,history of ,sanitation      ,by ,j4 ,j4
 ,,cosgrove    ,author of    ,principles
 and ,practice of ,plumbing1 ,sewage    
,purification  and ,disposal1 ,wrought  
,pipe ,drainage ,systems1  and ,plumbing
 ,plans and ,specifications             
,illustration      ,published by        
,standard ,sanitary ,mfg4 ,co4          
,,pittsburgh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4               
,copyright #aiji by ,standard ,sanitary 
,mfg4 ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4    
,preface      ,when the manuscript for  
this volume was prepared1 there was no  
decided  intention of publishing it in  
book form4 ,originally it was intended  
to  appear as a serial in ,modern       
,sanitation1 and grew out of a request  
from the ,editor of that magazine to    
write an article that would trace  the  
advancement made in sanitation from its 
earliest stages to the  present time4   
,sanitation has been given but little   
thought by historians1  consequently1   
considerable study and research were    
necessary to  dig from musty tomes and  

ancient records a story that would prove
  interesting and instructive4 ,having  
succeeded in gathering together  much of
 interest to sanitarians1 and in view of
 the fact that no other  history of     
sanitation was ever written1 the work   
was deemed worthy of a  more permanent  
place in literature1 and it was decided 
to put it forth  in more enduring form4 
,the book is therefore offered to the   
public with  the fervent hope that those
 who read its pages will derive as much 
pleasure as did the author in preparing 
the manuscript4          ,j4 ,j4        
,,cosgrove      ,,philadelphia1         
,,pennsylvania      ,february #aeth1    
#aiji          ,publisher's ,note       
,the primary object of our organization 
is1 as is universally known1  to        
manufacture and market ,standard        
,plumbing ,fixtures1 ,brass ,goods  and 
other products made in our factories4   
,in the development of an  organization 
to accomplish this result1 there has    
been established an  ,advertising and   

,publishing ,department of no small     
proportions1 and the  ,history of       
,sanitation is simply the outgrowth of  
the work of this  department4 ,this     
brief statement will1 we believe1 serve 
to give the  public a clear             
understanding of our somewhat unique    
position of being  at the same time     
manufacturers and publishers4    ,the   
first serious work of the ,publishing   
,department on a large scale  was       
,modern ,sanitation 7established ,june1 
#aijd74 ,from this came  the            
publication1 first in serial form and   
later as a book1 of ,j4 ,j4  ,cosgrove's
 first work1 ,principles and ,practice  
of ,plumbing 7book  published ,december1
 #aijf74 ,the phenomenal success of the 
book is a  matter of general knowledge1 
although it may not be widely known that
  ,principles and ,practice of ,plumbing
 has been adopted as a text book  in    
more than thirty universities and       
colleges in the ,united ,states1  and   
bids fair to be adopted in others4 ,this

 magnificent achievement  has been      
accomplished solely on the merit of the 
work and without  solicitation on the   
part of either the author or publisher4 
,there is now offered almost            
simultaneously two new books by ,mr4    
,cosgrove1 one being the volume in hand 
and the other ,sewage  ,purification and
 ,disposal4    ,in ,history of          
,sanitation1 ,sewage ,purification and  
,disposal and  ,principles and ,practice
 of ,plumbing we feel that the          
literature of  the craft has been       
enriched in an enduring manner1 and that
 we have  fully justified our appearance
 in the field of publishers as amply as 
we have our standing as manufacturers of
 a world-wide known and used  product4  
,standard ,sanitary ,mfg4 ,co4          
,pittsburgh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4                
,publishing ,department                 
,explanatory ,description of ,full ,page
 ,illustrations        ,,ancient ,,roman
 ,,fountain ,,at ,,corinth      ,page #f
    ,an old fountain at ,corinth1       

,greece1 whose piping and stone         
construction  date from about the time  
of the ,christian era4 ,it was standing 
here  when ,st4 ,paul lived and taught  
in ,corinth1 and is still the only      
source  of water supply for a large     
contingent of ,greek housekeepers4      
,drinking  water is carried home in     
jars1 but washing is done on the spot1  
just as  it was centuries ago4          
,,the ,,roman ,,aqueduct ,,of ,,segovia1
 ,,spain      ,page #cf    ,this        
aqueduct is #icg feet long1 and consists
 of #cbj arches in two  tiers1 the      
highest arch in the lower tier being    
#ajb feet4 ,it is  supposed to have been
 built in the time of ,trajan4          
,segovia was an ancient ,roman city     
located in old ,castile1 ,spain1 and    
was the residence of the kings of ,leon 
and ,castile4        ,,the ,,oldest     
,,bathroom ,,in ,,the ,,world      ,page
 #gf    ,this photograph was made at the
 ruined palace and fortress of ,tiryns1 
in ,greece4 ,it is regarded by          

archologists as one of the oldest cities
  in the world1 and is mentioned by name
 in ,greek poetry of #b1jjj years  ago4 
,its rulers must have been men of great 
importance1 as their stone  palace      
7parts of its walls and galleries are as
 firm and solid as ever7  was a         
structure of splendid dimensions and    
substantial character4    ,there is no  
doubt the #h  #i-;foot slab of stone    
seen in the picture  formed the floor of
 a bathroom4 ,at the farther edge there 
still remains  the slanting groove cut  
in as an outlet for water4              
,,bathing ,,and ,,burning ,,hindu ,,dead
 ,,at ,,benares      ,page #ij          
,dipping a corpse in the holy waters of 
the ,ganges ,river before burning  it on
 the bank--a daily occurrence at        
,benares1 ,india4 ,some worshipper  may 
very likely drink the water only twenty 
feet away4        ,,the ,,fountain ,,of 
,,elisha      ,page #ajh    ,the waters 
of this ancient fountain were           
miraculously sweetened by the  ,prophet 

,elisha4          ,table of ,contents   
,,chapter ,i                            
,page    ,sanitation of ,primitive      
,man--,early ,wells--,rebekah at the    
,well--,joseph's  ,well--,well at the   
,rancho ,chack      #a      ,,chapter   
,,ii    ,cisterns--,early ,mention of   
,cisterns--,cisterns of                 
,carthage--,early  ,methods of ,raising 
,water--,water ,carriers--,pool of      
,siloam--,pool of                       
,solomon--,aqueducts--,carthagenian     
,aqueduct--,aqueducts of                
,rome--,aqueduct of  ,segovia1          
,spain--,trophies of ,marius      #g    
,,chapter ,,iii    ,early ,sewage       
,disposal--,removal of ,offensive       
,materials from ,temples of             
,jerusalem--,sewage ,systems of a       
,pre-,babylonian ,city--,sewers of      
,rome--,the  ,cloaca ,maxima--,the      
,dejecti-,effusive ,act      #bi        
,,chapter ,,iv    ,origin of            
,bathing--,early ,greek ,baths--,roman  
,private ,baths--,public ,baths of      

,rome--,ruins of ,baths of              
,caracalla--,description of the         
,therm--,the ,therm  of ,titus at       
,rome--,baths of ,pompeii--,heating     
,water for ,roman ,baths--,therm  of    
,titus ,restored      #cg      ,,chapter
 ,v    ,fall of the ,roman              
,empire--,succeeding ,period ,known as  
the ,dark  ,ages--,sanitation ,during   
the ,dark ,ages--,beginning of ,material
 ,progress in  ,sanitation--,pilgrimage 
to ,juggernaut--,water ,supply in       
,paris--,london ,water                  
,supply--,aqueduct of ,zempoala1 ,mexico
      #fc      ,,chapter ,,vi           
,introduction of ,pumping ,machinery    
into ,waterworks ,practice--,the        
,archimedes ,screw--,use of ,pumps in   
,hanover1 ,germany--,first ,london ,pump
  on ,london ,bridge--,savery and       
,newcomen's ,pumping ,engine--,the      
,hydraulic  ,ram--,pumping ,engines     
,erected for the ,philadelphia          
,waterworks--,pipes for  ,distributing  
,water--,hydrants and ,valves for       

,wooden ,pipes--,data ,regarding  the   
,use of ,wooden ,pipes--,modern ,pumping
 ,engines      #gg    ,,chapter ,,vii   
,early ,british ,sewers--,sewer in the  
,great ,hall of ,westminster--,shape of 
,early ,english ,sewers--,adoption or   
,recommendation of ,pipe ,sewers--,early
  ,paris ,sewers--,paris ,sewers of     
,to-day--,lack of ,sewage ,data in      
,america--,effect of ,memphis ,epidemics
 on ,sanitary ,progress      #he        
,,chapter ,,viii    ,sanitary           
,awakening--,realization of the ,danger 
of ,unwholesome  ,water--,cholera in    
,london ,traced to the ,broad ,street   
,pump--,an ,historical  ,stink      #ia 
,,chapter ,,ix    ,introduction of      
,water ,filters--,striking ,example of  
the ,efficiency  and ,value--,cholera at
 ,altona and ,hamburg--,purification of 
,sewage--,the  ,automatic ,scavenger of 
,mouras--,investigations of the         
,massachusetts ,state  ,board of        
,health--,garbage ,destruction      #aji
      ,,chapter ,x    ,modern and       

,recent ,plumbing ,fixtures--,passing of
 the ,marble  ,lavatory--,public ,wash  
,houses--,public ,comfort               
,stations--,conclusion      #aai        
,list of ,illustrations                 
,page     #a  ,rebekah at the ,well     
#b     #b  ,well at the ,rancho ,chack  
#d     #c  ,ancient ,roman ,fountain at 
,corinth       #f     #d  ,the ,cisterns
 at ,carthage      #g     #e  ,pole and 
,bucket for ,raising ,water      #h     
#f  ,ruins of ,ancient ,cisterns      #h
     #g  ,old ,roman ,water-,wheel      
#i     #h  ,water ,carrier with ,jar    
#i     #i  ,water ,carrier with         
,goat-,skin ,bag      #aa    #aj ,pool  
of ,siloam      #ab    #aa ,pool of     
,solomon      #ac    #ab ,aqueduct near 
,tunis1 ,leading to ,ancient ,carthage  
#ad    #ac ,ancient ,roman ,well        
#ae    #ad ,ruins of a ,roman ,aqueduct 
#ag    #ae ,distant ,view of the        
,claudia ,aqueduct  #ah    #af ,near    
,view of the ,claudia ,aqueduct      #ai
    #ag ,aqueduct in ,ruins1 ,ephesus   

#bj    #ah ,roman ,aqueduct1 ,segovia1  
,spain       #bb    #ai ,water ,tower   
and ,roman ,ruins1 ,chester1 ,england   
#bc    #bj ,roman ,water ,pipes1 made of
 ,bored-out ,blocks of ,stone       #bd 
#ba ,trophies of ,marius       #be      
#bb ,old ,roman ,lead and ,terra ,cotta 
,pipe       #bf    #bc ,the ,women's    
,baths1 ,pompeii      #bh    #bd ,the   
,cloaca ,maxima4 ,from an old woodcut   
#ca    #be ,the ,cloaca ,maxima4 ,from a
 recent photograph      #cb    #bf      
,egyptian ,lady ,having ,head ,sprayed1 
#agjj ,b4 ,c4      #cc    #bg ,greek    
,women ,bathing      #cd    #bh ,greek  
,bath ,tubs      #cd    #bi ,the ,roman 
,aqueduct of ,segovia1 ,spain      #cf  
#cj ,mosaic from ,floor of ,baths of    
,caracalla      #cg    #ca ,ruins of the
 ,baths of ,caracalla1 ,rome      #ch   
#cb ,interior of the ,frigidarium1      
,caracalla      #ci    #cc ,outer ,row  
of ,baths1 ,caracalla1 ,rome      #da   
#cd ,therm of ,titus at ,rome      #df  
#ce ,clipeus4 ,from an old woodcut      

#df    #cf ,floor ,plan of the ,baths of
 ,pompeii      #dg    #cg ,frigidarium4 
,from an old woodcut      #dh    #ch    
,atlantes      #ej    #ci ,coppers for  
,heating ,water in ,roman ,baths        
#eb    #dj ,ground ,plan of ,therm of   
,caracalla      #ee    #da ,hypocaust   
for ,heating ,water1 ,therm of          
,caracalla      #eg    #db ,restoration 
of ,therm of ,titus4 7,restored by      
,leclerc7       #eh    #dc ,plan of the 
,therm of ,titus1 ,rome4 7,restored by  
,leclerc7       #ei    #dd ,sectional   
,elevation1 ,therm of ,titus1 ,rome     
#fj    #de ,frigidarium1 ,therm of      
,caracalla1 ,rome4 7,restored by        
,viollet-le-,duc47      #fa    #df      
,interior ,view of ,aqueduct1 ,lisbon1  
,portugal      #fb    #dg ,destroyed    
,lead ,font1 ,great ,plumstead1 ,norfolk
      #fd    #dh ,leaden ,cup1 of the   
time of ,vespasian      #fe    #di ,lead
 ,pipehead and ,pipe     #ff    #ej     
,lead ,cistern with the ,arms of the    
,fishmongers' ,company      #fg    #ea  

,car of ,juggernaut      #fh    #eb     
,distant ,view of ,zempoala ,aqueduct1  
,queretaro1 ,mexico      #gj    #ec     
,near ,view of ,zempoala ,aqueduct1     
,mexico      #ga    #ed ,zempoala       
,aqueduct4 ,from an old print      #gb  
#ee ,the ,oldest ,bathroom in the ,world
      #gf    #ef ,savery's ,engine      
#gg    #eg ,newcomen's ,engine      #gh 
#eh ,pump ,house1 ,philadelphia      #gi
    #ei ,wooden ,boilers used in        
,philadelphia ,water ,supply      #hj   
#fj ,bored-out ,log ,pipe1 used in      
,british ,columbia      #ha    #fa      
,valve for ,wooden ,pipes used in       
,philadelphia ,water ,supply      #hb   
#fb ,hydrant for ,wooden ,pipes used in 
,philadelphia ,water ,supply      #hb   
#fc ,modern ,vertical ,triple-,expansion
 ,pumping ,engine      #hc    #fd       
,aqueduct ,crossing the ,alcantara      
,valley      #hd    #fe ,bathing and    
,burning ,hindu ,dead at ,benares       
#ij    #ff ,map ,showing ,relation of   
,cholera and the ,broad ,street ,pump   

#ib    #fg ,york ,survey of the ,broad  
,street ,pump       #aja    #fh ,the    
,fountain of ,elisha       #ajh    #fi  
,map ,showing ,location of ,cases of    
,cholera in ,hamburg and ,altona        
#aaj    #gj ,new ,york ,public ,baths   
#aah    #ga ,bathroom of the ,early     
,seventies   #aai    #gb ,one ,stage in 
the ,evolution of the ,porcelain        
,enameled ,bath       #abj    #gc ,a    
,slop ,sink of ,long ,ago       #abj    
#gd ,bath ,tub ,encased in ,woodwork    
#aba    #ge ,an ,old ,marble-,top       
,lavatory       #aba    #gf ,a ,modern  
,porcelain ,enameled ,lavatory          
#abb    #gg ,present ,stage in the      
,evolution of ,porcelain ,enameled      
,baths      #abc    #gh ,a ,twentieth   
,century ,bathroom      #abd            
,illustration3 ,,laoco,n ,,and ,,his    
,,sons    ,,statvary ,,fovnd ,,in ,,the 
,,baths ,,of ,,titvs    ,this group of  
statuary is now in the ,vatican1 ,rome  
,illustration3 ,history of ,sanitation3 
,,chapter ,i     ,,synopsis ,,of        

,,chapter4 ,sanitation of ,primitive    
,man--,early ,wells--,rebekah   at the  
,well--,joseph's ,well--,the ,rancho    
,chack4      ,history repeats itself4   
,the march of progress is onward1 ever  
onward1 but it moves in cycles4 ,a      
center of civilization springs up1      
flourishes for a time then decays2 and  
from the ashes of the perished          
civilization1 phnix-like1 there springs 
a larger1 grander1 more  enduring       
civilization4 ,nowhere in the cycle of  
progress is this more  noticeable than  
in the history of sanitation4 ,centers  
of civilization1  like ,jerusalem1      
,athens1 ,rome and ,carthage1 arose to  
pre-eminence in  sanitary matters1 built
 sewers1 constructed aqueducts and      
provided for  the inhabitants           
magnificent baths the equal of which the
 world has  never since seen4 ,after the
 splendors of ,carthage and ,rome1      
darkness  succeeded2 a darkness from    
which we slowly emerged in the sixteenth
  century and are now speeding on to    

eclipse the sanitary splendors of  even 
the old ,roman empire4    ,in its       
broadest sense1 a history of sanitation 
is a story of the  world's struggle for 
an adequate supply of wholesome water1  
and its  efforts to dispose of the      
resultant sewage without menace to      
health  nor offence to the sense of     
sight or smell4 ,in ancient as in modern
  times1 water was the chief            
consideration of a community4 ,centers  
of  population sprung up in localities  
where water was plentiful1 and  where   
for commercial1 strategetic or other    
reasons1 a city was built  remote from a
 water course1 great expenditures of    
labor and treasure  were made           
constructing works to conduct water to  
the city from distant  springs1 lakes or
 water courses4 ,ruins--still           
standing--of some of those  engineering 
works give us some idea of the magnitude
 of the water  supply for ancient cities
 belonging to the ,roman empire4        
,illustration3 ,rebekah at the ,well    

,in the early days of primitive man1    
sanitation was among his least          
concerns4 ,he obtained water from the   
most convenient source1 and  disposed of
 his sewage in the least laborious way4 
,those who lived  in the vicinity of    
streams solved the problem by moving to 
the bank1  where1 like their more highly
 civilized descendants of to-day1 they  
drew water from the up side of the      
stream and returned the sewage to  the  
water to pollute and possibly           
contaminate it for their neighbors      
lower down4    ,communities living      
remote from natural water courses soon  
learned the  value of wells as a source 
of water supply4 ,many mentions of wells
 are  made in the ,book of ,genesis1 and
 it is affirmed by ,blackstone that at  
that period wells were the cause of     
violent and frequent contention2  that  
the exclusive property or title to a    
well appeared to be vested in  the first
 digger or occupant1 even in such places
 where the ground and  herbage remained 

in common4    ,while this statement     
might be true of many instances1 there  
can be no  doubt that public wells were 
dug even in those remote times4 ,indeed1
  the first mention made of a well1 in  
the ,book of ,genesis1 would  indicate  
that its waters were free to all4       
,abraham's oldest servant1  ,eliezer1   
had been entrusted with the duty of     
selecting a wife for  ,abraham's son1   
,isaac4 ,the servant journeyed to the   
ancient city of  ,nahor1 and there he   
made his camels to kneel down without   
the city by  a well of water at the time
 of the evening that women go out to    
draw  water4 ,and he said3 ,behold1 ,i  
stand here by the well of water2 and    
the daughters of the men of the city    
come out to draw water1 and let it  come
 to pass that the damsel to whom ,i     
shall say1 ,let down thy pitcher1  ,i   
pray thee1 that ,i may drink2 and she   
shall say1 ,drink1 and ,i will  give thy
 camel drink also2 ,let the same be she 
that ,thou hast appointed  for thy      

servant1 ,isaac4 ,and it came to pass   
that ,rebekah came out1 and  the damsel 
was very fair to look upon1 and she went
 down to the well  and filled her       
pitcher1 and the servant said1 ,let me  
,i pray thee drink  a little water of   
thy pitcher4 ,and she said1 ,drink1 my  
lord1 and when  she had done giving him 
drink1 she said1 ,i will draw water for 
thy  camel also4 ,and she hastened to   
empty her pitcher in the trough and ran 
again unto the well to draw water for   
all the camels4    ,in ,assyria and     
,persia from earliest times1 water has  
been conveyed to  towns from astonishing
 distances in open channels1 and in     
,egypt1 also  in ,china1 gigantic works 
for conveying water both for domestic   
use and  for irrigation have been in    
existence from remote antiquity4 ,in    
,china1  a knowledge of the art of well 
drilling has existed for centuries4     
,travelers speak of wells drilled by    
,chinese1 centuries ago1 to a depth  of 
#a1ejj feet4    ,in the valley of the   

,nile are many famous wells4 ,joseph's  
,well#a at  ,cairo1 near the ,pyramids1 
is perhaps the most famous of ancient   
wells4  ,it is excavated in solid rock  
to a depth of #big feet and consists of 
two stories or lifts4 ,the upper shaft  
is #ah by #bd feet and #afe feet  deep2 
the lower shaft is #i by #ae feet and   
reaches to a further depth of  #acb     
feet4 ,water is raised in two lifts by  
means of buckets on endless  chains1    
those for the lower level being operated
 by mules in a chamber  at the bottom of
 the upper shaft1 to which access is had
 by means of a  spiral stairway winding 
about the well4    ,illustration3 ,well 
at the ,rancho ,chack    ,in ,america1  
the use of wells as a means of water    
supply is of great  antiquity1 dating   
back to pre-historic races4 ,in the     
,united ,states1  along the valley of   
the ,mississippi1 artificially walled   
wells have  been found that are believed
 to have been built by a race of people 
who preceded the ,indians4 ,primitive   

tribes that lived in the hills          
sometimes had their ingenuity taxed to  
provide a water supply4 ,in the  hills  
or mountains of ,yucatan1 at ,santa     
,ana1 in the ,sierra de ,yucatan1  there
 exists a well of great antiquity that  
shows the difficulty under  which the   
aborigines labored in their search for  
water4 ,the well is  located on the     
,rancho ,chack4 ,it is not known whether
 this well was  constructed by hand     
labor or is one of the numerous caverns 
in the  rock1 fashioned by the boundless
 forces of nature1 and with which the   
hills abound4 ,water is reached after   
descending by ladder a distance  of over
 #ajj feet and traversing a passage     
#b1gjj feet long or about  half a mile  
in length4 ,the rocky sides of the      
tunnel are worn smooth  by the friction 
of clothes or bodies brushing against   
the surface1 and  the roof of the tunnel
 is black from soot and smoke from      
countless  torches that have lighted    
water bearers to the spot where a pool  

of  clear1 lukewarm water bars the      
passage4 ,how many centuries this little
  subterranean pool has supplied water  
to the natives of this region  there is 
no means of ascertaining4 ,the well is  
used at the present  time1 and perhaps  
when ,carthage was a village1 ,rome a   
wilderness1  and ,christianity unthought
 of1 this little pool of water hidden in
  the bowels of the earth and accessible
 only after traversing a dark1          
slippery1 perilous passage1 was to the  
,indians of that locality  what the old 
oaken bucket was to the ,new ,england   
villagers of the  seventeenth and       
eighteenth centuries4    ,illustration  
,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,roman        
,,fovntain ,,at ,,corinth    ,,greek    
,,peasants ,,washing ,,clothes    ,from 
,stereograph1 copyright #aijh by        
,underwood  ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4    7,see
 page iv7          ,illustration3       
,,chapter ,,ii     ,,synopsis ,,of      
,,chapter4 ,cisterns--,early ,mention of
 ,cisterns--,cisterns   of              

,carthage--,early ,methods of ,raising  
,water--,water ,carriers--,pool of      
,siloam--,pool of                       
,solomon--,aqueducts--,carthagenian     
,aqueduct--,aqueducts of                
,rome--,aqueducts of ,segovia1          
,spain--,trophies of ,marius4      ,the 
storage of water in cisterns or         
reservoirs is by no means a modern      
practice4 ,the earliest tribes of whom  
we have any traditions or records       
resorted to this method for providing a 
supply of water4 ,in xi ,kings1  #ah-ca1
 the first mention is made of cisterns  
in ,drink ye every one  the water of his
 cistern4 ,the methods employed by the  
ancients to  construct cisterns must    
have been laborious and unsatisfactory4 
,cement  at that time was unknown and   
bricks were not made1 so that the modern
  cistern1 as we know it1 could not have
 existed4 ,no doubt in some  localities 
where clay was plentiful the cisterns   
were scooped out of  the earth and      
puddled with clay1 just as many         

reservoirs of to-day are  made4 ,this   
method of constructing a cistern1       
however1 would limit the  form to a     
cup-shaped affair1 which would be very  
difficult to roof  over4 ,if the        
cisterns were not covered1 as much water
 might be lost by  evaporation as would 
be used by the inhabitants1 so that at  
its best a  clay-puddled cistern must   
have been an unsatisfactory affair4 ,in 
the  locality of mountains and quarries1
 cisterns were hewn out of the solid    
rock4 ,they have forsaken me the        
fountain of living waters and hewed     
them out cisterns1 broken cisterns that 
can hold no water4--,jer4 #b-c4         
,rock-hewn cisterns must have made ideal
 storage reservoirs for water4  ,the    
darkness of the cavern would prevent the
 growth of vegetation1  while the thick 
walls of rock1 affording a shelter from 
the sun1 would  keep the water cool and 
refreshing4    ,illustration3 ,the      
,cisterns at ,carthage4 ,all that is    
left of the  ,ancient ,city             

,illustration3 ,pole and ,bucket for    
,raising ,water    ,illustration3 ,ruins
 of ,ancient ,cisterns    ,it is worthy 
of noting here that the ancients seem to
 have been aware  of the movement of    
ground water through the soil1 a fact   
that was  forgotten and rediscovered in 
comparatively recent times4 ,in ,prov4  
#e-ae the statement1 ,drink waters out  
of thine own cistern and running  waters
 out of thine own well1 would lead to   
this conclusion1 unless1  indeed1 they  
classed a bubbling spring as a well4    
,the earliest known cistern or reservoir
 of which we have any authentic         
knowledge are the masonry cisterns or   
reservoirs that stored water for  the   
supply of the ancient city of ,carthage4
 ,these cisterns1 which are  wonderfully
 well preserved1 are still to be seen on
 the site of the  ancient ,punic city1  
but outside of what was the walled city1
 before it  was totally destroyed by the
 ,romans4    ,illustration3 ,old ,roman 
,water ,wheel    ,illustration3 ,water  

,carrier with ,jar    ,these cisterns   
were originally covered with earth1 and 
it is due to  that fact1 perhaps1 that  
they escaped destruction when the       
,romans razed  the city4 ,it is easy to 
criticise the judgment of others1 and no
 doubt  if all the facts were known1    
there were good and sufficient reasons  
why the ,roman general did not destroy  
the cisterns and cut off the  supply of 
water from ,carthage during the siege of
 that city4 ,but in  the light of our   
present knowledge of warfare1 when a    
water supply is  considered a vulnerable
 point1 most carefully guarded by the   
besieged1  and the point of most furious
 attack by the besiegers1 when the fall 
of the city is considered almost        
accomplished when its water supply  is  
taken1 it seems an oversight on the part
 of the ,romans not to have  discovered 
and destroyed the cisterns1 particularly
 as the destruction  of everything in   
the city and environs was their mission 
at ,carthage4  ,it is an oversight1     

however1 for which we may be thankful1  
since it  preserved for future times an 
interesting engineering work of great   
magnitude for that period4    ,the      
cisterns of ,carthage are eighteen in   
number1 and each #ajj feet  long1 #bj   
feet wide and nearly #bj feet deep4     
,they lie in two long  parallel rows and
 empty into a common gallery situated   
between the  rows4 ,from this center    
collecting gallery the water was        
delivered  through conduits direct to   
the city of ,carthage4    ,the earliest 
method of raising water from a well1    
cistern or other  source of supply was  
by hand4 ,this method1 however1 was     
laborious and  unsatisfactory1          
particularly when necessary to raise    
large quantities  of water for          
irrigation purposes1 or to supply the   
inhabitants of  a community at a great  
distance or high elevation1 and it was  
not  long before the mechanical         
ingenuity of our ancestors devised means
  for transferring this arduous duty to 

oxen1 asses or other beasts of  burden4 
,sometimes1 as in the case of the       
,romans1 this work is made a  penal     
punishment1 and persons found guilty of 
certain offenses were  sentenced to the 
water-wheel4    ,about the earliest     
known device for raising small          
quantities of water  was the pole and   
bucket1 which was commonly employed in  
,italy1 ,greece  and ,egypt4 ,the great 
antiquity of this method of raising     
water is  proved by representations of  
it in ,egyptian paintings4 ,it consisted
 of  a bucket attached to a pole that   
was suspended by trunnions so located   
that when the bucket was filled with    
water the thick end of the pole  would  
just balance the combined weight of     
bucket and water4 ,this  permitted its  
use for many hours at a time1 when      
raising water for  irrigation without   
greatly fatiguing the operator4         
,illustration3 ,water ,carrier with     
,goat-skin ,bag    ,the most ingenious  
and highly involved form of ancient     

water-raising  machine was a            
water-wheel4 ,the method of operating a 
water-wheel  depended much on the region
 where used4 ,in ,egypt1 along the      
,nile1 oxen  were employed for this     
purpose4 ,in ,china1 coolies were found 
more  satisfactory even in raising large
 quantities of water for irrigation     
purposes1 which they did by walking a   
simple form of treadmill on the  outer  
edges of the water-wheel4 ,the ,romans1 
slow at originating1 but1  like the     
,japanese1 quick to recognize the value 
of anything new and  adapt it to their  
purposes1 borrowed the idea of the      
water-wheel from  the ,greeks or        
,egyptians1 but made it automatic when  
used in streams  and rivers by adding   
paddles that dipped into the running    
water and  were moved by the current of 
the stream4 ,water-wheels operated by   
oxen  were in use at ,cairo up to the   
twelfth century1 where they raised water
  vertically a distance of #hj feet from
 the ,nile to an aqueduct that  supplied

 the citadel of ,cairo4    ,our present 
elaborate system of water distribution  
was of humble  origin4 ,it was not a    
rapid growth1 but a gradual evolution4  
,its four  principal stages were3       
,first1 distribution from natural       
sources by  water carriers2 second1     
aqueducts conveying water to communities
 where  a system of sub-conduits or     
aqueducts conveyed the water from the   
main  aqueduct to reservoirs at         
different points in a city2 third1 a    
system  of distributing mains through   
which water was furnished to            
householders  at certain hours only     
during the day2 and fourth1 our present 
system  of continuous supply at all     
hours of the day and night4 ,in the     
first  stages of water distribution1    
water was carried on the backs of water 
carriers in earthenware jars constructed
 especially for the purpose1  or in goat
 or other animal skins properly tanned  
and sewed to hold  water4 ,while this   
method of water distribution is of great

 antiquity1  it is still practiced in   
most tropical countries1 and to this day
 water  carriers1 some with the burdens 
on their backs1 others with goatskins   
of water on donkeys' backs or with jars 
of water in two-wheeled carts1  may be  
seen plying their trade in ,mexican and 
,egyptian cities4    ,the earliest      
record we have of any effort to supply a
 community with  water conveyed in      
tunnels or aqueducts from a great       
distance1 dates  from the year #gbg ,b4 
,c4 ,king ,hezekiah or ,ezekias1 who    
reigned in  ,jerusalem at that time1 was
 much troubled over the poor quality of 
water furnished to the city and         
undertook to provide a better supply4   
,illustration3 ,pool of ,siloam         
,illustration3 ,pool of ,solomon    ,he 
had built at the gates of the city a    
vast reservoir1 the ,pool of  ,siloam1  
but when it was completed1 found that a 
sufficient quantity  of water could not 
be had without conveying it from a      
distant source  on the easterly side of 

a range of hills of solid rock1 over    
which it  would be impossible to convey 
it4 ,in no way daunted he set to work   
to pierce the hills with a tunnel or    
aqueduct1 capable of supplying  the city
 with water4 ,work was commenced        
simultaneously at both ends  of the     
tunnel and progressed uninterruptedly   
until the workmen met  in the center    
under the mountain or hill4 ,an         
inscription in old  ,hebrew characters1 
found close to ,jerusalem and preserved 
in the  ,constantinople ,museum1 throws 
some interesting light on this1 for that
  period1 remarkable engineering work4  
,translated1 the inscription reads3     
,the piercing is terminated4 ,when the  
pick of one had not yet struck  against 
the pick of the other1 and while there  
was yet a distance of #c  ells1 it was  
possible to hear the voice of one man   
calling to another  across the rock     
separating them1 and the last day of the
 piercing1 the  miner's pick met against
 pick4 ,the height of rock above the    

heads of  the miners was #ajj ells4     
,then the water flowed into the         
reservoir over  a length of #a1bjj ells4
 ,this tunnel was cut through a mountain
 of  solid rock4 ,the tunnel varied in  
dimensions from  of a yard to a yard  in
 width1 and from #a to #c yards in      
height1 according to the hardness of    
the rock4    ,illustration3 ,aqueduct   
near ,tunis1 leading to ,ancient        
,carthage    ,the magnitude of this     
undertaking can be realized only when it
 is  considered that the tunnel was     
constructed without the aid of blasting 
agents1 machine drills1 steam1          
electricity or any of the great forces  
or devices now controlled by man and    
used in modern engineering              
construction4    ,at a later period in  
the world's history1 ,roman engineers1  
tunneling  through the rock1 used fire  
as well as chisels to disintegrate the  
rock4 ,the usual method of procedure was
 to build an intensely hot  fire against
 the rock1 and when the rock had been   

heated to the right  temperature it was 
drenched with cold water to crack and   
disintegrate  it4 ,according to ,pliny1 
vinegar was sometimes used instead of   
water1  under the impression that it was
 more effective in disintegrating rock4 
,it is doubtful if this method was used 
in constructing the tunnel at           
,jerusalem4 ,in fact it can be stated   
with considerable assurance that  the   
entire tunnel was cut by drilling and   
chiseling1 as the tool marks  are       
plainly discernible4 ,it further is     
evident that1 as stated in the  tablet  
found near ,jerusalem1 the tunnel was   
worked from both ends until  the miners 
met in the center4 ,this is evidenced by
 the direction of the  tool marks1 which
 plainly show that the cutting on each  
side of the  center was done in         
different directions4    ,prior to the  
construction of the tunnel1 the ancient 
city of ,jerusalem  was supplied with   
water through two aqueducts1 one of     
which supplied  water from the famous   

pools of ,solomon1 to the south of the  
city1 and  the other poured its contents
 into the pools of ,hezekiah1 outside   
the  walls of the city4    ,the ,greeks 
were the next in point of time to       
construct tunnels in  connection with   
the building of aqueducts4 ,in #fbe ,b4 
,c4 the ,greek  engineer ,eupalinus     
constructed a tunnel #h feet broad by #h
 feet high and  #d1bjj feet long1       
through which was built a channel to    
supply the city  of ,athens with water4 
,illustration3 ,ancient ,roman ,well    
,this period marks the beginning in     
,greece and ,rome of a school of        
architects and engineers whose works    
have left a lasting impression  on art  
and engineering science1 and to this day
 are monuments of  proportion and beauty
 of design that are studied by all      
students of  architecture and           
engineering4 ,it is quite probable that 
,greece supplied  the first engineers   
that constructed aqueducts in ,carthage 
and ,rome4  ,the similarity in design of

 these various works points forcibly to 
the  conclusion that they were all      
designed by disciples of one school4    
,whether the first aqueducts were built 
in ,carthage or in ,rome is a  matter of
 some uncertainty1 although the fact    
that an aqueduct supplied  ,carthage    
with water at the time it was destroyed 
by the ,romans would  point to the      
,carthagenian aqueduct as the prior4    
,the first ,roman  aqueduct was built in
 the year #cab ,b4 ,c41 and the city of 
,carthage1  which1 after a protracted   
struggle of #aah years1 from #bfe ,b4   
,c4 to #adg  ,b4 ,c41 was finally       
conquered and destroyed by the ,romans1 
was at that  time supplied with water   
from distant springs through an         
aqueduct4    ,it is quite probable that 
,carthage was supplied with water from  
two different sources4 ,the cisterns    
already mentioned provided a  supply of 
rain water for industrial and most      
domestic uses1 while  the aqueduct1 the 
channel of which had a cross-section of 

#aj inches  square1 brought drinking    
water from springs in the ,zaghorn      
,mountains1  some #fj kilometers        
distant4 ,the aqueduct contoured the    
hillside for a  considerable distance1  
at times went under ground1 and on      
approaching  the city was carried on    
arches of magnitude seemingly out of    
proportion  to the size of the channel4 
,at present it is suffering the fate of 
most  ancient ruins4 ,it is used as a   
quarry from which stones are taken to   
construct buildings in nearby towns and 
villages4    ,while the ruins of        
aqueducts and tunnels at ,jerusalem1    
,athens and  ,carthage give some idea of
 the skill and knowledge of hydraulic   
and  sanitary matters possessed by the  
engineers of that period1 we must  turn 
to ,rome and study their system of water
 supply1 drains for sewage  and the     
ruins of their magnificent baths to form
 a true conception  of the skill of the 
early school of ,roman engineers and the
 lavish  expenditures of treasure by the

 inhabitants to secure an adequate      
water supply for ,rome4 ,no aqueducts   
were built in ,rome before the year     
#cab ,b4 ,c4 ,prior to that time the    
inhabitants supplied themselves with    
water from the ,tiber or from wells1    
cisterns or springs4 ,the first         
aqueduct was begun by ,appius ,claudius1
 the censor1 and was named after  him   
the ,aqua ,appia4 ,this aqueduct had an 
extreme length of #aa miles1  and almost
 all of the work was entirely under     
ground4 ,remains of this  work no longer
 exist4 ,after the ,aqua ,appia was     
completed the building  of aqueducts    
seems to have become almost a habit of  
the ,romans1 and  it was not long--#bgb 
,b4 ,c4--before ,m4 ,aurius ,dentatus   
began a second  one called the ,anio    
,vetus1 which brought water from the    
river ,anio1 a  distance of #dc miles4  
,this aqueduct was constructed of stone 
and the  water channel was lined with a 
thick coat of cement--no doubt          
,pozzolana  cement--made from rock of   

volcanic origin1 which1 upon being      
pulverized  and mixed with lime1        
possessed the hydraulic property of     
setting under  water4 ,indeed1 there can
 be but little doubt that were it not   
for this  natural cement the            
construction of ,roman aqueducts would  
have been more  difficult to accomplish4
    ,illustration3 ,ruins of a ,roman   
,aqueduct    ,the water furnished by the
 ,anio ,vetus was of such poor quality  
that  it was almost unfit for drinking4 
,a further supply being found           
indispensable1 the ,senate commissioned 
,quintus ,marcius ,rex1 the  man who had
 superintended the repairs of the two   
already built1 to  undertake a third1   
which was called after him the ,aqua    
,marcia4 ,this was  the most pretentious
 aqueduct undertaken4 ,it was #fa miles 
long1 about #g  of which were above     
ground1 carried on arches1 and of such  
height that  water could be delivered to
 the loftiest part of ,capitoline       
,mount4 ,a  considerable number of the  

arches of this aqueduct are still       
standing4  ,remains are also standing of
 the ,aqueduct ,tepula 7#abg ,b4 ,c47   
and the  ,aqua ,julia 7#ce ,b4 ,c471    
which1 if we except the ,herculea       
branch1 are  next in point of date4     
,near the city of ,rome the three       
aqueducts were  united in one line of   
structure1 forming three separate water 
courses1  one above another1 the        
lowermost of which formed the channel of
 the  ,aqua ,marcia and the uppermost   
that of the ,aqua ,julia4               
,illustration3 ,distant ,view of the    
,claudia ,aqueduct    ,thirteen years   
after the ,julia1 the ,virgo aqueduct   
was built4 ,this  aqueduct was #ad miles
 long and is said to be so named because
 the  spring from which it is supplied  
was first pointed out by a girl  to some
 soldiers who were in search of water4  
,this aqueduct still  exists entire1    
having been partly restored by ,nicholas
 ,v and the work  completed by ,pope    
,pius ,,iv in #aefh4    ,illustration3  

,near ,view of the ,claudia ,aqueduct   
,in the tenth year of the ,christian    
era1 the ,augusta aqueduct was built4   
,this aqueduct was only #f miles long1  
and the water that it brought  from     
,lake ,aluetimus was of such bad quality
 as to be scarcely fit for  drinking1 on
 which account it is supposed that the  
founder1 ,augustus1  intended it chiefly
 for his naumachia4    ,it might be     
interesting at this point to deviate a  
little from the  history of the ,roman  
aqueducts and draw aside the curtain to 
catch a  glimpse of the aquatic sports  
or pastimes of a ,roman emperor of that 
period4 ,the naumachia of ,augustus was 
a rectangular basin #a1hjj feet  long by
 #a1bjj feet wide1 in which actual sea  
fights between rival  fleets were held  
for the amusement of the emperor and his
 friends4 ,the  combatants in these sea 
fights were usually captives1 or        
criminals  condemned to death1 who      
fought as in gladiatorial combats1 until
 one  party was killed1 unless saved by 

the clemency of the emperor4 ,the       
vessels engaged in the sea fight were   
divided into two parties1 called        
respectively by names of different      
maritime nations1 as ,persians and      
,athenians4 ,the sea fights were        
conducted on the same magnificent scale 
and with the same disregard of life as  
characterized the gladiatorial  combats 
and other public games of the ,romans   
held in the ,colosseum4 ,in  ,nero's    
naumachia1 sea monsters were swimming   
around in the artificial  lake to make  
short work of any poor unfortunate that 
was unlucky enough  to go overboard4    
,in some of the sea fights exhibited by 
different emperors1 the ships  were     
almost equal in number to real fleets4  
,in one battle there were  #ai1jjj      
combatants and #ej ships on each side4  
,it was for the purpose then of         
supplying one of these artificial lakes 
with water that the ,augusta aqueduct   
was constructed4    ,illustration3      
,aqueduct in ,ruins1 ,ephesus           

,perhaps the best known aqueducts of    
,rome are the ,claudia and the ,anio    
,novus4 ,the completion of these        
waterways1 which was accomplished       
respectively in #ej and #eb ,a4 ,d41    
doubled the supply of water to ,rome4   
,the ,claudia aqueduct was #df miles in 
length and the ,anio ,novus #eh miles   
in length4 ,the ,claudia was commenced  
by ,caligula in the year #ch1 but  was  
completed1 as was the ,anio ,novus1 by  
the ,emperor ,claudius4    ,many other  
aqueducts besides those mentioned were  
built at different  periods to add to   
the water supply of ,rome4 ,a table is  
given below  showing the date of the    
constructions and their lengths4    ,the
 magnificence displayed by the ,romans  
in the construction of  aqueducts was   
not confined to the capital4 ,wherever  
,roman colonies  were established1 it   
would appear that vast sums were        
expended in  providing the community    
with a suitable supply of water4 ,ruins 
of  aqueducts built by the ,romans may  

still be seen at many points in  ,spain1
 ,france1 ,africa1 ,greece1 and even    
,england can point to the ruins  of a   
water tower built by this prolific      
school of ,roman engineers4 ,at  the    
present time there are probably one     
hundred or more structures  of this kind
 in existence1 some of which are in     
daily use1 supplying  water to          
inhabitants of communities for whose    
ancestors they were built  centuries    
ago4      ,,roman ,,aqueducts1          
,,arranged ,,in ,,chronological ,,order 
,name of                    ,date of    
,length    ,aqueduct                    
,construction    ,miles      ,appia     
#cac ,b4 ,c4       #aa    ,anio ,vetus  
#bgc ,b4 ,c4       #dc    ,marcia       
#ade ,b4 ,c4       #fa    ,herculea     
branch                             #c   
,tepula                     #abg ,b4 ,c4
       #ac    ,julia                    
#ce ,b4 ,c4       #ae    ,virgo         
#ba ,b4 ,c4       #ad    ,augusta       
#aj ,a4 ,d4        #f    ,absietina     

#aj ,a4 ,d4       #bb    ,claudia       
#ej ,a4 ,d4       #df    ,anio ,novus   
#eb ,a4 ,d4       #eh    ,neronian      
branch             #ig ,a4 ,d4        #b
    ,trajana                    #aaa ,a4
 ,d4       #db    ,hadriana             
#aag-aehe ,a4 ,d4       #ae    ,aurelia 
#afb ,a4 ,d4       #af    ,severiana    
#bjj ,a4 ,d4       #aj    ,antoniniana  
branch         #bab ,a4 ,d4        #c   
,sabina-,augusta         #acj-cjj ,a4   
,d4       #ae    ,alexandrina           
#bcj ,a4 ,d4       #ae    ,jova         
#cjj ,a4 ,d4      7,the miles above     
given are ,roman miles1 of #d1hed feet4 
,the    entire length of aqueduct in    
,english miles would be #cih47          
,illustration3 ,aqueduct of ,segovia1   
,spain    ,the aqueduct of ,segovia1    
,spain1 is one of the most perfect and  
magnificent works of the kind remaining4
 ,it is built without mortar1  is       
entirely of stone and of great solidity4
 ,the piers are #h feet wide  by #aa    
feet deep1 and where the aqueduct       

approaches the city it attains  a height
 of about #ajj feet4 ,this aqueduct is  
over #b1djj feet long1 is  built in two 
tiers of arches and although almost     
eighteen hundred years  old1 still      
supplies water to the city4 ,of the #aji
 arches1 however1 #cj  are of modern    
construction1 being reproductions of the
 ancient arches4    ,illustration3      
,water ,tower and ,roman ,ruins1        
,chester1 ,england    ,the constructive 
details of these old water courses are  
as interesting  as are their general    
design4 ,at the mouth of each aqueduct  
there  generally was constructed a      
reservoir in which to collect water from
  the springs or streams that supplied  
it1 and in which impurities could       
settle before the clarified water was   
delivered into the channel4 ,the  water 
channel was usually formed either of    
stone or brick coated on the  inside    
with cement to make it water-tight4 ,it 
was arched over on top1  and at certain 
intervals vent holes were provided      

through which access  could be had to   
the channel to make repairs4 ,when two  
or more channels  were carried one above
 another1 the vent holes of the lower   
ones were  placed in the sides4 ,when   
possible1 aqueducts were carried in a   
direct  line1 but frequently they were  
given a tortuous course either to avoid 
boring through hills1 where their       
construction would have entailed  too   
great expense1 or else to avoid very    
deep valleys or soft marshy  ground4 ,in
 every aqueduct1 besides the principal  
reservoirs at its  mouth and terminal1  
there were intermediate ones at certain 
distances  along its course1 in which   
any remaining sediment might be         
deposited4  ,in addition to serving as  
sediment basins1 these reservoirs made  
it  more easy to superintend and keep in
 repair the different sections1  and    
provided service reservoirs to furnish  
irrigation water for fields  and gardens
 and water for stock4 ,the principal    
reservoir was that in  which the        

aqueduct terminated4 ,this reservoir or 
castella1 as it was  called1 far        
exceeded any of the others in grandeur  
of architecture1 or  in magnitude and   
solidity of construction4 ,the ruins of 
a work of this  kind that still exist on
 the ,esquiline ,hill at ,rome1 are     
about #bjj feet  long by #acj feet wide1
 and had a vaulted roof that rested on  
#dh immense  pillars disposed to form   
rows so as to form #e aisles and #ge    
arches4  ,from the description of this  
interesting reservoir1 the interior must
  have greatly resembled many of the    
covered slow-sand fillers recently      
constructed in this country1 in which   
elliptical groined arches form  the     
roof1 which is carried on brick columns 
spaced as in the reservoirs  at ,rome1  
about #ae feet from center to center4   
,judging from the fact  that not only   
the aqueducts but also the reservoirs   
were covered to  exclude light1 it seems
 reasonable to conclude that ,roman     
engineers  were aware that absence of   

light prevented or altogether checked   
the  growth of alg and other            
objectionable forms of water vegetation4
  ,nowhere in the writings of the early 
historians is any mention made of       
trouble due to this cause1 but as the   
water supply of ,rome was obtained  from
 both ground 7spring7 and surface       
sources1 which in many cases  were mixed
 together1 the resultant mixture would  
have furnished the  best possible soil  
for alg1 the ground water providing the 
necessary  mineral food and the surface 
water furnishing the seed4 ,it is quite 
probable1 therefore1 that the aqueducts 
and reservoirs were covered to  prevent 
such growths4    ,illustration3 ,roman  
,water ,pipes made of ,bored-out ,blocks
 of ,stone    ,besides the principal    
reservoir1 each aqueduct had a number of
 smaller  ones at different points in   
the sections they supplied1 to provide  
that  neighborhood with water4 ,it is   
estimated that all told there were #bdg 
of the auxiliary public reservoirs      

scattered throughout the city4 ,these   
reservoirs were supplied from the       
principal reservoir through pipes  of   
lead1 burned earthenware1 and in some   
cases bored out blocks of  stone4       
,burned earthenware pipes were generally
 used not only on account  of their     
greater cheapness1 but because the      
,romans were aware of the  injurious    
effect of lead poisoning1 and looked    
with suspicion on water  that had been  
conducted through lead pipes4    ,when a
 number of individuals living in the    
same neighborhood had  obtained a grant 
of water1 they clubbed together and     
built a private  reservoir into which   
the whole quantity allotted to them     
collectively  was transmitted from the  
public reservoir4 ,the object of private
  reservoirs was to facilitate the      
distribution of the proper amount of    
water to each person and to avoid       
puncturing the main aqueduct in too     
many places4 ,when a supply of water    
from the aqueduct was first granted  for

 private use1 each householder granted  
the privilege obtained his  quantity by 
tapping a branch supply pipe into the   
main aqueduct1 and  conducting the      
branch to a domestic reservoir within   
his own house4  ,later when the system  
of private reservoirs was adopted1 each 
domestic  supply of water was obtained  
from the private reservoir and piped to 
the domestic reservoir which was made of
 lead4    ,illustration3 ,trophies of   
,marius    ,the faade of an aqueduct    
reservoir known as the ,trophies of     
,marius  may be seen in the accompanying
 reproduction of a woodcut made in  the 
sixteenth century4 ,the ground plan     
shows part of the internal              
construction4 ,the stream of water is   
first divided by the round  projecting  
buttress into two courses which are     
again sub-divided into  five minor      
streams that discharge into the         
reservoir as indicated in  the cut4     
,illustration3 ,old ,roman ,lead and    
,terra-cotta ,pipe    ,the quantity of  

water supplied to ,rome compared        
favorably with the  per capita allowance
 of water provided at the present time  
for the  principal cities of the ,united
 ,states1 and was far in excess of the  
water supplied at the present time to   
,british and ,european cities4          
,according to ,clemens ,herschel1       
however1 ,rome1 with a population of    
#a1jjj1jjj people1 had a daily water    
supply of only #cb1jjj1jjj ,u4 ,s4      
gallons4 ,in estimating the quantity of 
water brought to the city by  the system
 of aqueducts1 ,mr4 ,herschel makes due 
allowance for and  deducts what he      
thinks might be lost by leakage1 theft1 
water supplied  to artificial lakes for 
sea fights1 and also assumes that a     
certain  percentage of the channels at  
all times were cut out of service for   
repairs4 ,he makes no allowance1        
however1 for water obtained from        
different sources1 such as wells1       
springs and the ,tiber ,river1 from     
which1 no doubt1 many of the inhabitants

 obtained their entire supply  of water4
 ,indeed1 in the year #ce ,b4 ,c41 ,m4  
,agrippa1 as the head of the  water     
supply system of ,rome1 in addition to  
repairing the ,aqua ,julia  and ,marcia 
aqueduct1 supplied the city with #gjj   
wells and #aej springs4    ,there is no 
reason to believe that conditions in    
,rome were different  from those        
existing to-day in our large cities1 and
 it is more than  probable that the poor
 people of ,rome were but scantily      
supplied with  water from the aqueducts4
 ,the supply obtained by them from      
ground  sources should therefore be     
added to that supplied by the aqueducts1
  and it would then be found1 as most   
writers assert1 that the per  capita    
daily supply of water to ,rome was equal
 to about #ajj ,u4 ,s4  gallons4        
,such enormous quantities of water could
 not be poured daily into  a limited    
area without material and physical      
injury resulting if  provision were not 
made to dispose of the surplus4 ,hence  

it was that  a system of drains was     
evolved in ,rome1 which1 while not the  
first  in point of time1 nevertheless   
were the only ones known to have been   
constructed by the ancients1 until      
within a comparatively recent date      
ruins of sewerage systems were unearthed
 in ,bismya1 an ancient ,symerian  or   
pre-,babylonian city4    ,illustration  
,illustration3  ,,the  ,,women',s       
,,baths  ,,pompeii                      
,illustration3 ,,chapter ,,iii          
,,synopsis ,,of ,,chapter4 ,early       
,sewage ,disposal--,removal of          
,offensive   ,materials from ,temples of
 ,jerusalem--,sewage ,system of a       
,pre-,babylonian   ,city--,sewers of    
,rome--,the ,cloaca ,maxima--,the       
,dejecti ,effusive ,act4      ,before   
describing the sewerage system of ,rome1
 it might be interesting  to glance     
backward at the efforts made prior to   
that time to dispose of  excreta and    
household wastes4    ,it is in          
,deuteronomy1 one of the ,books of      

,moses1 that first mention is  made of  
the disposal of excreta3 ,thou shalt    
have a place also without  the camp1    
whither thou shalt go forth abroad4     
,and thou shalt have a paddle upon thy  
weapon2 and it shall be when  thou wilt 
ease thyself abroad1 thou shalt dig     
therewith1 and shall turn  back and     
cover that which cometh from thee4      
,no doubt the object of ,moses in       
promulgating that law was to preserve   
cleanliness about camp and to hide      
offensive matter from sight in the      
least odorous way4 ,nevertheless no more
 sanitary method could have  been       
adopted4 ,deposited as the soil was1 in 
small quantities1 just  underneath the  
surface of the ground it was soon       
reduced to harmless  compounds by the   
teeming bacteria in the living earth4   
,recent explorations in ,jerusalem have 
brought to light extensive  drains for  
the removal from the vicinity of the    
temples of offensive  matters peculiar  
to the bloody sacrifices of that ancient

 people2 and  in an ,august1 #aije1     
issue of the ,scientific ,american1     
,edgar ,james  ,banks1 field director of
 the ,babylonian expedition of the      
,university  of ,chicago1 gives an      
interesting description of house drains 
and  sewage disposal wells constructed  
at ,bismya some #d1ejj years ago4 ,the  
following account is abstracted from    
that article3    ,babylonia is perfectly
 level4 ,from ,bagdad to the ,persian   
,gulf there  is not the slightest       
elevation save for the artificial mounds
 or an  occasional changing sand drift4 
,in most places there is a crust of hard
  clay upon the surface1 baked by the   
hot sun of summer time so hard  that it 
resembles stone4 ,beneath the crust1    
which at ,bismya is seldom  more than #d
 feet in thickness and in places        
entirely lacking1 is loose  caving sand 
reaching to an unknown depth4           
,drainage in such a country1 without    
sloping hills or streams of  running    
water1 might tax the ingenuity of the   

modern builder4 ,in  constructing a     
house1 the ancient ,sumerian of more    
than #f1jjj years  ago first dug a hole 
into the sand to a considerable depth4  
,at ,bismya  several instances were     
found where the shaft had reached the   
depth of  #de feet beneath the          
foundation of the house4 ,from the      
bottom he built  up a vertical drain of 
large cylindrical terra cotta sections1 
each of  which is provided with grooved 
flanges to receive the one above4 ,the  
sections of one drain were about #ai    
inches in diameter and #bc inches  in   
height2 others were larger and much     
shorter4 ,the thickness of the  wall was
 about #a4jf inches4 ,the tiles were    
punctured at intervals with  small holes
 of about  inch in diameter4 ,the       
section at the top of the  drain was    
semi-spherical1 fitting over it like a  
cap and provided with  an opening to    
receive the water from above4 ,sand and 
potsherds were  then filled in about the
 drain and it was ready for use4 ,the   

water  pouring into it was rapidly      
absorbed by the sand at the bottom1 and 
if there it became clogged the water    
escaped through the holes in the  sides 
of the tiles4    ,the temple at ,bismya 
was provided with several such drains4  
,one palace  was discovered with four4  
,a large bath resembling a modern       
,turkish  bath and provided with bitumen
 floor1 sloping to one corner1 emptied  
its waste water into one4 ,the toilets  
in the private houses of #f1jjj  years  
ago were almost identical with those of 
the modern ,arab house--a  small oblong 
hole in the floor1 without a seat4      
,several found in ,bismya  were provided
 with vertical drains beneath4    ,in   
clearing out the drains a few of them   
whose openings had been  exposed were   
filled with the drifting sand4 ,others  
were half full of  the filth of long    
past ages4 ,in one at the temple we     
removed dozens  of shallow terra cotta  
drinking cups not unlike a large saucer 
in  shape and size4 ,evidently it       

received the waste water of the drinking
  fountain and the cups had accidentally
 dropped within4    ,in the ,bismya     
temple platform1 constructed about #bgej
 ,b4 ,c41 we  discovered a horizontal   
drain of tile1 each of which was about  
#c feet  long and #f inches in diameter 
and not unlike in shape those at present
  employed4 ,it conducted the rain water
 from the platform to one of the        
vertical drains4 ,one tile was so well  
constructed that for a long  time it    
served as a chimney for our house1 until
 my ,turkish overseer  suggested that   
its dark1 smoked end project from the   
battlements of the  house to convince   
the ,arabs that we were well fortified2 
thus it served  as a gun until the close
 of the excavations4    ,illustration3  
,the ,cloaca ,maxima4 ,from an old      
woodcut    ,the first sewers of ,rome   
were built between #hjj and #gce ,b4    
,c41 and  therefore antedate the first  
aqueduct by between #ddj and #dhg years4
  ,it is evident1 therefore1 that as    

originally planned the sewers of  ,rome 
were intended to carry off the surface  
water and in other ways  serve to drain 
the site of the ancient city4 ,indeed1  
the ,cloaca  ,maxima1 which was         
constructed during the period of the    
,kings1 from  #gce to #eaj ,b4 ,c41 was 
intended to drain the marshy hollow     
between the  ,capitoline1 ,palatine and 
,esquiline hills1 and afterwards1 by a  
process  of development1 became part of 
a combined sewage system for the city4  
,illustration3 ,the ,cloaca ,maxima4    
,from a ,recent ,photograph    ,that the
 engineers who designed the sewerage    
system of ,rome had a clear  conception 
of the service expected of such drains1 
is evidenced by  the manner in which the
 system was proportioned4 ,the pipes    
gradually  enlarged from their          
extremities in the buildings through all
 the  ramifications of the system until 
they finally reached the outlet at a    
bulkhead or quay-wall in the ,tiber4 ,it
 is stated by early writers that  so    

complete was this system of sewers that 
every street in the ancient  city was   
drained by a branch into the ,tiber4    
,illustration3 ,egyptian ,lady ,having  
,head ,sprayed1 #agjj ,b4 ,c4    ,the   
,cloaca ,maxima was one of the largest  
and most celebrated of the  ancient     
sewers4 ,the solidity of this structure 
can be judged by the  fact that it has  
been in uninterrupted service for over  
#b1djj years1  and at the present time  
is still in use1 with no signs of       
immediate  failure4 ,the arches were    
made of neatly jointed stones fitted    
together  without cement4 ,it is stated 
by ,pliny that a cart loaded with hay   
could  pass down the ,cloaca ,maxima4   
,it should be borne in mind1 however1   
that  a ,roman cart and load of hay were
 of smaller dimensions than a modern    
one4 ,the actual dimensions of the mouth
 of the sewer are #aa feet wide  by #ab 
feet high4 ,the lateral branches of the 
main sewer were of a size  in proportion
 with their requirements and in         

proportion to the main  or trunk sewer4 
,the dimensions of these sewers are     
evidenced by the  service they performed
 for ,nero1 who threw into them the     
unfortunate  victims of his nightly     
riots4    ,illustration3 ,greek ,women  
,bathing    ,illustration3 ,greek ,bath 
,tubs    ,while each street in ,rome was
 provided with an adequate sewer1 it is 
more than probable that only a small    
percentage of the population had        
branches extending into their houses4   
,in those that had1 the latrines  were  
located adjacent to the kitchen1 where  
through the untrapped  end of the sewer 
noxious gases were continually arising  
to vitiate  the surrounding air4 ,the   
only ventilation the sewers of ,rome had
 was  through these untrapped ends4     
,many of the houses of ,rome were lofty 
and inhabited near the top by  the poor1
 who--drainage systems not extending    
above the first floor--had  very        
imperfect means for carrying off rubbish
 and other accumulations4  ,a practice  

seems to have grown up then of throwing 
such liquid and  solid matter from the  
windows1 sometimes to the discomfort or 
injury of  hapless pedestrians4    ,to  
provide against accidents due to this   
cause1 the ,dejecti ,effusive  ,act was 
passed1 which gave damages against a    
person who threw or poured  out anything
 from a place or upper chamber upon a   
road frequented  by passersby1 or on a  
place where people used to stand4 ,the  
act1  however1 gave damages only when   
the person was injured1 but nothing was 
recoverable if the wearing apparel was  
damaged4 ,a strange provision of  this  
act was that it applied only in the     
daytime and not to the night1  which1   
however1 was the most dangerous time for
 passersby4    ,illustration            
,illustration3 ,,the ,,roman ,,aqvedvct 
,,of ,,segovia ,,spain      7,see page  
iv7          ,illustration3 ,,chapter   
,,iv4     ,,synopsis ,,of ,,chapter4    
,origin of ,bathing--,early ,greek      
,baths--,roman ,private                 

,baths--,public ,baths of ,rome--,ruins 
of ,baths of ,caracalla--,description of
   the ,therm--,the ,therm of ,titus at 
,rome--,baths of ,pompeii--,heating     
,water   for ,roman ,baths--,therm of   
,titus ,restored4      ,the value of    
bathing for pleasure1 cleanliness and   
health was early  realized by the       
ancients1 who in many cases made the    
daily bath part of  their religious     
ritual1 with the hope of thus inducing a
 practice that  would1 from constant    
observance1 become a habit not easy to  
overcome1  and which would be a lasting 
benefit to the health of the individual 
and a safeguard to the community4       
,illustration3 ,mosaic from the ,floor  
of the ,baths of ,caracalla    ,it      
perhaps was among the ,greeks that bath 
tubs were first introduced4  ,the early 
,greek bathing vessels 7see preceding   
woodcuts7 were made of  polished marble1
 shaped something like a punch bowl1    
stood about #cj  inches high1 and were  
not occupied by the bather as in a      

modern bath  tub1 but served only to    
hold the water which was applied to the 
bather  by an attendant1 who dashed or  
poured1 as circumstances required1 a    
vessel full of water on his head or     
body4 ,both woodcuts shown were         
reproduced from ancient ,greek vases and
 convey a fair idea of the way  these   
baths were used4 ,one of the bathers is 
shown with an iron1 bone1  bronze or    
ivory instrument called a strigilis1 in 
his hand1 which  was used to scrape off 
perspiration when the bather emerged    
from the  hot room1 or induced a flow by
 exercising in the gymnasium1 which was 
generally connected with the baths4 ,the
 inscription on the woodcut1            
representing men bathing1 shows that    
this was a public bath1 and is  probably
 the earliest picture of a bathing      
establishment extant4 ,the  women's bath
 bowl differed but slightly from the    
men's4 ,it was a trifle  lower and      
considerably deeper1 but the method of  
using was the same as  for the men4     

,illustration3 ,ruins of the ,baths of  
,caracalla1 ,rome    ,while the ,greeks 
were prior to the ,romans in the use of 
the bath1 they  considered it effeminate
 to use warm water1 and consequently    
their  bathing establishments never     
attained the luxury and splendor that   
later marked the ,roman baths4 ,when    
bath tubs were first introduced  into   
,rome1 the wealthy inhabitants fitted up
 their houses with a  bathroom much as  
do the people of our own time4 ,as the  
luxury1 pleasure  and benefit of the    
bath became better known1 more elaborate
 bathing  facilities similar to a modern
 ,turkish bath were installed4 ,in some 
houses several rooms were devoted to    
this purpose4 ,the anointment of  the   
body with oils was one of the           
characteristics of a ,roman bath4  ,the 
practice was indulged in by people of   
both sexes1 and the time  when applied  
depended much on the treatment the      
bather was taking4 ,for  instance1 most 
bathers anointed the body as the        

finishing touch of the  bath1 while some
 bathers applied the oil before going to
 the hot or  sweat room4                
,illustration3 ,interior of the         
,frigidarium or ,cold ,bath1 ,caracalla 
,no luxury can be monopolized by the    
rich1 and it was not long before  public
 bathing establishments1 in which a     
small entrance fee was  charged1 were   
built by private capital4 ,following    
quickly on the heels  of these private  
enterprises1 came the establishment of  
public baths1  then1 according to the   
authority of ,pliny1 for #fjj years     
,rome needed  no medicine but the public
 baths4    ,when the public baths were  
first instituted they were only for the 
lower classes1 who alone bathed in      
public4 ,the people of wealth and  those
 who held positions of state bathed in  
their own homes4 ,but this  monopoly of 
the poor was not long enjoyed4 ,in the  
process of time even  the emperors      
bathed in public among their subjects1  
and we read of the  abandoned ,gallienus

 amusing himself by bathing in the midst
 of the  young and old of both sexes1   
men1 women and children4    ,in the     
earlier stages of ,roman history a much 
greater delicacy was  observed with     
respect to promiscuous bathing1 even    
among men1 than  obtained at a later    
period4 ,virtue passed away as wealth   
increased1 and  the public baths became 
places of meeting and amusement where   
not only  did men bathe together in     
numbers1 but even men and women stripped
 and  bathed promiscuously in the same  
bath4    ,some idea of the magnitude of 
the baths at ,rome can be gained from a 
statement of the number of bathers they 
could accommodate at one time4  ,the    
baths of ,diocletian1 which were perhaps
 the most commodious of them  all1 could
 accommodate at one time #c1bjj bathers4
 ,one hall of this  famous bathing      
institution was at a later date         
converted by ,michael  ,angelo into the 
church of ,st4 ,marie de gli ,angeli4   
,the baths of ,caracalla1 built ,a4 ,d4 

#bab1 were perhaps the most famous  of  
the baths of ,rome4 ,they were not as   
commodious however as many other  baths1
 and they had accommodations at one time
 for only #a1fjj bathers1  or just      
one-half that could be accommodated by  
the baths of ,diocletian4    ,the       
following description of the ,roman     
baths1 together with the  historical    
sketch of the people of that period who 
indulged in the  luxury1 is abstracted  
from an old dictionary of ,greek and    
,roman  antiquities1 published in       
,london1 ,england1 almost a century ago4
 ,the  illustrations are from woodcuts  
appearing in the article4               
,illustration3 ,outer ,row of ,baths1   
,caracalla1 ,rome    ,in the earlier    
ages of ,roman history a much greater   
delicacy was  observed with respect to  
promiscuous bathing1 even among the men1
  than was usual among the ,greeks2 for 
according to ,valerius ,maximus1  it was
 deemed indecent for a father to bathe  
in company with his own  son after he   

had attained the age of puberty1 or     
son-in-law with his  father-in-law1 the 
same respectful reserve being shown to  
blood and  affinity as was paid to the  
temples of the gods1 toward whom it was 
considered an act of irreligion even to 
appear naked in any of the  places      
consecrated to their worship4 ,but      
virtue passed away as wealth  increased1
 and when the therm came into use1 not  
only did the men  bathe together in     
numbers1 but even men and women stripped
 and bathed  promiscuously in the same  
bath4 ,it is true1 however1 that the    
public  establishment often contained   
separate baths for both sexes adjoining 
each other1 as will be seen to have been
 also the case at the baths of          
,pompeii4 ,aulus ,gellius relates a     
story of a consul's wife who took a     
whim to bathe at ,teano1 a small        
provincial town of ,campania1 in the    
men's baths1 probably because in a small
 town the female department1  like that 
at ,pompeii1 was more confined and less 

convenient than  that assigned to the   
men1 and an order was consequently given
 to the  quaestor to turn the men out4  
,but whether the men and women were     
allowed to use each other's chambers    
indiscriminately1 or that some of  the  
public baths had only one common set of 
baths for both1 the custom  prevailed   
under the empire of men and women       
bathing indiscriminately  together4     
,this custom was forbidden by ,hadrian1 
and ,alexander ,severus  prohibited any 
baths common to both sexes from being   
opened in ,rome4    ,when the public    
baths were first instituted they were   
only for the  lower orders1 who alone   
bathed in public1 the people of wealth1 
as well  as those who formed the        
,equestrian and ,senatorian orders1     
using private  baths in their own       
houses4 ,but this monopoly was not long 
enjoyed1 for  as early even as the time 
of ,julius ,csar1 we find no less a     
personage  than the mother of ,augustus 
making use of the public establishments1

  which were probably at that time      
separated from the men's1 and1 in       
process of time1 even the emperors      
themselves bathed in public with the    
meanest of the people4 ,thus ,hadrian   
often bathed in public among the  herd1 
and even the virtuous ,alexander        
,severus took his bath among the        
populace in the therm he had himself    
erected1 as well as in those of  his    
predecessors1 and returned to the palace
 in his bathing dress2 and  the         
abandoned ,gallienus amused himself by  
bathing in the midst of the  young and  
old of both sexes1 men1 women and       
children4    ,the baths were opened at  
sunrise and closed at sunset1 but in the
 time  of ,alexander ,severus1 it would 
appear that they were kept open nearly  
all night1 for he is stated to have     
furnished oil for his own therm1  which 
previously were not opened before       
daybreak and were shut before  sunset2  
and ,juvenal includes in his catalogue  
of female immoralities  that of taking  

the bath at night1 which may1 however1  
refer to private  baths4    ,the price  
of a bath was a quadrant1 the smallest  
piece of coined money  from the age of  
,cicero downward1 which was paid to the 
keeper of the  bath4 ,children below a  
certain age were admitted free1 and     
strangers1  also foreigners1 were       
admitted to some of the baths1 if not to
 all1  without payment4    ,the baths   
were closed when any misfortune happened
 to the republic1 and  ,sentonius says  
that the ,emperor ,caligula made it a   
capital offence to  indulge in the      
luxury of bathing upon any religious    
holiday4 ,the baths  were originally    
placed under the superintendence of the 
diles1 whose  business it was also to   
keep them in repair1 and to see that    
they were  kept clean and of a proper   
temperature4    ,the time usually       
assigned by the ,romans for taking the  
bath was the  eighth hour or shortly    
afterward4 ,before that time none but   
invalids  were allowed to bathe in      

public4 ,vilruvins reckoned the best    
hours  adapted for bathing to be from   
midday until about sunset4 ,pliny took  
his bath at the ninth hour in summer and
 the eighth in winter2 and  ,martial    
speaks of taking a bath when fatigued   
and weary at the tenth  hour and even   
later4    ,when the water was ready and 
the baths prepared1 notice was given by 
the sound of a bell4 ,one of these bells
 with the inscription ,firmi            
,balneatoris was found in the therm     
,diocletiane1 in the year #aedh4        
,when the bath was used for health      
merely or cleanliness1 a single one  was
 considered sufficient at a time1 and   
that one only when requisite4  ,but the 
luxuries of the empire knew no such     
bounds1 and the daily bath  was         
sometimes repeated as many as seven and 
eight times in succession4  ,it was the 
usual and constant habit of the ,romans 
to take the bath  after exercise1 and   
previous to the principal meal2 but the 
debauchees  of the empire bathed also   

after eating1 as well as before1 in     
order to  promote digestion so as to    
acquire a new appetite for fresh        
delicacies4  ,nero is said to have      
indulged in this practice4    ,upon     
quitting the bath1 it was usual for the 
,romans1 as well as the  ,greeks1 to be 
anointed with oil2 indeed1 after        
bathing1 both sexes  anointed           
themselves1 the women as well as the    
men1 in order that the  skin might not  
be left harsh and rough1 especially     
after hot water4  ,oil is the only      
ointment mentioned by ,homer as used for
 this purpose1  and ,pliny says the     
,greeks had no better ointment at the   
time of the  ,trojan war than oil       
perfumed with herbs4 ,a particular habit
 of body  or tendency to certain        
complaints1 sometimes required the order
 to be  reversed and the anointment to  
take place before bathing4 ,for this    
reason1 ,augustus1 who suffered from    
nervous disorders1 was accustomed  to   
anoint himself before bathing1 and a    

similar practice was adopted  by        
,alexander ,severus4 ,the most usual    
practice1 however1 seems to have  been  
to take some gentle exercise in the     
first instance1 and then after  bathing 
to be anointed either in the sun or in  
the tepid or thermal  chamber1 and      
finally to take their food4    ,the     
,romans did not content themselves with 
a single bath of hot or  cold water1 but
 they went through a course of baths in 
succession1 in  which the agency of air 
as well as water was applied4 ,it is    
difficult  to ascertain the precise     
order in which the course was usually   
taken1  if indeed there was any general 
practice beyond the whim of the         
individual4 ,under medical treatment1 of
 course1 the succession would  be       
regulated by the nature of the disease  
for which a cure was sought1  and would 
vary also according to the different    
practice of different  physicians4 ,it  
is certain1 however1 that it was a      
general practice to  close the pores and

 brace the body after the excessive     
perspiration  of the vapor bath1 either 
by pouring cold water over the head1 or 
by  plunging at once into the tank4     
,musa1 the physician of ,augustus1 is   
said to have introduced the practice    
which became quite the fashion1 in      
consequence of the benefit which the    
emperor derived from it1 though  ,dion  
accuses him of having artfully caused   
the death of ,marcellus by  an improper 
application of the same treatment4 ,in  
other cases it was  considered conducive
 to health to pour warm water over the  
head before  the vapor bath1 and cold   
water immediately after it2 and at other
 times  a succession of warm1 tepid and 
cold water was resorted to4    ,the two 
physicians1 ,galen and ,celsus1 differ  
in some respects as to the  order in    
which the baths should be taken2 the    
former recommending first  the hot air  
of laconicum1 next the bath of warm     
water1 afterward the  cold1 and finally 
to be well rubbed2 while the latter     

recommends his  patients first to sweat 
for a short time in the tepid chamber   
without  undressing1 then to proceed    
into the thermal chamber1 and after     
having  gone through a regular course of
 perspiration there1 not to descend     
into the warm bath1 but to pour a       
quantity of warm water over the head1   
then tepid1 and finally cold2 afterward 
to be scraped with the strigil  and     
finally rubbed dry and anointed4 ,such  
in all probability was the  usual habit 
of the ,romans when the bath was        
resorted to as a daily  source of       
pleasure1 and not for any particular    
medical treatment2 the  more so as it   
resembles in many respects the system of
 bathing still in  practice among the   
,orientals who succeeded by conquest to 
the luxuries  of the enervated ,greeks  
and ,romans4    ,having thus detailed   
from classical authorities the general  
habits of  the ,romans in connection    
with their systems of bathing1 it now   
remains  to examine and explain the     

internal arrangements of the structures 
which contained their baths1 which will 
serve as a practical commentary  upon   
all that has been said4 ,indeed1 there  
are more ample and better  materials for
 acquiring a thorough insight into      
,roman manners in this  one particular  
than for any of the other usages        
connected with their  daily habit4      
,in order to make the subjoined         
description clear1 a reproduction from  
an old woodcut of a fresco painting on  
the walls of the therm of  ,titus at    
,rome1 is here reproduced1 showing in   
broken perspective the  general         
arrangement of one of the baths known as
 the therm4 ,heat was  supplied to warm 
the apartments and the water used in the
 baths by the  furnace shown extending  
under the entire floor of the           
establishment4  ,this furnace was known 
as a ,hypocustum4 ,to the right may be  
seen the  vessels in which water for the
 baths was heated4 ,the topmost vessel1 
the ,frigidarium1 contained cold water  

from which the hot water tanks  and the 
various baths were supplied4 ,next in   
order is the tepidarium1  in which water
 of moderate temperature was stored1 and
 in the lowest1  the caldarium1 was     
heated the hottest water used in the    
baths4 ,after  the end of the republic1 
large establishments used to have a     
separate  steam bath1 the laconicum1 and
 in this apartment1 or sometimes        
adjoining the tepidarium1 was the       
,clipeus1 a small circular chamber      
covered by a cupola4 ,the ,clipeus      
received its light through an aperture  
in the center of the dome1 and this     
aperture served also as a vent from  the
 chamber4 ,the ,clipeus was heated by   
means of a separate heating  apparatus1 
and its temperature could be raised to  
an enormous degree or  could be         
regulated to suit the bather by raising 
or lowering the shield4                 
,illustration3 ,therm of ,titus at ,rome
    ,illustration3 ,clipeus4 ,from an   
old woodcut    ,the tepidarium1 as the  

name would imply1 was a room in which a 
moderately warm bath could be taken and 
where the process of dry  rubbing also  
took place4 ,in the balneum a hot bath  
could be taken1  originally in a tub1   
but in later times in a large reservoir2
 and in  the frigidarium a cold plunge  
could be had4 ,the elothesium was the   
anointing room where the body was rubbed
 with oil and massaged4                 
,illustration3 ,floor ,plan of the      
,baths of ,pompeii ,from an old woodcut 
,a good idea of the general layout of a 
,roman bath can be gained from  the     
accompanying woodcut1 showing the ground
 floor plan of the baths  of ,pompeii4  
,the baths1 as may be seen by the       
illustration1 are nearly  surrounded on 
three sides by houses and shops4 ,the   
whole building1  which comprises a      
double set of baths1 has six different  
entrances  from the street1 one of      
which1 ,a1 gives admission to the       
smaller set  only1 which was            
appropriated to the women1 and five     

others to the  male department1 of which
 two1 ,b and ,c1 communicate directly   
with the  furnaces1 and the other three1
 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 with the bathing           
apartments1  of which ,f1 the nearest to
 the ,forum1 was the principal one2 the 
other  two1 ,d and ,e1 being on opposite
 sides of the building served for the   
convenience of those who lived on the   
north and east sides of the city4  ,to  
have a variety of entrances was one of  
the qualities considered  necessary to a
 well constructed set of baths4         
,illustration3 ,frigidarium4 ,from an   
old woodcut    ,passing through the     
principal entrance1 ,f1 which is removed
 from the  street by a narrow footway1  
and after descending three steps1 the   
bather finds upon his left hand a small 
chamber or toilet room1 #a1  which      
contains a latrine4 ,from passage1 ,f1  
he proceeded to covered  portico1 #b1   
which ran around three sides of an open 
court1 #c1 and  this portico and court  
together formed the vestibule of the    

baths1 in  which servants belonging to  
the establishment1 as well as such of   
the  slaves and attendants of the great 
and wealthy1 whose services were not    
required in the interior1 waited4       
,within the court the keeper of the     
baths who exacted the fee paid by each  
visitor1 was also stationed1 and        
accordingly in it was found the box for 
holding the money4 ,the room1 #d1  which
 runs back from the portico1 might have 
been apportioned to him1  or if not1 it 
might have been a waiting room for the  
convenience of the  better classes while
 waiting the return of their            
acquaintances from  the interior4 ,in   
this court1 likewise1 as being the most 
public place1  advertisements for the   
theater and other announcements of      
general  interest were posted1 one of   
which1 announcing a gladiatorial show1  
still remains4 ,the passageway1 #e1 is  
the corridor which leads from  the      
entrance1 ,e1 to the vestibule2 and the 
cell1 #f1 is a toilet room  similar to  

#a4 ,number #g is a passage of          
communication which leads into  the     
chamber1 #h1 which served as a room for 
undressing4 ,this room is  also         
accessible from the street by the door1 
,d1 through the corridor1  #i1 in which 
a small niche is observable1 which      
probably served for  the station of     
another doorkeeper1 who collected money 
from those  entering from the north     
street4 ,here1 then1 is the center in   
which  all the persons must have met    
before entering into the interior of the
  baths2 and its locality1 as well as   
other characteristic features of  its   
fitting up1 leave no room to doubt that 
it served as an undressing  room4 ,it   
does not appear that any general rule of
 construction was  followed by the      
architects of antiquity with regard to  
the locality and  temperature best      
adapted for a dressing room4 ,the       
bathers were expected  to take off their
 garments in the dressing room1 not     
being permitted  to enter the interior  

unless naked4 ,the clothes were then    
delivered to  a class of slaves whose   
duty it was to take charge of them4     
,these men  were notorious for          
dishonesty1 and leagued with all the    
thieves of the  city1 so that they      
connived at the robberies they were     
placed there to  prevent4 ,to so great  
an extent were these robberies carried1 
that very  severe laws were finally     
enacted making the crime of stealing    
from a  bath a capital offence4    ,to  
return to the chamber itself1 it is     
vaulted and spacious1 with  stone seats 
along two sides of the wall and a step  
for the feet below1  slightly raised    
from the floor4 ,holes can still be seen
 in the walls  which might have served  
for pegs on which the garments were hung
 when  taken off2 for in a small        
provincial town like ,pompeii1 where a  
robbery  committed in the bath could    
scarcely escape detection1 there would  
be no necessity for slaves to take      
charge of them4 ,the dressing room  was 

lighted by a window closed with glass1  
and the walls and ceilings  were        
ornamented with stucco mouldings and    
painted yellow4 ,there are no  less than
 six doors to this chamber3 one leading 
to the entrance1 ,e1  another to the    
entrance1 ,d1 a third to the small room1
 #aa1 a fourth  to the furnaces1 a fifth
 to the tepid apartment1 and the sixth  
opened  upon the cold baths1 #aj4 ,the  
bath1 which is coated with white marble1
  is #ab feet #aj inches in diameter1   
about #c feet deep and has two marble   
steps to facilitate the descent into it1
 and a seat surrounding it  at a depth  
of #aj inches from the bottom1 for the  
purpose of enabling  the bathers to sit 
down and wash themselves4 ,it is        
probable that many  persons contented   
themselves with cold baths only1 instead
 of going  through the severe course of 
perspiration in the warm apartments2 and
  as the frigidarium could have had no  
effect alone in baths like these1  the  
natatio must be referred to when it is  

said that at one period cold  baths were
 in such request that scarcely any      
others were used4    ,there is a        
platform or ambulatory around the bath1 
also of marble1 and  four inches of the 
same material disposed at regular       
intervals around  the walls1 with       
pedestals for statues probably placed in
 them4 ,the  ceiling is vaulted and the 
chamber lighted by a window in the      
center4  ,the annexed woodcut represents
 a frigidarium with its cold bath at    
one extremity1 supposed to have formed a
 part of the ,formian ,villa of         
,cicero1 to whose age the style of      
construction1 the use of the simple     
,doric order1 undoubtedly belongs4 ,the 
bath itself1 into which water  still    
continues to flow from a neighboring    
spring1 is placed under the  alcove1 and
 the two doors on each side opened into 
small chambers4    ,in the cold bath of 
,pompeii the water ran into the basin   
through a  spout of bronze and was      
carried off again through a conduit on  

the  opposite side4 ,it was also        
furnished with a waste pipe under the   
coping  to prevent the water from       
running over4    ,illustration3         
,atlantes4 ,from an old woodcut    ,no4 
#aa is a small chamber on the side      
opposite to the frigidarium1  which     
might have served for shaving or for    
keeping unguents or  strigils2 and from 
the centers of the side of the          
frigidarium1 the  bather who intended to
 go through the process of warm bathing 
and  sudation entered into #ab1 the     
tepidarium4    ,the tepidarium did not  
contain water1 either at ,pompeii or at 
the  baths of ,hippias1 but was merely  
heated with warm air of an agreeable    
temperature1 in order to prepare the    
body for the great heat of the  vapor   
and warm baths2 and1 upon returning1 to 
obviate the danger of too  sudden       
transition to the open air4    ,in the  
baths of ,pompeii1 this chamber served  
likewise as a disrobing  room for those 
who took the warm bath1 for which       

purpose the fittings  up are evidently  
adapted1 the walls being divided into a 
number of  separate compartments or     
recesses for receiving the garments when
 taken  off4 ,one of these compartments1
 known as an ,atlantes1 is shown in the 
annexed woodcut4    ,in addition to this
 service there can be little doubt that 
this  apartment was used as a depository
 for unguents and a room for  anointing1
 which service was performed by slaves4 
,for the purpose of  anointing1 the     
common people used oil simply or        
sometimes scented1 but  the more wealthy
 classes indulged in the greatest       
extravagances with  regard to their     
perfumes and unguents4 ,these they      
evidently procured  from the elothesium 
of the baths1 or brought with them in   
small  glass bottles1 hundreds of which 
have been discovered in different       
excavations made in various parts of    
,italy4    ,from the tepidarium1 a door 
which closed by its own weight1 to      
prevent  the admission of cold air1     

opened into ,no4 #ac1 the thermal       
chamber4  ,after having gone through the
 regular course of perspiration1 the    
,romans made use of instruments called  
strigils1 to scrape off the             
perspiration1 much in the same way as we
 are accustomed to scrape the  sweat off
 a horse with a piece of iron hoop after
 he has run a heat or  come in from     
violent exercise4 ,these instruments1   
many of which have  been discovered     
among the ruins of the various baths of 
antiquity1 were  made of bone1 bronze1  
iron and silver4 ,the poorer classes    
were obliged  to scrape themselves1 but 
the more wealthy took their slaves to   
the  baths for the purpose1 a fact which
 is elucidated by a curious story       
related by ,spartianus4 ,the ,emperor   
while bathing one day1 observing  an old
 soldier1 whom he had formerly known    
among the legions1 rubbing  his back as 
the cattle do against the marble walls  
of the chamber1  asked him why he       
converted the walls into a strigil1 and 

learning  that he was too poor to keep a
 slave he gave him one1 and money for   
his maintenance4 ,on the following day1 
upon his return to the bath1  he found a
 whole row of old men rubbing themselves
 in the same manner  against the wall1  
in the hope of experiencing the same    
good fortune  from the prince's         
liberality2 but instead of taking the   
hint1 he had  them all called up and    
told them to scrub one another4         
,illustration3 ,coppers for ,heating    
,water4 ,from an old woodcut    ,the    
strigil was by no means a blunt         
instrument1 consequently its edge  was  
softened by the application of oil which
 was dropped on it from a  small vessel4
 ,this vessel had a narrow neck1 so as  
to discharge its  contents drop by drop4
 ,augustus is related to have suffered  
from an  over violent use of this       
instrument4 ,invalids and persons of    
delicate  habit made use of sponges1    
which ,pliny says answered for towels as
 well  as strigils4 ,they were finally  

dried with towels and anointed4    ,the 
common people were supplied with these  
necessaries in the baths1  but the more 
wealthy carried their own with them4    
,after the operation of scraping and    
rubbing dry1 they retired into or       
remained in the tepidarium until they   
thought it prudent to encounter  the    
open air4 ,but it does not appear to    
have been customary to bathe  in the    
water1 when there was any1 which was not
 the case at ,pompeii  nor at the ,baths
 of ,hippias1 either of the tepidarium  
or frigidarium2  the temperature only of
 the atmosphere in the two chambers     
being of  consequence to break the      
sudden change from the extreme hot to   
cold4  ,returning now to the            
frigidarium1 #h1 which according to the 
directions  of ,vitruvius has a passage1
 #ad1 communicating with the mouth of   
the  furnace1 e1 and passing down that  
passage we reach the chamber1 #ae1  into
 which the prfurnium projects1 and which
 has also an entrance from  the street1 

,b1 appropriated to those who had charge
 of the fires4 ,there  are two stairways
 in it1 one leading to the roof of the  
baths1 and the  other to the coppers    
which contained the water4 ,of these    
there were  three1 one of which         
contained the hot water1 caldarium2 the 
second1  the tepid1 tepidarium2 and the 
last1 the cold1 frigidarium4 ,the warm  
water was introduced into the warm bath 
by means of a conduit pipe1  marked on  
the plan1 and conducted through the     
wall4 ,underneath the  caldarium was    
placed the furnace which served to heat 
the water and  give out streams of warm 
air into the hollow cells of the        
hypocanstum4  ,these coppers were       
constructed in the same manner as is    
represented in  the engraving from the  
,therm of ,titus2 the one containing hot
 water  being placed immediately over   
the furnace1 and as the water was drawn 
out from these it was supplied from the 
next1 the tepidarium1 which  was already
 considerably heated1 from its          

contiguity to the furnace  and the      
hypocaust below it1 so that it supplied 
the deficiency of the  former without   
materially diminishing its temperature2 
and the space  in the last two was in   
turn filled up from the farthest        
removed1 which  contained the cold water
 received direct from the square        
reservoir  behind them4 ,behind the     
coppers there is another corridor1 #af1 
leading  into the court1 #ag1           
appropriated to the servants of the     
baths1 and  which has also the          
conveniences of an immediate            
communication with the  street by the   
door1 ,c4    ,we now proceed to the     
adjoining set of baths1 which were      
assigned to  the women4 ,the entrance is
 by the door1 ,a1 which conducts into a 
small  vestibule1 #ah1 thence into the  
apodyterium1 #ai1 which1 like the one in
  the men's baths1 has a seat on either 
side built up against the wall4  ,this  
room opens upon a cold bath1 #bj1       
answering to the natiatio of  the other 

set1 but of much smaller dimensions4    
,there are four steps  on the inside to 
descend into it4 ,opposite to the door  
of entrance  there is another doorway   
which leads to the tepidarium1 #ba1     
which also  communicates with the       
thermal chamber1 #bb1 on one side of    
which is a  warm bath in a square       
recess4 ,the floor of this chamber is   
suspended  and its walls perforated for 
flues1 like the corresponding one in the
  men's baths4    ,the comparative      
smallness and inferiority of the        
fittings up in this  suit of baths has  
induced some ,italian antiquaries to    
throw a doubt  upon the fact of their   
being assigned to women1 and ingeniously
  suggest that they were a set of old   
baths1 to which the larger ones  were   
subsequently added when they became too 
small for the increasing  wealth and    
population of the city4 ,but the story  
already quoted of the  consul's wife who
 turned the men out of their bath at    
,teanum for her  convenience1 seems     

sufficiently to negative such a         
supposition and to  prove that the      
inhabitants of ancient ,italy1 if not   
more selfish1 were  certainly less      
gallant than their successors4 ,in      
addition to this1  ,vitruvius expressly 
enjoins that the baths of the men and   
women1 though  separate1 should be      
contiguous to each other1 in order that 
they might  be supplied from the same   
boilers and hypocaust2 directions that  
are  here fulfilled to the letter1 as a 
glance at the plans will demonstrate4   
,notwithstanding the ample account which
 has been given of the plans  and usages
 respecting baths in general1 something 
yet remains to  be said about that      
particular class denominated therm1 of  
which  establishment the baths1 in fact1
 constituted the smallest part4  ,the   
therm1 properly speaking1 were a ,roman 
adaptation of the ,greek  gymnasium4    
,the therm contained a system of baths  
in conjunction with  conveniences for   
athletic games and youthful sports1     

places in which  rhetoricians declaimed1
 poets recited and philosophers         
lectured1 as  well as porticos and      
vestibules for the idle1 and libraries  
for the  studious4 ,they were decorated 
with the finest objects of art1 both in 
painting and sculpture1 covered with    
precious marbles and adorned with       
fountains and shaded walks4 ,it may be  
said that they began and ended  with the
 ,empire1 for it was not until the time 
of ,augustus that these  magnificent    
structures were commenced4 ,m4 ,agrippa 
was the first who  afforded these       
luxuries to his countrymen by           
bequeathing to them the  therm and      
gardens which he had erected in the     
,campus ,martius4 ,the  ,pantheon1 now  
existing at ,rome1 served originally as 
a vestibule to  these baths2 and1 as it 
was considered too magnificent for the  
purpose1  it is supposed that ,agrippa  
added the portico and consecrated it as 
a  temple1 for which use it still       
serves4    ,the example set by ,agrippa 

was followed by ,nero and afterward by  
,titus1  the ruins of whose therm are   
still visible1 covering a vast extent1  
partly under ground and partly above the
 ,esquiline ,hill4    ,previous to the  
erection of these establishments for the
 use of the  population1 it was         
customary1 for those who sought the     
favor of the  people1 to give them a    
day's bathing free of expense4          
,illustration3 ,ground ,plan of ,therm  
of ,caracalla4 ,from an old woodcut     
,thus1 according to ,divi ,cassius1     
,faustus1 the son of ,sulla1 furnished  
warm baths and oil gratis to the people 
for one day2 and ,augustus1 on  one     
occasion1 furnished warm baths and      
barbers to the people for the  same     
period free of expense1 and at another  
time for a whole year to  the women as  
well as the men4 ,from thence it is fair
 to infer that  the quadrant paid for   
admission to the balnea was not exacted 
at the  therm1 which as being the works 
of the emperors1 would naturally  be    

opened with imperial generosity to all1 
and without any charge1  otherwise the  
whole city would have thronged to the   
establishment  bequeathed to them by    
,agrippa2 and in confirmation of this   
opinion it  might be remarked that the  
old establishments1 which were probably 
erected by private enterprises1 were    
termed ,meritorial4    ,most1 if not    
all1 of the other regulations previously
 detailed as  relating to the economy of
 the baths1 apply equally to the therm2 
but  it is in these establishments      
especially that the dissolute conduct of
  the emperors and other luxurious      
indulgence of the people in general1  as
 detailed in the compositions of the    
satirists and later writers1  must be   
considered to refer4    ,although       
considerable remains of the ,roman therm
 are still visible1  yet1 from the very 
ruinous state in which they are found1  
we are far  from being able to arrive at
 the same accurate knowledge of their   
component parts and the usages to which 

they were applied1 as has  been done    
with respect to the balnea2 or1 indeed1 
to discover a  satisfactory mode of     
reconciling their constructive details  
with the  description left us by        
,vitruvious and ,lucian4 ,all1 indeed1  
is doubt  and guesswork4 ,each of the   
learned men who have pretended to give  
an  account of their contents differing 
in all the essential particulars  from  
one another2 and yet the general        
similarity of the ground plan of  the   
three which still remain cannot fail to 
strike even a superficial  observer2 so 
great indeed that it is impossible not  
to perceive at  once that they were all 
constructed upon a similar plan4 ,not1  
however1  to discuss the subject without
 enabling the reader to form something  
like a general idea of these enormous   
edifices1 which from their  extent and  
magnificence have been likened to       
provinces1 a ground plan  of the therm  
of ,caracalla is annexed1 which are the 
best preserved  among those remaining1  

and which were perhaps more splendid    
than all  the rest4 ,those apartments of
 which the use is ascertained with the  
appearances of probability1 will be     
alone marked and explained4 ,the  dark  
parts represent the remains still       
visible2 the open lines are             
restorations4    ,illustration3         
,hypocaust for ,heating ,water1 ,therm  
of ,caracalla    ,from an old woodcut   
,a is a portico fronting the street made
 by ,caracalla when he  constructed his 
therm4 ,b are separate bathing-rooms1   
either for  the use of the common       
people1 or perhaps for any person who   
did not  wish to bathe in public4 ,c are
 apodyteria attached to them4 ,d1 ,d and
  ,e1 ,e1 the porticos4 ,f1 ,f1 exedra  
in which there were seats for the       
philosophers to hold their              
conversations4 ,g1 passages open to the 
air4  ,h1 ,h1 sladra4 ,i1 ,i1 possibly  
schools or academies where public       
lectures  were delivered4 ,j1 ,j and ,k1
 ,k1 rooms appropriated to the servants 

of  the bath4 ,in the latter are        
staircases for ascending to the         
principal  reservoir4 ,l1 space occupied
 by walks and shrubberies4 ,m1 the arena
  or stadium in which the youth         
performed their exercises1 with seats   
for spectators4 ,n1 ,n1 reservoirs with 
upper stories2 ,o1 aqueduct which       
supplied the baths4 ,p1 cistern4        
,this external range of buildings       
occupies one mile in circuit4    ,we now
 come to the arrangement of the         
interior1 for which it is very          
difficult to assign satisfactory        
destinations4 ,q represents the         
principal entrances1 of which there were
 eight4 ,r is the natiatio or  cold     
water baths to which the direct entrance
 from the portico is by a  vestibule on 
either side marked ,s1 and which is     
surrounded by a set of  chambers that   
serve most probably as rooms for        
undressing and anointing4    ,those     
nearest to the peristyle were1 perhaps1 
where the powder was kept  which the    

wrestlers used in order to obtain a     
firmer grip upon their  adversaries4    
,the inferior quality of the ornaments  
which these apartments had1 and  the    
staircases in two of them1 afford       
evidences that they were occupied  by   
menials4 ,t is considered to be the     
tepidarium with four warm baths  taken  
out of its four angles1 and two labra on
 its two flanks4 ,there  are steps for  
descending into the baths1 in one of    
which traces of the  conduit are still  
manifest4 ,it would appear that the     
center part of  this apartment served as
 a tepidarium1 having a cold water      
lavatory in  four of its corners4 ,the  
center part1 like that also of the      
preceding  apartment1 is supported by   
eight immense columns4    ,illustration3
 ,restoration of ,therm of ,titus4      
7,restored by ,leclerc7                 
,illustration3 ,plan of the ,therm of   
,titus1 ,rome4 7,restored by ,leclerc7  
,the apartments beyond this1 which are  
too much dilapidated to be  restored    

with any degree of certainty1 contained1
 of course1 the  laconium and           
sudatories1 for which the round chamber1
 ,w1 and its  appurtenances seem to be  
adapted1 and which are also contiguous  
to the  reservoirs1 ,z1 ,z4 ,the        
apartments e1 e' are probably places    
where youths  were taught their         
exercises1 with the appurtenances       
belonging to them4  ,the chambers on the
 other side1 which are not marked1      
probably served  for the exercises in   
bad weather4 ,these baths contained an  
upper story1  of which nothing remains  
beyond what is just sufficient to       
indicate  the fact4 ,it will be observed
 that there is no part of the bathing   
department separate from the rest which 
could be assigned to the use of  women  
exclusively4 ,from this it must be      
inferred either that both sexes  always 
bathed together promiscuously in the    
therm1 or that the women  were excluded 
altogether from these establishments4   
,illustration3 ,sectional ,elevation1   

,therm of ,titus1 ,rome4 7,restored by  
,leclerc47    ,it remains to explain the
 manner in which the immense body of    
water  required for the supply of a set 
of baths in the therm was heated4  ,this
 has been done very satisfactorily by   
,piranesi and ,cameron1 as may  be seen 
by a reference to the two sectional     
elevations showing the  reservoir and   
aqueducts belonging to the ,therm of    
,caracalla4 ,a are  arches of the       
aqueduct which conveyed the water into  
the reservoir1 ,b1  whence it flowed    
into the upper range of cells through   
the aperture at  ,c1 and thence again   
descended into the lower ones by the    
aperture1 ,d1  which were placed        
immediately over the hypocaust1 ,e1 the 
furnace of  which can be seen in the    
transverse section at ,f4 ,there were   
thirty-two  of these cells arranged in  
two rows over the hypocaust1 sixteen on 
each  side1 and all communicating with  
one another1 and over these a similar   
number similarly arranged1 which        

communicated with those below by the    
aperture at ,d4 ,the parting walls      
between these cells were likewise       
perforated with flues which served to   
disseminate the heat all around  the    
whole body of water4 ,when the water was
 sufficiently warm it was  turned on to 
the baths through pipes conducted       
likewise through flues  in order to     
prevent the loss of temperature during  
passage1 and the  lower reservoir was   
supplied as fast as water was drawn off 
from the  reservoir next above1 which in
 turn was supplied with water from the  
topmost tier and the aqueduct4          
,illustration3 ,frigidarium1 ,therm of  
,caracalla1 ,rome4 7,restored by        
,viollet-le-,duc7    ,perhaps a better  
idea of the therm can be had by an      
examination of  the plan of the ,therm  
of ,titus1 ,rome1 restored by ,leclerc1 
also the  sectional elevation and front 
elevation of the same bath1 restored  by
 the same artist4 ,the original         
drawings1 which won the ,grand ,prix  de

 ,rome1 are preserved in the library of 
the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1  ,paris4 ,a
 restoration by ,viollet-le-,duc1 which 
appeared with the other  restorations in
 the ,june1 #aijf1 number of the        
,architectural ,record1  conveys a very 
good idea of the interior of a          
frigidarium4    ,illustration           
,illustration3  ,,interior  ,,view  ,,of
  ,,aqvedvct      ,,lisbon  ,,portvgal  
,illustration3 ,,chapter ,v             
,,synopsis ,,of ,,chapter4 ,fall of the 
,roman ,empire--,succeeding ,period     
known   as the ,dark ,ages--,sanitation 
during the ,dark ,ages--,beginning of   
,material   ,progress in                
,sanitation--,pilgrimages to            
,juggernaut--,water ,supply to          
,paris--,london ,water                  
,supply--,aqueduct of ,zempoala1        
,mexico4      ,during the period        
following the fall of ,rome1 the empire 
was overrun  by barbarians from the     
north1 and the magnificent baths1       
aqueducts and  public edifices reared by

 the ,romans with such painstaking care 
were  suffered to fall into decay4 ,so  
little in sympathy were the barbarians  
with the people they conquered and their
 institutions1 that in time the         
inhabitants of many localities even     
forgot the uses to which the old  works 
had been put2 and had it not been for   
the ,popes the supply of  water to the  
city of ,rome would have been cut off   
completely1 while as  it was the service
 was frequently interrupted4            
,following the fall of the ,roman       
,empire there was a period of over one  
thousand years of intellectual darkness1
 during which no material  progress was 
made2 indeed1 instead of progress a     
retrograde movement  set in which left a
 lasting impression on the times4 ,the  
little spark  of knowledge that survived
 this period burned in the monasteries  
of the  monks1 who treasured and kept   
alive the spark of civilization4        
,illustration3 ,destroyed ,lead ,font1  
,great ,plumstead1 ,norfolk    ,the     

,dark ,ages1 as this period is called1  
if lacking in progress1 were  replete   
with adventure4 ,during this period1    
which might equally well  be called the 
,age of ,romance1 there sprung up a     
brotherhood of men  noted for skill in  
combat1 who were dubbed knights4 ,there 
also spread  a creed about that time    
that uncleanliness was next to          
godliness1  and clergy and laymen vied  
with each other to see which could live 
in the most filthy manner4 ,they        
associated in their minds luxury  and   
cleanliness as inconsistent with        
godliness1 while squalor and  bodily    
filth were considered as outward        
indications of inward piety  and        
sanctification4 ,so it came to pass that
 bathing1 instead of a  daily practice1 
became uncommon2 homes and inhabitants  
became filthy  and streams polluted4    
,such violations of sanitary principles 
could  not continue indefinitely without
 evil results1 and scourge after        
scourge of filth diseases that swept    

over ,europe and ,asia1 claiming  over  
#dj1jjj1jjj victims1 were due to the    
unsanitary condition that  prevailed4   
,the restless1 seething1 venturesome    
spirit of the times and  the emotional  
zeal displayed in religious matters     
contributed greatly  to the spread of   
pestilence4 ,the crusades1 starting out 
with a romantic  and religious fervor1  
but with no set rules of conduct for    
guidance1  and lacking a leader strong  
enough in discipline to hold in check   
men  whose only claim to distinction lay
 in their powers in a tilt and their    
love of battle1 soon degenerated into   
the most disorderly and lewd of  rabble4
 ,women camp-followers joined their     
fortunes with that of the  knights1 who 
in most cases forgot the object of the  
crusade1 and gave  themselves up to     
indolence and debauchery4 ,sanitary     
precautions were  dispensed with on the 
march1 and the result was that wherever 
the  crusaders went they left sickness  
and pestilence in their wake4           

,illustration3 ,leaden ,cup1 of the time
 of ,vespasian1 found in ,rome4 ,the    
band was decorated with colored glass   
,illustration3 ,lead ,pipehead and ,pipe
    ,illustration3 ,lead ,cistern with  
the ,arms of the ,fishmongers' ,company1
  in the possession of ,mr4 ,merthyr    
,guest    ,pilgrimages to the holy      
shrines1 which drew together thousands  
of  human beings without adequate       
shelter or food1 also served to spread  
contagious diseases throughout the land4
 ,perhaps the best picture of a         
pilgrimage which1 while of a latter     
date1 will still serve to show the      
unsanitary conditions when thousands of 
people are brought together  without    
food or shelter1 can be had from a      
report of ,dr4 ,simmons1 of  the        
,yokahama ,board of ,health4 ,in        
speaking of a latter-day pilgrimage  in 
,india1 he says3 ,the drinking-water    
supply is derived from wells1  so-called
 'tanks' or artificial ponds and the    
water courses of the  country4 ,the     

wells generally resemble those of other 
parts of ,asia4  ,the tanks are         
excavations made for the purpose of     
collecting the  surface water during the
 rainy season and storing it up for the 
dry4  ,necessarily they are mere        
stagnant pools4 ,the water is used not  
only  to quench thirst1 but is said to  
be drunk as a sacred duty4 ,at the  same
 time1 the reservoir serves as a large  
washing tub for clothes1 no  matter how 
dirty or in what soiled condition1 and  
for personal bathing4  ,many of the     
watercourses are sacred2 notably the    
,ganges1 a river #a1fjj  miles long1 in 
whose waters it is the religious duty of
 millions1 not  only those living near  
its banks1 but for pilgrims1 to bathe   
and to  cast their dead4 ,the ,hindoo   
cannot be made to use a latrine4 ,in the
  cities he digs a hole in his          
habitation2 in the country he seeks the 
fields1 the hillside1 the banks of      
streams and rivers when obliged to  obey
 the calls of nature4 ,hence it is that 

the vicinity of towns and  the banks of 
the tanks and water courses are reeking 
with filth of the  worst description1   
which is of necessity washed into the   
public water  supply with every         
rainfall4 ,add to this the misery of    
pilgrims1 then  poverty and disease and 
the terrible crowding into the numerous 
towns  which contain some temple or     
shrine1 the object of their devotion1   
and  we can see how ,india has become   
and remains the hotbed of the cholera   
epidemic4 ,in the ,united ,states       
official report the horrors incident    
upon the pilgrimages are detailed with  
appalling minuteness4 ,w4 ,w4  ,hunter1 
in his ,orissa1 states that twenty-four 
high festivals take  place annually at  
,juggernaut4 ,at one of them1 about     
,easter1 #dj1jjj  persons indulge in    
hemp and hasheesh to a shocking degree4 
,for weeks  before the car festival1 in 
,june and ,july1 pilgrims come trooping 
in  by thousands every day4 ,they are   
fed by the temple cooks to the number   

of #ij1jjj4 ,over #ajj1jjj men and      
women1 many of them unaccustomed to     
work or exposure1 tug and strain at the 
car until they drop exhausted  and block
 the road with their bodies4 ,during    
every month of the year a  stream of    
devotees flows along the great ,orissa  
road from ,calcutta1 and  every village 
for three hundred miles has its pilgrim 
encampments4    ,illustration3 ,car of  
,juggernaut    ,the people travel in    
small bands1 which at the time of the   
great feasts  actually touch each other4
 ,five-sixths of the whole are females  
and  ninety-five per cent4 travel on    
foot1 many of them marching hundreds    
and even thousands of miles1 a          
contingent having been drummed up from  
every town or village in ,india by one  
or other of the three thousand          
emissaries of the temple1 who scour the 
country in all directions in  search of 
dupes4 ,when those pilgrims who have not
 died on the road  arrive at their      
journey's end1 emaciated1 with feet     

bound up in rags  and plastered with mud
 and dirt1 they rush into the sacred    
tanks or  the sea and emerge to dress in
 clean garments4 ,disease and death make
  havoc with them during their stay2    
corpses are buried in holes scooped  in 
the sand1 and the hillocks are covered  
with bones and skulls washed  from their
 shallow graves by the tropical rains4  
,the temple kitchen has  the monopoly of
 cooking for the multitude1 and provides
 food which if  fresh is not            
unwholesome4 ,unhappily1 it is presented
 before ,juggernaut1  so becomes too    
sacred for the minutest portion to be   
thrown away4 ,under  the influence of   
the heat it soon undergoes putrefactive 
fermentation1  and in forty-eight hours 
much of it is a loathsome mass1 unfit   
for  human food4 ,yet it forms the chief
 sustenance of the pilgrims1 and is  the
 sole nourishment of thousands of       
beggars4 ,some one eats it to the  very 
last grain4 ,injurious to the robust1 it
 is deadly to the weak and  wayworn1 at 

least half of whom reach the place      
suffering under some  form of bowel     
complaint4 ,badly as they are fed the   
poor wretches are  worse lodged4 ,those 
who have the temporary shelter of four  
walls are  housed in hovels built upon  
mud platforms about four feet high1 in  
the  center of each of which is the hole
 which receives the ordure of the       
household1 and around which the inmates 
eat and sleep4 ,the platforms  are      
covered with small cells without any    
windows or other apertures  for         
ventilation1 and in these caves the     
pilgrims are packed1 in a  country      
where1 during seven months out of       
twelve1 the thermometer marks  from #he 
to #ajj degrees ,fahr4 ,hunter says that
 the scenes of agony and  suffocation   
enacted in these hideous dens baffle    
description4 ,in some  of the best of   
them1 #ac feet long by #aj feet broad   
and #f1 feet high1  as many as eighty   
persons pass the night4 ,it is not then 
surprising  to learn that the stench is 

overpowering and the heat like that of  
an oven4 ,of #cjj1jjj who visit         
,juggernaut in one season1 #ij1jjj are  
often packed together five days a week  
in #e1jjj of these lodgings4 ,in        
certain seasons1 however1 the devotees  
can and do sleep in the open  air1      
camping out in regiments and battalions1
 covered only with the  same meagre     
cotton garment that clothes them by day4
 ,the heavy dews are  unhealthy enough1 
but the great festival falls at the     
beginning of the  rains1 when the water 
tumbles in solid sheets4 ,then lanes and
 alleys  are converted into torrents or 
stinking canals1 and the pilgrims are   
driven into vile tenements4 ,cholera    
invariably breaks out4 ,living and  dead
 are huddled together4    ,illustration3
 ,distant ,view of ,zempoala ,aqueduct1 
,queretaro1 ,mexico    ,in the numerous 
so-called corpse fields around the town 
as many as  forty or fifty corpses are  
seen at a time1 and vultures sit and    
dogs  lounge lazily about gorged with   

human flesh4 ,in fact1 there is no end  
to the recurrence of incidents of misery
 and humiliation1 the horrors  of which1
 says the ,bishop of ,calcutta1 are     
unutterable1 but which  are eclipsed by 
those of the return journey4 ,plundered 
and fleeced  by landlords1 the surviving
 victims reel homeward staggering under 
their burden of putrid food wrapped up  
in dirty clothes1 or packed  in heavy   
baskets or earthenware jars4 ,every     
stream is flooded1 and  the travelers   
have often to sit for days in the rain  
on the banks of  a river before a boat  
will venture to cross4 ,at all these    
points the  corpses lie thickly strewn  
around 7an ,english traveler counted    
forty  close to one ferry71 which       
accounts for the prevalence of cholera  
on  the banks of brooks1 streams and    
rivers4 ,some poor creatures drop and   
die by the way2 others crowd into the   
villages and halting places on  the way1
 where those who gain admittance cram   
the lodging-places to  overflowing1 and 

thousands pass the night in the streets1
 and find no  cover from the drenching  
storms4 ,groups are huddled under the   
trees2  long lines are stretched among  
the carts and bullocks on the roadside1 
then half saturated with the mud on     
which they lie1 hundreds sit on the  wet
 grass1 not daring to lie down1 and rock
 themselves to a monotonous  chant      
through the long hours of the dreary    
night4 ,it is impossible to  compute the
 slaughter of this one pilgrimage4      
,bishop ,wilson estimates  it at not    
less than #ej1jjj1 and this description 
might be used for  all the great ,india 
pilgrimages1 of which there are probably
 a dozen  annually1 to say nothing of   
the hundreds of smaller shrines         
scattered  through the peninsula1 each  
of which attracts its minor horde of    
credulous votaries4    ,illustration3   
,near ,view of ,zempoala ,aqueduct1     
,mexico    ,such then may be accepted as
 a picture of one of the numerous       
pilgrimages made during the ,dark ,ages 

and which helped to spread  infectious  
diseases broadcast throughout the land1 
polluting water  supplies to such an    
extent that in many localities filth    
diseases  became epidemic4 ,it was not  
until about the end of the sixteenth    
century that general improvement began  
to be made in sanitary matters1         
although some notable exceptions may be 
mentioned in the construction  of a few 
important works in ,spain by the ,moors1
 such for instance  as those at ,cordova
 in the ninth century and the repair of 
the ,roman  aqueduct at ,sevilla in     
#aagb4 ,until as late a date as #aahc   
,paris  depended entirely on the ,river 
,seine for its water supply4 ,during    
that year an aqueduct was constructed to
 conduct water to ,paris from  a distant
 source1 but as late as the year #aeej  
the supply of water to  ,paris amounted 
to only one quart per capita per day4   
,illustration3 ,zempoala ,aqueduct4     
,from an old print in the ,engineering  
,news    ,london1 ,england1 was more    

backward than ,paris in supplying the   
inhabitants with water1 and it was not  
until the year #abce that small         
quantities of spring water were brought 
to the city through lead pipes  and     
masonry conduits4    ,little is known   
about the strange race of people that   
inhabited the  ,north ,american         
continent prior to the ,indians1 and it 
is only by the  ruins of works which    
they constructed in the shape of mounds 
that  their existence is known of4      
,nevertheless1 had historians of that   
time written of the engineering projects
 successfully carried out by  the       
engineers of the mound builders no doubt
 some surprising facts  would be        
revealed to contemporary man2 for       
wherever men have existed1  whether in  
,china1 ,japan1 ,egypt1 ,europe1        
,england or1 as we are informed  by     
astronomers1 on ,mars1 gigantic works of
 irrigation have been  successfully     
undertaken1 and in most of the places   
mentioned conduits  or aqueducts to     

supply water to inhabitants of          
communities were  constructed4          
,reasoning then by analogy it would be  
safe to infer that  before the race of  
mound builders became extinct they built
 works of  equal importance if not of   
equal endurance4 ,this belief is borne  
out  by the fact that long before       
,columbus discovered ,america1 the      
,aztecs  of ,mexico built an aqueduct to
 supply the ancient city1 built on the  
site of the present ,city of ,mexico4   
,how long the aqueduct supplied the     
city before ,cortez1 in his expedition  
to conquer ,mexico1 destroyed  the      
works1 in #aeba1 nobody knows and the   
truth will probably never be  told4 ,the
 fact of the existence of such a        
structure is interesting  chiefly as    
showing that in the matter of supplying 
communities with  water the ancient     
tribes of ,mexico and ,america had made 
considerable  progress long before      
,europeans set foot on shore4 ,it was in
 ,mexico1  too1 that the next aqueduct  

in point of time was constructed4 ,this 
work  was built during the period       
between the years #aeec and #aegj1 under
 the  supervision of ,friar ,francisco  
,tembleque1 a ,franciscan monk1 and     
served  for about two centuries to carry
 water from the mountain ,lacayete to   
the city of ,otumba1 state of ,hidalgo1 
district of ,apan1 a distance of  #bg4h 
miles4    ,the aqueduct1 which is known 
as the ,zempoala1 included three arched 
bridges of a maximum height of #abd     
feet4 ,this aqueduct is further         
interesting from the fact that the      
original agreement1 under which  the    
work was performed1 is still in         
existence1 a copy of which was          
published in the ,engineering ,news1    
#ahhh1 from which the following  copy is
 taken4    ,the first bridge contains   
forty-six arches1 the second thirteen   
arches  and the third sixty-eight       
arches4 ,the length of the longest      
bridge  is #c1jjj feet and the span of  
the arches at the springing line is     

fifty-six feet4 ,about five years were  
required to build the principal  part of
 the aqueduct which is carried on       
arches4      ,,contract ,,under ,,which 
,,aqueduct ,,was ,,built     ,i1 ,friar 
,cristobal y ,chanriguis1 preacher and  
secretary of this holy   province of the
 holy evangel1 certify that ,father     
,luis ,gerro1 preacher   and guardian of
 the ,convent of ,all ,saints1          
,zempoala1 has presented to   me a      
patent in favor of natives of said town1
 whose legal tenor is as   follows3     
,we1 ,friar ,juan ,de ,bustamanti1      
,commissioner ,general of the ,indes of 
the ,ocean ,seas1 and ,friar ,juan ,de  
,san ,francisco1 ,provincial ,master    
of the province of said holy evangel1   
and ,friar ,deigo ,nolivarte1 and       
,friar ,juan ,de ,gavna1 and ,friar     
,antonio ,centad ,rodriquez1 and ,friar 
,bernardino ,de ,sahagun1 subordinate of
 priests of said province of the   holy 
evangel1 declare3     ,that inasmuch as 
you1 the ,governor ,alcaldes and        

principal officers of   the town of     
,zacoala1 have agreed1 for the love of  
,god and because of   our intercession1 
with the same officers of the town of   
,otumba to give   to them half the water
 which you have in your town of ,zacoala
 for the   use and benefit of the       
inhabitants of ,otumba and for the use  
of the   monastery of our order founded 
in that town1 in which you do great     
good to them and to our said monastery1 
because of our intercession as   stated2
 and1 inasmuch1 moreover1 as you1 the   
said people of ,zacoala1   with much    
labor and for the good of your souls1   
agree to join with   the people of the  
,flaquilpan and ,zempoala in the place  
where you are   erecting an ,all ,saints
 ,monastery1 at which point you agree to
 remain   and work and not to depart for
 the reason that you are removed from   
your own houses2 on order to labor for  
the good of our souls and in   return   
for the labor which the priests have in 
visiting you4 ,and   whereas now you    

will soon have together a monastery for 
the friars of   our order1 in which must
 be administered for all the holy       
sacraments2   therefore1 in return for  
this benefit and work we promise you    
that   in all our time we will not cease
 to give friars for said monastery1     
and for the whole length of our lives we
 will aid you in your prayers   in all  
the agreed respects2 and for the time to
 come after our   lives1 in             
consideration of said benefit1 we will  
petition the said   ,commissioners      
,general and ,provisional ,masters that 
they will severally   and collectively  
adhere to the agreement1 and always have
 the charity   to furnish friars in the 
,monastery of ,all ,saints1 as now in   
view of   the great and good work which 
you have done through our intercession1 
both in giving the said water and in    
aiding the said work to supply   it4    
,and if by chance there should happen to
 be so few priests that it   is         
impossible to spare them from the house 

of ,otumba that they shall   place      
friars in said ,monastery of ,all       
,saints first and let the loss   fall   
upon other places than ,zacoala and the 
,monastery of ,all ,saints1   in all of 
which places you are entitled to be     
taught by our priests4     ,we will beg 
of our successors in charity to favor us
 in these said   respects1 in return for
 your faithful labor and agreement in   
our   behalf1 and so we sign this       
agreement1 made this seventh day of     
,february1 #aeec4    ,then followed     
signatures4    ,illustration            
,illustration3                          
,,the,,oldest,,bath,,room,,in,,the,,worl
d   ,,in,,vse#bejj,,years,,ago          
,,at,,tiryns1,,greece    ,from          
,stereograph1 copyright #aijh by        
,underwood  ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4         
7,see page iv7          ,illustration3  
,,chapter ,,vi     ,,synopsis ,,of      
,,chapter4 ,introduction of ,pumping    
,machinery into ,waterworks             
,practice--,the ,archimedes ,screw--,use

 of ,pumps in ,hanover1 ,germany--,first
   ,london ,pump on ,london             
,bridge--,savery and ,newcomen's        
,pumping ,engine--,the   ,hydraulic     
,ram--,pumping ,engines ,erected for the
 ,philadelphia   ,waterworks--,pipes for
 ,distributing ,water--,hydrants and    
,valves for ,wooden   ,pipes--,data     
regarding the ,use of ,wooden           
,pipes--,modern ,pumping ,engines4      
,water wheels for raising water were in 
use at such an early period that  the   
exact date of their invention will never
 be known4 ,the earliest  known or      
approximate date for the invention of a 
water-raising machine  extends back to  
about #bae years before the birth of    
,christ1 when  ,archimedes1 the ,greek  
mathematician1 who was killed at the    
taking of  ,syracuse by the ,romans1    
invented the ,archimedes screw4 ,this   
apparatus1  unlike pumps of later date1 
was operated independently of the       
atmospheric pressure1 and by using a    
number of the screws in series1  water  

could be raised to any desired height4  
,illustration3 ,savery's ,engine    ,the
 ,archimedes screw was not adapted for  
raising large quantities of  water1     
however1 so that ,greek and ,roman      
cities never were supplied  with water  
by means of engines4 ,it remained for   
,hanover1 ,germany1 to  install the     
first pump of which we have knowledge1  
for supplying a town  or city with      
water4 ,in ,germany1 waterworks were    
constructed as early as  #adab1 and     
pumps were introduced in ,hanover in the
 year #aebg4    ,in ,london1 ,england1  
the first pump was erected on the old   
,london ,bridge  in #aehb1 for the      
purpose of supplying the city with water
 from the  ,thames and distributing it  
through lead pipes4 ,there are only     
meagre  accounts of the ,hanover and    
,london ,bridge pumps to be had1        
however1 and  no illustrations showing  
their construction4    ,illustration3   
,newcomen's ,engine    ,the oldest known
 print of a steam engine is in the      

,birmingham public  library1#b and shows
 a machine built in #agab by ,savery and
 ,newcomen4  ,a search made by ,the     
,engineer of ,london1 has brought to    
light an old  engraving dated #agbe1 and
 entitled ,the ,engine for ,raising     
,water by  ,fire4 ,it is unique in      
containing the first illustrated        
description of  a steam engine4 ,this   
machine is somewhat different from that 
portrayed  in earlier engravings1 for   
the boiler is fed with a portion of the 
hot water coming from the bottom of the 
cylinder or hot well4 ,this  fixes the  
date of the improvement described by    
,desagaliers in his  ,experimental      
,philosophy as follows3 ,it had been    
found of benefit to  feed the boiler    
warm water coming from the top of the   
piston1 rather  than cold water1 which  
would too much check the boiling and    
cause more  force to be needful4 ,but   
after the engine had been placed some   
years1  some persons concerned about an 
engine1 observing that the injected     

water as it came out of the induction   
pipe was scalding hot1 when the  water  
coming from the top of the piston was   
but just lukewarm1 thought  it would be 
of great advantage to feed from the     
induction or injected  water1 and       
accordingly did it1 which gave a stroke 
or two of advantage  to the engine4     
,illustration3 ,section ,through the    
,engine ,house of the ,centre ,square   
,water ,works1 ,philadelphia    ,at     
about this time or late in #agjj1 a     
,frenchman1 ,montgolfer1 invented  the  
hydraulic ram4 ,this machine1 while     
simple in construction1 is one  of the  
most efficient water-raising devices    
made1 and in the later  improved designs
 amount actually to hydraulic engines4  
,that pumping  engines of this period   
and steam boilers to operate them were  
of crude  design there can be no doubt1 
indeed1 many years later1 in #ahjj1 when
  waterworks and a pumping station were 
introduced in ,philadelphia1 the  pumps 
and boilers were of the crudest design4 

,a sectional illustration  of the       
pumping house1 taken from ,volume #ag of
 ,engineering ,news1  conveys a fair    
idea of the design of the pumps4 ,the   
engine was built  mostly of wood and had
 cylinders #f feet long by #ch inches   
inside  diameter4 ,a double acting pump 
had a cylinder of #ah inches diameter   
and #f-;foot stroke4 ,in these engines  
the lever arms1 flywheel shaft and      
arms1 flywheel bearings1 the hot well1  
hot and cold water pumps1 cold  water   
cistern1 and even the external shell of 
the boilers were made  of wood4 ,the    
boilers were rectangular chests1 made of
 #e-;inch white  pine planks of the     
general dimensions shown in the         
illustration4 ,they  were braced on the 
sides1 top and bottom with white oak    
scantling1 #aj  inches square1 all      
bolted together with #a-;inch iron rods 
passing  through the planks4 ,inside the
 chest was an iron fire-box1 #ab feet #f
  inches long by #f feet wide and #a    
foot #aj inches deep1 and #h vertical   

flues1 #f of #ae inches and #b of #ab   
inches diameter1 through which the      
water circulated1 the fire acting around
 them and passing up an oval  flue      
situated just above the fire box and    
carried from the back of the  boiler to 
near the front and then returned to the 
chimney at the back4    ,illustration3  
,wooden ,boilers used in the            
,philadelphia ,water ,supply    ,these  
wooden boilers were used at the ,centre 
,street waterworks from  #ahja to #ahae1
 but did not give general satisfaction  
on account of the  numerous leaks4 ,they
 were operated at very low pressure1    
averaging not  over #b pounds per square
 inch1 but even at this extremely low   
pressure  were found unsatisfactory4    
,during the early days of water supply1 
following the period of  aqueducts1 lead
 was the material commonly used for     
water supply mains4  ,later1 however1   
pipes made of bored-out logs were used  
and continued in  service up to the year
 #ahai4 ,the water mains used in        

,philadelphia were  made of spruce logs1
 reinforced at the ends with            
wrought-iron bands4 ,a  section of one  
of these old ,philadelphia water mains1 
which is still  in a good state of      
preservation1 is on exhibition in the   
,builders'  ,exchange of that city4     
,so far as is known1 ,philadelphia was  
the first city in the world to  adopt   
cast iron pipe for water mains4 ,cast   
iron water pipes were laid  in          
,philadelphia in the year #ahjd1        
antedating their use in ,london1        
,england1 by a few years4               
,illustration3 ,section of ,bored-out   
,log ,laid in ,victoria1 ,b4 ,c41 in    
#ahfb and taken out #aijj    ,the       
durability of wood pipe is rather       
astonishing when the short life  of logs
 exposed on the surface of the earth is 
considered4 ,after lying  buried in the 
earth for fifty or sixty years the wood 
pipe used in  the ,philadelphia         
waterworks was sold to ,burlington1 ,n4 
,j41 in #ahjd1  and remained in constant

 use there until #ahhg1 when larger     
mains were  required4    ,illustration3 
,valve for ,wooden ,pipes ,used in the  
,philadelphia ,water  ,supply           
,illustration3 ,hydrant for ,wooden     
,pipes ,used in the ,philadelphia ,water
  ,supply    ,portsmouth1 ,n4 ,h41 used 
bored pine logs for mains from #agih to 
#ahif1  when they were replaced with    
larger pipes4 ,when dug up1 the logs    
were  entirely sound and good for many  
years' service4    ,a few data regarding
 the use of wooden pipes might not be   
without  interest1 while at the same    
time pointing out the approximate dates 
when waterworks were constructed in     
several cities4 ,log pipes laid in      
,victoria1 ,b4 ,c41 in #ahfb and taken  
out in #aijj were quite free from  decay
 but badly checked4    ,constantinople  
still receives part of its supply       
through wood pipe4    ,london had #djj  
miles of wood pipe in use for #bah      
years1 from #aehi to  #ahjg4 ,when taken
 up it was found to be quite sound4     

,boston used one system of wood pipes   
from #afeb to #agif1 then replaced  it  
with another one which lasted until     
#ahdh4    ,denver1 ,colorado1 has nearly
 #ajj miles of stave pipe conduit and   
mains  in use4 ,all the water brought to
 ,denver for domestic use passes through
  wooden pipe #cg inches in diameter1   
which conducts it from ,cherry ,creek1  
which is about #h miles from center of  
city4    ,the hydrants and valves used  
in connection with wood pipes in        
,philadelphia were made of metal1 and it
 is presumed that the valves and        
hydrants used in other cities were      
likewise made of metal4                 
,illustration3 ,modern ,vertical        
,triple-,expansion ,pumping ,engine     
,only one brief century has passed since
 waterworks pumping stations  were      
introduced in the ,united ,states1 but  
what wonderful improvements  have been  
made in pumping machinery design within 
that short space of  time6 ,steel and   
iron have taken the place of wood in the

 manufacture of  boilers and pumps1 and 
instead of the leaky1 unsatisfactory    
apparatus  of other days1 even when     
working under low pressures1 we now have
  pumping engines which will work       
continuously month after month under    
several hundred pounds pressure1 and    
deliver the daily volumes of from  a few
 hundred to many million gallons of     
water4    ,illustration3                
,,aqvedvct,,crossing,,the,,alcantara,,va
lley    ,,spanish-,,portvgese-,,border  
,illustration3 ,,chapter ,,vii          
,,synopsis ,,of ,,chapter4 ,early       
,british ,sewers--,sewer in the ,great  
,hall of   ,westminster--,shape of      
,early ,english ,sewers--,adoption or   
,recommendation   of ,pipe              
,sewers--,early ,paris ,sewers--,paris  
,sewers of ,to-day--,lack of   ,sewage  
,data in ,america--,effect of ,memphis  
,epidemics on ,sanitary   ,progress4    
,the earliest mention we have of        
,english sewers is contained in an old  
record of the fourteenth century1 which 

informs us ,the refuse from  the king's 
kitchen had long run through the ,great 
,hall in an open  channel1 to the       
serious injury to health and danger to  
life of those  congregated at court4 ,it
 was therefore ordered that a           
subterraneous  conduit should be made to
 carry away the filth into the ,thames4 
,this  description of the sewer from the
 ,great ,hall presents a vivid picture  
of the sewers of that day4 ,at first the
 main sewers were natural water  courses
 which1 having become offensive1 were   
arched over to shut out  the sight and  
odor4 ,street gutters leading to those  
arched-over water  courses became foul  
in turn1 and were replaced by           
underground channels  of the roughest   
brickwork or masonry4 ,these drains     
which were square  in cross section     
received and carried off slop water and 
rain water  from the streets2 the drains
 were constructed according to no       
regular  design nor fixed principles1   
although usually they were #ab inches   

square and made by laying flat stones to
 form the bottom of the drain1  then    
building walls of brick and topping off 
with flat stones1 spanning  from wall to
 wall4 ,excreta were collected in       
cesspools often built  beneath the floor
 of the house4 ,the introduction of the 
water closet  about the commencement of 
the century1 though it abated the       
nuisance  of the latrine1 aggravated the
 evils of the cesspool by introducing  a
 large volume of water far exceeding in 
weight the actual excreta1  waterlogging
 the subsoil4 ,the difficulty and       
expense of emptying the  cesspools were 
increased4 ,cesspools were therefore    
connected to sewers  by house drains4   
,the channels intended to carry off rain
 water became  sewers4 ,sewers and house
 drains were constructed on no          
scientific  principle4#c ,the walls were
 rough1 irregular and porous4 ,naturally
  deposits took place in them2 hand     
cleaning was considered a normal        
incident to the history of the sewer1   

and irrespective of the volume  of      
sewage to be conveyed1 sewers were made 
large enough to admit the  passage of a 
man to facilitate cleaning4    ,in      
#aheb1 the ,general ,board of ,health   
under the ,public ,health ,act1  made   
their first report to the ,british      
,parliament1 and advocated very         
strongly the introduction of smaller    
pipes in lieu of the large brick  and   
stone drains then in use for house      
drainage4 ,prior to this date1  the     
first report of the ,metropolitan       
,sanitary ,commission1 ,london1         
appeared1 which1 while not to be taken  
as advocating exclusively  the use of   
small pipes1 yet pointed out the        
necessity of reducing  the dimensions   
and altering the shapes of the old stone
 and brick  structures4 ,from this      
period1 then1 can be assumed the        
adoption and  first use of earthenware  
pipes for house drains and public       
sewers4    ,the construction of sewers  
in ,paris dates from #affc1 but the     

earliest  of those still in use are not 
earlier than the beginning of this      
century4 ,before the great epidemic of  
cholera in #ahcb1 the total length  of  
sewers was not more than #ba miles4 ,the
 sewers of ,paris to-day  aggregate over
 #gej miles in length1 and constitute   
one of the sights of  the city4         
,according to ,mason1#d ,they may be    
inspected without charge  on the first  
and third ,wednesdays of each month in  
summer1 by writing  for a permit to the 
,prefect de la ,seine4 ,descent is      
commonly made  near the ,madeleine by a 
substantial stairway of stone1 and the  
boats  awaiting the party at the foot of
 the steps are fully as large and  quite
 as comfortable as ,venetian gondolas4  
,the great sewer1 which is tunnel-like  
in dimensions1 being #af feet high  and 
#ah feet broad1 is1 on occasions of a   
visit1 lighted with lamps  alternately  
red and blue1 and as these stretch away 
into the distance  the effect is        
decidedly striking4    ,under ordinary  

circumstances1 the sewage confines      
itself to the center  channel1 but upon 
occasions rises above the sidewalk on   
either hand4  ,the central channel is   
about #aj feet wide and #d feet deep    
with a curved  bottom1 and a walk on    
either side4 ,the boats with their loads
 of  visitors are pulled by ropes in the
 hands of attendants who walk along  the
 sidewalks4 ,on either side of the sewer
 may be seen the large mains1  carrying 
the city water supply1 also the         
telegraph cables4    ,reliable data     
concerning the construction of sewers   
were not obtainable  in the ,united     
,states until long after the close of   
the ,civil ,war4  ,in #aheg1 when       
,julius ,w4 ,adams was commissioned to  
prepare plans for  sewering the city of 
,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 which at that time  
covered an  area of #bj square miles1 a 
great proportion of which was suburban  
territory1 the engineering profession   
was wholly without data of any  kind to 
guide in proportioning sewers for the   

drainage of cities and  towns4 ,the half
 century intervening since that time1   
however1 has seen  the development of   
sanitary engineering and witnessed the  
installation  of sewer system1 rightly  
proportioned and properly designed1 in  
almost every city1 town and village in  
the ,united ,states1 while text  books  
on engineering contain all necessary    
data for their design and  construction4
 ,it must not be inferred from the      
foregoing statement that  sewers were   
unknown in the ,united ,states prior to 
the construction of  the ,brooklyn sewer
 system4 ,there was one in ,boston1 for 
example1 which  dated from the          
seventeenth century1 while the first    
comprehensive  sewerage project was     
designed by ,e4 ,s4 ,chesbrough1 for the
 city of  ,chicago in #ahee4    ,there  
was no great activity in sewer building 
in this country thirty  years ago4 ,up  
to that time most of the cities were    
comparatively small1  and no thought was
 given by the various municipalities to 

treating the  combined sewage as a      
whole4 ,the conditions were ripe1       
however1 for some  unusual event to     
crystallize public opinion and focus    
attention on the  subject1 and the event
 was furnished by the city of ,memphis1 
,tennessee4  ,ever since #agdj1 ,memphis
 had been known as a particularly       
unhealthful  city1 where the death rate 
was abnormally high1 and epidemic after 
epidemic of cholera1 yellow fever and   
other contagious diseases had  scourged 
the inhabitants4 ,so common had those   
events become1 that they  were accepted 
as incident to living in the locality1  
and were looked  upon as special        
visitations which could not be avoided4 
,such was the  state of affairs when an 
epidemic of yellow fever broke out in   
#ahgi1  which caused a death list of    
#e1aej1 and was followed the succeeding 
year by a further death roll of #dhe1   
due to the scourge4 ,had the  disease   
been confined within the boundaries of  
the city1 it is possible  that little   

would have been thought of the matter   
outside of the state  of ,tennessee4    
,however1 refugees1 fleeing in all      
directions1 carried  the dread disease  
with them1 until a strict quarantine--a 
shotgun  quarantine--confined the       
infection to a certain circumscribed    
area4 ,in  the meantime1 interference   
with railroad traffic1 armed forces     
guarding  the borders of neighboring    
states1 together with the fear of the   
dread  disease spreading all over the   
country1 brought ,congress and the      
public  to a realization of the         
necessity for doing something to stamp  
out the  disease4 ,the most practical   
good accomplished by the agitation was  
the  organization of a ,national ,board 
of ,health1 a committee from which made 
a thorough examination of the sanitary  
conditions of ,memphis4 ,what the       
committee found in the way of filth was 
almost beyond belief4 ,the city1  they  
found1 was honeycombed with cesspools   
and privy-vaults4 ,many of  the         

cesspools and privy-vaults were under or
 in the cellars of houses1  where they  
had been filled with accumulations and  
abandoned to fester  and rot4 ,filth was
 everywhere--above ground and beneath   
the surface1  in the house and out of   
doors4 ,there was only one thing to     
do--give the  city a good cleaning2 and 
that was the only time in history1      
perhaps1  when pressure from the outside
 forced an almost bankrupt city to      
observe the laws of decency and         
sanitation4    ,the various works which 
had been built up to this time to supply
  communities with water1 had for their 
sole object the providing of  an        
adequate supply so far as quantity is   
concerned1 but gave little  thought to  
the quality of the water1 so long as it 
was clear and  cold4 ,the sewers or     
drains on the other hand were           
constructed solely  to prevent a        
nuisance and with no definite knowledge 
that an unclean  environment and        
polluted water were conducive to        

ill-health1 while pure  water and clean 
surroundings were conducive to the      
public health4    ,some events were     
about to happen1 however1 which would   
awaken the  public mind to the dangers  
of dirt1 and that would usher in the    
present  epoch of sanitation4           
,illustration    ,illustration3         
,,bathing,,and,,bvrning                 
,,hindv,,dead,,at,,benares    ,who dies 
in the waters of the ,ganges obtains    
,heaven    ,from ,stereograph1 copyright
 by ,underwood  ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4     
7,see page iv7          ,illustration3  
,,chapter ,,viii     ,synopsis of       
,chapter4 ,sanitary                     
,awakening--,realization of the ,danger 
of   ,unwholesome ,water--,cholera in   
,london ,traced to the ,broad ,street   
,pump--,an   ,historical ,stink4        
,truth is mighty and will prevail1 but  
sometimes it is centuries before  its   
voice can be heard and additional       
centuries before its language is        
understood4 ,as early as #cej ,b4 ,c41  

,hippocrates1 the ,father of ,medicine1 
pointed out the danger of unsterilized  
water and advised boiling  or filtering 
a polluted water supply before drinking4
 ,he further  believed that the         
consumption of swamp water in the raw   
state produced  enlargement of the      
spleen4 ,had his warning been heeded the
 lives of  millions of people who were  
carried to untimely graves by the       
scourges  of pestilence which swept over
 ,europe1 ,asia and ,great ,britain1    
might  have been saved4 ,some idea of   
the ravage caused by filth diseases can 
be gained by reviewing the mortality due
 to cholera in ,london during  the      
epidemics of #ahcb1 #ahdh1 #ahdi1 #ahec 
and #ahed4    ,on account of its size   
and lack of sanitary provisions1 the    
,london of  that period was the kind of 
place in which1 with our present        
knowledge  of disease1 we would expect a
 plague to reach its height4 ,prior to  
#agjj1 the city of ,london had no sewers
 and was without water supply1  except  

such as was obtained from wells and     
springs in the neighborhood4  ,the      
subsoil of ,london we can readily       
believe was foul from cesspool          
leachings and from slops and household  
refuse deposited on the surface  of the 
ground1 so that water from the wells    
within the city limits1  while cool     
perhaps and palatable1 could not have   
been wholesome4  ,many public wells with
 pumps had been installed at certain    
intervals  on the public highways1 and  
an epidemic of cholera traced to one  of
 these wells1 was the means of pointing 
out the danger to public  health1 caused
 by an infected water supply1 and of    
showing the channel  by which the       
infectious matter from people suffering 
from intestinal  diseases was           
transmitted to healthy individuals4 ,the
 story is well  told by ,sedgwick3#e    
,one of the earliest1 one of the most   
famous1  and one of the most instructive
 cases of the conveyance of disease  by 
polluted water1 is that commonly known  

as the epidemic of ,asiatic  cholera    
connected with the ,broad ,street1      
,london1 well1 which occurred  in #ahed4
 ,for its conspicuously circumscribed   
character1 its violence  and fatality1  
and especially for the remarkable skill1
 thoroughness  and success with which it
 was investigated1 it will long remain  
one of  the classical instances of the  
terrible efficiency of polluted water as
  a vehicle of disease4                 
,illustration3      ,,asiatic ,,cholera 
- ,,and -    ,,the ,,broad ,,street     
,,pump4    ,,london #ahed4      ,as a   
monument of sanitary research1 of       
medical and engineering interest  and of
 penetrating inductive reasoning1 it    
deserves the most careful  study4 ,no   
apology therefore need be made for      
giving of it here a  somewhat extended  
account4#f    ,the parish of ,st4       
,james1 ,london1 occupied #afd acres in 
#ahed1 and  contained #cf1djf           
inhabitants in #ahea4 ,it was subdivided
 into three  subdistricts1 viz41 those  

of ,st4 ,james ,square1 ,golden ,square 
and  ,berwick ,street4 ,as will be seen 
by the map1 it was situated near a part 
of ,london now well known to travellers1
 not far from the junction of  ,regent  
and ,oxford ,streets4 ,it was bounded by
 ,mayfair and ,hanover ,square  on the  
west1 by ,all ,souls and ,marylbone on  
the north1 ,st4 ,anne's and  ,soho on   
the east1 and ,charing ,cross and ,st4  
,martin's-in-the-,fields on  the east   
and south4    ,in the cholera epidemics 
of #ahcb1 #ahdh1 #ahdi and #ahec1 ,st4  
,james'  ,parish suffered somewhat1 but 
on the average decidedly less than      
,london as a whole4 ,in #ahed1 however1 
the reverse was the case4 ,the  inquiry 
committee estimated that in this year   
the fatal attacks in ,st4  ,james'      
,parish were probably not less than     
#gjj1 and from this estimate  compiled a
 cholera death rate1 during #ag weeks   
under consideration1 of  #bbj per       
#aj1jjj living in the parish1 which was 
far above the highest  in any other     

district4 ,in the adjoining sub-district
 of ,hanover  ,square the ratio was #i2 
and in the ,charing ,cross district of  
,st4  ,martin's-in-the-,fields          
7including a hospital7 it was #cc4 ,in  
#ahdh-ahdi  the cholera mortality in    
,st4 ,james' ,parish had been only #ae  
per #aj1jjj  inhabitants4    ,within the
 parish itself1 the disease in #ahed was
 very unequally  distributed4 ,in the   
,st4 ,james ,square district1 the       
cholera mortality  was only #af per     
#aj1jjj1 while in the ,golden ,square   
district it was #bag  and in the        
,berwick ,street district #bab4 ,it was 
plain that there had  been a special    
cholera area1 a localized circumscribed 
district4 ,this  was eventually minutely
 studied in the most painstaking fashion
 as  to population1 industries1 previous
 sanitary history1 meteorological       
conditions and other general phenomena  
common to ,london as a whole1  with the 
result that it was found to have shared 
with the rest of  ,london a previous    

long continued absence of rain1 a high  
state of  temperature both of the air   
and of the ,thames1 an unusual          
stagnation of  the lower strata of the  
atmosphere1 highly favorable to its     
acquisition  of impurity1 and although  
it was impossible to fix the precise    
share  which each of the conditions     
enumerated might separately have had in 
favoring the spread of cholera1 the     
whole history of that malady1  as well  
as of the epidemic of #ahed and indeed  
of the plague of past  epochs1 justifies
 the supposition that their combined    
operation1  either by favoring a general
 impurity in the air or in some other   
way1 concurred in a decided manner1 last
 summer and autumn 7#ahed7 to  give     
temporary activity to the special causes
 of that disease4 ,the  inquiry         
committee did not1 however1 rest        
satisfied with these vague  speculations
 and conclusions1 but as previously     
shown in the history of  this local     
outbreak1 the resulting mortality was so

 disproportioned to  that in the rest of
 the metropolis and more particularly to
 that in the  immediately surrounding   
districts1 that we must seek more       
narrowly and  locally for some peculiar 
conditions1 which may help to explain   
this  serious visitation4               
,accordingly special inquiries were made
 within the district involved  in regard
 to its elevation of site1 soil and     
subsoil1 including an  extended inquiry 
into the history of a pest field said to
 have been  located within this area in 
#affe1 #afff1 to which some had         
attributed  the cholera of #ahed2       
surface and ground plan2 streets and    
courts2  density of population2         
character of the population2 dwelling   
houses2  internal economy as to space1  
light1 ventilation and general          
cleanliness2 dust bins and accumulations
 in yards1 cellars and areas2           
cesspools1 closets and house drains2    
sewers1 their water flow and            
atmospheric connection2 public water    

supply and well water supply4  ,no      
peculiar condition or adequate          
explanation of the origin of the        
epidemic was discovered in any of these1
 even after the most searching  inquiry1
 except in the well water supply4       
,abundant general defects  were found in
 the other sanitary factors1 but nothing
 peculiar to the  cholera area1 or if   
peculiar1 common to those attacked by   
the disease1  could be found excepting  
the water supply4    ,at the very       
beginning of the outbreak1 ,dr4 ,john   
,snow1 with commendable  energy1 had    
taken the trouble to get the number and 
location of the  fatal cases1 as is     
stated in his own report3    ,i         
requested permission1 on the #eth of    
,september1 to take a list1 at  the     
general register office1 of the deaths  
from cholera registered  during the week
 ending the #bnd of ,september1 in the  
subdistricts of  ,golden ,square and    
,berwick ,street1 ,st4 ,james' and ,st4 
,anne's1 ,soho1  which was kindly       

granted4 ,eighty-nine 7#hi7 deaths from 
cholera were  registered during the week
 in the three subdistricts1 of these    
only  six 7#f7 occurred on the first    
four days of the week1 four occurred on 
,thursday1 ,august #ca1 and the         
remaining #gi on ,friday and ,saturday4 
,i  considered therefore that the       
outbreak commenced on the ,thursday1 and
  ,i made inquiry in detail respecting  
the #hc deaths registered as having     
taken place during the last three days  
of the week4    ,on proceeding to the   
spot ,i found that nearly all the deaths
 had taken  place within a short        
distance of the pump in ,broad ,street4 
,there were  only ten deaths in houses  
situated decidedly nearer to another    
street  pump4 ,in five of these cases   
the families of the deceased persons    
told  me that they always sent to the   
pump in ,broad ,street1 as they         
preferred  the water to that of the pump
 which was nearer4 ,in three other cases
  the deceased were children who went to

 school near the pump in ,broad         
,street4 ,two of them were known to have
 drunk the water and the parents  of the
 third think it probable that it did so4
 ,the other two deaths  beyond the      
district which the pump supplies1       
represent only the amount  of mortality 
from cholera that was occurring before  
the eruption took  place4    ,with      
regard to the #gc deaths occurring in   
the locality belonging1 as  it were1 to 
the pump1 there were #fa instances in   
which ,i was informed  that the deceased
 persons used to drink the water from   
the pump in  ,broad ,street1 either     
constantly or occasionally4 ,in six 7#f7
 instances  ,i could get no information1
 owing to the death or departure of     
every  one connected with the deceased  
individuals2 and in six 7#f7 cases ,i   
was  informed that the deceased persons 
did not drink the pump water before     
their illness4    ,the result of the    
inquiry consequently was that there had 
been no  particular outbreak or increase

 of cholera in this part of ,london1    
except among the persons who were in the
 habit of drinking the water of  the    
above mentioned pump well4    ,i had an 
interview with the ,board of ,guardians 
of ,st4 ,james' ,parish on  the evening 
of ,thursday1 #gth of ,september1 and   
represented the above  circumstances to 
them4 ,in consequence of which the      
handle of the pump  was removed on the  
following day4    ,the additional facts 
that ,i have been able to ascertain are 
in  accordance with those related above1
 and as regards the small number  of    
those attacked1 who were believed not to
 have drunk the water from  the ,broad  
,street pump1 it must be obvious that   
there are various ways  in which the    
deceased persons may have taken it      
without the knowledge  of their friends4
 ,the water was used for mixing with    
spirits in some  of the public houses   
around4 ,it was used likewise at dining 
rooms  and coffee shops4 ,the keeper of 
a coffee shop which was frequented  by  

mechanics and where the pump water was  
supplied at dinner time1  informed us on
 the #fth of ,september that she was    
already aware of nine  of her customers 
who were dead4    ,on the other hand1   
,dr4 ,swan discovered that while a      
workhouse  7almshouse7 in ,poland       
,street was three-fourths surrounded by 
houses in  which cholera deaths         
occurred1 out of #ebe inmates of the    
workhouse1  only five cholera deaths    
occurred4 ,the workhouse1 however1 had a
 well  of its own in addition to the    
city supply1 and never sent for water   
to the ,broad ,street pump4 ,if the     
cholera mortality in the workhouse  had 
been equal to that in its immediate     
vicinity1 it would have had #ej  deaths4
    ,a brewery in ,broad ,street        
employing seventy workmen was entirely  
exempt1 but having a well of its own1   
and allowances of malt liquor  having   
been customarily made to the employees1 
it appears likely that  the proprietor  
was right in his belief that resort was 

never had to the  ,broad ,street well4  
,it was quite otherwise in a cartridge  
factory at ,no4 #ch ,broad ,street1     
where about two hundred work people were
 employed1 two tubs of drinking  water  
having been kept on the premises and    
always filled from the ,broad  ,street  
pump4 ,among these employees eighteen   
died of cholera4 ,similar  facts were   
elicited for other factories on the same
 street1 all tending  to show that in   
general those who drank the water from  
the ,broad ,street  pump well suffered  
either from cholera or diarrha1 while   
those who  did not drink that water     
escaped4 ,the whole chain of evidence   
was made  absolutely conclusive by      
several remarkable and striking cases1  
like  the following3    ,a gentleman in 
delicate health was sent for from       
,brighton to see his  brother at ,no4 #f
 ,poland ,street1 who was attacked by   
cholera and died  in twelve hours1 on   
the #ast of ,september4 ,the gentleman  
arrived after  his brother's death1 and 

did not see the body4 ,he only stayed   
about  twenty minutes in the house1     
where he took a hasty and scanty        
luncheon  of rump steak1 taking with it 
a small tumbler of cold brandy and      
water1  the water being from ,broad     
,street pump4 ,he went to ,pentonville1 
was  attacked with cholera on the       
evening of the following day1 ,september
  #b;d1 and died the next evening4      
,the death of ,mrs4 ,e4 and her niece1  
who drank the water from ,broad  ,street
 at the ,west ,end1 ,hampstead1 deserves
 especially to be noticed4  ,i was      
informed by ,mrs4 ,e4's son that his    
mother had not been in the  neighborhood
 of ,broad ,street for many months4 ,a  
cart went from ,broad  ,street to ,west 
,end every day1 and it was the custom to
 take out a large  bottle of the water  
from the pump in ,broad ,street1 as she 
preferred it4  ,the water was taken out 
on ,thursday1 the #cast of ,august1 and 
she drank  of it in the evening and also
 on ,friday4 ,she was seized with       

cholera  on the evening of the latter   
day1 and died on ,saturday4 ,a niece who
  was on a visit to this lady also drank
 of the water4 ,she returned to  her    
residence1 a high and healthy part of   
,islington1 was attacked with  cholera1 
and died also4 ,there was no cholera at 
this time either at  ,west ,end or in   
the neighborhood where the niece died4  
,besides these two  persons only one    
servant partook of the water at ,west   
,end1 ,hampstead1  and she did not      
suffer1 at least not severely4 ,she had 
diarrha4    ,dr4 ,snow's inquiry into   
the cases of cholera which were nearer  
other  pumps showed that in most the    
victims had preferred1 or had access to1
  the water of the ,broad ,street well1 
and in only a few cases was it          
impossible to trace any connection with 
the pump4 ,finally1 ,dr4 ,snow  made a  
statistical statement of great value    
which is here given in its  original    
form3      ,,the ,,broad ,,street1      
,,london1 ,,well ,,and ,,deaths ,,from  

,,asiatic ,,cholera ,,near ,,it  ,,in   
#ahed                                   
---------------------------------       
,date          ,number of   ,deaths     
,fatal ,attacks                         
---------------------------------       
,august    #ai       #a          #a     
,august    #bj       #a          #j     
,august    #ba       #a          #b     
,august    #bb       #j          #j     
,august    #bc       #a          #j     
,august    #bd       #a          #b     
,august    #be       #j          #j     
,august    #bf       #a          #j     
,august    #bg       #a          #a     
,august    #bh       #a          #j     
,august    #bi       #a          #a     
,august    #cj       #h          #b     
,august    #ca      #ef          #d     
,september  #a     #adc         #gj     
,september  #b     #aaf        #abg     
,september  #c      #ed         #gf     
,september  #d      #df         #ga     
,september  #e      #cf         #de     
,september  #f      #bj         #cg     

,september  #g      #bh         #cb     
,september  #h      #ab         #cj     
,september  #i      #aa         #bd     
,september #aj       #e         #ah     
,september #aa       #e         #ae     
,september #ab       #a          #f     
,september #ac       #c         #ac     
,september #ad       #j          #f     
,september #ae       #a          #h     
,september #af       #d          #f     
,september #ag       #b          #e     
,september #ah       #c          #b     
,september #ai       #j          #c     
,september #bj       #j          #j     
,september #ba       #b          #j     
,september #bb       #a          #b     
,september #bc       #a          #c     
,september #bd       #a          #j     
,september #be       #a          #j     
,september #bf       #a          #b     
,september #bg       #a          #j     
,september #bh       #j          #b     
,september #bi       #j          #j     
,september #cj       #j          #j     
,date unknown      #de          #j      

---------------------------------       
#faf        #faf                        
----------------------------------      
,in addition to the original and general
 inquiry conducted from the  time of the
 outbreak by ,dr4 ,snow1 the ,rev4 ,h4  
,whitehead1 ,m4 ,a41  curate of ,st4    
,luke's in ,berwick ,street1 and like   
,dr4 ,snow1 a member  of the ,cholera   
,inquiry ,committee1 whose knowledge of 
the district  both before and during the
 epidemic1 owing to his official        
position1  gave him unusual advantages1 
made a most elaborate and painstaking   
house-to-house investigation of one of  
the principal streets affected1  viz41  
,broad ,street itself4    ,the ,rev4 ,h4
 ,whitehead's report1 like that of ,dr4 
,snow1 is a model of  careful and       
extended observation and study1 cautious
 generalizing and  rigid verification4  
,it is an excellent instance of         
inductive scientific  inquiry by a      
layman in sanitation4 ,mr4 ,whitehead   
found the number of  houses on ,broad   

,street #di2 the resident householders  
#ce2 the total  number of resident      
inhabitants #hif2 the total number of   
deaths among  these #ij4 ,deaths among  
non-residents 7workmen1 etc47 belonging 
to the  street1 #bh4 ,total deaths      
chargeable to this street alone1 #aah4  
,only #aj  houses out of #di were free  
from cholera4    ,the dates of attack of
 the fatal cases resident in this single
 street  were as follows3               
----------------------------    ,date of
      ,number of              ,attack   
,fatal ,attacks                         
----------------------------    ,august 
#ab          #a          ,august   #bh  
#a          ,august   #cj          #a   
,august   #ca          #f               
,september #a         #bf               
,september #b         #bd               
,september #c          #i               
,september #d          #h               
,september #e          #f               
,september #f          #e               
,september #g          #j               

,september #h          #b               
,september #i          #a               
----------------------------            
#ij                                     
----------------------------    ,mr4    
,whitehead's detailed investigation was 
not made until the spring  of #ahee1 but
 in spite of this fact it supplied most 
interesting and  important confirmatory 
evidence of ,dr4 ,snow's theory that the
 ,broad  ,street well was the source of 
the epidemic4 ,mr4 ,whitehead1 moreover1
  went further than ,dr4 ,snow1 and     
endeavored to find out how the well     
came to be infected1 why its infectious 
condition was so limited1 as  it        
appeared to have been1 and to answer    
various other questions which  occurred 
in the course of his inquiry4 ,as a     
result1 he concluded  that the well must
 have been most infected on ,august     
#cast1 that for  some reason unknown a  
partial purification began on ,september
 #b;d1  and thereafter proceeded        
rapidly4 ,there was some evidence that  

on  ,august #cjth the water was much    
less infected than on the #cast1 so that
  its dangerous condition was apparently
 temporary only4 ,he further  discovered
 that in the house ,no4 #dj ,broad      
,street1 which was the nearest  house to
 the well1 there had been not only four 
fatal cases of cholera  contemporaneous 
with the epidemic1 but certain earlier  
cases of an  obscure nature1 which might
 have been cholera1 and that dejecta    
from  these had been thrown without     
disinfection into a cesspool very near  
the well4 ,on his reporting these facts 
in ,april1 #ahee1 to the main           
committee1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,york1 secretary and
 surveyor to the committee1 was         
instructed to survey the locality and   
examine the well1 cesspool and  drains  
at ,no4 #dj ,broad ,street4 ,mr4 ,york's
 report revealed a startling  condition 
of affairs4 ,the well was circular in   
section1 #bh feet #aj  inches deep1 #f  
feet in diameter1 lined with brick1 and 
when examined  contained #g feet #f     

inches of water4 ,it was arched in at   
the top1 dome  fashion1 and tightly     
closed at a level #c feet #f inches     
below the street  by a cover occupying  
the crest of the dome4 ,the bottom of   
the main  drain of the house ,no4 #dj   
,broad ,street1 lay #i feet #b inches   
above the  water level1 and one of its  
sides was distant from the brick lining 
of  the well only #b feet #h inches4 ,it
 was constructed on the old fashioned   
plan of a flat bottom1 #ab inches wide1 
with brick sides rising about  #ab      
inches high1 and covered with old       
stones4 ,as this drain had but a  small 
fall or inclination outward to the main 
sewer1 the bottom was  covered with an  
accumulation of soil deposit about #b   
inches thick1 and  upon clearing this   
soil away the mortar joints of the old  
stone bottom  were found to be perished1
 as was also all the jointing of the    
brick  sides1 which had brought the     
brickwork into the condition of a sieve1
  and through which the house drainage  

water must have percolated for a        
considerable period4    ,illustration3  
,,asiatic ,,cholera ,,and ,,the ,,broad 
,,street ,,well4 ,,london #ahed4        
,after opening back the main drain1 a   
cesspool1 intended for a trap but       
misconstructed1 was found in the area1  
#c feet #h inches long by #b feet #f    
inches wide and #c feet deep1 and upon  
or over a part of this cesspool  a      
common open privy1 without water supply1
 for the use of the house1  was erected1
 the cesspool being fully charged with  
soil4 ,this privy was  formed across the
 east end of the area1 and upon removing
 the soil the  brickwork of the cesspool
 was found to be in the same decayed    
condition  as the drain1 and which may  
be better comprehended by stating that  
the  bricks were easily lifted from     
their beds without the least force1 so  
that any fluid could readily pass       
through the work1 or as was the case    
when first opened1 over the top course  
of bricks of the trap into the  earth or

 made ground1 immediately under and     
adjoining the end wall  eastward1 this  
surface drainage being caused by the    
accumulation of  soil in1 and the       
misconstruction of1 the cesspool4       
,thus1 therefore1 from the charged      
condition of the cesspool1 the          
defective state of its brickwork and    
also that of the drain1 no doubt        
remains in my mind that constant        
percolation for a considerable period   
had been conveying fluid matter from the
 drains into the well2 but lest  any    
doubt should arise on this subject      
hereafter1 ,i had two spaces of  the    
brick stemming1 #b feet square each1    
taken out of the inside of  the well1   
the first #ac feet deep from the level  
of the street paving1  the second #ah   
feet deep1 and a third was afterward    
opened still lower1  when the washed    
appearance of the ground and gravel     
fully corroborated  the assumption4 ,in 
addition thereto1 the ground was dug out
 between the  cesspool and the well to  

#c feet below the bottom of the former1 
and  its black1 saturated1 swampy       
condition clearly demonstrated the fact1
  as did also the small furrowed        
appearance of the underlying gravel     
observed from the inside of the well1   
from which the fine sand had been       
washed away during the process of       
filtration4 ,it was thus established  as
 clearly as can be done by              
circumstantial evidence1 that the great 
epidemic in ,st4 ,james' ,parish1       
,westminster1 ,london1 in #ahed1 was    
caused  by the polluted water of the    
,broad ,street well1 which for a very   
few  days was probably infected with    
cholera germs4 ,it is much less clear   
how the well became infected1 but it    
seems probable that the dejecta of  a   
cholera patient found tolerably direct  
access to the well from the  cesspool or
 drain of a house nearby4 ,there is no  
evidence whatever that  the germs       
multiplied in the well1 but rather much 
evidence that they  rapidly died out4   

,it is repeatedly stated in the report  
that the water  was preferred for       
drinking because it was cold1 i4 e41    
colder than  the cistern water derived  
from public water supply and this       
condition  would probably favor such    
dying out4    ,that the water had long  
been polluted there can be no doubt4    
,there was  evidence of this1 and also  
some evidence that it was worse than    
usual  at the time when it was probably 
infected4 ,one consumer spoke of it as  
having been at the time offensive in    
taste and odor4 ,it is instructive  to  
note that mere pollution seems to have  
done no obvious harm4  ,specific        
infection1 however1 produced ,asiatic   
cholera4    ,mr4 ,whitehead in his      
singularly fair and candid report raises
 an  interesting question1 viz3 ,why1 if
 an early and unrecognized case in  the 
house in question brought about         
infection of the well1 should  not the  
four severer cases of undoubted cholera 
subsequently in the  same house1 with no

 known change in the drainage1 have     
produced even  greater disaster8 ,this  
question remains unanswered1 except that
 after  the removal of the pump handle  
on the #hth of ,september access to the 
well was shut off1 and during the       
intermediate week the well may have     
been avoided by the frightened people2  
or owing to illness less water  may have
 been used in ,no4 #dj ,broad ,street1  
so that the cesspool did not  overflow1 
or some other condition unknown may have
 been changed4    ,following closely on 
the heels of the report of the ,cholera 
,inquiry  ,commission came an event1    
which1 though fraught with no danger1   
nevertheless did more to call attention 
of people in general and  lawmakers in  
particular to the necessity for sanitary
 surroundings and  the danger of        
polluted water supply1 than had all the 
epidemics of  cholera and typhoid fever 
which had preceded4 ,this event was one 
of the  most famous stinks recorded1 if 
not the most famous1 and arose from  the

 ,thames in ,london in #aheh and #ahei4 
,the following account of this  historic
 stink is by ,dr4 ,budd4#g    ,the need 
of some radical modification in the view
 commonly taken of  the relation which  
subsists between typhoid fever and      
sewage was placed  in a very striking   
light by the state of the public health 
in ,london  during the hot months of    
#aheh and #ahei1 when the ,thames stank 
so badly4  ,the late ,dr4 ,mc,william   
pointed out at the time1 in fitting and 
emphatic  terms1 the utter inconsistency
 of the facts with the received notion  
of the subject4 ,never before had nature
 laid down the data for the  solution of
 a problem of this kind in terms so     
large1 or wrought them  out to so       
decisive an issue4 ,as the lesson then  
taught us seems to be  already well nigh
 forgotten1 ,i may perhaps be allowed to
 recall some of  its most salient       
points4    ,the occasion1 indeed1 as has
 already been hinted1 was no common one4
 ,an  extreme case1 a gigantic scale in 

the phenomena1 and perfect accuracy  in 
the registration of the results--three  
of the best of all the  guarantees      
against fallacy--were combined to make  
the inductions sure4  ,for the first    
time in the history of man1 the sewage  
of nearly three  millions of people had 
been brought to seethe and ferment under
 a  burning sun1 in one vast open cloaca
 lying in their midst4 ,the result  we  
all know4 ,stench so foul we may well   
believe had never before  ascended to   
pollute this lower air4 ,never before at
 least had a stink  risen to the height 
of an historic event4 ,even ancient     
fable failed to  furnish figures        
adequate to convey a conception of its  
thrice-,augean  foulness4 ,for many     
weeks the atmosphere of ,parliamentary  
committee  rooms was only rendered      
barely tolerable by the suspension      
before every  window of blinds saturated
 with chloride of lime1 and by the      
lavish use  of this and other           
disinfectants4 ,more than once1 in spite

 of similar  precautions1 the law courts
 were suddenly broken up by an          
insupportable  invasion of the noxious  
vapor4 ,the river steamers lost their   
accustomed  traffic1 and travelers      
pressed for time often made circuit of  
many  miles rather than cross one of the
 city bridges4    ,for months together  
the topic almost monopolized the public 
prints4 ,day  after day1 week after     
week1 the ,times teemed with letters    
filled with  complaint1 prophetic of    
calamity or suggesting remedies4 ,here  
and there  a more than commonly         
passionate appeal showed how intensely  
the evil  was felt by those who were    
condemned to dwell on the ,stygian      
banks4 ,at  home and abroad the state of
 the chief river was felt to be a       
national  reproach4 ,india is in        
,revolt1 and the ,thames ,stinks1 were  
the two  great facts coupled together by
 a distinguished foreign writer to mark 
the climax of a national humiliation4   
,but more significant still of  the     

magnitude of the nuisance was the fact  
that five million pounds in  money were 
cheerfully voted by a heavily-taxed     
community to provide the  means for its 
abatement4 ,with the popular views as to
 the connection  between epidemic       
disease and putrescent gases1 this state
 of things  naturally gave rise to the  
worst forebodings4    ,members of       
,parliament and noble lords1 dabblers in
 sanitary science1  vied with           
professional sanitarians in predicting  
pestilence4 ,if ,london  should happily 
be spared the cholera1 decimation by    
fever was at  least a certainty4 ,the   
occurrence of a case of malignant       
cholera in  the person of a ,thames     
waterman1 early in the summer1 was more 
than  once cited to give point to these 
warnings1 and as foreshadowing what  was
 to come4 ,meanwhile the hot weather    
passed away2 the returns of  sickness   
and mortality were made up1 and1 strange
 to relate1 the result  showed not only 
a death rate below the average1 but as  

the leading  peculiarity of the season1 
a remarkable diminution in the          
prevalence  of fever1 diarrha and the   
other forms of disease commonly ascribed
 to  putrid emanations4    ,while the   
historical stink of the ,thames was     
without apparent effect  on the public  
health1 the nuisance caused was so great
 and the fear  engendered was so real1  
that much good was the immediate result4
 ,one  of the most lasting and far      
reaching benefits was the appointment by
  ,parliament of a ,rivers ,pollution   
,commission1 to study into and devise   
ways for the prevention of pollution of 
streams1 lakes and water-sheds1  from   
which public water supplies are         
obtained4 ,in addition to this1  the    
stink stimulated inquiry into the       
sources of infection in cases of        
epidemic diseases1 and means for        
preventing the spread of disease1 with  
such success1 that as early as #ahff it 
was decided that cholera was a          
water-borne disease and that the cause  

of infection1 whatever it was1  could be
 destroyed by heat4 ,this is evidenced  
by the signs the local  sanitary        
authorities caused to be issued during  
the epidemic of ,asiatic  cholera in    
#ahff3     ,,cholera ,,notice6     ,the 
inhabitants of the district within which
 cholera is prevailing   are earnestly  
advised not to drink any water which has
 not been   boiled4    ,following this1 
the ,rivers ,pollution ,commission#h of 
#ahfh went  on record as authority for  
the statement that the existence of     
specific poison capable of producing    
cholera and typhoid fever is  attested  
by evidence so abundant and strong as to
 be practically  irresistible4 ,these   
poisons are contained in the discharges 
from the  bowels of persons suffering   
from these diseases4 ,so it was that    
close  observation and rigid inquiry    
discovered the truths that discharges   
from bowels of persons suffering from   
intestinal diseases contain the         
specific poison of the disease2 that    

these discharges1 mixed with  the sewage
 of cities1 often found their way into  
water supplies1 and  thus caused an     
epidemic of the same disease1 and that  
boiling of  water before drinking would 
destroy the infection1 thus rendering it
  harmless4 ,these truths stand to-day  
and the same means of prevention  are   
resorted to in time of danger that were 
recommended during the  epidemic of     
cholera in ,london in #ahff4 ,we know   
now1 however1 thanks to  the            
investigations of ,louis ,m4 ,pasteur1  
that all that class of disease  which he
 designated as zymotic1 are caused by   
little microscopic  vegetation which    
gain lodgment in the body where they    
grow1 multiply  and thrive at the       
expense of the host2 and knowing the    
specific cause  of a disease makes it   
more easy to fight to prevent and to    
cure4    ,illustration    ,illustration3
    ,,the,,fovntain,,of,,elisha         
,,near,,jericho1,,palestine    ,from    
,stereograph1 copyright #ahii by        

,underwood  ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4         
7,see page iv7          ,illustration3  
,,chapter ,,ix     ,,synopsis ,,of      
,,chapter4 ,introduction of ,water      
,filters--,striking ,example of   their 
,efficiency and ,value--,cholera at     
,altona and ,hamburg--,purification   of
 ,sewage--,the ,automatic ,scavenger of 
,mouras--,investigations of the         
,massachusetts ,state ,board of         
,health--,garbage ,destruction4      ,as
 the suburban population around ,london1
 ,england1 grew and occupied  the       
drainage area from which the ,london    
water supply was obtained1 just  in such
 proportion was the water supply        
polluted1 and ,london was early  forced 
to devise measures for purifying an     
already polluted water2 so  it is that  
as early as #ahci ,london was filtering 
part of the water  derived from surface 
sources1 and so successful were the     
early attempts  that at the present time
 although ,london is supplied with water
 by  eight separate water companies1 all

 of the water used within its  confines 
which is derived from rivers1 lakes or  
streams1 is filtered  before delivery   
into the distributing mains4 ,europe was
 not slow to  grasp the value of        
filtration1 and at the present time most
 cities of  importance in ,continental  
,europe have slow sand filters1 while   
,america1  or at least the ,united      
,states1 which is reputed to adopt      
almost  immediately anything which      
possesses merit1 had constructed no     
filters  as late as #ahhj1 and to-day   
can number but few4 ,a striking         
illustration  of the value of filtration
 for sterilizing an infected water      
supply can  be instanced in the cholera 
epidemic of ,hamburg1 ,germany4         
,illustration3 ,,map showing the        
,locations of the ,cases of ,cholera    
adjacent to the ,boundary between       
,,hamburg and ,,altona in the ,epidemic 
of  #ahib    ,boundary line indicated by
 line of dashes4    ,cases of cholera by
 solid circles4    ,cases of cholera    

imported from ,hamburg by circles4      
,water mains in ,hamburg streets by     
black lines4      ,on the river ,elbe1  
some miles from the sea1 there are three
 cities  adjoining and forming in       
appearance one large city of #hjj1jjj   
inhabitants1 the combined sewage of     
which is discharged into the river      
,elbe4 ,the water supply to the city of 
,hamburg1 a free ,german city1  with a  
population of #fdj1djj1 is derived from 
the ,elbe above where  the sewage is    
discharged into the river but not       
sufficiently far away  to escape        
contamination from a recision of        
polluted water at flood  tide4 ,this    
water after some imperfect sedimentation
 passes direct to  the consumer without 
filtration4 ,the supply of water to     
,wandsbeck1 a  city of #bj1jjj          
population1 is obtained from a lake     
which is unexposed  to contamination and
 is filtered before being delivered to  
the mains4  ,the supply to ,altona1 on  
the other hand1 a ,prussian city of     

#adc1jjj  inhabitants1 is obtained from 
the river ,elbe at a point about #h     
miles  below where it receives the      
combined sewage of the three cities1    
with  their population of over #hjj1jjj4
 ,it will thus be seen that the source  
of supply to ,altona is the worst of the
 three4 ,this most grossly  polluted    
supply1 however1 is filtered with       
exceeding care before  delivery to the  
consumers1 and to this fact is          
attributed the freedom  from cholera    
that visited ,hamburg in #ahib4 ,the    
story is well told by  ,dr4 ,thorne1    
medical officer of the ,london ,local   
,government ,board4#i    ,the different 
behavior of ,hamburg and ,altona as     
regards cholera is  extremely           
interesting4 ,the two towns adjoin2 they
 are practically one  city4 ,the        
division between the two is no more     
obvious than that between  two densely  
peopled ,london parishes1 and yet a spot
 map indicating  the houses which were  
attacked with cholera1 which was shown  

to me by  ,professor ,koch1 points out  
clearly that whereas the disease        
prevailed  in epidemic form on the      
,hamburg side of the boundary line1 that
 line  running in and out among the     
streets and houses and at times passing 
diagonally through the houses           
themselves1 formed the limit beyond     
which the epidemic1 as such1 did not    
extend4 ,the dots on one side of  the   
dividing line were proof of the         
epidemicity of cholera in ,hamburg1     
their comparative absence on the ,altona
 side of it was proof of the  absence of
 the epidemic in ,altona4 ,to use       
,professor ,koch's own words3  ',cholera
 in ,hamburg went right up to the       
boundary of ,altona and then  stopped4  
,in one street1 which for a long way    
forms the boundary1 there  was cholera  
on the ,hamburg side1 whereas on the    
,altona side was free  from it1 and yet 
there was one detectable difference1 and
 one only1  between the two adjacent    
areas--they had different water         

services4'  ,professor ,koch has        
collected certain proofs which he       
regards as crucial  on this point1 and  
,dr4 ,reincke has supplied me with a    
small plan in  support of the           
contention4 ,at one point close to and  
on the ,hamburg  side of the boundary   
line between ,hamburg and ,altona1 is a 
large  yard1 known as the               
,hamburger-,platz4 ,it contains two rows
 of large  and lofty dwellings1         
containing #gb separate tenements and   
some #djj  people1 belonging almost     
wholly to those classes who suffered    
most from  cholera elsewhere in         
,hamburg4 ,but while cholera is shown by
 the spot  map to have prevailed all    
around1 not a single case occurred among
  the many residents of this court      
during the whole epidemic4 ,and why8    
,professor ,koch explains that owing to 
local difficulties1 water from  the     
,hamburg mains could not easily be      
obtained for the dwellings in  question1
 and hence a supply had been laid in    

from one of the ,altona  mains in an    
adjacent street4 ,this was the only part
 of ,hamburg which  received ,altona    
water1 and ,i am informed that it was   
the only spot in  ,hamburg in which was 
aggregated a population of the class in 
question1  which escaped the cholera4   
,at the date of my visit to ,hamburg1 a 
notice board was affixed at the entrance
 to this court4 ,it stated that  certain
 tenements were to let2 but1 above all1 
in large type1 and as an  inducement to 
intending tenants1 was the announcement 
that the court  was not only within the 
jurisdiction of ,hamburg1 with the      
privileges  still attaching to the old  
,hanseatic cities1 but that it had a    
supply  of ,altona water4    ,during the
 epidemic the deaths in the several     
cities were3                            
--------------------------------------- 
,deaths per                             
,population,deaths     #aj1jjj          
,inhabitants                            
--------------------------------------- 

,hamburg     #fdj1jjj  #h1fje    #acd4d 
,altona      #adc1jjj    #cbh     #bc4j 
,wandsbeck    #bj1jjj     #dc     #bb4j 
--------------------------------------- 
,that infectious matter was communicated
 to the ,elbe water from ,hamburg  is   
not in any way a hypothesis4 ,cholera   
germs had been as a fact found  in the  
,elbe water4 ,they were found a little  
below the place where the  ,hamburg main
 sewer flows into the ,elbe4 ,they were 
also found in one of  the two ,altona   
basins into which the water flowed      
before filtration4    ,no more striking 
example could be found1 demonstrating on
 a large scale  the efficiency of       
filtration as a preventive of           
water-borne diseases  than that of the  
cholera epidemic of ,hamburg in #ahib1  
yet1 at the  present writing1 there are 
people holding public offices throughout
  the ,united ,states who do not believe
 in the value of filtration as a  public
 prophylactic1 or who are so indifferent
 as not to advocate its  adoption4 ,nor 

is this disbelief confined to public    
officials2 many  there are outside of   
public office who have made no study of 
sanitation  and cannot believe that     
merely passing water downward through   
sand will  purify it1 and for the       
benefit of those who wish to be better  
informed1  the story of the ,hamburg    
epidemic of cholera1 together with the  
part  played by filters in saving       
,altona from a worse visitation1 cannot 
be  too often told4    ,it is but       
natural that1 suspicion having once     
fallen on water as a  source or vehicle 
of disease1 means would be adopted not  
only to  properly sterilize water before
 delivering it to the public1 but1      
furthermore1 to select the source of    
supply where there was least  danger of 
contamination from filth4 ,by this time 
public water supplies  had progressed to
 such a stage that but few towns1 cities
 or villages  of any importance were    
without a municipal plant4 ,further1    
most cities  of any importance had a    

more or less complete system of sewers1 
and  the filth from these sewers was    
discharging freely1 and in the crude    
state1 into the streams and rivers of   
the realm4 ,such a condition of  affairs
 could not last long without causing a  
nuisance1 as well as  becoming a menace 
to the health of the commonwealth1 and  
it was not  long before the problem was 
discussed of purifying the sewage before
  discharging it into streams and       
rivers4 ,in ,great ,britain1 the        
pollution  of streams was felt more     
keenly than in ,america4 ,the population
 along  the rivers in ,great ,britain is
 quite dense1 and the rivers1 which are 
comparatively small1 are used as sources
 of supply for the different            
municipalities along the banks1 so that 
some means had to be devised  to prevent
 the people up stream from polluting and
 perhaps infecting  it for those lower  
down4 ,so early as #ahdj1 this matter   
forced itself  on the attention of      
,parliament1 and in #ahdc1 a royal      

commission1 the  ,health of ,towns      
,commission1 was appointed to inquire   
into the present  state of large towns  
and populous districts4 ,this was       
followed in #aheg  by the ,sewage of    
,towns ,commission1 a royal commission  
appointed to  inquire into the best     
means of distributing the sewage of     
towns1 and in  #ahfe by the ,rivers     
,pollution ,commission1 a royal         
commission appointed  to inquire into   
the best means of preventing the        
pollution of rivers4    ,progress was   
not at a standstill during this time1   
however1 but1 on  the contrary1 chemical
 precipitation of sewage and            
purification by the  application to land
 were striving with each other for      
supremacy4 ,up  to that time1 the       
important part that bacteria play in the
 reduction  of organic matter was not   
understood1 and instead of affording    
every  advantage for the decomposition  
and fermentation of organic matter      
under the least objectionable           

conditions1 the principal efforts of    
those interested in the problem were to 
prevent or put off as long  as possible 
the septic action of sewage4 ,it was not
 until so late as  the year #ahhj that  
attention was turned toward the         
possibility of the  micro-organisms in  
sewage4 ,in that year ,dr4 ,mueller took
 out a patent  endeavoring to utilize   
the micro-organism in sewage for the    
purpose  of purification4 ,according to 
,dr4 ,mueller's views1 ,the contents of 
sewage are chiefly of organic origin1   
and in consequence of this an  active   
process of decomposition takes place in 
sewage through which the  organic       
matters are dissolved into mineral      
matters1 or1 in short1 are  mineralized1
 and thus become fit to serve as food   
for plants4 ,to the  superficial        
observer1 however1 it is chiefly a      
process of digestion1 in  which the     
various1 mostly microscopically small1  
animal and vegetable  organisms utilize 
the organically fixed power for their   

life purpose4    ,the decomposition of  
sewage in its various stages is         
characterized  by the appearance of     
enormous numbers of spirilla1 then of   
vibrios  7swarming spores7 and1 finally1
 of moulds4 ,at this stage commences    
the reformation of organic substance    
with the appearance of                  
chlorophyl-holding protococcus4         
,about the same time1 ,december1 #ahha1 
the account of ,mouras's automatic      
scavenger was published in ,france4     
,mouras had been working and            
experimenting along the same lines as   
,dr4 ,mueller1 and the result was  an   
apparatus consisting of a closed vessel 
or vault1 with a water seal  which      
rapidly changed excrementatious matter  
into a homogeneous fluid1  only slightly
 turbid1 and holding the solid matters  
in suspension in  the form of scarcely  
visible filaments4 ,the principle       
claimed for his  automatic scavenger by 
,mouras was that animal dejecta within  
themselves  contained all the principles

 of fermentation necessary to liquefy   
them4    ,the teachings of ,dr4 ,mueller
 and ,mouras went unheeded for a long   
time1  on account of the chemical       
processes then in vogue4 ,it was        
maintained  by those who were supposed  
to know1 that lime and other antiseptic 
substances were particularly valuable in
 sewage purification1 because  they     
destroyed living organisms1 such as     
bacteria1 which give rise to            
putrefaction and fermentation4 ,they    
contended that if all the organisms     
could be destroyed1 that sewage would be
 rendered unobjectionable4  ,so         
conditions stood when in ,january1      
#ahhg1 ,mr4 ,dibden read a paper  before
 the ,institute of ,civil ,engineers1 in
 which he pointed out  that the very    
essence of sewage purification was not  
the destruction  of bacterial life1 but 
the resolution of organic matter into   
other  combinations by the agency of the
 micro-organisms4 ,he pointed out1      
further1 that a septic and not an       

antiseptic action was what was  wanted1 
consequently any process which arrested 
the activity of the  bacteria was the   
reverse of what was desired4 ,dibden's  
paper had the  effect of turning        
investigation in the right direction1   
but a world  of experimenting on a      
practical scale would be necessary      
before the  practice of sewage          
purification could be established on a  
safe1 sound  and scientific footing4 ,it
 remained for the ,massachusetts ,state 
,board  of ,health to conduct those     
investigations1 and so thoroughly was it
  accomplished that the records of their
 experiments furnish the basis  for     
sewage purification practice in the     
,united ,states4 ,the experiments  have 
been carried on since #ahhg1 and the    
thoroughness and value of  these        
investigations can be judged by the fact
 that during one period  of twenty-two  
months four thousand chemical           
examinations were made in  addition to  
the microscopic examinations4           

,following the historic investigations  
of the ,massachusetts ,state ,board  of 
,health1 numerous engineers and         
investigators commenced applying to     
practice the principles there laid down1
 and with such good results  that there 
are upwards of #bjj purification plants 
in the ,united ,states  to-day1 and in  
,pennsylvania alone plans are under way 
at the present  time for over one       
hundred sewage disposal works4 ,such a  
showing is  encouraging1 and leads to   
the hope that within a decade no city of
 any  importance within the ,states will
 be pouring impurified sewage into      
public streams or lakes4    ,up to      
within the last quarter century no      
thought was given in the  ,united       
,states to the disposal or destruction  
of the grosser particles  which make up 
the waste of a large city1 nor was      
provision made at  sanatoria1 hospitals 
and like institutions for the           
destruction of  materials which might   
prove infectious2 yet1 no less important

 than  the removal of sewage by water   
carriage is the systematic collection   
and subsequent destruction of all matter
 of no value which might  prove a       
vehicle of disease1 if a clean1 sanitary
 environment is to be  maintained4 ,the 
necessity for such removal and          
destruction was first  felt in          
hospitals1 sanatoria1 barracks and      
camps1 where many people  are brought   
together under unusual circumstances1   
and infective matter  is liable to      
accumulate1 thereby proving a menace to 
the community4  ,it is not surprising1  
therefore1 that the desirability of     
destroying  such accumulated wastes was 
first brought home to the medical staff 
connected with military service1 and    
that the medical authorities  should be 
connected with the ,british army4       
,the first garbage destructor1 or       
garbage furnace1 of which there is any  
record1 was constructed about #ahfj1 at 
,gibraltar1 for the exclusive           
destruction by fire of all waste matter 

from the ,british garrison4  ,in the    
,united ,states1 likewise1 it was at the
 army posts where the  need for waste   
destructors was first felt1 and in #ahhe
 ,lieutenant  ,h4 ,i4 ,reilly1 ,u4 ,s4  
,a41 built the first ,american garbage  
furnace at  ,governor's ,island1 ,new   
,york ,harbor4 ,from that time on1 the  
value  of garbage destructors became    
more widely known1 and within recent    
years the need for a sanitary and       
convenient method for disposing of      
waste matters has been occupying the    
attention of those in charge of         
institutions devoted to the care of the 
sick1 infirm1 feeble1 and to  the       
control of the criminal4 ,in addition to
 the superintendents of  hospitals1     
prisons1 sanatoria and asylums1 those in
 charge of medical  schools and         
laboratories1 hotels1 business houses   
and municipalities  have given the      
matter much consideration1 and at the   
present time most  of the large cities  
of the ,united ,states have constructed 

garbage  destructors1 or are seriously  
considering the step1 while the         
principal  hospitals1 hotels1 department
 stores1 medical colleges and public    
institutions throughout the country have
 already installed destructors4         
,likewise1 garbage destructors have been
 constructed at all of the  ,united     
,states ,government army posts4         
,illustration    ,illustration3         
,,new,,york,,pvblic,,baths              
#bc;d,,street    ,the ,twenty-third     
,street ,public ,bath is considered one 
of the finest and  most modern in ,new  
,york ,city          ,illustration3     
,,modern  ,,recent ,,plvmbing ,,fixtvres
     ,passing of the ,marble            
,lavatory--,public ,bath                
,houses--,public ,wash                  
,houses--,public ,comfort               
,stations--,conclusion      ,no history 
of sanitation would be complete without 
touching upon  the plumbing fixtures in 
buildings1 and showing the marked       
progress  along these lines within the  

last quarter of a century4 ,it is only a
  little over a century and a quarter   
since the first ,english patent was     
granted for a water closet4 ,that was in
 the year #agge1 and was issued  to     
,alexander ,cummings1 who1 strange to   
say1 was a watchmaker4 ,this  closet was
 the first one patented which had what  
is known as a trap to  contain water for
 a seal4 ,three years later a patent was
 issued to  ,joseph ,bramah1 inventor of
 the hydraulic press1 for a water closet
 with  a valve at the bottom4 ,little   
progress was made in the improvement of 
water closets during the next half      
century1 and when in the year #ahcc  the
 first ,american patent was taken out   
the art had not advanced very  far4     
,indeed1 it might be said that until the
 time of the filing of the  application 
for the ,fraim and ,neff patent1 for a  
siphon closet1 that a  real cleanly and 
sanitary type of closet was not on the  
market4    ,illustration3 ,a ,bath ,room
 of the ,early #gj's    ,illustration3  

,one ,stage in the ,evolution of the    
,porcelain ,enamel ,bath                
,illustration3 ,a ,slop ,sink of ,long  
,ago    ,bath tubs and lavatories have  
improved as much in appearance in the   
time that has elapsed as have water     
closets4 ,the earliest bath tubs  of    
which we have any knowledge were hewn   
out of marble4 ,later1 when  bath tubs  
came into rather extensive use in the   
,united ,states1 they  were made of     
wood1 lined with either sheet zinc or   
sheet copper1  tinned on one side1 and  
it is only within comparatively recent  
years  that porcelain enameled tubs came
 into use1 and that solid porcelain     
tubs were manufactured in this country4 
,open plumbing was unheard  of          
twenty-five years ago and in its stead  
plumbing fixtures were  concealed as    
much as possible by encasing them in    
woodwork of more  or less ornate        
designs2 at that time the lavatories    
were all made of  marble1 and of this   
material fully #ij per cent4 of the     

lavatories were  made up to about the   
year #aijb4 ,about that time1 porcelain 
enameled  and solid porcelain lavatories
 commenced taking the lead and worked  a
 complete revolution in the design of   
these fixtures4 ,indeed1 so  sudden and 
complete was the change that inside of a
 year the marble-top  lavatories were   
driven as completely from the market as 
though they  never existed1 and1 outside
 of old work1 they are as much a        
curiosity  to-day as an old pan closet4 
,illustration3 ,bath ,tub ,encased in   
,woodwork    ,illustration3 ,an ,old    
,marble-,top ,lavatory    ,with the     
perfecting and cheapening of plumbing   
fixtures came an  increased demand for  
their use1 and the attention of         
public-minded  citizens turned to means 
for providing the people less favored   
with  worldly riches with means for     
cleansing the person and apparel4       
,liverpool1 ,england1 was the first of  
modern cities to establish public  bath 
houses4 ,the first bath in that city was

 established in #ahbh1 and  is known as 
the ,pierhead4 ,it contains eleven      
private baths1 two vapor  baths1 one    
douche1 one plunge #df x #bg feet1 one  
plunge #dj x #bg feet1  and two small   
private plunges4 ,in all1 ,liverpool has
 at the present  time nine public baths4
    ,birmingham1 ,england1 was next in  
point of time4 ,it now has five bath    
houses1 the first of which was built on 
,kent ,street1 and opened ,may #ab1     
#ahea4 ,in this establishment a ,turkish
 bath can be had for a shilling4        
,london1 ,england1 follows on the heels 
of ,birmingham1 with eleven bath        
houses1 the first of which was erected  
in #ahed4 ,at present municipal  ,london
 has invested over #b1ejj1jjj in public 
baths and laundry  establishments1 which
 cost #eej1jjj annually to maintain4    
,illustration3 ,a ,modern ,porcelain    
,enameled ,lavatory    ,provisions for  
free public baths were made in ,new     
,york in #ahgj by the  erection of two  
floating baths4 ,these bath houses1     

however1 could only  be used during warm
 weather1 so could not be considered1 in
 the full  sense of the word1 bathing   
establishments4 ,the ,new ,york         
,association for  ,improving the        
,condition of the ,poor1 realizing this 
and the lack of  public bathing         
facilities1 undertook to supply the     
deficiency as far  as possible1 and in  
#ahia opened the first real public bath 
house in  the ,united ,states1 at #i    
,centre ,market ,place4 ,yonkers1 ,n4   
,y41 however1  claims the credit of     
being the first city in the ,united     
,states to  establish a municipal bath  
house1 supplied with hot and cold water1
  open all the year round1 and          
maintained at the public expense4       
,the example set by a few cities has not
 been without effect1 and other  cities 
in the ,united ,states have followed the
 lead4 ,it is noticeable1  however1 that
 it is only in the ,eastern cities that 
public bath  houses are built and       
maintained at the city's expense4       

,according to  the ,report on ,public   
,baths and ,comfort ,stations1 ,buffalo1
 ,boston1  ,philadelphia1 ,newark and   
,trenton each have one public bath house
 and  ,chicago has three4 ,since the    
publication of that report1 however1    
many cities both in the ,east and in the
 ,west have built public bath  houses   
and many have built1 are building1 or   
have planned to build1  public comfort  
stations4 ,indeed1 the standard by which
 the advancement  of cities will be     
judged in the near future is1 ,what have
 they done  for the comfort and welfare 
of the citizens8 ,and among the visible 
evidences of what they have done1       
standing foremost will be the public    
bath houses1 public comfort stations1   
and last1 but not least1 public  wash   
houses4    ,illustration3 ,present      
,stage in the ,evolution of ,porcelain  
,enameled  ,baths    ,events of to-day  
become history of to-morrow1 and no     
history would  be complete without      
recounting contemporaneous facts and    

events4 ,so  it is with sanitation2 no  
history of that subject would be        
complete  without illustrating a few of 
the plumbing fixtures in use at the time
  the record was written4 ,we of the    
present age believe1 as did those  of a 
generation ago1 that we have almost     
attained perfection in the  manufacture 
of plumbing fixtures2 but have we1 or   
will succeeding  generations look back  
upon what we consider good as we do upon
 the  fixtures in vogue in the early    
#gj's8 ,this we do not know nor can we  
foresee4 ,time alone will tell4         
,illustration3 ,a ,twentieth ,century   
,bathroom    ,illustration              
,,footnotes3      #a ,ewbank's          
,hydraulics4    #b ,engineering ,record1
 ,oct4 #ba1 #aije    #c ,wanklyn and    
,cooper4    #d ,water ,supply4    #e    
,principles of ,sanitary ,science and   
the ,public ,health4    #f ,the complete
 original report is entitled ,report on 
the ,cholera  ,outbreak in the ,parish  
of ,st4 ,james1 ,westminster1 during the

 ,autumn of  #ahed4 ,presented to the   
,vestry by the ,cholera ,inquiry        
,committee1 ,july1  #ahee4 ,london1 ,j4 
,churchill1 #ahee4    #g ,typhoid       
,fever1 its ,nature1 ,mode of ,spreading
 and ,prevention4    #h ,sixth ,report1 
,london1 #ahgd4    #i ,cholera          
,prospects and ,prevention4             
99       99       99       99       99  
,,transcriber',s ,,notes    ,minor      
punctuation and printer errors repaired4
    ,italic text is denoted by          
underscores1 bold text by equal signs   
and  font changes by tildes4