 ,in ,january we exported #ed1jjj masks1 which was #af1jjj less than the schedule which we had set for ourselves4 ,but by ,february #bj we had wiped out this deficit with a little over1 for our schedule by that date called for the production of #ada1jjj gas masks1 and we had produced #adb1jjj4 ,late in the fall of #aiag the requirements of the ,expeditionary ,forces were reanalyzed in the light of information gathered abroad and in accordance with the new military program4 ,requirements were multiplied almost fourfold4 ,let us see how these requirements were met1 and what difficulties were solved in the course of the effort4 ,experience had already shown that for many reasons the ,government needed its own mask factory1 where improvements could be adopted as soon as made and where inspections and the storage of parts could be more centralized than in private plants4 ,with the necessary expansion then confronting us1 any other policy would have meant making face pieces in half a dozen or more private plants1 all starting at once with organizations untrained for this work4 ,this would have been fatal1 for even with the ,goodyear and ,goodrich companies manufacturing face pieces in ,akron and the ,kenyon ,manufacturing ,co4 making them in ,brooklyn1 we found it most difficult to maintain uniform standards in all the plants4 ,as new points came up1 it was constantly necessary to interchange inspection personnel and to send men from one plant to another to teach manufacturing wrinkles4 ,such practices consumed more personnel than we could train in the time available4 ,moreover1 it was impossible under the conditions that we were then facing to build up more than barely adequate supplies of gas mask parts and such raw materials as special fabrics4 ,to have operated many more face-piece plants would have meant to divide these stocks of fabrics1 elastic1 tape1 etc41 still further4 ,to have kept each of these plants properly stocked1 under the existing traffic conditions1 would have been impossible4 ,a big central gas-defense plant was the only solution of our difficulties4 ,the order approving the establishment of the gas-defense plant was signed by ,secretary ,baker on ,november #bj1 #aiag4 ,the officers of the ,gas ,defense ,division found in ,long ,island ,city1 not far from the new chemical plant at ,astoria1 a group of modern concrete factory buildings which had been put up in this newly developed section by several different concerns1 among them the ,ford ,motor ,co41 the ,goodyear ,tire ,rubber ,co41 and the ,national ,casket ,co4 ,one of these buildings1 known as the ,stewart ,building1 was taken over by the ,government and modern machinery was installed4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,r4 ,richardson1 of ,chicago1 was appointed plant manager with a salary of #a per year4 ,he quickly set to work organizing the factory and its staff4 ,on ,january #i1 #aiah1 the first few factory operators were hired4 ,five days later the executive offices at the plant were ready for occupancy4 ,the plant grew apace4 ,one by one the other buildings were absorbed and added to the establishment--first the ,goodyear ,tire ,rubber building1 then the ,national ,casket building4 ,next a long storage building was built between the ,stewart and the ,goodyear buildings4 ,runways were built which connected up the various buildings1 and1 finally1 in ,july1 the ,ford ,motor building was taken over and connected up to complete the group4 ,thus by the summer of #aiah we occupied five large buildings1 with a total of over #a1jjj1jjj square feet1 or #bj acres1 of floor space1 connected up to make the gas-defense plant4 ,of the #ab1jjj employees in this plant1 #h1fjj were women4 ,endeavors were made as far as possible to hire those who had near relatives with the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,the degree of care required in the manufacture of masks was beyond anything known in normal industry1 and we rightly believed that this personal interest in the work would bring about greater care in manufacture and inspection4 ,since the factory was working at top speed a great deal of attention was paid to welfare work4 ,women employees were given #ab-minute rest periods both in the morning and the afternoon1 and completely furnished attractive rest and recreation rooms were set apart for women in the factory4 ,illustration3 ,,gas-,,defense ,,plant ,,at ,,long ,,island ,,city4 ,illustration3 ,,employees ,,of ,,gas-,,defense ,,plant ,,long ,,island ,,city1 ,,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,the plant was unique in more than one respect4 ,at the very start it attempted the supposedly impossible1 for it combined in its staff and in its working organization civilian and military personnel4 ,the manager was a civilian1 the assistant manager was ,lieut4 ,col4 ,coonley4 ,below them on the next tier of the organization were ,army officers in charge of several departments and civilians in charge of others4 ,throughout the plant were certain groups of women workers or inspectors in charge of civilians were others2 in charge of sergeants or even privates4 ,the arrangement worked out well and the whole organization pulled together as one team1 without reference to civilian or military status4 ,again1 at the start there was laid down a policy of inspection at every single stage of manufacture4 ,the incoming parts1 though already inspected at their source1 were reinspected and retested4 ,after every operation in the manufacture of the face piece there came an inspection by specially trained women set apart from the operators4 ,then again1 there was a special control inspection4 ,after the face piece was finished1 and when assembly was complete1 the entire mask went to a final inspection where it was looked over by several trained women1 who worked in dark closets and inspected the face pieces over a bright light to make sure that no pin pricks had been made1 either maliciously or otherwise4 ,furthermore1 wherever there was an inspector there was a system of checking his or her accuracy1 for #e per cent of every inspector's work was periodically selected at random and checked over by other inspectors4 ,hand in hand with this went many of the latest developments of factory operation4 ,the best machinery was employed1 conveyors were used wherever possible1 and1 when changes in the size of the operation or the design of the mask made it advisable1 the factory was at once rearranged in order that the flow might always be orderly and continuous4 ,from all of this the reader might judge that the operation1 lasting1 as it did1 for only a little more than eight months1 was a costly one4 ,such1 however1 was not the case1 for a well-ordered and accurate cost system1 kept from the very start in accordance with the best practices of factory accounting1 showed that after charging in all equipment changes and overhead1 the plant made complete masks which cost the ,government about #ej cents per mask less than it cost to get complete masks by purchasing parts and assembling them under private contracts4 ,along with this manufacturing development went the building up of an elaborate procurement force charged with the responsibility of providing parts to be assembled at the gas-defense plant and the ,hero ,manufacturing ,co4 ,this section faced a hard and intricate task1 but though there were instances where a shortage of parts temporarily slowed down production1 these were remarkably few4 ,many were the difficulties of buying new parts2 many of the parts were the product of elaborate die work2 die makers in the country were overworked4 ,specifications had to be written1 checked1 and approved1 and a field inspection first had to be organized and trained so that the product from all the different plants could be relied upon as satisfactory for the assembling plants4 ,but this problem was still further complicated by ever-recurring changes in design1 made necessary as improvement followed improvement4 ,officers had to be trained in a day and then sent out to train inspection corps in manufacturing plants in many parts of the country4 ,inspection and procurement detachments were maintained in most of the eastern industrial centers4 ,there were over #ajj enlisted men and #i officers in ,akron1 #cj enlisted men with #f officers in ,boston1 and men and officers in over #fj cities4 ,here again the civilian and ,army officer worked hand in hand2 for ,mr4 ,robert ,skemp1 a volunteer civilian from ,pittsburgh1 was in charge of this procurement1 reporting to ,lieut4 ,col4 ,besse and directing an organization made up almost entirely of officers and enlisted men4 ,the ,march output of masks was #ahc1jjj2 that of ,april1 #cfc1jjj2 ,may1 slightly less than this figure2 that of ,june1 #ejd1jjj2 that of ,july1 #fga1jjj4 ,in all1 between ,january #a and ,november #aa1 #aiah1 we built more than #e1jjj1jjj gas masks4 ,in ,february1 #aiah1 shortly before the ,german drive commenced1 we received requisitions for sample lots of oiled mittens and oiled union suits as protection against mustard gas and also for chloride of lime to neutralize poison-impregnated earth4 ,in their ,march drive the ,germans used gas in much more protracted concentrations than before4 ,originally the masks had been worn only during the sporadic gas alarms1 and then only for a brief period at a time4 ,the double-protection mask which we had been building had been admirable in its day1 but it was no longer adapted to the sort of use to which it was evident it must now be put4 ,in long-continued wear the mouthpiece would irritate the gums and lips of the soldier1 and the face-piece band would cause excruciating headaches after a few hours4 ,it had now become frequently necessary for men to wear their masks for eight hours at a stretch4 ,the word discomfort is a weak description of the feelings of a man wearing one of our masks for that period4 ,our authorities in ,france decreed for a single-protection mask and more comfort1 even at the expense of a little safety4 ,the result of these new conditions together with the establishment of closer relationship with our ,expeditionary ,forces1 through a visit of ,col4 ,dewey to ,france1 was the determination to build masks in this country which should give the protection of the masks which we had been turning out and at the same time be comparatively comfortable4 ,there had been brought out in ,france a single-protection mask1 that is1 a mask in which the inlet tube entered directly into the space between the mask and the face1 with the orifices so arranged that the fresh air was drawn across the eyepieces4 ,this was known as the ,tissot mask4 ,the principle of the ,tissot was correct as far as comfort was concerned1 since it did away with the irritating mouthpiece1 but the chief danger in this mask arose from the fact that it was made of thin1 pure gum rubber4 ,we took the ,tissot and endeavored to produce a mask of this type which should be gas-tight and yet rugged4 ,in this work we experimented on hundreds of subjects to determine face and head sizes and shapes4 ,it is interesting to note in this connection that the size of a man's face has nothing to do with the size of his head1 as large heads with small faces and small heads with large faces occur not infrequently4 ,we made two developments of the mask without mouthpiece or nose clip4 ,both were ready for field tests in ,august1 #aiah4 ,the one produced in ,akron and assembled at the ,philadelphia contracting plant was known as the ,akron ,tissot1 or ,type ,a-,t4 ,at the start of operations in ,long ,island ,city ,mr4 ,waldemar ,kops1 of ,new ,york1 a manufacturer of corsets1 came to the ,government1 asking an opportunity to do his part in the war4 ,he was assigned to the gas-defense plant1 and later1 with the commission of major1 took charge of the gas-defense ,long ,island laboratories4 ,maj4 ,kops had no experience with gas masks until he came to the gas-defense plant1 but his experiments soon led to an improvement in the design of the ,tissot mask4 ,it was called the ,type ,,kt mask--the ,kops-,tissot4 ,only a few hundred thousand were produced1 though the latest model was scheduled for enormous production beginning in ,december1 #aiah4 ,it possessed much of the protective efficiency of the old uncomfortable mask1 the cut of the face piece insured a gas-tight connection with the head1 it was relatively comfortable1 and it was durable4 ,the call of the allies in the spring of #aiah for ,american troops in as great numbers as the ships could carry them to ,france resulted in still further increases in our mask requirements4 ,at the height of the drive we were making over #dj1jjj masks a day4 ,approximately #ce1jjj employees were engaged in the manufacture of various gas-mask parts4 ,our carbon requirements were expanding at a rate that would have needed #djj tons of raw materials a day by ,december1 #aiah4 ,we built #ccf1iai ,,kt masks and approximately #bjj1jjj ,a-,t masks4 ,in exact figures the total production of masks of all types was #e1fib1dii4 ,of these #c1fff1fhc were built at the gas-defense plant and #b1jbe1haf were assembled by the ,hero ,manufacturing ,co4 ,in addition1 we furnished #c1ahi1ceg extra filled canisters for the replacement of those used up by #dj hours of field service4 ,hand in hand with this procurement and manufacturing achievement went the development of the technical section of the ,gas ,defense ,division4 ,this was known as the ,long ,island laboratories1 manned by a personnel of several hundred men and officers4 ,here in its laboratories were solved the knotty problems that bridged the gap between experimental work and production4 ,many new designs were worked out1 only to be rejected when tested4 ,here there were workrooms that could make sample lots of #a1jjj masks1 and here were located the chemical laboratories and the gas chambers in which the product of the gas-defense plant was tested daily by control chemical analysis and by actual breathing and wearing tests4 ,in spite of this elaborate technical section1 the testing of masks did not stop with it4 ,there was a special field-testing section of the ,gas ,defense ,division1 composed of about #aej men who were trained to the minute in field maneuvers and did most of their work in gas masks4 ,they were constantly in and out of gas with regular production and experimental masks1 they played baseball in them1 they dug trenches1 laid out wire1 cut wire1 and fought sham battles at night1 both with and without actual gas4 ,this section was not organized until ,july1 but it should have been one of the first of our units4 ,it was there that we learned all the fine points of gas mask comfort and durability4 ,the work of this section even went so far in the case of the later designs as to include a test where six men worked1 played1 and slept in the masks for an entire week1 only taking them off for #cj minutes at each mealtime1 and each day entering high concentrations of the most deadly gases1 without any ill effects whatsoever to the wearers4 ,when it is remembered that eight hours was the limit of time which a strong man could wear the old-type mask1 something of the efficiency of the new mask may be realized4 ,we also built #cgg1hha horse masks4 ,investigation showed that a horse's eyes did not shed tears in the presence of even strong lachrymatory gases4 ,moreover a horse never breathes through his mouth2 and it was1 therefore1 necessary only to cover his nostrils4 ,furthermore1 horses proved to be more resistant to the toxic gases used in ,europe than were men1 and his mask1 accordingly1 needed to be only a bag of many layers of chemically treated gauze4 ,the horse masks were all manufactured by the ,fifth ,avenue ,uniform ,co41 of ,new ,york ,city1 under the supervision of a detachment of the ,gas ,defense ,division4 ,we furnished #aia1cch dugout blankets to be used at the doors of dugouts to make them gas proof4 ,these were specially woven all-cotton blankets which were treated in ,france with a special heavy oil1 shipped from the ,united ,states4 ,toward the end of the war we received large requisitions for protective suits and gloves to safeguard men against mustard gas burns4 ,the suits were made of oiled fabric and the gloves were of cloth impregnated with chemicals4 ,as a work just starting1 we produced #b1dej suits and #a1ggc pairs of gloves4 ,a total of #a1bdf tons of a new ointment known as sag paste was made and shipped4 ,this was an ointment to protect the skin against mustard-gas burns4 ,gas warning signals were of several types1 watchmen's rattles and ,klaxon horns being the most commonly used to sound the gas alarms4 ,we shipped #de1ijf of these special hand horns4 ,the rattles were secured in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,akron ,,tissot ,,mask4 ,,an ,,improvement ,,over ,,the ,,mask ,,that ,,was ,,in ,,general ,,use ,,among ,,our ,,troops4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kops ,,tissot ,,mask4 ,,our ,,latest ,,development ,,and ,,considered ,,to ,,be ,,the ,,best ,,of ,,all ,,masks4 ,illustration3 ,,gas ,,mask ,,of ,,flannelette ,,type ,,for ,,horse4 ,trench fans1 for fanning out gas from trenches and dugouts1 were produced1 to the number of #ej1edi4 ,production data of gas defense division of ,chemical ,warfare ,service--,final statistical report4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,production4 ,shipped overseas-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,up to ,july,up to ,nov4 ,dec4 #ca1 ,july #a1 ,nov4 #aa1 ,item4 #a1 #aiah4 #aa1 #aiah4aiah7total #aiah4 #aiah4 product- ion74 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,respirators #a1gai1dbd #e1bgf1eae #e1fib1diia1aif1ghgc1ich1hjh ,extra canisters #ejg1ffc #c1add1dhe #c1ahi1ceg #dhd1bcfa1hje1jgf ,horse masks #aed1jid #cff1ebi #cgg1hha #aja1bej #cea1bgj ,bleaching powder #a1dhd #c1fgg #c1eij #ehf #a1hfg 7tons7 ,extra anti-dimming #b1hee1ggf #b1hee1ggf #b1hee1ggf 7tubes7 ,sag paste 7tons7 #bj #a1acf #a1bdf #iae ,dugout blanket oil #ie1jjj #ie1jjj #e1jjj 7gallons7 ,protective suits #ejj #b1dej ,protective gloves #a1ggc #a1ggc ,dugout blankets #aei1abg #aia1cch #cf1bba ,warning devices #cc1bjb #de1ijf #ai1fbj ,trench fans #aa1cdc #bi1igg #ej1edi #i1fjj #bg1fij ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,book ,v4 ,,quartermaster ,,activities4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,subsistence4 ,when the ,american soldier went to war against ,germany he took his appetite with him4 ,the task of keeping that appetite satisfied with good food 7and the soldier1 therefore1 contented and well7 fell to the ,quartermaster ,general4 ,the average ,american soldier at the end of the fighting in #aiah is said to have weighed #ab pounds more than he did when the ,selective-,service ,act or his own enlistment brought him into the ,army4 ,this is the complete testimonial to the quality and quantity of the food served to the ,american troops in #aiag and #aiah4 ,assuming #c1gjj1jjj to have been the greatest number of ,americans under arms1 this average increase in weight means that the beans and bacon and fresh meat of the ,american ,army ration were transmogrified into some #de1jjj1jjj pounds of ,yankee brawn to be the basis of untold resources of health and energy during the coming quarter of a century4 ,consider these millions of soldiers as one composite1 gigantic man in khaki2 compress the war period into a single hour1 the dinner hour2 and it will be seen that the ,american fighter consumed what might be called a sizeable meal4 ,let us say that he started off with the main course4 ,the roast of beef weighed over #hjj1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,it was flanked by a rasher of bacon weighing #aej1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,over #a1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds of flour went into the loaf of bread1 while to spread the bread was there a lump of butter weighing #ag1ejj1jjj pounds and another lump of oleomargarine weighing #aa1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,as a side dish this giant had over #aej1jjj1jjj pounds of baked beans1 half of these coming in cans ready baked and flavored with tomato sauce4 ,the potatoes weighed #dhg1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,to add gusto to his appetite there were #dj1jjj1jjj pounds of onions4 ,then scattered over the table were such items as #aej1jjj1jjj cans of corn1 peas1 and string beans2 while the salad contained #ej1jjj1jjj cans of salmon and #gej1jjj tins of sardines4 ,then there was a huge bowl of canned tomatoes1 nearly #aij1jjj1jjj tins supplying its contents4 ,for dessert he had #fg1jjj1jjj pounds of prunes and #dj1jjj1jjj pounds of evaporated peaches and apples4 ,the sugar for sweetening various dishes weighed #cej1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,he washed it all down with a draft made of #ge1jjj1jjj pounds of coffee thinned with #bjj1jjj1jjj cans of evaporated milk4 ,the bill for the meal1 paid by the ,american public1 amounted to #gbg1jib1dcj4dd1 this figure to ,december #a1 #aiah4 ,in supplying such vast quantities of food1 scientific attention was concentrated upon the details of the effort4 ,at the time the armistice was signed the ,american troops in ,france were eating about #i1jjj1jjj pounds of food every day4 ,never before in history had any nation been compelled to send subsistence so great a distance to so many men4 ,it was not possible to ask ,france and ,england to divide their food supplies1 as they were already rationing their civilian populations4 ,we were required to purchase practically all food in ,america and transport it nearly #e1jjj miles4 ,ships were relatively scarce4 ,there was a strong bid for every inch of tonnage space4 ,the tonnage allotted to subsistence must be filled with sufficient food not only to supply the immediate consumption1 but to overcome losses due to the sinking of ships and the possible capture of base depots4 ,these contingencies required two pounds of food to be shipped where one would ordinarily be sent2 yet because of the shortage of ships the subsistence authorities were asked to pack these two pounds into almost the space of one4 ,the result was foods in forms never before known by ,american soldiers and in some cases never before known at all--such forms as dehydrated vegetables1 boneless beef1 and the so-called shankless beef4 ,trench warfare made new demands for food4 ,calls came for such rare articles as soluble coffee or the wheat-and-meat cake of the emergency ration4 ,these problems were solved only by the assistance of the ,american food industry4 ,in numerous instances new factories1 or even whole new types of food manufacture1 were built up as rapidly as three shifts of men could work and money accomplish results4 ,the cost of food rates high among the war costs of #aiag and #aiah4 ,back in #ahig the average meal in the ,army cost about #d cents1 and the daily three meals #ac cents4 ,at the end of #aiah the cost of the ration was approximately #dh cents4 ,the advance was not all due to the advance in living costs4 ,much of it was on account of the improved standards of the ration4 ,in #aiaf ,congress appropriated #aj1jjj1jjj to feed the ,army2 the fiscal year beginning ,july #a1 #aiah1 brought an appropriation of #hcj1jjj1jjj for the same purpose4 ,the ,american fighting man of #aiag-ah was a good feeder4 ,he ate nearly three-quarters of a ton of food each year1 or over ten times his own weight4 ,without counting any transportation costs or the expense of handling at all1 each man's yearly supply of food cost more than #afe4 ,in spite of the most rigid and painstaking economies in the purchase of this subsistence the ,american people were paying at the peak of ,army expansion more than #b1ejj1jjj per day to feed the troops4 ,the distance of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces from the source of their food supplies required that their food be largely purchased in nonperishable forms4 ,that is1 meats must be cured1 meats and vegetables tinned1 vegetables and fruits dried4 ,we literally paved the way to ,berlin with tin cans4 ,the various foods put up in tins and purchased during the year #aiah totaled over #a1jjj1jjj1jjj cans1 or enough1 standing on end1 to make a road wide enough and long enough for a force of men marching in columns of four to go from the port of embarkation at ,hoboken1 ,n4 ,j41 to the heart of ,germany4 ,the largest closing machine can seal #bdj tin cans per minute4 ,if such a machine could be operated eight hours a day seven days a week1 it would take it #bc years and #f months to seal these tins4 ,during the spring of #aiah1 when the demand for men in ,france resulted in reducing the available tonnage for supplies1 the cry came from ,france to cut every nonessential4 ,as a result most of the canned vegetables and fruits1 including peas1 corn1 sweet potatoes1 asparagus1 pineapple1 pears1 and apples were stricken from the list of food supplies for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,from ,france came calls for tomatoes and men1 men and tomatoes4 ,this phrase did not mean that bread and bacon1 beans and beef1 should be eliminated2 but it emphasized the importance of this one vegetable1 the tomato4 ,the total purchases of tomatoes exceeded those of all other vegetables combined4 ,in addition to the many ways of serving tomatoes1 they were used in the trenches to relieve thirst1 being1 perhaps1 more effective than any other substitute for water4 ,because of its food value and slight acidity1 a quart of tomato juice was worth several quarts of water to the thirsty men in the field4 ,the ,army took #de per cent of the total #aiah ,american pack of tomatoes4 ,these tomatoes were bought from #e1jjj firms scattered throughout the rural districts of the ,united ,states4 ,the demands of the overseas forces for meat during the summer of #aiah were so heavy that they created a shortage of beef in the ,united ,states4 ,beef is the mainstay of the soldier's diet4 ,the ,army allows #def pounds of beef per year for each soldier4 ,this does not mean that the soldier actually eats that much beef1 beef being simply the ,army's meat standard4 ,pork1 usually in the form of bacon1 is substituted for #cj per cent of this quantity of beef1 #ab ounces of bacon being considered the equivalent of #bj ounces of beef4 ,the major portion of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces' beef was fresh beef shipped frozen all the way from the packing plants in the ,united ,states to the company kitchens at the front1 through an elaborate system of cold-storage warehouses and refrigerator cars and ships4 ,the ,food ,administration asked that the people substitute corn meal1 rye flour1 and other grain flour for #bj per cent of the wheat flour ordinarily used in making bread4 ,the troops in the ,united ,states complied with this ruling and saved #a1jjj1jjj barrels of flour4 ,the use of substitutes in ,france was not insisted upon1 as bread making in the field is more difficult4 ,field bakeries are not adapted to experimenting with doughs and yeasts1 as is required when substitutes for flour are used4 ,the ,army allowance of flour for a year for one man is #daj pounds4 ,flour was usually issued in the form of bread1 #a pound of bread being allowed for each man each day4 ,other yearly allowances are #ef pounds of beans1 #bg pounds of prunes1 #bg pounds of coffee1 #gc pounds of sugar1 #aa pounds of condensed milk1 #c pounds of vinegar1 and #ac pounds of salt4 ,for variety other items are specified which may be substituted for these foods4 ,food was purchased by the ,quartermaster's ,department and furnished to the individual companies at cost of the food4 ,in charge of the mess was a sergeant1 who had had special instruction in schools as to methods of feeding the ,army4 ,the mess sergeant checked over his stocks daily and made up a list of what he would require for the coming day4 ,this list1 in turn1 was given to the camp supply officer1 under whose direction the order was made up and delivered to the kitchen on ,army trucks4 ,this order was based on a ration allowance1 as has been stated1 a ration being the food required to subsist one man for one day4 ,the general components of the overseas camp ration consisted of the following3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,component articles ,substitutive articles and quantities4 and quantities4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,beef1 fresh ounces #bj ,mutton1 fresh ounces #bj ,beef1 fresh1 boneless ounces #af ,bacon ounces #ab ,pork1 fresh ounces #af ,sausages1 canned pork or ,vienna ounces #af ,canned roast beef or corned beef ounces #af ,hash1 corned beef ounces #af ,fish1 dried ounces #ad ,cheese1 not exceeding #aj per cent of total issue ounces #aj ,fish1 canned ounces #af ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,bread1 soft ounces #af ,flour1 corn meal1 oatmeal1 or macaroni1 in lieu of an equal quantity bread1 but not exceeding #ae per cent of total issue4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,baking powder 7to be issued only with flour or corn meal1 #a ounce to #bj ounces71 ounce 4#jh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,beans1 dry 7not to exceed #d issues ,beans1 baked 7not to exceed #d in #aj days7 ounces #d issues in #aj days7 ounces #h ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,rice or hominy 7not to exceed #f issues in #aj days7 ounces #b ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,potatoes1 fresh ounces #bj ,onions1 fresh1 in lieu of an equal quantity of potatoes1 but not exceeding #bj per cent of total issue4 ,tomatoes1 canned1 in lieu of an equal quantity of potatoes1 but not exceeding #bj per cent of total issue4 ,canned potatoes ounces #ae ,other fresh vegetables 7not canned7 when they can be obtained in the vicinity by purchase or from the ,u4 ,s4 ,garden ,service1 or can be transported in a wholesome condition from a distance1 in lieu of an equal quantity of potatoes4 ,dehydrated vegetables to be issued only in case fresh vegetables are not available4 ounces #d ,corn1 canned ounces #ab ,peas1 canned ounces #bj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,jam ounces #c ,prunes1 or evaporated apples1 or peaches1 or apricots1 or figs1 or dates1 or raisins1 in lieu of an equal quantity of jam4 ,sirup gill 4#fd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,coffee1 ,r4 ,g ounces #a4ab ,tea1 black or green ounces 4#cb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,sugar ounces #c4b ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,milk1 evaporated1 unsweetened ounce #a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,vinegar gill 4#af ,pickles1 cucumber1 in lieu of an equal quantity of vinegar4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,salt ounce 4#fd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,pepper1 black ounce 4#jb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,cinnamon ounce 4#jad ,cloves1 or ginger1 or nutmeg1 or sage1 thyme1 or allspice ounce 4#jad ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,butter ounce 4#e ,oleomargarine or lard or lard substitute1 ounces 4#e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,flavoring extract1 vanilla ounce 4#jad ,flavoring extract1 lemon 4#jad ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,candy 7issued pound once in #aj days7 ounce 4#h ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,tobacco1 smoking 7#ajj cigarette ,cigarettes number 4#d papers for each #d ounces ,tobacco1 chewing ounce 4#d smoking tobacco7 ounce 4#d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,the ration at home was practically the same4 ,the home ration1 however1 did not include candy and tobacco4 ,the commanding officer had authority to modify or change all rations to meet special conditions4 ,for instance1 in times of great cold and when the men were subject to great exposure1 or after long and tedious campaigns or marches1 or when the work required of the troops was abnormal1 the ration might be increased4 ,the ration also included soap1 candles1 matches1 towels1 and a few other items considered necessary in the daily life of a soldier4 ,the value of a ration fluctuated with the market from month to month4 ,each day's food weighed about #d4f pounds per man4 ,the men actually in the trenches sometimes made use of the emergency ration1 the little flat can of compressed nourishment which every soldier carried in his pocket4 ,this ration1 however1 was used only in severe straits1 on the order of an officer1 or on the enlisted man's own responsibility in the direst emergency1 when the activity of the enemy made it impossible to get hot food to the men during daylight hours4 ,hot food was served in the trenches whenever possible4 ,the hot food consisted principally of soups and soluble coffee4 ,specially constructed cans1 made on the principle of thermos bottles1 kept the food hot when it was being carried to the front4 ,the chief quartermaster of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces relates that on a tour of inspection made by him1 during the ,argonne-,meuse offensive1 on ,november #a1 #aiah1 he inspected the meals served at noon to the troops of the ,fifth ,corps actually engaged in battle on that day1 and found in a number of cases that ,artillery organizations were being served beefsteak1 potatoes1 onions1 tomatoes1 white bread and butter1 rice pudding1 and hot coffee1 the men eating in reliefs in order that there might be no cessation of fire4 ,the hot meals for the ,infantry were prepared at their rolling kitchens a short distance in rear of the line1 and sent forward to them in marmite cans4 ,the company was the unit on which the feeding of the men was based4 ,each month the company was given credit at the quartermaster's store equal to the number of men in the company multiplied by thirty times the ration allowance4 ,on the basis of this credit the mess sergeant of the company made purchases to feed his men4 ,he might be as economical as he desired1 provided that he fed the men sufficiently4 ,if the entire credit extended him at the camp quartermaster's office was not used up during the month1 a check was given for the difference4 ,this went into the company's funds1 with which the mess sergeant might buy in the open market such extras and delicacies as the savings would permit1 up to the quantity specified in the ration4 ,but this system was followed only in the ,united ,states4 ,savings were not allowed in ,france1 all food there being issued on a straight ration basis4 ,this was due to the fact that the shortage of tonnage made it imperative that no article not absolutely essential be shipped from the ,united ,states1 while difficulties of transportation in ,france necessarily eliminated all except the most essential articles of food4 ,under the procedure in vogue previous to the recent war1 subsistence was purchased by depot quartermasters located in #ac principal cities throughout the ,united ,states4 ,the plan gave the ,army a large number of purchasing officers for subsistence1 working without coordination and even in active competition with each other4 ,this condition resulted in a wide range of prices and a lack of uniform quality2 while under war conditions1 with the enormous quantities to be procured1 it would cause at times a congestion of buying orders1 with consequent disturbance of market prices4 ,a plan of control was soon worked out whereby the ,subsistence ,division1 with headquarters at ,washington1 received at regular intervals the estimates of the needs for subsistence for the ,army1 both at home and abroad4 ,these estimates were compared and a budget made up4 ,bids were then asked through zone supply officers1 who reported the bids to the control body in ,washington4 ,the lowest or most advantageous bid was accepted1 and the purchase was completed by the zone supply officer in whose zone the seller was located4 ,the plan eliminated one army zone bidding against another4 ,at the same time it enabled every manufacturer or producer to bid on the needs of the ,army4 ,in this way active competition was secured and low prices obtained4 ,a decided advantage of the plan was that purchases were made with a minimum of disturbance to prices paid by the civilian trade4 ,not only was it necessary to coordinate army organizations1 but it was also found that the independent buying of the ,army1 the ,navy1 and the ,allied ,provision ,export ,commission was having the effect of increasing prices of a number of food products4 ,these buying agencies were unconsciously bidding against each other4 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 at the suggestion of the ,food ,administrator1 with the consent and approval of the ,secretary of ,war and of the ,secretary of the ,navy1 the food purchase board was organized to coordinate all of the purchases of food products in this country intended for military purposes4 ,the plan adopted was to allot through the ,food ,administration the required quantity to the industry producing the commodity in question1 dividing the business among the various producers in proportion to their capacity4 ,products so controlled were those in which there was an actual or prospective shortage4 ,the prices were determined by the food purchase board after studying and investigating the costs of production4 ,the products so purchased included flour1 sugar1 all canned vegetables1 canned and evaporated fruits1 salmon1 sardines1 canned milk1 rice1 and1 for a time1 fresh beef4 ,these products totaled about #dj per cent of all food requirements for the ,army4 ,practically all purchasing of meat was done by the ,subsistence ,division's packing-house branch1 located in ,chicago4 ,circular proposals were submitted by the various packers whose headquarters are located there4 ,the ,subsistence ,division ordered the required purchases made1 and the ,chicago office at once allotted the amount needed among the packers4 ,after the butchering and inspection of the meat1 it was sent to the freezers and1 after being frozen1 was loaded in the cars and shipped to the embarkation points4 ,the whole process from the time the animal was killed until it was loaded on the boat took about two weeks4 ,the ,middle ,west produced practically all the beef which nourished our fighting men4 ,some of the cattle were bought in ,california1 inspected at the packing-house plants along the ,pacific coast1 and sent to ,france via the ,panama ,canal4 ,the packers of ,chicago and other cities found their plants1 gigantic as they were1 all too small to handle the demand of our troops for meat products packed in special forms2 and extensive additions1 both in buildings and machinery1 were required by the ,army's demands4 ,it was only by careful vigilance on the part of its inspection branch that the millions of men dependent on the ,subsistence ,division for their food were protected from deterioration of supplies and abuses by certain dealers and manufacturers4 ,such firms were in the minority1 for the food industry backed the ,army with great loyalty1 giving honest and patriotic support4 ,in a certain week the inspection service found oatmeal flour moldy and unfit for use1 having been stored too long before using2 large amounts of potatoes1 shipped to ,camp ,devens1 undersize and frostbitten2 #c1jjj pounds of butter at ,camp ,greene too old for use2 and #ab carloads of tomatoes of poor quality4 ,the system in vogue of demanding reinspection was responsible for discovering many such cases1 and traveling inspectors also kept the products up to the highest standard4 ,any information from outside sources was immediately investigated4 ,samples of all shipments of food stuffs were required to be sent to the inspection branch4 ,in this way many violations of the food laws were found4 ,one packer was found to be using pork which contained large numbers of skippers4 ,another tried1 consciously or unconsciously1 to pass off wormy dried fruits4 ,milk has in some cases been found to be much below standard4 ,all of these supplies were promptly rejected as improper for ,army use4 ,in many cases the fault has been found to be the result of improper manufacturing conditions1 and in this event the manufacturer has been compelled to make good the loss to the ,army4 ,the general result of this inspection was that manufacturers gave the ,army their very best products4 ,one of the most important divisions of the inspection branch was the meat and meat-products section4 ,its function was the supervision of the reinspection1 storage1 and handling of meat and meat products1 butter1 and cheese4 ,special care was taken to see that there were no embalmed meats4 ,meat and meat products1 butter1 and cheese are all highly perishable articles2 and1 although they may be delivered in perfect condition1 many imperfections may develop if diligent care is not exercised during shipment1 handling1 and storage4 ,one of the first steps taken at the camps was the installing of complete cold-storage plants with adequate chill rooms1 so that the proper preservation of fresh meats was assured after arrival at camps4 ,from the first the most rigid inspection of meat and meat products was insisted on and no product allowed to pass which did not comply with ,army specifications4 ,the carcass might be from a perfectly healthy animal1 yet be rejected1 as lightweight carcasses were not approved for consumption in the ,army4 ,instructions as to ,army requirements were placed in the hands of every inspector1 covering the inspection1 storage1 and handling of meat and dairy products4 ,supervisory traveling inspectors visited all stations at irregular intervals to insure these instructions being followed and to instruct quartermasters in posts which were too small to warrant a qualified meat inspector being stationed there4 ,one object of the ,subsistence ,division was to educate the proper officers throughout the ,army to be inspectors4 ,to accomplish this the inspection branch compiled a manual covering practically all the principal items of ,army subsistence1 the exact methods of inspection1 and how to detect imperfections in foods4 ,complete ,army specifications for all supplies were included4 ,gen4 ,pershing cabled for #bej copies to be used in ,france1 and the ,university of ,california adopted the manual to be used in zymology classes4 ,it placed exact knowledge in the hands of the men who received the food and who had the responsibility that it be up to specifications4 ,the overseas forces were the particular concern of the ,subsistence ,division4 ,it was planned to have approximately three months' advance supply of food sent over each month for the number of troops actually sent to ,france during that month4 ,this was called the initial supply4 ,in addition to this1 there was sent over a monthly automatic supply1 equivalent to the amount of food the troops already in ,france would consume during that month4 ,in this way a #ij days' reserve was usually maintained overseas4 ,the problems of the overseas forces demanded quick solution4 ,the new modes of warfare gave rise to many needs unknown in peace times4 ,the result was that calls came in for commodities which were not at the time being produced in adequate quantities4 ,factories had to be built1 labor secured1 and machinery manufactured2 in instances entirely new industries had to be created4 ,the ,service of ,supply found it was impossible to secure sufficient fresh vegetables in ,europe to take care of the requirements of our troops1 and the ,subsistence ,division at home was called upon to supply dehydrated vegetables for overseas requirements4 ,to send fresh vegetables from the ,united ,states was impossible1 due to the great necessity for conserving ship tonnage1 and a substitute was imperative4 ,to supply dehydrated vegetables meant the development of an industry4 ,dehydration was practically unknown in the ,united ,states1 there being but three small plants in existence4 ,the ,subsistence ,division searched the country for advantageous locations where there were prospects of having such factories established4 ,within a few months the cooperation of companies was secured and factories were built whose combined output for the month of ,december1 #aiah1 amounted to #f1jjj1jjj pounds1 there being #ae large plants in the ,united ,states at that time4 ,up to the date of the signing of the armistice #fb1jjj1jjj pounds of dehydrated vegetables had been ordered by ,gen4 ,pershing4 ,the difficulty of supply was increased by the delicate process which is required to make dehydrated vegetables4 ,the moisture of the fresh product must be removed without extracting the nutritious juices or destroying the food value or flavor4 ,after the vegetables have been peeled and sliced or cubed1 they are blanched1 in order that they may retain their starch components4 ,they are then placed on trays in huge kilns1 through which heated air is blown until only the small required amount of moisture is retained4 ,the product is then packed in hermetically sealed cans4 ,dehydrated vegetables occupied a prominent place in the soldier's menu in ,france4 ,reports from overseas made by inspectors of the ,subsistence ,division indicate that dehydrated vegetables were quite satisfactory4 ,the ,surgeon ,general's ,office has approved their use4 ,however1 when fresh vegetables could be purchased in foreign markets they were used in preference4 ,the use of dehydrated vegetables saved two-thirds of the cargo space in ships over the amount required for fresh vegetables4 ,their use came at the time when the cargo space was as valuable as life itself1 and it enabled men and munitions to be transported sooner than would otherwise have been possible4 ,dehydrated vegetables were also found especially adapted for use at the front when food was carried forward from the rail heads to the trench kitchens under shell fire4 ,the emergency ration and its production make another interesting story4 ,designed to be used only in dire extremity1 primarily for ,no ,man's ,land fighting1 the ration was packed in small cans to be carried in the soldier's pocket1 usually the upper left-hand jacket pocket4 ,this ration corresponded to the starvation ration of the allies4 ,its components were adopted after experiments at the battle front and after consultations with food experts4 ,it represented the greatest amount of food that could be concentrated in the smallest compass4 ,the complete ration consisted of three cakes of a mixture of beef and ground cooked wheat1 each cake weighing #c ounces2 three #a-ounce cakes of chocolate2 three-quarters of an ounce of fine salt2 and #a dram of black pepper4 ,from the beef the preparation process removed all fat1 sinew1 and white fibrous tissue4 ,the meat was then heated1 and all of its moisture was evaporated so skillfully that no flavor was lost4 ,the wheat or bread component of the cake was prepared by removing the chaff from cooked wheat which had been kiln-dried1 parched1 and then ground to a coarse powder4 ,the meat and bread were compounded together1 about two parts of bread to each part of meat1 making a perfectly homogeneous cake4 ,the chocolate of the ration was prepared by combining equal weights of fine chocolate1 containing not less than #bj per cent of cocoa butter1 and pure sugar1 and molding the product into cakes weighing #a ounce each4 ,the several components were packed into oval tin cans1 which were camouflaged to render them inconspicuous4 ,these cans bore the legend3 ,u4 ,s4 ,army ,emergency ,ration4 ,not to be opened except by order of an officer1 or in extremity4 ,many ways of preparing the emergency ration for eating in the field were found by experiments4 ,the bread and meat cake could be eaten dry2 or1 when boiled in #c pints of water1 it made a palatable soup2 boiled in #a pint of water1 it produced a thick porridge which could be eaten hot or cold2 the cold porridge could be sliced and fried when circumstances permitted4 ,the chocolate could be eaten as candy or made into a drink by placing the chocolate in a tin cup with hot water4 ,the gas attacks in the trenches made it necessary that the soldier's food be packed in containers impervious to mustard gas poison1 mustard gas1 when swallowed1 attacking the intestines4 ,the first call for such a ration came during ,october1 #aiag1 and it called for the shipment of #ajj1jjj sealed rations a month for #bj months4 ,the food was to be packed in hermetically sealed galvanized iron containers1 holding #be rations each4 ,the contents of each can consisted of #be pounds of meat in #a-pound cans1 #be pounds of hard bread in #h-ounce cans1 and #be rations each of soluble coffee1 sugar1 and salt4 ,tobacco and cigarettes were added for the comfort of the men4 ,the addition of tobacco and cigarettes was accidental4 ,it was found necessary at first to fill the surplus space in the containers with excelsior4 ,the office force of a large corporation learned of this fact and got permission to fill the empty space in some of the containers with tobacco4 ,the ,subsistence ,division thought so well of the idea that orders were issued for the tobacco ration to be placed in all reserve ration containers4 ,one of the most difficult elements in supplying the reserve ration was the securing of tin cans for hard bread4 ,these1 because of their unusual size and shape1 could only be manufactured after new can-making machines had been designed4 ,the demand for such cans exceeded #aj1jjj1jjj in number4 ,within a comparatively short time1 however1 hard bread in cans for special reserve rations was being produced on a large scale1 and the overseas requirements were filled4 ,next the manufacture of the necessary galvanized containers and crates was contracted for4 ,a packing plant was then designed to pack the components into the containers1 which was an intricate operation in itself1 the number of rations being so great4 ,this plant was so contrived that the parts of the packing material came in at one end of the plant1 and the hard bread1 canned corned beef hash1 canned roast beef1 and canned corned beef1 canned fish1 coffee1 sugar1 salt1 and can openers were packed into the galvanized containers as they traveled on a conveyor belt1 until all the components were included4 ,only the best of ,army purchases were put in the reserve ration4 ,a study was made of the best packers of the various commodities1 and their products were used exclusively4 ,everyone connected with the packing knew the purpose of the ration4 ,it was to be used only when the trenches were under the heaviest fire--when hot food could not be carried forward1 and when the men were most in need of good food4 ,the reserve ration became the quality ration of the ,army as a result4 ,after the packing was complete1 the cans were hermetically sealed by solder and camouflaged with olive drab paint4 ,the container of the ration1 when packed1 was so buoyant it would support two men upon it when thrown into the sea1 thus being a potential life raft4 ,it was also necessary to feed our men in ,german prison camps4 ,a ration for ,american prisoners was prepared by the ,subsistence ,division of the ,quartermaster ,corps1 in conjunction with the ,food and ,nutrition ,division of the ,surgeon's ,general office4 ,this ration was distributed by the ,american ,red ,cross from ,denmark and ,switzerland4 ,individual packages each containing sufficient food to supply one man were sent to the prison camps each week4 ,the chief components of the package were corned beef and salmon 7with an occasional substitution of corned beef hash and canned roast beef71 hard dry bread1 dry beans1 rice1 baked beans1 and fresh potatoes 7where possible74 ,prunes1 jam1 apples1 peaches1 coffee1 sugar1 evaporated milk1 vinegar1 salt1 pepper1 and pickles were also supplied4 ,potatoes and onions were procured when possible in ,ireland1 ,france1 and ,italy4 ,otherwise dehydrated potatoes and onions were used4 ,special food was sent for the invalid prisoners1 this ration containing potted chicken1 crackers1 concentrated soup1 dehydrated spinach1 creamed oat meal1 cornstarch pudding1 sweet chocolate1 extract of beef1 soluble coffee1 etc4 ,there were several substitutes for all items mentioned1 among the substitutes being dried eggs1 potted veal1 cheese1 peanut butter1 dried apricots1 honey1 corn meal1 gelatine1 malted milk powder1 bouillon cubes1 apples1 oranges1 lemons1 cocoa1 and tea4 ,when the ,american troops entered the trenches it was found impracticable to use the ordinary roasted and ground coffee4 ,its preparation required too much fire1 the smoke of which made a target for the enemy4 ,experiments were made with soluble coffee1 looking toward guaranteeing a warm stimulant in the trenches4 ,it was found necessary to give hot drinks to the men before they went over the top or after they had undergone periods of exposure4 ,the ,british and ,french troops were supplied with brandy1 wine1 or rum on such occasions4 ,but issues of intoxicants to soldiers were contrary to the ,american policy1 and quantities of soluble coffee were substituted4 ,solidified alcohol was supplied so that the coffee could be served hot4 ,the soluble-coffee industry was in its infancy in the ,united ,states4 ,so great was the demand for soluble coffee from the overseas forces that the calls were for over thirty times the prewar production4 ,a cablegram was received in ,october informing us that after ,january #a1 #aiai1 the troops would require #be1jjj pounds of coffee each day in addition to the amounts packed in the trench rations1 these latter quantities alone amounting to #ab1jjj pounds daily4 ,allowance was also made for possible sinkings of #e1jjj pounds daily1 making a total of #db1jjj pounds necessary to meet the daily requirements of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,illustration3 ,,manufacturing ,,barrington-,,hall ,,soluble ,,coffee ,,at ,,the ,,baker ,,importing ,,co4 ,,plant1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,three ,,batteries ,,of #ba ,,percolators4 ,,capacity #e ,,cases ,,of ,,coffee ,,each4 ,illustration3 ,,manufacturing ,,soluble ,,coffee ,,for ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,,government ,,in ,,the ,,plant ,,of ,c4 ,j4 ,,blanke ,,tea ,,coffee ,,co41 ,,st4 ,,louis1 ,,mo4 ,the entire ,american output of soluble coffee was taken over for the ,army1 but this amounted to only #f1jjj pounds daily4 ,a number of manufacturers of other food products were induced to turn their entire plants into soluble-coffee factories4 ,the greatest difficulty was incurred in the securing of the necessary equipment for these new plants4 ,there was but one company in the entire ,united ,states which made the revolving bronze drums essential to the manufacturing process4 ,this company ran its plant seven days a week1 with three shifts daily1 to produce the necessary materials4 ,the metals which went into these drums were vital in the manufacture of other munitions1 but it was even more important that men in the front lines be given hot drinks when tired and worn from long fighting and exposure4 ,the signing of the armistice saw the difficulties of supplying soluble coffee about overcome4 ,the ,subsistence ,division had won one of its hardest fights4 ,the cooperation of ,american manufacturers had made the achievement possible4 ,the problem of supplying good coffee to the troops was a difficult one4 ,to make good coffee for a unit as large as a company is not easy for the average cook4 ,to guarantee that good coffee would always be available1 the ,subsistence ,division made one of its most radical changes in handling supplies4 ,this change was so complete that whereas the ,army formerly was served with coffee from three to six months out of the roasters1 it came to be supplied with coffee freshly roasted every day4 ,at the beginning of the war coffee was purchased1 ready roasted and ground1 from competitive dealers4 ,it was then held in ,new ,york for about #cj days before being shipped overseas1 the transportation requiring #cj days more4 ,received in ,france1 the coffee often was kept for #ij days before it was distributed to the troops4 ,in addition1 a #cj days' supply must be kept on hand1 making the coffee #f months old by the time it was used4 ,the result was that when the coffee finally reached the men it had lost half of its value as a stimulant and was greatly deteriorated in flavor1 often being in a crumbly condition4 ,muddy coffee on the mess tables resulted4 ,the only way for the troops to secure fresh coffee was for us to send over the green product for roasting as it was needed4 ,buildings were erected to house coffee-roasting machinery at home and abroad2 men were trained as quickly as possible in the process of coffee-roasting1 and sent out to take charge of the plants4 ,in a relatively short length of time #af plants were in full operation in ,france1 and an increasing number at home4 ,eventually all the coffee used in ,france was shipped over green and roasted in the plants there4 ,these plants were capable of roasting sufficient coffee to take care of #c1jjj1jjj men at a considerably lower cost to the ,government than under the old system4 ,the ,expeditionary ,forces1 as is noted elsewhere1 organised a purchasing office in ,paris4 ,its purpose was to save tonnage space by securing as many products as possible in ,europe4 ,its scope covered all classes of supplies1 but a large section was devoted to subsistence4 ,candy1 hard bread1 and macaroni factories under the direction of the ,quartermaster ,corps were built or secured from the ,french ,government4 ,large quantities of beans1 fresh potatoes1 onions1 coffee1 rice1 salt1 and vinegar were secured from ,european markets4 ,many thousands of tons of foodstuffs were purchased and manufactured in ,europe for our ,army1 every ton representing space on ships saved for additional men and munitions4 ,overseas purchases were generally discontinued after the signing of the armistice1 as the ,director of ,purchase and ,storage and the ,expeditionary ,forces were firm for the policy of favoring ,american manufacturers wherever possible4 ,to reduce tonnage still further1 extensive experiments were made in the packing of beef for overseas consumption4 ,all bones1 surplus fats1 and waste portions were removed4 ,the remainder1 all edible1 was pressed into #ajj-pound moulds and frozen4 ,the initial shipment was composed of #af carloads of boneless beef4 ,the meat arrived in ,france in splendid condition1 and was carefully watched from its arrival at the ports in ,france to its consumption in the front-line trenches4 ,officers1 mess sergeants1 and cooks were enthusiastic over the boneless beef1 as it took much less time to prepare it and so conserved labor to a great extent4 ,the men were gratified1 as the inferior portions of the beef were not included1 and much better meat resulted for the mess4 ,after the success of this experimental shipment1 as much boneless beef as possible was sent to ,france4 ,trouble was encountered in securing the skilled butchers to bone the great quantities needed1 but this shortage was largely overcome4 ,no means was discovered so effective for reducing tonnage as boning beef1 dehydrating vegetables1 and purchasing foods in ,france1 but in many of the smaller items there were stories just as interesting4 ,efforts to save tonnage brought about the reduction of moisture in soap4 ,while the ,subsistence ,division was securing toilet paper it found that the entire supply for the ,expeditionary ,forces could be stored in the waste space of ,army rolling field kitchens4 ,a special formula for vinegar was devised1 and double-strength vinegar was shipped4 ,this1 when mixed with an equal quantity of water in ,france1 was a good product4 ,the saving of space in the transportation of subsistence stores makes a long story in itself4 ,just so much tonnage was allotted to food each month2 and the ablest men in the food industry spent much time in working out how the maximum amount of essentials and luxuries in foodstuffs could be sent in the minimum amount of space4 ,illustration3 ,,coffee-,,roasting ,,plant ,,as ,,operated ,,at ,a ,,number ,,of ,,camps4 ,illustration3 ,,furnishing ,,the ,,army ,,with ,,tobacco4 ,packing machines in a ,winston-,salem1 ,n4 ,c4 plant4 ,these machines automatically weigh the tobacco1 wrap and seal tins in which this particular brand of tobacco is marketed4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,cigarettes ,,for ,,the ,,army4 ,leaf tobacco being blended for cigarette-making purposes in a ,richmond1 ,va41 tobacco plant4 ,the ,subsistence ,division not only looked after the working fighter but the playing fighter as well4 ,the ,american soldier is fond of candy1 tobacco1 and chewing gum4 ,the supply of these commodities brought much pleasure to the troops4 ,long lines of men waiting for free candy and tobacco in ,france1 men who just came from the front1 formed one of the interesting sights of the war4 ,tobacco has established its claim to a recognized place in the soldier's life4 ,probably #ie per cent of the soldiers of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces used it in one form or another4 ,in ,may of #aiah it was decided to adopt the practice of the allies1 namely1 to allow each soldier a certain amount of tobacco per day4 ,this unusual innovation was the official recognition of tobacco as a necessity for men in active service4 ,to men enduring physical hardships1 obliged to live without the comforts and often even the necessities of life in times of battle1 tobacco fills a need nothing else can satisfy4 ,the daily ration of four-tenths of an ounce was given to every man overseas who desired it4 ,the soldier had the choice of cigarettes1 smoking tobacco1 or chewing tobacco4 ,if he chose smoking tobacco he received cigarette papers with it4 ,in addition the men could buy at any ,army or other canteen the most popular brands of cigars and cigarettes in unlimited quantities4 ,the ,subsistence ,division purchased for overseas shipment a monthly average of #bj1jjj1jjj cigars and #dbe1jjj1jjj cigarettes4 ,abundant supplies of tobacco were on hand in the commissaries overseas1 and the soldier could buy it at actual cost4 ,there was no profit or tax added on any tobacco shipped to ,france1 and it was sold at retail to the troops at a cost lower than the price paid by the biggest wholesalers in the ,united ,states4 ,the plan for the purchase of cigars and cigarettes was to divide the contracts among the most popular brands in the same proportions as the latter are sold in this country4 ,candy in the days of the old ,army was considered a luxury4 ,the war with ,germany witnessed a change4 ,the old popularity of chewing tobacco waned2 that of candy increased4 ,approximately #cjj1jjj pounds of candy represented the monthly purchases during the early period of the war4 ,this amount included both the home and overseas consumption4 ,demands from overseas grew steadily4 ,the soldier far from home and from his customary amusements could not be considered an ordinary individual living according to his own inclinations1 and candy became more and more sought after4 ,as the demand increased1 the ,quartermaster ,department came to recognize the need of systematic selection and purchase4 ,the first purchases were made from offerings of manufacturers without any particular standard1 #dj per cent being assorted chocolates1 #cj per cent assorted stick candy1 and #cj per cent lemon drops4 ,a standard was developed through the steady work of confectionery experts4 ,this standard offered no opportunities for deception1 and it guaranteed candy made from pure sugar and the best of other materials4 ,the specifications furnished all bidders covered raw materials1 the methods of manufacture1 packing1 and casing4 ,specifications were adopted after many conferences with the leading manufacturers of the country4 ,these men cooperated in the work by giving their best suggestions and often their trade secrets4 ,huge purchases of candy were made during the days when sugar was scarcest in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,food ,administration was convinced that the ,army should have all the candy it desired1 and sufficient quantities of sugar were allotted for the purpose4 ,from #cjj1jjj pounds monthly the candy purchases increased till they equaled #a1cgc1cjj pounds in ,november1 #aiah1 the highest amount purchased up to that time4 ,in ,december1 #aiah1 an innovation was adopted1 consisting of giving the troops a regular monthly ration of candy4 ,the candy which had been shipped every month for sale in the various canteens had always been quickly disposed of4 ,many men did not get the opportunity to make purchases4 ,the ration plan1 however1 assured each man a pound and a half a month1 without exception4 ,it required #c1die1jjj pounds the first month of the ration system to provide each soldier overseas with his allotted portion4 ,in ,december1 #aiah1 the ,subsistence ,division took over the purchase of all candy for the various organizations conducting canteens for our troops4 ,the purchase for that month totaled #aj1acg1jjj pounds1 all of which was shipped overseas4 ,it was the largest exportation of candy on record4 ,the candy purchased for the canteens1 commissaries1 and other agencies was manufactured by the best known candy firms in the country4 ,a portion of the candy consumed overseas was manufactured in ,france4 ,this ,french supply was discontinued ,january #ae1 #aiai1 and thereafter all requirements were shipped over from the ,united ,states4 ,the candy was sold to the men at just half the price it would have cost individuals here4 ,after ,december1 #aiah1 #ej1jjj pounds were furnished each month for sales purposes for every #be1jjj men in ,france4 ,up to ,february #a1 #aiai1 #ba1jjj1jjj pounds of candy had been sent across4 ,the demand for candy jumped skyward after the signing of the armistice1 the men then having more time on their hands in which to enjoy luxuries4 ,tobacco demands likewise increased4 ,the suffering sweet tooth of the ,yank was not appeased by candy alone4 ,the third of a billion pounds of sugar bought for the ,army represents a tremendous number of cakes1 tarts1 pies1 and custards4 ,an old soldier recently stated that the ice cream eaten by the ,army during the war would start a new ocean4 ,the serious shortage of sugar which at one time threatened to reduce sweets to an irreducible minimum on the civilian bill of fare did not interfere with the soldier's ration1 which continued to be #f pounds monthly in this country and about #i pounds overseas4 ,the ration for the civilian population was reduced to #b pounds monthly4 ,army officers were placed on the same status as the civilian population and were allowed to purchase only the amount stipulated for civilians for use in their homes4 ,up to the signing of the armistice the total amount of granulated1 cut1 and powdered sugar purchased by the ,subsistence ,division equaled #cdb1gde1hfb pounds and cost #bh1dfe1jej4 ,of this amount the greater portion was shipped to the troops in ,france4 ,a close companion in popularity to candy and tobacco was the typical ,american product1 chewing gum4 ,this confection was found of great value on the march as a substitute for water4 ,its importance is shown in the vast amount sent overseas4 ,a total of #c1ejj1jjj packages represents the overseas shipment in ,january1 #aiai4 ,the shipment for ,february was #c1bjj1jjj packages4 ,the winter consumption of gum was heavier than that of summer1 the average monthly supply being only #a1ejj1jjj packages during the summer of #aiah4 ,chewing gum came to be considered a necessity by the men in ,france and has been found to be an invaluable aid to keeping up their spirits in the midst of hardships4 ,every complaint against meals served in the ,army reaching the attention of the ,subsistence ,division was investigated4 ,these investigations were made in conjunction with the ,inspector ,general's ,department of the ,army4 ,where complaints were justified1 remedial action was taken4 ,a study of the complaints revealed that most dissatisfaction was among new troops who1 when first separated from the luxuries of home1 wrote of their adventures at the mess table1 enlarging any lack of home comforts into stories of privation4 ,the more solid food1 however1 soon became popular1 as the hard work in training gave an appetite for sustaining rather than for the more fancy foods4 ,subsistence to the value of #cbg1jfj1jig was shipped to our forces overseas from the ,united ,states from the start of the war to ,december #a1 #aiah4 ,the following table gives the quantity1 unit price1 and total value of these subsistence items3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,item4 ,quantity4 ,unit ,total price4 value4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,pounds4 ,cents4 ,ham #a1ggb1iag #cd4db #faj1bch ,bacon #adg1ief1bbc #dd4db #fe1gbb1aed ,beef1 fresh1 frozen #bej1ehd1fib #bc4cf #eh1ecf1ehd ,beef1 tinned #adj1hdc1dge #cb4df #de1gag1gib ,fish1 salmon #cj1ifa1hja #ad4bd #d1djh1ifj ,cheese #cad1bjc #bg4ge #hg1aia ,flour #edb1hgd1gig #e4be #bh1ejj1ibg ,hard bread #bg1igh1hcj #ab4ib #c1fad1hfe ,corn meal #af1jgd1fhg #d4eh #gcf1bba ,oatmeal #d1ffa1gcb #f4ce #bif1jbj ,beans1 dry #ci1fdf1fgg #aj4hd #d1big1gjj ,beans1 baked #ed1gca1ghf #i4ee #e1bbf1hhf ,rice #be1dff1edg #g4ig #b1jbi1fhd ,hominy #a1hbf1bfi #h4ed #aee1ifc ,tomatoes #ajj1jha1ghi #f4jb #f1jbd1ibd ,peas1 green #d1fhi1dbe #e4fj #bfb1fjh ,corn1 sweet #g1fci1ghf #e4fe #dca1fdh ,beans1 stringless #b1adh1gei #e4ib #abg1bjg ,vegetables1 dehydrated #ab1iga1ice #cj4be #c1ibd1jaj ,prunes #ae1gdh1ica #aj4ce #a1fcj1jad ,fruit1 evaporated #h1igf1hdh #ac4bg #a1aia1bbh ,jam #bf1jbi1jbh #ah4gd #d1hgg1hdj ,apples1 canned #a1hca1jif #f4ci #aag1jjg ,peaches1 canned #b1dae1ahb #aj4ef #bee1jdc ,apricots1 canned #hfc1dae #i4ab #gh1gdc ,pears1 canned #a1aej1abj #aj4bb #aag1edb ,cherries1 canned #dbc1ddd #ab4ba #ea1gjc ,pineapples1 canned #hii1beh #i4ab #hb1jab ,coffee #ci1ahe1afg #ab4jg #d1gbi1fej ,sugar #ajf1afi1cde #g4dc #g1hhh1chb ,milk1 evaporated #db1ibb1gdc #aj4dh #d1dih1cjc ,lard and substitutes #ae1gha1bbh #bd4dg #c1hfa1fff ,butter and substitutes #af1bjj1gii #ci4ga #f1dcc1ccg ,candy #g1hie1jec #bg4gf #b1aia1ffg ,tobacco #bg1ddi1fde #fg4jf #ah1djg1gcb ,salt #ac1gjg1bgf 4#hh #abj1fbd ,vinegar gallons #a1cai1hgg #bg4he #cfg1ehf ,pickles do4 #a1ccc1baj #df4id #fbe1hji ,sirup do4 #f1aga1hjh #ei4bb #c1fed1ide ,cigars each #afj1ahj1bbe #d4he #g1gfh1gda ,cigarettes do4#b1dci1bfj1jig 4#fb #ae1abc1dab ,special reserve rations do4 #ae1fbc1aej #gf4jj #aa1hgc1eid ,emergency rations do4 #gfe1djj #eb4ej #dja1hce ------------ ,total #cbg1jfj1jig ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,meat ,,for ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,,army ,,receives ,,thorough ,,inspection4 ,,federal ,,inspectors ,,are ,,examining ,,sheep ,,as ,,they ,,pass ,,along ,,the ,,endless ,,trolley ,,in ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,dressing4 ,,armour ,,co4 ,illustration3 ,,manufacturing ,,razors ,,for ,,soldiers3 ,,blade ,,honing ,,department4 ,,durham ,,duplex ,,razor ,,co4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,,uniforms ,,for ,,the ,,army4 ,view of the cutting department of a plant at ,red ,bank1 ,n4 ,j4 ,illustration3 ,,manufacturing ,,spiral ,,puttees ,,for ,,the ,,army4 ,this photo shows yarn being wound in a ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 factory4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,clothing ,,and ,,equipage4 ,the ,army raised against ,germany had to have stout shoes for its feet4 ,it required warm uniforms and overcoats and good socks and underwear4 ,it had to have heavy blankets for its beds4 ,the men needed raincoats and rubber boots for wet and muddy weather4 ,tentage was required1 pup tents for the front and large tents and flies at the camps4 ,belts and bandoleers of cotton webbing added to the soldier's efficiency as a rifleman or machine gunner4 ,to procure these and other supplies for an ,american ,army that eventually reached the strength of #c1gej1jjj men required the best brains in the textile1 rubber fabric1 and leather goods industries4 ,from the counting rooms1 from the laboratories1 and from the ,american factories the needs of the ,government called to ,washington several hundred men1 experts in a thousand lines1 and put them into ,american officers' uniforms4 ,eventually the various agencies of the ,war ,department purchasing these supplies were centralized in a single division known as the ,clothing and ,equipage ,division of the ,office of the ,director of ,purchase and ,storage1 which in turn was part of the ,division of ,purchase1 ,storage1 and ,traffic4 ,the total cost of this necessary equipment of textiles and leather and rubber goods was approximately #b1ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,of the enormous sum of money appropriated for the so-called quartermaster activities1 a full one-quarter went for clothing and equipage of this sort4 ,the group who handled this enormous manufacturing effort not only conducted one of the biggest undertakings of the war but did it in a way to command the admiration of those who knew the story of what was going on4 ,the division turned scientific attention1 and that means the attention of real scientists1 to the proper construction of all sorts of articles4 ,it designed new styles of soldiers' clothing adapted in every curve and line to the service in ,france4 ,it standardized dyes and made studies of protective coloring4 ,it produced highly specialized shoes4 ,it saved millions of dollars by the scientific study of specifications of various articles4 ,it educated manufacturers in the production of articles strange to their experience1 and in some cases developed entirely new industries4 ,at one time it constituted the entire wool trade of the ,united ,states1 since it had optioned every pound of wool in sight and had its agents out gathering up the excess wool of the earth4 ,it was a shipmaster1 an employer of men1 a reformer in labor conditions1 and an inventor and originator of new products4 ,the organization was important not only for the size of its business but because it dealt more intimately with the individual soldier than perhaps any other production branch of the ,government1 with the possible exception of the branch which fed him4 ,it might seem to be a fairly easy proposition to buy clothing for a soldier1 his tent1 and the bed clothing that kept him warm in active service or when he was a patient in a military hospital4 ,but it was not a simple task4 ,none of these articles was standard for civilian use1 either in material1 color1 or pattern4 ,everything had to be made to order4 ,the ordinary factory could not begin work on contracts for these supplies on a minute's notice1 but usually only after special and sometimes costly preparation4 ,and as the ,army grew in size it had to have large quantities of special clothing4 ,cooks needed cotton aprons1 and blacksmiths leather ones4 ,linemen had to have special gloves2 hospital orderlies and waiters at messes required white duck suits2 motorcyclists needed hoods2 laborers1 overalls2 and firemen1 helmets4 ,there were special garments for aviators4 ,we began capturing prisoners and they had to have special uniforms4 ,convalescents at hospitals needed special suits4 ,the women nurses of the ,army were supplied with uniforms1 something entirely outside of previous ,army experience4 ,the ,government was something more than the designer and manufacturer of these goods1 drawing the specifications1 placing the orders1 and then teaching the processes of manufacture in the thousands of factories which had virtually become ,government plants4 ,the clothing and equipage organization had to go further back and become the actual procurer of the raw materials2 and this phase of its work eventually became one of the largest and most spectacular and romantic elements of the whole undertaking4 ,in addition to procuring the raw cotton and the raw wool and the hides1 the ,government had to go into the manufacture of cloth and the tanning of leather to supply these commodities to the manufacturers of the finished articles4 ,the ,government went into a raw materials market which was already glutted with orders from the allied governments and from domestic consumption4 ,it went into this market at first without money1 since funds on the scale demanded were not available between ,march #d1 #aiag1 and ,june #ae of the same year2 and it had to buy on credit and secure the commodities in the face of cash bidding for them4 ,nevertheless the whole enormous undertaking was successfully carried through4 ,except in rare instances1 the ,american soldier never lacked for necessary supplies of this character4 ,the organization which handled the work originally consisted of #f officers and #be clerks4 ,when the armistice was signed this great purchasing and manufacturing agency had an enrollment of #a1fic people4 ,wool was the most important of the raw materials to be procured1 since wool entered into the composition of more items than any other material4 ,uniforms1 overcoats1 underwear1 socks1 breeches1 shirts1 and many other articles had to be made entirely or partially of wool4 ,the purchases of woolen breeches alone during the war period amounted to #ac1agf1jjj pairs4 ,on ,september #aj1 #aiah1 the wool experts of the army estimated the ,nation's total needs for wool up to ,june #cj1 #aiai4 ,the ,war ,department1 it was found1 during this time would require #bdf1jjj1jjj pounds of clean wool2 the allotment to civilian needs was but #ae1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,in other words1 the war demands were to absorb practically the entire supply of wool2 civilians were to be forced to do without it almost entirely4 ,soon after the declaration of war the ,quartermaster ,corps estimated that it would require about #ajj1jjj1jjj pounds of scoured wool to meet the initial demands of the ,army in #aiag4 ,a meeting was called of the principal wool dealers of the ,united ,states1 most of them from ,boston1 and a quick inventory was taken of the available wool supplies1 not only in the ,united ,states1 but on order from foreign countries4 ,it was found that there was in sight #gh1jjj1jjj pounds of greasy wool1 which1 after being scoured1 would produce #ce1jjj1jjj pounds of wool of the quality needed4 ,this was barely one-third of the ,army's demand alone4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that this inventory was taken just before the annual ,american clip1 which would be finished by the end of ,july4 ,to insure that the ,government would secure every pound of wool in sight1 options were promptly obtained on all wool in ,american warehouses or on the sea1 and speculation in the prices of the domestic clip for #aiag was thus headed off by the entry of the ,government itself in the raw wool business4 ,the prices were fixed for the #aiag clip as of ,july #ca4 ,a year later the clothing and equipage division had become the entire wool trade of the ,united ,states4 ,there was no wool market again and no public sale of wool until after the armistice was signed4 ,to handle this enormous undertaking the division appointed a wool administrator to buy wool1 a wool purchasing quartermaster to pay for it1 and a wool distributor to sell it to the ,government contractors4 ,the ,government's wool headquarters was in ,boston1 with branches at ,philadelphia1 ,chicago1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,san ,francisco1 and ,seattle4 ,this organization arranged to procure the whole #aiag clip1 if needed1 took over all wool destined for the ,united ,states under import licenses1 and sent its agents to foreign markets4 ,the largest of the foreign markets practically available from the standpoint of distance was the ,argentine in ,south ,america4 ,australia and ,new ,zealand were1 of course1 enormous markets1 but the dearth of shipping made it impossible to spare many bottoms for the long voyage into the ,antipodes4 ,as a matter of fact1 when the fighting ceased1 the whole world was suffering for wool1 except ,australia and ,new ,zealand4 ,america was short of wool1 ,france had practically none1 there was a little in ,england1 but ,australia and ,new ,zealand had the staggering surplus of #a1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,this was due to the fact that there had been no shipping available to bring this wool to ,america or ,europe4 ,the ,government's wool administrator secured such ,australian and ,new ,zealand wool as he could2 but he had to rely principally on sailing vessels1 which could not1 under the most favorable conditions1 go to ,australia and back again in less than seven months1 while nine or ten months were more often required4 ,a quick sailing voyage to ,argentina and back required five months4 ,nevertheless1 and this was particularly true in the early fall of #aiah1 when preparations were being made for the equipment of the ,army in #aiai1 every effort was made to secure foreign wool4 ,a ,south ,american wool-buying commission was formed and sent to ,buenos ,aires1 arriving there ,october #cj1 #aiah4 ,by that time1 however1 the end of the war was in sight1 and the commission never opened up its ,argentine headquarters4 ,the ,government conducted its raw-wool business on the lines of a great department store4 ,headquarters were established in ,boston1 where the wool distributors kept samples of almost every kind of wool produced on earth1 these samples representing stocks on hand in the various ,government warehouses in ,boston and elsewhere4 ,charles ,j4 ,nichols1 a member of a large ,boston wool firm1 was the wool administrator and ,e4 ,w4 ,brigham was wool distributor4 ,prices were fixed1 and the manufacturers bought from the samples4 ,carpet wool was sold at an office in ,philadelphia4 ,the wool administrator did a business that averaged #b1ejj1jjj per day during his incumbency1 his total purchases amounting to about #gbb1jjj1jjj pounds of wool4 ,at first the supply of the better grades of wool seemed to be adequate to meet the ,army's demands4 ,later1 however1 changes were made in the specifications for various cloths1 uniform cloth being increased from #af to #bj ounces in weight1 overcoating from #cj to #cb ounces1 shirting flannel from #h to #i ounces1 and blankets from #c to #d pounds4 ,these increases made it necessary for the ,army to use grades of wool previously made only into coarse materials like carpet4 ,the lower grades of wool were blended with the finer grades to provide the necessary weight and warmth1 even at the expense of fineness of texture and appearance4 ,this action explains why at the end of the period of hostilities some of the ,american soldiers' uniforms looked rough and uneven in color4 ,but the necessary cloth was provided1 and it was warm4 ,the ,government saved every ounce of wool that it possibly could save4 ,more economical patterns and layouts for the cutting of uniforms were designed in ,washington and furnished to the manufacturers4 ,the ,american soldier's uniform did not meet the approval of officers of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces as to style1 after the latter had become used to seeing the smartly dressed troops of ,europe4 ,accordingly1 after ,gen4 ,pershing had recommended a better-appearing uniform1 a new one was designed1 incidentally with an eye to saving cloth4 ,the coat of the uniform--formerly called the blouse1 a designation which is now obsolete--was cut with new lines1 making it slimmer without sacrifice of warmth or comfort4 ,the patch pockets of the original blouse were usually unsightly bulges when the soldiers filled them with articles4 ,on the new coat the patch pocket was retained only in appearance1 the pocket actually being on the inside4 ,it is not known to most ,americans that the breeches1 which have been typical of the ,american service uniform for many years1 were abandoned late in the war in favor of long trousers4 ,this change was also due to studies made by the army clothing experts4 ,the soldiers themselves were not enamored of breeches1 since they had to be either laced or buttoned below the knee1 a process which took time always1 but seemed to take more when a man was in a hurry4 ,the laces sometimes chafed the leg under the leggins4 ,then1 too1 it was often impossible to remove the breeches from soldiers wounded in their legs without cutting the cloth4 ,long trousers did away with all these objections and had the added virtue of being warmer than the breeches4 ,the overcoat1 too1 was redesigned1 following ,gen4 ,pershing's recommendations1 the stock overcoat being too long to be worn in the trenches4 ,a knee-length garment was provided which was much smarter than the older coat4 ,the redesigning of the overcoat and the uniform 7although the new uniform never appeared in the field7 accomplished numerous economies4 ,merely by the elimination of lacings1 eyelets1 tape1 and stays1 the new trousers cost #ie4be cents less than a pair of army breeches4 ,by ,july #a1 #aiai1 this change in design would have saved the ,government #af1ihh1ddj in orders for trousers already placed or in sight4 ,the change in overcoat styles saved #fb cents per garment1 or a total saving to ,july #a1 #aiai1 estimated at #hig1adj4 ,the service coat1 made by redesigning the blouse1 saved the ,government #a4eih on each garment1 or an estimated saving of #d1igg1ggj to ,july #a1 #aiai4 ,this was not only financial saving1 but what was more important1 it was saving the consumption of the raw material1 wool4 ,the ,government could always raise more money2 but if the wool supply were exhausted1 all the money on earth could not buy any more of it4 ,a more economical cutting pattern saved twenty-three one-hundredths of a yard of cloth in the manufacture of every pair of trousers4 ,this resulted in the total saving of #b1cjj1jjj yards of woolen cloth4 ,part of the facings of the service coats and overcoats were eliminated without sacrificing warmth or serviceability1 and cheaper cotton linings were substituted4 ,another important cloth economy came when the ,army designers cut off the right-hand pocket of the ,o4 ,d4 shirt1 on the ground that this pocket was seldom used4 ,the designers also substituted an oblong elbow patch on the ,army shirt for the circular patch formerly specified4 ,this substitution was not economy in cloth1 but the original circular patch1 put on the sleeve to reinforce it at the point of greatest wear1 actually resulted in reducing or shortening the life of the garment by tearing loose at the stitches1 a fault which the oblong patch overcame4 ,in the earlier contracts the garment makers were stimulated to save wool by being allowed a percentage of the cost of yardage saved4 ,each contractor1 too1 was permitted to sell his own clippings4 ,but as the ,government obtained a more scientific grasp of the clothing problem and produced pattern layouts which utilized the maximum percentages of the cloth1 the issues of cloth to the garment makers were calculated more closely4 ,thereafter the contractors received no reimbursement for cloth savings1 and the ,government itself took all the clippings4 ,these clippings were shipped to a base sorting plant at ,new ,york1 where they were baled and shipped out to mills to be used as reworked wool in blankets and other articles4 ,the clippings were sorted at a cost of #a4g cents per pound and sold at an average price of #bc cents per pound1 the total sales bringing in to the ,government #e1ejj1jjj4 ,the history of the ,government's wool enterprise during the war illustrates how hard it was to check the momentum of the whole production undertaking against ,germany once it had attained full speed4 ,a week before the armistice was signed the wool stocks looked small1 and shortages plainly existed to cause anxiety for the executives in ,washington4 ,that was because we were thinking in terms of consumption made familiar by the terrific destruction of war4 ,a week later the same stocks looked overwhelming in size1 and the shortages had become enormous surpluses4 ,it had been a constant worry to procure a sufficient quantity of blankets1 yet as soon as the armistice was signed1 we had on hand a #dg-months' supply of blankets for #a1jjj1jjj men in the ,united ,states and #b1djj1jjj men overseas4 ,as soon as the ,german plenipotentiaries affixed their signatures to the armistice agreement at ,spa an apparently small stock of marching shoes turned into a #d-year supply for #c1djj1jjj soldiers at home and abroad4 ,on ,november #a1 #aiah1 the ,clothing and ,equipage ,division had on hand a reserve stock of goods valued at #haa1jjj1jjj4 ,the entire woolen industry1 from the handlers of raw wool to the textile mills1 worked splendidly with the ,government4 ,at all times there was plenty of available machinery to make all the cloth for which wool could be furnished4 ,mills which found no ,government use for their regular business output went heartily to work to make something else that the ,government would need4 ,the ,government's uses for carpet1 for instance1 were practically negligible2 so that the carpet mills1 many of them1 swung their entire production to ,army blankets and ,army duck4 ,blankets1 in fact1 were one of the largest items4 ,the total purchases brought to the ,government warehouses about #bb1jjj1jjj blankets1 at a total cost of over #ade1jjj1jjj4 ,melton cloth for overcoats and uniforms consumed an enormous quantity of wool4 ,the total purchases of melton amounted to more than #ajj1jjj1jjj yards1 or enough to stretch twice around the world at the ,equator1 with a strip left over long enough to reach from ,new ,york across ,germany and ,russia and into ,siberia4 ,the total quantity of raw wool bought by the ,government up to ,december #ad1 #aiah1 cost over #ejd1jjj1jjj4 ,after the ,government had secured the wool and various types of cloth1 there still remained the task of making this cloth into uniforms4 ,the usual method was for the ,government to furnish the materials and to pay the contractor his cost of manufacturing4 ,all ,army clothing was made up according to the so-called tariff sizes4 ,the average coat for a man is a #ch or #dj1 and experience shows how many men in a given number will need this average4 ,but there were always exceptions4 ,one camp sent in a special order for #df overcoats for fats4 ,through a scientific study of the problem1 notable reforms in the matter of fitting soldiers were brought about4 ,when the men were coming in greatest numbers from civilian life to the training camps they were often put to great inconvenience in securing proper clothing4 ,each man would ask for such sizes as he thought were correct1 but it often happened that the garments supplied to him did not fit him1 and he thereafter spent some hours or even days swapping garments with other recruits until he eventually acquired an outfit somewhere near his size4 ,then1 too1 there was confusion in the way the articles were supplied to the men1 who sometimes had to stand in line all day long1 awaiting their turn at the issue windows4 ,the matter of fitting was satisfactorily solved by adopting the so-called foolproof size labels4 ,the labels originally used were merely paper tags pinned to the garments1 and in the handling of garments by men unfamiliar with the fitting of ready-made clothing mistakes often resulted4 ,as in the case of civilian clothing1 all ,army clothing was divided into four classes1 known as longs1 shorts1 stouts1 and regulars4 ,a garment of any size would come in these four classes4 ,the labels were marked with diagonal1 colored stripes to indicate the general characteristics of the garment to which it was attached4 ,thus green meant a short1 red indicated a long1 and yellow showed the garment to be a stout4 ,the soldier was pretty sure to remember the color of the stripe attached to the garment that fitted him4 ,if he were a green striper1 he would refuse to accept anything that did not bear a green stripe on its ticket4 ,before hostilities ceased a system providing a more scientific issue of clothing to recruits had been introduced4 ,under this system the recruit would enter the supply building at one end and there1 in a special room1 strip himself of his civilian clothing4 ,he would thereupon enter the mill as naked as the ,lord made him4 ,he would stop first at the underwear counter1 where he would procure garments that fitted him1 would don them1 and then pass on to the hosiery counter4 ,thus he would progress down the line1 eventually emerging from the other end of the building a fully dressed ,american soldier1 the process reminding one of the progress of an automobile through the ,ford factory4 ,it required the services of some #d1jjj inspectors to supervise the garment-making in thousands of shops scattered throughout the country4 ,this inspection also looked at the character of the shops taking contracts1 and the ,government was sometimes hard put to it to prevent child labor and sweat shop production in the work4 ,at one time there came a rush order from ,france to supply several hundred thousand mackinaws4 ,an officer who was familiar with1 mackinaws was sent out from ,washington to buy them from goods in stock4 ,he accomplished his mission in #aj days1 literally baring the shelves of the ,united ,states of these garments1 his purchases including the extensive quantities of mackinaws held by mail-order houses in ,chicago4 ,it was always a problem in clothing the ,army to find olive-drab dyes that were fast in color4 ,the first dyes used were apt to fade quickly4 ,a certain dye was of the proper color1 yet it was found on test to have the peculiar characteristic of being visible at a distance4 ,as the new ,american synthetic dye industry expanded and processes were perfected1 the officers of the ,clothing and ,equipage ,division were able to cooperate with the ,american dye makers to produce satisfactory dyes4 ,yet while the olive-drab dye used in dyeing coats and trousers seemed to withstand the sun and rain1 that used in coloring the leggins proved to be fugitive to a remarkable degree4 ,it seemed to be impossible to produce a dye that would hold its shade in leggins4 ,the experts working on the dye problem had expended a good deal of valuable energy in worry and had grown a few gray hairs in their heads over the failure of leggin dyes when they discovered the true cause of the fading4 ,the men were deliberately bleaching out their leggins1 usually by using salt solutions on them1 since anything but a faded leggin indicated that the soldier who wore it was a rookie and a greenhorn4 ,the materials which went into the manufacture of clothing came from various sections of the country1 since the several garment industries had grown up around centers4 ,for instance1 the melton cloth came generally from the ,boston district4 ,linings were supplied from ,atlanta1 buttons from ,philadelphia1 and duck from ,chicago4 ,this geographic distribution of supplies simplified the ,government's problem of supplying materials to the various contractors4 ,it was possible to supply materials on short notice to any garment-making district4 ,at one time ,chicago wired that unless #ejj1jjj yards of flannel shirting were supplied immediately hundreds of shirt factories in ,chicago and the ,chicago district would have to close down4 ,accordingly1 a special freight train was loaded with shirting in the ,east and started for ,chicago on a special movement in charge of a live tracer--that is1 an officer who saw that the train was put through to its destination4 ,the train arrived in ,chicago on the second day after the order was received1 so rapidly had the goods been procured and loaded4 ,in addition to the regular uniforms for the men1 almost half a million articles of clothing for officers were also bought by the ,government4 ,the ,quartermaster ,department went into an entirely new field when it bought uniforms for the women nurses of the ,army4 ,there was a ,norfolk suit which cost about #cj and a cotton uniform that cost about #c1 an overcoat costing nearly #bh1 and then there were waists made from navy blue silk and from white cotton1 and hats4 ,before leaving the subject of clothing1 it is interesting to refer again to the clothing furnished for interned prisoners4 ,this was not manufactured for the purpose4 ,uniforms discarded by our own men were reclaimed and dyed a special shade of green4 ,over #ej1jjj of these garments were prepared at an average cost of less than #cj cents per garment4 ,it had been the original intention to make a special prisoner's uniform striped in resemblance to the prison suits worn in ,american penitentiaries4 ,another interesting development in the manufacture of ,army clothing was the production of a special uniform for expeditionary troops sent to ,russia4 ,the uniforms were so warm that they could well serve as the equipment for an ,arctic exploration party4 ,the determination to send an expedition to ,russia was made suddenly by the ,government1 and the decision brought with it the problem of producing in a jiffy an equipment of garments not only expensive in themselves1 but of a character unknown to the ,american garment trade4 ,an agent for the division in ,new ,york at once bought on the ,new ,york market large quantities of muskrat1 wolf1 and marmot fur4 ,other agents were sent into our own ,northwest and to ,canada to pick up such suitable garments as these markets afforded4 ,the ,siberian equipment as specified by the commanders of the expedition called for fur caps1 fur mittens and fur overcoats1 mucklucks1 moccasins1 felt shoes1 fur parkas1 and underwear for #ae1jjj men or more4 ,the order for the equipment came in the latter part of ,august1 #aiah1 so that only the fastest kind of work would produce the garments in time to catch the last steamer that could get into the northern ,russian and ,siberian ports before the ice closed navigation for the season4 ,the result was that whenever the articles specified could not be procured on time1 suitable substitutes were provided4 ,the specifications called for #hj per cent wool underwear4 ,underwear with that percentage of wool could not be provided1 but underwear of equal weight was substituted4 ,where fur-lined garments were unobtainable1 fur-trimmed ones were procured4 ,the specifications called for ,buffalo coats4 ,the division sent a man to the north woods country of ,minnesota and ,wisconsin1 and there in the supply cities he bought sheep-lined coats with moleskin or duck shells as a substitute4 ,these coats were the sort used by woodsmen and ,alaskan miners and explorers4 ,there was no time to procure mucklucks1 moccasins1 and felt shoes1 so an agent of the division was sent into ,canada to buy shoe pacs 7or lumbermen's boots7 and lumbermen's knee-length socks4 ,the total cost of the whole outfit was more than #ajj per man4 ,it was impossible to find any substitute for the ,alaskan parka4 ,a parka is a sort of overshirt1 wind proof and waterproof and hooded1 to be worn over the overcoat and cap of the uniform4 ,consequently it was necessary to produce the parkas in this country1 although our garment makers were entirely unfamiliar with such manufacture4 ,the work was undertaken by the ,international ,duplex ,coat ,co41 at #aad ,fifth ,avenue1 ,new ,york4 ,it was necessary from the start in turning out this order for the employees of this plant to work overtime4 ,in order to speed the production the principal member of this firm himself took his place at the bench and worked almost day and night in cutting out garments4 ,illustration3 ,,clothing ,,worn ,,by ,,our ,,siberian ,,expeditionary ,,forces4 ,illustration3 ,,manufacturing ,,woolen ,,underwear ,,for ,,the ,,army4 ,the weaving department of a plant at ,cohoes1 ,n4 ,y4 ,illustration3 ,,manufacturing ,,hosiery ,,for ,,the ,,army4 ,the knitting room of a hosiery mill at ,durham1 ,n4 ,c4 ,the day approached closer and closer when the shipment would have to start across the country if it were to catch the last boat from ,san ,francisco4 ,on the home stretch of the race the entire working force of the plant went #cf hours1 stopping only for meals4 ,the last stitch was taken at #a4cj o'clock in the morning4 ,the garments were then piled upon auto trucks to be rushed to the baling plant in ,brooklyn4 ,one of the loaded trucks developed engine trouble and stopped in the middle of a bridge across the ,east ,river4 ,the officer in charge thereupon commandeered every automobile that came along1 piled them all full of parkas and sent them to the baling plant4 ,the entire shipment was aboard the train less than one hour before its starting time4 ,it was not only necessary for the ,government to furnish cloth for the uniforms1 shirts1 and other articles1 but it had to supply the fittings and findings as well1 such needs as linings1 tape1 buttons1 and hooks and eyes4 ,in the calendar year #aiah the purchases amounted to over #df1jjj1jjj yards of cotton lining and #b1ejj1jjj yards of felt lining1 worth over #ah1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,government spent over #ajj1jjj for hooks and eyes1 #aej1jjj for tape1 #a1bej1jjj for thread1 and practically #c1jjj1jjj for buttons4 ,when it was found that the standard specifications for ,army uniform buttons favored a certain class of manufacturers and excluded many others1 new specifications were drawn so as to make it possible for every button manufacturer in the country to compete for contracts4 ,an exclusive study was made of new materials for buttons4 ,they had been made of brass or bronze1 but due to other war necessities for metals an effort was made to provide a substitute4 ,it was found1 too1 that metal buttons sometimes resulted in infection of wounds received on the battlefield4 ,substitution of vegetable ivory for metal in buttons was attempted4 ,the ,bureau of ,standards in ,washington tested the taqua1 or ivory1 nuts from which buttons are made and found them suitable4 ,a vegetable ivory button with a shank was developed1 although no such ivory button had been known before1 and the ,government's insignia was stamped on this button4 ,gen4 ,pershing approved the use of ivory buttons1 and thereafter many manufacturers produced millions of gross of them4 ,every manufacturer who took button contracts agreed to turn over the ivory nut waste to the ,chemical ,warfare ,service to be used in making charcoal for the gas-absorbing canisters of the gas masks4 ,most of the buttons were produced by firms in ,rochester and ,philadelphia4 ,many concerns made them who had never made buttons before4 ,manufacturers of electric goods1 hardware1 billiard balls1 celluloid1 pearl buttons1 and phonograph records turned their plants into ivory-button factories4 ,enormous quantities of buttons were required4 ,for the ,army shirts alone the ,government needed #baf1jjj1jjj buttons in #aiah4 ,flags constituted another class of goods requiring wool4 ,in all1 the division produced #dj1jjj flags during the war period1 most of these being made at the ,government's own shop at ,philadelphia4 ,it is a grim fact that many of these flags were used to wrap around the bodies of soldiers who died at sea4 ,thirty million chevrons for noncommissioned officers were also turned out by the ,government4 ,the production of overseas caps for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces was likewise an extensive undertaking4 ,when the requisition for overseas caps came from ,france1 it was not possible to design one here because of lack of knowledge of what was required4 ,later a courier bearing a sample cap came to the ,united ,states from ,gen4 ,pershing4 ,as soon as this sample was received a meeting of cap makers was called in ,new ,york1 and #ajj manufacturers attended4 ,one and all agreed to turn over their factories to the exclusive production of overseas caps until the requirements were met4 ,it took these cap makers only two weeks to turn out the first order4 ,in all #d1igb1jjj caps were delivered4 ,our experts on this side of the water were not satisfied with the overseas cap4 ,it shrank after being wet1 it quickly lost shape1 it absorbed much water and did not dry out quickly1 and it was unattractive in appearance4 ,also it did not shade the eyes1 and the experience in ,france showed that the soldiers usually improvised peaks to their caps by sticking their girls' letters between their caps and their foreheads4 ,then1 moreover1 the standard cap was made of #bj-ounce melton1 which was a fabric hard to get4 ,but there was plenty of rabbit fur available to make felt caps for an army of #f1jjj1jjj or #g1jjj1jjj men4 ,accordingly a new cap was designed1 made of felt and doing away with the bad features of the melton cap2 but this cap improvement came at the end of the war and was never used4 ,wool was required not only for the outer clothing of the ,army--for the uniforms1 overcoats1 and caps--but there was also a tremendous war demand for it for the manufacture of such knit goods as undershirts1 drawers1 stockings1 gloves1 and puttees4 ,the matter of providing the ,army with these necessary articles offered a problem of peculiar difficulty1 since1 in addition to the ever-threatening shortage of raw wool1 there was an actual shortage of machinery in the knitting industry4 ,when it was found that the regular mills could not turn out all the woolen knit goods the ,army required1 numerous mills which had been turning out specialties exclusively1 such as women's underwear or men's union suits1 were converted into factories to knit garments according to the ,army specifications4 ,some idea of the extent of the ,army's demand for this class of goods may be read in the fact that toward the close of hostilities every machine in the ,united ,states that could make hosiery at all was knitting socks for the ,government4 ,illustration3 ,,sewing ,,overseas ,,caps ,,in ,a ,,st4 ,,paul4 ,,minn41 ,,factory4 ,illustration3 ,,heaps ,,of ,,overseas ,,caps ,,ready ,,for ,,sewing ,,in ,a ,,st4 ,,paul ,,factory4 ,illustration3 ,,underwear ,,for ,,the ,,army ,,at ,a ,,mill ,,in ,,st4 ,,johnsville1 ,n4 ,y4 ,illustration3 ,,knitting ,,army ,,underwear ,,in ,a ,,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 ,,mill4 ,at one time there was an acute shortage of needles4 ,germany had previously supplied ,america with knitting needles4 ,when this source was cut off1 we turned to ,japan4 ,the ,japanese needles proved disappointing2 they were not correctly tempered and frequent breakage caused great loss4 ,at one time it was rumored that there were #aj1jjj1jjj knitting needles in ,sweden1 and the need here was so urgent that several buyers were sent to that country4 ,their effort was well worth while1 for they actually secured a million needles to help relieve the situation here4 ,meanwhile1 ,american needles were improved and ,american needle makers were pushed to the limit2 but until the close of the war there was always an acute shortage of needles for the knitting industry4 ,it was soon discovered that there was not enough machinery in ,america to knit one-tenth of the seamless woolen gloves that the soldiers required4 ,consequently it was necessary to adopt a substitute--a glove of knit fabric cut to pattern and sewed up with seams4 ,in actual service this glove did not stand up to the hard usage required of it4 ,consequently there was designed an over-glove of canton flannel with the palm cased in leather1 this to be worn outside the seamed woolen glove4 ,in the effort to produce gloves which would give longer wear the so-called ambidextrous glove was designed so cut that it could be worn comfortably upon either hand4 ,puttees1 the spirally wound leggins that had long been used by the ,british ,army1 were unknown articles to ,american manufacture when the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces adopted them as standard articles of equipment4 ,a puttee of knitted wool was designed and #f1jjj1jjj of them were ordered in the spring of #aiah1 these to be preliminary to future orders for #h1jjj1jjj4 ,the work required the installation of much new machinery in the textile plants4 ,on ,november #a1 #aiah1 we had produced all the puttees required by the troops then in ,france and had a surplus of #a1ejj1jjj of them4 ,in the production of knit goods1 economies in the use of material were constantly effected4 ,an original article of equipment for the overseas troops had been a knitted woolen toque1 which was a sort of stocking-cap4 ,the toques had cost the ,government #a apiece1 and some #a1ejj1jjj of them had been piled up in the quartermaster warehouses before the toque was abandoned as a piece of standard equipment4 ,later a requisition was received for #djj1jjj woolen mufflers to be used by drivers of automobiles and motor trucks4 ,according to the specifications these would cost about #c apiece4 ,then it was discovered here that the abandoned toques might be sewed together to make mufflers4 ,with this stock in hand it cost the ,government only #bj cents each for the mufflers instead of #c1 a clear saving of over #a1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,quartermaster ,department was the ,mecca of inventors during the war period1 who came bringing real or fancied improvements in many lines of apparel and personal equipment4 ,one brought in a trench shower bath1 consisting of a hot-water bag and a hose4 ,he was much chagrined when informed that if this apparatus were set up in the trench there would be no room for soldiers to pass it4 ,in no respect did the inventors have more novel ideas than they had in the manufacture of underwear4 ,one of them brought in a patented vacuum suit of underwear which acted on the principle of a fireless cooker or thermos bottle to exclude the cold from the wearer's body4 ,however1 he had failed to take into consideration the fact that not only must cold be kept out1 but perspiration must be given a chance to escape4 ,the vacuum underwear would never dry out1 after a man had become sweaty in it4 ,for that reason it was not adopted4 ,a woman of ,iowa invented cootie-proof underclothing by impregnating underwear with vermin-destroying chemicals4 ,the ,state of ,iowa was so interested in her invention that there was a public movement to clothe all ,iowa troops in this underwear1 should the ,government fail to adopt it4 ,the underwear was submitted to the experts of the ,bureau of ,entomology 7the ,government agency that deals with bugs71 whose experts tested the invention4 ,they found that the underwear was indeed death to the cootie4 ,however1 if the chemicals were applied in weak strength they soon evaporated and left the underwear harmless to the insect2 if applied in great strength1 the poisonous chemicals irritated the skin of the wearer4 ,during the first winter the men were in camp1 the winter of #aiag-ah1 there was no time to provide the troops with standard ,army underwear4 ,consequently ,government agents went into the underwear market and bought outright whatever was in sight4 ,as a result1 the soldiers that first winter wore underwear of almost every description and grade of merit4 ,this gave the ,army's underwear experts a fine opportunity to study the qualities of underwear of various types as proved by actual use4 ,these studies contained hints of use to the civilian4 ,for instance1 the warning is plainly given to wear no fleece-lined underwear4 ,a study was made of the causes of colds1 and it was discovered that soldiers wearing fleece-lined underwear caught cold more easily than those wearing any other sort4 ,the fleece of the lining absorbed perspiration and retained it1 staying damp4 ,since many of the soldiers slept in their underclothing1 they were thus encased in damp clothes #bd hours a day4 ,sick reports plainly showed the result of it4 ,when it comes to the production of cotton cloth for the ,army's uses1 the figures are so large as to appear almost fantastic4 ,in all we procured over #hjj1jjj1jjj square yards of cotton textiles4 ,this was enough to carpet an area nearly four times as large as the ,district of ,columbia4 ,in a strip #c feet wide there was enough of it to wrap #ah layers of cloth around the equator4 ,spread this strip out on some cosmic floor1 and you could place upon it side by side #ee globes as large as the earth4 ,in addition to the cotton khaki required for uniforms and other purposes1 the principal other cotton items were duck1 denim1 webbing1 gauze1 venetian1 sheets1 pillowcases1 and towels4 ,the purchases made by the ,army were beyond anything that had been known in the textile industry4 ,in ,march1 #aiah1 the supplies of cotton khaki on hand seemed to indicate a surplus of #ba1jjj1jjj yards beyond the needs of the immediate future4 ,then came the start of the ,german drive1 and by the middle of ,april this great surplus of khaki cloth was not sufficient to the need4 ,in other words1 there was a shortage of khaki1 since the ,army needed at once #be1jjj1jjj yards and thereafter would require a monthly supply of #aj1jjj1jjj yards4 ,this was looking toward the great increase in the number of men soon to be called to the colors4 ,it was planned to draft #cjj1jjj in ,june alone1 and subsequent drafts would be on a like scale4 ,in order to supply summer uniforms for these men it was necessary for ,army officers to get every yard of khaki goods in the country4 ,all stocks of goods in the hands of dealers and manufacturers were inventoried1 and the positive order went out of ,washington forbidding the use of khaki in articles for civilians4 ,in spite of the ,government's tremendous demand upon a limited supply1 these stocks of khaki were acquired at a price #bj per cent lower than the prevailing market4 ,the requirements for cotton duck and cotton webbing also leaped upward as soon as the ,united ,states began to avalanche soldiers upon ,france4 ,the demands were greater than could be supplied by the output of mills regularly producing these materials1 and consequently the ,clothing and ,equipage ,division called upon manufacturers of similar materials to adapt their plants to the production of duck and webbing4 ,this they did1 in many cases at considerable inconvenience and expense4 ,among the concerns which assisted in supplying these materials were manufacturers of carpets1 automobile tire fabric1 and even lace4 ,owing to the scarcity and the high cost of leather a great deal of cotton webbing was substituted in the manufacture of such equipment as cartridge belts1 suspenders1 gun slings1 and horse bridles4 ,here was additional demand1 and to meet it factories which had been making such things as asbestos brake linings1 hose1 lamp wicks1 suspenders1 garters1 cotton belting1 and other similar fabrics1 became webbing mills4 ,all these plants thus adapted to the emergency manufacture of webbing were dependent on purchased yarns1 which they had to secure in the open market from yarn manufacturers4 ,in the ,south particularly1 where most of this yarn was purchased1 the securing of power was a serious question4 ,many of the mills depended upon electricity generated by water power4 ,these power plants did not always have good railway connections and many of them had no steam power equipment even if fuel could have been furnished4 ,in the late summer of #aiah the rivers of the ,south ran nearly dry1 and in order to operate many of the southern mills it was necessary for the ,government to allocate according to most pressing needs the available power among the mills working on contracts4 ,also1 for a long time when transportation facilities were seriously overtaxed1 it was hard to secure a steady flow of materials from the ,south to the northern mills4 ,with regard to labor1 employees in the cotton and webbing mills had to be educated in the manufacture of the new types of work to which these plants had been shifted4 ,in the ,south1 more especially1 there was a question of child labor and of hours of labor for women and minors2 for the ,government inserted clauses in the later contracts requiring certain standards for the benefit and protection of labor4 ,in some instances contracts were returned because of the child-labor clause4 ,in such cases compulsory orders were often issued1 practically compelling the mills to produce the goods called for4 ,considerable burlap used for packing1 as well as burlap bags1 silk for flags1 hat bands1 and badges were also purchased in quantity4 ,the ,united ,states was never forced to turn to the use of paper in the manufacture of clothing1 as the central powers were compelled to do2 nevertheless preparation was made for the time when the cotton supply of the ,united ,states might become unequal to the demand4 ,garments made of paper cloth captured from the ,germans were shipped to the ,united ,states and carefully studied by the ,clothing and ,equipage ,division to learn the possibilities of paper fabrics should the need for them develop4 ,over #ajj1jjj1jjj yards of denim were bought4 ,denim was used particularly in making working clothes for the soldiers4 ,at one time the factories were consuming denim at the rate of #ac1jjj1jjj yards a month4 ,brown denim which was required by regulations was a material hard to get1 blue denim being the standard fabric for ,american overalls1 and consequently heavy gray goods and drills were dyed olive-drab and put into use4 ,as to gauze1 about #adj1jjj1jjj yards of it were purchased4 ,sheets and pillowcases were required in such quantities that at one time every mill in the country whose normal business was the production of sheeting was working for the ,government4 ,there were over #abj1jjj1jjj yards of webbing purchased1 and nearly #cjj1jjj1jjj yards of the various kinds of duck4 ,the duck and webbing just mentioned went into the manufacture of a numerous class of articles1 known as textile equipment1 including such articles as belts1 tool bags1 tool kits1 flasks1 canteen covers1 and the like4 ,the procurement of the webbing for these articles was in itself a manufacturing achievement4 ,before the war there were only a half dozen plants in the ,united ,states which could make webbing of the grade demanded by the ,army4 ,when the armistice came there there were #aej such plants4 ,at the beginning of the war an order for #e1jjj1jjj yards of webbing fairly staggered the industry1 but that industry was to witness the day when an order for #ej1jjj1jjj yards would be absorbed as a matter of course4 ,but even after the webbing was secured there were practically no factories in the ,united ,states that had machinery heavy enough to make the ,army's textile equipment4 ,this work for the standing ,army had been done exclusively by the ,rock ,island ,arsenal4 ,in order to increase the manufacturing capacity of the country it was necessary to get the ,singer ,sewing ,machine ,co4 to build special machines adapted to this heavy work2 and we also had to send experts from the ,rock ,island ,arsenal to teach all new contractors how to make the articles4 ,many of the factory workers were women4 ,in spite of all difficulties production was wonderfully increased4 ,along in ,january1 #aiah1 about #ajj1jjj pistol belts a month were being made2 while at the time of the signing of the armistice #efj1jjj were being manufactured monthly4 ,of cartridge belts in the same period the production was increased from #he1jjj to about #daj1jjj monthly1 and of haversacks from #bij1jjj to about #hej1jjj monthly4 ,no soldier could be sent overseas without a haversack1 a cartridge belt1 and a canteen cover2 yet during the period of active hostilities no movement of troops was delayed one day on account of the lack of textile equipment4 ,up to ,december #a1 #aiah1 the production of haversacks was over #b1ejj1jjj in number1 costing over #h1jjj1jjj2 of canteen covers1 about #c1gej1jjj1 costing #b1bej1jjj2 of cartridge belts1 about #a1ejj1jjj1 costing over #d1jjj1jjj4 ,another large item was bandoleers1 which were procured to the number of over #ca1jjj1jjj at a cost of #e1ejj1jjj4 ,these are only a few of the major items1 but they serve to illustrate the extent of the purchases of textile equipment4 ,at the end of hostilities the ,government was buying textile equipment at the rate of #bb1jjj1jjj a month1 and was working toward the goal of being able to supply #gej1jjj men a month with all articles of textile equipment4 ,when the ,army began to expand in size at an unexpected rate in the spring of #aiah1 it created a great shortage in cotton underwear4 ,government agents went out over the country and bought all cotton underwear stocks4 ,in order to provide a sufficient manufacturing capacity for cotton underwear1 women's underwear factories were enlisted for war work1 and so were even corset factories4 ,the ,army experts in cotton textiles also effected many economies4 ,a standard pattern layout was drawn for the overall makers with consequent large savings of cloth in the manufacture of brown denim fatigue clothing1 or soldiers' working clothes4 ,at one time practically every overall factory in the ,united ,states was making fatigue clothing for the ,army1 after ,gen4 ,pershing had cabled an order for #c1jjj1jjj garments to be delivered in #ij days4 ,in making the soldiers' barrack bags1 in which they pack their clothing and personal effects1 the manufacturers in cutting out the pattern left a #c-;inch strip of cloth4 ,army officers discovered these #c-;inch strips and also noted the fact that every barrack bag must be provided with a draw-string4 ,the specifications were thereupon changed so that these #c-;inch strips could be used as draw-strings in the barrack bags1 a trifling economy apparently1 yet amounting to a saving of #f cents in the cost of each one of millions of these bags4 ,a vast amount of tentage was required1 not only for tents themselves1 but also for such articles as paulins1 tent covers1 bed rolls and clothing rolls1 canvas basins and buckets1 bags for stakes1 tool bags1 coal bags1 and mail bags1 cargo covers1 wagon covers1 horse covers1 and many similar articles4 ,valuable work was done in substituting cotton thread for linen4 ,linen thread became so scarce that the ,ordnance ,department commandeered the whole supply4 ,this worked havoc in the shoe industry1 and as a result the ,council of ,national ,defense secured from the ,ordnance ,department enough linen thread to take care of the ,army shoe contracts4 ,nevertheless it was discovered that cotton thread might be substituted for linen in many industries4 ,in fact1 it often proved to be better than linen4 ,valuable standard tests for waterproof cloth were also worked out4 ,these tests were developed at the ,bureau of ,chemistry1 a branch of the ,department of ,agriculture in ,washington4 ,in these tests cloth was required to withstand a deluge of water equivalent in intensity to a tropical rain1 and also to undergo a dry temperature of #abj ,fahrenheit4 ,there were also tests to determine under what conditions the cloth would mildew4 ,these tests are expected to have a use in the waterproof-goods industry in normal times4 ,another important contribution of the ,army to peace-time industry was the design of the over-suit for the use of truck drivers4 ,this was a waterproof garment1 air-tight and cold-proof4 ,it is expected that this new garment will continue in commercial use4 ,the principal items of rubber goods bought by the ,army were rubber boots and overshoes1 raincoats1 and slickers4 ,the production of rubber boots for the ,army took practically the entire capacity of all mills in the ,united ,states1 the rubber boot manufacturers having pledged themselves to discontinue their civilian business until the needs of the ,government were taken care of4 ,of different types of rubber boots1 the purchases were considerably over #d1jjj1jjj pairs1 at the cost of #bj1ejj1jjj4 ,incidentally there was worked out an improvement in rubber boots to prevent them from blistering the heels of wearers4 ,it was discovered that a rubber boot blisters the heel because it rubs slightly as the wearer walks1 no matter how well fitted to the foot the boot may be4 ,to the specifications for the ,army's rubber boots was added the requirement that straps be incorporated in the article to be buckled both around the ankle and around the instep1 thus holding the boot so that it can not slip4 ,raincoats caused a good deal of trouble1 as there was not a sufficient manufacturing capacity in this country to meet the requirements4 ,practically all stocks of commercial raincoats were purchased1 on the theory that even a poor cover was better than none4 ,as these garments were made for civilian use1 they were not built according to ,army specifications1 and considerable criticism was made as to their quality4 ,when the manufacture of raincoats commenced on a large scale1 many new concerns went into the business1 and some of them1 either through lack of experience or through carelessness or intent1 made garments that were not properly cemented4 ,this led to investigations and indictments4 ,the total purchases of ponchos1 raincoats1 and slickers amounted to about #aj1jjj1jjj garments1 costing over #df1jjj1jjj4 ,in all #g1jjj1jjj service hats of felt were manufactured on orders placed by the ,war ,department4 ,the felt for these hats was made of rabbit fur imported from ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,russia and produced in the ,united ,states4 ,hats were made principally at ,danbury1 ,conn41 and ,fall ,river1 ,mass41 with smaller sources of supply at ,yonkers and ,peekskill1 ,n4 ,y41 and ,reading1 ,pa4 ,the numerous requirements of the ,army for pillows created a shortage in feathers4 ,in all there were manufactured on ,government order #ejj1jjj pillows weighing #b pounds each4 ,it had been the original intention to fill these pillows with duck feathers2 but when the ,american duck-feather supply was exhausted and thousands of the ducks of ,china had given up their plumage for the comfort of the ,american soldiers1 and still there were not enough feathers for the pillows1 adulterations with goose feathers and other light plumage were permitted4 ,the procurement of leather for the ,army1 both the raw material and the finished products of leather1 was one of the most important undertakings1 the principal war uses for leather being in shoes for the soldiers and in harness for the horses and mules4 ,when the ,government entered the leather market it found a high level of prices1 due to the large quantities of leather and leather equipment which ,america had been exporting to the ,european nations at war4 ,the tanners were called together1 and they came to an agreement with the ,government as to the prices of all grades of equipment which the ,army expected to buy4 ,the packers next agreed on a maximum price for hides suitable for ,army leathers4 ,the ,government took an option on #gej1jjj hides then in the hands of the packers4 ,by consulting with the industry at all times the ,government officers were able to stabilize prices of leather4 ,the price of harness leather1 which was originally fixed at #ff cents per pound1 was advanced only #d cents during the #ah months of the war period1 while russet leather never advanced more than #d cents per pound above the #a4jc fixed at the beginning of the war4 ,as the stocks of leather on hand diminished it became necessary to stimulate the production of leather goods1 and there was formed a hide and leather control board1 with a representative on it from each branch of the trade1 one for harness1 one for sole leather1 one for upper leather1 and one for the sheepskin trade4 ,this board also inspected leather at all the tanneries and the finished leather in the various factories1 a course of action which resulted in great improvement in the quality of leather1 particularly in leather used in shoemaking4 ,at the outset the ,quartermaster ,corps1 the ,ordnance ,department1 the ,signal ,corps1 the ,engineering ,department1 the ,medical ,department1 the ,navy1 and the ,marine ,corps were all buying leather or leather equipment1 and the ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 and the ,red ,cross were also in the market for large amounts of leather materials4 ,these activities1 except those of the ,navy and ,marine ,corps1 were all eventually brought under the administration of the ,clothing and ,equipage ,division1 thus virtually eliminating competition in the leather market4 ,at the signing of the armistice it is safe to say there was enough leather equipment1 either in the ,united ,states or in ,france1 or in process of manufacture here1 to meet the needs of #e1jjj1jjj men4 ,leather equipment was available at all times4 ,the principal items of leather were harnesses1 shoes1 jerkins1 gloves1 and mittens4 ,in all1 #ge1jjj1jjj was spent for harness and leather equipment4 ,the procurement of saddles in itself was a hard problem1 since there were only three or four makers of saddletrees in the ,united ,states1 and only one of these could get the ash or basswood required4 ,the division induced various furniture factories to install the special lathes required for turning saddletrees1 and in this way built up eight factories1 which gave us sufficient capacity4 ,belting manufacturers and manufacturers of shoes were educated in the art of producing the leather for the saddles4 ,the ,army harness is of russet leather1 a product for which there is no commercial demand4 ,the result is that surpluses of ,army harness can not be disposed of to advantage4 ,illustration3 ,dieing ,out ,uppers with ,clicking ,machine4 ,illustration3 ,pulling ,upper ,over ,last4 ,,manufacturing ,,army ,,shoes4 ,illustration3 ,stitching ,vamp to ,quarter4 ,illustration3 ,attaching ,heels4 ,,manufacturing ,,army ,,shoes4 ,the former ,american ,army shoe built on the ,munson last and known as the russet marching shoe was machine sewed1 had an upper of calfskin with the rough side turned in1 and was lined with duck4 ,this shoe proved to be short lived when subjected to the severe service in ,france4 ,at the beginning of the war a new shoe was designed for trench service4 ,this was a much heavier shoe and the calfskin of the upper was turned rough side out4 ,there was no lining in the shoe4 ,the shoe had two heavy soles1 the outer one being hobnailed4 ,yet this shoe1 too1 proved to be unsatisfactory for the service4 ,the uppers wore fairly well1 but the soles could not stand the constant submerging in mud and water4 ,the demands of trench service eventually led to the design of what was called the ,pershing shoe4 ,this was a shoe with three heavy soles1 stitched1 screwed1 and nailed together4 ,it had steel reinforcements on toe and heel4 ,the outer sole was studded with hobnails4 ,the original requisitions from ,france for this shoe called for leather tanned with bark4 ,as bark tanning is practically obsolete in the ,united ,states to-day1 it was necessary to go into the tanneries and build up what was virtually a new industry4 ,it may be mentioned that the design for the ,pershing shoe was completed in #cj days4 ,the culmination of the shoe development was the model known as the ,victory shoe4 ,this model corrected certain defects in the ,pershing shoe4 ,the ,pershing shoe was prone to rip along the back stays1 and the upper did not fit snugly4 ,in the ,victory shoe the entire back of the upper was one piece4 ,at one time #eb shoe factories in #ac ,states were working on ,army shoe contracts4 ,a scheme of packing shoes for overseas shipment in burlap bags instead of in boxes was worked out1 and it resulted in saving a great deal of space on board ship4 ,machinery and tools for the shoe repair shops of the salvage division were purchased by the ,clothing and ,equipage ,division4 ,this was the first time that ,uncle ,sam had ever acted as cobbler for his soldiers4 ,about #b1jjj machines for repairing shoes were bought1 besides some #bh1jjj repair kits1 each one of which cost #ace4 ,among the items of supplies for the ,army shoe repair shops may be noted #bj1jjj1jjj pairs of half soles4 ,a shoe waterproofing grease1 or dubbin1 as it is called1 which had no odor and which would not turn rancid1 was developed4 ,the experts worked closely with officers in the field in training soldiers in the care of shoes to make them last as long as possible4 ,every man who received a new pair of shoes was required to break the pair in by standing in them in water for a certain period and then walking for an hour until the shoes dried on his feet4 ,the men were cautioned not to dry their shoes by placing them too closely to any heating apparatus1 as this shortens the life of the leather4 ,good care of the soldier's feet has long been standard ,army practice with us4 ,no soldier in #aiag and #aiah was permitted to wear darned socks1 unless he wore two pairs at once4 ,at regular intervals officers inspected their men's feet1 treated any blisters or sores that might exist1 and dusted the feet with powder4 ,bad shoe fitting means foot troubles1 leg troubles1 and sometimes even spinal and mental troubles4 ,e4 ,j4 ,bliss1 a ,boston manufacturer of shoes1 developed a shoe fitting system which was adopted as being unexcelled4 ,the fitter was an implement about like a roller skate1 with movable wings on the sides and a movable plunger in front of the toes4 ,the soldier to be fitted equipped himself with rifle and loaded pack4 ,with this weight on his shoulders he stepped both feet upon the skate-like devices and then raised on the balls of his feet1 until the weight and movement pressed out the wings as far as they would go and advanced the front plungers4 ,with the size thus automatically determined1 the next step was to check the accuracy of it4 ,this was done by inserting a pair of implements with knob-like ends in the toes of the shoes1 the implements just filling the space in front of the soldier's toes4 ,wearing shoes and implements1 the soldier then walked about the room1 stepped upon a platform1 climbed a cleated ramp1 and otherwise simulated actual service demanded of shoes in the field4 ,if the checking implements in the shoes did not hurt his toes the fit was regarded as correct4 ,clothing and equipage produced and shipped to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces ,apr4 #f1 #aiag1 to ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,produced4 ,shipped overseas4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,blankets #ai1dai1jjj #c1abg1jjj ,coats1 denim #aj1bch1jjj #c1dbc1jjj ,coats1 wool #ab1cfe1jjj #c1hga1jjj ,drawers1 summer #ch1aah1jjj #c1hhi1jjj ,drawers1 winter #cc1gff1jjj #aj1hab1jjj ,overcoats #g1gdh1jjj #a1ghj1jjj ,shirts1 flannel #bb1aih1jjj #f1dja1jjj ,shoes1 marching and field #bf1dbc1jjj #i1acf1jjj ,stockings1 wool1 light and heavy #hi1hga1jjj #bi1gcc1jjj ,trousers and breeches1 wool #ag1cdb1jjj #f1aia1jjj ,undershirts1 summer #dj1hie1jjj #d1efg1jjj ,undershirts1 winter #bh1hfi1jjj #aa1abf1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,quartermaster ,,undertakings4 ,sergt4 ,irving ,berlin1 one of the fountain sources of ,american jazz music1 found a special job cut out for him when he was drafted into the military service4 ,the needs of the war machine called upon a wide range of individual talents1 and this range did not exclude the artists4 ,the painters engaged in camouflage work and made sketches and pictures of such things as unusual surgical operations for the permanent records of the ,government1 the poets fired the zeal of the country1 and the musicians inspired the soldiers by providing them with music4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces as they grew in size found themselves possessed of some #cij regimental bands4 ,these bands organized themselves1 gathered such music as they could get1 practiced1 and presently regaled the soldiers of units to which they were attached2 and then the inevitable happened--they played and played the same old pieces until their audiences yearned for something new4 ,one day a cry of distress trickled through the cables1 and then the plight of the hapless lover of band music in ,france became the problem of the quartermaster organization in the ,united ,states1 resulting in the largest purchase of band music ever made1 #bjj1jjj sheets of it1 costing nearly #ej1jjj4 ,the music problem of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces was put into the hands of a special committee of three well-known authorities in the musical world4 ,sergt4 ,berlin was the authority on popular numbers2 ,lieut4 ,r4 ,c4 ,deming1 the bandmaster at ,camp ,meigs1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 was the member in charge of the ceremonial numbers2 while ,mr4 ,ward ,stephens1 the well-known composer1 organist1 and accompanist1 was in charge of the concerted numbers4 ,this committee picked out a repertoire of #ccc selections1 consisting of #agb concert pieces1 #dc ceremonial numbers1 and #aah popular numbers4 ,four hundred complete sets of these were bought1 one for each of the #cij bands of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 with #aj sets as a reserve4 ,the music was bought from some #bg music publishers1 the largest suppliers being ,carl ,fischer1 the ,waterson1 ,berlin ,snyder ,co41 the ,leo ,feist ,co41 the ,jerome ,h4 ,remick ,co41 and ,g4 ,schirmer 7,inc471 all of ,new ,york1 and the ,oliver ,ditson ,co41 of ,boston4 ,each complete set was packed in a separate case so that each case upon arrival in ,france could be sent immediately to a band of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces without being disturbed4 ,the sorting and packing of this consignment of sheet music was handled by ,sergt4 ,berlin and a staff of technical musical assistants1 who1 at his request1 contributed their services4 ,the supply of music was but one of hundreds of enterprises required to make the ,army efficient1 comfortable1 and happy1 quite aside from the more obvious ones of supplying guns and ammunition1 artillery1 aerial observation1 and food and clothing4 ,and these scattered undertakings in military supplies accounted for the expenditure of hundreds of millions of dollars4 ,nearly all of them were quartermaster enterprises4 ,but before we lift the curtain on this1 one of the most interesting branches of our military preparation1 involving1 as it did1 the scientific solution of problems ranging from the production of super-gasoline for the fighting airplanes to the proper and most economical method of cutting up the carcass of a steer1 let us continue the musical overture by observing how the ,army secured its band instruments4 ,there was a special branch of the ,quartermaster ,corps which concerned itself exclusively with the musical requirements of the ,army4 ,this branch bought in all approximately #adc1jjj musical instruments4 ,these were secured at a saving of about #ejj1jjj under the prices which the ,government had been paying for such instruments prior to the war4 ,without going into the details of how this economy was effected1 one typical instance may be cited4 ,for years it had been the custom of manufacturers of musical instruments to embellish the trumpets and brass horns of bandsmen with engraving1 chasings1 and other markings4 ,these were decorative only and had nothing to do with the quality of tone produced4 ,by eliminating all such markings from the specifications1 a substantial saving in cost was attained4 ,the principal suppliers of musical instruments were the ,wm4 ,frank ,co41 of ,chicago2 ,j4 ,m4 ,york ,son1 of ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich42 and the ,h4 ,m4 ,white ,co41 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,c4 ,s4 ,conn ,co41 of ,elkhart1 ,ind42 the ,eugene ,geisler ,co41 of ,chicago2 and the ,rudolph ,wurlitzer ,co41 of ,cincinnati1 also supplied several thousand musical instruments4 ,,fuel1 ,,oil1 ,,and ,,paints4 ,during the months of hostilities the ,american public was constantly informed in advertising literature that fuel would win the war1 and indeed fuel would win it1 and did win it1 in the sense that without fuel or with any grave shortage of fuel we could not have won4 ,in this sense there was no commodity contributing to success in the great drama more important than coal4 ,coal not only furnished the power that transported the khaki-clad millions to ,france1 but it furnished the manufacturing power in the ,united ,states and supplied the coke1 which is essential to the manufacture of steel1 thus entering into every rifle and piece of artillery4 ,illustration3 ,,mining ,,coal ,,for ,,the ,,government',s ,,needs ,,with ,,electrically ,,operated ,,machines4 ,illustration3 #f-,,ton ,,electric ,,locomotive ,,pulling ,a ,,string ,,of ,,coal ,,cars4 ,illustration3 ,,picking ,,tables ,,and ,,loading ,,booms ,,in ,a ,,west ,,virginia ,,coal ,,mine4 ,illustration3 ,,twenty-,,ton ,,electric ,,locomotive ,,bringing ,,coal ,,out ,,of ,,mine4 ,america began keeping the records of coal mining in the year #ahjg4 ,woodrow ,wilson was inaugurated ,president of the ,united ,states in #aiac4 ,in the #ajf years between #ahjg and #aiac1 and including those years1 ,american mines produced a total of #i1hdd1aei1icg tons of coal4 ,in the succeeding five years of ,president ,wilson's administration ,american mines turned out #b1ifj1ich1eig tons of coal1 almost one-third as much as was mined in the entire #ahjg-aiac period1 and almost one-fourth of all the coal mined in the ,united ,states since records have been kept4 ,the ,american coal miners in #aiah met the war emergency by producing #aej1jjj1jjj tons of coal more than they had dug in #aiad4 ,the shortage of coal in the winter of #aiag-ah was due not to the inability of the mines to produce the required tonnage but to inadequate railroad transportation facilities and severe weather conditions4 ,the war-coal project was in the hands of the ,united ,states ,fuel ,administration1 but the office of the ,quartermaster ,general assisted in the effort4 ,army officers were stationed at the offices of the various district representatives of the ,fuel ,administration throughout the country4 ,these officers kept in constant touch with the factories making war supplies and saw to it that coal was diverted from less essential enterprises to the munitions factories4 ,this service operated with such excellent effect that few manufacturers working on ,government contracts were compelled to suspend operations because of the lack of fuel1 and those who did have to suspend were able to resume again within a few days4 ,during the summer of #aiah the usual seasonal slack in the demand for fuel was taken up by the action of the fuel branch in absorbing practically all of the excess coal in the ,united ,states and storing it at ,army posts1 camps1 and stations4 ,this action kept the mines working at maximum capacity during a period when there is normally a curtailment in output4 ,of course1 at the time there was no realization that the fighting was to end so soon1 and this policy was adopted in preparation for unchecked industrial activity during the winter of #aiah-ai4 ,the ,army itself was a heavy user of fuel1 requiring it not only at its various manufacturing establishments but also at the great camps for heating purposes4 ,the following table shows the ,army purchases of fuel for the calendar year #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,amount4 ,cost4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,anthracite coal tons #gaj1cjd #d1cfb1bcg ,bituminous coal do4 #b1gjf1gcg #aa1gaa1cce ------------------------ ,total #c1dag1jda #af1jgc1egb ,coke do4 #i1egf #hj1fdc ,wood cords #ghf1agg #e1agh1afa ------------------------ ,total fuel #ba1ccb1cgf ---------------------------------------- --------- ,the ,army was an enormous consumer of oil1 the total oil purchases1 both in the ,united ,states and in ,france1 in the nine-month period from ,april #a to ,december #ca1 #aiah1 amounting to #cj1ebb1hcg4 ,there were #di items in the oil-purchasing schedule for the troops in the ,united ,states alone1 including lubricating oils1 fuel oils1 oils for paints and varnishes1 gasoline for motor trucks and airplanes1 axle grease1 floor oil1 tempering oil1 oil for the preservation and waterproofing of shoes1 harness1 and other leather equipment1 and numerous other varieties of oils4 ,the gasoline purchases were heaviest of all1 ,army motor trucks and cars in the ,united ,states requiring #dhd1bhb barrels of it1 worth #e1ddh1egj1 in the nine months between ,april #a and ,december #ca1 #aiah4 ,the ,american ,army motor trucks and cars with the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were supplied with #gjc1ajd barrels1 worth #aj1ajd1dcg1 in the same period4 ,for ,army airplanes in the ,united ,states during the same months there were purchased #cjf1jhb barrels of special aviation gasoline1 at a cost of #c1ijf1fej1 and for the planes in ,france #adf1ghj barrels1 worth #b1gdh1hci4 ,to give the ,american aviator the hottest1 most instantaneously explosive1 and surest-fire gasoline ever produced1 the ,american refiners turned out a naphtha along specifications drawn by the ,government that was the highest refinement of gasoline ever produced in large quantities4 ,this was done by taking the best gasoline that had ever been produced in commercial quantities and giving it another run through the distilling retorts4 ,thus it was literally the cream of the cream1 containing only the most combustible elements of liquid fuel and nothing else4 ,this refinement became known as #beg fighting naphtha1 and the ,army confined its use to the service planes actually at the front4 ,it was not supplied to the aviation training camps1 either in this country or in ,france4 ,in order to distinguish this naphtha as the finest engine fuel available and to mark it so that it would not be wasted by accident in any use other than that of service at the front1 it was colored red with aniline dyes4 ,the ,army did not even trust #beg fighting naphtha to bulk transportation on tank ships1 but stored it in steel drums and freighted it across the ocean in this form in cargo boats4 ,america has always been the largest producer of gasoline1 and the experience and development in this country has resulted in many grades of the fuel4 ,the ordinary commercial gasoline comes in five grades1 the best grade being known as straight-run gasoline and the other grades1 in the order of their cost and purity1 as casing-head1 blended1 pressure-still1 and cracked4 ,for motor fuel for the ,army the quartermaster specifications would accept nothing but straight-run gasoline1 unblended and without dangerous additions which have a damaging effect upon motor cylinders4 ,this gasoline1 the best that could be bought by the civilian users1 is known as #dbh gasoline2 and it was the fuel used universally in our motor trucks and motor cars4 ,above that were the three grades of gasoline1 or rather1 naphtha1 produced specially for the ,american ,army airplanes4 ,the lowest grade of these was called domestic aviation gasoline1 and it was the best commercial gasoline refined until its boiling point had been brought down to #cdg ,f4 ,this fuel was used by our aviators in this country and was known as #cdg domestic aviation naphtha4 ,a still greater refinement was the splendid #cjb export aviation naphtha1 which was used by planes in ,france1 other than those at the front4 ,the fighting naphtha was obtained by taking the cream of export aviation naphtha4 ,although purchased in enormous quantities1 it cost the ,government more than #da cents a gallon4 ,the ,government paid slightly less than #bb cents a gallon for its motor gasoline4 ,another new development in the oil industry brought about by the ,government's war needs was known as ,liberty aero oil4 ,this was an airplane lubricating oil of pure mineral origin1 a refined lubricant of excellent viscosity and a low cold test1 an oil which proved itself to be capable and reliable under the ever-changing atmospheric and pressure conditions of mechanical flight at the front4 ,liberty aero oil was a success4 ,most of it which was shipped overseas was made from paraffin base oils1 although in this country we used successfully many aero oils of asphaltum base4 ,the ,ordnance ,department submitted a requisition for a three-months' supply of pure neat's-foot oil1 which was in quantity almost twice the total ,american production of neat's-foot oil in the preceding year4 ,the ,government oil experts worked out a satisfactory substitute by combining animal and mineral oils4 ,this was not only equal to neat's-foot oil under tests1 but it was considerably cheaper4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces submitted a rush order for #f1jjj1jjj pounds of dark axle grease4 ,the specifications called for containers made of tin4 ,but it was almost impossible to secure the tin for such a shipment4 ,experiments were conducted with all possible haste1 and the result was a container made of black iron sheets treated with a special varnish to prevent the moisture in the grease from rusting the iron4 ,this container proved to be satisfactory4 ,,brushes4 ,offhand1 one would scarcely say that brushes play any part of vast importance in the life of an individual2 yet to buy the brushes for the ,army required a special organization1 competent to spend money by the millions of dollars and get value received for it4 ,indeed it was quite surprising how many brushes in variety the ,army required4 ,the tooth brush1 the shaving brush1 the hair brush1 the clothes brush1 the shoe brush1 and the paint brush might occur to anybody as necessities2 but the ,army used all these and in addition1 artists' brushes1 bottle brushes1 chimney brushes1 whitewashing brushes1 gun-cleaning brushes1 floor brushes1 roofing brushes1 stove brushes1 horse brushes1 and dozens of other kinds4 ,in all1 the ,government bought #i1bbd1baj brushes1 at a cost of #c1jci1jjj4 ,it required #ei factories in the ,united ,states to manufacture these brushes4 ,the most numerous class of all were the tooth brushes1 more than #a1ejj1jjj of these being ordered from one company alone4 ,brushes are made from many different materials1 such as bristle1 horsehair1 fiber of various kinds1 imitation bristle1 split quills1 and the like1 but the most important is bristle4 ,only a little bristle is produced in the ,united ,states in comparison to the demand for it1 the bulk of the supply coming from ,china1 ,india1 ,siberia1 and ,russia4 ,the procurement of bristle was no small part of the problem of supplying brushes for the ,army4 ,not one in every #aj tooth brushes used in the ,united ,states was of ,american manufacture before the war1 the rest coming from ,japan1 ,france1 ,england1 ,germany1 and ,austria4 ,when the ,european supply was cut off1 ,japan became the principal source of supply4 ,the problem of tooth brushes was further complicated by an embargo on bristles coming into this country and another on the exporting of bone to ,japan4 ,the ,army bought no shaving brushes made of horsehair1 even in part1 since horsehair is known to be the carrier of the much dreaded anthrax germ4 ,the ,government specified a shaving brush with an abbreviated handle1 making it more convenient to carry4 ,a handle-less hairbrush was also specified4 ,paint brushes were largely standardized1 but it was impossible to standardize toilet brushes because there were not enough facilities in the country to turn out sufficient quantities1 if machinery had to be remodeled to meet ,government specifications4 ,,rolling ,,kitchens4 ,those in charge of general quartermaster purchases designed and produced the liberty rolling field kitchen1 an equipment which could cook for #bjj men4 ,rolling field kitchens were not new to our ,army or the trade1 there being about six types of commercial kitchens manufactured at the time we entered the war4 ,most of these were being produced on foreign war orders4 ,in order1 however1 to secure a standardized kitchen with interchangeable parts1 thus insuring a constant supply of spare parts1 the division designed the liberty kitchen4 ,there were two types of it--the horse-drawn type and the motor-drawn or trailmobile type4 ,each kitchen consisted of a stove and a limber4 ,the stove unit contained a bake oven and three kettles4 ,the limber contained four bread boxes1 which were also used as water containers1 one cook's chest1 four fireless cookers1 and four kettles4 ,in ,july1 #aiah1 contracts were awarded for #ae1jjj complete kitchens1 including the necessary cooking and camp utensils4 ,deliveries of these kitchens eventually reached a rate of over #bjj per day4 ,two factories adopted and installed track conveyor equipment on which the assembling process was carried forward from operation to operation until the finished kitchen1 painted and boxed1 was delivered to the car for shipment to the port of embarkation4 ,the kitchens were packed each in a single crate1 ready to be delivered to the front after arriving in ,france4 ,before this kitchen was designed the ,army had been paying from #gjj to #a1jej apiece for rolling kitchens4 ,the average price of the liberty kitchen was #ejb4 ,subsequent orders brought the total projected purchases of mobile kitchens to #be1jjj1 of which #aj1jjj were of the animal-drawn type4 ,substantial shipments of these kitchens had been received overseas before hostilities ceased1 and in ,november deliveries were expanding at a rate which would have exceeded several times the #c1jjj liberty kitchens required by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces by ,january #a1 #aiai4 ,about #g1jjj rolling kitchens of all types were shipped to ,france4 ,,tools ,,and ,,tool ,,chests4 ,another important result accomplished in the purchase of general supplies was the standardization of tool chests4 ,at one time the ,army was buying and using approximately #ajj different kinds of quartermaster tool chests4 ,a committee to standardize tools and tool chests was appointed1 and this committee reduced the number of types of tool chests to seven standardized ones--the carpenter's chest1 the blacksmith's1 the farrier's1 the saddler's1 the electrician's1 the plumber's1 and the horseshoer's emergency chest4 ,the committee also standardized the tools4 ,many varieties of such things as drawknives and handsaws had been purchased previously4 ,this committee adopted a standard type of draw knife and a standard handsaw1 and also standardized many other tools4 ,standardization of tool chests effected a large saving in transportation space by keeping the dimensions to a minimum4 ,the standardized carpenter's chest occupied #c cubic feet less space than the older type wooden chest4 ,since at the time the armistice was signed the ,army was in the market for approximately #ace1jjj tool chests of the seven standardized types1 the saving in shipping space would have been no slight achievement4 ,but there was also in sight an enormous saving of money1 not to speak of the fact that standardization would greatly increase the rate of manufacturing the chests4 ,,hardware4 ,the general supplies division of the quartermaster organization operated much of the ,army's hardware store4 ,in this work the division not only standardized ,army tools1 but also standardized the proportions in which the various tools were bought4 ,this was not only an intensely interesting development1 but it was of utmost importance to the ,american people1 since it saved large sums of money and great quantities of shipping space4 ,the supply officers of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces early began making up their estimates of the materials that must be produced in the ,united ,states and shipped to ,france1 to maintain the efficiency of an indefinitely growing ,army over a protracted period of time4 ,in the matter of hardware these estimates came originally from the company units4 ,each repair unit1 for instance1 would look over the future1 and its officers would estimate kinds and quantities of tools required for such and such a period4 ,these little estimates came together in larger groups1 and so on1 the consolidation of figures continuing until eventually in the case of a certain tool there would be one figure on file at headquarters4 ,then one day one of those long daily cablegrams from ,france1 signed ,pershing1 came to ,washington1 bringing the future requirements for tools and other hardware4 ,theoretically it might be assumed that the proportioning of items in these requisitions would be correct and that the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces might be expected to need tools in the proportions named4 ,of course1 ,sergt4 ,a1 in a repair unit with the artillery1 might estimate too many hammers and too few wrenches1 but ,machinist ,x1 miles away in some base shop1 might call for too many wrenches and too few hammers4 ,these two estimates would thus balance correctly2 and1 following out this line of reasoning1 it would seem that the entire ,american ,expeditionary ,forces' hardware requisitions1 compiled as they were1 would be properly proportioned4 ,yet when these requisitions came to ,washington and were found to call for the manufacture of such things as files and bolts by the tens of millions1 the supply officers here would not accept the theory that the proportions of various sizes called for were correct1 but turned the searchlight of science upon these estimates4 ,the method selected of checking these estimates was simplicity itself1 yet unique in the history of ,american industry and almost majestic in the scope of its comprehensive vision4 ,the officer in charge of the procurement of hardware1 in the case of files1 for instance1 simply called together the entire file-manufacturing industry--and that means that not a single manufacturer was overlooked--and asked that industry to assemble the results of its experience over a period of the last five or six years4 ,each manufacturer would show1 for instance1 how many flat files he had sold of each length and of each type of cutting surface--either bastard1 second cut1 or smooth--how many half-round files1 how many hand files1 how many round files1 how many square files1 how many warding files1 how many knife files1 how many taper files1 etc41 all by lengths and by cutting surfaces4 ,thus when all these experience figures were assembled1 the officers in charge at ,washington knew exactly in what proportions the whole ,american industrial world had used files of various types throughout a considerable period of time4 ,this procedure was followed with respect to many common articles in hardware4 ,the ,hardware ,manufacturers' ,organization for ,war ,service was formed to give just such assistance1 cooperating up to #ajj per cent of the hardware industry4 ,the consolidation of the experience figures in ,american hardware consumption resulted in a schedule of supplies known as the ,army's hardware tariff1 a schedule showing the proportions in which hardware might be expected to be consumed4 ,the hardware tariff disclosed some surprising errors in the estimates from the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces' requisitions1 for instance1 had called for a total of #abg1ahj1chg bolts of various kinds4 ,the experience of bolt consumption in the ,american industry was able to correct this to a total of #abe1bhe1jjj bolts1 or a saving of nearly #b1jjj1jjj in number of pieces4 ,the requisitions had called for #ci1ide1deh large carriage bolts4 ,the experience of ,american consumption showed that only #i1gjj1jjj large carriage bolts would be required4 ,the original specifications had called for #ca1hci1gda small carriage bolts4 ,the experience in ,american consumption showed that #fj1cjj1jjj would be necessary4 ,in other words1 the off-hand estimates of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces had called for #cj1jjj1jjj too many large carriage bolts and nearly #cj1jjj1jjj too few small carriage bolts4 ,the specifications from ,france called for #e1jjj1jjj stove bolts of the five-eighths-inch dimension4 ,since this size was not used or was not made at all by stove-bolt manufacturers1 the item was canceled1 and #b1jjj1jjj smaller-dimension bolts substituted4 ,all bolts were supplied in quantities and proportions determined by following the proportions of the scientific tariff4 ,they were shipped to ,france in these proportions1 whence reports from the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces showed that the quantities sent completely covered the needs of the troops in the field4 ,the saving in the manufacture of bolts alone came to nearly #d1jjj1jjj1 and this says nothing of the saving in railroad and ocean freight charges1 or the still more important saving in ocean tonnage space1 since the bolts supplied according to the scientific tariff occupied many hundreds of cubic feet less space than the bolts originally specified would have filled4 ,the same procedure was followed in the supplying of files4 ,the hardware manufacturers consulted their records and on the basis of actual consumption in ,american industry discovered that a repair unit consisting of a machine shop1 a horseshoeing shop1 a blacksmith shop1 and a woodworking shop1 with #aa mechanics working in the unit1 would consume #cje dozen files per year1 the experience tables showing precisely the proportions of the various sizes of files in this consumption4 ,consequently1 when the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces requested #dci1bjj dozen files1 the quantities of each size1 kind1 and style as specified in the requisition from ,france were disregarded1 and the so-called tariff proportions substituted4 ,the files as supplied not only proved adequate in number in every style1 but they cost #bej1jjj less than it would have cost to fill the original order4 ,moreover1 by using tariff sizes the industry was able to make immediate shipments and to run at full production from the start1 since it needed only to produce files in the proportions known in the regular trade4 ,what was done with bolts and files was done in many other lines of hardware4 ,when the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces saw that its hardware was coming in correct quantities1 its officers notified the hardware supply organization to ship all tools and hardware materials in accordance with the so-called tariffs4 ,the executive committee of the ,hardware ,manufacturers' ,association for ,war ,service1 which made possible this achievement in commercial science1 consisted of ,messrs4 ,murray ,sargent1 ,alexander ,stanley1 ,charles ,w4 ,asbury1 ,fayette ,r4 ,plumb1 and ,isaac ,black4 ,the standardization of proportions in the hardware supply succeeded in cutting an original requisition of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces for #h1gej tinners' machines to #hfj1 and an original requisition for #ba1fjj tinners' assorted groovers to #bdj1 and still met every need of the ,army's tin shops in ,france4 ,the ,army hardware office was also called upon to supply such small hardware as fasteners for gas-mask knapsacks and pistol holsters1 and some metallic parts for cartridge belts and similar goods4 ,less than two months before the armistice was signed orders were in sight for the manufacture of some #ejj1jjj1jjj pieces of these small metallic devices4 ,most of them were to be made of brass4 ,the uses of the ,army in ,october1 #aiah1 were calling for these articles in such quantities that it required approximately #bej1jjj pounds of brass per working day to meet the demand4 ,illustration3 ,,ambulance ,,body ,,boxed ,,for ,,shipment ,,overseas4 ,illustration3 ,,photo ,,showing ,,method ,,of ,,crating ,,chassis ,,for ,,overseas ,,shipment4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,coat ,,factory ,,operated ,,by ,,the ,,philadelphia ,,quartermaster ,,depot4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,flag ,,and ,,chevron ,,factory ,,operated ,,by ,,the ,,philadelphia ,,quartermaster ,,depot4 ,at one time there came an order to procure #ace1jjj1jjj stud fasteners within approximately #ij days4 ,the result was that one manufacturer1 who had been producing #djj1jjj such fasteners in a day succeeded in raising his production to #a1jjj1jjj per day1 and this was only typical of the expansion elsewhere in the industry4 ,the demands of the ,army overtaxed the brass rolling-mill capacity of the land4 ,as a result the hardware specialists investigated the possibility of substituting iron and steel for brass1 and these substitutes were under consideration when the war came to an end4 ,vast quantities of large sizes of rope were requested for overseas to replace steel hoisting cables1 which could not be secured in sufficient quantities4 ,standard specifications drawn by the ,government in cooperation with rope manufacturers insured the supply to the ,army of rope only of the highest grades4 ,approximately #ad1jjj1jjj pounds of manila rope1 #b1ejj1jjj pounds of halter rope1 and #b1jjj1jjj pounds of cotton and jute twine were purchased at a cost of approximately #i1jjj1jjj4 ,army hardware men bought #a1ecd1fgi axes1 at a cost of #a1hch1igi4 ,they bought #a1bef1iid shovels at a cost of #a1adj1dab1 and #dbe1ebb wrenches costing #cie1ggf4 ,they purchased #chj1geb fire extinguishers at a cost of #a1gfa1gaa4 ,they purchased #b1fba1eba safety razors and #de1cjj1jjj safety razor blades1 the razors costing #c1aga1hjf and the blades #a1cah1gej4 ,these items selected at random give some idea of the extent of the ,army's hardware business4 ,,quartermaster ,,factory ,,enterprises4 ,it may not be generally known that the ,quartermaster organization was an extensive manufacturer of war goods in ,government shops4 ,in another chapter has been described the method by which the ,army was supplied with clothing4 ,while many of the clothing contractors were private manufacturers1 the ,government itself manufactured more uniforms than it secured from any single outside source4 ,there were two ,government uniform factories--one at the plant of the ,philadelphia ,quartermaster ,depot and the other at the ,jeffersonville 7,ind47 ,quartermaster ,depot4 ,the ,philadelphia factory also manufactured chevrons1 flags1 and tents4 ,the ,jeffersonville depot produced army shirts in addition to outer clothing4 ,the ,jeffersonville depot expanded in size during the war until it became the largest shirt manufacturing establishment in the world4 ,when the armistice was signed the ,philadelphia uniform factory was rapidly gaining the eminence of being the largest clothing manufacturing plant in the ,united ,states4 ,the total value of the articles manufactured by the ,philadelphia ,quartermaster ,depot during the war was #bf1bcj1jjj4 ,the garment factory at ,philadelphia was started in ,june1 #aiah1 and in five months it turned out #gea1hhc garments and #de1egh flags of various kinds4 ,it was working toward an output of #ab1jjj pairs of trousers and #f1jjj woolen coats per day4 ,there were #c1jjj employees in the shop and #b1jjj outside seamstresses4 ,the outside seamstresses made denim jumpers and trousers1 white clothing1 and olive drab shirts1 the production of shirts alone reaching a total of #a1cei1hja garments4 ,the ,philadelphia factory attained an output of #e1jjj pairs of chevrons per day1 most of them embroidered by hand or by machinery4 ,before the war the ,philadelphia factory had a maximum capacity of #fh pyramidal tents per day4 ,this output was raised to #cjj per day4 ,the ,jeffersonville uniform factory was established in ,february1 #aiah4 ,jeffersonville is just a few minutes' ride from ,louisville1 ,ky41 which is a clothing center1 and therefore there was little trouble in securing experienced workers4 ,the factory was operated day and night with two shifts1 each working eight hours4 ,the plant reached a capacity of #gej woolen coats and #a1ejj pairs of woolen trousers per day4 ,the salaries of the women employees ranged from #ej to #hj per month4 ,the ,government established at ,jeffersonville one of the most modern woolen cloth shrinking plants in the ,united ,states1 costing approximately #ej1jjj and providing a capacity for sponging #aj1jjj yards of cloth per day4 ,the ,army supply officers pronounced the uniforms turned out at ,jeffersonville to be the best and most honestly made clothing delivered to the ,army during the war1 yet the cost of manufacturing uniforms in this plant was at least #be per cent under the average price paid to private contractors4 ,the average cost of making a woolen service coat at ,jeffersonville was #a4jb1 and the average cost of making a pair of woolen trousers was #ed cents4 ,the shirt factory at ,jeffersonville was that depot's largest manufacturing enterprise4 ,the ,jeffersonville depot had been making army shirts since #ahgb4 ,the shirt factory greatly expanded during the ,spanish-,american ,war1 until it was employing nearly #b1jjj operatives1 mostly home workers4 ,thereafter the depot continued to make shirts at the rate of about #bjj1jjj per year until the ,united ,states declared war against ,germany1 and in that time it had accumulated a roll of #b1jjj sewing operatives who had worked for the factory at one time or other4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,pair ,,of ,,army ,,shoes ,,before ,,and ,,after ,,being ,,salvaged ,,at ,,jeffersonville ,,quartermaster ,,depot4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,resco ,,shoe-,,fitting ,,machine4 ,illustration3 ,,shoe-,,fitting ,,machine ,,with ,,plunger ,,and ,,wings ,,open4 ,illustration3 ,,shoe-,,fitting ,,school1 ,,camp ,,meigs1 ,d4 ,c4 ,when the great demand for shirts came in the spring of #aiag1 the most expert of these seamstresses were hired outright by the month to act as instructors in the homes of new sewing women who had volunteered for the work4 ,advertisements were then sent out through the newspapers of that entire section for women workers1 and presently the factory had a sewing force of #bj1jjj operatives from practically every town and village throughout southern ,indiana and northwestern ,kentucky4 ,the output of shirts was increased from #fjj1jjj per year to #h1ejj1jjj4 ,each home worker was supplied with one complete shirt to be used as a guide1 and she secured from the factory as often as she needed it shirt material cut from the pattern and tied up in bundles of #aj sets4 ,a large corps of sanitary inspectors was employed to visit the thousands of homes and see to it that the shirts were made under proper conditions4 ,all shirts accepted from the home workers were thoroughly fumigated before being issued from the depot4 ,,shoe ,,fitting4 ,the ,quartermaster ,department1 along with its other activities1 was a school-teacher on a large scale4 ,without going into a general description of the quartermaster schools and the branches they taught1 we will here consider some of the most interesting educational enterprises such as the shoe-fitting schools1 the schools for butchers1 and the school of goods packing4 ,elsewhere in this volume the mechanical system of shoe measuring1 perfected and adopted by the ,war ,department1 was described4 ,studies made at the camps at various times during #aiag and #aiah1 studies which examined nearly #ei1jjj men1 showed that a little more than #gj per cent were wearing shoes too short1 more than #i per cent were wearing shoes too long1 while less than #ai per cent were correctly fitted4 ,it is probable that these proportions ran clear through the ,army before shoe fitting was scientifically taken up1 and there is no reason to believe that in civil life the averages of correct shoe fitting are any better4 ,after the so-called ,resco system of shoe fitting was adopted1 schools for shoe measuring were held at ,camp ,meigs1 ,d4 ,c41 and at ,jefferson ,barracks1 ,mo4 ,each camp and cantonment in the country sent two officers to one or the other of these schools4 ,the course of instruction lasted five days and consisted of lectures by experts and demonstrations of the various appliances4 ,in this way the science of correct shoe fitting was scattered throughout the ,army4 ,,meat ,,cutting4 ,it is no easy trick to teach a man to cut meat properly2 butchering is a skilled trade4 ,as soon as it was apparent that the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in ,france were to be greatly expanded in size1 our officers overseas sent requests that several trained and experienced butchery companies be sent over to cut meats properly for the organizations abroad4 ,in order to comply with this request there was added to the curriculum of the quartermaster training camp in ,florida a butchery course in the cutting1 boning1 rolling1 and tying of fresh and frozen beef4 ,in this course there was developed an entirely new method of cutting beef known as the natural guide method2 and by it men who had never cut meat before were developed into practical meat cutters in less than eight weeks of instruction and practice4 ,the natural guide method1 which was found to be far superior for ,army use to any other meat-cutting system which had been known1 was exactly what it was named1 as it was essentially a separating rather than a cutting process4 ,the beef quarters were boned and divided into their major parts by following the natural separations between muscles1 tissues1 and bones4 ,this method1 which is not at all like that in commercial use1 proved to be more economical than any meat-cutting system known1 because it utilized every ounce of meat and produced a greater proportion of choice cuts suitable for pot roasts and other roasts than the older ,army ,cooks' ,manual method of meat cutting4 ,the ,cooks' ,manual method was similar to the method used by the retail butcher1 in that it cut meat along artificial indetermined lines4 ,the natural guide method actually produced #c per cent more edible meat than the other method1 since even the most expert meat cutters can not remove all meat from the bones by the ,cooks' ,manual method4 ,moreover1 by the natural guide method all cuts are uniform1 and the fats1 suets1 and bones are separated as clean1 sweet1 edible products4 ,butchery companies were trained by the natural guide method and sent overseas in numbers sufficient for the requirements of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,after the discovery of this method and the fact that it produced at least #c per cent more meat than even the expert cutters could secure by the artificial cutting system1 it was evident that further research work along this line would be profitable4 ,even expert butchers1 in spite of all their skill and care1 wasted meat4 ,what must be the conditions in the mess kitchens of the ,army where the cooks1 with no expert knowledge of butchery1 cut the meats8 ,it was evident that numerous edible by-products of meat1 such as fats and marrow1 were going into the kitchen garbage pails and thence to the rendering plants4 ,the result of the investigation was a project to establish central meat-cutting and rendering plants for all large concentrations of troops1 where all meats would be cut1 boned1 rolled1 and tied1 by experts1 and delivered direct to the company kitchens ready for roasting or cooking in any manner4 ,the fat and suet at such plants would not be soiled or made unsound by handling1 and so it could be rendered and its food value retained4 ,the oil could be cooked from the bones as a valuable by-product1 the bones could be dried and sold commercially1 and the plant could also have machinery for making sausage and hamburg steak4 ,a plant of this character was put in operation during the summer and autumn of #aiah at ,camp ,johnston1 the quartermaster training camp1 and it proved to be a complete success4 ,when the armistice was signed1 the ,general ,staff was considering the proposition of establishing these centralized meat plants at all the larger camps4 ,the meat experts also effected notable economies in ship space by developing what was known as shankless beef4 ,shank-less beef was beef quarters with the four shanks removed4 ,quarters thus prepared occupied #ad per cent less freezer1 cargo1 and shipping space than quarters with their shanks4 ,a still further economy in shipping space was projected in the plan to bone all beef at the packing plants and ship it boxed or frozen in molds and wrapped in burlap4 ,this method saved about #ej per cent of cargo space1 and it began to be extensively used during the winter of #aiah-ai4 ,one set of packages included tenderloins1 sirloins1 butts1 loin steaks1 top rounds1 and shoulder steaks4 ,another set of packages contained roasts1 including prime ribs1 rumps1 bottom rounds1 and bottom chucks4 ,a third set was for stews1 including flanks1 plates1 blades1 necks1 shanks1 and trimmings4 ,,packing4 ,american exporters generally for many years have had the reputation of packing goods improperly for overseas shipment4 ,time and again travelers and investigators in foreign lands have pointed out that if ,america expected to compete successfully with other manufacturing nations in foreign trade1 she must learn to pack goods so that the packages will not break en route and damage the contents4 ,when we sent an ,army of over #b1jjj1jjj men to ,france1 it was evident that unless we learned quickly how to put up our supplies properly for overseas shipment1 our lack of knowledge would be costly to us4 ,accordingly the packing service branch of the ,quartermaster ,department was established4 ,one of its first acts was to set up a school of baling1 packing1 and crating1 this school being located at the ,forest ,products ,laboratory at ,madison1 ,wis41 where studies of packing were being made by scientists4 ,the school started in ,july1 #aiah1 and before the armistice came it had graduated #djj students from its six-weeks' course4 ,now1 while it was important that ,army supplies reached the other side in good condition1 it was soon seen that of even greater importance would be the economy that might be effected in shipping space by the scientific packing of goods4 ,this obscure and little known packing service branch was really one of the most important agencies in the whole war organization1 since the results which it accomplished in the saving of ship space were nothing short of astonishing4 ,these economies came at a time when the ,german submarines were still highly destructive to ,american and allied shipping1 and the shortage of ocean tonnage was one of the most disturbing factors in the whole war situation4 ,the ,american packing service1 in saving thousands of tons of shipping space1 in reality offset the operations of the ,u-boats over a considerable period of time4 ,these space economies resulted usually from specifications drawn by the packing experts reducing the sizes of packing cases that were too large for the goods contained1 and also by packing articles more compactly4 ,for instance1 these experts studied the rolling kitchen and determined the most compact assembly of its parts in a crate4 ,the crate was then carefully designed to occupy a minimum amount of space4 ,some #ah1jjj rolling kitchens were packed ready for shipment to ,france4 ,had all of these been floated1 a total of #bb1ejj cubic tons of ship space would have been saved1 or the equivalent of five or six whole shiploads4 ,as it was1 room aboard ship could be found for only #f1idj rolling kitchens1 which by being scientifically packed occupied #h1gjj cubic tons less cargo space1 or about two whole shiploads1 than they would have occupied otherwise4 ,wherever possible1 entire units of such heavy articles as escort wagons and ambulances were packed in single crates4 ,wherever open spaces were inevitable in the crating1 these vacancies were filled with various subsistence stores1 such as dried peas or beans4 ,galvanized-iron cans1 for instance1 were packed with two sacks of flour inside each one4 ,the experts studied boxing to determine the best thickness of wood required by various commodities and the proper method of strapping or otherwise fastening the boxes4 ,as a result there was a great improvement in the condition of goods arriving in ,france4 ,in no respect did the packing service effect greater space economy than in the packing of clothes for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,formerly clothing had gone forward to troops packed loosely in wooden boxes4 ,the packing service devised the system of baling all clothing1 and a baling plant was set up at the ,army supply base in ,brooklyn4 ,the service gave scientific attention to the proper folding of garments and eventually1 after exhaustive experiments1 developed a system of folding that allowed the maximum number of pieces which could go into a bale4 ,it was found that these new methods saved two-thirds of the space that had been used formerly for the shipment of the same quantity of goods in boxes1 to say nothing of the great saving both in labor and in boxing materials4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,field ,,of ,,rolling ,,kitchens ,,at ,,nevers1 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,field ,,kitchen ,,equipment4 ,illustration3 ,,mules ,,after ,,malleining4 ,malleining is a serum test to determine if the animal is suffering from glanders4 ,the baling plant at ,new ,york in the calendar year #aiah shipped to ,france approximately #a1jjj1jjj bales of clothing and textile and other equipment that could be baled4 ,the saving in money to the ,united ,states ,government by this method of packing at this one plant in a single year amounted to approximately #ee1jjj1jjj4 ,the largest item in this economy was the matter of cargo space1 which is estimated at #di1jhj1jjj saved to the ,government4 ,the complete statement of the financial saving in the shipment of these #a1jjj1jjj bales is as follows3 ,material #a1idj1jjj ,labor #ehc1jjj ,tare weight #ge1jjj ,cargo space #di1jhj1jjj ---------- ,total #ea1fgh1jjj ,to these savings are to be added3 ,savings effected in rent and maintenance #gjj1jjj ,freight to the shipping warehouses #dij1jjj ,rent of additional warehouse awaiting shipment #cj1jjj ,freight from warehouse to ship side #a1bej1jjj ,re-cooperage #bjj1jjj ,unloading at the forwarding stations #a1jjj1jjj ---------- ,total #c1fgj1jjj ,grand total #ee1cdh1jjj ,in addition to the financial saving there was a large saving in raw materials1 which count for more than money to a nation engaged in a desperate war4 ,this million bales of clothing saved #eh1jjj1jjj board feet of lumber1 which would have been used in boxing had the old system of packing been followed4 ,the lumber which might have gone into these boxes requires #cj years for its growth1 but the burlap covering the bales was made of jute1 which is raised in semiannual crops4 ,the size of the bale adopted was #cj by #ae by #ad inches and up to #ai inches4 ,it is interesting to note that this size was determined upon because it was found that the burlap covering such bales of this size would cut into sandbags with a minimum amount of waste material4 ,the ,army abroad used great quantities of sandbags4 ,thus1 by wrapping bales in burlap pieces of proper size1 there was saved a considerable amount of cargo space previously occupied by baled burlap being shipped to ,france to be made into sandbags4 ,it is also notable that baled clothing arrived in ,france in much better condition than clothing which had been packed in cases4 ,,horses ,,and ,,mules4 ,the ,quartermaster ,corps was charged with the duty of providing horses and mules for the ,army4 ,this function is known technically as remount1 and the buying of horses was in the hands of the remount division4 ,there were three permanent remount depots in the ,united ,states when the war began in ,april1 #aiag--one at ,front ,royal1 ,va41 one at ,fort ,reno1 ,okla41 and one at ,keogh1 ,mont41--an auxiliary remount depot at ,fort ,bliss1 ,tex41 and a purchasing headquarters at ,kansas ,city1 ,mo4 ,when it became apparent that the ,army would need a large number of horses1 some of the most celebrated horsemen and riders in the country offered their services as buyers4 ,some #ej of them were commissioned as captains in the ,quartermaster ,reserve ,corps and sent to the various purchasing headquarters for short training in the proper types of horses and animals required by the ,army4 ,these buyers purchased a large number of excellent animals4 ,in addition to the existing three remount depots there were established #cc additional auxiliary remount depots and two animal embarkation depots4 ,the horses purchased were shipped to the various remount depots and there trained and conditioned for ,army use4 ,it required a large number of officers and men to care for the remount establishment4 ,shortly before the armistice was signed there were approximately #djj officers and #ai1jjj enlisted men in the ,american remount service4 ,the following statement shows the total numbers of horses and mules purchased for the ,american ,army in the calendar years #aiag-ah1 including those acquired by the remount service in ,france3 7a7 ,number of horses and mules purchased from ,jan4 #a1 #aiag1 to ,jan4 #a1 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,horses4 ,mules4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,grand ,where purchased4 ,light ,heavy ,pack total4 ,cavalry4artillery4artillery4 ,draft4 and riding4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,from ,french #ba1dej #fa1idd #db1igc #b1aha #g1afj #ace1gjh ,from ,spanish #a1djj #dbc #ac1cbi #c1bie #ah1ddg ,from ,british #b1fcc #f1chh #d1ceb #f1gad #idc #ba1jcj ,in ,united ,states #fj1dci #ajf1eed #i1abi #aad1fhg #i1dej #cjj1bei ,private mounts #ejg #dg #eed ,young horses #d1dgd #a1jde #e1eai ---------------------------------------- --------- ,total purchased to #ij1ijc #agf1dja #ef1ded #acf1iaabj1hdh #dha1eag ,jan4 #a1 #aiai ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- 7b7 ,number of horses and number of mules lost in ,america and abroad ,apr4 #f1 #aiag1 to ,jan4 #a1 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,horses4 ,mules4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,in ,america #bd1add #f1jdj #cj1ahd ,abroad #cg1fae #e1ffg #dc1bhb ------------------------- ,total #fa1gei #aa1gjg #gc1dff ---------------------------------------- ---- 7c7 ,number of horses and mules on hand in the ,united ,states and insular possessions1 ,jan4 #a1 #aiai4 ,horses3 ,cavalry #hc1ggd ,draft #gg1agb ,mules3 ,draft #if1edb ,pack and riding #ac1iej ------- ,grand total #bga1dch ,thousands of ,american animals were shipped to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in ,france4 ,because of the lack of tonnage there were no animal shipments between ,march #bf1 #aiah1 and ,august #aa4 ,between the declaration of war and ,march #bf1 #aiah1 a total of #cj1cbi animals were shipped abroad1 and in the ,august #ab-,november #cj period #cg1fai animals crossed the ,atlantic1 making a total of #fg1idh ,american horses and mules sent to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,the total expenditures of the ,army both abroad and at home for horses and mules during the war period was #aae1ieg1jjj1 divided about half and half between the ,united ,states on the one hand and ,france1 ,england1 and ,spain on the other4 ,the largest remount depot developed during the war is located at ,camp ,jackson1 ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c4 ,this depot has a capacity of about #aj1jjj animals and its construction cost was about #cjj1jjj4 ,soon after the armistice was signed1 when it became apparent that animals would no longer be needed1 thousands of horses and mules at the different remount depots were sold at auction1 these auction sales drawing large crowds of buyers4 ,,storage4 ,the problem of storing ,army supplies became great only after hostilities had ceased4 ,before that time supplies were going through the warehouses and to the ships at the deep-water ports so rapidly that there was no backing up of the tide of them in the vast warehouse facilities that had been provided as a war measure4 ,but as soon as the armistice was signed and the ,army no longer grew in size but rapidly diminished as men were discharged1 the manufacturing operations under way1 necessarily continued for a time on a scale which had been developed in preparation for an ,army nearly double the size of the one that existed on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 soon began filling up the warehouses4 ,the total storage capacity which the ,army had on hand at the time of the fighting1 exclusive of that at ports and that for the ,department of ,military ,aeronautics1 was as follows3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,zone4 ,depot4 ,warehouse4 ,open4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,square feet4 ,square feet4 #a ,boston #a1bie1dfj #a1bie1dfj #b ,new ,york #b1ijj1ada #b1ijj1ada #c ,philadelphia #b1ccc1abd #b1ccc1abd #d ,baltimore #a1dfh1egb #a1dfh1egb #e ,atlanta #a1dii1hdh #ad1cjj #a1ead1adh #f ,jeffersonville #b1jjj1jjj #b1jjj1jjj #g ,chicago #c1hbe1bhf #a1gdb1djj #e1efg1fhf #h ,st4 ,louis #a1baf1ggf #a1baf1ggf #i ,new ,orleans #dje1agb #ajj1jjj #eje1agb #aj ,san ,antonio #iia1ehb #iia1ehb #aa ,omaha #acj1dgb #acj1dgb #ab ,el ,paso #bcb1hjc #hj1bab #cac1jae #ac ,san ,francisco #a1agj1ecc #a1agj1ecc #ad ,newport ,news #bcd1hgi #bcd1hgi #ae ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #hae1fjf #cdb1ajj #a1aeg1gjf ---------------------------------------- --- ,grand total #bj1ebj1bed #b1bgi1jab #bb1gii1bff ,warehouse ,open ,total4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,square feet4 ,square feet4 ,camps #e1cbf1eij #e1ajd1ija #aj1dca1dia ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the operation of one of the ,quartermaster depot warehouses might be described at this point1 and the general supply depot at ,jeffersonville1 ,ind41 is typical4 ,during the war this depot procured for the ,quartermaster ,corps of the entire ,army all horse-drawn vehicles and harness1 and such items as barrack ranges1 field ranges1 and ovens1 pack-train equipment1 and other supplies4 ,the war deliveries began at ,jeffersonville in the late summer of #aiag4 ,receipts soon outgrew storage space4 ,adjoining lands were leased1 and supplies1 covered by paulins1 were stored in the open4 ,this early period of the war1 prior to the spring of #aiah1 was a back-up period at all the warehouses1 as supplies were produced faster than men were trained and transported to ,france4 ,in the late spring of #aiah ,jeffersonville began making heavy shipments of supplies overseas and from then on shipments exceeded receipts4 ,for three months before the armistice was signed the ,jeffersonville depot's shipments averaged #fj carloads a day and its receipts about #be carloads4 ,after the armistice was signed1 ,jeffersonville was designated as the depot for the storage of all surplus horse-drawn vehicles and black harnesses therefor4 ,extensive temporary storage sheds were erected4 ,inbound shipments increased to about #hj cars a day4 ,the depot has stored #d1jjj rolling kitchens of the trailmobile type1 these kitchens being packed in boxes1 each package weighing about #d1cjj pounds4 ,the work of storing these kitchens is still in progress1 and the pile of boxes will ultimately be #de feet wide1 #cj feet high1 and #a1jjj feet long4 ,as the pile is made1 corrugated-iron roofing is placed on the sides and top1 thus forming a waterproof building4 ,crated automobile trailers1 weighing about #i1jjj pounds per crate1 are being handled in the same manner4 ,wagons are stored in galvanized-iron warehouses1 each one capable of receiving #b1ejj wagons1 without wheels4 ,wagon wheels are stored in specially adapted sheds4 ,about #b1jjj automobile trucks have already been received for storage in specially constructed sheds4 ,these trucks are mainly ,nash ,quads1 four-wheel-drive trucks1 and ,g4 ,m4 ,c4 ambulance chassis4 ,these chassis are stored on end1 resting on the bumpers4 ,the engines of all trucks are well oiled and the magnetos are covered with waterproof material4 ,illustration3 ,,storage ,,of ,,automobile ,,chassis1 ,,jeffersonville1 ,,ind4 ,illustration3 ,,storing ,,rolling ,,kitchens4 ,illustration3 ,,method ,,of ,,storing ,,wagon ,,wheels ,,at ,,jeffersonville ,,quartermaster ,,storage ,,depot4 ,illustration3 ,,method ,,of ,,storing ,,horse ,,collars ,,at ,,jeffersonville ,,depot4 ,as the supplies backed up into the warehouses1 it became necessary for the ,army to know where it stood in the matter of property2 and a complete inventory was ordered1 since there had been no time during the hurry and bustle of the war period to take stock4 ,this inventory in itself was an enormous undertaking4 ,to prepare for it the quartermaster training school at ,camp ,meigs1 ,d4 ,c41 was completely transformed into a school for training experts for taking inventories4 ,a standard scheme was worked out4 ,the experts1 after being trained in the standard method1 were sent out into every zone in the country as instructors4 ,in each zone they convened the so-called town meetings4 ,the town meeting was made up of ,army storekeepers from each depot1 post1 camp1 and station in the zone--any place where ,army supplies were stored4 ,these representatives were schooled in the inventory method and then sent back to their stations with instructions to start the inventory on ,december #ca1 #aiah4 ,the next operation was to organize an inventory factory in ,washington as the consolidating point for all the inventories in the ,united ,states4 ,some idea of the number of articles which ,uncle ,sam accumulated as a result of the war may be gained from the fact that the inventories received in ,washington filled #dj1fjj sheets of paper1 the size of an ordinary large letterhead1 with typewriting single spaced4 ,to take the inventory required a force in ,washington of approximately #ajj officers and #djj civilians1 while there were probably over #aj1jjj officers and men engaged in the entire operation over the country4 ,the inventory was undoubtedly the largest ever taken in the world4 ,before the war the standard items of ,army supplies had been #bj1jjj4 ,the inventory in the consolidation of its figures in ,washington disclosed the fact that at the beginning of the year #aiai there were #abj1jjj standard items1 and many of these stood for large quantities of individual pieces4 ,as this report is written1 a catalogue1 or standard nomenclature list of supplies1 comprising #abj1jjj items1 is being prepared1 to establish throughout the ,united ,states one language of supply for all items stored1 distributed1 and issued under the direction of the ,director of ,storage4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,motor ,,and ,,horse-,,drawn ,,vehicles4 ,the punitive expedition into ,mexico in pursuit of ,francisco ,villa marked the real beginning of the use of motor transportation for the ,army1 although for many years the motor truck had received some attention for military purposes4 ,in #aijd a few progressive officers at ,west ,point made preliminary tests of #a-ton trucks1 but these tests1 while demonstrating that the truck would doubtless be of value to the ,army in the future1 were not sufficiently successful to create any particular interest4 ,a few trucks were in use in the ,army in #aijg1 but no systematic tests were made until #aiab4 ,at that time officers were seriously studying the motor transportation needs and problems of the ,army4 ,in #aiad the ,society of ,automobile ,engineers1 having learned from the experience of ,european nations then at war that motor transportation is one of the most vital factors in the success of any army1 offered its services to our ,war ,department for the purpose of making a complete survey of the automotive industry1 in the hope that the interests of the industry and of the ,army could be coordinated so that in an extreme emergency the industry might be able to provide the necessary motor equipment for the ,army1 and that the ,army might be able to use such equipment in the most efficient manner4 ,pursuant to this offer1 on ,april #bh1 #aiaf1 the ,war ,department asked the society's cooperation in issuing revised specifications for the purchase of #a-ton and #c-ton ,army trucks4 ,in ,may of the same year1 a committee consisting of the engineers from five companies manufacturing trucks1 from five companies assembling trucks1 and an engineer from a truck company not making the types of trucks under consideration1 was appointed to cooperate with ,army officers in making plans to provide our troops with motor vehicles suitable to their needs4 ,on this committee were representatives of the ,locomobile ,co4 of ,america1 the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co41 the ,peerless ,motor ,car ,co41 the ,pierce-,arrow ,motor ,car ,co41 the ,kelly-,springfield ,motor ,truck ,co41 the ,selden ,motor ,vehicle ,co41 the ,commercial ,truck ,co4 of ,america1 the ,white ,co41 and the ,general ,motors ,co4 ,this committee went over the ,government specifications for the #a-ton and #c-ton trucks1 which had been proposed by the ,army1 and after a few changes had been made1 the specifications were drawn up for what then seemed to be the ideal trucks for ,army use in these two sizes4 ,trucks at this time were urgently needed for our forces along the ,mexican border and for the punitive expedition entering ,mexico4 ,consequently rush orders for the first large quantities of trucks ever purchased or used by our ,army were placed with the ,white ,co41 the ,packard ,motor ,car ,co41 ,the ,garford ,motor ,truck ,co41 the ,kelly-,springfield ,motor ,truck ,co41 the ,four ,wheel ,drive ,co41 and the ,jeffery 7,nash7 ,quad4 ,it was with the trucks of these concerns that our ,army officers obtained their first real experience on a big scale with motor transportation4 ,the trucks themselves also received the most severe tests while in service on the border and in ,mexico4 ,not only did the ,army officers secure valuable experience in operating this motor equipment but the manufacturer also took this exceptional opportunity to study motor vehicles in actual operation under ,army conditions1 and early in #aiag revised specifications for ,army trucks were issued as a result of the numerous conferences that had been held between representatives of the ,war ,department and the automobile industry4 ,in ,may standard specifications for the so-called class ,a 7#a-ton to #b-ton7 and the class ,b 7#c-ton to #e-ton7 motor trucks were established1 showing that the fundamental requirements of motor trucks for the ,army were as follows3 low-gear reduction1 larger engines1 #d-speed transmission 7with very low first speed71 maximum ground clearance1 demountable tires of standardized size and specifications1 large gasoline tank1 electric lighting system1 #c-point engine suspension1 locking differential1 extra quality alloy steel springs1 and larger radiators4 ,after deciding on the requisites of an ,army truck1 the matter of standardization began to receive definite attention1 it being the belief of many of the ,army officers that it would be entirely possible and practicable so to standardize ,army vehicles that but one type of truck would be sufficient for each size1 and it became quite evident if this ideal could be worked out1 the maintenance of ,army vehicles would be a simple matter4 ,without some standardization1 the providing of the proper stock of spare parts became a problem of extreme difficulty4 ,in the early summer of #aiag an appropriation of #age1jjj was set aside by the ,quartermaster ,department for the purpose of financing the cost of designing and drawing up specifications for a complete new vehicle1 which would become a standardized truck for our military forces4 ,on ,august #a1 #aiag1 there were assembled in ,washington #ej automotive engineers who had been in touch with the truck needs of the ,army2 and these men1 with the help of ,army officers1 began the task of designing a sample standardized truck1 first centering their efforts on the #c-ton size1 as this was at that time most urgently needed by the ,army4 ,on ,october #aj of this same year the engineers had finished designing the new type of truck and had completed the first two sample trucks of this type1 afterwards known as the ,standardized ,b4 ,these two sample trucks were driven to ,washington on ,october #ai1 were formally presented to the ,war ,department1 tested1 and pronounced wholly successful4 ,orders for #aj1jjj of these class ,b trucks were placed within the next few weeks4 ,five additional trucks were rushed through the plants as a check on tools and were completed ,january #aj1 #aiah4 ,in ,april1 actual production having begun on the first #aj1jjj1 the purchase of an additional #h1jjj was authorized1 and orders for them were placed in ,may4 ,in ,september1 #aiah1 additional orders were placed for #be1jjj1 but on account of the signing of the armistice no trucks were delivered under this last order4 ,production of these standardized class ,b trucks was directed by the following men1 who were called to ,washington3 ,christian ,girl1 head of the ,standard ,parts ,co41 of ,cleveland2 ,james ,f4 ,bourquin1 ,continental ,motor ,co41 ,louisville1 ,ky42 ,percy ,w4 ,tracy1 of the ,premier ,motor ,co41 ,indianapolis2 ,walter ,s4 ,quinlan1 of the ,maynard ,h4 ,murch ,co41 ,cleveland2 ,guy ,morgan1 of the ,mitchell ,motors ,corporation1 ,racine1 ,wis42 ,j4 ,g4 ,utz1 of the ,standard ,parts ,co41 ,cleveland2 ,g4 ,w4 ,randels1 of the ,foote-,burt ,co41 ,cleveland2 and ,a4 ,g4 ,drefs1 of the ,miller-,franklin ,co4 ,all materials for the building of a standardized truck were mobilized through officials at ,washington4 ,in general1 it was the idea to have at least three or four sources of supply for each part that went into the standardized truck1 and as a result #aej parts manufacturers were given contracts4 ,during the time in which the ,quartermaster ,department was attempting to standardize all ,army cargo-carrying vehicles1 and up to ,may #ae1 #aiah1 the other branches of the ,army were buying commercial trucks of different makes for their special uses4 ,the ,ordnance ,department had concentrated on the ,nash and ,f4 ,w4 ,d4 trucks for ammunition and other ordnance work1 and had ordered approximately #cj1jjj of these two types4 ,the ,signal ,corps had specialized in the light and heavy aviation trucks1 these being assembled from known and tried units1 such as motors1 axles1 transmission1 etc41 and equipped with special apparatus for the ,signal ,corps4 ,approximately #d1jjj of the light aviation and #d1fjj of the heavy aviation trucks were ordered4 ,the ,engineer ,corps had adopted the ,mack #e-ton truck and had ordered approximately #c1fjj4 ,the ,medical ,corps had gone in for the ,g4 ,m4 ,c4 model #af for ambulances1 of which approximately #e1hjj had been ordered1 and they had also purchased approximately #b1fjj ,ford ambulances4 ,these five branches of the ,army had purchased trucks of other makes as well1 and during the winter of #aiag and #aiah it became evident that the buying of so many makes and from so many different manufacturers was not a logical solution of the motor transportation problem4 ,each corps had its own ideas as to the type of truck required1 and the sum of these ideas resulted in a decided lack of standardization for the ,army as a whole1 and no complete standardization for any corps as a unit4 ,during the first year of operations in ,france the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces had purchased various types of vehicles abroad in order to fill their immediate requirements1 and the result was that over #bjj different makes of motor vehicles were actually in use by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,this diversity in types was to some extent caused by lack of shipping space in which to transport motor equipment abroad4 ,not being able to secure sufficient trucks from the ,united ,states1 due to shortage of ocean tonnage1 the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were compelled to purchase a miscellaneous assortment of foreign-made vehicles1 thus complicating the maintenance problem beyond the possibility of a satisfactory solution4 ,the buying of motor equipment by so many different agencies of the ,government was not only confusing to the manufacturer1 who was selling to five different corps1 but it also precluded any possibility of real standardization2 and with a view of eliminating these two evils1 ,special ,order #ia1 ,w4 ,d4 #aiah1 and ,general ,order #ch1 ,w4 ,d4 #aiah1 were issued4 ,the first created a standardization board and the second consolidated the procurement of all motor vehicles in the ,motor ,transport ,service1 which service operated under the direction of the ,quartermaster ,general4 ,under the special orders the standardization board was charged with selecting and approving the proper types for the use of the ,army1 the board being composed of representatives from each of the various corps4 ,in this manner the various ideas of the different corps were coordinated through the discussion of the board1 and the final result was that the following chassis were standardized for use3 ,passenger cars3 light1 ,ford and ,dodge2 heavy1 ,cadillac4 ,ambulances3 ,g4 ,m4 ,c4 and ,ford 7with longer wheel base74 ,trucks3 one-half-ton to -ton1 ,ford and ,dodge 7same chassis as in passenger cars72 -ton to #a-ton1 ,g4 ,m4 ,c4 ,model #af2 #a-ton to #b-ton1 ,white2 #c-ton to #e-ton1 ,quartermaster standardized ,b4 ,the #d-wheel-drive ,,tt type1 called the ,militor1 was also standardized1 this being a special truck tractor designed by the ,ordnance ,department4 ,these latter vehicles were never furnished to the ,army1 as production had not progressed far enough at the time of the signing of the armistice4 ,on this limited number of chassis could be mounted any bodies required by the ,army4 ,for instance the ,white -ton to #a-ton chassis could be used as a passenger car when equipped with pneumatic tires and with the ordnance staff observation or reconnaissance body4 ,the ,ford and ,dodge chassis could be used either with the regular passenger-car bodies or with light-delivery or light-repair bodies4 ,the ,g4 ,m4 ,c4 chassis could be used either as an ambulance or could be equipped with a light-cargo body1 thus providing a -ton to #a-ton truck4 ,the standardized ,b chassis could be used with special machine-shop bodies1 special ,signal ,corps apparatus1 or the regular ,b cargo body1 etc4 ,the work of the board was painstaking and thorough1 and decisions were rendered only after experts had been consulted and exhaustive tests made4 ,while the board was standardizing on the types of vehicles to be purchased in the future for the ,army1 the ,motor ,transport ,service was being formed1 and by ,june #a1 #aiah1 the consolidation of procurement1 inspection1 production1 maintenance1 etc41 was well underway4 ,the needs of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces for motor equipment were increasing by leaps and bounds1 and the ,motor ,transport ,service found that it was impossible to purchase the trucks standardized by the motorization board in sufficient quantities to meet the overseas requirements4 ,it was therefore decided1 after the consent of the board had been received1 that certain other types of vehicles should be procured to fill the requirements of the ,army until such time as production of the standardized truck could be increased4 ,therefore1 the makes of trucks which were already in use in large quantities with the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were temporarily made standard to meet the immediate needs of the ,army4 ,it being extremely difficult to purchase sufficient trucks1 even of these additional makes1 to meet the needs overseas1 it was decided that still other makes of trucks would be procured for use in the ,united ,states1 thus allowing all the makes standardized for overseas use to be shipped to ,france4 ,the ,motor ,transport ,service operated from ,may #ae until ,august #ae1 #aiah1 when the ,motor ,transport ,corps was organized under ,general ,order ,no4 #ge4 ,this order created a separate corps under the operations division of the ,general ,staff for the operation as well as the procurement of all passenger and cargo carrying motor equipment for the ,army4 ,a few weeks later1 however1 ,supply ,circular #hg1 ,p41 ,s4 ,t41 was issued1 placing the procurement of the above under the ,director of ,purchase1 ,storage and ,traffic 7,motors and ,vehicles ,division71 but the operation and maintenance of vehicles was left with the ,motor ,transport ,corps4 ,from ,september on these organizations remained unchanged up to and after the signing of the armistice4 ,the table appended shows the status of the procurement and production of motor-vehicle orders as of ,november #a1 #aiah1 #aa days prior to the signing of the armistice4 ,it will be noted that there had been ordered for delivery before ,july #a1 #aiai1 a total of #ahe1jjj trucks1 #bc1jec ambulances1 and #ch1dfb passenger cars4 ,the ,army in ,april1 #aiag1 possessed #c1jci trucks1 #dcg automobiles1 #fgj motor cycles1 and #ab tractors4 ,one and one-half years later it owned approximately #he1jjj trucks1 and had the war continued until ,july #a1 #aiai1 there would have been approximately #ahe1jjj trucks provided for its use by ,american industry4 ,in addition1 this same industry would have provided #cj1jjj ambulances1 #dj1jjj passenger cars1 #gj1jjj motor cycles1 #gj1jjj bicycles1 making a grand total approaching #djj1jjj vehicles1 costing 7with spare parts7 over #gjj1jjj1jjj4 ,from the very beginning the ,government received the hearty cooperation of the entire industry4 ,the need was urgent1 the demand tremendous1 and many manufacturers were called upon to sacrifice their own product in order to meet the needs of the ,army1 and many were on a #ajj-per-cent war-work basis4 ,motor truck production4 ,,vehicles ,,standardized ,,for ,,overseas ,,shipment4 ,key3 7,a7 - ,class 7,b7 - ,capacity in tons 7,c7 - ,total ordered to ,nov4 #a1 #aiah 7,d7 - ,total completed to ,nov4 #a1 #aiah 7,e7 - ,floated overseas ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,name4 7,a7 7,b7 ,manufacturer4 _/ ,address4 7,c7 7,d7 7,e7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,g4 ,m4 ,c4 ,,aa #a ,commerce ,motor ,car ,co4 #dej standard ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,velie ,motors ,corp4 #a1jjj ,moline4 ,ill4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,dort ,motor ,co4 #a1jjj ,flint1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,elgin ,motor ,car ,corp4 #ejj ,elgin1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,lexington ,motor ,co4 #ejj ,connersville1 ,ind4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,auburn ,auto ,co4 #ejj ,auburn1 ,ind4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,hupp ,motor ,car ,corp4 #ejj ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,general ,motor ,truck ,co4 #a1jjj ,pontiac1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,saxon ,motor ,car ,co4 #ejj ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,campbell ,motor ,car ,co4 #bjj ,kingston1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,columbia ,motor ,co4 #cjj ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,moon ,motor ,car ,co4 #cjj ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,do4 ,,aa do4 ,liberty ,motor ,co4 #dej ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,g4 ,m4 ,c4 ,,aa do4 ,general ,motors ,truck ,co4 #e1haa #e1eec #d1jja ambulance ,pontiac1 ,mich4 ,white ,,aa do4 ,the ,white ,co4 #b1fie #b1aif #hji ,cleveland1 ,ohio ------------------- ,total #ae1gjf #g1gdi #d1haj ,dodge light ,,aa ,dodge ,bros4 ,co4 #i1ceb #b1fdd delivery ,detroit1 ,mich4 #a1hjb ,dodge light ,,aa do4 do4 #a1jab #a1jab repair ,ford light ,,aa do4 ,ford ,motor ,co4 #ab1jjb #e1dib #g1bjf delivery do4 ,ford ,,aa do4 do4 do4 #aj1jdb #e1cdj #d1cfb ambulances ------------------- ,total #cb1djhad1dhh #ac1cgj ,white ,a #a ,the ,white ,co4 #i1bja #a1hac #a1ecb standard ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,do4 ,a do4 ,peerless ,motor ,co4 #c1jjj do4 ------------------- ,total #ab1bja #a1hac #a1ecb ,light aviation ,a #a ,general ,motor ,truck ,co4 #b1djj #a1hhh to #b ,pontiac1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,a do4 ,paige ,motor ,car ,co4 #ejj #dhj ,detroit1 ,mich4 #a1hbi ,do4 ,a do4 ,republic ,motor ,truck ,co4 #ejj #ced ,alma1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,a do4 ,denby ,motor ,truck ,co4 #ejj #dhh ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,garford ,a #a ,garford ,motor ,truck ,co4 #e1jaj #a1jaj #dii ,lima1 ,ohio ,packard ,a do4 ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 #hca #fcf #ebf ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,pierce-,arrow ,a do4 ,pierce-,arrow ,motor ,car ,co4 #d1jbc #b1dbc #ecd ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ------------------- ,total #ac1gfd #g1bgi #c1chh ,standardized ,b ,b #c ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 #e #e ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,gramm-,bernstein ,motor #c1gej #a1jjj ,truck ,co4 ,lima1 ,ohio ,do4 ,b do4 ,kelly-,springfield ,motor #a1jde #cja ,truck ,co4 ,springfield1 ,ohio ,do4 ,b do4 ,indiana ,truck ,corporation #b1ede #dge ,marion1 ,ind4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,service ,motor ,truck ,co4 #a1gie #ccg ,wabash1 ,ind4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,republic ,motor ,truck ,co4 #c1gej #ifg ,alma1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,pierce-,arrow ,motor ,car ,co4 #a1jjj #ige ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,selden ,truck ,sales ,co4 #c1gej #a1jjj ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,bethlehem ,motors #b1gbe #fge ,corporation ,allentown1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,diamond ,t ,motor ,co4 #c1bjc #fch ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,u4 ,s4 ,motor ,truck ,co4 #b1ede #dij ,cincinnati1 ,ohio ,do4 ,b do4 ,brockway ,motor ,truck ,co4 #b1bjb #ehg ,cortland1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,velie ,motors ,corporation #c1jde #dee ,moline1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,sterling ,motor ,truck #a1gie #dgi ,corporation ,milwaukee1 ,wis4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,garford ,motor ,truck ,co4 #a1gej #igh ,lima1 ,ohio ,do4 ,b do4 ,hurlburt ,motor ,truck ,co4 #ajj ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,midland ,motor ,truck ,co4 #ejj ,oklahoma ,city1 ,okla4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,atterbury ,motor ,car ,co4 #gej ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,standard ,motor ,truck ,co4 #gej ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,maccar ,co4 #ejj ,scranton1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,clyde ,cars ,co4 #ejj ,clyde1 ,ohio ,do4 ,b do4 ,rowe ,motor ,manufacturing #ejj ,co4 ,lancaster1 ,pa4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,j4 ,c4 ,wilson ,co4 #ejj ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,lewis ,hall ,iron ,works #ejj do4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,denby ,motor ,truck ,co4 #a1ejj do4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,winther ,motor ,truck ,co4 #ejj ,winthrop ,harbor1 ,ill4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,vim ,motor ,truck ,co4 #ejj ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,signal ,motor ,truck ,co4 #ejj do4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,united ,motors ,co4 #ejj ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich4 ------------------- ,total #dc1jje #i1deb #g1fee ,packard ,b #c ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 #aj1ajf #d1hef #c1dgi ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,heavy aviation ,b do4 ,united ,motors ,co4 #bjj #ahh ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,federal ,motor ,truck ,co4 #a1jjj #a1jjj ,detroit ,mich4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,kelly-,springfield ,motor #b1bbe #a1gbe #b1aaj ,truck ,co4 ,springfield1 ,ohio ,do4 ,b do4 ,standard ,motor ,truck ,co4 #bej #ahf ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,b do4 ,velie ,motors ,corporation #a1jjj #gjj ,moline1 ,ill4 ,riker ,b #d ,locomobile ,co4 of ,america #c1fij #a1fij #a1cea ,bridgeport1 ,conn4 ,pierce-,arrow ,b #e ,pierce-,arrow ,motor ,car ,co4 #c1agj #a1igj #a1ffj ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mack ,b #e ,international ,motors ,co4 #e1ege #b1efc #a1cfe ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ------------------- ,total #bg1bafad1hgh #i1ife ,four-wheel ,,tt #b ,nash ,motors ,co4 #ad1fhd #h1aci drive ,kenosha1 ,wis4 ,do4 ,,tt do4 ,hudson ,motor ,car ,co4 #c1jjj #bai ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,,tt do4 ,national ,motor ,car #c1jjj #ie ,vehicle ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 #g1jcd ,do4 ,,tt do4 ,paige ,motor ,car ,co4 #c1jjj #ade ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,do4 ,w do4 ,nash ,motors ,co4 #ajj #ajj ,kenosha1 ,wis4 ,do4 ,w #c ,four-,wheel ,drive ,auto ,co4 #hjj #cfd ,clintonville1 ,wis4 ,do4 ,,tt do4 do4 do4 #g1aej #d1bcc ,do4 ,,tt do4 ,mitchell ,motors #e1jbc #hee ,corporation ,racine1 ,wis4 #d1gdh ,do4 ,,tt do4 ,premier ,motor ,co4 #d1ejj #a1cjg ,indianapolis1 ,ind4 ,do4 ,,tt do4 ,kissel ,motor ,car ,co4 #c1ejj #iig ,hartford1 ,wis4 ------------------- ,total #dd1gegaf1ded #aa1ghb ,cadillac1 ,p ,cadillac ,motor ,car ,co4 #a1jdc #bbb limousine ,detroit1 ,mich4 #a1ejc ,cadillac1 open ,p do4 do4 #b1igj #a1gcd ,dodge1 open ,p ,dodge ,bros ,co4 #h1eei #e1jfe #c1cij ,dodge1 ,winter ,p do4 do4 #c1bja #b1abf top ,ford2 touring ,p ,ford ,motor ,co4 #bj1bja #e1cgi #b1cdd do4 ------------------- ,total #ce1igdad1ebf #g1bcg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,key3 ,w - ,winch ,p - ,pass ,,motor ,,vehicles ,,for ,,domestic ,,distribution4 ,key3 7,a7 - ,class 7,b7 - ,capacity in tons 7,c7 - ,ordered to ,nov4 #a1 #aiah 7,d7 - ,completed to ,nov4 #a1 #aiah 7,e7 - ,completed to ,dec4 #a1 #aiah 7,f7 - ,total floated overseas ,p - ,passenger ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,name4 7,a7 7,b7 ,manufacturer4_/,address4 7,c7 7,d7 7,e7 7,f7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,commerce ,,aa #a ,commerce ,motor ,car ,co4 #a1edh #a1edh #a1edh #bgb ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,ford trucks ,ford ,motor ,co4 #b1did #b1dgd #b1dgd #a1ggb to #a do4 ------------------------- ,total #d1jdb #d1jbb #d1jbb #b1jdd ,white ,un- ,a #a ,the ,white ,co4 #cid #cid #cid #cbg standardized ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,kelly- ,a do4 ,kelly-,springfield #cef #af #af ,springfield ,motor ,co4 ,springfield1 ,ohio ,denby ,a do4 ,denby ,motor ,truck ,co4 #ejj #ahb ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,international ,a do4 ,international #a1abe #abe #dhe ,harvester ,co4 ,akron1 ,ohio ,miscellaneous ,a #a #idi #ide #idi #bbj to #b ,american ,wilson ,a #a ,j4 ,c4 ,wilson ,co4 #bjj #ge to #b ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,moreland ,a do4 ,moreland ,motor ,truck #he #dc #gf ,co4 ,los ,angeles1 ,cal4 ,miscellaneous ,a do4 #gh #gh #gh ,american ambulance ------------------------- ,total #c1fhg #a1fja #b1bee #edg ,white ,b #c ,the ,white ,co4 #cjf #cjf #cjf #bhj ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,peerless ,b do4 ,peerless ,motor ,car #che #che #fig #che do4 ,mack ,b #c ,international ,motors #cfh #cfh #cfh #bgh ,co4 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,velie ,b do4 ,velie ,motors #abe #bh ,corporation ,moline1 ,ill4 ,gramm- ,b do4 ,gramm-,bernstein #ajj #ff ,bernstein ,truck ,co4 ,lima1 ,ohio ,federal ,b do4 ,federal ,motor ,truck #ejj #he ,co4 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,standard ,b do4 ,standard ,motor ,truck #bhg #ce #hi ,co4 do4 ,selden ,b do4 ,selden ,motor ,truck ,co4 #aga #ga #aba #e ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,republic ,b do4 ,republic ,motor ,truck #bej ,co4 ,alma1 ,mich4 ,moreland ,b #d ,moreland ,motor ,truck #fj #dj ,co41 ,los ,angeles1 ,calif4 ,white ,b #e ,the ,white ,co4 #dh #dh #dh #cd ,cleveland1 ,ohio ,packard ,b do4 ,packard ,motor ,car ,co4 #fe #fj #fj #ag ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,hurlburt ,b do4 ,hurlburt ,motor ,truck #bjj ,co4 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,federal ,b do4 ,federal ,motor ,truck #cjj #ec ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,miscellaneous ,b #c to #bgh #bgh #bej #bji ,american #e ------------------------- ,total #c1ddc #a1eea #b1baa #a1bj ,dodge ,sedan ,p ,dodge ,bros4 #aj ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,dodge ,roadsterdo4 do4 do4 #eej #bb #age ,ford ,roadster do4 ,ford ,motor ,co4 #dce #ahe #ahf do4 ,ford ,closed do4 do4 do4 #af #af #af ,miscellaneous do4 #ieh #ieh #ieh ,american ------------------------- ,total #a1ifi #a1aha #a1cce ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,motorcycles1 ,,side ,,cars1 ,,and ,,bicycles4 ,the need of the ,army for motorcycles1 side cars1 and bicycles was so tremendous that for many months during the war practically the entire output of these vehicles of the kinds selected as being most suitable for ,army use was taken by the ,government4 ,it was found that the ,indian and ,harley-,davidson motorcycles were best adapted to meet the necessities of the ,expeditionary ,forces in ,france1 and these types were standardized for overseas shipment4 ,orders for a total of #ci1jgj ,indian motorcycles were placed with the manufacturers at ,springfield1 ,mass41 and before the end of #aiah1 #ah1jha of these had been delivered4 ,from the ,harley-,davidson manufacturers at ,milwaukee1 ,wis41 the ,government received #ad1fff machines of the total of #bf1dhg ordered before the end of #aiah4 ,in addition to the ,harley-,davidson and ,indian machines1 #a1ebf ,cleveland motorcycles1 made in ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 were contracted for1 and #a1dgf delivered previous to #aiai4 ,side-car equipment for the ,indian and ,harley-,davidson machines was bought in almost as great quantities as the motorcycles themselves4 ,in fact1 the demand for motorcycles and side cars from these two concerns was so great that they were working at #ajj-per-cent capacity for the ,government before the summer of #aiah4 ,the needs of the ,army for machines increased so steadily and the requirements were so vast that both the ,indian and ,harley-,davidson concerns had made large additions to their plants for meeting the ,government needs at the time the armistice was signed4 ,a standard military type of bicycle was turned out for the ,army by the ,westfield ,manufacturing ,co41 at ,westfield1 ,mass41 and other bicycles were ordered from the ,great ,western ,manufacturing ,co41 at ,laporte1 ,ind41 and the ,davis ,sewing ,machine ,co41 at ,dayton1 ,ohio4 ,motorcycles1 bicycles1 and side cars4 ,,motorcycles4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,ordered ,completed to-- ,name4 ,manufacturer4 ,address4 to ---------------- ,shipped ,nov4 #a1 ,nov4 #a1 ,dec4 #ca1overseas4 #aiah4 #aiah4 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,cleveland ,cleveland ,motors ,cleveland1 ,mfg4 ,co4 ,ohio #a1ebf #ghj #a1dgf #a1jjc ,harley- ,harley-,davidson ,milwaukee1 ,davidson ,motorcycle ,co4 ,wis4 #bf1dhe #ab1cgf #ad1fff ,springfield1 #bj1jjg ,indian ,hendee ,mfg4 ,co4 ,mass4 #ci1hgj #ad1jed #ah1jah --------------------------------- ,total #fg1hha #bg1baj #cd1afj #ba1jaj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,side ,,cars4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,harley- ,harley-,davidson ,milwaukee1 ,davidson ,motorcycle ,co4 ,wis4 #bf1jii #aa1icd #ad1ccb ,springfield1 #ai1afj ,indian ,hendee ,mfg4 ,co4 ,mass4 #ci1abd #ac1hfc #af1hjd --------------------------------- ,total #fe1bbc #be1gig #ca1acf #ai1afj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,bicycles4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,military ,westfield ,westfield1 ,standard ,mfg4 ,co4 ,mass4 #cf1jjb #ai1afd #bb1ejb ,do4 ,great ,western ,laporte1 ,mfg4 ,co4 ,ind4 #ae1gej #c1gej #bf1djg ,do4 ,davis ,sewing ,dayton1 ,machine ,co4 ,ohio #ae1gej #a1iib #c1beb --------------------------------- ,total #fg1ejb #ba1aef #bi1ejd #bf1djg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,horse ,,and ,,hand ,,drawn ,,vehicles4 ,it was early realized by ,army officers upon our entry in the war that procurement of horse-drawn vehicles for the ,army would require mobilization of practically the entire wagon-making industry of the ,nation4 ,consequently one of the first steps taken to provide the ,army with the necessary vehicles of this type was to call into conference representatives of the four largest manufacturing companies in the industry4 ,r4 ,v4 ,board1 of the ,kentucky ,wagon ,co42 ,a4 ,b4 ,thielens1 of the ,studebaker ,corporation of ,america2 ,e4 ,e4 ,parsonage1 of the ,john ,deere ,wagon ,co42 and ,r4 ,w4 ,lea1 of the ,moline ,plow ,co41 were named members of an advisory committee to assist the ,army in the procurement of vehicles4 ,our first requisition called for the manufacture of #cd1jjj escort wagons4 ,this order1 with the necessary spare parts for these vehicles meant the building of the equivalent of about #ej1jjj wagons4 ,at the beginning of the war the manufacture of vehicles from kiln-dried lumber was almost unknown1 as there had always been a sufficient amount of air-dried lumber on hand to meet every demand for farm-wagon construction4 ,our first order1 however1 practically used up all of the air-dried lumber then in existence in the country4 ,in order that dry lumber could be obtained in sufficient quantities to keep up with the demands for ,army vehicles1 the ,war ,department entered into an arrangement by which dry-kilns were built by contractors with the ,government defraying half of the cost1 the wagon manufacturer being reimbursed at the rate of #aj for each wagon produced1 or on a basis of #aj for each #ahe worth of spare parts fabricated4 ,despite the fact that ordinarily six months were required even with kiln-drying before a log was ready for fabrication into a vehicle1 all orders for the ,war ,department were filled on time and in accordance with the plans outlined4 ,to make this possible every manufacturer of the industry capable of turning out the class of vehicles desired did his part and did it so well that up to the signing of the armistice approximately #aaj1jjj horse-drawn or hand-drawn vehicles had been delivered1 of the total of #ahe1gbg for which contracts had been placed4 ,escort wagons formed the large bulk of the requirements at the start1 but as the war progressed1 the necessity was created for different designs of vehicles4 ,so from time to time there were designed drinking-water carts and wagons1 medical and ration carts1 combat wagons1 veterinary ambulances1 sprinkling wagons1 and various other types to meet special needs4 ,in the early spring of #aiah it was found that the wagon industry had about reached its limit so far as output was concerned1 and that1 if the war continued another year1 new sources of supply would have to be developed4 ,then it was that the furniture industry was called upon to produce spare parts for vehicles4 ,under the presidency of ,p4 ,b4 ,schravesande1 president of the ,grand ,rapids ,school ,equipment ,co41 the ,furniture and ,fixture and ,light-wood ,industry ,war ,service ,committee was organized to cooperate in arranging to have furniture makers enter the field of manufacture of spare parts4 ,it was arranged that the furniture manufacturers were to produce #ge per cent of the spare parts then requisitioned1 totaling in value about #h1jjj1jjj4 ,while the furniture industry was preparing its plants for the manufacture of these parts1 the wagon industry continued to manufacture #be per cent of the required parts in order to keep up a satisfactory flow4 ,when the armistice was signed practically all the furniture manufacturers had prepared to fill the spare-parts orders1 but none of them had reached quantity production4 ,automobile-wheel manufacturers were induced to turn out the immense quantity of wheels needed for escort wagons4 ,there were in all about #bej manufacturers of wagons1 wagon parts1 and wheels4 ,among the prominent wagon companies engaged in this work were3 ,bain ,wagon ,co41 ,oshkosh1 ,wis42 ,columbia ,wagon ,co41 ,columbia1 ,pa42 ,deere ,co41 ,moline1 ,ill42 ,emerson-,brantingham ,co41 ,rockford1 ,ill42 ,florence ,wagon ,co41 ,florence1 ,ala42 ,hackney ,wagon ,co41 ,wilson1 ,n4 ,c42 ,international ,harvester ,co41 ,memphis1 ,tenn42 ,moline ,plow ,co41 ,moline1 ,ill2 ,mogul ,wagon ,co41 ,hoskinsville1 ,ky42 ,owensboro ,wagon ,co41 ,owensboro1 ,ky42 ,pekin ,wagon ,co41 ,pekin1 ,ill42 ,peter ,schuttler ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill42 ,springfield ,wagon ,co41 ,springfield1 ,mo42 ,stoughton ,wagon ,co41 ,stoughton1 ,wis42 ,a4 ,streich ,bros4 ,co41 ,oshkosh1 ,wis42 ,thornhill ,wagon ,co41 ,lynchburg1 ,va42 ,tiffin ,wagon ,co41 ,tiffin1 ,ohio2 ,eagle ,wagon ,works1 ,auburn1 ,n4 ,y42 ,a4 ,a4 ,cooper ,wagon ,buggy ,co41 ,dubuque1 ,iowa2 ,winona ,wagon ,co41 ,winona1 ,minn42 ,white ,hickory ,wagon ,co41 ,atlanta1 ,ga42 ,kentucky ,wagon ,co41 ,louisville1 ,ky42 ,studebaker ,corporation1 ,south ,bend1 ,ind42 ,american ,car ,foundry ,co41 ,jeffersonville1 ,ind4 ,among the leading automobile-wheel manufacturers who were given contracts for escort-wagon wheels were the following3 ,mutual ,wheel ,co41 ,moline1 ,ill42 ,roger ,wheel ,co41 ,aurora1 ,ind42 ,crane ,mc,mahon 7,inc471 ,st4 ,marys1 ,ohio2 ,hayes ,wheel ,co41 ,jackson1 ,mich42 ,imperial ,wheel ,co41 ,flint1 ,mich42 ,kelsey ,wheel ,co41 ,detroit1 ,mich42 ,binnel ,spoke ,auto ,wheel ,co41 ,portland1 ,ind42 ,archibald ,wheel ,co41 ,lawrence1 ,mass42 ,chattanooga ,wagon ,co41 ,chattanooga1 ,tenn42 ,hoopes ,bros4 ,dalington 7,inc471 ,westchester1 ,pa42 ,prudden ,wheel ,co41 ,lansing1 ,mich42 ,standard ,wheel ,co41 ,terre ,haute1 ,ind42 ,avoca ,wheel ,co41 ,avoca1 ,n4 ,y42 ,new ,wapakoneta ,wheel ,co41 ,wapakoneta1 ,ohio2 ,piedmont ,wagon ,co41 ,hickory1 ,n4 ,c4 ,furniture factories that assumed contracts for making spare parts for horse-drawn vehicles included about #cj furniture manufacturers of ,rockford1 ,ill41 as well as the following3 ,grand ,rapids ,school ,equipment ,co41 ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich42 ,sherman ,bros4 ,co41 ,jamestown1 ,n4 ,y42 ,ramsey-,alton ,manufacturing ,co41 ,portland1 ,mich42 ,connersville ,furniture ,co41 ,connersville1 ,ind42 ,p4 ,derby ,co41 ,gardner1 ,mass42 ,ebert ,furniture ,co41 ,red ,lion1 ,pa42 ,s4 ,karpen ,bros41 ,chicago1 ,ill42 ,chas4 ,t4 ,lambert ,co41 ,holland1 ,mich42 ,the ,macey ,co41 ,grand ,rapids1 ,mich42 ,thos4 ,madden ,son ,co41 ,indianapolis1 ,ind42 ,sidney ,manufacturing ,co41 ,sidney1 ,ohio2 ,basic ,furniture ,co41 ,waynesboro1 ,va42 ,brecht ,co41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,production data for horse-drawn vehicles4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,number ,value of ,quantity ,quantity ,value of ordered orders4 delivered shipped quantity between up to overseas4 shipped ,apr4 #f1 ,nov4 #aa1 overseas4 #aiag1 and #aiah4 ,nov4 #aa1 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,commercial vehicles #aha1jggda1bdg1iaa #hi1jbd #bh1iahg1bdg1ebb ,spare parts #ci1fij1bee #b1eea1fdb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,total #aha1jgg #hj1ich1aff #hi1jbd #bh1iah #i1gii1afd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,the following table shows the principal items listed under commercial vehicles1 with the total number ordered1 value of the order1 and the total number delivered up to ,november #aa1 #aiah3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,value of ,value of ,item4 ,total number ,total number ordered4 ordered4 delivered4 delivered4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,wagons4 ,ambulance #c1cci #a1afh1fej #c1cai #a1afa1fej ,escort1 model ,a #a1jjj #bdb1jjj #a1jjj #bdb1jjj ,escort1 ,j-#aah #ajb1jgh #bj1dae1fjj #cg1fac #g1ebb1fjj ,combat #ae1ejj #g1gej1jjj #g1jii #c1edi1ejj ,drinking water #b1fhg #a1bfb1hij #b1fhg #a1bfb1hij ,mountain1 #c-seat #a1jjj #cjj1jjj #a1jjj #cjj1jjj ,sprinkling #a1jef #dif1cbj #a1jef #dif1cbj ,bottom1 dump #dcf #ga1idj #bee #db1jge ,milk #d #a1djj #d #a1djj ,buckboard #a1hei #bcb1cge #a1aee #add1cge ---------------------------------------- ------- ,total #abh1iei #ca1ida1age #ee1ahh #ad1gbb1haj ,carts4 ,drinking water #bb1jjj #f1jej1jjj #ad1gbi #d1jej1dge ,ration #ae1jjj #a1hge1jjj #aj1ahe #a1bgc1abe ,medical #e1ejj #hai1ejj #b1cej #cej1aej ,hand #g1cji #baa1ifa #d1fjg #acc1jjc ,dump #a1ahc #aah1cjj #a1jcg #ajc1gjj ,sanitary #a1jji #bja1hjj #haa #afb1bjj ,veterinary ambulance #hj #bj1jjj #hj #bj1jjj ,disinfecting spray #cg #aj1age #cg #aj1age ---------------------------------------- ------- ,total #eb1aah #i1cjf1gcf #cc1hcf #f1ajc1dbh ,grand total #da1bdg1iaa #bj1hbf1bch ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,this table shows the total number of horse-drawn vehicles sent overseas during the war2 also the value of these shipments and the unit prices4 ,horse-drawn vehicles4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,items shipped4 ,article4 ,unit4 ,number4----------------- ,unit ,total value4 value4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,ambulances ,each #ejg #cej #agg1dej ,escort wagons do4 #ae1igi #bcj #c1fge1agj ,combat wagons do4 #b1fgb #ejj #a1ccf1jjj ,spring wagons do4 #adg #bce #cd1ede ,water carts do4 #e1cad #bge #a1dfa1cej ,ration carts do4 #c1bca #abe #djc1hge ,medical carts do4 #a1jfh #adi #aei1acb ---------- ,total #g1bdg1ebb ---------------------------------------- ------ ,,chapter ,v4 ,,medical ,,and ,,dental ,,supplies4 ,lest it be thought that the ,american ,army was dependent in any way for its hospital facilities and surgical supplies upon private contributions1 it may be said that the ,government during the period between ,april #f1 #aiag1 and ,november #aa1 #aiah1 placed contracts for medical supplies amounting to #dbd1gfa1jca4 ,contract cancellations after the armistice was signed amounted to #ef1jjj1jjj4 ,the remaining #cgj1jjj1jjj approximately represents the cost to the ,united ,states of medicine1 surgical instruments and dressings1 ambulances1 hospital furniture1 equipment and supplies1 and dental and veterinary supplies for the war4 ,this was considerably more money than was contributed by the ,american people to the ,american ,red ,cross1 a great part of whose funds went to the relief of civilian populations in ,europe1 or to any other war charity4 ,thus it will be seen that the ,government with billions of dollars to spend could well afford the few hundreds of millions necessary to give the ,american soldiers who needed it the best possible hospital attention4 ,it accepted the gifts of this sort1 ranging from gauze bandages to fully equipped motor ambulances1 as the offerings of the people whose hearts overflowed with love and gratitude to the ,american soldiers and took this means of showing their concern2 but the ,government in no sense was dependent upon these donations4 ,before #aiad four-fifths of all surgical instruments used in the ,united ,states were imported from ,germany4 ,this country1 too1 was practically dependent upon ,germany for many of its most important medicines1 including the potassium salts and such drugs as digitalin1 salvarsan1 atropin1 etc4 ,while in a way we had been developing substitute sources of supply in the ,united ,states for these indispensable commodities in the months between the outbreak of the great war and the date of our participation in it1 the raising of a vast army and the project to send this army to the bloody battle fields of ,france created an ,american demand for medicines and surgical instruments beyond anything ever known in the ,united ,states4 ,yet1 through the cooperation of manufacturers and the officers of the ,medical ,department's general purchasing office1 which was on ,november #ae1 #aiah1 incorporated in the office of the ,director of ,purchase and ,storage1 sufficient supplies were developed1 not only of medicine but of surgical instruments4 ,the development of the production of medicines for the use of troops in the field was particularly notable4 ,the important drug1 salvarsan1 used in the treatment of syphilis1 was a patented formula and had been furnished formerly by a single ,german manufacturer4 ,in this country we produced arsphenamine as a substitute1 gradually increasing the supply and constantly improving the drug until at length its toxicity had been so reduced that it equaled or even excelled the ,german product4 ,the facilities of the ,american drug and tablet manufacturers were taxed to the utmost to supply the ,army4 ,for example1 during the year #aiah a total of #df1jjj1jjj quinine tablets was produced1 while #agb1jjj1jjj aspirin tablets were manufactured during the same period1 and #hce1jjj pounds of calomel ointment1 #de1jjj1jjj iodine swabs1 #aj1bej1jjj tins of foot powder1 and #cjj1jjj1jjj tubes of iodine-potassium4 ,all other items of medicines1 antiseptics1 and disinfectants1 required by the ,medical ,department1 were increased in proportion4 ,this production not only strained the facilities of the manufacturers of chemicals and drugs but also called upon the glassware manufacturers for the necessary bottles and tubes in which to pack these medicines satisfactorily4 ,here again was an effort that required close cooperation between the trade and the ,medical ,department in order to meet the demand4 ,when it became evident that a declaration of war against ,germany was imminent1 the ,medical ,department proceeded to analyze the country's resources of medical supplies4 ,these resources were to a large extent limited4 ,the ,allied nations had been making heavy and constant demands for these materials1 so much so that even the mobilization of such a relatively small number of troops as were centered along the ,mexican ,border put a severe burden upon the medical supply facilities of the country4 ,the ,council of ,national ,defense took up the medical supplies problem at the outset4 ,the various manufacturers sent their representatives to consult with the ,surgeon ,general1 and committees on surgical instruments1 surgical dressings1 medicines1 and other important supplies were formed4 ,these committees allocated among the various manufacturers the first emergency orders for these materials4 ,the result was that the base hospitals at the #cb mobilization camps in #aiag were equipped in an amazingly short time4 ,the ,new ,york ,medical ,supply ,depot1 which was then the largest purchasing agent1 was called upon to supply #ejj hospital beds each to #bb of the camps4 ,this work was handled so rapidly that in some cases the shipments had to be held back to wait for the completion of the hospital buildings4 ,perhaps the most difficult task was to determine what quantities of medical supplies would be needed for a given period4 ,it is a comparatively simple matter to estimate the quantity of clothing necessary for a certain number of troops1 or to figure what food they will require2 but it is not possible to forecast the number of men who will be sick at a given camp at a specified time1 nor is it possible to foretell the nature of diseases or injuries4 ,an epidemic of measles or mumps requires different treatment than an epidemic of influenza1 and makes necessary the use of a different variety of medical supplies4 ,experience sheets of supplies actually used in the past formed the basis of our requirements schedules4 ,eventually there was worked out a system of supply based on the initial requirements of the unit of #be1jjj men in the ,expeditionary ,forces and the automatic supply of replenishment of this equipment4 ,in this system use was made of the knowledge and experience obtained by the ,british and ,french medical forces during their nearly three years of warfare before ,america went in4 ,the following statement of estimated expenditures for the fiscal year #aibj illustrates the difference in the medical requirements of an army of #ejj1jjj men under peace conditions and an army of #e1jjj1jjj men in a war such as the recent one3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,peace--#ejj1jjj,war--#e1jjj1jjj men4 men4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,surgical dressings #c1jei1ebe #aba1bcj1ibd ,textiles1 hospital supplies #hhj1abd #gj1fhb1fgc ,miscellaneous hospital supplies #bcj1dgg #ab1fbf1hdh ,medicines1 etc #a1ifi1ija #ah1dca1fad ,hospital furniture and equipment #ejj1jjj #af1fjj1ahd ,surgical instruments #bjj1jjj #cd1gbg1hfc ,dental instruments1 equipment1 and supplies #aej1jjj #f1bef1dhb ,x-ray1 equipment1 and supplies #bjj1jjj #e1jjd1ijj ,field supplies #cjj1jjj #c1fjd1fie ,veterinary #gja1fib #f1fef1hid ,laboratory #heb1fgc #g1heh1jjd ,stationery #aei1ahc #b1bbh1fcd ---------------------------- ,total #i1bjc1ege #cje1iji1gae ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,civilian experts in various lines of medical supplies were brought into the organization to supply the wide range of specialized knowledge required in such a universal buying program as the ,medical ,department was about to conduct4 ,before the war the ,army's purchases of instruments for oral and brain surgery1 orthopedic supplies1 ,dakin outfits1 and other special apparatus were practically negligible4 ,during the war period these purchases amounted to millions of dollars4 ,it may be seen readily that the purchasing office had to possess more than a superficial understanding of the materials to be bought4 ,orders customarily went to the lowest bidders1 with a careful review in ,washington of all prices named in contracts4 ,the inspection of material was an important phase of the work4 ,this inspection was handled through the ,new ,york ,medical ,supply ,depot1 which called in as assistants the ,united ,states ,board of ,customs ,appraisers at ,new ,york ,city4 ,that corps of men had had long years of experience in inspecting and determining the value of surgical supplies1 as most of these supplies in the past had come through the customhouse from foreign countries4 ,the inspection of drugs was handled by the ,medical ,department's laboratories1 the ,army ,medical ,school1 and by the ,bureau of ,standards1 which rendered valuable assistance in examining and testing samples4 ,in addition the ,medical ,department maintained a corps of inspectors to travel from one factory to another1 keeping in close touch with the progress and assisting in procuring raw materials and expediting deliveries4 ,the medical supplies were divided under the following classifications3 7a7 ,hospital equipment1 such as beds1 bedside tables1 enamelware1 etc4 7b7 ,surgical dressings4 7c7 ,surgical instruments4 7d7 ,medicines1 antiseptics1 and disinfectants4 7e7 ,field supplies 7chests and units for extended field service74 7f7 ,dental supplies4 7g7 ,veterinary supplies4 7h7 ,laboratory supplies4 7i7 ,motor ambulance supplies4 7j7 ,x-ray supplies4 ,the ,new ,york depot was intrusted with the purchase of miscellaneous hospital equipment and dental and ,x-ray supplies4 ,the ,st4 ,louis depot purchased the veterinary supplies1 and the field medical supply depot at ,washington purchased the laboratory and field supplies4 ,the motor ambulance supply depot1 established at ,louisville1 ,ky41 purchased ambulances and ambulance spare parts4 ,appreciating the necessity for a certain amount of cooperation where the purchase of conflicting articles by the various depots was concerned1 the general purchasing office of the ,medical ,department was organized at ,washington4 ,this purchasing office bought all surgical dressings1 surgical instruments1 and medicines and such items as were used in the field1 post1 veterinary1 and dental stations4 ,in connection with the production of surgical instruments in this country it was necessary for the ,medical ,department to educate in the manufacture of these instruments certain concerns which had been engaged in the production of similar devices4 ,men skilled in the manufacture of instruments1 with long years of experience1 were sent to these factories to work out with the forces there satisfactory processes4 ,it was necessary to recruit toolmakers1 jewelers1 and cutlery manufacturers in order to build up a sufficient supply of forged and finished instruments4 ,surgical needles1 for instance1 had never been made in this country1 but had all been obtained in ,england4 ,as a war measure the ,british ,government placed this item on its list of restricted exports4 ,after long and continued effort the general purchasing office developed ,american sources of supply of needles with remarkable success4 ,in one month we shipped #fe tons of surgical instruments to ,france4 ,a few of the principal instruments1 quantities purchased1 and the prices paid were as follows3 ,average cost1 each4 #a1cja1dgf hmostatic forceps #a4jd #bhd1fjj tissue forceps 4#ei #cdh1ejj minor operating knives 4#eg #bbe1jjj probes 4#jdg #cji1edh surgical scissors 4#gda #b1ajb general operating cases #aei4ee #c1djj small operating cases #de4cj #aj1jjj instrument cases for officers' belts #e4bh #cjj1jjj enlisted men's belt cases #a4ce ,each general operating case contains more than #ej instruments and the small operating case more than #cj instruments1 and in these two items alone are more than #bjg1jjj forgings1 practically all handwork4 ,the quantity of surgical dressings used in peace times was relatively small1 so that the sources for supplying this material had to be increased enormously4 ,to do this the ,government went out into the cotton goods industry and induced such concerns as curtain makers and manufacturers of waists and white goods to make bandages for surgical uses4 ,the ,government obtained the raw material1 gray gauze1 and turned it over to the various manufacturers for bleaching1 cutting1 sterilizing1 and packing in the necessary cartons4 ,among other items during the last year of the war a total of #ab1jjj1jjj individual dressing packets were purchased and #gie1jjj boxes of gauze bandages1 #egd1djj1jjj yards of bandage1 #aj1jjj1jjj first-aid packets1 and #ajh1jjj1jjj yards of gauze4 ,during the same period a total quantity of #c1had1jjj pounds of absorbent cotton was also bought4 ,among the miscellaneous items obtained were approximately #a1fjj1jjj blankets1 #beh1jjj litters1 and over #a1jjj1jjj clinical thermometers4 ,the rate of output of clinical thermometers was not all that the ,medical ,department thought it should be1 and as a result a large quantity of thermometers was obtained on mandatory orders4 ,the heaviest buying period during the war was between ,july #a and ,november #cj1 #aiah4 ,the supplies purchased or ordered in that period were the following1 with their costs3 ,medicines1 antiseptics1 and disinfectants #ai1gbh1gae ,hospital furniture and equipment #h1bbj1big ,hospital supplies1 textiles #fi1cba1ghg ,hospital supplies1 miscellaneous #a1hjh1dfe ,surgical instruments #f1egf1bch ,surgical dressings #ge1gfb1chc ,x-ray equipment and supplies #b1dff1jhi ,dental equipment and supplies #d1icb1agh ,laboratory equipment and supplies #b1cja1fhc ,veterinary equipment and supplies #c1beh1aai ,motor ambulances and supplies #be1fbe1jjj ,it is interesting to note that the purchases made in ,france for the ,medical ,department consisted mostly of large and bulky items1 mainly hospital furniture and equipment1 which1 if transported from the ,united ,states1 would necessitate the use of considerable valuable cargo space4 ,foreign purchases were made primarily to save ship space and not because of any shortage or failure to function in this country4 ,although ,america is famous throughout the world for her dentists and dentistry1 yet the participation of this country in the war created a demand for dental supplies that the ,american manufacturing facilities in existence in #aiag were unable to fill4 ,for that reason it was necessary to extend the production capacity4 ,the manufacturers in the trade rose to the occasion1 and as a result the ,government was able to supply to the ,a4 ,e4 ,f4 from the ,united ,states all dental materials required1 the only purchases made in ,france being of exceedingly bulky apparatus4 ,the total amount allotted for dental supplies for an army of #e1jjj1jjj men in #aiai was #f1bef1dhb4 ,during the five months between ,july #a and ,november #cj1 #aiah1 the dental purchases amounted to approximately #e1jjj1jjj4 ,the six leading dental items purchased by the ,medical ,department and the quantity and cost of each were as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,items4 ,quantity4 ,cost1 each4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,tooth-extracting forceps #dg1cai #b4hf ,dental ,chairs3 ,hospital ,equipment #a1aab #afg4jf ,portable #c1bjj #di4jj ,lathes3 ,unique #aaj #aj4jj ,electric #gj #dc4if ,fountain cuspidors #a1bec #cb4ea ,burs #c1hcf1ggf 4#jha ,engines3 ,portable #a1gij #fc4jj ,electric #had #abb4hj ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,salvage4 ,tables of statistics are apt to be tiresome affairs2 but in the annals of the ,war ,department1 as part of the record of the ,american ,army in the great war1 there is a table of statistics that is replete with human interest4 ,this is the table which depicts the activities of the salvage operations of the ,army1 both at home and abroad4 ,until the war came to ,america and brought to us the necessity of being provident1 thrift and economy could not be called characteristic ,american qualities4 ,as virtues in the individual we were apt to despise them4 ,paris can live on what ,new ,york throws away1 runs the old saying4 ,for the prudent man we invented opprobrious names4 ,such names and phrases were but the surface outcroppings of a national tendency to be wasteful4 ,but the war came along to put a stop to waste and to raise thrift high in the esteem of ,america4 ,partly because of the mounting prices of food and clothing and partly because of well-organized and well-conducted propaganda on the part of various agencies of the ,government1 chief among them being the ,united ,states ,food ,administration and the ,liberty ,bond and ,war ,saving ,stamp organizations of the ,treasury ,department1 ,america began to practice economy in the use of materials4 ,how much of the credit for the change can be claimed by the ,government itself we may never know2 but this may be said--in urging the people to save materials in their own homes1 the ,government did not1 as it had done in previous wars1 allow the traditional wastes of military campaigns4 ,the ,government practiced what it preached4 ,it cleaned up its own back yard and utilized every scrap of useful material4 ,it mended the shoes and clothing of the ,army2 it darned the socks2 it tinkered the tin cans2 it starved the garbage pails by economy in the mess kitchens and recovered the valuable components of garbage at rendering plants2 it collected the junk2 it swept the stables and put the manure on the land1 and then produced crops from the increased fertility4 ,all of these adventures in conservation and reclamation were known to the ,army simply as ,salvage2 which after all was but the scientific attention which the ,army paid to the p's and q's of military housekeeping--it was household economy on the scale of a family of #c1ejj1jjj members4 ,the figures of the ,army's thrift are most impressive4 ,the figures of our war salvage are as follows3 ,financial summary of the activities of the salvage service in ,france for #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,depots and shops4 ,kitchen economics branch4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,month4 ,value of output4 ,month4 ,recoveries4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,january ,no record ,may #a1cej4fe ,february ,no record ,june #ag1hha4jc ,march #hej1jjj4jj ,july #gd1afg4ca ,april #ijj1jjj4jj ,august #bc1eha4bj ,may #a1ejj1jjj4jj ,september #ce1fgg4jc ,june #b1jjj1jjj4jj ,october #aji1jac4hd ,july #c1ejj1jjj4jj ,november #abj1aeh4fc ,august #e1ejj1jjj4jj ,december #ib1fhe4dc ,september #g1bea1eab4dj -------------- ,october #h1jjg1ihj4ci ,total #dgd1eae4ab ,november #h1jgb1jdb4jh ,december #i1dcf1hci4ad ------------------- ,total #dg1jah1cgd4ja ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,battle-field recoveries4 ,october #h1jjj1jjj4jj ,november #d1jjj1jjj4jj ,december #c1ajj1jjj4jj ------------- ,total #ae1ajj1jjj4jj ,capitulation of salvage activities in ,france for year #aiah4 ,value of output1 depots and shops #dg1jah1cgd4ja ,battle-field recoveries #ae1ajj1jjj4jj ,kitchen economies #dgd1eae4ab ,waste sales #ci1fhj4bc ,rubber salvaged1 #a1eia1ehe pounds1 at estimated value of #aj cents per pound #aei1aef4ej ,wool cloth shipped to ,british1 #cei1ibj pounds1 at estimated value of #bj cents per pound #ga1ihd4jj ,lumber salvaged1 #a1gcg1idj board feet #fi1jbe4bj -------------- ,total #fb1icb1gce4jf ,financial summary of the activities of the salvage service in the ,united ,state from ,apr4 #a to ,dec4 #ca1 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,estimated ,estimated ,activity4 ,total cost value ,estimated net articles4 of service4 reclaimed saving4 articles4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,clothing1 shoe1 and hat repair #ab1fce1dehg1ajc1idj4jj #cg1fcb1aeh4jecj1ebh1bah4je ,cot repair #dhf1hib #ggi1jbg4bj #a1geb1haa4bj #igc1ghd4jj ,canvas repair #abb1dhj #faa1ijj4jj #c1jbc1dah4gi #b1daa1eah4gi ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,total #cc1iac1ebj4hd ,dry-cleaning operations #d1fhf1dae #b1bdg1bib4eb #ceaff1bcc4bi ,government laundry operations #gb1bfc1ifd #a1hhh1hbc4iccfc1aae1hdg4ca #a1bbg1jbc4ch ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,grand total #ce1cjf1ggg4ea ,,disposition ,,of ,,waste ,,material ,estimated value of material turned over to organisations #ida1gji4jj ,cash sales3 ,scrap material from ,june #a to ,dec4 #ca #a1aid1cie4ja ,garbage1 ,may #a to ,dec #ca #dad1hcb4fj ,dead animals1 ,may #a to ,dec4 #ca #g1jdc4ia ,manure1 ,may #a to ,dec4 #ca #bbe1bbg4bi ,condemned hay1 straw1 etc41 ,may #a to #ej1aeh4ib ,dec4 #ca -------------- ,total #a1hia1feg4gc ,farm products invoiced to quartermaster1 ,may #a to ,dec4 #ca #ajg1bga4gi -------------- ,estimated net saving to ,government #ch1bdg1daf4jc ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #ce ,on articles dry cleaned in ,government shops4 #cf ,receipts and operating credits4 ,a consolidation of these figures shows that the total amount returned to the ,government in money value by the savings of the salvage service of the ,army for the single calendar year of #aiah was #aja1ahj1aea4 ,with this figure some interesting comparisons may be made4 ,in #aiab1 to meet every expense of the ,american standing ,army1 ,congress appropriated #ii1fgf1gfg4dc2 in #aiac the appropriations were #ajj1bib1hee4jd4 ,salvage1 reclaiming the materials once wasted and using them over again1 saved enough in #aiah to have maintained the entire ,military ,establishment in #aiab or #aiac4 ,but there is even a more striking comparison4 ,during the fiscal year of #ahih--the ,spanish-,american ,war year--the entire appropriations for the support of the ,army amounted to #gj1cid1gci4if4 ,salvage in #aiah saved #cj1jjj1jjj more than was appropriated to fight the ,spanish-,american ,war up to ,july #a1 #ahih1 at which date the fighting was nearly over4 ,take the cost of clothing the ,army raised to fight against ,spain1 and add to it the appropriations for clothing the ,army and equipping it with shoes1 leather and rubber goods1 and textile equipment for the years #aiac1 #aiad1 #aiae1 #aiaf1 and #aiag1 and you have a total ,government expenditure of #ajj1jej1bga4fe4 ,the savings of salvage in #aiah could pay this entire cost with #a1abi1hhj to spare4 ,it cost #bj1bhj1jjj for the clothing and equipage of the ,army for the year ending ,june #cj1 #aiag1 at which date the war with ,germany had begun4 ,salvage in the ,united ,states alone in #aiah saved to the ,government #ag1ifg1daf more than this appropriation4 ,salvage undertakings touched intimately every soldier in the ,army4 ,this service which taught economy in the use of materials could with equal facility operate a laundry or dry-cleaning plant1 or run a farm1 or drive a good bargain in the sale of junk1 or return goods that did not meet specifications and be reimbursed for them4 ,wherever the experts of the service saw a leak through which the ,government's money might flow out1 they plugged it4 ,an innovation in warfare as we knew it1 it had to fight its way against prejudice at the start1 but it developed what formerly was waste and a liability into a tremendous asset4 ,yet when the armistice came salvage had only commenced to show its possibilities4 ,it had merely scratched the surface1 but it had opened up unlimited fields for utilizing worn-out or unserviceable products or by-products of war4 ,it had saved thousands of tons of shipping space in the transportation of supplies to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces by using over again in ,france the things that otherwise would have had to be replaced by new2 it saved this tonnage at the time when every ton saved counted heavily4 ,in this and in the saving of materials at a time when all the raw materials of the earth would scarcely meet the insatiable demands of ,moloch1 the value of salvage can scarcely be measured by the money figures of its record4 ,,salvage ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,war salvage in the ,united ,states started on ,october #e1 #aiag1 when the conservation branch was created in the ,quartermaster ,department4 ,it started with an executive force of two commissioned officers and one stenographer4 ,when the armistice was signed about #ac months later1 the salvage service in the ,united ,states alone had a force of approximately #ejj commissioned officers1 #bj1jjj enlisted men1 and #b1jjj civilian employees4 ,in this period the method of clothing and feeding the ,american soldier had been revolutionized4 ,the old way was to issue a uniform to a soldier and hold him responsible for the repair and cleaning of it4 ,he owned his uniform and had to keep it in good condition at his own expense out of the #ae per month the ,government paid him4 ,the new way was for the ,government itself to retain ownership of the uniform and to repair and clean it at public expense4 ,the soldier was required to pay only for his laundry work at a uniform charge of #a per month1 much under what he would have had to pay at commercial rates4 ,formerly the soldier had to repair his own shoes4 ,the soldier prefers repaired shoes to new ones for campaign service because the former are broken in and are comfortable4 ,after the salvage service was established the ,government retained ownership of ,army shoes and repaired them at ,government expense4 ,once the ,army seldom conducted sales of the boxes and crates in which supplies were packed4 ,salvage undertook such sales1 thereby bringing considerable revenue to the ,army4 ,but in these and similar economies1 it was not so much the saving of money that was important as it was the saving of materials at a time when the supply of all materials was scarcely adequate to the war demands4 ,when our troops first reached ,france the officers were surprised at the emphasis placed upon salvage operations by the ,british and ,french armies4 ,they were soon to learn that salvage was stressed because it supplied materials which were scarce4 ,glycerine1 a component of high explosives1 had become so short in supply that the ,british ,ministry of ,munitions paid as much as #a1bej a ton for it4 ,the ,british army distilled its garbage and procured from the operation glycerine at a cost of #bej per ton4 ,this was a financial saving of #a1jjj a ton2 but1 more important1 it supplied glycerine at the time when money did not count4 ,the ,british ,ministry of ,munitions got the glycerine1 which meant explosives for use against the ,germans1 which was the main thing4 ,the ,british appreciated the importance of salvage so much that one of the officers sent with the ,british mission to the ,united ,states early in the war was a salvage expert1 included in the mission so that we might early have the benefit of the ,british experience in this work4 ,although the salvage service of ,america was authorized in the autumn of #aiag1 it was not until winter was declining into the spring of #aiah that the service became a working organization fully clothed with authority4 ,consequently its record was accomplished within a period of #i or #aj months4 ,the purpose and ideals of the service were embodied in its code1 known as special regulations ,no4 #gg1 promulgating rules and regulations for the conservation and reclamation of ,army supplies and materials4 ,the principal provisions of these regulations were as follows3 7a7 ,the repair of clothing and equipage4 7b7 ,laundering and dry cleaning of clothing and equipage4 7c7 ,supervision of contracts for the renovation of clothing and equipage4 7d7 ,the development of agricultural1 mineral1 and forest lands for the benefit of the ,army4 7e7 ,the organization1 discipline1 and training of men of special units1 companies1 battalions1 and regiments for salvage work4 ,these regulations likewise-- 7a7 ,created salvage companies of #g officers and #ehh enlisted men each1 based on a camp strength of #bg1jjj troops where all salvage utilities exist4 7b7 ,provided methods of receiving and disposing of clothing and equipage turned in for renovation4 7c7 ,provided methods for the conservation of food and the reduction of waste through a systematic check on the disposal of garbage4 7d7 ,fixed the responsibility of organization in connection with salvage work4 7e7 ,provided definite rules and instructions to be followed by organization commanders and their commands in the care of clothing and equipage in order that the cost of maintenance might be reduced to a minimum and that usefulness might be conserved to the utmost1 consistent with the health and well being of the troops4 7f7 ,provided a basis for the operation and financing of camp laundries and dry-cleaning plants operated in connection with base salvage plants4 7g7 ,provided a uniform monthly laundry charge of #a per enlisted man at each camp and station where there was a ,government-operated laundry1 as well as a uniform charge for service rendered to officers1 civilians1 hospitals1 and other camp agencies4 ,thus it may be seen that special regulations ,no4 #gg were not only a charter for the salvage service but a code of conduct in economy and thrift for the soldier of the ,american ,army4 ,although the regulations did not become official until midsummer of #aiah1 they had a profound effect in the few months before the fighting in ,europe came to an end4 ,prior to ,july #a1 #aiah1 all reports of garbage collection1 etc41 in the military camps in this country indicated that the ,american soldier in training wasted on the average of #b pounds of food per day4 ,this was not excessive1 judged by civilian standards1 since our large cities1 a great part of whose population are fed not nearly so well as soldiers were fed in the camps1 show a food waste nearly as great4 ,but the camp waste of food was regarded as excessive by the salvage officers4 ,special regulations ,no4 #gg contained minute directions for conserving food in the camp kitchens4 ,the result of these regulations was that in the four-month period beginning ,july #a1 #aiah1 the average mess waste per man in the camps fell to #j4c of a pound per day4 ,since there was an average strength of #a1ejj1jjj men in training during these four months1 the reduction of waste amounted to many thousands of tons of food4 ,these regulations also set up a salvage equipment for the use of the ,army4 ,as a rule each camp had a shoe-repair shop large enough to fix #djj to #ejj pairs of shoes per day2 a clothing-repair shop large enough to take care of the everyday mending of #cj1jjj troops2 a hat-repair shop sufficient in size to restore the headgear of #cj1jjj men2 and other miscellaneous shops4 ,but at the change of seasons there could be expected an exceptionally large turn in of worn-out clothing1 and to handle these periodical floods of garments large base salvage plants were established at ,fort ,sam ,houston1 ,tex42 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,atlanta1 ,ga42 ,new ,york ,city2 ,philadelphia2 ,el ,paso2 and ,newport ,news1 ,va42 with a base salvage plant for rejuvenating shoes at ,jeffersonville1 ,ind4 ,smaller base plants were established at ,chicago1 ,new ,orleans1 ,san ,francisco1 and at the ,united ,states ,disciplinary ,barracks at ,fort ,leavenworth1 ,kans41 and at ,alcatraz ,island1 ,calif4 ,other base plants to receive and classify and dispose of waste materials were established at ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 ,chicago1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,fort ,sam ,houston1 and ,atlanta4 ,the shoe-salvage base plant at ,jeffersonville ,depot was more than a repair shop in the accepted sense of the term1 for it became one of the most complete shoe factories to be found anywhere in the country4 ,when this shop was being projected as a plant to take care of the overflow of worn shoes from the camps and depots1 the ,united ,shoe ,machinery ,co4 agreed to furnish machinery sufficient to repair #b1jjj pairs of shoes a day1 supplying this equipment for a period of six months without any expense to the ,government1 except upkeep and the cost of supplies4 ,at the ,jeffersonville shop shoes went through the mill from department to department much as machines are assembled in the familiar quantity-production manner4 ,shoes arriving were first counted1 and then sorted and graded as follows3 ,class #a4 ,unrepairable4 ,class #b4 ,inner soles required4 ,class #c4 ,regular run of repairs 7half soles or full soles1 heels1 patching of uppers1 and other minor repairs74 ,class #d4 ,civilian4 ,the shoes arriving at this plant were in a condition that would have resulted in their being discarded altogether in the old days4 ,the experience at ,jeffersonville showed that #fe of each #ajj pairs arriving at the factory could be repaired1 and repaired cheaply4 ,in ,january1 #aiai1 of #acb1aab pairs of shoes sorted1 #de1jjj were in irreparable condition and had to be thrown away4 ,there were #aa1dge pairs of class #b shoes1 #gd1cfb pairs of class #c1 and #a1age pairs of class #d4 ,from the sorting room the shoes went to the wash room1 where they were disinfected and cleaned in a bath containing a solution of #dj ounces of formaldehyde and #a pound of castile soap to each #aj gallons of water4 ,after being washed the shoes were placed on rolling racks1 each rack holding #bd pairs of the same size and width4 ,the loaded racks were wheeled to the lasting section where lasts were inserted according to sizes4 ,next1 machines cut off the worn portions of the old heels1 after which the shoes went to the stripping bench1 where the old soles were removed and the shank pieces skived to prepare a smooth joint for the new half sole4 ,the next process was welting4 ,the welts were prepared1 and tarred felt was glued to the old inner sole to fill out uneven parts and prevent squeaking4 ,the next operation was to lay on the half sole in a setting of rubber cement4 ,another machine rough rounded the soles to conform with the shape of the shoes4 ,then the shoes reached the stitching machines1 where the soles were sewed on1 and then the leveling machines1 which smoothed out the wrinkles of the inner soles4 ,the next step brought them to the heeling machines1 where the complete heels were attached in one motion4 ,next1 machinery for nailing soles and heels1 and then the trimming machinery for smoothing off the work4 ,the final mechanical operation was on the scouring and finishing machines4 ,meanwhile1 if the shoes needed patching on the uppers1 this work was done by women operating sewing machines4 ,the final process was to give the field shoe a thorough coat of waterproof dubbin4 ,a good polish was put on the russet shoes4 ,a split leather insole was inserted in each shoe to insure perfect smoothness of the bottom4 ,a pair of laces was tied to each pair of shoes1 and then the shoes were packed in boxes of #bd pairs each and turned in to the ,army stores4 ,the ,jeffersonville shop repaired #bbb1ace pairs of shoes in seven months of operation4 ,thousands of pairs of shoes were discovered to have been fitted too short4 ,this was shown by the fact that many of the shoes were worn out entirely in the toes4 ,a shoe that is too long will turn up at the toes1 while one that is too short will stub with nearly every step taken4 ,on ,august #h1 #aiah1 the ,secretary of ,war authorized the expenditure of #e1bhg1heb for the construction of laundries to serve from #bj1jjj to #dj1jjj men in each of #bj camps and posts4 ,about this same time repair shops were authorized at each of the training camps and special dry-cleaning plants at ,atlanta1 ,fort ,sam ,houston1 ,el ,paso1 and ,alcatraz ,island4 ,before the armistice was signed many of these plants were in operation4 ,in addition to these the salvage service eventually operated printing plants1 wagon repair shops1 and carpentry shops1 so that at the time the armistice was signed there was hardly anything of quartermaster issue not subject to rehabilitation by the salvage division4 ,each shoe-repair shop at the training camps had equipment sufficient to repair #ejj pairs of shoes per day1 utilizing the services of #dj to #ej men4 ,when the shops were officially authorized1 an inventory of the ,army's old shoes showed there were approximately #a1ejj1jjj pairs on hand in need of rehabilitation4 ,in order to assist the camp shops in the work1 the salvage service brought between #ej and #ee shoe factories into the reclamation effort1 these private factories repairing about #ejj1jjj pairs until the camp shops were able to catch up4 ,because of the shortage of linen thread it was decided to use nails for attaching half soles1 particularly in the repair shops in ,france4 ,more than #b1ejj nailing machines were bought and shipped to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces adopted the ,english system of company cobblers and regimental repair shops4 ,upward of #aa1jjj cobblers' kits were shipped to ,france4 ,in ,july1 #aiah1 the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces requested machinery for a base shoe-repair plant in ,france4 ,this machinery was shipped considerably before hostilities ceased4 ,the service maintained a corps of civilian instructors1 who traveled from camp to camp and improved the efficiency of the ,army cobbling4 ,the accumulation of worn shoes at the embarkation camps was sent to various contractors for repairs4 ,by ,november1 #aiah1 the shoe-repair facilities of the ,army had reached full operation1 #ejj1jjj pairs of shoes being repaired that month1 a figure representing all the repairing required by #a1ejj1jjj men4 ,all shoe-repairing activities were under the direction of ,philip ,h4 ,fraher1 who was assisted by ,joseph ,caunt1 of ,pasadena1 ,calif41 a retired shoe manufacturer with a wide experience both in this country and in ,england4 ,in its clothing-repair activities the salvage service dry-cleaned uniforms and woolen equipment1 repaired and renovated hats1 and reclaimed outer clothing and underclothing4 ,for the first time in dry-cleaning history1 a method was worked out to destroy all living organisms and a considerable amount of bacteria1 a process which is likely to have a lasting effect in the dry-cleaning industry4 ,the specifications of this process were the result of cooperative laboratory research by the ,bureau of ,standards1 the ,public ,health ,service1 and the salvage division4 ,in addition to destroying germs and bacteria the process also thoroughly cleansed the garments4 ,experts from the salvage division were on hand to see to it that the various contractors lived up to the standard specifications4 ,the authorized ,government-owned dry-cleaning plants1 which were to be the last word in what such establishments should be1 were not completed1 due to the signing of the armistice4 ,dr4 ,harry ,e4 ,mechling1 a graduate physician and president of the ,swiss ,cleaners ,dyers1 of ,louisville1 ,ky41 was in charge of the ,army's dry-cleaning activities4 ,in the repair of clothing the service received much assistance from the ,red ,cross4 ,local ,red ,cross units in the vicinity of camps worked in conjunction with the officers of the salvage service in the reclamation of such garments as woolen shirts1 underclothing1 sweaters1 helmets1 socks1 and gloves4 ,the base salvage plants at ,atlanta and ,fort ,sam ,houston reached a high state of efficiency in the repair of clothing4 ,shipment after shipment was made from such congested centers as ,newport ,news and ,hoboken to these plants1 and within a comparatively short time the property was ready for reshipment and reissue4 ,capt4 ,harvey ,a4 ,rosenthal1 a graduate of the first officers' training school1 and in civil life in the clothing business1 was in charge of clothing repairs4 ,all of the camps had shops for renovating and repairing hats4 ,the average cost for repairing a hat was #ce cents1 whereas the lowest contract price was #fe cents1 and the quality of work at the ,government shops was far better than that obtained from private contractors4 ,the following table gives an idea of the approximate saving to the ,government in hat-repair operations3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,cost of ,place4 ,quantity4 repair of ,estimated each4 total cost4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,government shop #aha1gfd #j4ce #fc1fag4jj ,contract #eci1die 4#fe #cej1fga4jj --------------------------------- #gba1bei #dad1bhh4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,estimated value of hats made serviceable #a1jjj1gdf ,estimated net saving #ehf1dfh ,cost of #gba1bei new hats #a1ccd1cbi ,mr4 ,e4 ,leroy ,cummings1 of the ,john ,b4 ,stetson ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 was in charge of hat-repair activities4 ,extensive repairs to canvas materials were confined to the base plants at ,philadelphia1 ,el ,paso1 ,fort ,sam ,houston1 and ,atlanta1 and1 on a smaller scale1 at ,jeffersonville4 ,minor repairs were conducted at camp shops1 some of which were only in the course of construction when the armistice was signed4 ,tents were generally reconditioned while standing4 ,patches to tents were attached by means of a nitrocellulose cement1 the best cement for the purpose which the salvage service found1 being called vanite4 ,experiments at the ,bureau of ,chemistry resulted in the adoption of three waterproofing compounds named ,preservol1 ,candeline1 and ,truscon4 ,these compounds were applied to both standing tents and tents which had been taken down1 with complete and effective results4 ,laundering was not a new activity for the ,war ,department1 since when the war was declared the ,government already owned #ad small steam laundries4 ,later the ,government went into the laundry business on the scale demanded by the great chain of training camps1 building cantonment laundries at a cost of approximately #cjj1jjj each4 ,experienced laundrymen were placed in charge of camp laundries4 ,through the cooperation with the ,government's insect experts of the ,bureau of ,entomology1 laundering processes were worked out successfully to disinfect all clothing while washing it and to free it from vermin without shrinking fabrics or causing other damage4 ,government laundries during the war operated #bd hours per day with three labor shifts and cleaned an average of #aj1iji1hej pieces of clothing monthly1 with gross receipts of over #ejj1jjj per month1 approximately half of which was profit4 ,one of the most interesting features of laundry activity was the development of mobile laundry units for overseas use near the front4 ,the men to operate these units were trained in a special school at ,camp ,meigs1 ,d4 ,c4 ,each mobile unit required a crew of #cg men4 ,the men of the ,army nicknamed these special troops the ,fighting ,chinamen4 ,the need of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces for wash-up and delousing stations at the front1 so that even troops engaged in battle might have clean clothes1 called the mobile laundry units into being4 ,the first experimental equipment was designed and constructed early in #aiah4 ,after that the salvage service produced #ej others1 #cb of which were shipped to ,france4 ,each unit consisted of a large steam tractor and four trailers1 an outfit which on the road made up a train over #ajj feet long4 ,the trailers could be placed together in the field to form a building #cj feet long and #bh feet wide1 the tractor acting as the power plant4 ,on the trailers were washing machines1 wringers1 drying machines1 tanks for water and soap1 a pump1 and a dynamo to supply electric lights4 ,one of these plants working #bd hours per day could do the washing of #aj1jjj men4 ,this unit was designed by officers of the salvage division4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,army',s ,,mobile ,,laundries4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,mobile ,,laundry4 ,illustration3 ,,salvaging ,,army ,,hats ,,in ,,france4 ,this photo was taken at ,tours1 ,france1 #a ,february1 #aiah4 ,illustration3 ,,salvaging ,,army ,,shoes ,,in ,,france4 ,picture taken at ,tours in ,march1 #aiah1 showing a few shoes worn out by the soldiers overseas4 ,army laundry activity was in charge of three ,new ,york laundrymen3 ,j4 ,e4 ,dann1 president of the ,pilgrim ,laundry1 of ,brooklyn1 and his assistants1 ,william ,longfelder1 of ,h4 ,kohnstamn ,co41 and ,e4 ,d4 ,tribbett1 of the ,american ,laundry ,machinery ,co4 ,wherever possible waste materials were reclaimed for use by the ,army instead of being sold as junk4 ,this was particularly true of bags and burlap4 ,hundreds of thousands of bags and great quantities of burlap furnished by the salvage division were utilized for army purposes4 ,without salvage1 all of this would have been thrown away or sold at junk prices4 ,when the fighting ended the base salvage plant at ,chicago was being equipped to repair about #ae1jjj bags daily4 ,the purpose of garbage separation was threefold--the reduction of mess waste1 the increase in revenue to the ,government1 and the recovery of glycerine contents for military purposes4 ,before the war with ,germany the ,army regulations required the burning of garbage at camps4 ,when the great training camps were established1 the ,government adopted generally the policy of selling garbage to contractors1 except at ,camps ,fremont1 ,hancock1 ,mc,clellan1 ,sevier1 and ,shelby1 where it was incinerated4 ,originally contracts had been let on a per-man basis1 the contracts extending for several months1 comparable to municipal contracts for the disposal of garbage4 ,later on1 however1 the policy was adopted of letting contracts for periods of one month only1 since the number of men at the camps was continually increasing1 and the garbage grew correspondingly bulkier4 ,it is estimated that this change in contracting saved the ,government considerably over #djj1jjj4 ,contract sale prices ranged from #a cent to #i cents per man per month1 the latter price in most cases including the manure from the stables4 ,with a view to obtaining glycerine1 the ,war ,department authorized the construction of #af garbage-rendering plants at the larger concentration centers1 but only one1 that at ,camp ,lee1 was actually constructed1 since it was determined later by an investigation of our national resources that the amount of glycerine to be obtained in this manner did not justify the expenditure of the money4 ,also the project of establishing piggeries at camps was abandoned1 after investigation by the salvage service1 since it would have required #ah months to clear the investment1 and in the meantime the ,government would have been deprived of revenue from the sale of garbage4 ,the disposition of waste materials was under the direction of ,louis ,birkenstein1 of ,chicago1 assisted by ,r4 ,d4 ,cunningham1 of ,troy1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in response to an insistent demand that farms be operated at various camps1 the salvage division1 on ,may #ae1 #aiah1 secured #fj1jjj from the vocational fund for the training of soldiers and allotted sums to #ae camps4 ,on ,november #d1 #aiah1 ,congress appropriated #bej1jjj for the same purpose1 but little of this money was expended4 ,the total acreage under cultivation in #aiah was #c1dhc1 and the equivalent revenue derived from the camp farms amounted to #ajh1jjj4 ,the farm work was under the direction of ,capt4 ,henry ,g4 ,parsons1 a practical and scientific farmer4 ,salvage activities1 in general1 in the ,united ,states were under the direction of ,philip ,w4 ,wrenn1 who was chief of the salvage division during the most active period of its existence4 ,,salvage ,,in ,,france4 ,salvage in ,france was under the direction of the chief quartermaster with the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,at first1 it was undertaken in a smattering way1 but as the ,american ,army grew in size1 salvage increased1 until the salvage service became one of the features in the field1 with thousands of men and women working in salvage activities1 with salvage plants1 branches1 and depots1 large and small1 saving1 repairing1 conserving1 and putting into shape1 ready for reissue1 materials of all sorts and descriptions4 ,the word salvage became the watchword and pride of many an organization at the front4 ,each field army had its chief salvage officer4 ,each division of troops had its salvage organization under a salvage officer4 ,each organization had its salvage dump1 in which it took a just pride1 and there was a spirit of friendly rivalry between different organizations as to which could save the most for the ,government4 ,in the flood times of battle1 when waste materials piled up on the fields1 the regular salvage specialists were assisted in various ways4 ,in some divisions the regimental bands were designated to act as emergency salvage companies4 ,sometimes after an engagement whole battalions and regiments were enlisted to clean up an area1 and there is one instance on record where a wise general of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces turned out his entire field army to clean up for salvage the area which it had just won from the enemy4 ,the salvage service in ,france handled not only the recovery of quartermaster supplies1 but it also collected and disposed of all materials captured from the enemy1 including ordnance materials1 and also all materials abandoned by our own troops and found on the battle fields4 ,when troops moved into combat they took with them only such equipment as they could carry on their backs or on the meager transportation facilities allowed4 ,thus they frequently left behind them an enormous quantity of their possessions2 including personal baggage4 ,the salvage units went through such areas1 visited every billet1 and collected all ,government and personal property and cared for it4 ,as an indication of the magnitude of this work1 there was one salvage dump in ,france #dj acres in area piled as high as goods could be thrown from trucks4 ,the salvage operations in ,france were conducted over an area of #d1jjj square miles1 and there were approximately #d1jjj men in the salvage service field force4 ,the various salvage depots and shops in ,france occupied a floor space of #gcf1jjj square feet and had a personnel of #aa1fcb on ,december #ca1 #aiah4 ,even before the war1 the ,quartermaster ,corps of the ,army was a good-sized organization1 yet there were more ,french women and girls mending clothing for the ,american ,army in ,france at one time than there were commissioned officers and enlisted men in the whole ,quartermaster ,service before the war4 ,clothing generally for the ,american troops in ,france was repaired at special shops and at the homes of seamstresses in the small towns and communes4 ,each town had a forewoman who distributed the damaged clothing1 after it had been disinfected and laundered1 and kept all counts4 ,there were #hhj of these home workers1 nearly all of them from needy families4 ,the best record for darning socks was made by an old ,french grandmre1 aged more than #hj4 ,numerous soldiers were discovered in the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces who were unfit physically for the hard service on the front line4 ,these were permitted to go into the various salvage depots and shops1 where they learned to be shoemakers1 harness makers1 saddle makers1 wood workers1 painters1 metal workers1 tailors1 laundrymen1 electricians1 mechanics1 checkers1 warehousemen1 etc41 occupations in which many of them expected to engage after their separation from the military service4 ,the salvage troops in ,france were in five classes--the salvage headquarter detachments1 depot battalions1 field salvage battalions1 laundry units1 and the clothing and bathing units4 ,one of the last named was attached to each division to handle field bathhouses and delousing and disinfecting plants1 to receive old clothes1 and to issue new or reclaimed serviceable garments4 ,the ordnance property salvaged in the field in the period between ,january #a1 to ,october #ca1 #aiah1 included #e1jjj1jjj rounds of small-arms ammunition1 #ga1iji shell of the #ge-millimeter size1 and #af1aie of the #aee-millimeter size1 more than #cb1jjj rifles1 and #ba1jjj machine guns and automatic rifles4 ,the unexploded or dud shell is a menace to life1 and the duty of destroying these in immense quantities fell to the salvage service4 ,some of the salvage squads in the field were composed of men who through lack of education or lack of knowledge of the ,english language were unable to do front-line service4 ,they were largely composed of ,american troops of alien birth4 ,the divisional salvage squads sorted the materials at the railhead dumps for shipment to the various depots4 ,when trucks brought up supplies to the front and unloaded1 the salvage detachments there filled them up again with all sorts of materials which had been picked up1 and the trucks carried their loads back to the railheads1 the railroad stations of the division4 ,this queer conglomeration of trash consisted of everything from a hairbrush to a #gg-millimeter enemy gun4 ,to show the sorts of articles that are picked up in an area over which an army has fought1 there is given here the following list of items selected at random from the check of a salvage shipment from the railhead of the ,twenty-sixth ,division on ,august #ab1 #aiah3 #a1ajj pairs of leggins4 #ba pairs of shoes4 #cj leather gun cases4 #ba bags of harness4 #cej mess kits4 #gej condiment cans4 #gej bacon cans4 #aej first-aid packets4 #ej feed bags4 #cjj pistol holsters4 #a wagon bed4 #bge ,german rifles4 #c boxes tent poles4 #g boxes gun repairs4 #aej rifle grenade throwers4 #d ,german machine guns4 #bjj ,german canteens4 #f1jjj gas masks4 #ej saddlebags4 #a1djj canteens4 #bjj caps4 #ijj helmets4 #a1jbe pack carriers4 #gej canteen covers4 #a wagon4 #gf wagon parts4 #a ammunition cart4 #d ration carts4 #ag wagon wheels4 #d boxes artillery material 7telephones1 etc474 #a1djj ,american canteens4 #djj ,american rifles4 #dg ,german automatic guns4 #ge gun bolts4 #ajj respirators4 ,the kitchen economics branch of the salvage branch of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces in the recovery of fats and glycerine and other kitchen by-products during the month of ,september1 #aiah1 saved #eg1djd4ai to the ,government4 ,the value was increased in ,october to #aji1jac4hd1 and in ,november to #abj1aeh4fc4 ,in addition to this saving1 kitchen salvage in ,october produced over #be1jjj pounds of grease and over #ad1jjj pounds of dubbin for waterproofing shoes4 ,this branch of the service also had the disposition of unserviceable food supplies1 entailing the salvage of large quantities of flour1 sugar1 rice1 and beans damaged in transportation or injured by exposure to weather so as to become unfitted for troops4 ,such vegetables as peas and canned corn1 unsatisfactory for use1 were dried and ground and sold for chicken feed or hog feed1 bringing in a considerable revenue4 ,the question of laundering for the field hospitals1 particularly after hard fighting1 was a vital one4 ,during the month of ,december1 #aiah1 a total of #g1haa1eff pieces of laundry was handled by the laundry branch of the salvage service4 ,this included #c1gjj1jjj pieces for the hospitals alone4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were required to establish three large shops for mending clothing sent to the laundries4 ,illustration3 ,,outpost ,,and ,,field ,,wire ,,salvaged ,,from ,,battle ,,area1 ,,gievres1 ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,portion ,,of ,,open ,,storage ,,yard4 ,,sappinets ,,for ,,temporary ,,lines ,,in ,,foreground1 ,,cable ,,reels ,,in ,,background4 ,illustration3 ,,german ,,prisoners ,,working ,,farm ,,land4 ,illustration3 #ajj ,,soldiers ,,harvesting ,,snap ,,beans ,,at ,,camp ,,gordon ,,farm ,,near ,,atlanta1 ,,ga4 ,the salvage service in ,france rendered a peculiar service in being the repository for lost articles4 ,the baggage branch of the salvage service worked in close cooperation with the ,army transportation service1 railroad transportation service1 the central records office1 the graves registration service1 the effects depot1 the ,french railroad officials1 and other agencies which might assist them to recover and handle all lost baggage for the members of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces or for their heirs in the ,united ,states4 ,the garden service of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces was operated as a separate branch of the ,quartermaster ,corps1 but a word about its work may not be amiss here4 ,in addition to gardens at the camps and hospitals in ,france1 there was a large central farm at ,versailles1 near ,paris1 where ,american officers and men were assembled to learn intensive farming before being sent to the various stations to assume charge of garden work4 ,this service was composed entirely of men who had been wounded or gassed1 or were otherwise physically unfit for service at the front4 ,the garden operations provided welcome additions of fresh vegetables to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces' diet and also gave many ,americans an insight of the ,french methods of intensive farming4 ,the #he1jjj ,german helmets used in advertising the ,american ,government's fifth war loan--the ,victory loan of ,april1 #aiai--were all collected and shipped to the ,united ,states by the salvage service of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,in fact the immense quantities of dunnage and junk collected by the service are expected to be of untold historic value as time goes on4 ,various historical societies and museums are taking steps to secure collections of this war material4 ,civilians in ,europe are now wearing shoes built originally for ,american troops1 later worn out by them1 and still later reconditioned by the salvage service in ,france4 ,a large number of these shoes recently sold for approximately #d4cj a pair4 ,since the average total cost to repair shoes was #a4je a pair1 the ,government realized a net gain of #c4be from every pair of these shoes4 ,in connection with the conservation of waste materials the salvage service conducted a considerable manufacturing enterprise in ,france4 ,it turned waste into a large number of small articles1 such as metal markers for graves or effects of deceased soldiers1 sheet tin 7this from discarded tin containers7 for lining the stables at the remount depots1 large shipping bags1 cement sacks1 collar ornaments1 divisional insignia1 brassards1 overseas caps1 guidons1 curtains for engine cabs1 and many other things4 ,the service took discarded campaign hats and old uniform and overcoat cloth and made hospital slippers with cloth tops and felt soles4 ,such things as waste cotton scrap1 waste paper1 shredded rope1 tin cans1 and woolen rags collected in ,france were saved and sold1 but nothing was sold that could be utilized for repairing or manufacturing purposes4 ,leather scrap was used to make leather straps or shoe laces1 and the worst of the leather scrap was burned at the power plants of the salvage depots as a fair substitute for coal4 ,old harness1 books1 small scraps1 leather washers1 and the like1 canvas and burlap scrap1 went to the camouflage screen makers4 ,woolen rags were shredded and used over again for making cloth4 ,cotton rags too poor for other purposes went to the paper mills4 ,rubber scrap became new rubber material4 ,nothing which had a value was allowed to go to waste4 ,the salvage depot at ,tours1 ,france1 alone in the period from ,march to ,november1 #aiah1 inclusive1 produced goods to the value of #ai1chc1cec4eh1 at a total expense of #bfh1iee4cg1 giving the ,government a net profit of #ai1aad1cih4ba4 ,the value of all this work went far beyond the value of the figures in dollars and cents1 which is the only concrete way in which it can be expressed4 ,the saving in raw material alone which it effected was an important factor in the war2 yet of even greater service was the salvage production of materials1 particularly ordnance materials1 which took much time to manufacture at home and after that required a long haul to get them to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,some of the materials recovered on the battle field were scarce and hard to get1 and every pound of them recovered added that much to the power of the ,american ,army in ,france4 ,,book ,,vi4 ,,the ,,construction ,,division4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,cantonments ,,and ,,camps4 ,as soon as ,america had arranged to raise an army by selective conscription1 the ,government proceeded to provide living quarters for the soldiers to be mobilized for training4 ,this was a job magnificent in its proportions1 carried out with a speed that was little short of magical4 ,at #af points1 widely scattered over the country1 the construction expert and the civil engineer struck the earth with their potent wands2 workmen swarmed forth2 the staccato of myriads of hammers and the whine of saws merged into a rolling chorus of industry2 and #af new cities arose--almost overnight1 it seemed--built of wood to be sure1 raw and unpainted it is true1 but snug and taut and equipped with every necessary convenience known to the dwellers of modern ,american cities4 ,the ,united ,states had been wont to measure other public works by that of the ,panama ,canal1 which had been the largest construction operation ever undertaken by ,america1 or any other nation1 prior to the great war4 ,the construction cost of the ,panama ,canal was approximately #cge1jjj1jjj and the operation continued over a period of #aj years4 ,the #af cantonments for the ,national ,army and the #af camps for the ,national ,guard cost about seven-tenths as much as the ,panama ,canal1 but they were completed in shorter time than it takes to build an ordinary suburban dwelling house4 ,the science of warfare had made mighty strides since ,america's last great war1 that of #ahfa to #ahfe1 but in no respect more than in those matters relating to the individual soldier's comfort and bodily welfare4 ,the soldier of #ahfc lived in a tent1 or in the chance shelter of a billet4 ,when the weather was cold he might alternately toast and congeal at his camp fire1 and at night he rolled himself in his blanket and reposed on a pallet of straw4 ,his grandson warrior who went to the training camp in #aiag found life comfortable in a substantial barrack1 warmed with steam heat or stoves4 ,a good mattress on a hygienic metal bed wooed his slumbers after a hard day of training4 ,the soldier of #ahfa bathed where he could and when he could4 ,he of #aiag kept clean daily under the shower bath4 ,the soldier of #ahfa slaked his thirst at neighboring wells or streams2 and water-borne diseases1 such as typhoid fever1 reaped a harvest of lives4 ,his successor drank water which was tested and filtered1 sterilized when necessary1 and the once fatal epidemics of armies were kept away from his cantonment4 ,this water1 moreover1 came to him in a pipe under a pressure sufficient to throw a stream from a nozzle clear over his barrack1 an efficient safeguard against the fire that might destroy his wooden city4 ,the soldier in the ,civil ,war washed out his own clothing on the infrequent occasions when he possessed both water and leisure4 ,the ,national ,army recruit received his khaki immaculate from a modern laundry equipped with the latest types of labor-saving machinery4 ,the latter's grandfather suffered from scurvy because of the limitations of his diet4 ,the soldier of #aiag ate tender beef and green vegetables kept fresh in ammonia-cooled refrigerators4 ,the fighter of #ahfa relished the hoecake baked in the ashes2 his successor partook of white bread fresh from camp ovens4 ,the camps of #ahfa were arranged in haphazard fashion2 those of #aiag were laid out by expert city planners4 ,in the spring the soldier of #ahfa waded and toiled through mud2 the soldier of #aiag walked dry-shod upon walks or drove his autotruck upon macadamized or concrete or brick camp roads4 ,the illumination of the camps of #ahfa was the light of the stars and the bivouac fires2 the #aiag barracks were built along streets radiant with electrical incandescence4 ,for amusement the soldiers of #ahfa had their campfire choruses and rough military sports1 but the private in the ,national ,army had the theater1 the motion picture1 a library of good reading matter1 the ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 and similar clubhouses1 the gymnasium1 the post exchange where he could buy periodicals1 candy1 fruit1 and other small luxuries4 ,and so the contrast might be carried along4 ,the marvel of the cantonments of #aiag was not that a grateful ,republic gave to its conscripted soldiers the conveniences of existence enjoyed by all urban communities1 but that it provided them in such short time4 ,ninety days after the first spade struck into the ground the cantonments were ready to receive two-thirds of their men1 while one or two of the largest of all were complete in every essential respect4 ,the houses of the ,national ,army and the ,national ,guard went up at the rate of #b1jjj1jjj a day4 ,it is almost impossible to visualize this speed or to comprehend the feat of nailing fifteen hundred and some odd million board feet of lumber into place in about three months1 or that of stringing wire in that time in length sufficient to reach from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco and back and westward again to ,cleveland1 or that of tacking enough rain-tight roofing paper to make a canopy for the island of ,manhattan1 another for ,atlantic ,city1 with nearly a square mile of it left over4 ,the cantonment job took so many nails and spikes that it created an actual shortage in that industry4 ,all of the factories in the ,united ,states that make metal pipes could not turn out enough to supply the needs of the water1 sanitary1 and heating systems of the cantonments1 and so wooden pipes made from staves were used in most of the camps for piping water4 ,in the matter of lumber alone it has been computed that the total amount ordered and mobilized by the ,washington office for the #cb camps would build a board walk #ab inches wide and #a inch thick to the moon and half way back again4 ,in addition to this vast quantity of lumber there were used in the camps and cantonments about #ajj1jjj1jjj square feet of wall board--wall board being universally used instead of lath and plaster to line and ceil rooms--#ab1jjj1jjj square feet of window glass1 and #ajj1jjj1jjj square feet of roofing4 ,the #b1jjj1jjj1jjj eight-penny nails used1 if placed end to end1 would girdle the earth three and one-half times4 ,the heating systems would make a single steam radiator #ajj miles long1 while the heating boilers were equivalent to one boiler #f feet in diameter and #c miles long4 ,the rate of the flow of materials to the army of #bjj1jjj workmen on the cantonment jobs gives an inkling of the speed with which they put lumber and nails together to make barracks4 ,it took #ab heavy freight trains a day1 #ej loaded cars to the train1 to keep wood and metal supplies at the builders' elbows4 ,these builders erected the camps at the rate of #cj1jjj tons of material a day4 ,america had never seen construction progress to equal that4 ,we liken swift building to the mushroom's growth1 but almost always this figure of speech is used as hyperbole4 ,some of the feats of the cantonment builders1 however1 equaled the growth of the mushroom in fact4 ,in more than one instance at spots where the sod sparkled with dew at dawn1 when the builders put away their tools at sunset there stood structures roofed and inclosed1 needing only a few interior touches each to be ready to shelter #bjj men4 ,efficiency in war is a matter of teamwork4 ,every vital branch of the military organization must do its part well if the whole effort is not to fail4 ,the weak link in the chain might well have been the construction organization of the ,army1 for here was an emergency job on a scale beyond anything in the experience of our greatest builders4 ,america in her first #ah months of war was able to send to ,france across #c1jjj miles of dangerous water more men than the ,united ,kingdom in a similar period could send to the front over the netted and laned #dj miles of ,english ,channel4 ,no slight share of the credit for this achievement must go to the cantonment builders1 who despite great difficulties had the housing ready for the new armies when they were called forth for training4 ,as soon as the ,united ,states entered the war the ,government sent out the call for technical experts of all sorts4 ,for a quarter of a century the ,united ,states had been specializing in technical training for its young men1 and now in the hour of need the ability existed to conduct the war1 which in its first year was to be largely a matter of construction and manufacture of equipment4 ,there was a wonderful outpouring of these men of action1 the technicians who had been building the bridges and skyscrapers of the ,nation1 developing its mines1 providing its water systems1 designing its machinery1 organizing and commanding its trained and untrained workers1 engaging in public and private works of every description and magnitude4 ,the ,army prior to the #fth of ,april1 #aiag1 consisted of a relatively insignificant force of men4 ,for this ,army the construction of barracks and other quarters had been in the hands of the ,quartermaster ,general4 ,the officer in charge of the ,construction and ,repair ,division of the ,quartermaster ,general's ,office was relieved of his former duties and placed by the ,secretary of ,war in charge of a new and almost entirely independent division1 reporting directly to the ,secretary1 called the ,cantonment ,division1 and charged with providing the necessary construction and camp facilities for the ,national ,army and the ,national ,guard4 ,this was in ,may1 #aiag1 at which time the commissioned personnel of the division consisted of only three officers4 ,this step was recommended by the ,general ,staff1 acting in accordance with the advice of civilian construction experts on the ,council of ,national ,defense4 ,one year later the personnel of this division had grown to #bfc officers and #a1ajj civilians in ,washington1 the best constructors1 engineers1 draftsmen1 managers1 purchasing agents1 and other specialists obtainable by the ,government2 there were hundreds of other officers and civilian experts in the field for this organization2 it had an enlisted personnel of some #af1jjj men and employed over #bjj1jjj laborers and craftsmen2 it had jobs on hand1 complete and incomplete1 aggregating #fjj1jjj1jjj1 or nearly twice the cost of the canal at ,panama1 while future works then being planned and later actually undertaken came to another #fjj1jjj1jjj2 it had now become the ,construction ,division of the ,army1 attached directly to the office of the ,secretary of ,war1 charged with all the army construction within the ,united ,states4 ,such was the expansion of one branch of the ,army to meet the emergency4 ,construction operations for the ,army overseas1 conducted principally with troop labor1 was in charge of the ,corps of ,engineers4 ,congress passed the selective service bill on ,may #ah1 #aiag4 ,before the end of ,may the military authorities had decided to call the first levies of the ,national ,army on ,september #a4 ,the little ,cantonment ,division1 which had in the week after its birth grown to a personnel of #cj officers and numerous civilian experts1 received orders to have the camps--#af complete cities to accommodate #dj1jjj inhabitants each and #af tent camps1 with many incidental buildings and public utilities--ready in #ij days4 ,actually the time allowed for construction was much shorter than that1 for the last site was not approved until ,july #f4 ,about #fj days later1 on ,september #d1 the ,national ,army cantonments were ready for #dcj1jjj men1 two-thirds of the first draft4 ,although some construction1 subsequently authorized1 was not entirely complete until later1 the cantonments nevertheless were at all times prepared to receive the conscripted soldiers faster than the ,army could assimilate them4 ,however irksome to the impatient construction officers the interval between the time when the cantonments were ordered and the day when the last sites were approved1 it was not time wasted by any means4 ,there was much preliminary work to be done4 ,the magnitude of the task ahead was appalling4 ,yet the ,cantonment ,division1 with scarcely anything to start with1 with not even the ground selected for a single camp site1 must design and adopt types for buildings1 mobilize materials1 standardize everything possible1 adopt an emergency contract that should protect the ,government from the grafter and the profiteer1 locate stores of materials1 commandeering them if necessary1 and also discover manufacturing plants capable of turning out supplies as rapidly as they were needed1 build up an organization to handle the work in every detail1 and be ready to start hammering in the nails on the day the materials arrived on the jobs4 ,actually these officers had something less than #bj days in which to accomplish this feat4 ,there had been1 however1 a measure of pioneering in several of these directions4 ,the ,council of ,national ,defense had an organization of civilian experts in many lines gathered together in ,washington to give advice to the military authorities4 ,through its committees the council prepared a form of contract upon what came to be known as the cost-plus with sliding scale and fixed maximum fee plan1 which limited the cantonment contractor in each case to a maximum fee of not more than #bej1jjj1 the ,army itself retaining control of the cost of materials and the wages paid to labor4 ,since the cantonments cost anywhere from #h1jjj1jjj to more than #ab1jjj1jjj each1 the average fee to the contractor was slightly less than #b per cent1 out of which the contractor had to pay overhead expenses1 such as his main office expenses and the like2 so it will be seen that the ,united ,states drove a close bargain with its cantonment builders in spite of the breathless haste to get the work done4 ,it was not until the #ast of ,june that the war authorities decided upon wood construction for the #af ,national ,army cantonments and canvas tentage for the #af camps of the ,national ,guard4 ,according to the original plan1 so far as could be foreseen1 the cantonments were to be permanent camps to receive fresh contingents of selectives as long as the war should last1 whereas after receiving its training the ,national ,guard would go to ,france and leave its ,american camps deserted4 ,the wood construction was much more expensive than tentage--amounting to #bae per man of the first draft1 as it proved--but it was permanent2 once installed it made no further demands for materials1 and in convenience and comfort1 especially in winter1 it was far superior to tentage4 ,meanwhile the ,cantonment ,division had designed a model barrack building1 #dc feet wide and #adj long1 to house #aej men1 or one company1 as the company was in the spring of #aiag4 ,here1 in the adoption of this model and general camp plans1 there might easily have occurred in ,washington a fatal indecision4 ,both the ,british and the ,french armies had found by experience that a company of #bej men was a more convenient size for trench warfare than a smaller one4 ,there was some question whether the ,american ,army would be guided by this experience4 ,gen4 ,pershing was to decide this matter1 but he did not reach ,europe until ,june #ae4 ,a weak executive control in ,washington might have justified itself in waiting for this decision before starting in at full speed to build the cantonments4 ,those in charge of the program took upon themselves the responsibility of building the #aej-man barrack1 trusting to their own ability to adjust the buildings later to changed conditions4 ,as a matter of fact1 when the company unit was enlarged to #bej men1 it was readily possible to house two companies in three barracks1 leaving space in two of them for the kitchen and mess room4 ,still later the ,construction ,division built smaller barracks for #ff men each1 providing four such barracks to the company4 ,before a single site was selected the experts in ,washington had designed the buildings and mapped out the future cities4 ,america1 leaving behind her the decorative atrocities of the old ,victorian days1 had been seeking beauty2 and this yearning had produced a new profession1 that of town planning4 ,town planners in the ,construction ,division grouped the #a1ejj buildings required by each cantonment into two typical arrangements1 known as the straight-line and the ,u-shape layouts4 ,later at each cantonment there was a town planner who adapted one or the other of these plans to his local camp topography4 ,the selection of camp sites was in the hands of boards of officers designated by the commanding officers of the six ,army departments4 ,early in ,may these boards set forth on their quest4 ,then ensued a lively bidding on the part of ,american cities to secure cantonments for their own neighborhoods4 ,the ,government took the utmost advantage of such inducements as were offered4 ,the city of ,tacoma1 ,wash41 sold its municipal bonds to the amount of #b1jjj1jjj and with the proceeds bought #fa1jjj acres at ,american ,lake and presented the land to the ,army4 ,this tract became the site of ,camp ,lewis1 most beautiful of all the cantonments4 ,illustration3 ,start at #g a4 m4 ,illustration3 #aj4cj a4 m4 ,illustration3 #a p4 m4 ,illustration3 #e p4 m4 ,a ,,day',s ,,work ,,in ,,barrack ,,construction4 ,illustration3 ,,camp ,,grant ,,at ,,rockford1 ,,ill4 ,this photograph1 taken from kites at an elevation of #a1jjj feet1 shows a typical cantonment1 of which sixteen were built to train the ,national ,army in #aiag4 ,the site for ,camp ,upton1 at ,yaphank1 ,long ,island1 #ae1aih acres1 was provided for the ,government at an annual rental of #a per acre4 ,san ,diego1 ,calif41 gave #h1jjj acres at ,linda ,vista to the ,government rent free for five years4 ,this became the location of ,camp ,kearney for the ,national ,guard4 ,camp ,fremont1 another ,national ,guard training center1 was pitched on #g1bjc acres of ground donated rent free for one year by the city of ,san ,francisco4 ,louisville gave the site of ,camp ,zachary ,taylor for the ,national ,army rent free for two years4 ,and there were numerous other similar inducements4 ,in all the ,national ,army cantonments occupied #afg1gda acres which the ,government obtained at an average annual rental of #c4ic per acre after the second year of occupancy4 ,the ,national ,guard camps covered #gh1fci acres1 at a rental of #aab1jdb the second year of occupancy and thereafter4 ,the clearing of the sites was no mean part of the cantonment job4 ,the site of ,camp ,upton at ,yaphank1 ,long ,island1 proved to be covered with underbrush1 and when this was cleared off it was discovered that the remains of an old forest were still there1 and stumps were thickly scattered over the entire site4 ,these had to be blasted or pulled out before any building operations could proceed4 ,the sites in character ranged from the sandy loam of ,camp ,devens1 in ,massachusetts1 to the red clay of ,virginia and ,south ,carolina2 from the farm lands of ,michigan to the prairie on which was built ,camp ,travis1 ,tex4 ,some were flat2 some rolling2 all were different in shape and extent2 and the layout of the camp and the arrangement of the buildings in each case had to be adapted to the local conditions by the constructing quartermaster on the job4 ,to give a picture of a typical cantonment1 let us take ,camp ,grant1 at ,rockford1 ,ill41 as an illustration4 ,it cost approximately #aa1jjj1jjj2 it could accommodate #de1jjj men and #ab1jjj horses2 its buildings numbered #a1fjj4 ,water was supplied from six wells drilled #age feet deep4 ,there were #ch miles of water main1 while the reservoir tanks could hold #eej1jjj gallons4 ,its electric lighting system entailed the use of #a1dej miles of copper wire1 #a1bjj poles1 and #ce1jjj incandescent lamps4 ,during the construction period #ej carloads of building material were unloaded at ,camp ,grant every day1 and an average of #ejj1jjj board feet of lumber was put up every day over a period of weeks4 ,in the ,camp ,grant schedule we find such items as #ej1jjj1jjj feet of lumber1 #gjj tons of nails1 #d1jjj1jjj square feet of roofing1 and #c1jjj1jjj square feet of wall board4 ,only a builder of secure financial standing could handle such a construction contract4 ,frequently his pay roll and current bills for supplies amounted to half a million dollars in a week4 ,let the ,government delay a few days in its payments to him and he might find himself obliged to raise a million dollars in cash on the instant to meet his immediate obligations4 ,to avoid such embarrassments the ,construction ,division adopted the policy of paying its bills the day and sometimes the hour they were incurred4 ,at each cantonment job it stationed a disbursing officer with a checkbook4 ,this officer reported by telegraph each night1 and the next morning there was deposited to his credit in the ,treasury a sum of money sufficient for his immediate needs4 ,on numerous occasions this officer paid for materials the instant they were unloaded from the cars and checked4 ,the ,government maintained an auditing organization at each job4 ,this organization checked and inspected all material as it was received1 comparing the delivery in each case with the original order1 and counted the workmen at least twice a day4 ,an intense rivalry sprang up in the construction of the #af cantonments4 ,sixteen teams1 with an average of #aj1jjj men on each team1 began racing for the goal1 which was to be #hj per cent completion by ,september #e1 the date when the first contingents of selective soldiers were to be received by the cantonments4 ,it was more exciting than any campaign in any professional baseball league1 because the time was shorter and the stake vastly greater4 ,the ,cantonment ,division kept alive this spirit of rivalry by posting each day in each cantonment the figures showing the rates of construction at all of them4 ,the team1 from the superintendents down to the humblest unskilled laborers1 discussed these ratings as fans talk about the baseball averages4 ,the race was a close one1 being won by ,camp ,taylor at ,louisville1 which was #gi4d per cent complete on the day the contest ended1 lacking only six-tenths of #a per cent of coming up to the maximum #hj per cent of completion regarded as possible in the time available4 ,but other construction gangs were pressing that at ,camp ,taylor closely3 ,camp ,travis1 with #gh4f per cent of completion at the end of the contest2 ,camp ,lee1 #gh4e complete2 ,camp ,devens1 #gd2 ,camp ,lewis1 #gb2 and ,camp ,sherman1 #gj4 ,the ,camp ,lewis percentage was taken on ,august #ca4 ,all construction work1 including numerous additions not contemplated in the original plans1 was virtually complete by ,november #cj4 ,these additional structures included cantonment base hospitals1 on which the ,government spent #aj1jjj1jjj for the ,national ,army and #g1ejj1jjj at the ,national ,guard camps4 ,with one or two exceptions these hospitals each had facilities for #a1jjj patients at once1 being the largest in the ,united ,states1 at that time4 ,at several of the cantonments the water problem was simplified by the near presence of water mains of the systems of adjacent cities4 ,at the other camps1 however1 it was necessary to construct independent water systems sufficient to furnish #ee gallons of water daily to each of #de1jjj men4 ,this is nearly twice as much water as was then being furnished to the average ,european army camp1 and it meant in each case a system of centrifugal pumps and gravity tanks with a capacity of #b1bej1jjj gallons daily4 ,the local water supply was secured either from running streams or from dug wells4 ,if the purity of the water was in doubt it was sterilized by the chlorine process and sometimes filtered in addition4 ,the purity of the water and the care exercised in screening kitchens1 mess halls1 and later the dormitories themselves1 from flies is seen in the hospital record for the first year of the war4 ,of all the soldiers who sought hospital treatment for sickness during that first year1 only one patient in #e1jjj was suffering from a water-borne disease4 ,in each cantonment there were about #a1ejj wooden buildings1 presenting a constant fire menace4 ,as a protection from such disasters each cantonment organized its own fire department with modern motor equipment stationed in three or more fire houses4 ,the men of the fire companies were usually those who had had previous training as members of city fire departments4 ,there was not a single serious fire at the cantonments during the war period4 ,besides keeping soldiers well and clean1 the camp facilities provided them with opportunity for moral and healthy amusement4 ,various organizations combined to supply the camps with amusement facilities4 ,there were the library buildings1 the ,red ,cross buildings and halls1 the ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 buildings1 the ,knights of ,columbus buildings1 the ,salvation ,army buildings1 ,y4 ,w4 ,c4 ,a4 buildings1 and the ,jewish ,welfare ,board buildings4 ,although the ,american soldier bought liberally of ,liberty bonds1 took out ,war ,risk insurance1 and sent to his family the greater portion of his monthly pay1 still he had a small amount of money to spend for little luxuries or necessities4 ,these included small supplies such as candy and fruits1 and they were on sale at the usual post exchange or company store4 ,this was a small building1 usually with a broad covered porch or shelter around three sides1 so that the men in bad weather could be dry as they waited in line for their turn at the windows4 ,the ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a41 ,k4 of ,c41 ,red ,cross1 ,y4 ,w4 ,c4 ,a41 ,jewish ,welfare ,board1 and ,salvation ,army buildings offered reading and writing rooms and general gathering places2 yet these were insufficient for a total camp population averaging #dj1jjj4 ,hence the ,commission on ,training ,camp ,activities built through the agency of the ,construction ,division a ,liberty ,theater at each camp4 ,the ,liberty ,theaters were of temporary construction1 but in size compared favorably with the largest theaters in our modern cities4 ,to provide these amusement facilities the ,construction ,division put up approximately #e1jjj1jjj board feet of lumber1 #i1jjj1jjj square feet of wall board1 and #dj1jjj square feet of roofing4 ,the average large city laundry was insufficient in capacity to handle the laundry work of an average of #f1jjj people per day1 which was the requirement to keep some #dj1jjj men in clean clothing4 ,consequently the camps and cantonments were provided with their own laundries built by the ,construction ,division4 ,this put such a demand upon the manufacturers of laundry machinery that it created a shortage1 and later there was a shortage of soap and powder4 ,the #cj laundries built used up #ac1jjj1jjj board feet of lumber and #cjj1jjj square feet of wall board4 ,the householder may throw his old shoes into the trash box and sell his old suit to the ragman1 but the ,army threw nothing away4 ,consequently the ,construction ,division was called upon to build reclamation plants at many stations4 ,usually one large plant was built at a center convenient to several camps1 and to this center were sent the worn-out uniforms1 shoes1 leggins1 and all other equipment4 ,every camp of considerable size in the ,united ,states was provided with model bakeries4 ,the total capacity of all the baking equipment installed by the ,construction ,division would turn out #a1jjj tons of bread per day4 ,this is a total of #b1jjj1jjj loaves of #a pound each4 ,each camp bakery oven would take care of #d1ejj men per day in two #h-;hour shifts1 or it could bake #e1jjj loaves in #bd hours4 ,there were required at all the camps and cantonments numerous storehouses for materials to be used immediately by the troops4 ,the ,construction ,division built #ghi of these small storehouses at the ,national ,army cantonments alone4 ,the question of cold-storage facilities for the camps offered a knotty problem4 ,certain camps generally relied upon cold-storage space obtained near by1 or else upon refrigerator cars iced in the vicinity1 but in the other camps it was necessary to build special refrigeration plants4 ,these had an ice-making capacity ranging from #f to #ce tons daily4 ,the ice consumption of the ,american soldiers in the ,united ,states proved to be #b pounds per man per day4 ,the kitchens in the camps and hospitals would be paradise to any woman who had drudged with old-fashioned methods and equipment in cooking4 ,as far as possible the ,army's housekeeping was done by machinery4 ,the bread slicer in common use would cut #bjj slices of bread per minute and stack the slices automatically1 the loaves feeding automatically into the slicer4 ,the meat choppers would cut up #bj pounds of meat or vegetables in five minutes1 and the electrically operated potato peeler would peel #dj pounds of potatoes in three minutes4 ,the meat slicers would cut meat at the rate of #dj slices to the minute4 ,vegetables were cooked and meats roasted by high-pressure steam4 ,the vegetable cooker could turn out #ce gallons of cooked product in #ae minutes4 ,the dish-washing machines could wash1 dry1 and sterilize #aj1jjj dishes per hour4 ,at the hospitals the food was taken from the central kitchen to the outlying wards in mobile fireless cookers1 designed to keep the food hot until served4 ,to prepare food for #de1jjj men1 #cej kitchens were required by each cantonment4 ,the ,national ,army in training used #i1jjj hotel ranges4 ,in most of the cantonments1 particularly those in the ,south1 the heating of quarters in winter was accomplished by means of room heaters and cannon stoves4 ,the constructors installed #ge1jjj of these4 ,the officers' quarters everywhere and four entire cantonments in the ,north--,devens in ,massachusetts1 ,grant in ,illinois1 ,custer in ,michigan1 and ,dodge in ,iowa--were heated by steam either from central heating plants or by means of ordinary boilers such as are used in residences4 ,the total surface of the steam radiators installed would make five gigantic stoves #cjj feet square and as high as the ,woolworth ,building in ,new ,york4 ,besides the camps and cantonments used by the line troops1 the ,construction ,division also built various special camps required by the mobilization1 training1 and transportation of the ,army4 ,these included the quartermaster training camp at ,jacksonville1 ,fla41 accommodating approximately #ce1jjj men2 and the camps for the ,engineering ,corps1 camps for heavy and light artillery training schools1 and for other special units4 ,camp ,joseph ,f4 ,johnston at ,blackpoint1 the quartermaster camp near ,jacksonville1 is a good example of one of these special training camps4 ,this consisted of quarters for #aej officers1 #cb barracks to house #bjj men each1 together with barracks for wagon companies1 pack companies1 truck companies1 and a bakery company1 as well as stables for #a1bjj animals and #ej riding horses1 together with storeroom buildings and truck and auto garages4 ,camp ,holabird1 near ,baltimore1 used for teaching men to repair and crate motor trucks and vehicles1 had accommodations for about #g1ejj men4 ,another special camp was ,camp ,humphreys1 for the training of men in the ,corps of ,engineers1 located a few miles down the ,potomac ,river from ,washington4 ,this camp could accommodate #cc1jjj men in #a1cej buildings located on a camp area of #b1ejj acres4 ,every foot of this site had to be cleared of timber and underbrush during one of the severest winters of recent years4 ,all material had to be hauled in trucks over fearful roads pending the construction of a #e-mile spur of railroad track1 yet the job was completed approximately on time4 ,other special camps included ,camp ,bragg for training ,field ,artillery1 located at ,fayetteville1 ,n4 ,c41 with quarters for #aa1jjj men2 ,camp ,knox at ,stithon1 ,ky41 for #cj1jjj men1 having an area of nearly #fj1jjj acres for training troops in the use of ,field ,artillery2 and ,camp ,franklin1 located on part of the ,camp ,meade cantonment reservation1 a special camp for ,signal ,corps instruction1 with accommodations for #aa1jjj men4 ,then there was the ,coast ,artillery training cantonment1 ,camp ,eustis at ,lee ,hall1 ,va41 which had accommodations for #ag1jjj men2 ,camp ,meigs at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 a quartermaster camp1 providing accommodations for #d1jjj men2 and ,camp ,benning1 at ,columbus1 ,ga41 an infantry school of arms1 to accommodate #e1jdj men1 on a camp area of #ih1jjj acres4 ,at ,camp ,raritan1 at ,raritan ,river1 ,n4 ,j41 the ,ordnance ,department established a training school for #f1bej men4 ,camps and cantonments built by ,construction ,division4 ,key3 7,a7 - ,maximum capacity4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,approximate ,name4 ,location4 7,a7 cost4 ,contractors4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,camp ,beauregard ,alexandria1 ,la4 #bi1aba #d1cjj1jjj,stewart ,mc,gehee1 ,hudson ,construction ,co41 ,j4 ,w4 ,snyder4 ,camp ,bowie ,fort ,worth1 ,tex4 #da1hgi #c1djj1jjj;,j4 ,w4 ,thompson1 ,h4 ,g4 ,bush4 ,camp ,bragg ,fayetteville1 ,n4,c4#aa1hca #aa1jjj1jjj;,james ,stewart ,co4 ,camp ,cody ,deming1 ,n4 ,mex4 #dd1iei #c1hjj1jjj;,j4 ,w4 ,thompson ,co41 ,h4 ,g4 ,bush4 ,camp ,custer ,battle ,creek1 ,mich#di1jad #ac1jjj1jjj,porter ,bros41 ,r4 ,g4 ,phelps1 ,w4 ,e4 ,wood ,co4 ,camp ,devens ,ayer1 ,mass4 #cf1hcb #aa1hjj1jjj;,fred ,t4 ,ley ,co41 ,coleman ,bros4 ,camp ,dix ,wrightstown1 ,n4 ,j4#db1hjf #ab1cjj1jjj;,irwin ,leighton ,co41 ,j4 ,s4 ,rogers ,co41 ,j4 ,w4 ,ferguson ,co4 ,camp ,dodge ,des ,moines1 ,iowa #di1bbi #aj1hjj1jjj;,charles ,weltz ,sons4 ,camp ,doniphan ,lawton1 ,okla4 #df1ahc #b1gjf1jjj,selden-,breck ,construction ,co41 ,trope ,carney4 ,camp ,abraham ,lee ,hall1 ,va4 #af1gei #aa1gjj1jjj,winston ,co4 ,eustis ,camp ,fremont ,palo ,alto1 ,calif4 #cj1jjj #b1eef1jjj,lindgren ,co41 ,e4 ,a4 ,hettinger4 ,camp ,funston ,fort ,riley1 ,kans4 #db1hjf #aj1ejj1jjj;,george ,a4 ,fuller ,construction ,co41 ,henry ,bennet ,son1 ,gray ,construction ,co4 ,camp ,gordon ,atlanta1 ,ga4 #df1fab #aa1ajj1jjj;,arthur ,tufts ,co41 ,mackie ,construction ,co41 ,southern-,ferro ,construction ,co4 ,camp ,meade ,odenton1 ,md4 #eb1ege #af1bjj1jjj;,claiborne ,johnson ,co41 ,smith1 ,houser ,mc,isaacs4 ,camp ,meigs ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #c1ggd #fee1jjj,philip ,f4 ,gormley1 ,frank ,l4 ,wagner4 ,camp ,merritt ,dumont1 ,n4 ,j4 #ci1jgi #ad1ejj1jjj,mc,arthur ,bros4 ,co41 ,w4 ,h4 ,fissell ,co4 ,camp ,mills ,garden ,city1 ,l4 ,i4#be1jjj #ac1jjj1jjj;,clough-,bourne ,co4 ,westinghouse-,church- ,kerr ,co41 ,hampton ,camp ,hill ,newport ,news1 ,va4 #e1hebaf1abe1jjj ,roads ,engineering ,camp ,stuart do4 #bd1bcd ,construction ,co41 ,boyle-,robertson ,construction ,co4 ,camp ,oglethorpe ,fort ,greenleaf #bd1deg #e1fjj1jjj,park-,grimes ,co4 ,forrest ,camp ,pike ,little ,rock1 ,ark4 #ee1jaj #ab1gjj1jjj;,james ,stewart ,co4 7,inc471 ,stewart ,mc,gehee ,co4 ,camp ,polk ,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c4 #cg ,holliday-,krouse ,co4 ,camp ,sevier ,greenville1 ,s4 ,c4 #da1fic #f1ejh1jjj;,gallivan ,building ,co4 ,camp ,shelby ,hattiesburg1 ,miss4#cf1jaj #e1djj1jjj,t4 ,s4 ,moudy ,co41 ,richard ,mc,carthy ,co4 ,camp ,sheridan ,montgomery1 ,ala4 #da1eic #c1ejj1jjj;,algernon ,blair1 ,paschen ,bros4 ,camp ,sherman ,chillicothe1 ,ohio #di1aab #ab1ijj1jjj,thomas ,a4 ,bently ,sons1 ,d4 ,w4 ,mc,grath ,sons4 ,camp ,taylor ,louisville1 ,ky4 #de1dbd #h1jjj1jjj,mason ,hanger1 ,alfred ,struck ,co4 ,camp ,travis ,san ,antonio1 ,tex4 #db1hji #h1bjj1jjj,stone ,webster1 ,mc,kenzie ,construction ,co4 ,camp ,upton ,yaphank1 ,l4 ,i4 #dc1efg #ac1ejj1jjj,thompson-,starrett ,co41 ,mark ,c4 ,tredennick ,co41 ,c4 ,h4 ,r4 ,c4 ,peckworth 7,inc474 ,camp ,grant ,rockford1 ,ill4 #fb1fge #ad1djj1jjj;,bates ,rogers ,construction ,co41 ,ross ,t4 ,beckstrom ,co41 ,henry ,erickson ,co4 ,camp ,green ,charlotte1 ,n4 ,c4 #dh1cje #d1cjj1jjj;,consolidated ,engineering ,co41 ,j4 ,a4 ,jones ,co4 ,camp ,hancock ,augusta1 ,ga4 #de1jii #f1jjj1jjj,t4 ,o4 ,brown ,co41 ,william ,crawford4 ,camp ,humphreys ,belvoir1 ,va4 #cb1dcd #ab1gde1jjj,phillip ,f4 ,gormley ,co4 ,camp ,jackson ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c4 #dd1jji #aj1jjj1jjj;,hardaway ,construction ,co41 ,columbia ,lumber ,manufacturing ,co41 ,h4 ,b4 ,hann4 ,camp ,jackson1 do4 #cg ,hardaway ,construction ,no4 ,co4 ,camp ,johnston ,jacksonville1 ,fla4#ah1bfe ,t4 ,a4 ,bentley ,sons41 ,j4 ,y4 ,wilson4 ,camp ,kearney ,san ,diego1 ,calif4 #cb1jff #e1hch1jjj,w4 ,e4 ,hampton ,co41 ,john ,roberts ,co4 ,camp ,knox ,stithton1 ,ky4 #bg1hje #ah1gcc1ahd;,john ,w4 ,griffith ,sons4 ,camp ,las ,casas ,san ,juan1 #ac1bfe #b1ejj1jjj,purdy ,henderson ,co4 ,porto ,rico ,camp ,lee ,petersburg1 ,va4 #fj1cce #af1ejj1jjj,rhinehart ,dennis 7,inc471 ,harrison ,construction ,co41 ,john ,t4 ,wilson ,co4 7,inc474 ,camp ,lewis ,american ,lake #df1bcb #h1djj1jjj;,hurley ,mason ,co41 7,tacoma71 ,wash4 ,the ,construction ,co4 ,camp ,logan ,houston1 ,tex4 #dd1hii #c1cjj1jjj;,american ,construction ,co41 ,horton ,horton4 ,camp ,mc,arthur ,waco1 ,tex4 #de1jgd #d1jjj1jjj;,fred ,a4 ,jones ,construction ,co41 ,blome ,sinek ,co41 ,edgar ,h4 ,bruyere4 ,camp ,mc,clellan ,anniston1 ,ala4 #eg1gdf #i1hjj1jjj;,john ,o4 ,chisholm ,co41 ,labarre ,erwin1 ,a4 ,w4 ,stoolman4 ,camp ,wadsworth ,spartanburg1 ,s4 ,c4#ef1bdi #d1jjj1jjj;,fiske ,carter ,co4 ,camp ,wheeler ,macon1 ,ga4 #dc1jaa #c1bjj1jjj,w4 ,z4 ,williams4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #cg ,abandoned4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,construction4 ,great as was the job of building the army camps and cantonments1 it was nevertheless only a part of the work which fell to the ,construction ,division1 and much the smaller part at that4 ,on ,november #aa1 #aiah1 the ,construction ,division was conducting #ece building operations in #ddb localities in the ,united ,states4 ,these involved an aggregate expenditure of more than #a1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,including the various camps and cantonments1 these activities were being conducted or had been conducted in every ,state of the ,union but one4 ,an average of more than #bjj1jjj workmen1 principally of the building trades1 had been engaged continuously for months4 ,in the executive administration of the work the organization required #a1dhg officers and #ab1cee civilian ,government employees1 of whom #b1eee were located at the offices of the division in ,washington4 ,merely for the maintenance and the operation of the various completed projects a force of #af1cei enlisted men was required4 ,in a little more than a year the organization had grown from a handful of clerks and executives to one of this size4 ,the brigadier general who headed the ,construction ,division had been a ,captain when war was declared4 ,in this period the organization had housed a population equal to that of the city of ,philadelphia in #dj large camps1 each in number of inhabitants comparing in size to such cities as ,racine1 ,wis41 ,cedar ,rapids1 ,iowa1 or ,wheeling1 ,w4 ,va4 ,it had constructed storage depots and warehouses that would cover #hij acres4 ,it had built hospitals with beds for #abh1cgh patients4 ,it had purchased and nailed up #b1fdg1fje1dbf board feet of lumber1 enough to stretch around the ,equator twenty times in boards #ab inches wide and #a inch thick4 ,loaded on freight cars to their capacity this lumber would require a train reaching from ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 to ,kansas ,city4 ,it had used enough brick to build an #ah-;foot road from ,kansas ,city to ,chicago4 ,it had constructed #fde miles of railroads and made #a1jha miles of wagon roads1 mostly of concrete4 ,these are only a few of the high points in this building record4 ,there are few undertakings of mankind in all history which can be compared with this enterprise4 ,the price paid for the ,panama ,canal and the ,canal of ,suez1 the cost of damming the ,nile and tunneling the ,alps1 and the money spent on building the ,government railway into the heart of ,alaska might be lumped together and still the aggregate would not equal the cost of providing the buildings1 exclusive of those of the training camps1 which the ,american ,army had to have in the ,united ,states after it went to war4 ,we can gain a picture of the size of this construction by considering the building records of the ,united ,states4 ,in this country there are about #aej cities large enough and ambitious enough to keep annual building statistics as the indices of their prosperity4 ,in these cities1 whose populations range in size from that of ,new ,york down to those of communities of #bj1jjj or #be1jjj inhabitants1 dwell nearly a quarter of all the ,americans4 ,they are metropolitans1 the people who demand most of the builder for their comfort and luxury4 ,yet in no one year had the building construction in these #aej largest ,american cities combined approached in amount within #bej1jjj1jjj of the cost of our military construction undertaken during the war4 ,the ,government became not only the greatest of customers for the building industry but almost the sole customer4 ,this whole great industry1 one of the largest in the country1 which had been busy in its interminable task of providing the mansions of peace1 was suddenly converted under military direction into a machine for building a titantic war plant4 ,before the ,nation could mobilize its material resources or train its human ones for war it must have buildings--headquarters for its executives1 barracks for its men1 structures for its various arsenals for the manufacture of explosives and chemicals1 warehouses for the storage of reserves of material1 terminals for the transfer of overseas shipments1 schools1 laboratories1 proving grounds for testing its weapons1 hospitals1 embarkation depots1 and a vast number of structures for less conspicuous activities4 ,it was the work of the ,construction ,division to provide these facilities4 ,exclusive of the cantonments themselves1 this work fell into projects ranging in size from small building groups costing a few thousand dollars to enormous powder plants1 huge terminal docks1 vast warehouses and other great undertakings costing #aj1jjj1jjj1 #af1jjj1jjj1 #be1jjj1jjj1 #dj1jjj1jjj1 and as high as #gj1jjj1jjj for a single project4 ,,ordnance ,,construction4 ,perhaps the most striking of these undertakings were the various construction jobs called for by the ordnance program4 ,there were more than #fj of these1 and they ranged in cost from #ajj1jjj up to #gj1jjj1jjj4 ,one of the larger of these projects was that of the ,aberdeen proving grounds on ,chesapeake ,bay1 not far distant from ,baltimore4 ,this reservation1 with its area of #ce1jjj acres and its magnificent testing and observation ranges1 #ge miles in length1 over the waters of the bay1 will undoubtedly be retained permanently by the ,government4 ,as the plant exists to-day it has a capacity of testing #e1jjj shell between daylight and dark4 ,at ,aberdeen the ,construction ,division built barracks to house #h1jjj men1 quarters for #bcj officers1 and all the accessories of convenience and amusement which a community of that size should have4 ,guns came to the proving grounds unassembled1 so that it was necessary to build an assembly plant4 ,this building is #afe feet wide and #ejj feet long and cost #a1jjj1jjj4 ,as an adjunct to the assembly plant there is a machine shop which is one of the largest in the ,united ,states4 ,mention should be made of the #be miles of standard railway trackage which the ,construction ,division put down at ,aberdeen4 ,this was exclusive of the spur tracks for the heavy guns mounted on railway carriages4 ,these tracks approached the firing range on apparently outlandish curves and at every variety of angle4 ,the guns were fired at these various angles to determine if the recoil would push the carriages from the track or would spread the rails4 ,the development of aerial bombing and the necessity for testing our own aerial bombs required the construction at ,aberdeen of hangars and quarters for an aviation squadron4 ,in addition to these facilities1 the project involved the construction of powder magazines1 shell-loading plants1 and warehouses4 ,there were built #ae miles of concrete roads and #cj miles of roads of other types4 ,garage accommodations were provided for #ajj trucks and automobiles4 ,the firing ranges required observation towers of various sorts4 ,the observation dugouts had to be of special strength1 because certain of the tests at ,aberdeen involved the actual bursting of gun barrels1 making necessary specially heavy protection for the observers4 ,aberdeen is equipped with a complete waterworks system and with a hospital for #bej patients4 ,an interesting laboratory constructed on the grounds is that in which the so-called dud shell1 or those which fail to explode1 are analyzed for their defects4 ,the ,aberdeen project was started in ,december1 #aiag1 and first tests were made within a month4 ,the entire project cost over #cj1jjj1jjj4 ,one section of the ,aberdeen reservation1 about #d1jjj acres of it1 was set apart for the uses of the gas-warfare organization of the ,army and was later known as the ,edgewood ,arsenal4 ,the progress at ,edgewood is indicative of the manner in which chemical warfare increased in importance during our period of belligerency4 ,it was originally estimated that #bej1jjj would provide a plant at ,edgewood sufficient for our chemical-warfare needs4 ,the actual cost of the ,edgewood ,arsenal at the date of the armistice1 so great had been the expansion of chemical warfare1 was about #dc1jjj1jjj4 ,at that time there had been constructed or were in process of construction filling plants that could turn out #abj1jjj loaded gas shell per day4 ,the equipment at ,edgewood includes a cantonment for #aj1jjj men1 some of it of permanent construction4 ,there were built #aj miles of macadam road at ,edgewood and #ae miles of railway1 in addition to large warehouses and a dock where loaded shell could be freighted upon lighters to deep water4 ,another project made necessary by the expansion of chemical warfare was the gas proving grounds at ,lakehurst1 ,n4 ,j41 the entire project costing #a1ejj1jjj4 ,the site of #e1jjj acres provided space for two target ranges1 each #d miles long4 ,extensive laboratories were built at ,lakehurst1 and the proving ground was operated by a force of #a1ejj men4 ,in addition to this there was located at ,lakehurst a camp for #c1djj troops in training4 ,all buildings for these facilities were provided by the ,construction ,division4 ,in addition to ,aberdeen and ,lakehurst the ,construction ,division built a proving ground at ,clear ,springs1 ,md41 used for testing out #cg-millimeter guns2 another such institution at ,port ,clinton1 ,ohio1 for testing #aee-millimeter and #bdj-millimeter howitzers2 and others at ,scituate1 ,mass41 and ,savanna1 ,ill4 ,the combined cost of these last four projects was #f1ejg1ebj4 ,one important undertaking of the ,construction ,division was that of providing warehouse depots for ordnance materials4 ,these supplies differ from ordinary ,army supplies in the important particular that they must be treated gently and handled with care4 ,a quartermaster storehouse can be of emergency construction type1 that is1 more or less built of wood1 but an ordnance storehouse1 since it usually contains high explosives1 must be strictly fireproof4 ,in undertaking the creation in record time of a number of ordnance depots the ,construction ,division faced not only the problem of the type of building required but also the location of these buildings4 ,it was necessary to locate them at deep water in order to avoid frequent handling of the high explosives1 yet no depot could be situated in any thickly settled center because of the danger to the civilian population4 ,at most deep-water points on the ,atlantic coast which had railway connections the available sites were already occupied4 ,the result was that the ordnance depots had to be built on marshes and meadows1 on land which for construction purposes had always been regarded as impossible4 ,yet they had to be completed in as much of a rush as any buildings which the ,army demanded4 ,there are now five of these great ordnance depots on the ,atlantic coast built by the ,construction ,division3 at ,metuchen1 ,n4 ,j42 ,curtis ,bay1 ,md42 ,pig ,point1 ,va42 ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c42 and ,pedricktown1 ,del4 ,the largest of these is the one at ,metuchen1 known as the ,raritan ,arsenal4 ,the ,raritan site contains about #b1bjj acres of salt marsh4 ,high tides used to submerge the whole area almost completely4 ,before any building could be started the ,construction ,division had to build a dike #i miles long around the whole reservation4 ,the entire project was perched on piles1 and these piles1 by the tens of thousands1 were driven into the frozen ground during the severe winter of #aiag-ah4 ,labor was hard to get and hard to keep4 ,after the laborers' quarters had been built and a few powder magazines had been erected1 it became almost impossible to keep men on the job because of the danger of working in a powder arsenal4 ,most of the ,raritan buildings are of terra-cotta construction4 ,there are #he completed magazines1 each #ea feet wide and #bah feet long1 for the storage of shell1 black powder1 and miscellaneous items1 this number not including #ab magazines of sheet-metal construction1 each #bf by #db feet1 for the storage of high explosives4 ,when the armistice was signed the ,construction ,division was building #fj similar magazines intended for the storage of smokeless powder4 ,at ,raritan was also located a school of instruction for ordnance troops1 with a cantonment to accommodate #aj1jjj men4 ,a #aej-;bed hospital was part of the equipment1 as was also an assembly shop and a motor-instruction school4 ,along the river a dock was built #b1jjj feet long4 ,on the dock were constructed several huge warehouses for the storage of material4 ,fifty miles of railway were constructed4 ,the project on the armistice date was probably the best equipped ordnance depot in the world4 ,it cost about #ad1jjj1jjj4 ,the next largest ordnance depot is that at ,curtis ,bay near ,baltimore4 ,it is half the size of the ,raritan project and cost about #g1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,pig ,point ordnance depot is located at ,hampton ,roads1 about #ab miles from ,portsmouth1 ,va4 ,in order to obtain berthing facilities for trans-,atlantic ships it was necessary to build a dock more than a mile long out to deep water4 ,the dock is said to be the longest wharf in the ,united ,states south of ,philadelphia4 ,the ,pig ,point job cost about #c1ejj1jjj4 ,the ,charleston ,arsenal cost #e1jjj1jjj2 while #g1jjj1jjj was the amount provided for the arsenal at ,pedricktown4 ,the ,pedricktown job1 however1 was started late1 and not over #b1jjj1jjj had been spent when the armistice was signed4 ,in addition to these five terminal depots the ,construction ,division provided two other ordnance warehouses for the storage of miscellaneous supplies--one at ,middletown1 ,pa41 costing #a1bej1jjj1 and the other at ,augusta1 ,ga41 costing #bej1jjj4 ,the description of the powder bag-loading plants1 which were built by the ,construction ,division1 is contained in the chapter of this report relating to the production of powder and other explosives4 ,there were three of these plants1 one located at ,woodbury1 ,n4 ,j41 another at ,tullytown1 ,pa41 and the third on the historic battle ground at ,seven ,pines1 ,va4 ,since these plants were perforce located at isolated places it was necessary in each case to provide housing accommodations for the workers1 many of whom were women4 ,the ,construction ,division built the houses at ,tullytown and ,woodbury while those at ,seven ,pines were provided by the ,united ,states ,industrial ,housing ,corporation4 ,these bag-loading plants cost from #d1ejj1jjj to #f1jjj1jjj apiece1 and they were erected in a remarkably short time4 ,work was started on the ,woodbury project on ,march #ai1 #aiah1 and the plant was ready for operation on ,may #bh1 although the plant did not actually start operating until ,june #ae4 ,the spade was first struck into the ground at ,tullytown on ,march #f1 #aiah1 and on ,july #ag the #bej buildings of the project were ready4 ,the work at ,seven ,pines began ,april #bd1 and the plant was ready for operation on ,august #bd1 #aiah4 ,,aviation ,,schools ,,and ,,testing ,,fields4 ,the ,signal ,corps1 needing a special type of construction1 undertook the work itself at the start of war1 but by ,october1 #aiag1 the ,construction ,division had proved itself so efficient that all ,army building work in the ,united ,states1 including that of the ,signal ,corps1 was turned over to it4 ,the work for the ,signal ,corps entailed the construction of the necessary buildings for flying fields1 testing fields1 aerial photography1 and gunnery schools1 balloon observation schools1 repair and testing shops1 and tremendous storage depots that had to be of special fireproof construction because of the inflammable nature of the oil and other materials used by the ,signal ,corps4 ,at the aviation fields a special type of portable hangar built of steel1 #fe by #adj feet1 was adopted4 ,for the big bombing planes larger hangars were required but of the same-type of construction4 ,at each aviation field were barracks for a large number of men1 together with water and sanitary conveniences4 ,there were #ca of these fields located principally in the ,west or ,southwest4 ,in addition to these there were four testing fields for the aircraft service1 located in the eastern half of the ,united ,states where the flying machines and the engines were being produced4 ,one of these was at ,dayton1 another at ,buffalo1 a third at ,detroit1 and a fourth at ,elizabeth1 ,n4 ,j4 ,the aerial gunnery school at ,miami1 ,fla41 was one of the largest of the aviation-construction projects4 ,this plant included buildings1 target ranges1 steel hangars1 photographic laboratories and other equipment--all built at a cost of #a1ejj1jjj4 ,the balloon school at ,lee ,hall1 ,va41 cost #a1jjj1jjj1 and that at ,arcadia1 ,calif41 #ejj1jjj4 ,at each of these schools there were barracks for the men1 quarters for the laborers1 and experimental buildings1 not to speak of the huge sheds1 #bjj or more feet in length1 in which the balloons were housed4 ,,quartermaster ,,bases ,,and ,,warehouses4 ,construction for the ,quartermaster ,department involved the building of warehouses on a scale hitherto unknown in the ,united ,states4 ,the warehouse plan was carefully worked out as part of the strategy of conducting the war1 the ,council of ,national ,defense making the first investigations of the proper locations of supply depots1 and these early findings being later amended by the ,general ,staff4 ,several important considerations determined the locations of these depots and warehouses4 ,in the first place we would require great storage and shipping facilities at tidewater2 yet1 if these were all to be located in one spot or in one general region1 there was a possibility that a submarine blockade off the ,atlantic coast could stop the shipment of supplies to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,thus the first project was to locate the great supply bases at ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 and ,norfolk4 ,but it was evident that a relatively small number of enemy submarines operating in a comparatively restricted area could block shipment from these four ports4 ,therefore ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 and ,new ,orleans were added to the supply-base project4 ,there was another thing to be taken into consideration1 namely1 the providing of sufficient warehouse space1 so that1 if there should be any blockade of ocean transportation1 the manufacture of supplies could continue at its war rate and still find places to which to ship its important products4 ,yet if the storage were all provided at the tidewater bases1 there would be danger of railroad congestion at the ports4 ,consequently1 as auxiliary to the terminal warehouses1 there was provided a system of enormous warehouses built in the interior of the ,united ,states4 ,the system eventually worked out to give seven expeditionary supply bases located1 six of them1 at the cities just named1 in addition to one that had been built at ,port ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 during the winter of #aiag1 and nine interior depots located respectively at ,baltimore1 ,chicago1 ,columbus1 ,ohio1 ,jeffersonville1 ,ind41 ,new ,cumberland1 ,pa41 ,philadelphia1 ,pittsburgh1 ,schenectady1 ,n4 ,y41 and ,st4 ,louis4 ,these latter were central in various producing districts4 ,the terminal projects alone involved construction on a scale that was without precedent4 ,the interior depots and the huge terminal bases provided #fij acres of storage space1 all inclosed in reinforced concrete of the most modern type4 ,they were all built in a little over #ab months4 ,into them went construction enough to build a concrete building #gj feet wide from ,new ,york to ,philadelphia and a wharf nearly #h miles long1 with berthing accommodations for #fe ships at once4 ,the facilities included #fej miles of railroad and #a1jjj miles of concrete roadway4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,orleans ,,army ,,supply ,,base4 ,illustration3 ,,brooklyn ,,army ,,supply ,,base4 ,illustration3 ,,brooklyn ,,army ,,supply ,,base4 ,illustration3 ,,boston ,,army ,,supply ,,base4 ,the ,army supply bases at ,brooklyn and at ,boston are examples of the immensity of the expeditionary depots built along the ,atlantic seacoast4 ,the base at ,brooklyn has approximately #d1jjj1jjj square feet of storage space in its two huge #h-story reinforced concrete warehouses4 ,one of these warehouses is #ihj feet long by #bjj feet wide and the other is #ihj feet long by #cjj feet wide4 ,in addition to these1 the installation at the base consists of three double-deck piers1 each #aej feet wide and #a1cjj feet long1 and one open pier #fj feet wide and #a1cjj feet long4 ,in its railroad yards there is storage space for #a1cjj cars at one time4 ,the capacity of the base is #gjj1jjj tons of supplies1 or the equivalent of about #ajj shiploads4 ,twelve ships of #h1jjj tons1 dead weight each1 can be loaded at one time1 and the loading of these vessels can be completed within #bd hours1 so vast and complete are the facilities at this project4 ,construction started at the site on ,may #ae1 #aiah4 ,more than #g1jjj workmen were engaged on this job at one time1 and the entire project was to be completed before ,july #a1 #aiai1 while it was to be in partial operation by ,january #a4 ,when the armistice was signed1 #d1chg1cfj square feet of floor space had been completed and #ahg1agc cubic yards of concrete had been poured4 ,the base at ,boston is #h stories high1 built of concrete1 and gives #b1gej1jjj feet of storage room4 ,its wharves are #d1jjj feet long4 ,the work on it was started ,may #ad1 #aiah1 and ended ,october #c4 ,in that time #bjj1jjj cubic yards of concrete had been poured1 #bb1jjj tons of reinforcing and structural steel put into position1 #c1jjj1jjj brick laid1 #cj1jjj piles driven1 #a1ejj1jjj cubic yards dredged1 and #cj miles of track laid4 ,in all1 #g1jjj carloads of material were handled in this building4 ,the ,norfolk base is located at ,bush ,bluff1 #d miles from the city4 ,the chief feature of this project is a group of eight #a-story concrete buildings providing #b1jjj1jjj square feet of storage space4 ,the pier sheds are built of concrete blown by compressed air upon steel lath4 ,the docks total a mile in length4 ,the base can handle #fjj cars of supplies in a day4 ,in addition to the storage and shipping buildings themselves1 the ,construction ,division provided quarters for a regiment of stevedores and a battalion of guards4 ,a #abj-;bed hospital was erected at the project4 ,the wharfage front was made of concrete piles weighing #ab tons apiece1 and #bag acres of land were made by dredging outside of the piles and filling in behind them4 ,the work was started in ,may and was nearly finished when the armistice was signed4 ,the ,norfolk and ,hampton ,roads district has the distinction of being the center of more war construction than was conducted at any other point in the ,united ,states4 ,there were located here the ,navy arsenal1 the ,navy yard1 the ,navy training station1 and the great ,norfolk naval base4 ,the largest construction project of all at ,norfolk was the quartermaster terminal which the ,construction ,division built there4 ,but in addition to these there was the ,pig ,point ordnance depot1 described above1 ,camp ,stuart and ,camp ,hill1 both embarkation camps1 the ,artillery school at ,fortress ,monroe1 ,camp ,eustis1 and the ,langley aviation field of the ,army4 ,with so many construction undertakings going on at once1 the labor problem proved to be an early embarrassment at the ,norfolk quartermaster terminal job4 ,however1 good quarters and good food for the construction gangs at the terminal largely solved this problem4 ,at one time in the development on the shores of this part of ,chesapeake ,bay1 the street car and electric lighting system of ,norfolk broke down under the strain4 ,the ,government thereupon took the power house and operated it thereafter for the duration of the emergency4 ,the interior storage depots of the ,quartermaster ,department provide #ab1jjj1jjj square feet of storage4 ,they are all of permanent construction4 ,they range in size from the one at ,pittsburgh1 with #ahd1jjj square feet1 to that at ,schenectady with #b1ejj1jjj square feet4 ,the depot at ,chicago was built by the ,central ,manufacturing ,district as contractor on a site sold by its trustees to the ,government4 ,this structure1 costing #c1jjj1jjj and giving #bi acres of storage1 was built completely in the period between ,march #d and ,september #ae1 #aiah4 ,,motor ,,transport ,,construction4 ,there was extensive construction for the ,motor ,transport ,corps4 ,few civilians perhaps realize the size attained by this branch of the ,army1 with its more than #c1jjj officers and #ajj1jjj men in the ,united ,states and abroad4 ,the ,construction ,division designed a standardized repair shop to be used in this country or to be transported overseas as desired4 ,there were three centers of repair1 shipment1 and the training of men for the ,motor ,transport ,service1 the largest being ,camp ,holabird at ,baltimore and the others1 ,camp ,jesup at ,atlanta1 and ,camp ,normoyle at ,san ,antonio1 ,tex4 ,when the armistice was signed the ,army had in this country thousands of motor trucks1 motorcycles1 and ambulances4 ,perhaps #hj per cent of these were located in the districts subsidiary to ,camp ,holabird4 ,consequently1 there were constructed at ,holabird an enormous repair shop and a shop for the taking down and shipping of motor vehicles4 ,the machine shops at these camps were of permanent construction4 ,large storage facilities were also furnished4 ,the experiences of the ,army in ,mexico taught that to be effective motor transport must have adequate facilities for repair4 ,the standardized army repair shop is of glass1 steel1 and concrete construction4 ,it is operated by #ee officers and #a1djj men4 ,illustration3 ,,quartermaster ,,storage ,,depot ,,built ,,by ,,construction ,,division ,,at ,,st4 ,,louis4 ,illustration3 ,,chicago ,,permanent ,,quartermaster ,,depot ,,warehouses4 ,one of the most interesting buildings provided for the ,motor ,transport ,corps was the crating shop at ,camp ,holabird4 ,the first motor trucks sent overseas were shipped completely assembled4 ,in addition to taking up unnecessarily much-needed cargo space on the transports1 they frequently arrived in poor condition1 due to the effects of the salt air upon their metal parts4 ,consequently1 it was decided to ship trucks disassembled in crates4 ,one of these huge vehicles could be taken apart and1 except for its truck body1 wrapped up in a parcel #bj feet long1 #dj inches wide and #dj inches deep4 ,the truck body could be packed in a crate #ab feet long and #f feet wide and #a foot thick4 ,these crates were moisture proof4 ,the crating of trucks saved #ge per cent of the ship space formerly required4 ,the crating crews became so facile that they could take down and pack in a single day from a mile and a half to two miles of trucks4 ,this unique shop cost #ejj1jjj4 ,the construction at ,camp ,holabird started ,february #d1 #aiah4 ,the camp now occupies #add acres and has a cantonment for #g1jjj men4 ,the #bb buildings of an abandoned distillery on the ground were remodeled to serve as permanent storehouses for the millions of dollars' worth of tools and motor-vehicle parts which the ,government acquired in the war4 ,,army ,,hospitals4 ,for the ,surgeon ,general's ,department the ,construction ,division constructed hospitals in this country providing accommodations for a total of #aba1jjj patients1 #ab1jjj nurses1 #d1jjj doctors1 and #cd1jjj hospital operation and maintenance troops4 ,there were #bid of these hospitals in all1 built at a total cost of #abg1gbe1jjj and divided into three types3 base hospitals located at the various training camps1 departmental hospitals located at various other ,army posts1 and general hospitals for the reception of sick and wounded men returning from ,france4 ,the construction of general hospitals did not cease with the signing of the armistice1 and at a recent date it had provided #ig1jjj beds for patients4 ,the builders adopted a standardized type of hospital construction4 ,the unit in this type was a single-story ward building of frame construction lined in the interior with gypsum board or some similar material4 ,an open porch along the entire length of one side of the ward building provided opportunity for convalescents to be wheeled outdoors4 ,each ward had room for #cd beds and also had a diet kitchen1 a nurses' room1 a doctors' room1 lavatories1 and an inclosed solarium at the end4 ,these buildings were connected with each other by inclosed corridors running through the clear4 ,at the ,fox ,hills ,hospital1 ,staten ,island1 ,n4 ,y41 there was a mile and a quarter of this corridor construction4 ,the corridors in each case fed in toward the central administration group of buildings in which were located the operating rooms and the various laboratories4 ,as crews developed their teamwork some marvelous instances of speed were shown in putting up the buildings4 ,one crew of #eff men at ,fox ,hills erected a complete hospital wing in one working day4 ,at #g o'clock in the morning the ground of the site was untouched4 ,that night at #f o'clock a #dj-;bed ward was standing finished on the site--painted1 equipped with heating and ventilating apparatus1 all plumbing installed1 the last electric bulb screwed in1 and in every respect ready for occupancy4 ,it was like magic2 yet soon thereafter the ,construction ,division had set the period of #aj hours as the standard time for building one of these wings4 ,general ,hospital ,no4 #c located at ,otisville1 ,n4 ,y41 has a capacity of #egi beds and is a complete military hospital plant designed for the treatment of tubercular cases4 ,a short summary of the work done upon it will give an idea of the general nature of the construction problems incident to the building of the military hospitals during the winter and spring of #aiah4 ,on ,february #b1 #aiah1 the ,constructing ,quartermaster with a few officers and clerks arrived at the site of the hospital1 about #cg acres of land1 near the village of ,otisville1 ,orange ,county1 ,n4 ,y41 on the southern slope of ,shawangunk ,mountain4 ,the contractor and his organization came on the same day4 ,they found the site covered with snow and with no accommodations even for the office force of the ,constructing ,quartermaster or the contractor1 except an old creamery building1 which was promptly rented and into which the two organizations moved the next day4 ,actual work was started ,february #e and continued through every severity of weather until the project was completed in the early part of ,july4 ,the work was interrupted1 hindered1 and hampered by snow and mud1 by transportation congestion preventing the delivery of materials on time1 by the absence of local labor and the necessity for importing labor from near-by markets wherever it could be procured1 and by the consequent necessity for running special trains to transport laborers to and from the job4 ,no local facilities existed for housing any of the workmen1 and temporary accommodations had to be built to accommodate #bjj ,italian laborers both in the matter of shelter and food4 ,the average height above sea level of the site of this hospital is a little over #a1jjj feet4 ,it was found after construction began that the site was full of springs1 which caused further trouble and difficulty in developing the building operations4 ,the cost of the project was #a1fha1jjj4 ,about #cjj carloads of material were used1 including approximately #c1jjj1jjj feet of lumber4 ,the largest number of laborers employed at any one time was #a1gie1 with a working day1 as a rule1 of nine hours1 union and nonunion labor being employed without discrimination4 ,water supply1 sewer construction1 roads1 #ccj feet of railway siding1 sewage disposal plant1 electrical installation1 and boiler houses1 all had to be built4 ,the work was all completed early in ,july1 #aiah4 ,in addition to the bed capacity of the hospital1 accommodations were provided for a hospital personnel of #bbd4 ,one of the largest hospitals involving entirely new construction is ,general ,hospital ,no4 #ba1 ,denver1 ,colo4 ,this is also a hospital for the treatment of tuberculosis cases4 ,the construction is permanent1 hollow tile and stucco1 and the hospital facilities are sufficient to accommodate #b1jjj beds for recuperative and curative work4 ,the plant consists of hospital wards1 tuberculosis wards1 officers' quarters1 nurses' quarters1 mess halls1 storehouses1 laundry1 schoolhouse1 power house1 water and sewer installation1 and all of the necessary utilities for the adequate operation of a completely self-contained unit4 ,the original authorization covered only #a1jjj beds4 ,subsequently there was authorized an addition equally as large1 and the entire project was completed on ,march #a1 #aiai4 ,the actual capacity of the hospital is in excess of the capacity estimated when the work was begun1 and it is estimated that #b1dhf patients can be cared for1 the cost per bed running less than #a1cej4 ,in view of the nature and character of the permanent construction involved1 and the fact that this is a military hospital with the usual numerous construction details not found in civilian hospitals1 the construction at this figure is regarded as exceptional4 ,,incidents ,,of ,,the ,,work4 ,when the ,government undertook the whole enormous military construction program1 it was found that there were few builders in the ,united ,states who had equipment enough to handle the bigger jobs4 ,consequently the ,construction ,division adopted the policy of acquiring equipment of various sorts1 usually paying rent for it4 ,such equipment included locomotive cranes1 concrete mixers1 locomotives for trench machines1 road machinery1 and other heavy apparatus4 ,this equipment was rented under an agreement that whenever the rent paid had aggregated the cost of the article rented1 the latter should become the property of the ,government4 ,in this way the ,government has acquired property of this sort worth about #c1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,construction ,division at all times procured raw materials for the contractors engaged upon the projects4 ,during the summer of #aiah the division was procuring material at an average rate of nearly #a1jjj1jjj per day4 ,there were many interesting incidents in connection with this activity4 ,in the summer of #aiag1 when the cantonments were going up1 it became necessary to provide some #fj1jjj stoves and heaters1 yet there were not that many stoves for sale in the country including all existing stocks1 nor was the capacity of the various stove works sufficient to make up the number in the three months' period before the soldiers would be going to the camps4 ,accordingly1 officers of the division were sent out to make addresses to the workmen at the stove factories1 and as a result of such efforts the companies speeded up their output until they were able to supply all of the camps with heating facilities by ,october #a1 #aiag4 ,in this effort the ,government went into the market and procured the pig iron1 coke1 and other supplies for the stove foundries4 ,the ,construction ,division was also able to obtain #ae1jjj ,army kitchen ranges in three months1 although that number is a normal year's output of the entire manufacturing facilities of the country4 ,when the project for the expeditionary supply base at ,port ,newark was taken up--in the late fall of #aiag--the ,construction ,division set about it to get #fc1cgg piles for the foundations of this construction4 ,there were #fd pile drivers on the job1 driving in a total of #a1eff piles in a day2 and to supply these the woodsmen of ,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,new ,jersey were called upon for their best efforts4 ,due to the unforeseen severity of the winter1 the rivers were frozen and the railroads choked with freight4 ,near by was the ,hog ,island shipbuilding project at ,philadelphia1 needing more piles than the railroads could deliver4 ,the trees in the woods were frozen and often broke to pieces when they fell4 ,in the southern logging districts the negro woodsmen refused to stay on the job because of the cold4 ,the ,construction ,division then took hold1 sent soldiers into the woods1 felled the trees1 and then put guards on the cars of piling1 to see that they were not lost in transit4 ,as a result1 the piles for the ,port ,newark job were delivered on time4 ,in addition to procuring materials for its own contractors1 the ,construction ,division also procured building materials for the ,shipping ,board and for the ,bureau of ,industrial ,housing4 ,the peak load of labor on the ,army construction jobs came in the summer of #aiah1 when #bcj1jjj men were on the pay roll1 drawing #g1fbf1hjj a week in pay1 and still the jobs were short #aej1jjj unskilled men4 ,in general1 the union scale of wages and hours of labor were adopted1 but the open shop was maintained4 ,labor troubles were infrequent and not serious4 ,to prevent strikes the ,government formed the ,cantonment ,adjustment ,commission1 consisting of three members1 the ,army representative being ,col4 ,j4 ,h4 ,alexander1 of the ,construction ,division4 ,of all the strikes that hampered our war activities1 less than #a per cent were strikes of the building trades4 ,when the labor shortage of #aiah was most acute the ,construction ,division turned to ,porto ,rico and the ,bahamas for unskilled labor1 importing #b1fjj ,bahamans and #ac1jjj ,porto ,ricans4 ,this imported labor was exclusively used on southern building projects and was sent back home when the armistice was signed4 ,the ,construction ,division had charge of the operation and maintenance of the utilities of the various training camps1 a work requiring a force of #deb officers and #af1eei men4 ,in all there were #ed1hjh buildings at these camps to be kept in repair4 ,this was done at the cost of #h4aj a year for each man housed4 ,the ,government supplied electricity to the camps at an average cost of #j4jb per kilowatt hour4 ,in a single year of operation1 the #cb camps burned about #b1jjj1jjj tons of coal for heating4 ,this was at a cost of approximately #aj per man4 ,the utilities of the camps were under the management of men who could qualify to be city managers4 ,they had the operation of water systems1 fire departments1 and other common conveniences of cities4 ,water was supplied at the rate of #ee gallons daily per man4 ,the purity of the water and the adequacy of the sanitation may be gauged from the fact that in ,july and ,august1 #aiah1 the annual death rate at the camps was #b4h per thousand4 ,in our ,mexican ,war the annual death rate of ,american troops from disease was #aaj per thousand2 in the ,civil ,war it was #fe per thousand2 in the ,spanish ,war #bf per thousand2 and among ,japanese troops in the ,russo-,japanese ,war it was #be per thousand4 ,the death rate in civil life for men of the draft age is #f4g per thousand4 ,each camp and cantonment was adequately protected by fire companies equipped with the most modern apparatus1 nearly all of it motorized4 ,each camp fire company had #fj men4 ,a low annual fire loss in civil life is #b per capita4 ,in #aiag1 #bj ,american cities of about #ca1jjj population each showed an annual fire loss of #b4ae per capita4 ,the average for the ,united ,states is #b4db per capita4 ,at the training camps1 in spite of their inflammable construction1 the average annual loss from fire per capita was only #df cents4 ,,table #a4--;,army supply bases and interior depots built by ,construction ,division between ,april1 #aiag1 and ,january1 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,project4 ,square feet ,approximate ,general of floor area4 cost4 contractor4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,port ,newark terminal #a1ffb1djj #aj1bfj1jjj ,mason ,hanger- #chceg1jjj ,mc,arthur ,bros4 ,norfolk ,army supply base #b1jae1jjj #be1ige1ggj ,porter ,bros4 #cihhd1ejj ,philadelphia ,army supply base #cde1egj #ae1eaj1aab ,snare ,triest ,co4 ,charleston quartermaster #a1aeb1jjj terminal #chcgi1bjj #ab1fge1jjj ,mason ,hanger4 #cibfi1jjj ,boston ,army supply base #a1fea1ajd #bh1jdj1jjj ,w4 ,f4 ,kearns ,co4 #hhb1jjj ,brooklyn ,army supply base #c1icf1jjj #cb1ejj1jjj ,turner ,con- #cia1adc1jjj struction ,co4 ,new ,orleans ,army supply base #a1gib1jjj #aa1ffj1hge ,george ,w4 ,fuller #bhj1jjj ,co4 ,interior storage depots4 ,baltimore ,interior depot #ffc1hjj #b1adc1fgf ,sanford ,brooks4 ,boston temporary warehouses #cbg1fjj #a1bfe1jgi ,w4 ,f4 ,kearns ,co4 ,chicago interior depot #ehj1djj #hji1cjj ,central ,manufacturing ,district4 ,chicago permanent warehouse #a1bcj1djj #c1fia1hjj ,do4 ,columbus interior storage #b1feg1fjj #f1abh1jbb ,hunkin-,conkey ,co4 depot #chbdf1djj ,jeffersonville quartermaster #cbj1jjj #a1bhb1efc ,caldwell interior depot ,marshall ,co4 ,hoboken quartermaster #afb1edj #bja1jjj ,barney-,hooks- expeditionary depot ,ahlers4 ,new ,cumberland interior #a1efh1jjj storage depot #chdjj1jjj #d1gjj1bgj ,bates-,rogers ,con- struction ,co4 ,philadelphia interior storage #iag1hjj #c1dgj1idj ,william ,steele ,sons4 ,philadelphia quartermaster #bjh1ijj #a1jia1jej ,do4 expeditionary depot #chea1djj ,pittsburgh interior storage #agh1fjj #fcj1ijj ,the ,austin ,co4 depot ,schenectady interior storage #b1jhj1hjj #f1jea1eej ,feeney ,sheehan4 depot #checg1fjj ,st4 ,louis interior depot #chd1cjj #a1cfh1edj ,westly ,con- struction ,co4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #ch ,sheds4 #ci ,pier sheds4 ,,table #b4--;,hospitals built by ,construction ,division between ,june1 #aiag1 and ,january1 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,name4 ,location4 ,capacity,approximate,contractor4 7in cost4 beds74 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,azalea ,t4 ,b4 ,azalea1 ,n4 ,c4 #a1ejj #b1gae1jjj;,gude ,co4 ,boston ,city1 west ,west ,roxbury1 #dj #dg1jjj;,chas4 ,logue department ,mass4 ,building ,co4 ,cape ,may ,general ,cape ,may1 ,n4 ,j4 #gjj #df1aej;,cauldwell-,wingate ,hospital ,no4 #aa ,co4 ,carlisle ,general ,carlisle1 ,pa4 #abj #ahj1jjj,warren ,moore ,co1 ,hospital ,no4 #ca ,colonia ,general ,colonia1 ,n4 ,j4 #a1fej #b1cfg1hhd;,cauldwell-,wingate ,hospital ,no4 #c ,co4 ,cooper-,monitah ,chicago1 ,ill4 #ejj-fbe #aeh1cfh;,chas4 ,logue ,no4 #cb ,building ,co4 ,denver ,general ,denver1 ,colo4 #b1bfe #c1ajj1acc;,c4 ,s4 ,lambie ,co4 ,hospital ,no4 #ba ,eastfield ,general ,westchester1 ,n4 ,y4 #a1eej #bcg1jjj;,frank ,h4 ,goble4 ,hospital ,no #ch ,elks and ,robt4 ,boston1 ,mass4 #gjj #h1jjj;,chas4 ,logue ,bringham ,building ,general ,hospital ,co4 ,no4 #aj ,ford ,hospital1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 #b1jjj #ajg1gej;,albert ,a4 ,general ,hospital ,albreacht4 ,no4 #cf ,fort ,bayard ,fort ,bayard1 ,n4 #a1jdf #fej1jjj,v4 ,e4 ,vare4 ,general ,hospital ,mex4 ,fort ,des ,moines ,des ,moines1 ,iowa #a1bff #bdd1adh;,chas4 ,welts ,sons4 ,hospital ,fort ,douglas ,fort ,douglas1 ,utah #bbg #fij1jjj,lynch-,cannon ,eng4 ,hospital ,co4 ,fort ,mc,henry ,baltimore1 ,md4 #b1hjj #b1cbg1ige;,j4 ,henry ,miller ,general ,hospital ,co4 ,no4 #b ,fort ,mc,pherson ,fort ,mc,pherson1 #b1jjj #fhj1jjj;,gude-,krebs ,co4 ,hospital ,ga4 ,fort ,oglethorpe ,fort ,oglethorpe1 #a1cjj #ifg1cgg,park-,grimes ,co4 ,general ,hospital ,ga4 ,no4 #ad ,fort ,ontario ,fort ,ontario1 ,n4 #ffj #eeg1jjj;,j4 ,j4 ,turner ,hospital ,no4 #e ,y4 ,sons4 ,fort ,root ,general ,little ,rock1 ,ark4 #ejj #af1dee ,hospital ,no4 #cc ,fort ,sheridan ,fort ,sheridan1 #e1jjj #b1eae1ghf,summer-,sollitt ,co4 ,general ,hospital ,ill4 ,no4 #bh ,fort ,snelling ,fort ,snelling1 #a1ghj #dhi1fjj;,h4 ,n4 ,leighton ,co4 ,hospital ,minn4 ,fox ,hills ,fox ,hills1 ,staten #a1hjh #b1ibi1eef,thompson-,starrett ,debarkation ,co4 ,hospital ,no4 #b ,island ,general ,hospital ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 #gjj #cfj1fgj,sperry ,no4 #af ,engineering ,co4 ,grand ,central ,new ,york ,city #c1ejj #bae1jjj;,day labor4 ,palace ,debarkation ,hospital ,no4 #e ,greenhut ,building ,new ,york ,city #c1acj #dbj1jjj;,do4 ,debarkation ,hospital ,no4 #c ,infirmary ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 #a1jjj #fe1jjj,march ,construction ,co4 ,lakewood ,general ,lakewood1 ,n4 ,j4 #a1jbj #bhb1gce;,geo4 ,d4 ,morrow4 ,hospital ,no4 #i ,letterman ,general ,presidio1 ,calif4 #a1bej #aab1gaf ,hospital ,madison ,barracks ,madison1 ,wis4 #bgc #abe1ece;,j4 ,j4 ,turner ,hospital ,sons4 ,markelton ,general ,markelton1 ,pa4 #ejj #ic1ehj;,dawson ,hospital ,construction ,no4 #ag ,co4 ,nassau ,general ,long ,beach1 #a1ejj #be1jjj;,day labor4 ,hospital ,no4 #ci ,long ,island1 ,n4 ,y4 ,norfolk ,state ,norfolk1 ,mass4 #gjj #abj1jjj;,chas4 ,logue ,general ,building ,no4 #cd ,co4 ,otisville ,general ,otisville1 ,n4 ,y4 #a1jbj #a1fhe1gff,r4 ,h4 ,howes ,hospital ,construction ,no4 #h ,co4 ,park ,view ,general ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #a1bjj #bjh1idj;,day labor4 ,hospital ,no4 #bd ,plattsburg ,plattsburg1 ,n4 ,y4 #b1jjj #bca1idh;,d4 ,callahan4 ,general ,hospital ,richmond ,college ,richmond1 ,va4 #ifj #ea1gej;,john ,t4 ,wilson ,co4 ,debarkation ,hospital ,no4 #ea ,roland ,park ,baltimore1 ,md4 #ejj #cbi1fag;,j4 ,henry ,miller ,general ,hospital ,co4 ,no4 #g ,general ,hospital ,west ,baden1 ,ind4 #a1ejj #abe1jjj;,chas4 ,w4 ,gindle ,no4 #ce ,co4 ,united ,states ,biltmore1 ,n4 ,c4 #eea #cg1jej;,gude ,co4 ,army ,general ,hospital ,no4 #ab ,united ,states ,waynesville1 ,n4 ,c4 #djj #gc1gjj;,gude-,krebs ,co4 ,army ,general ,hospital ,no4 #ah ,united ,states ,hot ,springs1 ,n4 ,c4 #gej #ajc1bjj;,do4 ,army ,general ,hospital ,no4 #bc ,walter ,reed ,takoma ,park1 #b1jic #a1fge1aea,skinker ,garrett4 ,general ,hospital ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,whipple ,barracks ,prescott1 ,ariz4 #a1jjj #a1fbi1fhc;,james ,e4 ,morgan4 ,general ,hospital ,no4 #bj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #dj ,part of ,general ,hospital ,no4 #aj1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,table #c4--;,approximate quantities of materials purchased by materials branch1 ,construction ,division1 ,june #ae1 #aiag1 to ,dec4 #ae1 #aiah4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,item4 ,quantity4 ,cost4 ,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,brick #cbe1ghc1djj #b1fca1gii ,would build a road #ah feet wide approximately #chj miles long1 or equal to the distance from ,indianapolis to ,pittsburgh2 loaded in cars having a capacity of #ae1jjj brick1 would require #ba1gbj cars to load4 ,lumber #b1fdg1fje1dbf #fi1ggc1hbe ,if considered #a-;inch pieces #ab #da inches wide and placed end to end1 would reach #ejj1jjj miles1 or #bj times the circumference of the earth4 ,it would take #age1jjj cars to haul this material1 figuring #ae1jjj feet board measure material to each car4 ,figuring each car #ce feet long1 would make a train #a1afj miles long1 or the distance from ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 to ,kansas ,city4 ,total weight1 #e1jjj1jjj tons4 ,wood stave #dab1ijj1jhj #b1cbe1jjj ,if placed in one single line1 pipe would extend #eej miles4 ,this is approximately the same miles of pipe as all of the water and gas lines in the city of ,new ,orleans1 ,la41 which supplies a population between #djj1jjj and #ejj1jjj people4 ,structural #db #fd1jjj #f1caa1jib ,this would require #a1jjj cars steel having a capacity of #hj1jjj pounds each4 ,it would require structural-steel shops employing #ajj men fabricating #b1jjj tons per month three years to complete the fabrication4 ,this is sufficient material to erect twenty #bj-story buildings #ge feet square4 ,roofing #dca1djj1jjj #c1fej1jjj ,sufficient to roof #e square miles1 or would roof #ajj1jjj ordinary houses of #ad squares to each house4 ,cable #dda1ajc1efj #beg1bcc ,approximately #baj miles4 ,copper #ddcc1bhc1jjj #a1dji1fjj #f1cjc miles4 wire ,cement #def1aha1aid #ac1gbc1aec #cf1adh car loads1 approximately1 of #aga barrels to car load4 ,loaded on cars #ce feet total length1 would make one train #bci miles long1 or greater than the distance from ,boston to ,new ,york4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #da ,feet4 #db ,tons4 #dc ,squares of #ajj square feet4 #dd ,feet4 #de ,barrels4 ,procurement branch during period of #ah months1 ,june #ae1 #aiag1 to ,december #ae1 #aiah1 purchased and allocated materials to the amount of #bde1aae1ddc4 ,,book ,,vii4 ,,the ,,signal ,,corps4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,signal ,,corps ,,material4 ,the spent runner who hurled himself through the gate of ancient ,athens and with his dying breath gasped out the news of the brilliant success of the ,athenian troops against the ,persian at ,marathon in the year #dij ,b4 ,c4 was the first famous soldier of a signal corps2 but since then the exploits of the bearers of military tidings have filled the pages of legend and story4 ,just as other branches of military science have been brought to a high perfection in modern times1 so in equal degree has the art of military signaling progressed in efficiency4 ,where the ancient athlete once exhausted his strength in bearing military messages long distances in the field1 the modern ,mercury uses the wireless phone4 ,in ,civil ,war days the pony express rider brought from some desperate stand the story of the lack of ammunition2 to-day the ammunition-supply organization is in constant touch with the front by means of telegraph or the long-distance telephone4 ,in the ,indian campaigns in our own ,west messages from beleaguered parties were sometimes conveyed by signal smokes2 the lost battalion in the ,argonne sent news of its plight by carrier pigeon4 ,modern warfare has indeed retained the old1 but it has also developed the new1 in transmitting military tidings4 ,so important is this branch of fighting that it is put in the hands of a specialized organization1 which in the ,american ,army is known as the ,signal ,corps4 ,the ,signal ,corps not only had charge of the operation of the various communicating devices in #aiag and #aiah in the field of operations 7except latterly in the air71 but it also had charge of the manufacture of the equipment for this work4 ,the production of signaling equipment was far greater than the uninformed person would imagine4 ,as an instance1 there was one special type of telephone wire1 a form unknown to commercial use before the war1 which1 before ,november #aa1 #aiah1 was being produced at the rate of #bj1jjj miles a month1 at a cost of #e1fej1jjj per month1 requiring the complete capacity of the day and night operation of all fine wire machinery in the ,united ,states1 except that which was working on ,navy contracts4 ,many other production activities of the ,signal ,corps were carried through on a similar scale4 ,until after the ,civil ,war1 the operation of large units of troops was greatly handicapped by the limitations of military signaling as then known4 ,a force could not be effective in combat that could not be readily reached in all quarters by runners or riders or by visual signals4 ,the development of the telegraph and telephone and the invention of radio changed all this1 so that in the great war armies stretched out on fronts #ajj miles or more in length with every part of them in immediate touch with every other part through the exact and complete systems of signaling on the field4 ,military signals to-day include the telephone1 the telegraph1 radio telegraphy and telephony1 the buzzer1 the buzzerphone1 panels1 pyrotechnics1 flags1 smoke signals1 pigeons1 dogs1 mounted orderlies1 and runners4 ,each of these means of signaling is an adjunct to the others2 when one fails1 another is employed to get the message through4 ,some have special uses for branches of the service with peculiar requirements4 ,the radiophone is especially suited for communicating from airplanes4 ,artillery fire is directed by wire and wireless communication4 ,trained pigeons are sometimes able to get messages through when all other means of communication have failed4 ,the ,army did not have a great quantity of signaling equipment when it went to war with ,germany1 but what it did have was good4 ,the ,american punitive expedition in ,mexico1 where long lines of communication over rugged country were required1 had given opportunity for testing modern signal apparatus in the field4 ,many of the signaling devices used by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were1 at least in type1 in common use by the civilian population2 yet the procurement of this equipment offered heavy difficulties4 ,this was because the ,army was much more exacting than was commercial demand as to the quality of material used4 ,for instance1 a telephone instrument for use in the field hardly can be compared with the telephone in a business man's private office4 ,the field set demands stronger connections1 better insulation against the dampness of outdoor work1 and more rugged construction to withstand rough usage by an army on the march4 ,one of the larger tasks of the ,signal ,corps in ,france was that of providing facilities for communication for the service of supply4 ,the first ,signal ,corps officers sent to ,france soon realized that the forthcoming ,american ,army could not depend upon the ,french telegraph and telephone systems in the various zones of operation1 because those systems were already overburdened by the uses of the ,french government4 ,consequently1 it became necessary to set up our own telegraph and telephone systems1 extending them from the ports of debarkation through the various bases and zones up to the battle regions4 ,the magnitude of the system which finally was constructed is shown in the fact that on ,november #aa1 the date of the armistice1 there were in ,france #if1jjj miles of ,american telegraph and long-distance telephone circuits4 ,this wire was all used by the service of supply and by the various ,army bases behind the front4 ,yet in the field of fighting the requirements for wire were even greater4 ,at one time during the height of the operations it was evident that the time was not far distant when the ,signal ,corps would need #fh1jjj miles a month of what was known as outpost wire1 for use simply in connecting up the telephone and telegraph systems carried along by the troops in their advances4 ,outpost wire was entirely a development of the war against ,germany4 ,the original telephone system used at the front had been the single telephone wire grounded to complete the circuit4 ,but all the armies in ,france perfected their listening instruments to such a degree that they could hear conversations conducted on the grounded telephone circuits1 the sounds being detected in the earth itself4 ,consequently1 it became necessary to carry forward with troops two-wire telephone circuits1 thus doing away with ground connections4 ,even then care had to be taken that the insulation of this double wire was perfected1 lest the impulses enter the ground through gaps in the insulation4 ,wireless for outpost communication was equally impracticable1 since the enemy could easily listen in and hear radio phone messages4 ,outpost wire insured secret communication at the front4 ,outpost wire was a twist of two wires1 each single wire being made up of seven fine wires1 four of them of bronze1 and three of them of hard carbon steel4 ,these were stranded together1 coated1 first with rubber and then with cotton yarn1 and finally paraffined4 ,the wire was produced in six colors--red1 yellow1 green1 brown1 black1 and gray--for easy identification in the field1 each unit employing its own color4 ,the wastage of outpost wire was enormous4 ,in an advancing movement it was folly to undertake to pick up the wire4 ,the abandoned miles of it had to be left in the field to be salvaged later by the clean-up parties4 ,the proposition of producing #fh1jjj miles of outpost wire every month staggered the wire manufacturers of the country4 ,there were not enough braiding machines to complete such an order1 and new ones had to be built before such a quantity of outpost wire could be attained4 ,in addition to the various means of communication1 the ,signal ,corps was also called upon to supply in large quantities such other articles as wire reel carts1 flag staffs1 field glasses1 photographic equipment1 chests1 tools1 meteorological apparatus1 and wrist watches4 ,in the production of its supplies1 the ,signal ,corps was confronted with the same obstacles of inadequate industrial capacity1 dearth of raw materials1 and congestion of railroad transportation1 that embarrassed almost every line of military production4 ,to meet these difficulties the ,signal ,corps organized an elaborate inspection force which not only checked the work at the various factories for quality and rate of production1 but was also constantly on hand to help the harassed manufacturer out of his difficulties as they arose4 ,the ,signal ,corps never slept4 ,at night and on holidays there was at least one officer on the job in ,washington to receive telegrams or long-distance telephone messages and to be ready to act quickly in any emergency4 ,from the production standpoint1 signal equipment was divided into several general classifications3 7#a7 telephone and telegraph apparatus2 7#b7 radio apparatus2 7#c7 line-construction materials2 7#d7 batteries2 7#e7 wire and cables2 7#f7 field glasses2 7#g7 wire carts2 7#h7 photographic supplies1 pigeons1 and pigeon supplies2 and 7#i7 chests1 kits1 and tools1 mechanical signals1 electric signals1 meteorological apparatus1 and wrist watches4 ,,telephones ,,and ,,telegraphs4 ,in the early days of the conflict the construction of signal materials in the ,united ,states was devoted to such basic supplies as wire1 cable1 tools1 and the standard types of telephone equipment1 such as telephone sets and switchboards4 ,the first great task in ,france was to install the lines of communication for the service of supply1 a system that required ,american equipment because it was planned to operate it with ,american-trained telegraph and telephone operators4 ,now1 there were numerous styles of commercial telephone equipment manufactured in the ,united ,states4 ,the plan1 therefore1 was adopted of allowing the various manufacturing concerns to bid on a tentative production schedule1 giving an exclusive contract to the lowest bidder in each type of apparatus4 ,this exceptional policy was adopted in order to avoid multiplicity of types of equipment to be used abroad4 ,if many makes were adopted in each type they would necessitate the procurement of many types of spare parts and replacement materials4 ,the concerns which produced the telephone equipment for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were the ,western ,electric ,co41 of ,kansas ,city2 the ,kellogg ,switchboard ,supply ,co41 of ,chicago2 the ,stromberg-,carlson ,telephone ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,rochester2 the ,frank ,black ,co41 of ,chicago2 and the ,reliable ,electric ,co41 of ,chicago4 ,at the signing of the armistice there were #bhb ,american telephone exchanges in ,france1 with #ad1ief telephone lines reaching #h1iei stations4 ,the #bhb exchanges ranged from the small four-line monocord unit1 such as may be seen in any business office1 to the standard ,american multiple board of the city telephone exchange4 ,of these latter there were over #cj in use by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces when the armistice was signed4 ,illustration3 ,,multiplex ,,printing ,,telegraph4 ,,school ,,of ,,radio ,,and ,,multiplex ,,telegraphy4 ,illustration3 ,,signal ,,corps ,,school ,,for ,,telephone ,,electricians1 ,,university ,,of ,,michigan1 ,,instrument ,,and ,,switchboard ,,repair ,,class4 ,illustration3 ,,field ,,work ,,with ,,undamped ,,wave ,,transmitter ,,and ,,trench ,,antenna4 ,illustration3 ,,signal ,,corps ,,equipment ,,installed ,,in ,a ,,dugout4 ,left to right--,s4 ,c4 field telephone1 type ,,ee-#d2 field service buzzer2 signal lamp 7projector71 type ,,ee-#f2 ,s4 ,c4 radio set1 ,,scr-#gf and ,s4 ,c4 radio set1 ,,scr-#ed;,a4 ,the special telephones adopted for use in the field were different from any in commercial use in ,america4 ,the ,signal ,corps had developed certain special instruments combining both telephone and telegraphic principles4 ,the field telephone1 model #aiag1 for instance1 was a telephone which included a telegraph buzzer on its telephone circuit4 ,this instrument was used when great secrecy in communication was required4 ,the messages were sent in telegraphic code1 the buzzers being heard by the receiver4 ,another instrument was known simply as the buzzer4 ,this was an instrument which utilized the telephone receiver for telegraphic messages4 ,it was a supreme development for use over defective lines4 ,an instrument closely related to the buzzer1 but which gave even greater secrecy1 was known as the buzzerphone4 ,the buzzerphone was put into production just before the close of hostilities4 ,the mobile switchboard in most general use by our troops at the front was developed originally by the ,french and was known as the monotype4 ,it was designed in units and could be extended to accommodate up to #ab trunk lines leading away from the board4 ,this apparatus was the central of the front-line dugouts4 ,it could be put into operation in a few minutes and was easily carried by a soldier4 ,the switchboard of the dugouts was the only telephone equipment not of ,american design used by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,it was put into production in the autumn of #aiag in three ,american plants1 under the general policy of the ,signal ,corps to contract with more than one factory for the production of any important device4 ,another type of field switchboard when packed for transit resembled a salesman's trunk4 ,it was used in the camps and provided for #dj lines4 ,this board was being constantly redesigned as field needs developed4 ,a new type of camp switchboard was coming into heavy production at the end of hostilities4 ,still a third type of portable switchboard was built in units resembling the units of a sectional bookcase and was set up in the same way4 ,the telegraph apparatus of the lines of communication in the ,s4 ,o4 ,s4 was designed along purely commercial lines4 ,it included the latest type of printing telegraph equipment1 the apparatus first adopted being the multiplex printing telegraph as used by the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,co4 ,later1 the ,morkrum printing telegraph was also adopted4 ,at the close of hostilities #acc complete telegraph stations with full equipment were in operation in the service of supply4 ,the peak load of this service1 just prior to the armistice1 was #dg1eee telegrams1 averaging #fj words each1 sent from these stations in a single day4 ,the daily average in the final weeks of the fighting was #dc1hde telegrams4 ,,radio4 ,at the outbreak of the war1 the field radio equipment in active use by the ,army was limited to two sets1 both of comparatively high power4 ,on the other hand the allied forces had developed a complicated and extensive use of radio sets of small power1 many of them operated from airplanes1 and the ,signal ,corps found itself confronted with the task of developing an entire new line of complicated electrical apparatus1 and putting it into large quantity production in the shortest possible time4 ,the progress made is indicated by the fact that at the signing of the armistice the number of types of complete sets on which development work had been carried out was #ge4 ,of these approximately #be were in quantity production4 ,when it is remembered that each of these sets consisted of hundreds of parts1 many of which required careful study and experimentation as well as design1 the magnitude of the problem is appreciated4 ,the initial step in the reorganization of this branch of the ,signal ,corps' work consisted in the establishment of a radio section in ,washington and a corresponding section in ,france4 ,the former was charged with the design of apparatus and the preparation of manufacturing drawings and specifications1 while the latter served as the first hand observer of actual service requirements and approved all equipment before it was used in the field4 ,an important auxiliary of the development organization in ,washington was the radio laboratories established at ,camp ,alfred ,vail1 where all necessary technical facilities1 such as model shops1 drafting rooms1 research laboratories1 a completely equipped flying field1 etc41 were maintained4 ,with this engineering organization and the production organization which handled all ,signal ,corps equipment1 the work here detailed was carried out4 ,shortly after the declaration of war1 the ,french government sent to this country a distinguished commission which included the foremost radio experts1 who were thoroughly familiar with the latest military developments4 ,technical information and samples of radio apparatus were also obtained from ,british sources4 ,with this beginning1 the engineering work naturally divided itself into two general problems--first1 to duplicate the approved foreign designs1 and then to create designs for new types of apparatus which would be superior to any in service4 ,work on these two groups of problems was prosecuted simultaneously with the result that there were soon in production ,american equivalents of a number of ,french and ,british sets1 together with improved original types of ,american radio apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,radio ,,receiving ,,set1 ,,scr-#ed1 ,,using ,,crystal ,,detector4 ,illustration3 ,,rear ,,panel ,,view1 ,,radio ,,telephone ,,ground ,,set4 ,,type ,,scr-#fg4 ,illustration3 ,,radio ,,telegraph ,,transmitting ,,set ,,in ,,case4 ,illustration3 ,,radio ,,telegraph ,,transmitting ,,set ,,with ,,case ,,removed4 ,probably the most noteworthy technical development during the war1 in so far as radio communication is concerned1 was the extensive use made of vacuum tubes4 ,these bottles1 which make practical use of the electrons of the new physics and which are sometimes called audions or pliotrons1 are literally marvels in the realms of engineering1 and their applications are as yet hardly realized4 ,one form was used for the reception of signals prior to the war2 but the military developments1 particularly in ,france1 had so progressed that when this country entered the war they were used both for receiving and transmitting signals1 and most of the more important sets depended on them4 ,to meet this demand the services of the three foremost vacuum-tube engineering organizations of the country were enlisted1 and under the direction of the ,signal ,corps radio engineers the progress toward satisfactory design and construction of the required types was rapid4 ,within less than six months standardized tubes were turned out by the quantity production method at rates sufficient to insure the requisite supply4 ,work was continued1 however1 on the development of still better types of tubes4 ,the improvements that have been made from time to time have been incorporated in the tubes being produced on a large scale1 so that tubes of recent manufacture are a great improvement over those made a year ago4 ,as indicative of the extent and variety of the radio development work which was carried on1 there is given below a partial list of the types of sets which were completely developed and placed in production during the war period3 ,,land ,,radio ,,equipment4 ,spark sets1 sending and receiving 7three types74 ,continuous-wave ,army radio telegraph sets 7three types74 ,radio telephone set 7one type74 ,tank radio telegraph set 7one type74 ,t4 ,p4 ,s4 7earth telegraphy7 7four types74 ,wavemeters4 ,battery-charging sets4 ,radio operating and repair trucks4 ,miscellaneous special equipment4 ,,airplane ,,radio ,,equipment4 ,interphone sets 7for use of two to five persons74 ,radio telephone sets 7three types74 ,radio telegraph sets 7three types74 ,direction-finding radio-receiving set 7one type74 ,the magnitude of the production of special items involved may be gathered from such figures of expenditures as the following3 ,for vacuum tubes #a1fej1fjj ,for storage batteries #e1cae1cej ,for dry batteries #fjb1dgj ,for battery charging sets #a1ebd1djj ,these are1 of course1 only some of the items4 ,the total production authorized was valued at approximately #de1jjj1jjj4 ,the remarkable development and improvement of military radio equipment which has taken place under the direction of the ,signal ,corps during the last #ah months will undoubtedly materially change the system of ,army communications and even the tactical use of military equipment and personnel4 ,a typical example of this development is the airplane radio telephone1 described elsewhere1 the use of which has made possible the voice-commanded air squadron4 ,the military value of an air squadron has been enormously increased by virtue of this device1 which enables the squadron commander to direct the movements of the individual airplanes in any manner which circumstances may require4 ,certain other radio devices recently perfected1 the nature of which can not be revealed1 will undoubtedly affect the tactical use of troops to such an extent as to make certain kinds of radio equipment as indispensable to the operations of military units as the rifle or the machine gun4 ,,line ,,equipment4 ,the first requisition for line equipment for ,france called for the construction of #ejj miles of telephone and telegraph main pole lines1 carrying #aj copper telephone and telegraph wires4 ,it was found that ship space could not be spared for poles in such quantity4 ,consequently a forestry unit was sent to ,france to get these poles from the ,french woodlands4 ,all of the other materials for the #ejj miles of line1 together with materials for approximately #fjj miles of extensions1 were procured in the ,united ,states and shipped to ,france within six months after the requisition was received4 ,this material was secured in such short time only by the cooperation of the large commercial companies in the ,united ,states1 who literally stripped their warehouses bare of their supplies4 ,in the late summer of #aiah the ,american ,government began anticipating the advance of the allied forces into ,germany1 and the ,signal ,corps put into production a reserve equipment for long distance line approximating #ejj miles4 ,soon there was received from ,france a cablegram asking for the shipment of this material1 and it was all floated before the armistice4 ,however1 as it turned out1 this equipment was never required1 since the terms of the armistice gave the ,american forces the ,german telephone and telegraph lines in the occupied territory4 ,this line equipment was all of a type standard in the ,united ,states4 ,for the fighting zone special line equipment was required4 ,before the war with ,germany ,american signal troops had set up their emergency telephone and telegraph lines on the standard lance poles4 ,these poles served admirably in open warfare1 but proved to be impracticable for the static conditions of fighting in ,france4 ,after a considerable supply of lance poles had been shipped abroad their production was curtailed4 ,thereafter the trench telephone and telegraph lines were supported on short stakes with special cross arms1 in appearance the conventional telegraph poles in miniature4 ,the enormous mileage of trench lines called for a great quantity of insulators and cross arms4 ,the wastage of these fittings1 due to their being exposed to artillery fire1 became increasingly greater in the closing months of the war4 ,in wire itself1 the ,american production was enormous4 ,this production included the commercial type of copper line wire and the drop wire for connecting up individual telephones to the pole lines4 ,much commercial cable for connecting congested centers with branch switchboards was also required4 ,yet all of this wire used in the system within the ,service of ,supply was but a small quantity compared with the requirements in the fighting zone4 ,the production of double-conductor wire1 or the so-called outpost wire of ,no ,man's ,land1 which had relegated to the scrap heap the standard field wire of open warfare1 necessitated an extraordinary effort4 ,the wire had to be light enough for easy transportation and laying1 strong enough to withstand the abrasions from traffic crossing it as it lay on the ground1 and exceedingly well insulated4 ,the first estimate was that an ,american ,army in the field might use #a1jjj miles per month of outpost wire4 ,when the first ,american force actually went into action1 in the spring of #aiah1 a reserve supply of #bj1jjj miles of outpost wire was in the ,american warehouses in ,france1 with a vast quantity of cable in reserve4 ,cable1 at first used in large quantities at the front1 was invariably buried several feet underground and abandoned at every change of headquarters4 ,as the fighting grew more intense and covered a wider and wider area1 the wastage of outpost wire became enormous4 ,the demand of our forces for cable dropped to a negligible quantity1 but wire requirements rose4 ,outpost wire became the main dependence of ourselves and the allies for all communication in the active sectors4 ,a higher quality of wire was specified4 ,so great was the destruction of wire that by ,july1 #aiah1 the original estimate of #a1jjj miles per month to be supplied by ,american factories had jumped to #bj1jjj miles4 ,as a substitute for outpost wire to fill the immediate needs the familiar twisted drop wire1 with which the ordinary telephone is connected with the main circuit1 was adopted4 ,our field officers liked drop wire1 its only objectionable feature being its relative bulk4 ,all available drop wire in the ,united ,states was shipped across1 and its manufacture was pushed until the new type of outpost wire could be produced4 ,the ,signal ,corps supplied the mounting needs of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces through ,august and ,september1 #aiah1 with the available drop wire plus the growing production of the new outpost wire4 ,in early ,august all the wire makers in ,america were summoned to a conference1 in which the ,signal ,corps made known the necessity of pushing production4 ,the result was an expansion which reached a total production of #dj1jjj miles of outpost wire in ,november4 ,just before the armistice was signed1 the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces indicated that they would require #ej1jjj miles of outpost wire every month1 beginning in ,january1 #aiai4 ,this requirement had already been fully anticipated1 since the ,american manufacturers had set for themselves a maximum production of #fh1jjj miles per month by ,august1 #aiai4 ,to secure this production every wire mill in the ,united ,states worked #bd hours per day4 ,when the production was at its height1 inquiries came from the allied governments1 indicating that they would call on ,american wire makers for a quantity of wire equal to what the latter were already producing for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,in other words1 this proposition called for the doubling of a production which had already attained great size4 ,yet1 had the fighting continued1 there is every reason to believe that the industry would have risen to the demand4 ,the production of outpost wire was an intricate operation4 ,to fill the demand for #ej1jjj miles of outpost wire a month called for #cjj1jjj miles of steel strand and #djj1jjj miles of bronze strand every month4 ,the steel strand had to be given repeated heat treatments before it had acquired the necessary tensile strength4 ,,electric ,,batteries4 ,the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces consumed great quantities of electric batteries1 the familiar dry battery of commerce being most used4 ,toward the end of the fighting arrangements were being made to establish in ,france a plant at which dry batteries would be assembled by ,french labor1 utilizing parts made in ,america4 ,the necessary apparatus and materials for the first operation had reached ,france prior to the armistice1 but the plant was not in production at that time4 ,storage-battery requirements of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces were heavy and exacting4 ,the storage battery was the only practicable source of electrical energy for the operation of small portable radio outfits4 ,field conditions required a storage battery that would not spill its contents1 with a jar not easily broken1 the whole equipment being as light as possible4 ,a rubber composition jar was finally adopted4 ,the chief reliance of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces was in storage batteries of ,european manufacture1 which were to be used until ,american production got underway4 ,when by the summer of #aiah ,america had perfected her own designs of radio equipment1 the ,signal ,corps took up the matter of storage batteries for radio and decided upon types4 ,this was in ,july1 #aiah4 ,a conference of battery manufacturers was called and the orders were allocated among practically all the storage-battery plants in the ,united ,states that were in a position to undertake quantity production4 ,the end of hostilities stopped this production on the eve of heavy deliveries4 ,,field ,,glasses4 ,when the war began1 the ,signal ,corps had the duty of providing field glasses for all branches of the ,army1 issuing them to noncommissioned officers and selling them at cost to commissioned officers engaged in combat4 ,the first estimates showed that these glasses would be needed by the tens of thousands1 whereas the manufacturing facilities in the ,united ,states had turned them out merely by the hundreds4 ,the optical-glass industry had never been developed in ,america1 our field glasses being supplied with lenses of ,european glass1 and principally ,german glass4 ,in #aiad the imports of optical glass were #fda1jjj in value4 ,the following year they were almost nothing4 ,the advance of the ,german army toward ,paris encompassed the glass plants of ,belgium and many of those of ,france4 ,england needed the entire output of her own glass factories4 ,in the autumn of #aiad the ,american optical-instrument makers began to develop an optical-glass industry1 largely stimulated by the possibility of obtaining heavy orders at high prices from the ,british1 ,french1 and ,russian governments4 ,the most important work was done by the ,bausch ,lomb ,optical ,co41 of ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y42 the ,spencer ,lens ,co41 of ,buffalo1 and the ,pittsburgh ,plate ,glass ,co41 of ,pittsburgh4 ,they were aided by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,standards and by the geophysical laboratory of the ,carnegie ,institution4 ,the ,bureau of ,standards established a laboratory at ,pittsburgh where experiments were conducted with #cj-pound pots of glass4 ,optical glass differs greatly from ordinary glass4 ,it must be clear1 without striae1 and there must be no strains in it1 resulting from the final stirring and cooling4 ,it must give a high transmission of light4 ,about the time of ,america's declaration of war the ,american experiments had produced glass suitable for optical instruments4 ,this glass1 however1 was being turned out in quantities quite insufficient to meet the demand during the first few months4 ,in addition to the difficulties surrounding the glass supply1 there was only a limited number of establishments capable of manufacturing field glasses after the glass was procured4 ,these concerns were located principally in ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 where they had been manufacturing a wide variety of optical instruments1 including opera glasses1 camera lenses1 scientific and educational apparatus1 battery commanders' telescopes1 marine glasses1 microscopes1 and gun sights4 ,in order to meet the war requirements of ,america for field glasses1 these factories had to install large quantities of new equipment and to run day and night4 ,the equipment consisted of lens-grinding apparatus1 lathes1 dies1 and automatic screw machinery4 ,in addition to the ,rochester factories there was a concern in ,denver1 ,colo41 the ,weiss ,electrical ,instruments ,co41 which in a smaller way had been manufacturing surveyors' levels and other engineering apparatus4 ,the ,talbot ,reel ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,kansas ,city1 had been making fishing reels in a small plant about #cj feet square4 ,this factory was purchased in #aiag by ,mr4 ,l4 ,harris1 who1 after finishing a contract for gun sights for the ,ordnance ,department1 built a factory especially for the production of ,army field glasses and reached the quantity manufacture of these instruments before the armistice came4 ,the chief center of supply1 however1 continued to be ,rochester1 where the plants of ,bausch ,lomb1 the ,gundlach-,manhattan ,optical ,co41 and the ,crown ,optical ,co4 are located4 ,these factories expanded many times1 and the output of field glasses went beyond what the executives at the outset of the enterprise imagined could be possible4 ,the ,bausch ,lomb ,co4 was started in ,rochester about #ej years ago by ,j4 ,j4 ,bausch1 who was born in ,germany4 ,the plant developed gradually1 making a full line of spectacle lenses and optical instruments4 ,the ,carl ,zeiss ,works1 of ,jena1 ,germany1 had a financial interest in the plant1 and ,bausch ,lomb had a financial interest in the ,zeiss plant4 ,this connection1 however1 was dissolved in #aiae1 when ,bausch ,lomb took on contracts for the manufacture of field glasses for the ,british1 ,french1 and ,russian governments4 ,before #aiad this concern had never manufactured more than #a1hjj pairs of field glasses in a year4 ,the output was speeded up until in ,november1 #aiah1 a total of #c1ejj pairs was being produced each week1 while the development was aiming toward an output of #e1ejj pairs of glasses per week beginning in ,january1 #aiai4 ,at the date of the armistice the ,bausch ,lomb factory had a floor space of #cb acres and employed #f1jjj men and women4 ,the ,gundlach-,manhattan ,co41 which had made camera lenses chiefly1 was eventually able to produce #fjj pairs of field glasses a week4 ,the ,crown ,optical ,co4 was not so rapid in its expansion2 and in late #aiag the ,navy ,department commandeered it and thereafter operated it in charge of ,lieut4 ,commander ,l4 ,c4 ,scheibla4 ,under naval management the output of this factory increased so that the ,signal ,corps was able to obtain from it about #a1bjj pairs of high quality field glasses each week1 the plant continuing also to supply the needs of the ,navy4 ,out of a situation that seemed impossible at the outset the ,signal ,corps built up an industry within a comparatively few months which provided all the field glasses that were necessary in the operations of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,often to keep the optical factories equipped with sufficient workmen the ,signal ,corps obtained the furlough of drafted men with experience in this line so that they might go to work making field glasses4 ,all ,army organizations except ,artillery were supplied with a six-power glass having an angular field that took in a view #aej yards wide at a distance of #a1jjj yards4 ,the glasses were of the prismatic type with individual focus for each eye4 ,each glass was provided with a leather carrying case and shoulder strap4 ,on the top of the case a compass was mounted4 ,the ,artillery organizations were supplied with eight-power field glasses1 all of which were purchased in ,france4 ,the total requirements of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces for field glasses of the six-power type during the period of hostilities were approximately #ajj1jjj pairs4 ,the total shipments from ,america were approximately #ajf1jjj pairs4 ,,miscellaneous ,,supplies4 ,the ,signal ,corps took up with three concerns--the ,hampden ,watch ,co41 the ,illinois ,watch ,co41 and the ,elgin ,watch ,co4--the matter of providing wrist watches for the ,army4 ,a #g-;jewel movement was adopted as standard for issue to troops and a #ae-;jewel movement for sale to officers4 ,a waterproof case was adopted1 bearing the serial number of the movement on the outside1 the case being so constructed as to require a special tool to gain access to the movement4 ,the production of wire carts for the ,signal ,corps did not exceed #be per year prior to #aiag4 ,the demand for these carts1 which were hard to build1 increased at such a rate that during the autumn of #aiah the matter of procuring them was one of the most serious production problems faced by the ,signal ,corps4 ,the ,holmes ,automobile ,co41 of ,canton1 ,ohio1 abandoned the production of automobiles and in ,september1 #aiah1 turned over its entire plant to the production of wire carts4 ,other manufacturers were the ,george ,b4 ,marx ,co41 of ,brooklyn2 the ,j4 ,g4 ,brill ,co41 of ,philadelphia2 the ,american ,instrument ,tool ,co41 of ,new ,york2 and the ,wesel ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,brooklyn4 ,in all1 #gba wire carts were manufactured and #cbg shipped overseas4 ,a total of #b1djb tool chests for the ,signal ,corps was produced during the war period4 ,the plan eventually adopted was to split up the orders for tools among the various manufacturers and to give the manufacture of the empty chests to prison labor at ,fort ,leavenworth1 where the tools were to be shipped and packed in the chests4 ,this plan1 however1 required the construction of a special building at ,fort ,leavenworth1 and in the meantime the assembling of tool chests was conducted at the ,signal ,corps supply depot at ,philadelphia and at the port of embarkation4 ,the armistice stopped the construction of the assembling factory at ,fort ,leavenworth4 ,the ,signal ,corps produced a suitable number of gas alarm signals known as strombos horns4 ,this equipment consisted of an alarm horn operated by air pressure acting against a diaphragm and thereby producing a loud and distinct chatter4 ,compressed air was supplied in small steel cylinders connected to each horn by hose4 ,the air tanks were charged behind the lines from a portable air compressor which could pump into several cylinders at once4 ,the horns were manufactured by the ,klaxon ,co41 of ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 the cylinders by the ,harrisburg ,pipe ,pipe ,bending ,co41 ,harrisburg1 ,pa41 and the air compressors by the ,ingersoll-,rand ,co41 of ,new ,york4 ,flag kits were not used to any great extent by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces1 although large quantities of these were produced in this country4 ,the ,signal ,corps originally had jurisdiction over all war photography1 either of land or air1 except for a small amount conducted by the engineers in connection with their own operations2 but later aerial photography became a branch of the ,military ,aeronautics and ,aircraft ,bureaus4 ,after that the ,signal ,corps was charged with taking all photographs of historical nature or other interest4 ,in connection with this work two types of cameras were necessary--still cameras and motion-picture cameras4 ,later in the war there was being developed a new motion-picture camera which was expected to be the ideal type for use in the field4 ,it was with great difficulty that a sufficient number of photographic lenses was obtained for the use of military cameras1 since the large lens factories of ,america were tied up with other war orders4 ,a campaign was conducted by the leading newspapers and magazines of the country which resulted in the ,government's securing from amateur photographers a large number of high-grade lenses1 mostly of foreign manufacture4 ,the ,signal ,corps scattered its camera operators broadcast over the country1 photographing cantonments and other war activities to the most minute details4 ,these photographs and films were then made public in newspapers1 periodicals1 and motion-picture theaters throughout the ,united ,states1 with the result that the people saw with their own eyes how their soldiers were preparing themselves for the defense of the ,nation4 ,an interesting development of war photography was the production of motion pictures showing the training of soldiers4 ,many pictures were taken to show graphically on the screen the different chapters of the ,army drill regulations4 ,these pictures will have a future use to the ,government in training soldiers efficiently in the shortest possible time4 ,the ,signal ,corps photographers also developed a new kind of history of the war1 a history written entirely in pictures for future generations to scan4 ,,pigeons4 ,although nearly every ,european army for #dj years has trained the carrier pigeon to be a field messenger1 the ,american ,army never adopted the bird until #aiag4 ,in a single year the ,signal ,corps established hundreds of pigeon lofts in this country and overseas and bought and trained more than #ae1jjj pigeons for service in ,france4 ,in actual use on the field the pigeons delivered more than #ie per cent of the messages intrusted to them1 flying safely through the heaviest shell and gas barrages4 ,the standard pigeon loft adopted by the ,signal ,corps had a unique trap arrangement which permitted the entry but not the exit of returning pigeons1 and an electrical alarm which automatically notified the attendants of an arrival4 ,such lofts1 however1 were of the stationary type and not practicable for use in ,france4 ,for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces the ,signal ,corps purchased mobile lofts4 ,it was found that pigeons would come home as well to mobile lofts1 which were constantly changing position1 as they would to stationary lofts4 ,the first mobile lofts built in the ,united ,states were top-heavy1 but this defect was overcome by increasing their width and adding heavier wheels4 ,they were all built by the ,trailmobile ,co41 of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,civilian pigeon fanciers were appealed to and urged to breed young birds to stock the ,government lofts4 ,the ,signal ,corps distributed small aluminum bands to be put on the legs of squeakers1 as the newly-hatched pigeons are called1 which were intended for sale to the ,government4 ,the uniform price of #b per bird was paid1 and over #aj1jjj youngsters were bought for stocking purposes4 ,tons of pigeon feed were purchased and shipped to ,europe4 ,some of this grain1 such as millet1 ,argentine corn1 pop corn1 hemp seed1 and ,canada peas1 was hard to obtain2 but nevertheless the supply was well maintained4 ,it was shipped in hermetically sealed containers to prevent it from becoming mildewed4 ,the ,american ,army copied the ,french and ,english models of willow and reed baskets to hold the birds4 ,one type of basket was carried on the back of the soldier and contained small corselets in which the pigeons were securely fastened4 ,corselets were suspended from the sides of the basket by elastic contrivances permitting considerable joggling without injury to the birds4 ,all of these baskets were made by the ,a4 ,l4 ,randell ,co41 of ,chicago4 ,message books were manufactured in accordance with a ,french model4 ,after the message had been written1 it was placed in an aluminum capsule which was fitted in a holder of aluminum4 ,this holder was attached to the pigeon's leg by means of aluminum bands4 ,these bands were found to break easily1 and pure copper bands were later substituted4 ,the message holders were manufactured by ,thomas ,a4 ,gey1 of ,norristown1 ,pa4 ,thousands of items of supply were included in the supply schedules of the ,signal ,corps4 ,in the following lists some of the more important items are shown1 the production indicated in each case being that between ,april #f1 #aiag1 and ,november #aa1 #aiah4 ,telephone equipment4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,produced4 ,floated overseas4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,batteries1 dry #igj1aga #cif1dbg ,bells3 ,extension #hfe #dgj ,vibrating #ac1gef #ab1icd ,blocks1 connecting #f1ejj #f1ejj ,cabinets1 wire chief1 testing #bbe #bbe ,coils3 ,induction #bee #ej ,repeating #hja #hja ,condensers #aj1bje #f1ghh ,cords3 ,for telephones #e1jjj #e1jjj ,for switchboards #bc1eci #aa1hij ,fuses1 for monocord switchboard #fgj1jjj #cda1jjj ,receiver diaphragms #b1gjj #b1jej ,receivers1 telephone #ab1iej #i1ced ,repeaters1 telephone #cfb #cfb ,staples1 insulated #iab1cjj #hji1hjj ,switchboards3 ,camp1 #dj-line #aaa #fh ,commercial types #cjd #cjd ,switchboard1 telephone1 monotype #ad1dfb #ac1bfd ,telephones3 ,artillery type 7,w4 ,e4 #acge7 #ff1edd #df1abc ,camp #ch1def #cb1ffh ,commercial types #b1ffi #a1ead ,telephone offices1 truck #a #a ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,telegraph equipment4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,buzzers1 service #c1ihc #c1dgh ,connectors1 stud #h1jbg #h1jbg ,disks1 cipher #f1aeg #f1aeg ,keys #a1hcj #a1hcj ,relays #a1fgb #a1adg ,sounders #a1iih #a1iih ,switchboard1 telegraph #a1cba #eej ,telegraph office1 truck #a #a ,typewriters #ibj #hhj ,vibroplex1 transmitter #dgj #dbj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,radio equipment4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,total produced4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,airplane interphone set #d1bfc ,airplane radio telegraph receiving set #g1jbi ,airplane radio telegraph transmitting set #c1iga ,airplane radio telephone set #c1ahf ,amplifiers #a1bej ,battery charging sets #dee ,ground radio telegraph receiving set #h1jeb ,ground radio telegraph transmitting set #b1fcg ,ground radio telephone set #ebg ,storage batteries #bbg1aci ,t4 ,p4 ,s4 receiving sets #b1eaj ,t4 ,p4 ,s4 transmitting sets #a1iie ,t4 ,p4 ,s4 two-way set #b1jaj ,vacuum tubes #ddf1hah ,wavemeters #h1jdb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,photographic equipment4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,production4 ,shipped overseas4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,chemicals pounds #ej1gbc #da1hha ,cameras3 #d by #e speed graphic #eda #bhc #d by #e ,,rb graflex #caj #bcg #f by #h cycle graphic #bhj #bdi ,miscellaneous still #dj #dj ,motion-picture #dgj #ade ,paper1 photo1 all sizes gross #ba1cfd #af1cfd ,do4 rolls #e1ahf #c1fhf ,lenses #b1gig #fif ,tripods1 ,m4,p4 #eeh #adg ,plates dozen #fh1hgc #dh1hgc ,holders1 plate #bh1bih #ah1bih ,film1 ,m4,p4 feet #g1ejj1jjj #d1jjj1jjj ,film1 still rolls #dh1had #bh1had ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,line construction material4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,anchors1 guy #ag1cfj #ag1abj ,belts1 lineman's #f1gcc #e1ccb ,bolts1 lag screws1 etc4 #a1aci1fdh #a1acg1ibh ,braces1 cross-arm #abc1afb #ih1ddj ,brackets3 ,oak #bhg1jjj #bhg1jjj ,pole1 galvanized #ac1ibi #ac1ibi ,transposition #bf1ije #bf1bhj ,cable3 ,telephone1 circular loom feet #ffb1igh #cif1bej ,telephone1 lead covered miles #hj1bjb #a1fif ,cable compound pounds #f1afj #c1gfj ,carts1 reel #gcg #bbg ,clamps1 guy #ci1bej #bf1jjj ,climbers1 with straps pairs #aa1hbh #aj1fai ,cross arms #ch1ejj #ch1ejj ,gloves1 lineman's pairs #hdi #gdh ,hangers1 cable #ea1jjj #ea1jjj ,insulators1 for lance poles #bia1abd #bf1gjj ,insulators1 glass #a1aeh1hcf #a1aeh1hcf ,insulators1 porcelain #b1daa1fgj #a1gih1bbj ,knives1 electrician's #bfd1ged #ada1ibj ,knobs1 wooden #iec1edj #djj1jjj ,marlin pounds #d1ebg #a1dbg ,muslin1 cable-splicers yards #a1bea #a1bea ,nails1 for insulators pounds #cf1jjj #cf1jjj ,pikes1 wire #a1iib #a1gbh ,pins1 cross-arm #hjg1fec #dgg1djj ,pliers1 lineman's #aic1ecc #hd1fdb ,poles1 lance #bji1jjj #bc1fhe ,reels1 breast #f1aji #f1ajh ,sleeves1 copper1 splicing #adf1icd #ea1icd ,solder pounds #ba1hjh #ad1fjf ,tape3 ,friction do4 #ajf1jdb #ij1cah ,rubber do4 #bj1ebc #af1gac ,terminals1 cable #a1bij #a1bij ,wire3 ,stranded1 messenger feet #b1dgj1egg #b1dgj1ceg ,telephone-- ,copper1 bare miles #abf1ffd #gh1hhj ,g4,i4 bare do4 #ad1daa #g1igj ,single1 insulated do4 #bc1iej #ad1jaa ,twisted pair1 ,insulated do4 #ge1jbb #de1deg ,wire carts #gba #cbg ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,conclusion4 ,the reader who has come to this point has before him the picture of the ,nation's industry at war--the whole teeming effort in its main outlines1 its myriad ramifications1 its boundless activity1 its ten thousand enterprises1 its infinite toil1 its hosts of workers1 its wonders of scientific achievement1 its attainments1 even its failures--in short that humming complex of work1 planning1 ambition1 disappointment1 triumph1 shortcomings1 ability1 and driving force which was a mighty people concentrated with all of its powers upon a single objective4 ,it remains now to describe the place occupied by this effort in the whole strategic plan of the war against ,germany4 ,we did not go into the struggle as if we expected to fight a single-handed war4 ,whatever we did either with military personnel or with munitions we did with reference to what the nations associated with us were doing or could do in the same respects4 ,the whole plan was coordinated more or less perfectly1 and these international understandings and agreements touched and influenced even the most trivial of our enterprises4 ,the reader who has in mind the record set down on the preceding pages is now prepared to comprehend the force and extent of the international cooperation in the war and to judge how well ,america played her part in the general scheme4 ,let us go back1 therefore1 and review the history of these agreements4 ,for many months before ,america came into the struggle1 ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy had been engaged in grappling with the scientifically organized forces of ,german military autocracy4 ,the world war had become a conflict of materials1 almost as much as of men4 ,all participants had mobilized their industrial resources in a manner and to an extent undreamed of in times of peace4 ,the allies had marshaled all available raw materials and factory production in their own lands1 and still faced colossal deficiencies in supplies for their military programs4 ,they had been forced to reach out into the markets of the world to meet these deficiencies4 ,they had come to ,america and placed huge orders for raw materials and finished products4 ,the normal capacity of ,america's peace-time production had been insufficient to meet their overwhelming needs4 ,in ,august1 #aiad1 the total factory capacity in the ,united ,states for the manufacture of powder was #f1jjj1jjj pounds a year4 ,in ,april1 #aiag1 under the stimulation of orders placed by the allies1 the capacity had been increased more than sixty-fold4 ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy were taking this entire production and asking for more4 ,they had absorbed our entire output4 ,a huge stream of materials1 supplies1 and ammunition was flowing steadily from ,america to the front line trenches in ,france4 ,the allied governments had moulded their military programs in reliance upon the continuation of this source of supply4 ,their troops were on the front and in contact with the enemy4 ,failure of supply meant disaster4 ,the flow of materials from ,america to the armies in ,france could not1 under any circumstances1 be interfered with or curtailed4 ,this fact was promptly recognized by the ,united ,states1 and the allied governments were assured that ,america's military program would be formulated and performed without interference with the allied programs of supply from this country4 ,america's industrial contribution to the war1 as a nation1 was to be over and above the industrial contribution to the allies then being made by our individual producers4 ,this fundamental plank in the interallied platform of cooperation was laid down at the very commencement of ,america's preparation1 and it was strictly adhered to until the end of hostilities4 ,a comprehensive cooperative plan for ,america's industrial participation in the war remained to be worked out4 ,a survey had to be conducted of the new partner's strength and weakness in supply4 ,a determination had to be made of what the allies could give to the new partner1 and what they must receive from her4 ,this was done by the ,interallied ,munitions ,council sitting in ,paris1 by the foreign missions in ,washington in conference with the ,war ,department1 and by the allied war ministries and ,gen4 ,pershing abroad4 ,an analysis of the facts of the situation disclosed that3 ,a4 ,the world over-- 7#a7 ,there was a critical shortage of ocean tonnage which promised to become more critical as time passed on account of the success of ,german submarine operations4 ,b4 ,in ,france and ,england-- 7#a7 ,the output of factories was being seriously curtailed and limited by lack of raw materials and semifinished products4 7#b7 ,if an adequate supply of raw materials and semifinished products could be made available1 the factories had a substantial surplus manufacturing capacity which could be placed at the disposal of the ,united ,states4 ,c4 ,in the ,united ,states-- 7#a7 ,a surplus of raw materials and semifinished products for transport to ,france and ,england could quickly be made available4 7#b7 ,it would be impossible1 within less than a year1 to build up additional manufacturing capacity in the ,united ,states sufficient to supply a large army4 ,the lack of ocean tonnage was recognized by all as the vitals of the problem4 ,france1 ,italy1 and the ,united ,states had comparatively little merchant tonnage4 ,england's vast tonnage was suffering rapid depletion by submarine losses and was totally inadequate to meet allied needs4 ,ships were the biggest single deficiency in the interallied program4 ,the cooperative industrial program of the ,allies and the ,united ,states had to be geared into the shipping problem4 ,to do this the determination of what materials should be shipped from the ,united ,states had to be decided first on the basis of what economies could be effected in shipping space4 ,if raw materials for aircraft occupied less cargo space than the finished product1 the maximum utilization of available tonnage demanded the shipment to ,france of these raw materials to be made into the finished product there4 ,if1 on the other hand1 finished nitrocellulose powder for artillery shell propellants1 or finished picric acid for artillery shell explosives1 occupied less cargo space than the raw component materials used in their production1 the shipping shortage demanded manufacture of these explosives and propellants in the ,united ,states4 ,not a single ship could be freighted with an extra pound or cubic foot of cargo which by any effort could be saved4 ,the ,french ,mission in the ,united ,states early recognized this fact and urged the manufacture in the ,united ,states of picric acid to be used as explosive in #ge-millimeter and #aee-millimeter shell1 pointing out that the finished product occupied but one-nineteenth as much cargo space as the raw materials4 ,gen4 ,pershing recognized the point1 and in ,august1 #aiag1 cabled as follows3 ,a joint ,french-,american commission has examined the question of the production in ,france of powders and explosives and reports as follows3 ,france must import by ,december #d the greater part of the raw materials used in the manufacture of powders and explosives4 ,the weight of raw materials required is #aj to #bj times the weight of the finished product4 ,the shipping situation is such that by ,december the output of ,france will be limited by the amount of raw material produced in ,france or easily obtainable4 99 99 99 ,the present outlook is that in ,december the ,french output will not be more than half of the present output4 ,to avoid calamity the ,united ,states must not only furnish powder and explosives for all of its own forces but must supply about half of the ,french requirements4 ,it is therefore recommended3 7,a7 that the ,united ,states ,government furnish all powders and explosives needed for present contracts with ,french ,government2 7,b7 that the ,united ,states ,government prepare to furnish by ,december #cjj tons per month of explosives and #bjj tons per month of powder for ,french consumption2 7,c7 that study be immediately commenced for the purpose of adapting ,american powders to ,french cannon of different types1 this study to be made both in the ,united ,states and in ,france by competent experts2 7,d7 that the ,french ,government put at the disposition of the ,american ,government competent experts both in the manufacture and use of these powders in the guns4 99 99 99 ,subsequent computations made on this side of the ocean indicated that in the case of picric acid and other explosives this ratio between raw materials and finished product in bulk was too great1 yet in principle these computations did not affect the desirability of shipping the finished product rather than the raw materials4 ,again1 ,gen4 ,pershing cabled to the ,chief of ,staff in the ,united ,states urging the purchase of completed artillery1 artillery ammunition1 and airplanes abroad1 in order that saving of tonnage might be effected1 and pointing out the saving of cargo space resulting from the shipment to ,france of raw materials instead of finished products1 saying3 ,following is comparison in tonnage of the principal manufactured articles of ordnance obtained in ,europe and the replacements in raw materials contracted for the same4 ,all tonnage ratios shown are in favor of raw materials3 ,field ,artillery guns #a to #g #aee millimeter howitzers and ammunition #a to #a #h millimeter ammunition #a to #c-c_/af ,trench mortars #a to #ab-a_/c ,grenades #a to #d ,in airplane production3 ,packed airplanes1 in weight #a to #b ,packed airplanes1 in cubic capacity #a to #b ,packed airplanes in area covered by boxes on board ship #a to #i ,in the above comparison in the ammunition item1 finished explosives are regarded as raw materials4 ,the ,interallied ,munitions ,council1 sitting in ,paris and containing among its membership the best military and industrial brains at the command of the allied cause1 including ,gen4 ,pershing1 ,gen4 ,robertson1 chief of the imperial general staff of ,great ,britain1 and ,gen4 ,foch1 then chief of the general staff of the ,french ,army1 came to the same conclusion1 and ,gen4 ,bliss transmitted its findings in a memorable cable1 a part of which was reproduced in the preface to this report4 ,every mind was in accord4 ,tonnage must be saved4 ,it could be saved and in vast amounts by calling upon the ,united ,states to supply the raw and semifinished materials1 and upon the ,french and ,british war factories to utilize these raw and semifinished materials in the manufacture of the finished products4 ,but could this solution of the vital shipping question be dovetailed into the industrial situations of the various nations concerned8 ,could the ,united ,states supply the essential raw and semifinished materials in quantities equivalent to the amounts consumed in the manufacture of the finished product8 ,did the ,french and ,british factories1 with these materials laid down in their yards1 have available a sufficient manufacturing surplus to supply the needs of their own armies and also to produce in part for the armies of ,america8 ,the foreign missions were in ,washington4 ,they knew intimately the economic and industrial situations in their respective countries2 they knew the military plans of their general staffs2 they knew in what respects their programs of supply for their armies in the field needed assistance1 and in what respects these programs could be met or exceeded4 ,with this information available1 they were prepared to furnish the answer as to the manufacturing capacities of allied ,europe4 ,the ,british ,war ,mission in ,washington communicated to the ,war ,department a cable from the ,british minister of armament1 setting out the position of the ,british ,government on reciprocal supply3 ,the ,british ,government is willing as far as possible in matters of urgency to manufacture for use of the ,americans any products necessary to the more speedy equipment of the ,americans that the ,americans consider they can obtain in ,england more promptly or better than in the ,united ,states4 ,furthermore1 the situation as to manufacture of steel products is better than it has been4 ,the ,british ,government will help to its utmost ability without making actual and immediate replacement of raw material an indispensable condition when any order is given4 ,on the other hand the general principle of replacements of raw materials as soon as possible should be observed4 ,it has become more a question of furnishing supplies promptly to the allies than a mere question of replacing what has been furnished ,american troops2 in other words1 the needs of the allies should be considered as one1 and ,england should manufacture for the allies anything that is necessary or best got that way1 and ,america should in the general interest of the allies furnish as soon as convenient raw material to replace that used4 99 99 99 ,writing to ,maj4 ,gen4 ,crozier1 ,chief of ,ordnance1 the ,french high commission urged the placement in ,france of orders for artillery and artillery ammunition and pointed out the existence of surplus factory capacity available for their production4 ,the commission summarized the industrial situation in ,france in the following language3 ,even in such remarkable technical conditions as yours1 it takes time to realize such a program1 to organize manufactures and to have men to direct them4 ,you will take less time than we did in ,france1 where the output of big guns was not adequate to our needs before the end of #aiaf4 ,but time--more or less--had to be an essential factor1 so that after careful consideration1 it has been found that the only plan to be carried out in order to supply the first ,american divisions with material on their landing in ,france was to avail ourselves of the surplus capacity of production of the ,french factories1 which had been since the beginning of the war very powerfully equipped and were able to turn out greater quantities than those corresponding to our supply of raw material4 ,the allies could deliver the artillery1 artillery ammunition1 and airplanes if ,america could deliver the raw and semifinished materials4 ,america answered that she could and would produce and transport to ,europe raw materials and semifinished products in amounts equivalent to the amounts consumed by allied factories in manufacturing the completed guns1 shell1 and airplanes4 ,the details remained to be worked out4 ,the ,french high commission submitted statements showing the amounts of each component material consumed in ,french factories in the production of guns and ammunition of the various calibers4 ,there were to be supplied by ,america #f tons of steel for each #ge-millimeter gun1 #dj tons of steel for each #aee-millimeter howitzer1 and #fj tons of steel for each #aee-millimeter gun1 and proper proportionate amounts of necessary materials used in the manufacture of artillery ammunition4 ,the program of industrial and economic cooperation between the ,united ,states and the allies thus took form4 ,it used in the most efficient manner every nook and cranny of every available ship4 ,it utilized to the utmost the surplus manufacturing capacity of ,france and ,england4 ,it brought into the war at the earliest moment the resources of ,america in raw and semifinished materials4 ,it spanned the period during which ,america could go forward with her gigantic mobilization of manufacturing power and later convince the ,central ,empires of the futility of further struggle4 ,with the program mapped out1 reciprocal agreements for supply remained to be made4 ,orders were promptly placed4 ,the ,united ,states ordered from ,france a total of #e1hed pieces of field and trench artillery of various calibers1 of which #c1hcd were delivered to the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces prior to the armistice4 ,by ,august1 #aiag1 more artillery ammunition was on order with the ,french ,government than was fired by the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces from ,january #ah1 #aiah1 when the first complete ,american division entered the line1 until ,november #aa1 #aiah1 when the end of hostilities was announced to the world4 ,of the amount ordered #aj1jjj1jjj rounds were delivered before firing ceased4 ,in aircraft equipment1 the ,french factories also had a surplus capacity and delivered to ,gen4 ,pershing up to ,november #aa1 #aiah1 a total of #d1hha finished airplanes4 ,by the terms of our agreement with the ,french ,government1 ,america obligated herself to supply the raw materials and component parts of the finished products delivered to our forces in ,france4 ,this agreement ,america performed twice over4 ,for every ton of raw materials and semifinished products ,america agreed to furnish to ,france1 she furnished two tons4 ,according to ,french statements1 our replacement obligation in raw materials was #cej1jjj tons4 ,america furnished over #hjj1jjj tons4 ,in exchange for the artillery and artillery ammunition of ,french manufacture fired by ,pershing1 ,america supplied to ,france in metals alone over #gjj1jjj tons of steel1 #cj1jjj tons of pig iron1 #e1jjj tons of brass and spelter1 and #ej1jjj tons of copper4 ,in addition1 and for use in the artillery ammunition received from ,french factories1 ,america manufactured and supplied to ,france in a finished state all the principal materials used in loading all shell delivered to the ,american ,army4 ,these materials consisted of smokeless powder1 used as a propellant to drive the shell from the guns1 and of picric acid1 used as a high-powered detonative to burst over the enemy lines4 ,the ,french used #ab1jjj tons of smokeless powder in our shell4 ,america delivered an equivalent amount of finished powder4 ,the ,french consumed #ah1jjj tons of picric acid in loading shell for ,american use4 ,america supplied #ah1ejj tons4 ,in exchange for the finished airplanes1 again ,america supplied the raw materials and component parts4 ,for the framework of the ,french planes driven by ,american aviators1 ,america furnished #cd1ejj1jjj feet of spruce1 fir1 and cedar1 enough to manufacture over #af1jjj finished planes2 for the propellors1 ,america furnished #g1jjj1jjj feet of mahogany and walnut1 enough for #dj1jjj propellors2 #d1jjj tons of aluminum1 enough for thousands of planes2 and dopes for painting airplane wings1 and miscellaneous aircraft materials and supplies far in excess of the number of finished planes delivered to ,gen4 ,pershing4 ,under special contract made in ,august1 #aiag1 and in addition to the above1 ,america furnished to ,france all materials for #e1jjj finished planes and all parts for #h1ejj finished airplane engines1 which were to be assembled in ,france for the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,the engine parts were in forgings and needed only to be machined4 ,for the use of the ,french ,government in machining these engine parts1 ,america built and delivered the necessary equipment and machinery4 ,thousands of additional smaller items of all kinds were supplied by the various governments to each other from day to day4 ,no deficiency in the military programs of any of them was permitted to exist1 if it could be made good by any of the others4 ,all of ,america's vast contribution to the allied program of supply was not only produced in ,america1 but it was taken to ,france in army transports4 ,from ,august1 #aiag1 to ,november #aa1 #aiah1 an average of #b1jjj tons of ,american materials for ,french factories left ,american ports every day aboard ,american army transports4 ,through a submarine-infested ocean1 in which the ,germans sank over #ba1jjj1jjj tons of dead-weight shipping1 these materials were carried in army transports manned by ,american crews1 and laid down at the doors of ,french factories4 ,by ,february1 #aiah1 ,gen4 ,pershing estimated that #b1jjj1jjj tons of cargo space had been saved by the adoption of this program of international and reciprocal supply1 a saving of more tonnage than was then available for the use of the ,american ,expeditionary ,forces4 ,the ,franco-,american commission on explosives estimated a reduction of #ge per cent in cargo space in the shipment of explosives alone4 ,so the silent drama of international cooperation was carried out4 ,the story of ,british and ,american mutual aid during the war is the same story in substance as that of ,franco-,american cooperation1 with changes only in the figures4 ,economy of shipping was effected4 ,british and ,french factory capacity was utilized4 ,the vast reservoir of ,american raw materials and explosives was thrown against the enemy4 ,international cooperation on a scale and in a spirit of cordial1 mutual helpfulness1 such as the world had never dreamed of1 helped to equip #b1jjj1jjj ,american soldiers in ,france4 ,and it was done1 all of it1 without curtailment of the huge stream of material which was flowing from ,america to the allies when the ,united ,states entered the war4 ,france and ,england received ever-increasing quantities to the last day4 ,the more than #hjj1jjj tons of replacement materials for artillery1 artillery ammunition1 and airplanes delivered to ,america was over and above the millions of tons secured by the allies for their own use directly from ,american producers4 ,it was partly by reason of the adoption of this program and its complete performance that ,gen4 ,pershing1 after the armistice1 could say3 ,during active operations extending from ,january1 #aiah1 when our first division entered the line1 until the close of hostilities on ,november #aa1 our troops were supplied with the equipment and ammunition necessary to carry their work to a successful conclusion4 ,beyond all this1 our ,government1 as part of the interallied program1 created vast faculties for the manufacture of supplies which ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy still required for their own needs and which a comprehensive consideration of the entire program1 with particular reference to shipping1 showed could be best produced in this country4 ,factories for the production of immense additional quantities of picric acid1 powder1 and other materials were built by our ,war ,department to fill the deficiencies in the military programs of our associates in the war4 ,and beyond and behind all this ,america went forward with her own gigantic preparations for the conquest of the dark forces which threatened world civilization4 ,it was this mobilization of her might almost as much as the effect of her immediate force which helped to convince the ,german general staff of the futility of further resistance and assisted to bring the war to an early end4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,p4 #abb corrected table sum from #bhd1gcj to #cca1gcj4 ,p4 #cdc corrected table sum from #a1fje1ehb to #hfj1gjj4 ,p4 #cdd corrected table sum ,total produced from #ag1fhd1hec to #ag1fhc1cec and ,total manufactured from #abe1hjj to #abc1hjj4 ,p4 #cej corrected table sum from #a1hah1ahb to #a1hah1agb and also #c1cfj1aaa to #c1cfj1aja4 ,p4 #djj swapped title captions ,,filling ,,hand ,,grenades ,,with ,,white ,,phosphorus and ,,filling ,,mustard ,,gas ,,shell ,,at ,,edgewood ,,arsenal so the title agrees with the photo and the explanatory captions4 ,p4 #dea corrected ,hard bread ,total ,value from #c1fad1cfe to #c1fad1hfe4 ,p4 #dic corrected table ,grand total from #bj1ebj1bea to #bj1ebj1bed and #bb1gii1bfc to #bb1gii1bff4 ,p4 #eje corrected table sum from #d1jdc to #c1ddc4 ,p4 #eac corrected table ,total from #i1bjc1egg to #i1bjc1ege and #cje1iji1gai to #cje1iji1gae4 ,simple spelling1 grammar1 and typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,anachronistic and non-standard spellings retained as printed4 ,italics markup is enclosed in underscores4 ,bold markup is enclosed in equals4