,frontispiece ,image3 ,mount ,calvary4 ,,the ,,hand ,,of ,,providence1 ,,as ,,shown ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,nations ,,and ,,individuals1 ,from the ,great ,apostasy to the ,restoration of the ,gospel4 ,,illustrated4 ,,by ,,elder ,j4 ,h4 ,,ward4 ,,salt ,,lake ,,city1 ,,utah3 ,published at the ,juvenile ,instructor ,office4 #ahhc4 ,,preface4 ,don't throw this book down carelessly4 ,it will do you no harm4 ,it assumes no dictation4 ,it may benefit you if you will read it carefully4 ,we have plenty of histories4 ,true4 ,but most are too large to be of practical value to the sons and daughters of toil4 ,many are written in the interest of some party or sect1 and in order to gain favor1 they flatter the vanity of men4 ,but they tell of wonderful deeds1 and thrilling adventures4 ,very true4 ,some of them are mostly composed of recitals of legalized slaughter1 and praise of tyrants who have climbed to power over the mangled bodies of their fellow-men1 and whose names will not live in one grateful memory2 while the real benefactors of the race1 the unfolding of new and higher truths and1 above all1 the over-ruling hand of ,god are unnoticed1 or1 at most1 barely mentioned4 ,does ,god rule the world8 ,yes1 verily4 ,the greatest actors on the theatre of the world are only instruments in the hand of ,god1 for the execution of ,his purposes4 ,where have you obtained the facts contained in this volume8 ,from many authentic works1 some of them not easily accessible to most readers4 ,,iv4 ,this will be a good book for the young1 and all those who have not the opportunity to consult larger works1 will it not8 ,with this idea it has been written and to this end ,i dedicate it to my children as heirs in the kingdom of ,god1 to the youth of ,zion and to my earnest friends everywhere4 ,,the ,,author4 ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,march #afth1 #ahhc4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,injustice of ,roman ,governors--,nero ,emperor--,vespasian and ,titus ,sent to ,judea--,fortifications of ,jerusalem--,titus ,offers ,terms of ,peace--,horrors of the ,siege--,women ,devour their own ,children--,temple ,burned--,city ,destroyed--,dispersion of the ,jews--,universal ,apostasy--,priesthood no ,more--,ideas of ,god ,perverted--,worship ,corrupted with ,heathen ,rites--,persecution of ,christians--,emperor ,constantine--,rise of ,monastic ,order4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,description of ,arabia--,arabian ,customs--,birth of ,mahomet--,early ,life--,journey to ,syria--,christian ,sects--,doctrines ,taught by ,mahomet--,his ,marriage--,proclaims ,himself a ,prophet--,persecution--,flees to ,medina--,becomes ,powerful--,sickness and ,death--,personal ,appearance4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,causes of ,triumphs--,abou-,beker ,elected ,caliph--,war ,declared--,fall of ,bozrah--,battle of ,aiznadin--,siege of ,jerusalem--,departure of ,roman ,emperor--,saracen ,fleet--,eastern ,conquests--,fall of ,alexandria--,conquest of ,northern ,africa--,conquest of ,spain--,battle of ,poictiers--,extent of ,saracen ,empire4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,intellectual ,stagnation--,saracens and ,jews ,revive ,learning--,university of ,bagdad--,public ,schools--,medical ,college of ,cairo--,circulating ,library--,modern ,form of ,books--,arabic ,notation--,discoveries in ,chemistry--,rotundity of the ,earth--,mariner's ,compass--,discoveries of ,alhazin--,astronomical ,observatories--,golden ,age of ,judaism--,cities of ,andalusia--,saracen ,dwellings--,condition of ,women--,female ,physicians4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,jerusalem the ,sacred ,city--,alexandria ,noted for ,philosophy--,school of ,hypatia--,mob ,murders ,her--,doctrines of ,cyril--,jerusalem a ,scene of ,suffering--,fulfillment of ,prophecy--,herculaneum and ,pompeii--,their ,destruction--,evidences ,,vi4 of their ,wickedness--,excavations--,roman ,rule--,removal of ,capital--,crimes of ,constantine--,commencement of ,greek ,empire--,description of ,constantinople--,its ,capture by ,crusaders--,taken by the ,turks--,intellectual ,degradation--,priestcraft--,debauchery- -,turkish ,rule4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,growth of ,relic-,worship--,schemes of the ,roman ,pontiffs--,manufacture of ,relics--,their ,great ,variety--,value of ,relics--,insults ,offered to ,pilgrims--,peter the ,hermit--,crusades--,disorderly ,rabble--,terrible ,suffering--,capture of ,jerusalem--,terrible ,massacre--,capture of ,constantinople--,crusades of the ,children--,results of the ,crusades--,revival of ,learning4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,morning ,dawns--,rise of ,knighthood--,principles of ,knights--,apostate ,priests ,held in ,contempt--,waldenses--,persecutions in ,southern ,france--,rise of the ,inquisition--,liberal ,policy of ,frederick--,everlasting ,gospel--,its ,remarkable ,teachings--,bacon's ,discoveries--,geographical ,knowledge--,azores and ,canary ,islands--,travels of ,marco ,polo--,condition of ,european ,states--,modern ,states4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,lesson from ,heathen ,mythology--,vicissitudes of ,roman ,church--,boniface ,pope--,advancement in ,civilization--,work of the ,roman ,church--,invention of ,printing--,gutenberg--,bible ,first ,printed--,columbus--,his ,wonderful ,dream--,his ,great ,voyage--,discovery of ,america--,trials and ,triumphs4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,history in ,words--,british ,coat of ,arms--,the ,ten ,tribes--,account of ,esdras--,dispersion of the ,tribes--,mixed ,seed of ,israel--,effect on ,european ,society--,jewish ,influence--,discovery of ,cape of ,good ,hope--,pacific ,ocean ,discovered--,magellan's ,voyage--,discovers ,cape ,horn--,distance ,sailed--,death of ,magellan--,voyage ,completed--,its ,effect on the ,public--,huss and ,jerome ,burned--,john ,ziska--,persecutions of ,waldenses--,capture of ,mentz--,dispersion of ,printers--,hans ,boheim--,joss ,fritz--,sale of ,indulgences--,martin ,luther ,burns the ,pope's ,letter--,grand ,council at ,worms--,rome in a ,rage--,luther ,kidnapped4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,germany ,aroused--,peasants' ,war--,muntzer's ,proclamation--,emperor ,quarrels ,with the ,pope--,results in ,other ,,vii4 ,countries--,growth in ,modern ,languages--,luther's ,crowning ,work--,power of ,superstition--,witchcraft--,reformers not ,inspired--,extracts from ,mosheim--,battle-,ax of ,god--,copernicus--,galileo--,newton--,d eath of ,bruno--,change in ,commercial ,affairs--,spanish ,armada--,blessed by the ,pope--,destroyed by a ,storm--,its ,effect on ,europe--,england's ,influence and ,position--,america the ,land of ,refuge4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,columbus ,destroyed ,papal ,dogmas--,cruelty of ,spaniards--,their ,retribution--,relics in ,massachusetts--,newport ,tower--,mounds in ,ohio--,remains ,found in ,iowa--,plates ,found in ,illinois--,ancient ,mexican ,pyramids--,human ,sacrifices--,view from the ,great ,pyramid--,ancient ,american ,sculptures--,mammoths--,mexican ,customs--,religious ,rites--,computation of ,time--,arts and ,sciences--,description of ,peru--,its ,civilization--,massacre of the ,incas--,testimony of ,travellers--,indian ,traditions4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,england's ,development--,reign of ,elizabeth--,influence of the ,bible--,tyranny of the ,kings--,jacques ,cartier--,discovery of the ,st4 ,lawrence--,quebec ,founded--,acadia ,colonized--,transferred to ,england--,extracts from ,longfellow's ,poem--,virginia ,settled4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,character of the ,colonists--,they ,leave ,england--,sojourn in ,holland--,brewster's ,printing ,press--,puritans ,embark for ,america--,their ,trust in ,god--,robinson's ,prophecy--,plymouth ,founded--,sufferings of the ,colonists--,conflict in ,england--,peculiarities of the ,puritans--,harvard ,college ,founded--,extent of ,settlements--,first ,confederation4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,description of ,holland--,a ,land of ,refuge--,tyranny of ,alva--,the ,struggle for ,independence--,siege of ,leyden--,the ,country ,submerged--,famine in the ,city--,speech of the ,mayor--,heroic ,conduct--,trust in ,god--,storm ,raises the ,waters--,spaniards ,retreat--,leyden is ,saved--,thanksgiving--,waters ,retire4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,rise of ,quakerism--,george ,fox--,william ,penn--,founds ,pennsylvania--,kindness to the ,indians--,philadelphia ,founded--,maryland1 ,carolina and ,georgia ,settled--,roger ,williams--,rhode ,island ,founded--,its ,toleration4 ,,viii4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,condition of ,english ,society--,manufacture of ,gin and ,rum--,origin of ,methodism--,eloquence of ,whitfield--,john and ,charles ,wesley--,remarkable ,teachings--,robert ,raikes--,john ,howard--,william ,wilberforce--,mechanical ,inventions--,growth of ,american ,freedom--,three ,great ,battles--,cook's ,voyages--,extension of the ,english ,language--,greatness of ,pitt--,washington's ,early ,life--,benjamin ,franklin4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,gathering of ,political ,forces--,general ,revolution--,civil ,reformers--,decay of ,old ,institutions--,rosseau and ,his ,writings--,voltaire--,holland1 a ,political ,refuge--,american ,settlers--,lines of ,albert ,b4 ,street--,growth of the ,colonies--,love for ,england--,causes of ,revolution--,manufactures ,forbidden--,stamp ,act--,tax on ,tea--,philadelphia ,convention--,address to the ,king--,appeal ,to ,england--,to ,canada--,incident in ,old ,south ,church1 ,boston--,paul ,revere's ,ride4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,battle of ,lexington--,officers ,chosen--,a ,year of ,discussion--,declaration of ,independence--,spirit of ,english ,nobility--,defeat of ,american ,forces--,success at ,trenton and ,princeton--,sufferings at ,valley ,forge--,washington's ,prayer--,burgoyne's ,campaign--,arrival of ,la ,fayette--,arnold's ,treason--,andre's ,death--,siege of ,yorktown--,close of the ,war--,treaty of ,peace--,army ,disbanded--,washington ,resigns his ,commission--,constitutional ,convention--,washington ,elected ,president--,his ,death--,his ,tomb4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,influence of ,la ,fayette--,despotism in ,france--,the ,bastile--,corruption of the ,church--,commencement of the ,revolution--,the ,marseillaise--,its ,wonderful ,influence--,reign of ,terror--,napoleon ,bonaparte--,his ,wonderful ,career--,jewish ,sanhedrim--,fall of ,napoleon--,his ,death--,progress of ,liberty4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,the ,genius of the ,age--,european ,wars--,american ,tranquil--,declaration of ,war--,divisions of ,north ,america--,united ,states--,canada--,mexico--,american ,common ,schools--,their ,influence--,progress of ,invention--,first ,steamboat--,first ,locomotive--,electric ,telegraph--,improvements in ,printing--,spiritual ,darkness--,the ,kingdom of ,god--,wants of the ,present ,age--,joseph ,smith--,his ,tragic ,death--,conclusion4 #i ,,the ,,hand ,,of ,,providence4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,jerusalem ,,and ,,apostasy ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,church4 ,,injustice ,,of ,,roman ,,governors--,,nero ,,emperor--,,vespasian ,,and ,,titus ,,sent ,,to ,,judea--,,fortifications ,,of ,,jerusalem--,,titus ,,offers ,,terms ,,of ,,peace--,,horrors ,,of ,,the ,,siege--,,women ,,devour ,,their ,,own ,,children--,,temple ,,burned--,,city ,,destroyed--,,dispersion ,,of ,,the ,,jews--,,universal ,,apostasy--,,priesthood ,,no ,,more--,,ideas ,,of ,,god ,,perverted--,,worship ,,corrupted ,,with ,,heathen ,,rites--,,persecution ,,of ,,christians--,,emperor ,,constantine--,,rise ,,of ,,monastic ,,order4 ,according to the best records that have come down to us1 the last book of the ,new ,testament 7commonly called the ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john7 was written about sixty years after the ascension of our ,savior4 ,at that time the gospel of ,jesus ,christ had been preached in all the principal cities and countries of the known world4 ,numerous branches of the primitive church had been planted in ,palestine1 ,syria1 ,egypt1 ,asia ,minor1 ,greece and ,italy4 ,in the meantime the awful doom which the ,savior predicted against ,jerusalem had been literally fulfilled4 ,shortly after the crucifixion and ascension of the ,savior1 ,judea became the theatre of many cruelties and oppressions arising from contentions between the ,jewish priests1 the depredations of numerous bands of robbers1 which infested the country2 but more than all from the injustice and avarice of the ,roman governors4 #aj ,the last of these governors was ,gessius ,floras1 whom ,josephus represents as a monster in wickedness and cruelty1 and whom the ,jews regarded rather as a bloody executioner1 sent to torture1 than as a magistrate to govern them4 ,image3 ,jerusalem4 ,during the government of ,felix1 his predecessor1 a dispute having arisen between the ,jews and ,syrians about the city of ,caesarea1 their respective claims were referred to the emperor1 ,nero1 at ,rome4 ,the decision was in favor of the ,syrians1 and the ,jews immediately took up arms to avenge their cause4 #aa ,in this state of things1 ,nero gave orders to ,vespasian to march into ,judea with a powerful army4 ,accordingly1 ,vespasian1 accompanied by his son ,titus1 marched into ,palestine at the head of #fj1jjj well-disciplined troops4 ,while ,vespasian was thus preparing more effectually to curb the still unbroken spirit of the ,jews1 intelligence arrived of the death of the emperor and his own election to the throne4 ,departing therefore for ,rome he left the best of his troops with his son1 ordering him to besiege and utterly destroy ,jerusalem4 ,titus lost no time in carrying into effect his father's injunction4 ,jerusalem was strongly fortified both by nature and art4 ,three walls surrounded it which were considered impregnable2 besides which it had numerous towers outside of the walls1 lofty1 firm and strong4 ,the circumference was nearly four miles4 ,desirous of saving the city1 ,titus repeatedly sent offers of peace to the inhabitants2 but they were indignantly rejected4 ,at length finding all efforts at treaty ineffectual1 he entered upon the siege determined not to leave it until he had razed the city to its foundation4 ,the internal state of the city soon became horrible4 ,the inhabitants being divided in their counsels fought with one another1 and the streets were often deluged with blood shed by the hands of kindred4 ,in the meantime famine spread its horrors abroad1 and pestilence its ravages4 ,thousands died daily and were carried out of the gates to be buried at the public expense2 until being unable to hurry them to the grave the wretched victims were thrown into houses as fast as they fell1 and there shut up4 ,during the prevalence of the famine1 the house of a certain woman by the name of ,miriam was repeatedly plundered of such provisions as she had been able to procure4 ,so extreme did her suffering become1 that she entreated those around her1 to put an end to her miserable existence4 ,at length frantic with fury and despair she snatched her infant from her bosom1 killed and cooked it2 and having satiated her present hunger1 concealed the rest4 ,the smell of food soon drew the voracious human tigers to her house2 they threatened her with tortures2 she hid her provisions from them4 ,being thus compelled #ab she set before them the relics of her mangled babe4 ,at the sight of this horrid spectacle1 inhuman as they were1 they stood aghast1 petrified with horror1 and at length rushed precipitately from the house4 ,when the report of this spread through the city1 the consternation was universal and inexpressible4 ,the people now1 for the first time1 began to think themselves forsaken of ,god4 ,in the mind of ,titus the recital awakened both horror and indignation1 and he resolved to push the siege with still greater vigor1 aiming particularly to obtain possession of the temple4 ,the preservation of this noble edifice was strongly desired by him2 but one of the ,roman soldiers being exasperated by the ,jews1 or1 as ,josephus says1 pushed on by the hand of ,providence1 seized a blazing firebrand1 and getting on his comrades' shoulders1 threw it through a window1 and soon the whole north side was in a flame4 ,titus immediately gave order to extinguish the fire2 but the enraged soldiers1 bent on destroying the city and all it contained1 either did not hear or did not regard him4 ,the flames continued to spread until this consecrated edifice1 the glory of the nation1 became one mingled heap of ruins4 ,then followed a terrible massacre in which thousands perished1 some in the flames and others by the sword of the enemy4 ,at length the city was abandoned to the fury of the soldiers4 ,it is said that nearly one million five hundred thousand persons perished in the siege4 ,the conquest of the city being achieved1 ,titus proceeded to demolish its noble structures1 its fortifications1 palaces and walls4 ,so literally were the predictions of the ,savior fulfilled respecting its destruction that not one stone was left upon another that was not thrown down4 ,from that day the ,jews have been dispersed through the world1 despised and hated1 persecuted and yet upheld--lost as it were among the nations1 and yet distinct--they live as the monuments of the truth of ,god4 ,while the apostles lived the churches planted by them continued to exist with more or less of spiritual life4 ,but the spirit of apostasy was already at work4 ,in some places pagan rites and ceremonies had perverted the worship of the true ,god and but few could be found who remained #ac pure amid the corruptions of the age or undaunted by the trials and persecutions that surrounded them on every side4 ,so universal was this apostasy that only seven churches throughout ,asia1 ,africa and ,europe were considered worthy of being either reproved or blessed by the voice of revelation4 7,see ,revelations #bnd and #crd chapters47 ,the whole eastern continent of which we have authentic history was at that period under the control of ,rome1 and paganism was the religion of the empire4 ,thus the whole power of the realm was brought to bear against the infant church4 ,pagan priests excited the populace to frenzy1 and royal decrees delivered the saints to the most terrible tortures and death4 ,in a few years the apostolic organization and priesthood were no more4 ,a few glimmerings of spiritual light remained for a short time1 among those who had taken refuge in the catacombs or subterranean vaults of ,rome1 or had fled to the wilds of the ,libyan desert4 ,but even this light was soon extinguished1 and then fell that mental1 moral1 and spiritual night from which mankind are only now slowly emerging4 ,but false religion could never satisfy the cravings of the immortal soul4 ,paganism presented only a cheerless prospect4 ,it gave itself no concern for the lowly and unfortunate1 limited the hopes and destiny of man to this present life1 and taught him that temporal prosperity might be selfishly gained at any cost to others in property and suffering4 ,for example1 ,rome1 for many ages had enriched herself with the wealth of conquered nations1 and impoverished them that her sons and daughters might live in luxury and grandeur4 ,yet throughout her vast dominions there were no institutions of benevolence2 no hospitals for the sick1 no asylums for the afflicted or unfortunate4 ,the pleasant pastimes of her populace were to witness scenes of cruelty2 and the most refined ladies of that period eagerly thronged the amphitheatres to view the agonies of captives from distant tribes or early ,christian martyrs as they were thrown to famished and enraged wild beasts in the public arena4 ,many of the early ,christians were thus put to death #ad in the ,coliseum1 the ruins of which are shown in the engraving4 ,image3 ,engraving of ,coliseum in ruins4 ,no wonder then that when the church was taken from the earth1 and its forms amalgamated with pagan institutions1 the #ae world presented an unparalleled scene of carnage and cruelty1 bloodshed and terror4 ,but ,rome was destined to endure a terrible retribution4 ,the northern barbarians whom she had so long oppressed1 and from whom she had drawn many of the victims of her gladiatorial combats now wreaked their long-sought vengeance1 spreading terror and devastation wherever they went4 ,one of them1 ,attila1 king of the ,huns1 called himself the scourge of ,god1 and boasted that grass never grew where his horse had trodden4 ,these incursions spread an intellectual famine throughout ,europe4 ,the only men of learning were the monks1 who seldom left their cloisters1 and the only books were manuscripts concealed in the libraries of the monasteries4 ,not only were the common people extremely ignorant1 but also the rich and noble1 and even the kings could scarcely read or write4 ,the reign of superstition was universal4 ,the simplicity of primitive worship was changed to an unmeaning round of rites and ceremonies3 and the glorious principles of the gospel were hidden from sight by a dark cloud of ignorance1 mysticism and unintelligible jargon1 out of which there too often flashed the lurid lightenings of priestly vengeance and persecutions4 ,the ,lord1 speaking by the mouth of ,jeremiah1 says1 ,my people have committed two errors2 they have forsaken me1 the fountain of living waters and hewed them out cisterns1 broken cisterns that can hold no water4 ,when the voice of revelation was hushed men began to follow fables and traditions1 and he who possessed the liveliest imagination invented the greatest number4 ,they1 instead of the word of ,god1 became the rule of life2 and men sought by bodily suffering to purchase admission to the courts of heaven4 #af ,image3 ,fakir4 ,we pity the devotee of ,india1 who measures by the length of his body1 the wearisome journey of hundreds of miles2 or the fakir who sits with his legs in an upright position1 for years until the limbs becomes1 withered1 distorted and useless4 ,but what shall we say of a professed follower of the ,savior who makes a pilgrimage of a thousand miles with sharp spikes driven into the inside of his shoes1 by which his feet are lacerated #ag at every step6 ,or of one who spends the greater part of his life sitting on a column thirty feet high and only three feet in diameter1 through all the vicissitudes of the seasons1 storm and sunshine1 cold and heat1 with the idea that1 by this means1 he could secure salvation and exaltation in the presence of ,god6 ,surely it was the self-same pagan idea that actuated all4 ,in those days1 also1 even the forms and ceremonies of the primitive church underwent complete transformation4 ,pagan rites were celebrated at ,christian festivals1 and days commemorative of great events were made to conform to the times appointed for the worship of heathen divinities4 ,for example1 the festival of ,easter as observed by the ,catholic church1 was and still is degraded by pagan rites4 ,and the day that commemorates our ,savior's birth1 which event took place in ,april1 when the shepherds were abroad on the plains of ,bethlehem1 with their flocks1 was changed from the beautiful ,spring time to the dark and gloomy ,december1 that it might conform to a day already set apart for pagan ceremonies1 and by this means was secured its universal observance4 ,the ideas concerning ,god were also perverted4 ,space will permit only a glance at this subject4 ,the passions that were said to control the character of heathen gods were attributed to the great ,creator and loving ,father of us all4 ,he was represented as delighting in vengeance2 and glorying in the eternal sufferings of ,his creatures4 ,thus the most inhuman persecutors claimed they were doing ,his will2 and hence arose the doctrine of endless torments beyond the grave1 which still disgraces nearly all the sects of ,christendom4 ,the doctrine of fate has ever been a prominent doctrine of pagan religions4 ,this dogma was also engrafted into their creed2 hence1 we find learned teachers of the present age gravely asserting that1 owing to the unalterable decrees of ,god1 there are young and irresponsible infants1 scarcely a span in length1 who are and ever will be doomed to suffer the torments of the lost4 ,such was the condition of the social and religious world at the time of the ,emperor ,constantine4 #ah ,this politic prince was not a man of religious convictions1 but hoping to consolidate his power and gain vast numbers of adherents he granted universal religious toleration and even went so far as to proclaim himself a ,christian4 ,this act of toleration gave a temporary protection to all classes and was of especial benefit to those who wished to retire from the confusion and corruption of the age1 and spend their lives in pursuit of science1 literature and philosophy4 ,such were the tasteless and often brutal amusements1 the low sensuality1 the base intrigue and bloody warfare of those times1 that many longed for retirement and seclusion4 ,men and also women1 sometimes of the highest rank1 awoke1 suddenly to the discovery that life was given them for nobler purposes4 ,loathing society1 despising themselves1 and often their companions1 to whom they had been wedded in loveless marriages--companions whose infidelities and licentiousness they had too often1 to endure1 they fled from a world which had sated and sickened them4 ,thus arose the monastic order4 ,by the side of ,alpine torrents and in the valleys of ,piedmont1 by the rocky shores of the beautiful ,aegean sea and on its lonely yet lovely islands1 as well as on the classic hillsides of ,judea1 arose thousands of monasteries4 ,at first1 no doubt1 the inmates sought for a higher and purer life2 but after a time they too sunk into luxury1 licentiousness and debauchery4 ,yet these monastic institutions served one good purpose1 and that one was important4 ,during these perilous times science and literature here found an asylum4 ,libraries were formed and carefully preserved1 which1 on the restoration of learning1 were of great value to the world4 ,the foregoing will indicate to some extent the condition of mankind at the close of the sixth century of the ,christian era4 ,the light of antiquity had perished4 ,the dawn of modern days had not yet gilded the eastern horizon4 ,the world presented over its whole surface one vast field of contention and #ai bloodshed1 with scarcely an object sufficiently prominent to excite interest or deserve attention4 ,it was the midnight hour of human history4 ,though the early church had been destroyed and the priesthood taken from the earth2 yet ,god did not give it up as lost1 nor entirely withdraw ,his ,spirit4 ,then as now the earth is the ,lord's1 and ,he will yet make good ,his claim to it4 ,it is a blood-bought world1 and ,he who ransomed it at so dear a price will one day return to rule over it as ,king of kings and ,lord of lords4 ,the earth that was bedewed with the ,savior's tears and sweat--the earth that was trodden by ,his hallowed feet--the earth that drank ,his life blood shall yet throw off the curse that has so long blighted it and receive its paradisaic glory4 ,through agencies the most diverse the minds of men were developed and disciplined for the reception of truth until in the ,lord's due time in a prepared place and among a people prepared to receive ,his truth1 ,he would again restore ,his priesthood1 and set up ,his kingdom upon the earth4 #bj ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,mahomet4 ,,description ,,of ,,arabia--,,arabian ,,customs--,,birth ,,of ,,mahomet--,,early ,,life--,,journey ,,to ,,syria--,,christian ,,sects--,,doctrines ,,taught ,,by ,,mahomet--,,his ,,marriage--,,proclaims ,,himself ,a ,,prophet--,,persecution--,,flees ,,to ,,medina--,,becomes ,,powerful--,,sickness ,,and ,,death--,,personal ,,appearance4 ,far away in the south-western part of ,asia1 lies a strange and peculiar country called ,arabia4 ,it is bounded on the north by ,syria1 on the east by the ,persian ,gulf1 on the south by the ,indian ,ocean1 and on the west by the ,red ,sea1 and comprises more than a million of square miles1 or about twelve times the area of ,utah4 ,this vast region possesses a diversified landscape4 ,in some places vast sandy deserts stretch away farther than the eye can reach2 in others1 immense piles of dark volcanic rock rear aloft their barren peaks1 around whose base the dry1 hot winds have drifted the sands of the desert for untold centuries4 ,however1 in the secluded valleys of the mountains1 and along the base of the great mountain chains1 may be found many fertile tracts1 where1 watered by pure and never-failing mountain streams1 and warmed by the rays of a tropical sun1 the earth produces in abundance nearly every kind of grain1 vegetable1 fruit1 flower and aromatic shrub that can conduce to the happiness of man4 ,indeed1 some portions are so wonderfully productive1 that in ancient as well as modern times it has received the significant title of ,araby the blest4 ,most of the inhabitants of this country are generally considered to be the descendants of ,ishmael1 the son of ,abraham4 ,many of them lead a wild1 nomadic life1 supported by their flocks and herds and the spontaneous productions of the soil1 #ba and retain among their laws and customs1 many of the usages that prevailed in the primitive1 patriarchal times of their great ancestor4 ,others live in towns and cities and engage in commerce1 either with foreign countries or with distant parts of their own land4 ,the usual method of transporting their merchandise is on the backs of camels1 and sometimes several hundred or even a thousand of these animals1 accompanied by their drivers1 may be seen slowly wending their way across the desert1 carrying with them the coffee of ,mocha and spices of ,muscat to the distant cities of ,bagdad and ,damascus4 ,as among the ,jews the ruling priests were chosen from the tribe of ,levi and family of ,aaron1 so1 among the ancient ,arabs1 the guardians of the sacred things of their worship were chosen from the tribe of ,koreish and family of ,haschem4 ,abd-,al-,mutallib was the ruling priest in ,mecca1 the sacred city of ,arabia1 at the time that his grandson1 ,mahomet1 was born1 which event occurred at ,mecca1 in the year #egj of the ,christian era4 ,of ,mahomet's parents1 but little is recorded1 except that his father1 ,abdallah1 was remarkable for his commanding presence and great personal beauty4 ,he died when his future illustrious son was only two months old4 ,amina1 his mother1 who is said to have been of ,jewish descent1 also died when ,mahomet was only six years old4 ,the early life of ,mahomet was spent in the house of his ,uncle1 ,abou ,taleb1 who had become the principal guardian of the ,ca-aba1 or great temple1 of ancient ,arabian worship4 ,the ceremonies and devotions connected with this temple-worship may have given an early bias to ,mahomet's mind1 and inclined it to those speculations and ideas in which it afterwards became engrossed4 ,his education in childhood seems to have been neglected2 for he was not taught either to read or write4 ,but he was a thoughtful child1 quick to observe1 prone to meditate on all that he had observed1 and possessed of an imagination fertile1 daring and expansive4 #bb ,at the age of twelve years1 ,mahomet solicited the privilege of accompanying his uncle1 ,abou ,taleb1 to ,syria1 whither he was about to conduct a caravan4 ,their route lay through regions fertile in fables and traditions1 which it is the delight of the ,arabs to recount in the evening halts of the caravan4 ,with an attentive ear1 the youthful ,mahomet listened to those tales of enchantment and wonderful events which happened in days of old1 and doubtless imbibed ideas that had a powerful influence on him in his after life4 ,in this journey also he listened to the conversation of many of those exiles from the ,christian sects1 who1 in fleeing from persecution had taken refuge in the wilds of ,northern ,arabia4 ,thus he learned many facts concerning the ,christian religion4 ,having arrived at the city of ,bozrah1 which was situated on the confines of ,syria1 about seventy miles south of ,damascus1 ,mahomet was entertained at a ,nestorian convent4 ,one of the monks named ,bahira1 was very much interested by the spirit of inquiry and intelligence which the youth manifested1 especially on religious subjects1 and gave him all possible information4 ,mahomet returned to ,mecca1 his imagination teeming with the wild tales and traditions picked up in the desert1 and his mind deeply impressed with the teachings he had received among the ,nestorians4 ,in order that we may understand the nature of the teachings which ,mahomet received on this and subsequent journeys to ,syria1 an enumeration of the leading dogmas of the jarring sects of oriental ,christians will be necessary3 ,the most numerous of these sects were the ,arians1 so called from ,arius1 a great religious teacher of ,alexandria4 ,they claimed that ,jesus ,christ was the ,son of ,god1 the ,father2 that ,his existence commenced at ,his advent in this world2 that ,he was created for a special mission1 but was subject to the influences of virtue and vice like common mortals4 ,the followers of ,nestorius1 the great bishop of ,constantinople1 were also very numerous2 and ,mahomet1 in his subsequent journeys to ,syria1 frequently came in contact with them4 ,they claimed that ,christ had two distinct natures1 human and divine2 that ,jesus was a man2 that ,mary was only ,his #bc mother according to the flesh1 and that it was an abomination to style her ,mary the mother of ,god1 as was and still is the custom of the ,catholic church4 ,another sect was the ,marianites1 or worshippers of ,mary4 ,they regarded the trinity as consisting of ,god1 the eternal ,father1 ,mary1 the eternal mother1 and ,christ1 their ,son4 ,the ,valentinians were another sect1 who taught that ,jesus ,christ was only a wise and virtuous mortal1 selected by ,god to reform and instruct mankind4 ,their creed is still professed by some of the ,unitarian sects of the present day4 ,the ,nazarenes were a sect of ,jewish ,christians1 who considered ,christ as the promised ,messiah1 but conformed in all other respects to the rites and ceremonies of the ,mosaic law4 ,many other sects might be enumerated who took their names from learned and zealous leaders1 and who were subdivided into various and opposing parties of fanatical enthusiasts4 ,a glance at these dissentions which convulsed society at this period is sufficient to acquit ,mahomet of any charge of conscious blasphemy in the opinions he taught concerning the nature and mission of our ,savior4 ,the principal doctrines taught by ,mahomet were drawn from the writings of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,he recognized in all about three hundred prophets4 ,this number included all the ancient worthies of the ,old ,testament1 as well as the ,savior and the apostles1 evangelists and martyrs mentioned in the ,new4 ,however1 four persons were considered as greater prophets than the rest1 and were reverenced as the founders of four distinct dispensations4 ,these were ,abraham1 ,moses1 ,jesus and ,mahomet4 ,the book containing the writings and revelations of ,mahomet is commonly called the ,koran4 ,however1 ,mahomet should not be held responsible for all that the ,koran contains1 as there is abundant evidence that it has been changed and corrupted in many places since his death4 ,prayer1 fasting and acts of charity are inculcated by it4 ,merchants were especially commanded to perform acts of charity1 as they were the class who were most liable to the sins #bd of deception and extortion4 ,the creed which all were required to believe1 was simply1 ,there is one ,god1 and ,mahomet is ,his prophet4 ,but little is known of ,mahomet's history between his twelfth and twenty-fifth year4 ,he seems to have been engaged principally in conducting caravans across the desert4 ,he thereby gained much practical knowledge1 and became known as a young man of ability and integrity1 pleasing appearance1 and engaging manners4 ,at the age of twenty-five1 he became the steward or business agent of a certain wealthy widow1 named ,cadijah2 and a few years later she married him and faithfully followed him till her death1 through all the vicissitudes of his strange and eventful life4 ,when ,mahomet1 in his fortieth year1 proclaimed himself the prophet of ,god1 ,cadijah replied1 ,i will be thy first believer4 ,they knelt down in prayer together4 ,twelve centuries have passed since then1 and nine thousand millions of human beings have followed her example4 ,we are told that as ,mahomet lay wrapped in his mantle1 in the silent watches of the night1 he heard a voice calling upon him4 ,uncovering his head1 a flood of light burst upon him of such intolerable splendor that he swooned away4 ,on regaining his senses1 he beheld an angel1 who1 approaching him from a distance1 displayed a scroll1 covered with written characters4 ,read1 said the angel4 ,i know not how to read1 replied ,mahomet4 ,read1 repeated the angel1 in the name of ,god1 who has created all things4 ,upon this1 ,mahomet instantly felt his understanding illumined1 and read what was written4 ,these words were afterwards promulgated in the ,koran1 which also contains many of the doctrines taught in the ,new ,testament4 ,when he had finished reading1 the heavenly messenger announced1 ,o1 ,mahomet1 verily thou art a prophet of ,god1 and ,i am ,his angel ,gabriel4 ,mahomet1 we are told1 came trembling and agitated to ,cadijah in the morning1 and told her what he had seen and #be heard4 ,she saw everything with the eye of faith1 and embraced those teachings with the devotion of an affectionate woman4 ,joyful tidings dost thou bring6 exclaimed she4 ,by ,him in whose hand is the soul of ,cadijah1 ,i henceforth regard thee as the prophet of our nation4 ,rejoice6 rejoice6 ,allah will not suffer thee to come to shame4 ,hast thou not been loving to thy kindred1 kind to thy neighbors1 charitable to the poor1 hospitable to the stranger1 faithful to thy word1 and ever a defender of the truth8 ,the announcement of ,mahomet's message provoked bitter opposition among his kindred4 ,only one of them1 his cousin ,ali1 became his disciple4 ,those who had known him from his infancy1 who had seen him a boy about the streets of ,mecca1 and afterwards engaged in the ordinary concerns of life1 scoffed at the idea of his assuming the prophetic character4 ,when he walked the streets he was subjected to jeers and insults4 ,if he attempted to preach1 his voice was drowned by discordant noises and ribald songs4 ,as gradually his followers increased1 so did the opposition in bitterness and intensity4 ,at length he was obliged to flee from his native city and take refuge in ,medina1 a city of north-western ,arabia4 ,space will not permit a recital of the numerous intrigues of his enemies1 or his various successes4 ,suffice it to say that1 in a few years he became the leader of a powerful1 constantly-increasing and enthusiastic people4 ,the time had at length arrived when the wild1 wandering and discordant tribes of ,arabia were to be marshalled under one banner1 united in one creed and animated by one cause2 when a mighty genius had arisen1 who should bring together those scattered remnants1 inspire them with his own religious zeal and daring spirit1 and send them forth an invincible host1 to shake and overturn the empires of the earth4 ,mahomet survived the most of his children1 and died in the sixty-third year of his age4 ,in his last illness1 he gave his followers three parting commands3 ,expel all idolaters from ,arabia2 allow every believer equal privileges with yourselves2 devote yourselves to prayer and the propagation of the faith4 #bf ,when the hour of death approached he feared it not1 but1 gazing upwards with unmoving eyelids1 he exclaimed1 ,o1 ,allah6 be it so1 forever with the glorious associates in paradise4 ,thus passed away the man who gave embodiment to a faith that is still adhered to by more than #acj1jjj1jjj of the human family2 and who founded an empire that was the most extensive the world has ever seen4 ,in appearance1 he was of the middle stature4 ,his head was capacious1 and well set on a neck that rose like a pillar from his ample chest4 ,he had an oval face2 dark eyes1 long1 wavy hair and a full beard4 ,his deportment was calm and dignified1 and he is said to have possessed a smile of captivating sweetness4 ,his complexion was fairer than ,arabs usually are1 and in his enthusiastic moments there was a glow and radiance to his countenance4 ,he was extremely cleanly in his person1 abstemious in his diet1 and simple and unaffected in his dress and manners4 ,he seemed to have an intuitive knowledge of human nature1 and an innate power to counsel1 command1 reprove and inspire his followers with his own ardent nature4 ,take him all in all1 the race has seldom seen a teacher more kind1 more noble or more sincere4 #bg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,saracenic ,,conquest4 ,,causes ,,of ,,triumphs--,,abou-,,beker ,,elected ,,caliph--,,war ,,declared--,,fall ,,of ,,bozrah--,,battle ,,of ,,aiznadin--,,siege ,,of ,,jerusalem--,,departure ,,of ,,roman ,,emperor--,,saracen ,,fleet--,,eastern ,,conquests--,,fall ,,of ,,alexandria--,,conquest ,,of ,,northern ,,africa--,,conquest ,,of ,,spain--,,battle ,,of ,,poictiers--,,extent ,,of ,,saracen ,,empire4 ,after the death of ,mahomet1 his followers assumed the name of ,saracens1 by which title they were afterwards generally known4 ,this term1 it is said1 is derived from two ,arabic words which signify eastern1 or oriental1 and conquerors4 ,scarcely was ,mahomet buried1 when it was found necessary to form a civil and political constitution and code of laws1 by which his followers were to be governed4 ,this government was called the ,caliphate4 ,mahometanism1 even during the life of its founder1 gave unmistakable indications of overpassing the bounds of ,arabia4 ,a few years later it entered upon a system of conquest unparalleled in the history of the world4 ,one cause of this phenomenon is to be found in the moral and social condition of the world4 ,the influence of religion had long before ceased4 ,christianity was completely paganized4 ,her popes were busy denouncing and excommunicating each other1 in their rivalry for earthly power2 or bribing royal females and courtesans to influence the decision of councils1 that were supposed by the masses to speak with the voice of ,god4 ,her bishops no longer sought to feed their flocks with the bread of life4 ,on the other hand they were concerned in assassinations1 poisonings1 adulteries1 riots1 treason and civil #bh war4 ,the religious teachers of those days never raised their voices in the sacred cause of liberty1 or spoke in defense of the outraged rights of man4 ,no wonder then that1 in the midst of the wrangling of sects1 and unintelligible jargon of ,arians1 ,augustinians1 ,nestorians and ,marianites1 society stood in breathless awe1 when it heard the terrible ,arabian battle cry1 ,there is but one ,god1 and ,mahomet is ,his prophet6 enforced as it was by the tempest of ,saracen armies4 ,these warriors1 armed with lances and cimeters1 and mounted on fleet ,arabian steeds1 passed swiftly from city to city1 and frequently found the masses of the people so crushed by tyranny1 so worn out by wrangling and civil wars1 that they welcomed the ,saracens as deliverers4 ,mahomet's life had been almost entirely occupied in the conquest or conversion of his native country4 ,it is true1 in the latter part of his career he felt himself strong enough to threaten ,persia for the aid she had given his enemies2 and he even declared war against the ,roman ,empire for the same reason4 ,but failing health frustrated his designs4 ,he had made no provision for the perpetuation of his own power4 ,hence1 a struggle ensued before a successor was appointed4 ,at length1 ,abou ,beker1 the father of his wife ,ayesha1 was selected4 ,he was proclaimed the first ,caliph1 and immediately attacked both the ,romans and the ,persians4 ,the renowned general1 ,khaled1 commonly called by ,saracen historians1 the sword of ,god1 was despatched into ,syria4 ,his name struck terror into the hearts of the inhabitants4 ,the fortified town of ,bozrah fell into his hands without a struggle4 ,this was the same town where fifty years previous the youthful ,mahomet had been entertained at the ,nestorian convent4 ,marching northward seventy miles1 to ,damascus1 ,khaled laid siege to the ,syrian capital4 ,a decisive battle took place on the plain of ,aiznadin4 ,the ,roman army was overthrown and dispersed4 ,a few days later ,damascus surrendered to the ,saracens4 ,guarded on the right by the beautiful river ,orontes1 and on the left by the snow-clad peaks of ,lebanon1 they still continued their march northward4 ,to resist their further progress1 the ,roman emperor1 ,heraclius1 collected an army of one hundred #bi and forty thousand men4 ,a great battle took place on the plains of ,yermuck4 ,at the first onset the ,saracens were repulsed2 but driven back to the field by the heroism of their women1 who also aided them1 they ended the conflict by the complete overthrow of the ,roman army4 ,the whole of ,syria now fell into the hands of the ,saracens4 ,they then turned south and laid siege to the city of ,jerusalem4 ,after a defense of four months the patriarch1 ,sophronius1 appeared on the wall and asked the terms of capitulation4 ,it was stipulated that the surrender should take place in the presence of the ,caliph himself4 ,accordingly1 he came all the way from ,medina for that purpose4 ,at that time such were the customs among the ,saracens1 that it is said the ambassador found the ,caliph ,omar asleep under the shadow of a mosque4 ,it is also said that he journeyed alone on a red camel1 carrying with him a bag of dates for his own food and one of corn for his camel1 a wooden dish and a leathern water bottle4 ,image3 ,damascus4 ,after receiving the surrender of the city1 ,omar returned to ,medina as quietly as he had come4 ,thus fell the ,roman power in ,syria and ,palestine1 after having ruled those countries nearly eight hundred years4 ,thus #cj was transferred without tumult or outrage the religious capital of the professedly ,christian world into the hands of the ,caliph ,omar4 ,thus1 ,jerusalem1 so long considered the birthplace of ,christianity1 the scene of its most sacred and tragic memories1 passed into the hands of the ,mahometans4 ,considerably more than a thousand years have elapsed since then1 and it is still under their dominion4 ,the mosque of ,omar now rears its glittering dome where once stood the temple of ,solomon4 ,heraclius1 the ,roman emperor1 struggled valiantly to retain his possessions4 ,he plainly saw that the corruptions of ,christianity were among the causes of ,saracenic triumphs4 ,he made a heroic attempt to rouse the clergy to their duties1 but it was then too late4 ,heraclius himself was obliged to seek safety in flight4 ,from the deck of the little vessel that bore him homeward1 he gazed intently on the receding hills1 and in bitterness of anguish exclaimed1 ,farewell1 ,syria1 forever farewell6 ,the remaining details of the ,saracen conquest we need not here relate4 ,the naming of their victories is sufficient to indicate the greatness of their triumphs4 ,the great cities of ,tyre and ,caesarea were captured4 ,with the cedars of ,lebanon and sailors of ,tyre they equipped a fleet that drove the ,roman navy into the ,hellespont4 ,thus they gained undisturbed control of the ,mediterranean1 and conquered or colonized the islands of ,cyprus1 ,candia1 ,rhodes1 ,sicily1 ,sardinia1 ,corsica and many others4 ,a ,saracen naval expedition even appeared before the walls of ,rome1 and after threatening the imperial city1 carried away the altar of silver from ,st4 ,peter's church1 and gathered other relics from the tombs of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul4 ,one of the ,saracen armies turned eastward1 and on the battlefield of ,cadesia the fate of ,persia was decided4 ,after the battle of ,neha-vend the treasury and royal arms of ,persia fell into the hands of the ,saracens4 ,after this battle the eastern army divided into two divisions4 ,one marched northward to the ,caspian ,sea and took possession of the neighboring countries2 another1 southward to ,persepolis1 from whence the king of ,persia fled for his life across the drearv deserts of ,khorassan4 ,the name of ,saracen terrified #ca the wild tribes of independent ,tartary1 and they hastened to pay tribute and accept the faith of their conquerors4 ,the emperor of ,china1 in his palace at ,peking1 heard of their exploits1 and sent ambassadors to them1 craving their friendship4 ,the kingdoms now included in ,afghanistan and ,beloochistan surrendered at their approach1 and the ,mahometan standard of the crescent waved on the banks of the ,indus4 ,meanwhile important events were transpiring in the west4 ,a large proportion of the ,egyptian people welcomed the ,saracens4 ,the ,arabs of the desert loitered in the palaces of the ancient ,pharaohs4 ,alexandria1 aided by ,roman troops1 alone held out4 ,after a siege of fourteen months it also fell1 and with it ,egypt and ,abyssinia were added to the dominions of the ,caliphs4 ,the most powerful religious empire that the world has ever seen had suddenly sprung into existence4 ,it stretched from the ,great ,wall of ,china to the burning sands of ,tripoli1 and from the ,caspian ,sea on the north to ,abyssinia on the south4 ,yet this was but little more than half the territory that it soon afterwards controlled4 ,one of its armies advanced on ,constantinople4 ,it did not fall then1 but afterwards became the capital of the ,mahometan power in ,europe4 ,another took possession of the whole north of ,africa1 and1 having consolidated its power there1 under the command of their general1 ,tarik1 they crossed the straits that separate ,africa from ,spain1 and landing on the rocky clift of ,gib-el-,tarik1 or mountain of ,tarik 7now called ,gibraltar71 unfurled their green banner with golden crescent for the first time on the soil of ,europe4 ,tarik was soon followed into ,spain by his superior officer1 the emir ,musa4 ,they took possession of the whole southern portion of ,spain and ,portugal1 which in their own picturesque language1 they named ,andalusia1 or the region of the evening4 ,it was soon found that the whole peninsula was ripe for revolution4 ,the ,jews comprised a large proportion of the ,spanish people4 ,they were1 to a great extent1 the cultivators of the soil1 which pursuit well repaid their labors4 ,they were #cb then1 as now1 famous as merchants and money-lenders1 and many of them held high positions in the government1 while thousands of them were scattered in every city1 town and village1 as the physicians and teachers of the people4 ,their wrongs had been accumulating for centuries4 ,bigotry1 envy and avarice had conspired to point them out as objects of persecution4 ,laws were passed which were never intended to be executed4 ,it was expected that they would purchase a remission of the penalties by pouring their hard-earned treasures into the lap of ,rome4 ,no doubt the ,jews exulted as the tide of ,saracen conquest swept onward4 ,they did not deplore a change of masters for those who would leave them in possession of civil and religious liberty4 ,before long the whole ,iberian peninsula fell into the hands of the ,mahometans4 ,not content with this1 they crossed the ,pyrenees1 and took possession of that portion of ,france that lies to the south of the river ,loire4 ,all ,central ,france was overrun4 ,castles1 churches and monasteries were despoiled4 ,for a time they held undisturbed dominion4 ,the empire of the ,saracens was then at its greatest extent4 ,it reached from the confines of ,china to the ,atlantic ocean1 and comprised within its limits forty degrees of latitude and nearly one hundred and twenty of longitude4 ,in ,western ,europe alone it stretched in an unbroken line more than a thousand miles northward from the cliffs of ,gibraltar4 ,more than thirty-six thousand cities paid tribute to the successors of ,mahomet in the city of ,medina4 ,in attempting to extend their conquests northward the ,saracens were met by an army under ,charles ,martel1 king of ,france1 ,a4 ,d4 #gcb4 ,between ,tours and ,poictiers a terrible battle was fought1 which lasted seven days4 ,the ,franks and ,goths lost so many that it was impossible to tell the number of the slain4 ,but these losses were more than counterbalanced by the losses of the ,saracens whose great general1 ,abderahman1 was found among the slain4 ,their previous successes had filled them with pride4 ,they looked with contempt upon their enemies4 ,for example1 when the ,roman emperor1 ,nicephorous1 had sent a threatening letter to the ,caliph ,haroun-al-,raschid1 the latter replied1 ,in the name of the most merciful #cc ,god1 ,haroun-al-,raschid1 commander of the faithful1 to ,nicephorous1 the ,roman dog6 ,i have read thy letter1 ,o thou son of an unbelieving mother6 ,thou shalt not hear my words2 thou shalt behold my reply6 ,a few weeks later it was written in letters of blood on the plains of ,phrygia4 ,although the ,saracen empire had reached the zenith of its power1 in one sense ,mahometanism had not reached its culmination4 ,the day was to come1 when under the name of ,ottoman ,turks1 it would expel the descendants of the ,caesars from their capital1 hold the classic land of ,greece in subjection1 and under the very walls of ,vienna dispute the empire of ,europe in the center of that continent2 and in ,africa extend its dogmas and faith across burning deserts and pestilential forests far south of the equinoctial line4 ,it is a mistaken idea that the progress of the ,saracens depended on the sword alone4 ,the causes of their success were many and various4 ,one of these1 the paganization of ,christianity1 has already been noticed4 ,the long and desolating wars of the ,romans had thrown the whole oriental and ,african trade into the hands of the ,arabs4 ,hence a commercial interest and sympathy had grown up between these peoples4 ,another reason was the mildness of the ,saracen government in comparison with that of the ,romans4 ,the only taxation was a single annual tribute1 amounting to less than one-half the various taxes by the ,romans4 ,another feature was complete religious toleration except to idolators4 ,the only creed required was simply1 ,there is but one ,god1 and ,mahomet is ,his prophet4 ,still1 another cause of ,saracen success was the effective plan adopted for the consolidation of their power4 ,in battle they were simply terrible1 and the destruction of human life was in some instances without a parallel2 yet the widows and children of their fallen foes were universally treated with kindness4 ,as a consequence1 the children became ardent disciples of ,mahometanism1 and the widows often married their former conquerors4 ,this was all the more frequent as polygamy was an established custom4 ,the children of these unions gloried in their descent from their conquering fathers4 #cd ,no wonder then1 that in a little more than a single generation ,abderahman wrote to the ,caliph that in ,north ,africa and ,andalusia all tribute must cease1 as all the children born in those regions were ,mahometans1 and ,arabic had become the language of the county4 ,but above all these causes1 the careful student of history will perceive the hand of ,providence4 ,though ,christianity was paganized1 and the priesthood and divine authority were taken from the earth1 ,god had put forth ,his hand1 and through agencies the most diverse was disciplining the minds of men for the reception of truth1 and preparing a place and a people for the coming of the ,son of ,man4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,achievements ,,of ,,the ,,saracens4 ,,intellectual ,,stagnation--,,saracens ,,and ,,jews ,,revive ,,learning--,,university ,,of ,,bagdad--,,public ,,schools--,,medical ,,college ,,of ,,cairo--,,circulating ,,library--,,modern ,,form ,,of ,,books--,,arabic ,,notation--,,discoveries ,,in ,,chemistry--,,rotundity ,,of ,,the ,,earth--,,mariner',s ,,compass--,,discoveries ,,of ,,alhazin--,,astronomical ,,observatories--,,golden ,,age ,,of ,,judaism--,,cities ,,of ,,andalusia--,,saracen ,,dwellings--,,condition ,,of ,,women--,,female ,,physicians4 ,the civilized world is dotted over with theological seminaries1 the teachers in which are considered to be men well educated in the learning of ancient and modern times4 ,the avowed purpose of these institutions is to teach the facts1 philosophy and history of the so-called ,christian religion1 yet not a teacher in these institutions can be found who dares to assert the stupendous fact that from the time of the apostles to the ninth century science1 literature and philosophy were well nigh extinct4 ,during all this time1 with the exception #ce of ,jewish and ,saracen writers1 scarcely a work can be found of sufficient merit to rescue the name of the author from oblivion4 ,let the skeptic answer this question3 ,why was it that when the voice of inspiration was hushed and the gospel and its ordinances taken from the earth1 there fell upon it an intellectual stagnation1 an invisible atmosphere of oppression1 ready to crash down morally and physically whatever provoked its weight8 ,thus the dreary and weary centuries rolled on1 until a nation1 hitherto considered barbarous1 yet of the seed of ,abraham1 and heirs of the promises made to ,ishmael and ,esau1 aroused society from the hideous fanaticism1 ignorance and superstition into which apostasy had plunged it4 ,if it be true that the ,saracens burned the ,alexandrian library1 it must be considered that this was the act of an uneducated general and the vengeance of the soldiery after a terrible siege1 rather than the deliberate policy of the government4 ,within twenty-five years from the death of ,mahomet the ,caliphs had become famous for their patronage of learning4 ,ali1 the fourth ,caliph and son-in-law of ,mahomet1 used to say1 ,the world is sustained by four things only3 the prayers of the good1 the learning of the wise1 the justice of the great1 and the valor of the brave4 ,this sentiment was echoed and re-echoed until it became an honored maxim in the minds of millions4 ,under the influence of ,jewish1 ,nestorian and ,saracen teachers the manners of the ,saracens became more polished and their thoughts more elevated4 ,they made conquests in the realms of science1 literature and the arts as quickly as in the provinces of the ,roman empire4 ,for example1 ,almansor1 who reigned as ,caliph from ,a4 ,d4 #gec to #gge1 established the ,university of ,bagdad1 and endowed it with two hundred thousand pieces of gold1 and an annual revenue of fifteen thousand dinars1 equal in commercial value to one hundred and twenty thousand dollars of our money4 ,he invited thither learned men from every land1 irrespective of their religious opinions4 ,by these men were founded celebrated schools of mathematics1 astronomy1 chemistry1 medicine1 law and languages4 #cf ,his grand-son1 ,haroun-al-,raschid1 ordered in ,a4 ,d4 #ghf1 that a public school should be attached to every mosque in his dominions4 ,this was more than seven hundred years before the establishment of the famous parish schools of ,scotland4 ,the ,caliph-al-,mamun1 in ,a4 ,d4 #hac1 founded the great medical college of ,cairo1 which required students to pass a rigid examination before receiving authority to enter on the practice of their profession4 ,at this college we have the first account of dissecting human bodies for the purpose of ascertaining the nature and locality of diseases1 and the first circulating library for students4 ,these books were bound according to the modern form1 which then began to be used among the ,saracens in place of the ancient form of the scroll4 ,by the means just mentioned1 the ancient sciences were greatly extended and new ones introduced4 ,to the ,saracens we are indebted for our present system of arithmetical notation4 ,if1 for example1 we wish to multiply #ahhb by #abe and then attempt it by the ancient method ,,mdccclxxxii41 multiplied by ,,cxxv41 we shall soon perceive the vast superiority of the ,arabic system over that formerly in use4 ,no wonder1 then that under the ancient system those who were engaged in solving difficult mathematical problems were frequently styled sweating calculators4 ,in this case as in many others the ,arab has left his impress on this science4 ,for instance1 our word cipher1 and kindred words1 such as decipher1 ciphering1 etc41 are derived from the word tsaphara1 or ciphra1 the name for the #j in the ,arabic language4 ,in experimental sciences1 they originated chemistry and discovered the nature and properties of sulphuric acid1 nitric acid1 alcohol and many other chemical agents4 ,from their schools of medicine may be traced such words as julep1 syrup1 elixir1 alchemy1 etc4 ,to them we are indebted for algebra1 or universal arithmetic1 and in astronomy they made such advances that many constellations and stars of the first magnitude still retain the ,arabic names4 ,in geography1 the ,saracens made important discoveries4 ,hitherto mankind had been taught that the earth was a vast #cg plain1 surmounted by an immense vault commonly called the sky4 ,they were the first to prove that the earth is a vast globe1 or ball2 and in order to determine its size1 they first ascertained on the level shore of the ,red sea the exact position of the ,north ,star4 ,then traveling directly north until it had attained another degree of elevation1 they measured the distance between these points1 and multiplying the result by three hundred and sixty 7the number of degrees in a circle71 they found the earth to be nearly twenty-five thousand miles in circumference4 ,so accurate were their observations and measurements that the best calculators of recent times differ from them less than one-third of a mile4 ,five hundred years later the ,roman pontiffs were excommunicating and torturing those who taught the rotundity of the earth4 ,while ,catholic monks were teaching1 in all its absurdity1 the flatness of the earth1 and how it rested on a vast rock1 and that rock on another and so on all the way down to the bottom7871 the ,saracens were teaching geography from globes in their common schools4 ,it cost a long struggle through several centuries1 with spiritual wickedness in high places1 before the truth finally triumphed4 ,european historians have generally given great credit to ,pope ,gregory for the invention and adoption of the ,gregorian calendar and a more accurate method of measuring the exact length of the civil year4 ,yet1 ,gregory only adopted what had been discovered and taught by ,thebit-,ben-,corrah1 the ,saracen astronomer1 more than five hundred years before1 and what ,gregory himself had learned in youth while attending a ,saracen university4 ,the mariner's compass was well known to the ,arabs1 who probably brought it from ,china and introduced it to the nations of ,europe4 ,from this we may correctly infer that they were a maritime people4 ,in fact1 long before the time of ,mahomet1 ,arabian merchants were acquainted with the ,indies1 and even ,china and the eastern coast of ,africa as far south as ,madagascar4 ,alhazin1 who wrote about ,a4 ,d4 #ajhj1 made the great discovery of atmospheric refraction--that a ray of light when it touches the atmosphere is bent from a straight line2 and #ch consequently we see the sun before it rises and after it sets1 in the same manner that an object lying at the bottom of a bucket filled with water appears in quite a different position from that in which it really is4 ,he was the first to give that beautiful and scientific explanation of twilight1 viz41 the refraction of light1 which is still regarded by modern scientists as the true one4 ,he even attempted to ascertain the height of the atmosphere1 which he estimated to be about fifty-eight and a half miles4 ,this philosopher also wrote a treatise on weights and measures1 and introduced that excellent system of weighing by means of a small1 movable weight attached to the longer arm of a lever1 as in our modern scales or steelyards4 ,the ,arabian astronomer1 ,ebn-,junis1 was the first who made use of the pendulum in the machinery of clocks for the accurate measurement of the hours4 ,in the golden age of the ,saracen empire1 there were colleges in every part of its vast dominions4 ,so numerous were these institutions1 that more than six thousand students received instructions in them annually4 ,in the far east were the college and astronomical observatory of ,samercand2 while in the western province of ,andalusia were the famous school and observatory of ,giralda4 ,the first medical college established in ,europe was that founded by the ,saracens at ,salerno1 in ,italy2 the first famous school of mathematics and astronomy was that established by them at ,seville1 in ,spain4 ,among them1 learning was not confined to the rich1 but every class received its benefits4 ,the teachers of their colleges were paid liberal salaries for their services1 and an allowance was made for indigent scholars1 so that the son of the mechanic could graduate from the same class as the heirs of the ,caliphs4 ,at first glance it seems remarkable that the wild ferocity of the ,arabs should so suddenly change into a passion for intellectual pursuits2 yet it should not be forgotten that this ferocity was to a great extent caused by religious enthusiasm4 ,thus1 when the ,general ,akbah had conquered his way from ,egypt to the ,atlantic ocean1 opposite the ,canary ,islands1 he rode his horse into the sea and drew his sword1 exclaiming1 #ci ,great ,allah6 if my course were not stopped by this sea1 ,i would still go on to the unknown regions of the ,west1 preaching the unity of thy holy name1 and putting to the sword the rebellious nations who worship any other gods than thee4 ,again1 when we consider that a large majority of their teachers and philosophers were of the ,jewish nation1 we see a beautiful ,providence in all this4 ,the remnants of ,god's chosen people1 though exiles and wanderers1 despised and down-trodden by the ,gentiles1 were yet the instruments in ,god's hands for the execution of ,his purposes and the elevation of the race4 ,surely there is a broader1 higher1 grander meaning in the promise given to ,abraham1 ,in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed1 than many are willing to admit6 ,and this is all the more remarkable1 that1 at the very time when mankind so much needed instruction1 should occur what ,milman so aptly terms1 ,the golden age of ,judaism4 ,not an age of royal pomp and political power--that passed away with ,david and ,solomon--but an age of intellectual culture1 scientific research and practical discovery4 ,strange it would appear to the casual student1 if upon further research he should find that all great religious teachers have been of ,israelitish origin1 as well as a large proportion of those who have achieved distinction in the arts and sciences4 ,but it was in ,spain1 southern ,france and ,sicily that the ,saracens attained their greatest power and influence2 for there they came in contact with the nations of western ,europe1 and so influenced ,european manners1 customs and modes of thought that through them that influence has been transmitted to our times4 ,to the ingenuity of the ,saracens we are indebted for the origin of many articles of clothing and personal comfort4 ,their religion taught them to be clean in person4 ,they did not therefore clothe themselves1 according to prevailing customs in that age1 in an under-garment made from the skins of wild beasts--a garment which remained unwashed and unchanged until it dropped to pieces of itself1 a loathsome mass of vermin1 stench and rags4 ,they taught us the use of that often-changed and often-washed garment commonly called a shirt1 #dj which still is known among the ladies under its old ,arabic name1 chemise4 ,to them we are indebted for some of our most valuable fruits1 such as the apricot and peach4 ,remembering the cooling effects of water in their own hot climate1 they spared no pains in constructing artificial lakes and fountains and streams for the irrigation of their gardens4 ,andalusia became the paradise of the world4 ,the capital was ,cordova1 which they greatly embellished as well as the rival cities ,toledo1 ,seville and ,granada4 ,a person might walk for miles through their cities after night-fall by the light of their public lamps4 ,seven hundred years afterwards1 not a single public lamp could be found in the city of ,london4 ,the streets of these cities were solidly paved1 through which rolled magnificent carriages1 drawn by horses1 the fame of which has descended to our times4 ,five hundred years later the sovereigns of ,great ,britain and ,germany were still traveling in uncouth wagons1 drawn by oxen1 goaded on by pedestrian drivers4 ,the sidewalks of ,cordova1 ,toledo1 ,seville and ,granada were paved with flagstones2 while at a corresponding period the inhabitant of ,london or ,paris who ventured beyond his threshold on a rainy day sank ankle-deep in filth and mud4 ,their residences were frequently in the midst of orchards or embosomed in shady groves4 ,they had cool and spacious porches for rest in the heat of the day4 ,often these porches had roofs of stained glass1 on which fell in soothing cadences the glittering pearl-drops of water from elevated fountains4 ,their houses were usually built of brick or stone1 and contained many apartments1 such as sleeping rooms1 baths1 libraries1 parlors and dining halls4 ,in the best class of dwellings1 the ceilings were frescoed and the walls covered with paintings1 representing scenes of paradise1 groves and fruits1 lawns and fountains4 ,yet1 delineations of the human form1 either nude or partly so1 were religiously forbidden1 as it was considered that such representations were promotive of licentiousness4 #da ,some of these apartments were furnished with musical instruments1 where the young of both sexes were wont to join in mirth and festivity1 and dancing to the music of the lute and mandolin4 ,in others1 the sedate and reflecting1 could engage in scientific research or philosophical discussion4 ,the #db dwellings of the rich were carpeted1 and sometimes warmed by furnaces in winter and cooled in summer with perfumed air1 brought by under-ground pipes from distant flower gardens4 ,the use of wine was prohibited4 ,the feasts of the ,saracens were marked with sobriety1 and furnished a pleasing contrast to the drunken revelries of their northern neighbors4 ,image3 ,interior of a ,saracen ,palace4 ,the enchanting moonlight evenings of ,andalusia were frequently spent by the devout in sequestered gardens1 consoling themselves for the disappointments of this life by the hope of immortality1 and reconciling themselves to their daily toil by the expectation of the joys of paradise1 where flowers never fade nor fruits decay1 where sickness1 and sorrow1 and death are known no more4 ,under ,saracen government1 religious persecution was unknown4 ,students from ,great ,britain1 ,ireland1 ,france and ,germany came to study at ,saracen universities4 ,there1 among distinguished characters1 whose names and influence have descended to our times1 was ,frederick1 afterwards ,frederick ,,ii41 king of ,italy2 ,gerbert1 afterwards famous as ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii42 ,peter the ,venerable1 ,abelard1 the poet1 and ,arnold of ,brescia4 ,no wonder then that the ,saracens looked with contempt upon the barbarism of the native races of ,europe1 who could scarcely be said to have emerged from the savage state--unclean in person1 benighted in mind1 inhabiting huts in which it was a mark of wealth if there were bulrushes on the floor and straw mats against the wall2 subsisting on barley1 beans1 cabbages1 herbs and even the bark of trees2 clothed in rudely-tanned skins of wild animals1 which were famous indeed for durability1 but not very conducive to personal cleanliness4 ,but the arts1 sciences and general culture were not confined to the ,saracen men alone4 ,among the women there were many who1 like ,valada1 ,ayesha1 ,labana and ,algasania1 achieved a national reputation4 ,some of these were daughters of ,caliphs1 who considered it not beneath their dignity to devote their lives to science and the elevation of their sex4 ,where shall we find their equals at that time in so-called ,christian countries8 ,albucasis1 a celebrated physician of ,cordova1 #dc in his medical works1 makes mention of several female physicians1 and recommends the employment of such in certain cases4 ,no doubt the condition of women was superior and their duties and position better understood among polygamous ,saracens than in monogamous ,christendom4 ,the foregoing will indicate to some extent the condition of ,saracen society in the tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,shall we compare it with the contemporary barbarism of the other portions of ,europe8 ,were we to pursue this subject further it would not be difficult to show that ,venice owed her commercial greatness to ,saracen fleets and ,jewish merchants2 that ,marco ,polo only traveled over countries already well delineated on maps1 and well described by ,abulfeda and other ,arabian geographers2 that ,columbus himself first received scientific proof of the rotundity of the earth while corresponding with ,torricelli1 the great ,florentine astronomer1 who in turn had received his education at the ,saracen university of ,seville1 and modelled his globes1 maps and charts from those in its possession4 ,the careful student of history must deplore the attempts made by many historians to ignore our indebtedness to the ,saracens1 who in the providence of ,god have left their impress on the religions1 arts and sciences of the world4 ,surely prejudice founded on national conceit and sectarian bigotry cannot last forever4 #dd ,,chapter ,v4 ,,remarkable ,,cities ,,of ,,medieval ,,times4 ,,jerusalem ,,the ,,sacred ,,city--,,alexandria ,,noted ,,for ,,philosophy--,,school ,,of ,,hypatia--,,mob ,,murders ,,her--,,doctrines ,,of ,,cyril--,,jerusalem ,a ,,scene ,,of ,,suffering--,,fulfillment ,,of ,,prophecy--,,herculaneum ,,and ,,pompeii--,,their ,,destruction--,,evidences ,,of ,,their ,,wickedness--,,excavations--,,roman ,,rule--,,removal ,,of ,,capital--,,crimes ,,of ,,constantine--,,commencement ,,of ,,greek ,,empire--,,description ,,of ,,constantinople--,,its ,,capture ,,by ,,crusaders--,,taken ,,by ,,the ,,turks--,,intellectual ,,degradation--,,priestcraft--,,debauche ry--,,turkish ,,rule4 ,the four great cities of medieval times were ,jerusalem1 ,rome1 ,alexandria and ,constantinople4 ,the first named has ever been the sacred city1 not merely of the ,jews1 but also of devout ,christian pilgrims of all ages4 ,during the crusades it was the great object for the possession of which so much blood and treasure were expended4 ,alexandria1 for the first three centuries of the ,christian era1 was the commercial metropolis of the world1 as well as the chief seat of pagan learning and philosophy4 ,it was here that ,hypatia1 the daughter of ,theon1 the mathematician1 held her famous school4 ,each day before her academy stood a long train of chariots4 ,her lecture room was crowded with the cultured classes of ,alexandria4 ,they came to ask those profound questions that human reason1 unaided1 can never answer3 ,what am ,i8 ,where am ,i8 ,what can ,i know8 ,at this time1 ,cyril1 archbishop of ,alexandria1 was attempting to force upon the world his trinitarian views4 ,his absurd ideas could not endure the sharp criticism of philosophic #de minds4 ,cyril employed a mob of ,alexandrian monks4 ,amid the fearful yelling of these bare-legged and black-cowled fiends1 ,hypatia was dragged from her chariot4 ,in mortal terror she fled to an adjacent church1 and was there brutally murdered by the club of ,peter the ,reader4 ,but this was not all4 ,we can only get a faint idea of the depraved condition of paganized ,christianity1 when we call to mind the fact that the monks finished their infernal crime by dismembering her body and scraping the flesh from her bones with oyster shells4 ,cyril then procured the banishment of all who held opposing doctrines1 and thus his absurd doctrines were forced upon society4 ,such was the debased condition of society in a city where had been planted one of the apostolic churches4 ,as vice increased her prosperity decreased4 ,during the reign of ,constantine1 the influence of ,alexandria was much diminished1 and with the ,mahometan conquest it fell to the rank of a provincial town4 ,jerusalem1 once the glory of the earth1 and the pride of the nations1 never recovered from the siege by ,titus1 in ,a4 ,d4 #gj4 ,the answer which the ,jews made to ,pilate1 ,his blood be upon us and upon our children1 which they spake in reference to the ,savior1 has been terribly and literally fulfilled4 ,it may be safely asserted that ,jerusalem has witnessed more scenes of human suffering than any other spot on earth4 ,who does not see the hand of ,providence in her retribution1 as well as in the fate of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii8 ,these cities were destroyed in ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 by an eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius1 and buried by a shower of ashes1 sand and stones4 ,herculaneum was situated about eight miles south of the present city of ,naples1 and ,pompeii about fifteen miles eastward4 ,thus they remained buried for nearly seventeen hundred years4 ,extensive excavations have been made during the past century1 disclosing the city walls1 streets1 temples1 theatres1 private dwellings1 domestic utensils and statuary4 ,many objects have been found which indicate the wicked and licentious character of the inhabitants1 and go to prove that they were ripe for the destruction which awaited them4 ,the inhabitants died just as the catastrophe found them1 guests in their #df banqueting halls1 soldiers at their posts1 prisoners in their dungeons1 maidens at the mirror and students at their books4 ,image3 ,eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius4 #dg ,when the city was unearthed1 the houses were found standing4 ,the interior paintings were still fresh1 and the skeletons remained in the very position and the very place in which death had overtaken them so long ago4 ,the marks left by the cups of the tiplers still remained on the counters2 the prisoners still wore their fetters1 the ladies their chains and bracelets4 ,the researches are still going on1 new wonders are every day coming to light1 and we shall soon have quite a distinct idea of ,roman towns in the first century of the ,christian era4 ,rome1 from before the commencement of the ,christian era1 had been the political and military capital of the world4 ,from her gates issued forth those imperial armies that conquered nations and crushed the liberties of mankind4 ,her rule was not one of reason but one of force4 ,from the age of ,augustus ,caesar her power had been waning1 and when the ,emperor ,constantine removed the capital to ,constantinople1 ,rome became a city of secondary importance4 ,though her political prestige was gone she became the seat of a religious empire which had and still has a mighty influence in the nations of the earth4 ,the wrongs which she inflicted on others have recoiled with terrible retribution on herself4 ,her ruins are silent and majestic witnesses of the providence of ,god4 ,to the reign of ,constantine the ,great1 must be referred the commencement of those dark and dismal times which oppressed ,europe for a thousand years4 ,constantine1 while dwelling at ,rome1 had murdered his son ,crispus1 his nephew ,licinius1 and had suffocated1 in a steam bath1 his wife1 ,fausta1 to whom he had been married twenty years1 and who was the mother of three of his sons4 ,the public abhorrence of his crimes could no longer be concealed4 ,constantine therefore determined to change his residence and build another metropolis1 which he named in honor of himself4 ,he also found it politic to favor the paganized and wrangling ,christian sects1 that by their aid he might be able to triumph over the powerful coalition that had been formed against him4 ,the reign of ,constantine is therefore the true close of the ,roman empire3 the beginning of the ,greek4 ,the transition from the one to the other is emphatically #dh and abruptly marked1 by a new metropolis and a new national religion4 ,constantinople1 at present the capital of the ,turkish empire1 stands1 like ,rome1 on seven hills1 and on a tongue of land projecting into the ,bosphorus1 which here forms an inlet or small bay known as the ,golden ,horn4 ,the ,bosphorus1 as most of our readers are aware1 is the name given to the strait through which flow the waters of the ,black sea into the sea of ,marmora1 and which divides ,europe from ,asia4 ,constantinople is admirably situated for commerce4 ,this is one reason why ,russia has so long looked upon it with a covetous eye4 ,in fact1 the reason why the bay1 on the shores of which the city is built1 has been called the ,golden ,horn1 or horn of abundance1 is because into it was brought the wealth of three continents and the products of every clime4 ,that which is commonly called ,constantinople1 in reality consists of three great cities1 divided by arms of the sea1 yet so near to each other that the edifices of either of the cities may be seen distinctly from the other two4 ,the view here given represents ,constantinople looking from the north4 ,in the background is seen the city of ,scutari1 on the ,asiatic side of the ,bosphorus4 ,the hills in the distance are those of ,asia ,minor4 ,on the right is shown the city of ,stamboul1 which stands on the site of the ancient ,byzantium1 and the foreground represents the modern city of ,galata1 where the greater part of the foreign population resides1 and where the exchange1 custom-house1 and most of the churches1 convents and hospitals are situated4 ,as here depicted the current of the ,bosphorus flows from left to right and disappears in the distance4 #di ,image3 ,constantinople4 ,the history of this city is very remarkable1 and runs far back into the mist of antiquity4 ,long before the ,christian era it was a place of considerable trade and political importance4 ,here the barbarians from the coast of the ,black sea came to barter their furs for the products of more favored regions4 ,near this point ,alexander the ,great crossed the ,bosphorus on his great campaign of eastern conquest4 ,in the second century before ,christ1 the ,romans having subdued the neighboring #ej countries1 built a fort on the site of the ancient city and named it ,byzantium4 ,the ,roman emperor1 ,constantine the ,great1 enlarged and beautified the city and made it the capital of the ,roman empire1 and in honor of himself changed the name to ,constantinople4 ,after his death the ,roman empire was divided1 and ,constantinople continued to be the capital of the eastern division4 ,for more than one thousand years it was the residence of the ,caesars and the commercial metropolis of the world4 ,owing to the religious rivalry of ,rome it was taken and partly burned1 by the ,crusaders1 in ,a4 ,d4 #abje4 ,but the most memorable siege it has ever endured was in ,a4 ,d4 #adec1 when it fell into the hands of the ,ottoman ,turks4 ,by a strange coincidence a ,constantine gave his name to the city1 and a ,constantine reigned at its fall4 ,it was on the morning of ,april #fth1 ,a4 ,d4 #adec4 that ,mahomet ,,ii41 gave the signal for the attack1 and the ,turkish cannon 7then a new invention7 thundered against the walls of the city4 ,for fifty days the siege was carried on with little success4 ,at last1 food was getting scarce1 and the pangs of hunger were sorely felt by the ,christians within the city4 ,but hope revived as away on the sea of ,marmora1 they spied five great ships well laden with supplies and with the ,christian flag unfurled4 ,onward the vessels flew before the breeze1 but what a sight met them as they neared the port6 ,three hundred ,turkish ships were drawn up in a line across the straits1 each filled with troops and eager for the fight4 ,but there were brave hearts in those five gallant ,christian ships1 full willing to meet the outnumbering enemy4 ,gaily they careened before the swelling breeze1 and steering straight for the ,turkish line bore down upon the foe4 ,suddenly from the ,christian ranks there burst a joyous shout1 as the ,turkish ships first wavered and then fled4 ,in vain the fierce sultan1 ,mahomet ,,ii41 mad with rage1 called upon his captains to make good the fight4 ,but the rent was made1 and amid a hundred thousand ,christian cheers the succoring ships sailed in victoriously to the ,golden ,horn1 and many a mother's heart was glad as she closely clasped her half-famished child4 #ea ,a strong chain had meanwhile been placed across the harbor1 to prevent the entrance of the ,turkish fleet4 ,but ,mahomet was determined not to be baffled4 ,in the silence of the night he caused eighty boats to be dragged ten miles across the neck of land that divides the sea of ,marmora from the tip of the ,golden ,horn4 ,rafts were then made1 on which cannon were floated to bombard the city from the harbor4 ,by the #bith of ,may all was ready for the final battle4 ,the great ,byzantine empire1 once foremost in the powers of the world1 had shrunk into the narrow limits of a few square miles4 ,the sun had set1 and night fell upon the contending hosts4 ,christian warriors1 as they lay under the starry canopy of heaven1 cast off the sterner half of man1 and let their softer natures free3 and loving thoughts of sisters1 mothers1 wives went winding through the air1 to meet in last embrace4 ,and now the solemn calm before the storm drew near1 and all was hushed and still4 ,constantine did not sleep4 ,he knew that his hour was at hand4 ,with a few chosen knights1 he retired to the great church of ,st4 ,sophia1 and there uncovered stood before the cross4 ,to-morrow the great ,byzantine empire would pass away with him6 ,his tears fell thickly at the thought2 and he prayed that he might die as became a ,christian knight4 ,then for the last time he partook of the sacrament1 and1 turning to those around1 he said1 ,i pray forgiveness if ,i have injured any one in thought1 or word1 or deed4 ,he stepped to the portal of the church1 where stood his impatient steed1 placed his helmet on his noble head1 and mounting into the saddle1 the humble penitent rode off as warrior ,christian king1 to battle and to die4 ,he was afterwards found among a heap of the slain4 ,the banner of the crescent waved over the waters of the ,bosphorus1 and what was then the richest capital and finest country in ,europe4 ,four hundred and thirty years have rolled by since then4 ,it is still in their possession4 ,the appearance of ,constantinople at the present time is very peculiar4 ,the city is embosomed in gardens1 orchards and vineyards4 ,the houses are for the most part built in the form of a hollow square1 with flat roofs and the windows facing #eb inward4 ,this gives to the compact parts of the city a rather dingy appearance4 ,the streets1 especially in the ancient portions1 are extremely narrow1 and frequently filthy4 ,it is therefore pleasant to turn from these crowded thoroughfares1 and in a few moments' walk1 find yourself surrounded with shady trees1 singing birds1 fountains and flowers4 ,here1 in the limits of a single city1 may be found representatives of almost every race and clime4 ,the fair-haired natives of northern ,europe1 the swarthy inhabitants of ,tartary1 tall fierce-looking ,circassians1 and flat-nosed1 woolly-headed negroes from central ,africa2 all mingling with the more polished inhabitants of western ,europe1 each dressed in his own peculiar garb1 and presenting a living picture no less striking than strange4 ,in this great hive of humanity may be heard at least fifty different languages making a complete ,babel of sounds4 ,here1 also1 may be seen in striking contrast1 the different manners1 customs and usages of oriental and western nations4 ,the different methods used in the transportation of merchandise are no less peculiar2 for while on the eastern side of the city1 may be seen approaching long caravans of camels laden with the rich products of the ,east1 on the western side may be heard the shriek of the locomotive1 announcing the arrival of a train1 bringing passengers1 merchandise and latest intelligence from western nations4 ,but the most significant custom is that five times a day the muezzins1 or ,mahometan priests1 ascend to the top of the mosques 7as places of worship are called7 and which are thickly scattered through the city1 and in a loud wailing voice exclaim1 ,god is great6 ,there is one ,god6 ,mahomet is ,his prophet6 ,come to prayer6 ,this is repeated four times facing the east1 south1 west and north1 and has a penetrating effect on the mind of the hearer1 much more than the sound of the church-bell of the ,christians1 or the trumpet of the ,jews4 ,most ,european historians have lamented the seizure of ,constantinople by the ,turks as a terrible disaster4 ,to the unprejudiced student of history there seems to be but little reason for regret4 ,for eleven hundred years ,constantinople had greatly influenced the destinies of the world2 but during #ec all that time her power had tended more to the degradation than to the elevation of mankind4 ,her citizens possessed all the classical writings and works of art of the great authors of antiquity2 yet in a thousand years they never produced one original1 never advanced one step in philosophy or science1 or made a single practical discovery4 ,what was it that produced this barrenness1 this intellectual degradation in ,constantinople8 ,it was the tyranny of priestcraft over thought4 ,for a thousand years ,constantinople had been not merely the leading commercial city1 but also the leading city in debauchery and crime4 ,in this respect it has vastly improved under ,turkish rule4 ,at the present time1 especially in the ,mahometan portions of the city1 it is the least licentious of all the great capitals of modern ,europe4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,relic-,,worship1 ,,pilgrimages ,,and ,,crusades4 ,,growth ,,of ,,relic-,,worship--,,schemes ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,pontiffs--,,manufacture ,,of ,,relics--,,their ,,great ,,variety--,,value ,,of ,,relics--,,insults ,,offered ,,to ,,pilgrims--,,peter ,,the ,,hermit--,,crusades--,,disorderly ,,rabble--,,terrible ,,suffering--,,capture ,,of ,,jerusalem--,,terrible ,,massacre--,,capture ,,of ,,constantinople--,,crusades ,,of ,,the ,,children--,,result ,,of ,,the ,,crusades--,,revival ,,of ,,learning4 ,in previous chapters has been traced the apostasy of the early church1 also the career of ,mahomet1 and the conquests and achievements of the ,saracens4 ,while these events were transpiring1 other causes were at work which led eventually to the elevation of mankind1 the history of which plainly indicates the workings of an ,all-wise ,providence4 #ed ,at this period there were no printed books1 and the only means of religious instruction to which the masses had access1 were the pictures and images to be found in the churches1 together with the explanations of them given by the priests4 ,by means of these practical object-lessons much useful information was imparted4 ,the principal events in the life of our ,savior were thus depicted1 and1 though the people did not fully understand the grandeur of ,his mission1 they at least learned something of ,his history1 their duties to each other and their own future destiny4 ,thus there came to be associated in their minds a reverence for the picture or image itself1 and this idea extended until it included the localities where the great events of the ,savior's life1 death and resurrection transpired4 ,with the growth of devotion to the person of ,christ1 grew the feeling of reverence for every place which ,he had visited and every memorial which ,he had left behind ,him4 ,the impulse once given1 soon became irresistible4 ,every incident of the gospel narratives was associated with some particular spot1 and millions believed that the sight of these places brought them nearer to heaven4 ,the cave or excavation in which it was said the ,redeemer was born1 and where the wise men of the ,east laid before ,him their royal gifts of gold1 frankincense and myrrh1 the mount from which ,he uttered ,his blessings on the meek1 the merciful and the pure in heart1 in short1 every spot connected with his life1 death and resurrection called forth emotions of passionate veneration4 ,these feelings were greatly intensified by the alleged discovery of the cross on which the ,savior died1 together with the two crosses on which the thieves were crucified4 ,the splendid churches raised by the ,emperor ,constantine and his mother ,helena over the supposed spot of our ,savior's birth at ,bethlehem1 and ,his sepulchre at ,jerusalem1 became for the ,christian of that day what the tomb of the prophet at ,medina became afterwards to the followers of ,mahomet4 ,the remission of sins and eternal rewards in the world to come were the blessings promised to the weary pilgrim when he should tread the classic soil of ,judea1 bathe in the river ,jordan1 chant his quiet anthem of praise in the cave at ,bethlehem1 #ee walk in the quiet shades of ,gethsemane and kneel in reverence at the ,savior's tomb4 ,no wonder then that a hundred thousand pilgrims might have been seen each year wending their way across the plains of ,asia ,minor1 destined for ,jerusalem4 ,the ,roman pontiffs1 owing to the ignorance of the times1 had already built up a wide-spread system of superstition4 ,image3 ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre4 ,they held almost imperial sway over the countless hordes of central and northern ,europe4 ,even kings and emperors paid tribute1 and sovereigns dared not disobey their commands4 ,as an instance1 might be mentioned ,henry ,,iv41 of ,germany1 who having displeased ,pope ,gregory ,,vii41 was obliged1 under penalty of losing his kingdom1 to stand as a penitent at the pope's castle gate during three dreary winter #ef days1 seeking pardon and reconciliation of the inexorable pontiff4 ,it is not surprising that the popes1 who had long trafficked in human credulity1 saw1 in the growth of relic-worship1 an opportunity to increase their own power and the revenues of the church of ,rome4 ,accordingly an understanding was made with the monks of ,palestine and relics were manufactured in untold numbers4 ,an amusing and instructive chapter might be written on this subject3 amusing because of its absurdity1 and instructive as it shows to what extremes of folly men will go when left without the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the crimes and corruptions of the papacy had destroyed public confidence4 ,the devout instinctively turned with reverence towards every object that recalled the memories of the pure and good who once lived upon the earth4 ,no sooner had the wild rage for relics fairly set in than each monastery in the vicinity of ,jerusalem made a specialty of some particular relic4 ,the monks at ,bethlehem sold thousands of pounds of half rotten rags1 each fragment purporting to be a portion of the swaddling cloths of the infant ,savior4 ,the monks who guarded the supposed sepulchre of ,christ1 sold hundreds of thousands of little chips of stone said to have been broken off from the very walls of the tomb where the body of ,jesus had lain4 ,it does not seem to have shaken the credulity of the pilgrims in the least1 that the tomb still remained in as good repair as ever1 and showed no marks of demolition4 ,the monks who inhabited the monasteries on the banks of the ,jordan could point to at least twenty places where it was said the ,savior had been baptized1 and each monastery possessed numerous pebbles which the monks claimed had been touched by ,his feet4 ,no less than seven monasteries claimed to have the true cross in their possession1 and thousands of pieces1 of wood amounting to many tons in weight1 were sold to devout pilgrims4 ,each of these pieces1 it was claimed1 was a part of the true cross4 ,but it would require a long and tedious list to even enumerate the various articles comprised in this relic-worship4 ,in #eg order to get some faint idea of their extent and variety1 the relics which the ,abbot ,martin obtained for his monastery in ,alsace might be mentioned4 ,these1 among other things1 included a piece of the true cross1 a fragment of the infant ,savior's swaddling cloths1 some pebbles from the river ,jordan which the ,savior's feet had touched1 a branch of the tree under which ,he prayed in the garden of ,gethsemane1 a piece of the ,savior's robe1 for which the ,roman soldiers cast lots1 7see ,matthew1 #bgth chapter71 a tooth of ,st4 ,mark1 seven hairs of the martyr1 ,stephen1 a thigh bone of the animal which ,jesus rode into ,jerusalem1 7see ,luke1 #aith chapter71 and 7,i hesitate to write such blasphemy7 a bottle of the milk of the mother of ,god4 ,in connection with this relic-worship1 an amusing anecdote is related3 ,it so happened that about thirty pilgrims were traveling homeward from ,palestine together4 ,being somewhat weary1 they concluded to rest and refresh themselves4 ,having partaken of some wine too freely they commenced to boast of the various relics which each had in his possession4 ,one claimed that he had actually the identical piece of money which ,peter took out of the fish's mouth 7see ,matthew1 #agth chapter1 #bgth verse74 ,but1 to their mutual surprise1 they soon found that each had made a similar purchase4 ,it was plain that at least twenty-nine of them had been defrauded4 ,but they reasoned that if it was not wrong for the monks to defraud them1 it would not be wrong for them to defraud others4 ,so they quietly sold the pieces of money as soon as possible4 ,no doubt one reason why relic-worship became so extensive1 was the encouragement given to it by the ,roman pontiffs4 ,it was boldly asserted that the possession of a relic was a specific against evil spirits1 accidents1 disease1 and1 in short1 nearly every evil to which humanity is heir4 ,hence the great demand for relics by the ignorant and superstitious1 and the vast sums of money which were thus poured into the treasury of the church of ,rome4 ,for example1 a tooth of an apostle was valued at a sum equal commercially to one hundred dollars of our money1 and a thousand dollars would scarcely buy a piece of the true cross #eh as large as a common friction match4 ,of course these prices varied according to the wealth and the credulity of the purchaser4 ,when1 in ,a4 ,d4 #fcg1 ,jerusalem was captured by the ,saracens1 the ,christians and pilgrims were treated with much consideration4 ,they were not only to be safe in their persons1 but undisturbed in the exercise of their religion and in the use of their churches4 ,the yearly influx of at least one hundred thousand pilgrims1 however1 aroused suspicion among the great mass of ,mahometans1 who failed to comprehend the purport of their extraordinary journey1 but perceived the necessity of putting some restraint on this annual rush of such countless multitudes4 ,the consequence was that wrongs were inflicted and retaliated until the mere journey to ,jerusalem involved dangers from which even the bravest might shrink4 ,insults offered to the pilgrims were accompanied by insults offered to the holy places and to those who ministered in them4 ,still the pilgrims went forth by thousands1 and occasionally hundreds and frequently only tens returned to recount the miseries and wanton cruelties they had undergone4 ,throughout the length and breadth of ,christendom a fierce indignation was stirring the hearts of men1 and their rage1 like pent up waters1 needed only an opportunity to rush forth as a flood over the lands under the control of the ,mahometans4 ,that opportunity was not long wanting4 ,peter1 the hermit1 who had witnessed the barbarities to which the pilgrims were exposed1 roused ,europe to a frantic state by his preaching4 ,dwarfish in stature and mean in person1 he was yet filled with a zeal that knew no bounds4 ,the horrors which fired his soul were those which would most surely stir the conscience and arouse the wrath of his hearers4 ,his fiery appeals carried everything before him4 ,wherever he went1 the rich and the poor1 the aged and the young1 the nobles and the peasants thronged in thousands around the emaciated stranger4 ,he traveled with his head and feet bare1 calling on all classes to deliver from the unbeliever the land which was the cradle of their faith4 #ei ,the vehemence which choked his own utterance became contagious4 ,his sobs and groans called forth the tears and cries of the vast crowds who hung upon his words and greedily devoured the harrowing accounts of the pilgrims1 whom ,peter brought forward as witnesses of the truth of his picture4 ,the excitement and frenzy of the moment threw1 no doubt1 a specious coloring over an enterprise of doubtful morality1 and which eventually pandered to the basest passion of humanity4 ,these wars are known in history by the name of ,crusades1 from the ,latin term crux1 a cross1 which emblem was painted on the breasts or shoulders of all who engaged in them4 ,when the masses were thoroughly excited1 ,pope ,urban gave the enterprise his sanction1 and promised to all who would enlist a full remission of their sins4 ,this encouraged innumerable desperadoes to assume the badge of the cross4 ,fanaticism and hypocrisy1 lust and avarice strangely urged their several votaries to pursue one path1 and all under the sacred and now woefully profaned name of ,christian zeal6 ,yet the hand of ,providence was in all this4 ,even the rage of men worked out ,his purpose1 and1 as the sequel will show1 produced results which1 under the controlling hand of ,god led to the elevation of the race4 ,to give a detailed description of the ,crusades would alone require a volume4 ,it is enough to say that the first ,crusade failed1 not only disastrously1 but hideously1 so far as the ignorant rabbles under ,peter1 the hermit1 and ,walter1 the penniless1 were concerned4 ,the long and ghastly line of bones whitening the roadside all the way from ,hungary to ,judea1 showed how different a thing it was for a peaceable and solitary pilgrim with his staff and wallet and scallop-shell to beg his way1 and the disorderly rabble of thousands upon thousands to rush forward without any organization1 and gathering their daily supplies by robbing and killing the helpless peasants on their route4 ,this1 in their ignorance or blasphemy1 they called trusting in the providence of ,god4 ,the van of the ,crusades consisted of two hundred and seventy-five thousand men4 ,behind these came a rabble of #fj two hundred thousand men1 women and children1 preceded by a goat and a goose1 into which some blasphemous lunatic had told them that the ,holy ,ghost had entered4 ,when at length these animals died1 a representation of them was painted on their banner4 ,in this vile horde no pretense was kept up of order or of decency4 ,driven to madness by disappointment and famine1 and expecting1 in their ignorance1 that every town they came to must be ,jerusalem1 they laid hands on whatever they could in their extremity4 ,their track was marked by robbery1 fire and bloodshed4 ,in the first ,crusade alone1 more than five hundred thousand human beings perished4 ,however1 a better organized expedition soon followed1 commanded by ,godfrey de ,bouillon1 ,duke of ,lorraine4 ,by him ,jerusalem was captured ,july #aeth1 ,a4 ,d4 #ajii4 ,as might be expected1 its siege and capture were attended by the perpetration of cruelties almost surpassing belief4 ,what a contrast to the conduct of the ,arabs1 when the ,caliph ,omar took ,jerusalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #fcg6 ,he rode into the city by the side of the patriarch1 ,saphronius1 conversing with him on its antiquities4 ,when the time of evening prayer arrived1 he declined to pay his devotions in the church of ,constantine1 fearing that his followers might wish to imitate his example1 and thus render it practically useless to the ,christians2 but he knelt outside in the yard near the entrance gate4 ,what a supreme act of religious toleration6 ,when will free-born ,americans learn to act thus nobly8 ,but in the capture of ,jerusalem by the ,crusaders the brains of young children were dashed out against the walls1 infants were thrown over the battlements1 men and women were tortured that they might be compelled to disclose hidden wealth1 the ,jews were driven into their synagogue and there burnt4 ,a massacre of seventy thousand persons took place1 and the pope's especial ambassador was seen partaking in the triumph4 ,such were the exploits of the first ,crusade4 ,the second was barren of results except the inhuman butchery of thousands of unoffending ,jews4 ,the third produced no permanent effects1 but a halo of false glory is shed around it1 from the #fa exploits of ,richard the ,lion-heart1 king of ,england1 who was connected with it1 and whose adventures have stirred to enthusiasm even the dullest of historians4 ,with great difficulty1 ,pope ,innocent ,,iii41 succeeded in preparing the fourth ,crusade1 ,a4 ,d4 #abjb4 ,the government of ,venice agreed to furnish ships to carry them to ,palestine1 but1 actuated by a love of plunder1 and a desire to gratify the bitter feeling which existed between the popes of ,rome and the bishops of ,constantinople1 they turned aside to vent their rage on their fellow-,christians4 ,constantinople was taken by storm ,a4 ,d4 #abjd4 ,on the night of its capture more houses were burned than could be found in any three of the largest cities of ,france4 ,the treasures of the churches were carried away1 and even the tombs of the ancient emperors were rifled in the mad search for relics4 ,thus1 ,crusade followed ,crusade for more than one hundred and fifty years1 until nine armies1 comprising more than three millions of men1 laid their bodies down to decay and their bones to whiten on the plains and hill-sides of the ,east4 ,among all the enterprises1 none were more wild and wicked than those which are called the ,crusades of the children4 ,emissaries from ,rome went throughout ,western ,europe1 preaching and declaring that ,god would only give the ,holy ,land into the hands of innocent children4 ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 applauded their wild enthusiasm4 ,these children1 said he1 are a reproach to us of riper age4 ,while they hurry to ,palestine1 we are asleep4 #fb ,image3 ,ancient ,vessels4 ,a few words will suffice to tell the story how twenty thousand children1 under the boy ,stephen1 encamped around ,vendome4 ,in less than a month ten thousand of them had perished or strayed away4 ,when they reached ,marseilles1 they lingered near the shore1 expecting the ,mediterranean to divide1 and1 like the ,red ,sea in ancient times1 give them a dry passage to ,palestine4 ,at length two merchants offered to convey them there in ships1 without charge2 but at the end of their journey they found themselves1 not in ,palestine1 but in the slave markets of ,alexandria and ,algiers4 ,a sequel to this o'er true tale is found in the sufferings of another rabble of thirty thousand boys and girls1 who1 under #fc the peasant lad1 ,nicholas1 in crossing the ,alps lost nearly half their number4 ,five thousand reached ,genoa1 and1 being invited by the senate1 concluded to settle there4 ,the rest marched to ,brindisi1 and1 setting sail for ,palestine1 were never heard of more4 ,worthless in themselves and wholly useless as a means for founding any permanent dominion in ,palestine or elsewhere1 these enterprises were a means in the overruling hand of ,god of effecting the nations of ,europe in a way which the promoters never dreamed of4 ,their results were many and various4 ,one was that they drew away many of the warlike and turbulent1 and gave1 as it were1 a resting time for the states of ,western ,europe1 during which1 learning1 science and general culture1 among the quietly-disposed1 made rapid advances1 and many cities and smaller states rose from obscurity to opulence and power4 ,another was the change of feeling which took place in the ,crusaders themselves4 ,what a surprise awaited these religious barbarians--for such they really were--when for the first time they gazed on the splendors of ,constantinople in its palmiest days6 ,what a contrast to their own rude homes1 when they passed into ,asia ,minor1 that garden of the world1 presenting well-cultivated fields1 orchards1 vineyards1 palaces and schools1 the civilization of a thousand years6 ,how unexpected the character of those ,saracens1 whom they had been taught to regard as no better than bloodthirsty fiends1 but whom they found to be valiant1 merciful and just6 ,when ,richard the ,lion-heart1 king of ,england1 lay in his tent consumed by a fever1 there came into the camp camels laden with snow1 from ,mount ,lebanon1 to assuage his disease4 ,it was a present from his enemy1 the great ,mahometan ,saladin--the homage of one brave soldier to another4 ,but when ,richard was returning to ,england it was by a ,christian prince1 who should have aided him1 that he was treacherously seized and secretly confined4 ,this was doubtless only one of many such incidents4 ,every ,crusader must have recognized the difference between what they had anticipated and what they had found4 ,they had seen undaunted courage1 chivalrous bearing1 intellectual culture and #fd religious toleration far greater than their own4 ,when the ,crusaders returned to their native lands1 they carried with them the memory of their experiences1 and a relish for more polished manners and a higher civilization than that to which they had been accustomed at home4 ,hence1 immediately after the ,crusades the arts and sciences began to be sedulously cultivated in ,europe4 ,they had departed with the intent of conquering1 aye even exterminating their enemies2 but by contact with those enemies they had learned in some things a more excellent way4 ,the words of the ,koran inscribed on the banner of ,saladin are true3 ,there is no conqueror but ,god6 ,equally true the words written by the ,prophet ,esdras1 as he sat by the side of the willow-fringed river of ,babylon more than twenty-three hundred years ago3 ,as for truth1 it endureth and is always strong2 it liveth and conquereth for evermore1 7see ,apocrypha1 ,i4 ,esdras1 iv41 #ch74 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,modern ,,intelligence4 ,,the ,,morning ,,dawns--,,rise ,,of ,,knighthood--,,principles ,,of ,,knights--,,apostate ,,priests ,,held ,,in ,,contempt--,,waldenses--,,persecutions ,,in ,,southern ,,france--,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,inquisition--,,liberal ,,policy ,,of ,,frederick--,,everlasting ,,gospel--,,its ,,remarkable ,,teachings--,,bacon',s ,,discoveries--,,geographical ,,knowledge--,,azores ,,and ,,canary ,,islands--,,travels ,,of ,,marco ,,polo--,,condition ,,of ,,european ,,states--,,modern ,,states4 ,those who have waited for the dawning of the morning in the latter part of a clear summer night1 can understand the delight experienced at the first tokens of approaching day4 ,at first the rays of light are very faint and only perceptible to a keen and experienced eye4 ,as time wears on the timid approach of twilight becomes more perceptible4 ,the intense blue of the sky begins to soften4 ,the rays that first darted up #fe in the far north-east1 though occasionally intercepted by mountains or banks of clouds1 gradually swing around to the east4 ,the darkness of the night dissolves into the glories of the dawn4 ,the great watch-stars fade away1 one by one4 ,the whole firmament is filled with the inflowing tides of morning light4 ,at length a stream of golden sunlight flashes out from above the hills and turns the dewy tear-drops of flower and leaf into rubies and diamonds4 ,thus the king of day begins his course arrayed in glories too severe for the gaze of man4 ,in like manner we may in imagination gaze at the dawning of the dispensation of the fullness of times1 and watch the increasing rays of moral1 intellectual and spiritual light1 feeble indeed at first1 yet constantly growing stronger1 though sometimes intercepted by mountains of bigotry and mists of error1 until at length the gospel's glorious sunshine again lights a benighted world1 and the divine authority and ,priesthood are restored to the children of men4 ,but let us not anticipate4 ,let us rather patiently decipher on history's scroll the characters written there by the finger of ,god4 ,let us carefully watch the development of ,his purposes amid the strife and commotion of those perilous times4 ,with the close of the ,crusades the midnight darkness of human history ended4 ,human misery had reached its climax4 ,superstition and ignorance had done their most terrible work4 ,thousands1 aye even millions had had an opportunity of comparing the teachings and pretenses of ,rome with other civilizations4 ,it is almost needless to say that ,catholicism had seriously suffered by the comparison4 ,rome was weighed in the balance and found wanting4 ,those of the ,crusaders who remained in ,palestine were soon blended with the ,mahometan population1 and in a few years scarce a vestige of them remained4 ,many of the leaders who returned were1 like ,richard the ,lion-,hearted1 full of praise of the treatment they had received from their enemies1 and spent much of their time in founding various orders of chivalry and knighthood4 ,at first those orders received the benediction of the popes4 ,some of them were even organized before they returned from the ,holy ,land4 ,of such were the famous #ff knights of ,st4 ,john and ,knights ,hospitaller4 ,but it was soon found that those brave men loved liberty more than priestcraft1 so after a time1 notwithstanding their eminent services1 they were weakened and divided by stratagem1 charges were preferred against them and they were cruelly put to death4 ,the story of their fate will ever1 remain one of the darkest pages in the annals of our race4 ,but their death only accelerated the progress of their ideas4 ,the spirit and institutions of chivalry spread rapidly4 ,treachery and hypocrisy were held by them in detestation4 ,to speak the truth1 to succor the helpless and never turn back from an enemy1 was the first vow of the youth who sought the honors of chivalry4 ,in an age of darkness and degradation1 chivalry developed the character of woman4 ,it caused her virtues to be appreciated and honored1 made her the equal and companion of man1 and the object of his love and devotion4 ,the love of ,god and the protection of women were enjoined as a single duty 7see ,halem's ,middle ,ages1 page #eab74 ,he who was faithful to his vow and true to his wife was sure of salvation in the opinion of the knights1 though he failed to perform the penance prescribed by the ,romish clergy4 ,chivalry was the religion of the heart1 in a rude and untutored age4 ,it had the effect of infusing more of humanity and generous principle into the operations of war than the ancient nations had any conception of4 ,hence we seldom or never hear in modern times of such scenes of unmingled atrocity1 such deadly treachery1 such extensive and cold-blooded massacres as we so frequently read of in ancient pagan or papal history4 ,at the close of the ,crusades a great change commenced in society4 ,the minstrels1 who with harps had gone about singing ballads1 commemorating deeds of heroism and adventure1 now changed their theme and sang songs of a very different character4 ,amid shouts of laughter they went through the land1 wagging their heads1 and slyly winking their eyes1 and singing derisive songs about the amours of the priests1 who in turn were not slow to denounce the minstrels as lewd blasphemers and atheists4 #fg ,while the young were singing1 the old were thinking2 while the gay were carried away with romance and chivalry1 the grave and reflecting were falling into heresy4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #aajj1 ,peter ,waldo1 a wealthy citizen of ,lyons1 became convinced of the corruptions of ,rome4 ,he1 probably aided by others1 translated the scriptures into ,provencal ,french4 ,thus1 to him the world is indebted for the first translation of the ,bible into a modern tongue4 ,waldo could not long remain in ,lyons4 ,he fled into ,germany and afterwards settled in ,bohemia1 where he died about ,a4 ,d4 #aagi4 ,he was the instrument of spreading those liberal ideas in ,bohemia1 of which ,john ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague became in after times worthy representatives4 ,at the time of his death it is said that ,waldo had five hundred thousand followers4 ,already1 ,a4 ,d4 #aacd1 ,peter de ,brueys had been burned at ,languedoc for denying infant baptism4 ,already the valleys of ,piedmont were full of ,waldenses1 who denounced the greed of the popes and the intermingling of bishops in bloodshed and war4 ,at this juncture ,innocent ,,iii41 ascended the pontifical throne4 ,here was a state of things which1 as he considered1 demanded immediate attention4 ,the methods to which he resorted for the suppression and extinction of heretics1 as misbelievers were called1 have made his name forever infamous4 ,innocent well knew that the greed and the corruptions of the clergy had made them unpopular with the people4 ,he therefore established the mendicant orders of priests1 more commonly known under the names of ,franciscans and ,dominicans4 ,vowed to poverty and living on alms1 they lived and moved among the masses1 and yet were held sacred4 ,the accusations and dissipation of luxury so forcibly urged against the regular clergy1 were altogether inapplicable to these half-starved wandering fanatics4 ,once more for a time the popes had gained possession of the ear of the masses4 ,at this time ,southern ,france was the garden of reform4 ,here the eloquence of ,abelard1 the patriotism of ,arnold and the statesmanship of ,frederick wielded a mighty influence4 ,like seeds falling into good ground1 they brought forth much fruit4 ,already ,arnold had been burned at the stake and his #fh ashes thrown on the waves of the ,tiber4 ,he has thus become the heritage1 as it were1 of every nation whose shores are washed by the tides of the sea4 ,seven centuries have rolled by since then1 yet the memory of ,arnold of ,brescia is ever green2 the principles for which he lived and died are now incorporated in every constitutional government on the globe4 ,in no land were his principles more prevalent than in ,southern ,france1 and on it ,innocent determined to vent his rage4 ,in looking around for a suitable pretext that would rouse the masses and excite them to religious frenzy1 he soon discovered the object for which he sought4 ,it was ,raymond1 earl of ,toulouse1 who had so far turned ,mahometan that he had no less than three wives in emulation of his ,saracen neighbors beyond the ,pyrenees4 ,an investigation of the domestic life of ,raymond1 would have shown it to have been far more honorable than that of the popes1 themselves4 ,raymond was therefore arrested on the charge of heresy1 of harboring heretics and placing offices of trust in the hands of worthy ,jews4 ,his subjects were indignant1 for ,raymond1 it would seem1 was a wise and good ruler and much loved by his people4 ,in the disputes that ensued the pope's ambassador was accidentally killed4 ,innocent considered this a sufficient reason for sending into the earl's dominion an army of nearly five hundred thousand men4 ,there was no alternative for the earl but to submit4 ,he surrendered up his strong places1 and even acknowledged the justice of his punishment4 ,he was publicly stripped naked to the waist1 and1 with a rope around his neck1 led to the altar of the cathedral and there scourged4 ,but the humiliation and scourging of the earl was not sufficient to satisfy the soldiery4 ,they had come for blood and plunder1 and blood and plunder they must have4 ,then followed such a scene of horror as tongue or pen cannot describe4 ,the army was officered by ,roman and ,french prelates4 ,bishops were its generals and an archdeacon its engineer4 ,the pope's ambassador was the commander-in-chief1 who1 when asked by a subordinate officer at the battle of ,beziers1 how the ,catholics might be distinguished from the misbelievers #fi and saved1 replied3 ,kill them all1 ,god will know ,his own in the resurrection4 ,in the church of ,st4 ,mary ,magdalene1 seven thousand persons were massacred4 ,in the city twenty thousand more were slaughtered4 ,the place was then fired and left as a monument of priestly vengeance4 ,image3 ,dungeon of the ,inquisition4 #gj ,at the massacre of ,levaur four hundred persons were piled together and burned4 ,the embassador1 in making up his dispatches to the pope1 said that they made a wonderful blaze1 and then went to burn everlastingly in hell4 ,it was hoped that these horrors would so terrify men that they would never again dare to use the ,god-given power of reason4 ,the soil had been steeped with the blood of men and the air polluted by their burnings2 yet all this did not stifle the truth1 nor prevent its growth4 ,hoping still to effect this1 that infernal institution1 the ,inquisition1 was established4 ,its projectors intended it not only to put an end to public teaching1 but also to private thought4 ,when once the ,inquisition seized its victim1 no person1 not even the nearest relative1 could converse with him1 write to him or intercede for him4 ,he was lost to public view until the hour for his torture or execution had arrived4 ,in ,spain alone more than three hundred and forty thousand passed through its terrible ordeal4 ,but this fearful tribunal did not fail to draw upon itself the indignation of men4 ,such outrages against humanity cannot be perpetrated without bringing retribution in the end4 ,the great forces which were then at work in society1 were well illustrated in the characters of the two leading actors4 ,on one side stands ,innocent ,,iii41 his hands red with the blood of his fellow-men1 and hesitating at no atrocity in order to accomplish his purposes4 ,on the other1 was ,frederick ,,ii41 emperor of ,germany and ,italy4 ,frederick's early life had been spent in familiar intercourse with ,jews and ,arabs4 ,in a ,saracen university he had received his education2 and to his many other accomplishments1 he added the speaking of the ,arabic as fluently as a ,saracen4 ,jewish and ,saracen philosophers had taught him to sneer at the pretensions of the church of ,rome3 as might be expected he soon came in conflict with her authority4 ,between ,innocent and ,frederick was perpetual enmity2 but for a time the conflict was deferred4 ,during this interval the greatness of ,frederick was manifested in the internal improvements of his kingdom4 ,he instituted a representative assembly or parliament1 which by his sanction framed a #ga code of wise and useful laws4 ,this code asserted the principle of equal rights to all1 the peasants1 the nobles and the church1 and an equal proportion of taxation4 ,it also provided for the toleration of all religions1 ,catholic1 ,jewish and ,mahometan4 ,frederick emancipated all the serfs and slaves of his dominions1 established cheap courts of justice for the poor1 and regulated trade and commerce4 ,he even laid down some of those commercial and political maxims recently discussed by ,adam ,smith and ,john ,stuart ,mill1 and only in our own times finally received as true4 ,he also established fairs and markets1 for the exchange of products1 and offered prizes for mechanical improvements and the best breeds of domestic animals4 ,in ,naples he founded a great university with liberal provision for worthy but indigent youths4 ,under him sculpture1 painting1 poetry and music were liberally patronized1 and the ,italian tongue first rose to the dignity of a language4 ,all this was an abomination in the sight of ,rome4 ,gregory ,,ix41 succeeded to the pontifical chair in ,a4 ,d4 #abbh4 ,frederick and his parliaments1 his laws and universities1 his libraries and his toleration were all denounced1 and ,frederick himself was delivered over to ,satan for the good of his soul4 ,for thirty years ,frederick combated the power of the church1 but he sank in the conflict at last4 ,but the fate of men is by no means an indication of the fate of principles4 ,truth crushed to earth will rise again1 ,the eternal years of ,god are hers4 ,though denounced then1 ,frederick is now considered one of the benefactors of his race4 ,meanwhile an ominous cloud was gathering in the horizon of ,rome4 ,the ,franciscans1 weary of poverty1 began to denounce the luxury and corruptions of the regular clergy4 ,at this juncture a strange book made its appearance1 which1 under the title of ,the ,everlasting ,gospel1 struck terror to the hearts of the papal authorities4 ,it was affirmed that an angel brought it from heaven and gave it to the priest called ,cyril1 who it was said delivered it to the ,abbot ,joachim1 by whom the book was published4 ,cyril #gb had been dead about fifty years when the work first made its appearance4 ,according to the admissions of ,catholic historians1 ,the work displayed an enlarged and masterly conception of the historical progress of humanity4 ,it claimed that ,romanism had done its work and must now make way for a new order of ideas4 ,it proceeded to show that there are epochs1 or ages in the divine government of the world4 ,during the ,jewish dispensation1 it had been under the immediate influence of ,god the ,father4 ,for the next twelve hundred years1 it had been under the control of ,god the ,son1 but the time has now arrived when the world would be under the special control of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,that man need no longer treasure up the relics of antiquity1 search after the sayings of the early fathers or even solely and implicitly rely on the letter of the ancient scriptures1 for the ,holy ,spirit would manifest itself in visions1 dreams and revelations to the children of men4 ,one of the grand principles which it taught was1 the divine right of private judgment4 ,it asserted that genius should not be considered an individual possession1 but rather the gift of ,god--the visible manifestation of the secret workings of the ,holy ,spirit for the elevation of the race4 ,in short1 it taught that every invention and discovery was only1 in some degree1 a revelation of ,god to man1 an unfolding of the secret laws of nature to man's finite understanding4 ,it considered1 those heroes as inspired1 who1 springing from society at appointed epochs1 displayed a mental or moral power beyond the ordinary limits of humanity1 and around whom1 as around a superior and mysterious power1 nations and individuals unhesitatingly gather4 ,it recognized the hand of ,god in those grand revolutions1 those great men1 those mighty nations1 which1 arising from obscurity1 communicate a fresh impulse1 new vigor and advanced ideas to the human race4 ,it was without doubt the most powerful written work which had appeared since the days of the apostles4 ,no wonder the pope1 ,alexander ,,iv41 took immediate measures for its destruction4 ,so far from being suppressed1 its copies were multiplied rapidly1 though printing was as yet unknown4 #gc ,on the far off plains of ,bohemia1 among the rugged mountains of the ,tyrol1 by ,alpine torrents and in the valleys of ,piedmont1 as well as on the distant shores of ,england and ,scotland1 its words were carefully read and pondered4 ,in size it was nearly equal to the ,new ,testament1 and by many of the humble classes it was revered as its equal in authority4 ,many of its truths were conveyed in the form of fable or parable4 ,historians generally write in the interest of some sect or party1 and finding in it little to flatter the pride or vanity of man1 have frequently passed it by in silence or have given it merely a passing notice1 but it was evidently an instrument in the hands of ,god for awakening human intellect4 ,meanwhile the boundaries of human knowledge were greatly enlarged4 ,chemistry and medicine had taken their places as established sciences4 ,roger ,bacon1 who was born ,a4 ,d4 #abad1 had already astonished the learned by his experiments and discoveries in optics1 mathematics and chemistry4 ,at the present time it is almost impossible to comprehend the difficulties and perils which then attended every step in experimental science4 ,for example1 in making some experiments on the properties of antimony1 or stibium1 as it was then called1 it was found that when given to the swine in their food it increased their fatness with surprising rapidity4 ,but when it was administered to some half-starved monks the poor fellows were every one killed4 ,hence the modern name of antimony1 from anti1 against1 and moine1 a monk4 ,it may also be added that antimony1 whether used as a medicine or in the composition of printer's type for the dissemination of truth is equally unhealthy for sectarian bigots of every description4 ,geographical knowledge had also been greatly extended4 ,adventurous merchants had sailed along both the eastern and western shores of ,africa far south of the equator1 for they discovered stars and constellations invisible in northern latitudes4 ,the ,azores and ,canary ,islands had been rediscovered after a lapse of more than a thousand years4 ,portuguese sailors had already made voyages to far off ,iceland1 the ,ullima ,thule of the ancients4 ,with the exception of north-eastern ,asia and southern ,africa1 the entire boundaries of the eastern continent were known4 ,marco ,polo1 in the #gd interests of ,venetian commerce1 had explored the vast regions of central ,asia1 and ,moorish merchants of ,tripoli1 by means of caravans1 had trafficked with the tribes of central ,africa4 ,the states of ,europe had commenced to assume their modern forms2 ,portugal had become independent of ,spain about ,a4 ,d4 #aaci2 ,switzerland1 under ,rudolph of ,hapsburg1 became a distinct nationality in ,a4 ,d4 #aaea2 ,ireland was subjugated by ,henry ,,ii41 of ,england1 in ,a4 ,d4 #aagb1 and ,british constitutional government commenced by wresting the ,magna ,charta from ,king ,john1 in ,a4 ,d4 #abae4 ,in fine arts we find that ,cimabue1 who was born in ,a4 ,d4 #aadj1 and his pupil ,giotto1 who was born in ,a4 ,d4 #abgf1 established the ,italian school of modern painting4 ,the foregoing will indicate to some extent the condition of society at the latter end of the thirteenth century4 ,the darkness of night had commenced to vanish4 ,the morning star of intelligence had arisen1 heralding the coming of a peaceful day-- ,a day not cloudless or devoid of storm1 ,but sunny for the most and clear and warm4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,morning ,,of ,,modern ,,times4 ,,lesson ,,from ,,heathen ,,mythology--,,vicissitudes ,,of ,,roman ,,church--,,boniface ,,pope--,,advancement ,,in ,,civilization--,,work ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,church--,,invention ,,of ,,printing--,,gutenberg--,,bible ,,first ,,printed--,,columbus--,,his ,,wonderful ,,dream--,,his ,,great ,,voyage--,,discovery ,,of ,,america--,,trials ,,and ,,triumphs4 ,it breaks--it comes--the misty shadows fly3 ,a rosy radiance gleams upon the sky2 ,the mountain tops reflect it calm and clear1 ,the plain is yet in shade1 but day is near4--,chas4 ,mackay4 ,the fifteenth century may be justly considered the commencement of modern times2 for then began the great #ge revolution in science1 religion and general knowledge1 which has continued until the present time4 ,the time-worn colossus of ,rome was tottering under its own weight4 ,great princes filled the thrones of all the principal countries of ,europe4 ,the minds of men seemed awakening as from a sleep4 ,a spirit of scientific research had seized the learned1 and a desire for knowledge found its way even to the homes of the lowly4 ,in every grade of society a new life was in motion4 ,what an age6 exclaimed ,huetton1 the religious knight of ,germany1 studies flourish1 minds are awakening2 it is a joy merely to be alive6 ,the history of those times cannot be correctly told by a simple recital of facts4 ,this truth should ever be acknowledged1 that ,god is ever present on that vast theatre where successive generations of men meet and struggle4 ,it is true ,he is unseen2 and the unthinking multitude may pass heedlessly by4 ,to the ignorant crowd1 the history of the world presents a confused chaos2 but to men of thought1 it appears as a majestic temple on which the invisible hand of ,god is at work4 ,modern minds might learn a lesson from heathen mythology4 ,the name given by the ancient ,greeks to the ,deity shows that they had received some primeval revelation of this great truth4 ,he was styled ,zeus1 or the life-giver to all that lives--to nations as well as individuals4 ,from his inspirations ,minos and other legislators professed to have received their laws2 and on his altars kings and people swore their solemn oaths4 ,this great truth is taught by one of the most beautiful fables of heathen mythology4 ,thus ,zeus1 the life-giving principle is the father of ,clio1 the muse of history1 whose mother is ,mnemosyne1 or memory4 ,history then is the memory of men's acts and ,god's providences1 and combines a heavenly with an earthly nature4 ,she is the daughter of ,god and man2 but1 alas1 the purblind philosophy of the nineteenth century has not attained to the lofty views of heathen wisdom6 ,what a startling fact1 that men brought up amid the glorious light of the present age should deny that divine #gf intervention in human affairs which even the very heathens admitted6 ,the beginning of the fifteenth century finds ,boniface ,,ix41 on the pontifical throne4 ,during his reign the papal power culminated and began to decline4 ,no empire of ancient or modern times has experienced such marvelous and varied vicissitudes1 as those which have befallen the empire of the ,roman church4 ,born in obscurity and reared in adversity1 that church nevertheless succeeded in climbing to a loftier throne and grasping the scepter of a more absolute dominion than either a ,xerxes or an ,alexander could boast4 ,pretending to despise mere worldly gains1 she cunningly turned the channels of riches towards herself1 and emptied them without scruple into her own coffers4 ,when ,boniface ascended the papal throne1 the authority of ,rome was apparently greater than ever2 but in reality it was much undermined by the advancing labors of civilization4 ,society had made a great advance in the previous eight hundred years4 ,in the seventh century1 a cloud of more than ,egyptian darkness overshadowed ,europe4 ,then it was occupied by wandering savages2 now it was organized into families1 neighborhoods and cities4 ,the seventh century left it full of bondmen2 the fifteenth found it without a slave4 ,where there had been trackless forests there were now the abodes of civilized men4 ,instead of bloody chieftains drinking out of their enemies' skulls1 there were grave professors teaching the laws of nature and the principles of science4 ,nor was this all4 ,rome herself had a preparatory work to do1 and had she confined herself to that work1 and sought not to trammel the minds of men1 she would have continued a blessing to the race4 ,never before in the history of the world was there such a system4 ,from her central seat she could equally take in a hemisphere at a glance or examine the private life of any individual4 ,in all ,europe there was not a man too great or too obscure1 too insignificant or too desolate for her4 ,surrounded by her solemnities every one received his name at her altar2 her bells chimed at his marriage2 and her knell tolled at his funeral4 ,when even to his friends his lifeless corpse had become an offense1 she received it into her #gg consecrated ground1 there to rest until the great reckoning day4 ,in times of lawlessness and rapine1 she sheltered the helpless from the tyrant1 and made her sanctuaries a refuge for the despairing and oppressed1 ,but like all man-made systems of religion1 she failed by attempting to enforce fixed laws on society in the presence of higher truths and advancing civilization4 ,during all these centuries mankind had slowly but surely advanced and ,abraham's seed1 the ,jews and ,saracens1 had been the leaders of that progress4 ,quietly the materials had been gathering until the whole continent was ripe for revolution4 ,meanwhile ,god had raised up instruments1 by which the commerce1 politics and religious thought of ,europe were completely changed4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #adhd1 there were living in various parts of ,europe three persons who were destined to set in motion these mighty movements4 ,these were ,gutenberg1 ,columbus and ,luther4 ,around these men cluster many notable events2 and a history of their lives and times would include some of the brightest pages in the annals of our race4 ,gutenberg was then an old man living at ,mentz1 in ,germany4 ,his broad shoulders1 well knit frame and strong arms showed that he was acquainted with labor1 and capable of great endurance4 ,his broad and full forehead indicated a man of reflective mind and inventive faculty4 ,his keen1 full grey eye revealed a soul full of earnestness1 intelligence and power4 ,he had conferred on mankind the most useful invention1 since ,cadmus1 nearly three thousand years ago1 taught the barbarian ,greeks the art of writing4 ,this invention was the art of printing1 which has been such a mighty instrument for the transmission of thought1 and the civilization of the world4 ,the ,saracens had already invented the art of making paper from linen rags4 ,previous to this1 parchment was the only substance well adapted for writing upon4 ,paper-making and printing produced great changes in the manufacture of books4 ,by the one1 books were greatly cheapened1 by the other1 greatly multiplied4 ,thought could now be transmitted cheaply and swiftly in a thousand different directions4 ,priestcraft saw the #gh danger1 and1 terrified lest truth should emerge1 immediately attempted to control and restrain the press4 ,at this time the art of printing was known to only five or six persons4 ,it is curious to observe that even war was the means of quickening the growth and extension of this wonderful art4 ,in #adfb1 the storming of ,mentz dispersed ,gutenberg and his co-workers and gave the secret to the world4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #adfe1 it appeared in ,italy2 in #adfi1 in ,france2 in #adgd1 ,caxton brought it to ,england1 and in #adgg it was introduced in ,spain4 ,meanwhile ,pope ,alexander ,,vi41 excommunicated all printers not licensed by him1 and an order was issued to burn all books not recommended by the papal authorities4 ,but these frantic struggles of the powers of darkness were unavailing4 ,lovers of books were gratified by seeing them multiplied by thousands4 ,the ,bible was printed as early as #aded1 and was followed shortly afterwards by other important books4 ,the power of the press continued to increase1 until at the present time it is without doubt the most powerful aid to modern civilization4 ,at the beginning of the fifteenth century a profound ignorance prevailed concerning the western regions of the ,atlantic4 ,its vast waters were regarded with awe and wonder2 and though from time to time1 pieces of carved wood and other relics of ,indian skill had floated to the shores of the old world1 giving to its wondering inhabitants evidences of land beyond the watery horizon1 yet no one ventured to spread a sail and seek that land veiled in mystery and peril4 ,columbus was the first who had the inspiration to conceive and the heroic courage to brave the mysteries of this perilous deep4 ,he unfolded to the wandering gaze of the inhabitants of ,europe a new hemisphere1 and opened it to their spirit of discovery and enterprise--opened it also1 alas1 to their cupidity and cruelty6 ,christopher ,columbus was born in the city ,genoa1 about #addg1 and became one of the most remarkable men of any land or time4 ,having carefully studied the sciences of geography and astronomy he became convinced that the earth was not flat1 as most men then believed1 but was really a vast globe or ball4 ,he perceived that when the moon was eclipsed1 the #gi shadow which the earth cast upon the moon was round2 and he reasoned that as the shadow was round1 the object that made that shadow must be round also4 ,he visited the great ,saracen schools in ,spain1 and there received additional proof of this truth4 ,spain1 was then a great maritime nation1 and there he conversed with great sea-captains whose voyages were already attracting the attention of the learned4 ,he himself also made a voyage to far off ,iceland1 and possibly to ,greenland1 to which country the pope had already sent a bishop and several missionaries4 ,image3 ,christopher ,columbus4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #adhe1 when ,columbus was about thirty-eight years of age he made his first application to the king of ,portugal for aid in his great scheme of maritime discovery1 but without success4 ,he then successively applied to ,spain1 ,genoa1 ,venice and ,england4 ,but the monarchs of ,europe were under the control of ,rome1 and therefore too busy in aiding her religious persecutions to listen to the appeals of science4 ,indeed in the very year in which ,columbus made his first application1 the ,inquisition put to death nearly seventeen thousand persons1 besides imprisoning thirty-two thousand #hj more4 ,nor was this all1 ninety-two thousand ,jews had suffered confiscation of their property1 and had been given the unenviable choice of death1 banishment or perpetual slavery4 ,and the ,saracens1 who had dwelt in ,spain for more than seven hundred years1 or nearly twice as long a time as has elapsed since the discovery of ,america1 were expelled from the lands which they had so long cultivated and beautified1 and from their cities which had so long led the world in the arts1 sciences and general civilization4 ,one evening in the autumn of ,a4 ,d4 #adhe1 a man of majestic appearance1 pale1 care-worn1 and though in the meridian of life1 with silver hair1 leading a little boy by the hand1 asked alms at the gate of a ,franciscan convent near ,polos--not for himself1 but only a little bread and water for his child4 ,that man was ,columbus1 destined to startle the inhabitants of ,europe with the discovery of a new continent4 ,but he was obliged to wait until he could take advantage of the commercial rivalry of ,spain and ,portugal4 ,the trade of ,eastern ,asia had always been a source of immense wealth to the nations that had controlled it4 ,for more than a thousand years ,venice had held the keys to that commerce4 ,as discoveries extended1 other nations perceived the possibility of opening new routes to the ,east and thus rivalling the commercial greatness of ,venice4 ,one of these plans was to sail around the southern end of ,africa1 the other to sail directly westward across the ,atlantic4 ,it was plain to every thinking person that if ,india could be reached by sailing westward1 maritime power would pass from the ,mediterranean countries to those upon the ,atlantic coast4 ,about this time ,columbus had a wonderful dream1 or vision4 ,an unknown voice spoke to him1 and said3 ,god will cause thy name to be wonderfully resounded throughout the earth2 and will give thee the keys to the ocean which are held with strong chains4 ,from this time forward1 ,columbus looked upon himself as chosen from among men to accomplish the purposes of heaven2 to bring the ends of the earth together1 that all nations1 and peoples1 and tongues might be united under the banner of the ,redeemer4 #ha ,isabella and ,ferdinand were then joint king and queen of ,spain4 ,meanwhile1 ,columbus had gained many influential friends1 among whom was a ,jewish sea-faring family named ,pinzon1 and ,luis de ,santangel the spiritual adviser of ,queen ,isabella4 ,at this time ,columbus seemed more likely to fall into the hands of the ,inquisition and suffer for his heresy than to succeed in his great enterprise4 ,at this juncture ,luis de ,santangel obtained audience with the queen1 and addressed her with all the energy of a man who speaks for the last time in behalf of a favored project4 ,isabella listened attentively1 hesitated a moment and then pledged her jewels to raise the amount necessary for the expedition4 ,contemporary writers have been enthusiastic in their descriptions of ,isabella3 but time has sanctioned their eulogies4 ,she is one of the purest and most beautiful characters on the pages of history4 ,at length1 on the #agth of ,april1 ,a4 ,d4 #adib1 ,columbus was ushered into the royal presence1 and received his commission4 ,immediately he commenced preparations1 and on the #crd of ,august1 #adib1 set sail on his ever-memorable voyage4 ,the expedition consisted of three small vessels3 the ,santa ,maria1 commanded by ,columbus2 the ,pinta1 by ,martin ,alonzo ,pinzon2 and the ,nina1 by ,vincent ,yanez ,pinzon4 ,the ,pinzons were doubly interested in this voyage1 for while they sought for a new and profitable route of commerce1 they doubtless also felt a desire to find an asylum for their persecuted ,jewish brethren4 7,see ,lovel's ,american ,history1 ,canadian edition47 ,having touched at the ,canary ,islands they sailed directly westward4 ,on losing sight of the last trace of land the hearts of the crews failed them4 ,behind them was everything dear to the heart of man3 country1 family1 friends1 life itself2 before them everything was chaos1 mystery and peril4 ,columbus tried in every way to soothe their distress and inspire them with his own glorious anticipations4 ,he described to them the magnificent countries to which he was about to conduct them3 the islands of the ,indian seas1 teeming with #hb gold and precious stones2 the regions of ,mangi and ,cathay with their cities of unrivalled wealth and splendor4 ,nor were these promises made for purposes of deception4 ,columbus evidently believed that he would realize them all4 ,for many days they were gently but speedily wafted over a tranquil sea1 but when near the middle of the ,atlantic1 they1 for the first time1 observed the variation of the needle of the compass1 which no longer pointed directly north1 but had veered around and pointed in a somewhat different direction4 ,image3 ,ships of ,columbus4 ,columbus was greatly perplexed yet dared not communicate his thoughts to anyone4 ,it seemed as if the very laws of nature were changing1 as they advanced1 and they were entering another world subject to unknown influences2 that the compass was about to lose its mysterious virtue1 and without that guide what was to become of them on a vast and trackless ocean8 ,columbus gave an explanation of this phenomenon which satisfied the crew though unsatisfactory to himself4 ,his situation was daily becoming more critical in proportion as they #hc approached the regions where he expected to find land4 ,at length1 on the #ith of ,october1 the crew broke out in open mutiny and threatened to throw him overboard1 designing then to return to ,spain4 ,a compromise was effected1 that if they would continue to sail westward three days longer1 and no land was discovered he would then return4 ,two days passed away and still no sight of land4 ,image3 ,landing of ,columbus4 #hd ,on the evening of the second day1 ,columbus remained on deck4 ,what were the feelings that pervaded his breast no one but ,god can tell2 with nothing but the heaving ocean beneath him and the silent stars o'er head4 ,anxiously he stands upon the prow of his vessel and peers into the darkness4 ,it is one o'clock6 ,suddenly a gleam as of a torch is seen in the horizon6 ,is it a flash of phosphoric light as is sometimes seen on the surface of these tropical seas1 or is it a blaze of fire indicating the habitations of men8 ,soon the joyful cry of ,ho6 land1 ho6 resounded throughout the ship1 and the booming of cannon announced the discovery to the other vessels4 ,when the dawning of the morning came1 they beheld in all their grandeur and beauty1 the hills and valleys1 streams and forests of a new world4 ,the men who had been so lately mutinous now came forward and bowed down before ,columbus1 and did homage to him as though he were a god4 ,trials before triumphs have ever been the lot of self-taught men1 and will be to the end of time4 ,if the chosen heroes of this earth were counted over1 they would be found to be men who stood alone and labored and waited2 while those for whom they agonized and toiled poured upon them contumely and scorn4 ,the very martyrs of the past who were hooted at1 reviled and spit upon by the mob1 are the ones who are honored now4 ,they suffered cruel tortures and burnings2 to-day1 the children of this generation are gathering up their scattered ashes to deposit them in the golden urn of a nation's history4 #he ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,influence ,,of ,,israel--,,discoverers ,,and ,,reformers4 ,,history ,,in ,,words--,,british ,,coat ,,of ,,arms--,,the ,,ten ,,tribes--,,account ,,of ,,esdras--,,dispersion ,,of ,,the ,,tribes--,,mixed ,,seed ,,of ,,israel--,,effect ,,on ,,european ,,society--,,jewish ,,influence--,,discovery ,,of ,,cape ,,of ,,good ,,hope--,,pacific ,,ocean ,,discovered--,,magellan',s ,,voyage--,,discovers ,,cape ,,horn--,,distance ,,sailed--,,death ,,of ,,magellan--,,voyage ,,completed--,,its ,,effect ,,on ,,the ,,public--,,huss ,,and ,,jerome ,,burned--,,john ,,ziska--,,persecutions ,,of ,,waldenses--,,capture ,,of ,,mentz--,,dispersion ,,of ,,printers--,,hans ,,boheim--,,joss ,,fritz--,,sale ,,of ,,indulgences--,,martin ,,luther ,,burns ,,the ,,pope',s ,,letter--,,grand ,,council ,,at ,,worms--,,rome ,,in ,a ,,rage--,,luther ,,kidnapped4 ,one of the most pleasing and at the same time instructive amusements in which a thoughtful mind can engage1 is to trace the derivation of certain words of our language to the primitive times and people where they originated1 and thus learn the social and mental condition of the people who first used them4 ,it is pleasing to know that dish and mop1 mat and rug1 and other household terms are the very words that were spoken by the women of ancient ,britain1 two thousand years ago1 and have been handed down from generation to generation1 with little or no variation4 ,in like manner the words ax1 plow1 house1 post1 bed1 fire1 and hundreds of others1 can be easily discerned under the old ,saxon forms4 ,and as these words are precisely those that would be used by a rude or half-civilized people1 while those words that refer to a more advanced state of society cannot be traced to our ,saxon ancestors we may correctly infer the extent of their knowledge #hf and social condition4 ,further1 as the ancient ,british words refer to domestic affairs while those of ,saxon origin refer exclusively to the avocations of man1 we can easily perceive that the ,anglo-,saxon tongue has originated from the marriage of the ancient ,british women with their ,saxon conquerors4 ,hence ,max ,muller1 the learned professor of languages1 in the university at ,oxford1 ,england1 very justly remarks that by means of philology we have a more accurate record of our race than any narrative written by prejudice or ill-informed historians4 ,now it is generally admitted that ,germans1 ,anglo-,saxons and men descended from these nationalities1 in one word1 ,german thought1 led the van of progress in science1 literature and religious thought1 during the fourteenth1 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and in fact has continued to do so up to the present time4 ,from the fifth century1 when ,attila1 king of the ,huns1 declared himself ,the scourge of ,god1 wave after wave of conquest by these hardy warriors had swept over the hills and plains of western and southern ,europe1 until their blood and their love of civil and religious liberty were infused into every ,european nation4 ,now the language of the ,goths1 or ancient ,germans1 plainly indicates that they were not the primitive people of ,europe1 but had conquered and intermingled with them in the same manner as the ,saxons conquered and intermingled with the inhabitants of ancient ,britain1 or the ,spaniards with those of ,mexico4 ,but it may be asked1 whence came they8 ,in this connection two other questions may also be asked3 why is it that the ,german language contains so many idioms and terms that bear a close relationship to the language of the ancient ,hebrews and ,chaldeans8 7,see ,max ,muller's lectures on language47 ,and why is it that the lion1 which was the emblem of ,judah1 and the unicorn1 which was the emblem of ,israel1 are in modern times1 emblazoned on the coat of arms of ,england8 7,see ,ant4 of ,jews by ,josephus1 also ,num4 xxiii41 #bb and ,deut4 xxxiii1 #ag47 ,these questions are worthy of deep and #hg careful consideration2 and to better understand them it will be necessary to briefly trace the history of the children of ,israel4 ,as is well known1 after the death of ,solomon the kingdom was divided into two parts1 known as the kingdom of ,judah and the kingdom of ,israel4 ,in #gcj ,b4 ,c1 ,hashem1 king of ,israel1 became tributary to ,shalmaneser1 king of ,assyria4 ,nine years later his capital was taken and the greater portion of the people were carried away captive beyond the river ,euphrates1 and people from other countries were put in possession of their inheritance4 ,in the ,apocrypha the ,prophet ,esdras states that these ten tribes went a journey of a year and a half into the north country4 ,he says3 ,these are the ten tribes which were carried away prisoners out of their own land in the time of ,hosea the king1 whom ,shalmaneser the king of ,assyria led away captive2 and he carried them over the waters so they came into another land4 ,but they took this council among themselves1 that they would leave the multitude of the heathen and go forth into a farther country where never mankind dwelt1 that they might there keep their statutes which they never kept in their own land4 ,for through that country there was a great way to go1 namely1 in a year and a half's journey1 and the same region is called ,arsareth4 7,,ii4 ,esdras1 xiii1 #dj1 #da1 #db and #de47 ,now by looking on a map of the eastern continent it will be seen at once that the ,black ,sea and the ,caucasus mountains lie directly north of the river ,euphrates4 ,it is quite possible that the ,black ,sea is the waters to which ,esdras refers4 ,also ,josephus1 in speaking of the return of the ,jews under ,esdras1 says1 ,many of them took their effects with them and came to ,babylon1 as very desirous of going down to ,jerusalem1 but then the entire body of the people of ,israel remained in that country1 wherefore there are but two tribes in ,asia and ,europe subject to the ,romans1 while the ten tribes are beyond the ,euphrates till now1 and are an immense multitude and not to be estimated by numbers4 7,ant4 ,book ,,ii4 chapter #e47 ,perhaps the words of the ancient ,roman are not altogether fable when he says that ,beyond the ,borean 7,caucasus7 ,mountains live a people who are sublime in their virtue since they #hh dwell very distant form the provinces1 in great simplicity and give great heed to the oracles which their gods have given unto them4 ,thus we have not only the sure word of prophecy1 but likewise the admission of heathen writers4 ,max ,muller1 in his work on language1 in referring to the migrations of ancient ,european tribes1 says1 ,two great routes lay before them1 one by way of the valleys of the ,don and ,volga across modern ,russia to the shores of the ,baltic1 the other along the shores of the ,black ,sea to the valley of the ,danube4 ,he also demonstrates the close relationship that exists between the ,hebrew language and the language of the people of ,finland in western ,russia4 ,considering that more than twenty-five centuries have rolled by since the dispersion of ,israel1 sufficient time has elapsed for mighty changes4 ,muller adds in another place1 ,the time was when the ancestors of the ,indians1 the ,fins1 the ,slavonic and ,german tribes of central ,europe and the modern ,english lived in one enclosure1 nay1 under the same roof4 ,in the latter part of the second century or beginning of the third1 these new settlers had spread as far westward as the ,danube1 and settled in the ,roman province of ,dacia1 which lay on the north bank of that river4 ,they also asked permission to cross the river which was granted under certain stipulations4 ,still they continued to increase in numbers1 and by inter-marriage with the native tribes had in the fifth century become formidable enemies of ,rome and under the name of ,dacians1 ,huns1 ,vandals1 ,ostrogoths1 ,visigoths1 ,suevi and ,heruli precipitated themselves upon ,italy and wreaked a terrible vengeance4 ,the history of some of these1 as the ,huns for example1 may be traced to the second century before the ,christian era and to the very locality indicated by the ,prophet ,esdras and by ,josephus4 ,for over twenty-six centuries these scattered tribes have continued to mix up with the nations of the earth1 but in their long migrations westward they have lost many of their distinctive characteristics4 #hi ,doubtless it is from this mixed seed of ,israel that many1 aye nearly all1 the great reformers1 inventors and discoverers have sprung4 ,this infusion of new blood had a marked effect on the nations of western ,europe1 but more especially on ,italy1 which had continued to decline1 from the days of ,augustus1 until these nations mingled with the degenerate ancient race1 and infused new life into her decaying civilization4 ,the result was that a succession of poets1 painters1 sculptors1 philosophers1 inventors and discoverers sprung up in ,italy and western ,europe unparalleled in the history of the world4 ,above all1 the invention of printing had just come in time to spread whatever new ideas were afloat1 with a rapidity never known before4 ,in fifty-two years from the time of that invention came the discovery of ,america4 ,five years later two ,jewish priests1 ,rabbi ,abraham1 and ,rabbi ,joseph1 brought to ,king ,john ,,ii41 of ,portugal1 a ,saracen map of the entire coast of ,africa4 ,thus instructed ,king ,john sent out several expeditions in one of which ,brazil was accidentally discovered4 ,aided by this1 ,vasco de ,gama set sail1 and on ,nov4 #bjth1 #adig1 rounded the cape of ,good ,hope4 ,sixteen years later ,balboa discovered the ,pacific ,ocean1 and six years still later1 or in ,a4 ,d4 #aeai1 ,magellan set out on his memorable voyage to circumnavigate the world4 ,the story of that voyage of wild adventure seems never to grow old by repeating4 ,the narrative of that voyage is too long for this brief sketch1 but a few items may not be out of place4 ,after many months of sailing in strange seas1 he at length discovered a new land to which he gave the name of ,patagonia4 ,here he found giants clad in skins1 one of whom was greatly terrified at seeing his own image in a looking-glass4 #ij ,image3 ,the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,his perseverance was at last rewarded1 and after fifteen months of struggling and adventures he discovered ,cape ,horn1 passed through the strait which now bears his name and entered the ,great ,south ,sea1 on ,nov4 #bhth1 #aebj4 ,an eye-witness relates that he shed tears of joy when he recognized its great expanse1 and that ,god had brought him where he might grapple with its unknown dangers4 ,admiring its placid #ia surface he courteously gave it the name it will ever bear1 the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,magellan was the first ,european to discover that when the nights are long in the northern hemisphere they are correspondingly short in the southern4 ,when he passed through the straits the nights were only four hours long4 ,at the same time in ,spain they were nearly fifteen hours long4 ,and now the great sailor having burst through the barrier of the great ,american continent steered for the north-west4 ,for three months and fifteen days he sailed on and on1 but saw no inhabited land4 ,he and his crew were compelled by famine to soak old leather in the sea1 then boil it and make of it a wretched food2 and to drink water that had become putrid by keeping2 yet he resolutely held his course1 though his men were dying daily4 ,he estimated that he sailed over this unknown sea more than twelve thousand miles4 ,in the whole history of human undertakings there is nothing that exceeds1 if indeed there is anything that equals1 this voyage of ,magellan4 ,that of ,columbus dwindles away in comparison4 ,it is a display of super-human courage and perseverance1 an exhibition of heroic resolution1 not to be diverted from its purpose by any motive1 or any suffering1 but inflexibly persisting to its end4 ,this unparalleled resolution met its reward at last4 ,he reached the ,ladrones1 a group of islands north of the equator4 ,thence he sailed to the ,spice ,islands1 where he met with ,european merchants4 ,he had accomplished his object and proven that the earth was round4 ,at an island called ,zebu1 or ,mutan1 he was murdered either by the natives or by his own men4 ,in a few days more his crew learned that they were actually in the vicinity of their friends4 ,on the morning of ,nov4 #hth1 #aeba1 they entered ,tidore1 the capital of the ,spice ,islands1 and the king swore upon the ,koran alliance to the sovereign of ,spain4 ,magellan's crew continued their voyage amid hardships and perils1 and at length1 on ,sept4 #ajth1 #aebb1 the good ship1 ,san ,vittoria1 sailed into the very port from which she had departed just three years and twenty-seven days before4 ,she had accomplished the greatest achievement in the history of the #ib human race4 ,she had circumnavigated the earth4 ,magellan lost his life in his great enterprise1 but he made his name immortal4 ,his lieutenant ,sebastian d',elcano received the proudest and noblest medal ever given to a sailor4 ,it was a golden globe belted with this inscription1 ,primus circumdedisti me--,thou hast first circumnavigated me4 ,at the present time it is almost impossible to conceive the effect of ,magellan's voyage had upon the public mind4 ,one of the leading dogmas of ,rome had been that the earth was flat4 ,now it was proved that the earth was indeed a vast ball4 ,if ,rome had been in error in this case1 where was her infallibility8 ,might not some of her other teachings be equally false8 ,many leading minds began to doubt her authority4 ,even ,pope ,leo ,x41 is said to have become skeptical4 ,at all events he chose to spend his leisure time in his library reading to his sister out of the beautiful new printed books which were then throwing a flood of intellectual light on all grades of society4 ,the philosophy of ,aristotle and ,plato1 the poems of ,homer and ,virgil1 the sciences of the ,saracens and the narratives of the adventures of ,columbus and ,vasco de ,gama had more charms for him than burning and torturing heretics as his predecessors had done4 ,while science was undermining the influence of ,rome in one direction1 religious thought was busy at work in another4 ,that great religious revolution commonly called the ,reformation had long been gathering its forces2 and already sounded from behind the ,alps the loud clarion of battle4 ,the memory of ,john ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague was still fresh in the minds of the populace4 ,huss had been burned at ,constance1 in ,a4 ,d4 #adae1 and ,jerome the year following4 ,when the news of these barbarous executions reached ,bohemia1 it threw the whole kingdom into confusion and a civil war was kindled from the ashes of the martyrs4 ,john ,ziska1 the leader of the populace1 collected an army of forty thousand men and defeated the emperor1 ,sigismund1 in several battles4 ,when ,ziska found that he was dying1 he gave orders that his skin should be made into a drum which was long the symbol of victory to his followers4 #ic ,image3 ,the ,rack4 ,the ,waldenses also who dwelt in the valleys of ,switzerland and ,piedmont had lively memories of cruel wrongs4 ,their ancestors had been destroyed by ,pope ,innocent ,,iii41 and as late as ,a4 ,d4 #adhg1 they had been driven to the mountains and obliged to wander there until their feeble and little ones were #id left buried in the ,alpine snows4 ,no wonder they chanted that grand old ,hymn1 commencing3 ,o ,god1 arise1 avenge ,thy slaughtered ,saints1 ,whose bones lie bleaching on the ,alpine mountains cold4 ,the writings of ,dante and ,petrarch1 ,reuchlin and ,erasmus1 were already scattered in every direction1 by means of the printing press1 and wielded a mighty influence in society4 ,the siege and capture of ,mentz1 in ,a4 ,d4 #adfb1 had the effect of scattering ,guttenberg and his co-workers4 ,printing presses were established immediately afterwards in ,italy1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,holland1 ,france and ,england4 ,in #adgf1 on the banks of the river ,maine1 in central ,germany had appeared a strange character named ,hans ,boheim4 ,he professed to be a prophet of ,god1 to have received visions1 and to have been sent to proclaim that the kingdom of heaven was at hand4 ,more than forty thousand men flocked to his standard4 ,at length the bishops of ,mentz and ,wurtzburg interfered1 dispersed the crowd and burned the prophet4 ,he was but a sign of the times--a voice crying in the wilderness4 ,his memory was not forgotten4 ,in #adic1 another movement took place1 and again in #aeja4 ,maximilian1 the emperor of ,germany1 ordered the leaders to be quartered alive and their wives and children to be banished4 ,but the fire was only slumbering4 ,in #aeab1 it commenced again on a larger scale4 ,it found a leader in ,joss ,fritz1 a soldier of commanding presence and great natural eloquence1 used to battle and above all to patience4 ,he was one of those who had escaped being quartered4 ,his banner was blue silk with a white cross1 and underneath the motto1 ,o ,lord1 help the righteous4 ,fritz was the ,william ,tell of his times4 ,no wonder his name is a favorite one among the ,germans4 ,these conflicts1 commonly known as the ,wars of the ,peasants1 had shown the masses that with more union and better information they were the real strength of the nation4 ,such was the condition of affairs in the very locality where1 four years afterwards1 burst forth the great religious revolution known as the ,reformation4 ,society seemed waiting for a coming man of strong will and fervent religious nature1 who should give something of organization #ie to those movements1 and gather around him an irresistible phalanx of the noble1 the learned and ardent spirits of the age4 ,this man was ,martin ,luther4 ,he came from his cell a shaven monk1 in his hand no sceptre1 on his head no crown4 ,but he had a human heart within him2 and it gushed out for human woe4 ,strong in the principles of right he hurled the firebrands of truth right and left and kindled such a flame that all the waves of error could never quench it4 ,the immediate cause of the ,reformation was when ,john ,tetzel1 in #aegd1 was sent into ,germany to sell indulgences4 ,the church of ,rome had long taught the people that the pope and clergy under him held the keys of heaven4 ,at this time the pope was in need of means to complete that great cathedral called ,st4 ,peter's ,church4 ,he therefore issued indulgences or pardons for all kinds of sins4 ,these pardons or indulgences entitled whoever bought them to a free passport to heaven4 ,nor was this all4 ,a man of sufficient wealth could purchase the pardon of a sin he intended to commit4 ,thus the civil law was shorn of its power and the nation of its wealth4 ,this bold blasphemy provoked the indignation of a people already ripe for revolution4 ,luther1 then thirty-four years of age1 began to denounce the sale of these indulgences4 ,in #aebj1 the pope issued a decree1 or bull1 as it was called1 condemning ,luther and his writings4 ,luther in turn defied the pope4 ,when the news reached him he took the decree and all the ,roman books he could find1 and on ,december #aj1 #aebj1 burned them in a public place just outside the walls of the city of ,wittenberg4 ,then ,luther was summoned to appear before a grand council1 or court1 to be held in the city of ,worms4 ,his friends procured him a passport or pledge of security1 lest the papal authorities should take his life4 ,accordingly1 on the #agth of ,april1 #aeba1 ,luther appeared before the council1 or diet1 as it was called4 ,the ,emperor ,charles ,v41 of ,germany1 presided in person4 ,when ,luther was asked to recant his opinions and deny his own teachings1 he not only refused to do so but also pleaded his own cause #if with eloquence and power4 ,so powerful were his arguments that many of the nobility were won over to his side4 ,a poor monk1 the son of a simple peasant1 clad in the armor of truth1 had defied and defeated the proudest potentates of earth6 ,no wonder that ,rome was in a rage6 ,no wonder that the friends of ,luther deemed it advisable to kidnap him and carry him away to the castle of ,wartburg1 in the solitudes of the ,thuringian forest6 ,no wonder that those valiant knights1 ,ulrich von ,hutten and ,franz von ,sickingen1 prepared to use their swords and eloquence in defense of right6 ,we may not in all things admire the character of ,luther or defend his acts2 yet no grander figure appears on the pages of modern history than ,luther1 as1 with one hand upon his breast and the other lifted towards heaven1 he refused the emperor's demand to retract his writings or deny the truth1 closing with these memorable words1 ,hier stehe ich1 ,gott helfe mir4 ,amen4 ,here ,i stand1 ,god help me4 ,amen4 ,the battle that ,luther fought was not only for ,germany and the sixteenth century1 but for all countries1 all peoples and all coming times4 ,it was a battle not merely against the pope1 but against all powers religious or secular1 that seek to enchain the human mind or prevent the free exercise of religion4 #ig ,,chapter ,x4 ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,reformation4 ,,germany ,,aroused--,,peasants' ,,war--,,muntzer',s ,,proclamation--,,emperor ,,quarrels ,,with ,,the ,,pope--,,results ,,in ,,other ,,countries--,,growth ,,of ,,modern ,,languages--,,luther',s ,,crowning ,,work--,,power ,,of ,,superstition--,,witchcraft--,,reformer s ,,not ,,inspired--,,extracts ,,from ,,mosheim--,,battle-,,ax ,,of ,,god--,,copernicus--,,galileo--,,newton --,,death ,,of ,,bruno--,,change ,,in ,,commercial ,,affairs--,,spanish ,,armada--,,blessed ,,by ,,the ,,pope--,,destroyed ,,by ,a ,,storm--,,its ,,effect ,,on ,,europe--,,england',s ,,influence ,,and ,,position--,,america ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,refuge4 ,as the booming of cannon1 announcing the beginning of battle echoes and re-echoes far and wide1 so did the result of the council1 or diet1 in the city of ,worms4 ,the answer of ,luther was repeated by thousands of sympathizing friends4 ,instead of growing fainter as it died away in the distance1 it increased in intensity and power1 till its echoes reverberated through every valley1 and over every hill-top in central ,germany4 ,within twenty-four hours ,ulrich von ,hutten and ,franz von ,sickingen had mustered four hundred armed knights and eight thousand foot soldiers all ready to fight1 or1 if need be1 to die for the principles ,luther had advocated4 ,the commotion continued until it culminated in a civil war1 in ,a4 ,d4 #aebe4 ,the horrors of that war no tongue can tell4 ,nightly the papal party burned at the stake the prisoners they had taken4 ,amid the groans of wounded and dying peasants on the battle field around them1 and the drunken revelry of the camp1 might be heard the laughter of the nobles as they watched the struggles and heard the shrieks of their victims as they slowly roasted to death4 ,but the revolution continued to spread4 ,the rage of #ih the peasants1 who had so long been crushed by the iron heel of oppression1 knew no bounds4 ,a few extracts from the proclamation of their leader1 ,munzer1 may not be out of place1 as they indicate to some extent the nature of the conflict then going on6 ,arise and fight the battle of the ,lord6 ,on6 on6 on6 ,now is the time2 the wicked tremble when they hear of you4 ,be pitiless6 ,heed not the groans of the impious6 ,rouse up ye townsmen and villagers2 above all1 rouse up ye free men of the mountains6 ,on6 on6 on6 while the fire is burning1 while the warm sword is yet reeking with the slaughter6 ,give the fire no time to go out1 the sword no time to cool6 ,kill all the proud ones6 ,while they reign over you it is no time to talk of ,god6 ,amen4 ,given at ,muhlhausen1 #aebe4 ,,thomas ,,munzer1 servant of ,god against the wicked4 ,such was the character of the men with whom the pope had to deal4 ,at length the emperor1 ,charles ,v41 found it politic to side with his people4 ,meanwhile ,clement ,,vii41 succeeded to the papal throne1 in #aebc4 ,the emperor and the new pope soon quarrelled1 and1 in #aebg1 a ,german army acting under the direction of the ,german emperor captured and sacked the imperial city of ,rome1 and more pitilessly pillaged it than it had been a thousand years before by the ,goths and ,vandals4 ,from this time ,rome ceased to be the capital of the professedly ,christian world4 ,but the revolution stayed not here4 ,its principles of reform passed over the ,alps and found a hearty welcome among the hardy mountaineers of ,switzerland4 ,it reached the ,rhine and with the current of that mighty river flowed onward to the sea4 ,the sturdy sons of ,holland received its teachings2 and the patient peasantry of ,denmark1 ,norway and ,sweden accepted it as an improvement on the past4 ,germany continued in the throes of revolution for more than thirty years1 or until the peace of ,augsburg1 in #aeee4 ,in the meantime ,england had revolted from ,rome1 in #aecb2 ,denmark followed in #aech2 ,geneva in #aeda2 ,norway and ,sweden in #aeej2 ,scotland in #aefj2 and ,holland in #aeha4 #ii ,never in the history of the world was fulfilled more literally the words that our ,savior said in reference to the truth3 ,think not that ,i am come to send peace on earth3 ,i came not to send peace but a sword1 etc4 7,see ,matt4 x4 #cd1 #ch47 ,for more than a hundred years ,europe continued to be the theatre of civil wars1 until the nations were completely exhausted--in some cases their power and influence permanently weakened4 ,we might in view of its immediate results1 be inclined to look upon the ,reformation as producing more evil than good4 ,yet amid the wars1 bloodshed1 anarchy and persecutions1 society made rapid steps in the path of progress4 ,the ,reformation promoted national growth1 and mental activity4 ,during the middle ages1 the various nations of ,europe were in the condition of colonies to a vast religious empire whose center and seat of government was ,rome4 ,but after the peace at ,augsburg1 #aeee1 all this was changed4 ,each nation that accepted the ,reformation1 became socially and religiously as well as politically free4 ,rome was shorn of her power4 ,she was no longer the supreme court of appeal2 nor did the high dignitaries of those realms look to her for preferment4 ,the ,reformation was obviously only partially successful4 ,where it succeeded it infused new energy2 where it failed it produced reaction4 ,those nations that rejected the light1 glimmering though it was1 fell back into the double bondage of kingcraft and priestcraft4 ,the ,bastile of ,france was a symbol of the one2 the ,inquisition of ,spain a type of the other4 ,wave after wave of revolution has swept over these unhappy countries4 ,the guilty streets of ,paris and ,madrid have been deluged with blood until their population has sunk down into religious apathy or brazen infidelity4 ,in no particular was the effect of the ,reformation more apparent than in the impulse it gave to national languages and literature4 ,latin had been the language of the ,roman empire and ,roman church4 ,but when the nations revolted from this central authority they immediately began to cultivate their own native tongues4 ,learning was no longer confined to the #ajj few1 nor communicated through the medium of a foreign language1 but became the heritage of the people4 ,the crowning work of ,luther was in giving to the ,german people his ,german ,bible and hymns4 ,the earnest1 vigorous ,german in which they were written fixed the future style of the language4 ,the classic ,german of to-day is the ,german of ,luther's ,bible1 and ,luther's hymns4 ,in ,england1 too1 the same thing is to be marked4 ,the ,english translation of the ,bible1 together with other works of that era1 such as ,shakspeare's dramas1 ,milton's poems and ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress1 have done more to stamp the character of our modern ,english than all later publications4 ,it may be asked1 ,why did not the human mind1 in this era1 free itself from its trammels1 claim its true freedom and concede it to every one8 ,the answer is1 the range of knowledge was too narrow4 ,the minds of men could not take a broader view of things than the horizon of their knowledge let them4 ,ignorance and superstition still held a terrible sway4 ,it is true that the whole character of that age bears the stamp of the ,german rather than the ,italian intellect4 ,it was the energy of a ,luther1 the learning and loving heart of a ,melanchthon1 the polished wit of an ,erasmus1 which then gave impulse and direction to the thoughts and opinions of the world1 much more than the frivolous jesting of the infidel priests who thronged the streets of ,rome and the halls of the ,vatican4 ,yet even these great men were controlled by superstition1 to a very great extent4 ,witchcraft was universally believed in at that time4 ,hundreds1 aye thousands1 of unoffending old women1 with no other fault than that they were poor and old1 were burned to death as witches1 instead of being treated with that respect due to those who have lived many years and spent their best days for the good of others4 ,social eminence was no safeguard against these delusions4 ,when it was affirmed that ,agnes ,sampson1 with two hundred other witches1 had sailed in sieves from ,leith to ,north ,berwick church to hold a banquet with the devil1 ,james ,i41 #aja had the torture applied to the wretched woman1 and took pleasure in putting appropriate questions to her4 ,it then was charged that the two hundred old women had baptized and then drowned a black cat1 thereby raising a dreadful storm in which the ship that carried the king narrowly escaped being wrecked4 ,upon this1 ,agnes was condemned to the flames4 ,she died protesting her innocence1 and piteously calling on ,jesus to have mercy on her for ,christian men would not4 ,of all the early reformers1 ,luther and ,melanchthon were perhaps the freest from superstition1 and yet even they devoutly believed that in the ,tiber1 not far distant from the pope's palace1 a monster had been found having the head of an ass1 the body of a man and the claws of a bird4 ,after searching their ,bibles to find out what the prodigy meant1 they at length concluded that it was one of the signs and wonders which were to precede the fall of the papacy1 and published a pamphlet about it4 ,yet ,luther and ,melanchthon were the leaders of a great movement1 the teachers of a great nation1 and were in every respect the most influential persons in that nation4 ,the people1 credulous and grossly ignorant1 listened and believed4 ,we1 at this distance of time and living in another realm of thought1 can form but a faint conception of the effect these horrible conceits produced upon them4 ,but the greatest need of those times was the want of divine authority4 ,the writings of ,luther1 ,melanchthon1 ,erasmus and ,calvin were never considered as inspired4 ,luther himself never professed to have divine authority for his teachings2 but on the other hand denounced the very idea of inspiration4 ,when1 in #aebe1 ,munzer and his associates 7commonly known as the prophets of ,zwickaw7 claimed divine authority1 ,luther was foremost in denouncing and persecuting them1 and their followers4 ,according to ,mosheim1 their principal crimes were in denying infant baptism and the right of a distinct class to preach for hire2 and asserting that ,god still continued to reveal ,his will to chosen persons by dreams and visions4 7,see ,mosheim ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #abh47 ,they also claimed that ,god in ,his own good time would erect to ,himself a holy church possessing a perfect organization1 and would set #ajb apart for the execution of this grand design1 a certain number of chosen instruments divinely assisted and prepared for this chosen work1 by the aid and inspiration of ,his ,holy ,spirit4 ,as a consequence they claimed the right to rebaptizing persons coming from other churches4 ,mosheim further admits1 ,the extreme difficulty of correcting or influencing by the prospect of suffering1 or even by the terrors of death1 minds that are firmly bound by the ties of religion4 ,in almost all the countries of ,europe1 an unspeakable number of those unhappy people preferred death1 in its worst forms1 to a retraction of their opinions4 ,neither the view of the flames that were kindled to consume them1 nor the ignominy of the gibbet1 nor the terrors of the sword1 could shake their invincible constancy or make them abandon tenets that appeared dearer to them than life itself and all its enjoyments4 7,see ,mosheim ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aca47 ,to this sect and its principles ,luther was bitterly opposed1 but this opposition argues nothing in his favor1 nor does it strengthen his authority4 ,it may also be added that if ,rome had divine authority1 ,luther had no right to secede from her4 ,but if1 as ,luther claimed1 she had through apostasy lost her authority1 then1 it may be asked1 ,from whence did ,luther receive his authority8 ,in all this1 ,luther's actions were indeed logical1 but fatal to the claims of modern sectarians who profess to be the ministers of ,christ4 ,luther was simply the battle-ax of ,god to hew down the edifice of popery which stood in the way of human progress4 ,the churches1 which1 under the leadership of ,luther1 ,melanchthon1 ,zwingle1 ,calvin1 ,knox and ,henry ,,viii4 of ,england1 separated from ,rome received the name of ,protestant4 ,and this very name implies that they were merely a protest against ,rome1 her teachings and authority4 ,the right of protesting being once granted1 it follows that others1 also1 have the right to protest against them4 ,this principle caused the long and bloody wars which were only closed by the peace of ,westphalia1 in #afdh1 and then it was found that central and northern ,europe had cast off the intellectual tyranny of ,rome1 and had established the right of every man to think for himself4 #ajc ,the ,protestant party having thus established its existence1 by protest and separation1 was obliged to submit to the operation of the same principles4 ,a decomposition into many rival sects was inevitable4 ,these having no central or controlling authority1 and no longer in fear of their great ,roman adversary1 commenced bitter warfares on each other2 ,lutherans persecuted ,catholics and ,catholics persecuted ,protestants1 and they in turn persecuted ,puritans4 ,even ,calvin proved the darkness of his own mind when he put to death the celebrated philosopher and physician1 ,michael ,servetus1 whose greatest crimes were that in religion he denied that the ,father1 the ,son and the ,holy ,ghost were one and the same person2 and in science he had partially succeeded in discovering the circulation of the blood4 ,the circumstances also were of the most atrocious character4 ,for two hours he was roasted in the flames of a slow fire1 begging for the love of ,god that they would put on more wood1 or do something to end his torture4 ,yet the death of ,servetus was not without advantage to the world4 ,men asked with amazement and indignation if the atrocities of the ,inquisition were again to be revived4 ,they saw at once that intolerance was not confined to the ,romish church4 ,in spite of all these commotions1 science was making rapid progress4 ,copernicus lived at the same time as ,luther and died two years before him4 ,his was as brave a life as ever lived in story4 ,for thirty-six years--at the very time the ,protestant struggle was raging--he was working at that immortal book1 in which he so clearly demonstrates the motions of the earth and the revolutions of the planets around the sun4 ,but he did not dare to publish it until there was a lull in the political storm4 ,he was then an old man in broken health4 ,his book was in the printer's hands when he was on his death bed4 ,he waited at death's door from day to day4 ,at length the messenger arrived with the printed book4 ,he received it with tears in his eyes1 composed himself and died4 ,copernicus was followed by ,tycho ,brahe1 ,kepler and ,galileo1 and last1 but by no means least1 ,isaac ,newton1 that scientific giant1 who burst through the fetters of the ages1 and taught #ajd man the laws1 harmony and grandeur of the ,creator's works4 ,during these troublous times ,leonardo da ,vinci wrote his celebrated works on mathematics and natural philosophy2 and the arts of painting1 sculpture and music were greatly improved under the direction of ,titian1 ,corregio1 ,michael ,angelo and ,filippo ,neri4 ,a few years later ,bruno wrote his work on the plurality of worlds4 ,copernicus having died soon after the publication of his works1 was beyond the reach of his persecutors4 ,galileo was brought before the ,inquisition1 and after years of imprisonment1 only saved his life by denying the great truths he had discovered4 ,but ,bruno heroically refused to recant1 and was tortured to death ,february #afth1 #agjj1 a martyr to the cause of truth4 ,while these things were transpiring1 great changes had taken place in the maritime and commercial affairs of the world4 ,bold navigators had sailed along the whole eastern coast of ,america1 and a large part of the western coast4 ,tolerably accurate maps of the outlines of the western hemisphere1 had been published as early as #aeij4 ,after these discoveries1 the great centers of commerce were no longer to be found on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 but had shifted to the shores of the ,atlantic4 ,england by her geographical position1 betwixt the two continents1 and in the very center of the inhabitable portion of the earth1 as well as the indomitable energy of her sons1 had rapidly become the foremost commercial nation of the world4 ,the great naval armament called the ,invincible ,armada1 was equipped for the subjugation of ,england2 but in the providence of ,god she destroyed the ,armada and paralysed the influence of ,spain4 ,in ,may1 #aehh1 a ,spanish fleet of one hundred and thirty ships sailed from the harbor of ,lisbon for the ,english coast4 ,some of these ships were the largest that had yet been built2 they carried eight thousand sailors1 and twenty thousand ,spanish troops4 ,the pope had blessed the expedition and offered the sovereignty of ,england as the conqueror's prize4 ,the ,catholics throughout ,europe were so confident of success #aje that they named the armament ,the ,invincible ,armada4 ,so vast was the number of ships that1 as they sailed along in the form of an inverted ,v 7thus 71 or in the form of a vast flock of wild geese1 the distance from one extremity of the fleet to the other was more than seven miles4 ,but they were destined to realize that ,god moves in a mysterious way1 ,his wonders to perform2 ,he plants ,his footsteps in the sea1 ,and rides upon the storm4 ,scarcely had the fleet entered the ,english channel when a storm arose which lasted more than a week4 ,the wind blew a perfect gale from the south-west1 so that it was impossible for them to return if they had so desired4 ,the line of battle could no longer be kept up4 ,they drifted helplessly and in disorder up the straits of ,dover4 ,when nearly opposite ,calais1 the ,english loaded several vessels with gunpowder1 set them on fire and sent them into the ,spanish fleet4 ,the explosions caused terrible havoc4 ,the ,spanish admiral no longer thought of victory1 but only of escape4 ,but his disasters were not yet ended4 ,many of his vessels were wrecked on the shores of ,norway and ,scotland4 ,in returning around the north coast of ,ireland a second storm was experienced with almost equal loss4 ,only a few shattered vessels of this mighty armament returned to ,spain to bring intelligence of the calamities that had overwhelmed the rest4 ,the defeat of the ,armada was regarded even then as the work of ,providence4 ,the ,spanish king1 when he heard the news1 exclaimed1 ,i did not expect to fight the elements6 ,thus was the triumph of the ,protestant cause secured1 the lovers of freedom throughout ,europe were encouraged1 and the power of ,spain forever paralysed in the affairs of ,europe4 ,henceforth the commerce and prosperity of ,spain declined4 ,king ,philip1 who had planned the ,armada1 died in #aeih1 and bequeathed a vast debt to his nation whose resources were already exhausted1 notwithstanding her rich mines of gold and silver in the new world4 ,in #aehi1 the next year after the destruction of the ,armada1 ,henry ,,iv11 the first ,protestant king of ,france1 #ajf ascended the throne1 and by the ,edict of ,nantes secured to the ,protestants the free exercise of their religion4 ,england1 at that time the mistress of the seas1 held the keys of the commerce of ,europe4 ,her long conflict with her ,catholic sovereigns1 and the ,catholic powers of ,europe1 had taught her self-reliance1 and had educated her people in the principles of self-government4 ,her laws were the best the world then new4 ,henceforth she became the favored land of the seed of ,abraham1 and the asylum of the oppressed of every nation4 ,the foregoing will indicate to some extent the condition of society in ,europe at the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,it is not surprising that under such circumstances men began to look toward ,america1 as the land of refuge1 where the institutions of liberty might be planted and fostered1 and political institutions framed which would insure unto all1 life1 liberty and religious toleration4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,ancient ,,american ,,civilization4 ,,columbus ,,destroyed ,,papal ,,dogmas--,,cruelty ,,of ,,spaniards--,,their ,,retribution--,,relics ,,in ,,massachusetts--,,newport ,,tower--,,mounds ,,in ,,ohio--,,remains ,,found ,,in ,,iowa--,,plates ,,found ,,in ,,illinois--,,ancient ,,mexican ,,pyramids--,,human ,,sacrifices--,,view ,,from ,,the ,,great ,,pyramid--,,ancient ,,american ,,sculptures--,,mammoths--,,mexican ,,customs--,,religious ,,rites--,,computation ,,of ,,time--,,arts ,,and ,,sciences--,,description ,,of ,,peru--,,its ,,civilization--,,massacre ,,of ,,the ,,incas--,,testimony ,,of ,,travellers--,,indian ,,traditions4 ,in ancient times1 ,rome had taught that the earth was flat2 and that the whole habitable world was comprised in the three divisions of the eastern continent4 ,to these divisions #ajg were assigned respectively the descendants of ,shem1 ,ham and ,japheth1 the three sons of ,noah4 ,when ,america was discovered1 these dogmas were obliged to fall4 ,if indeed ,columbus had1 as he supposed1 reached the ,indies by a westward voyage1 then the world was proven to be a vast ball4 ,if on the other hand ,america was a separate continent1 divided from the eastern by a wild waste of waters of many thousand miles in extent1 as was shown by the voyage of ,magellan1 a few years later1 then it was found necessary to account for the origin of the inhabitants4 ,the teachings of ,rome were altogether against their being descended from ,adam1 since none such were mentioned in their scriptures4 ,the protestant sects were too busy in their rivalries1 dissensions and civil wars1 to give much attention to the subject4 ,the stupendous event recorded in ,gen4 x4 #be1 seems to have entirely escaped their notice4 ,hence they proceeded to act towards the unfortunate inhabitants of ancient ,america1 as though they did not belong to the human race4 ,the conquest of ,mexico and ,peru by the ,spaniards will ever remain one of the bloodiest pictures in the book of ,time4 ,by millions upon millions1 whole races and nations were ruthlessly destroyed4 ,it was one unspeakable outrage1 one unutterable ruin1 without discrimination of age1 sex or character4 ,those who fell not by the sword1 died under the lash in a tropical clime1 or perished in the darkness and dampness of the mines4 ,from the fever-stricken coast of ,mexico1 and the gloom of dense forests in ,central ,america2 from hiding places in the clefts of the rocks1 and from the eternal snows of the ,andes1 where there was no witness but the all-seeing eye of ,god1 there went up to ,him a cry of human despair4 ,the ,bishop of ,chiapa affirms that more than fifteen millions were destroyed in his time4 ,from ,mexico and ,peru was crushed out a civilization that might have instructed ,europe4 ,what treasures would now be given for a view of that wonderful civilization and people that met the gaze of ,cortez and his companions6 #ajh ,image3 ,ancient ,peruvian ,residence4 ,is it for nothing that ,spain has been made a hideous skeleton among the nations--a warning spectacle to the world8 ,had not her punishment overtaken her1 men would have surely said3 ,there is no retribution2 there is no ,god4 ,she has been the instrument in the hands of ,rome of ruining two civilizations3 an eastern and a western3 and both of the #aji seed of ,abraham2 and in turn she has been ruined thereby herself4 ,with circumstances of dreadful barbarity1 she expelled the ,jews and ,saracens who had become the children of her soil by a residence of more than seven hundred years1 and in ,america destroyed nations1 in some respects more civilized than herself4 ,by expulsion she lost some of her best citizens2 and the wealth of ,mexico and ,peru1 induced habits of luxury and effeminacy among the remainder4 ,her great cities have sunk into insignificance1 and towns that once boasted of more than a million inhabitants can now only show a few scanty thousands4 ,surely the hand of ,god is visible in the degradation of ,spain4 ,it is not alone the massive ruins of ,central ,america1 ,yucatan1 ,peru and ,mexico1 that astonish the beholder4 ,in almost every part of the western continent may be found the footprints of a mighty race1 now vanished from the earth4 ,in the copper mines on the shores of ,lake ,superior1 have been found the implements of those who worked in those mines many centuries ago4 ,these instruments are made of copper1 yet some of them are of so fine a temper that they will turn the edge of the best steel instruments of our times4 ,a few years ago1 in digging down a hill near the town of ,fall ,river1 ,massachusetts1 a mass of earth slid off uncovering a human skull which was found to belong to a human skeleton buried in a sitting posture4 ,when the covering was removed1 the astonished workman saw that the trunk of the skeleton was encased in a breastplate of brass4 ,this breast plate was oval in form1 about thirteen inches long1 ten in width and nearly one-fourth of an inch in thickness4 ,below the breastplate1 and entirely encircling the body1 was a belt composed of brass tubes1 each four and a half inches in length and one-fourth of an inch in diameter4 ,the poet1 ,longfellow1 has written a poem on this subject with which1 no doubt1 many of our readers are familiar4 ,the poem commences3 ,speak1 speak thou fearful guest1 ,who1 with thy hollow breast4 ,still in rude armor drest1 ,comest to daunt me4 #aaj ,not far distant1 on the bank of the ,taunton river1 is the celebrated ,dighton ,rock1 a huge piece of fine-grained granite covered with sculptures and hieroglyphic inscriptions4 ,both the skeleton and the inscriptions on the rock seem to be of ,asiatic origin4 ,the armor is the same as appears in drawings taken from the sculptures found at ,palanque1 ,mexico4 ,image3 ,ancient ,tower at ,newport4 ,not far from ,newport1 in the state of ,rhode ,island1 near the sea shore1 is a strange tower1 which may have been the base for a beacon or light-house4 ,at ,marietta1 ,ohio1 are ancient works that cover an area about three-fourths of a mile long1 and half a mile broad4 ,but #aaa the most intricate1 and perhaps the most extensive1 are those in the ,licking ,valley1 near ,newark1 ,ohio1 extending over an area of two square miles4 ,these mounds are evidently the remains of ancient fortifications1 as they are invariably situated on a commanding eminence1 or by the side of a stream4 ,many of these mounds have been found to contain skeletons2 and the appearance of the bones would seem to point to an antiquity of more than a thousand years4 ,curious pottery1 known as coil-made pottery1 has been found in the mounds and caves1 and at the ruined pueblos1 or ancient villages1 in ,utah4 ,these vessels seem to have been formed without the aid of a potter's wheel1 by coiling bands of clay upon themselves4 ,other relics have been discovered in various parts of the continent which throw some light on the mental and social condition of the ancient inhabitants of ,america4 ,in ,august1 #ahge1 on an island in the ,mississippi river1 near the city of ,davenport1 ,iowa1 was found a petrified skeleton4 ,but the most singular part of the find came to light in the hardened and petrified straps1 bronze buckles and wooden leg which continued the right extremity1 that limb having been removed about midway between the hip and knee4 ,this very interesting discovery proves that the arts of manufacturing bronze1 and artificial limbs1 as well as the art of surgery1 were well known among the ancient ,americans4 ,these remains were handed over to the ,academy of ,sciences1 and a photograph was taken of the inscription contained on a rock in the vicinity4 ,a copy of this photograph was forwarded to the late ,mr4 ,barfoot1 then curator of the ,deseret ,museum1 in ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,on the #afth of ,april1 #ahdc1 in a mound near ,kinderhook1 ,pike county1 ,illinois1 were found six plates of brass of a bell shape1 each having a hole near the small end1 and a ring through them all4 ,the plates were so completely covered with rust1 as almost to obliterate the characters inscribed upon each side of them4 ,but after undergoing a chemical process1 the inscriptions were brought out plain and distinct4 ,there were indications that lead to the belief that this mound was the tomb of a family or person of distinction1 in #aab ages long gone by2 and these plates probably contain the history of a person or people who existed at a time far beyond the memory of the present race4 7,for further particulars see appendix to ,o4 ,pratt's ,works47 ,in #ahae1 near ,pittsfield1 ,mass41 at a place called ,indian ,hill1 was found what appeared to be a black strap about six inches in length and one and a half in breadth1 and about the thickness of a leather trace to a harness4 ,on examination it was found to be formed of two pieces of thick raw-hide sewed and made water-tight with the sinews of some animal and gummed over2 and in the fold were contained pieces of parchment1 of a dark-yellow hue and on which was some kind of writing4 ,three of the pieces were preserved and sent to the ,university of ,cambridge1 ,mass41 where they were examined and discovered to have been written with a pen in ,hebrew1 plain and legible4 ,the writing was quotations from the ,old ,testament1 ,deut1 vi4 #d-i1 inclusive1 and chap4 xi4 #ac-ba1 inclusive1 and ,exodus xiii1 #aa-af1 inclusive4 7,see ,voice of ,warning47 ,the ancient ,mexican pyramids1 teocallis1 or temples of the sun1 were still more remarkable4 ,two of the most ancient of these1 near the city of ,mexico1 were each nearly #bjj feet high1 and the larger of these two1 covers an area of eleven acres1 which is nearly equal to that of the pyramid of ,cheops1 in ,egypt4 ,but the greatest pyramid was that of ,cholula4 ,each side of its base was one thousand four hundred and twenty-three feet1 twice as long as the great pyramid of ,cheops4 ,it may give some idea of its dimensions to state that its base covers nearly forty-four acres1 and the area on its summit embraces more than one4 ,on this elevation stood a costly temple1 in which was the image of the mystic deity ,quetzalcoatl god of the air1 wearing a mitre on his head1 waving with plumes of fire4 ,a resplendent collar of gold hung around his neck3 he held a richly-jeweled scepter of gold in one hand1 and a curiously painted shield1 emblematic of his rule over the winds1 in the other4 ,this temple faced the east1 and in front of it1 and in view of the whole valley1 was the great altar of porphyry on which were offered human sacrifices4 #aac ,each year1 one was chosen from the most illustrious captives taken in war4 ,he was arrayed in costly apparel4 ,he feasted on the most delicate viands4 ,the people did homage to him as to a king4 ,whatever could contribute to his pleasure was freely given4 ,at length the fatal day arrives4 ,slowly and by a circuitous route a procession ascends the pyramid4 ,it is composed of the captive1 ,mexican priests1 and some of the notables of the government1 accompanied by bands of music4 ,as they ascend the captive throws away his garlands1 then his jewels and at length portions of his dress1 as emblematic that death will disrobe us all4 ,having arrived at the top1 he is stretched upon the huge altar of stone1 and there sacrificed for the sins of the people4 ,afterwards the people feast upon his flesh--not as famished cannibals--but at a table teeming with delicious fruits and fragrant flowers4 ,they who partook of his flesh were considered to have an especial share in the merits of the sacrifice4 ,compare with this1 ,john1 vi4 chapter1 #dh to #ee verse1 ,,iii4 ,nephi1 xviii4 chapter4 ,some idea may thus be gained concerning the origin of these rites and their terrible perversion caused by apostasy4 ,nothing can be more grand than the view which meets the eye1 from the area on the summit of the pyramid4 ,towards the ,west stretched that bold barrier of rocks1 which nature has reared around the valley of ,mexico4 ,far away to the ,east are the barren though beautifully-shaped ,sierras1 towering high into the clouds and standing like sentinels to guard the entrance to the valley4 ,three of these are volcanoes1 higher than the highest mountain peak in ,europe1 and shrouded in snows which never melt under the fierce sun of the tropics4 ,at the feet of the spectator lay the sacred city of ,cholula with its bright towers and pinnacles sparkling in the sun1 reposing amidst gardens and verdant groves4 ,such was the magnificent prospect which met the gaze of ,cortes and his companions1 and may still with slight change1 meet that of the modern traveller1 as from the platform of the great pyramid1 his eye wanders over the fairest portion of the beautiful plateau of ,pueblo4 ,now the question arises1 who built these mounds in the ,mississippi valley1 and these pyramids in ,mexico8 ,to #aad what race belong the relics found in ,massachusetts1 ,illinois and ,iowa8 ,surely not to the ,indians who were found in ,america when the country was discovered2 for these things indicate a greater skill and culture than those tribes possessed4 ,antiquaries have furnished many theories to answer this question which arises in the mind of every student4 ,some of these theories are very ingenious1 but all are lacking in that important element1 truth4 ,for more than three hundred years no certain light was thrown upon the history of that race4 ,but that which man could not find out1 with all his learning and research1 ,god has revealed in ,his own due time4 ,and here we see a wonderful manifestation of the hand of ,god in the history of this continent4 ,a record1 authentic1 though brief1 has been given to the world4 ,the writings of some of the ancient worthies of that race have been preserved in the earth and have now come forth for the guidance and instruction of living men4 ,the ,book of ,mormon contains sketches of their history and the dealings of ,god with these peoples in a similar manner1 as the ,bible teaches the history and dealings of ,god with ,his ancient people1 the ,jews4 ,it also contains many incidental references to their mental and social condition and the extent to which the arts and sciences were cultivated among them4 ,it teaches us that when the ,lord confounded the languages at ,babel1 ,he led forth a colony from thence to the western continent1 now called ,america4 ,this colony1 after crossing the ocean in eight vessels and landing in this country1 became in process of time a great nation4 ,they inhabited ,america about fifteen hundred years but were at length destroyed for their wickedness1 about six hundred years before ,christ4 ,a prophet by the name of ,ether wrote their history and an account of their destruction4 ,this people is known in modern history by the name of ,toltecs1 the ruins of whose edifices are widely scattered in ,yucatan and ,central ,america4 #aae ,image3 ,mammoth4 ,the sculptures and hieroglyphics on these ruins bear a striking resemblance to those found in the ruins of ,babylon and ,nineveh4 ,it also appears that the mammoth1 or ,american elephant1 and mastodon--animals which are now extinct--then roamed the wilds of the western continent2 for representations of these animals are often found sculptured on the walls of ,toltec ruins4 ,some persons have tried to throw doubts upon these statements alleging that no such animals ever existed outside of tropical regions4 ,however1 numerous remains of them have been found in various parts of ,america1 especially in ,kentucky1 ,ohio1 ,missouri and ,oregon4 ,in ,siberia they have been found frozen in a complete state of preservation4 ,the illustrious ,rufin ,piotrowski1 a ,polish #aaf exile1 gives a full account of these animals and the methods employed by the ,russian government in cutting them out of the ice4 7,see ,souvenirs d'un ,siberien47 ,it is no doubt to these animals that reference is made in the fourth chapter of the book of ,ether4 ,after this1 another colony came from ,jerusalem about six hundred years before ,christ and re-peopled ,america4 ,this last colony grew and multiplied1 and finally gave rise to two mighty nations4 ,one of these was called ,nephites1 the other ,lamanites4 ,the ,nephites were a civilized and enlightened people4 ,for nearly one thousand years they were1 from time to time1 favored with revelations from ,god4 ,prophet after prophet was raised up from among them1 and at length they were blessed with a personal appearance of ,jesus ,christ1 after ,his resurrection1 from whose mouth they received the doctrine of the gospel and a knowledge of the future down through all succeeding ages4 ,but1 after all the blessings and privileges conferred upon them1 they fell into great wickedness in the third and fourth centuries of the ,christian era1 and finally were destroyed by their enemies1 the ,lamanites4 ,but though the ,nephite race has vanished from the earth1 still the grandeur of its ruins attest the greatness of its civilization4 ,indeed it seems impossible to understand the character and extent of these ruins unless we admit the truth of the records given by ,mosiah1 ,alma and ,nephi1 concerning the arts1 sciences1 mode of warfare1 religion and subsequent apostasy and degradation of that people4 ,in fact1 as researches continue it becomes more and more evident that ancient ,american civilization was only a transcript of ancient ,jewish and ,egyptian architecture1 manners1 customs and modes of thought4 ,in matters of government1 the pomp of their monarchs1 the arbitrary power1 and the obligation of all to military service present a striking resemblance to the powers and privileges of the kings of ancient ,israel4 ,likewise their religious state was only a reflection of that of ,asia4 ,their worship was an imposing ceremonial4 ,though the common people had a mythology of many gods1 similar to the saint-worship #aag of ,rome1 yet the higher-cultured classes acknowledged but one almighty ,creator4 ,marriage was celebrated by religious ceremonies and the laws pertaining thereto bore a striking resemblance to those of ancient ,israel4 ,polygamy was sanctioned1 but in practice was generally confined to the wealthy4 ,the priests administered a rite of baptism to infants and proselytes for the purpose of washing away their sins4 ,they also taught that there are rewards and punishments in a world to come--a paradise for the good1 and a hell of darkness for the wicked4 ,but the highest glory and reward was preserved for the noble few who fell in sacrifice or in battle for the cause of right4 ,they went directly in to the presence of the sun1 whom they accompanied in his bright progress through the heavens4 ,after a few years these spirits went to animate the clouds and add luster to the glories of the sunset1 or were sent to rule over and increase the pure and undying light of the stars4 ,who does not see in all this the traces of a purer religion1 which centuries of apostasy and degradation had not been able to entirely destroy8 ,this is all the more manifest when we consider some of their maxims and forms of prayer4 ,one was3 ,bear injuries with humility1 ,god1 who sees1 will avenge you4 ,another was3 ,clothe the naked and feed the hungry1 whatever privations it may cost thee2 for remember1 their flesh is like thine and they are men like thee4 ,again3 ,impart to us1 ,lord1 out of ,thy great mercy ,thy gifts which we are not worthy to receive through our own merits4 ,also3 ,o1 merciful ,lord1 thou who knowest the secrets of all hearts1 let ,thy forgiveness and favor descend4 ,in all these we find sentiments such as are contained in the scriptures of the ,old ,testament4 ,one of the most important duties of the priesthood was that of education1 to which certain buildings were appropriated4 ,to each of the principal temples1 schools were attached and lands were annexed for the maintenance of the priests4 ,their writings were on cotton cloth or skins1 or on papyrus1 a kind of paper made from the aloe4 ,at the time of the ,spanish conquest1 vast collections of these manuscripts were in existence2 but the first archbishop of ,mexico1 burned them in the #aah market-place4 ,rome was determined that no literature should exist but her own4 ,the ,mexican year consisted of eighteen months and each month of twenty days2 five days were added to make the number to three hundred and sixty-five4 ,to provide for the leap years they added twenty-four days to each century4 ,the ,mexican mode of reckoning was then superior to that of ,europe4 ,when the nations of ,europe adopted the calendar discovered and perfected by the ,jews and ,saracens1 then their mode of reckoning corresponded with that discovered by the seed of ,abraham on this continent and both were true4 ,the ancient ,americans had ascertained the globular form of the earth previous to their contact with ,europeans4 ,catholic ,europe would not admit that truth till compelled to by the voyages of ,columbus and ,magellan4 ,their agriculture was in some respects superior to that of ,europe4 ,there was nothing in the old world to compare with the menageries and botanical gardens of ,huax-tepec1 ,chapultepec and ,tezcuco4 ,they excelled in the arts of the jeweller and enameller4 ,they were skillful weavers of fine cloth4 ,they were not ignorant of the use of iron2 and understood the manufacture of bronze1 of which they also made use4 ,to them we are indebted for tobacco1 snuff1 chocolate and cochineal4 ,from them we learned the use of the potato1 which has now extended to all parts of the civilized world4 ,they1 like us1 knew the use of intoxicating drinks2 and like us sometimes partook of them to excess4 ,this sketch would be incomplete without a reference to the civilization of ,peru4 ,as ,egypt was the cradle of civilization in the old world1 so ,peru was in the new4 ,like ,egypt also it was in most parts a rainless region4 ,the ancient ,peruvian empire was nearly two thousand four hundred miles in length1 but scarcely sixty miles in width--a narrow strip hemmed in between the grand ,andes mountains and the ,pacific ocean4 #aai ,image3 ,mummy4 ,the sides of this great mountain range might seem altogether unfitted for agriculture4 ,but the advanced state of ,peruvian civilization is at once demonstrated when it is said that these mountain slopes had become a garden4 ,immense terraces were constructed wherever required1 and irrigation was employed on the grandest scale the world has ever seen4 ,peru possessed a varied climate4 ,in the lower valleys near the coast could be raised all the products of tropical regions1 at an elevation of a few thousand feet the climate was adapted for grains of a temperate zone4 ,on table-lands1 at a great elevation above the sea1 there were villages and even cities4 ,thus the plain on which ,quito stands1 under the equator1 is nearly ten thousand feet high1 and enjoys a climate of perpetual #abj spring4 ,so great was their industry that the ,peruvians had gardens and orchards above the clouds1 and on ranges still higher flocks of sheep and llamas1 in regions bordering on the limit of perpetual snow4 ,in ,cuzco1 the metropolis1 was the residence of the inca or emperor1 and the great temple of the sun4 ,the inca was both temporal prince and ruling priest of their religion4 ,though they ostensibly worshiped the sun1 yet the higher classes recognized the existence of one almighty1 invisible ,god4 ,like the ,egyptians1 the ,peruvians understood the art of embalming the dead4 ,the mummies of their incas being placed in the vaults beneath the temple of the sun1 at ,cuzco4 ,this city contained edifices which excited the amazement of the ,spanish adventurers themselves--streets1 squares1 bridges and fortresses surrounded by turreted walls4 ,the public walls of ,peru as well as ,mexico were superior to those of ,spain herself4 ,two great military roads extended the whole length of the empire--one along the coast1 the other along the base of the mountains4 ,these highways greatly aided the ,spaniards in their conquest of the country4 ,having gained possession of the country and robbed the inhabitants of their gold1 silver and precious stones1 they put to death the inca and nobility1 and took possession of their residences4 ,the enormous crime of ,spain in destroying this civilization has never been fully appreciated4 ,in vain the ,spaniards excuse their atrocities1 on the plea that those nations were savages and permitted human sacrifices4 ,true1 the nations of ,america sank very low when the light of the gospel was withdrawn2 but every candid mind will ask3 ,which was the more degraded1 papal ,europe or apostate ,america8 ,human sacrifice1 however cruel1 has nothing in it degrading to its victim4 ,it may be rather said to ennoble him by devoting him to the gods4 ,although so terrible with the ,mexicans1 it was sometimes voluntarily embraced by them as the most glorious death1 and one that opened a sure passage into paradise4 ,there was no spectacle on the ,american continent1 at which a just man might so deeply blush for his race as that presented #aba in ,western ,europe when the martyr1 from whom confession had been wrung by torture1 passed to the stake in a sleeveless garment1 with flames of fire and pictures of devils painted upon it4 ,let it be remembered that from ,a4 ,d4 #adha to #ahjh1 more than three hundred and forty thousand persons had been tortured1 and out of these nearly thirty-two thousand burnt4 ,image3 ,massacre of the ,incas4 ,let it also be remembered that the body of man is of less value than the immortal soul1 for the redemption of which the agony and death of the ,son of ,god was not too great a price to pay4 ,let it not be forgotten that at that period the entire authority of ,europe was directed to the enslaving of the minds and souls of men and making that noblest creation of heaven a worthless machine4 #abb ,everywhere throughout the continent may be found traces of ,bible and ,nephite history4 ,humbolt1 in his travels1 mentions a multitude of native books in which were described all the leading circumstances and history of the deluge1 of the fall of man1 and the first murder as perpetrated by ,cain4 ,clavigero1 in his history of ,mexico1 tells of an ancient native manuscript1 found at ,chiapa1 which gives a plain and brief account of the building of the tower of ,babel1 the confusion of tongues1 and the subsequent migration of ,votan1 or ,jotan1 7no doubt a corruption of ,jared7 and his companions to the continent of ,america4 ,the ,indians of ,cuba related to ,bernal ,diaz1 a companion and historian of ,columbus1 a complete and scarcely corrupted account of the deluge1 the intoxication of ,noah and ,ham's shameful conduct4 ,humboldt mentions numerous traditions existing among the natives of ,yucatan and ,central ,america concerning a great religious teacher1 a wonderful personage1 whom they called ,quetzalcoatl1 and who was a white and bearded man4 ,many things are said of him in their books of parchment1 and among others1 that when he left them he gave them wise laws and maxims1 and promised to return and rule over them and renew their happiness4 ,compare with this the record of ,nephi4 7,see ,,iii4 ,nephi1 chap4 ii4 to xxviii4 inclusive47 ,a tradition of the ,wyandott ,indians1 published by ,frederick ,falley1 of ,sandusky1 ,o41 in #ahbc1 gives a plain account of the battle of ,cumorah4 ,both ,breckenridge and ,humboldt conclude that a great battle took place in the region of the great lakes not later than the year #edd of the ,christian era1 after which the ,aztecs ,lamanites took possession of the country southward4 ,the foregoing will indicate to some extent the workings of the hand of ,god1 as manifested in the history of this continent4 ,volumes might be written on this subject1 but enough has been said to awaken inquiry among the honest-in-heart and indicate the treasures contained in the ,nephite annals1 and corroborated by the ruins of ,this old1 old land1 which men call new2 ,this land as old as time is old4 #abc ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,colonization ,,of ,,acadia4 ,,england',s ,,development--,,reign ,,of ,,elizabeth--,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,bible--,,tyranny ,,of ,,the ,,kings--,,jacques ,,cartier--,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,st4 ,,lawrence--,,quebec ,,founded--,,acadia ,,colonized--,,transferred ,,to ,,england--,,extracts ,,from ,,longfellow',s ,,poem--,,virginia ,,settled4 ,in previous chapters we have traced the instrumentalities which ,god used in the unshackling of the minds of men from the superstitions of the past1 and disciplining them for the reception of higher truths4 ,we have seen how1 amidst the rage of tyrants and in spite of the opposition of the powers of evil1 society had gradually climbed to a loftier intellectual eminence than that to which she had attained in any previous age4 ,the time had at length arrived1 when1 far from the jarring scenes of ,europe's strife1 a nation was to come into existence1 earnest in its love of human liberty1 and vigorous in the execution of its purposes--a nation1 which should accomplish some of the mightiest achievements of the human race2 and where1 under the benign influences of its political institutions1 and in the ,lord's due time1 the gospel should be again revealed and the ,kingdom of ,god set up among the children of men4 ,to rightly understand the history and character of an individual1 we must know something of his parentage and the circumstances of his early life4 ,hence to understand the character of the ,american people1 we must know something of their great national mother1 the people of ,england4 ,the defeat of the great ,spanish armada delivered ,england from the control of continental ,europe1 and marked a critical epoch in her development4 ,from that hour ,england's destiny #abd was fixed4 ,she was to be the great protestant power4 ,her sphere of action was to be upon the seas4 ,she was to take a leading part in the new world of the west4 ,the time was coming when her commerce should surpass all the nations of ancient or modern times2 but1 above all1 her language and literature were fast developing1 by means of which her laws and influence would effect the remotest nations of the earth4 ,hitherto ,england had lagged behind in the intellectual development of ,europe4 ,in the single reign of ,elizabeth she leaped to the first rank among the nations of the earth2 nay more1 she was to become the mother of nations4 ,an impression1 vague and shadowy indeed1 but none the less real1 penetrated the minds of the ,english people1 that they were to be the repository of the divine will1 and the executor of ,his purposes--that the blessings and prerogatives of ancient ,israel1 were to be their inheritance4 ,beneath the rough exterior and blunt manners of that age1 lay the new sense of a prophetic power--the sense of a divine commission4 ,and who will say that they were wrong1 or prove that they were not divinely commissioned to break down the barriers to human progress1 and to some extent prepare society for the dispensation of the fullness of times8 ,the ,english translation of the ,bible1 became the great rule of life4 ,the whole moral effect which is now produced by the newspaper1 the sermon1 the lecture and the circulating library was then produced by the ,bible alone2 and its effect on the national character was simply amazing4 ,religion was no longer confined to the cloister and cathedral1 but became a subject of thought for every individual4 ,the profound meditations that ,shakspeare puts into the mouth of ,hamlet were but a transcript of the thoughts and feelings of the earnest men of that age1 who saw themselves day by day in the theater of a mighty struggle between the powers of light and the powers of darkness--their souls the prize of an eternal conflict between heaven and hell4 ,it was this phase of thought that gave to the world the sublime conceptions of ,milton1 the realistic dreams of ,bunyan1 as well as the stern and solemn character of ,oliver ,cromwell and his followers2 and made these liberty-loving peasants more #abe than a match for the chivalry and iron-clad knights of ,king ,charles ,i4 ,nor was this feeling confined to any one class4 ,it permeated all ranks and conditions1 even to the sovereign4 ,tradition still points out the tree in ,hatfield ,park1 beneath which ,elizabeth was sitting when she received the news of her peaceful accession to the throne4 ,she fell on her knees and exclaimed3 ,it is the ,lord's doing1 and marvelous in our eyes4 ,to the end of her reign these words remained stamped on the golden coinage of the realm4 ,through all her long and eventful life1 the feeling seems never to have left her1 that her preservation and her reign were the issues of a direct interposition of ,god4 ,the foregoing may help us to understand the character of the ,english people at the time they commenced to plant the institutions of liberty on this continent4 ,who can read the thrilling narrative of ,english history during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries without acknowledging the hand of ,god1 in moulding the character of the ,british people8 ,it was not a pleasant world which the men and women of ,europe had to live in during the sixteenth century4 ,fighting was the constant occupation of the kings of that time2 civil wars were also frequent4 ,in these confused strifes men slew their acquaintances and friends as the only method they knew of deciding who was to fill the throne4 ,feeble commerce was crushed under the iron heel of war4 ,no such thing as security for life and property was expected4 ,the fields of the husbandman were trodden down by the march of armies4 ,disbanded or deserted soldiers wandered as lawless men over the country and robbed and murdered at their will4 ,epidemic diseases of strange type1 the result of insufficient and unwholesome food1 and the poisonous air of undrained lands and filthy streets destroyed the inhabitants4 ,under what hardships and miseries the men of the sixteenth century passed their days1 it is scarcely possible for us now to conceive4 ,from the persecutions of the old world they fled to the wilds of the new4 ,the thrilling story of their adventures1 though indeed real1 sounds more like romance than reality4 ,unlike the history of eastern nations1 which frequently loses itself in #abf mists of antiquity1 the history of the ,american people begins at a comparatively recent date4 ,it is less than four hundred years since ,columbus and his companions first saw the western continent1 and less than two hundred and seventy-five years since the first colony was planted in the territory which formed the thirteen original states4 ,another peculiarity is1 that from the very first this land has been an asylum for the persecuted and oppressed of every nation4 ,it was in the beautiful month of ,may1 #aece1 that ,jacques ,cartier1 a bold navigator in the service of the king of ,france1 sailed along the shores of the gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 stopping here and there to examine the country and lay out plats for future settlements4 ,in ,july he entered the river ,st4 ,lawrence and sailed on its broad waters1 amidst picturesque scenery in which was realized all his glowing expectations and dreams4 ,leaving his vessel at the present site of ,quebec1 he proceeded up the river in a small boat1 as far as the ,indian settlement of ,hochelaga4 ,this place he named ,mount ,royal4 ,it is now the magnificent city of ,montreal4 ,however1 no permanent settlements were formed1 and it was not till #afjd that ,de ,monts1 ,champlain and other explorers began to colonize the country1 on the banks of the gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,quebec was founded in #afjh4 ,the whole region on the south shore of the gulf was then called ,acadia4 ,its history shows the wonderful influence kindness exerts1 even among the savage tribes of ,north ,america4 ,poutrincourt1 the governor of the colony1 caused an immense banqueting hall to be erected1 which was well supplied with deer1 moose1 bear and all kinds of wild fowl4 ,he made friends of the ,indians and entertained the chiefs at sumptuous feasts4 ,in the ,winter evenings by the blazing pine logs1 ,champlain would relate the stories of his wonderful adventures among the hills1 and valleys1 and lakes1 and streams1 and cataracts1 and red men of the west4 ,at length1 by the fortunes of war1 this colony was transferred to ,england2 but its heart was still with ,france4 ,the ,english distrusted its loyalty1 and sent an armed force to surprise and attack it1 and carry away the once happy people1 and scatter them throughout their ,american domains4 ,the ,acadians were #abg crowded into transports1 their families were separated1 their friendships and attachments broken up1 and they were exiled among strangers1 never to see each other again4 ,the name of ,acadia was blotted out4 ,most people are familiar with ,longfellow's beautiful story of ,evangeline4 ,it is now almost the only memorial that remains of the history of that colony4 ,as a picture of peace and prosperity1 contentment and neighborly love1 worthy of imitation in this selfish age1 a few lines from ,longfellow's beautiful poem1 may not be out of place3 ,there1 in the midst of its farms reposed the ,acadian village1 ,strongly built were the houses with frames of oak and of hemlock2 ,there1 in the tranquil evenings when sunset had faded to twilight1 ,softly the church-bell sounded calling the people to worship4 ,thus dwelt in love these simple ,acadian farmers1 ,dwelt in the love of ,god and of man4 ,alike they were free from ,fear that reigns with the tyrant1 and envy the vice of republics1 ,neither locks had they to their doors nor bars to their windows1 ,but their dwellings were open as day and the hearts of the owners2 ,there the richest was poor1 and the poorest lived in abundance4 ,meanwhile attempts at colonizing were going on farther south4 ,the settlement at ,jamestown1 ,virginia1 was founded in #afjg4 ,the adventures of ,captain ,john ,smith1 the virtual founder of the colony1 are well known to most readers1 as well as the romantic story of ,pocahontas1 the ,indian princess4 ,its early history is a narrative of strife and human suffering4 ,many of its early inhabitants were scions of nobility1 men unused to toil2 in some cases they were mere adventurers1 actuated by a lust for gold or love of plunder4 ,however1 it teaches one important lesson1 that noble birth and high-sounding titles are of little account when compared with the plain virtues of industry1 honesty1 and trust in ,god--that it is not men of wealth1 but men of noble character that are of most importance in founding a commonwealth4 #abh ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,colonization ,,of ,,new ,,england4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,colonists--,,they ,,leave ,,england--,,sojourn ,,in ,,holland--,,brewster',s ,,printing ,,press--,,puritans ,,embark ,,for ,,america--,,their ,,trust ,,in ,,god--,,robinson',s ,,prophecy--,,plymouth ,,founded--,,sufferings ,,of ,,the ,,colonists--,,conflict ,,in ,,england--,,peculiarities ,,of ,,the ,,puritans--,,harvard ,,college ,,founded--,,extent ,,of ,,settlements--,,first ,,confederation4 ,what constitutes a state8 ,not high-raised battlements or labored mound1 ,thick wall or moated gate2 ,not cities proud1 with spires and turrets crowned1 ,not bays and broad armed ports ,where1 laughing at the storm1 proud navies ride2 ,not starred and spangled courts ,where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride2 ,no6 ,men1 high-minded men1 ,with powers as far above dull brutes endued1 ,in forest1 brake or den1 ,as beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude2 ,men1 who their duties know1 ,but know their rights2 and knowing dare maintain4 ,the mind instinctively turns to the colonizing of ,new ,england as one of the great landmarks of human history4 ,a little more than two centuries ago this land was covered with forests in which roamed various tribes of ,indians2 and the rivers1 which now give life to so much cheerful industry1 flowed uselessly to the sea4 ,to-day this same land is covered with cities1 towns and villages1 gardens1 vineyards and orchards1 schools and palaces--a civilization surpassing1 in some respects1 that of any other country on the face of the globe4 ,whence came the men who wrought these mighty changes8 ,what were the circumstances that led them to abandon their #abi country and their kindred1 and all the sacred associations that link man to his native land1 to seek homes beyond the stormy ,atlantic1 in a wilderness then inhabited only by savage beasts1 and men still more savage2 and above all1 that trained them in the principles of self-government and fitted them to become the founders of a mighty empire8 ,at that time protestant princes1 no more than popish1 were willing that their subjects should think for themselves4 ,james ,i4 had just ascended the ,english throne4 ,his was the head of a fool and the heart of a tyrant4 ,he was determined that every one of his subjects should observe the rites and ceremonies of the ,episcopal church4 ,on the northern border of ,nottinghamshire stands the little town of ,scrooby4 ,here were some brave and honest people1 to whom the ceremonies of the ,episcopal or ,established church were an offense4 ,they held their meetings in secret1 at the house of one of their number1 a gentleman named ,brewster4 ,they chose ,mr4 ,robinson1 a wise and good man1 to be their leader in spiritual things4 ,but their secret meetings were betrayed to the authorities and their lives were made bitter by the persecutions that fell upon them4 ,they resolved to leave their own land and seek among strangers that freedom which was denied them at home4 ,they embarked with all their goods for ,holland4 ,but when the ship was about to sail1 soldiers came upon them1 plundered them and drove them on shore4 ,after some weeks in prison they were suffered to return home4 ,next ,spring they tried again to escape4 ,this time a good many were on board1 and the others were waiting for the return of the boat1 which would carry them to the ship4 ,suddenly soldiers on horseback were seen spurring across the sands4 ,the shipmaster weighed his anchor and set sail with those whom he had on board4 ,the soldiers conducted the remainder back to prison4 ,after a time they were set at liberty4 ,in little groups they made their way to ,holland1 and thus they accomplished the first stage of the tedious journey from the old ,england to the new4 ,here they remained for eleven years1 and worked with patient industry at their various trades4 ,they gained a reputation for honesty and skill in all their undertakings1 and thus they found #acj abundant employment4 ,mr4 ,brewster established a printing press and printed books about liberty1 which greatly enraged the foolish ,king ,james4 ,meanwhile this little band received additions from time to time1 as oppression in ,england became more intolerable4 ,still they looked upon themselves as exiles4 ,the language and manners of the ,dutch were not pleasing to them4 ,they did not wish to lose their identity4 ,already their sons and daughters were forming alliances that threatened this result4 ,they therefore determined to go again on a pilgrimage1 and seek a home in the wilds of ,america2 where they could dwell apart and found a state1 where all should enjoy civil and religious liberty4 ,they collected their little funds and procured two vessels1 the ,speedwell1 of sixty tons1 and the ,mayflower1 of one hundred and eighty4 ,the ,speedwell was found to be unseaworthy and was abandoned4 ,they had not sufficient funds for all to come at once4 ,brewster was placed in command of the company1 which was composed of such of the youngest and strongest1 as freely offered themselves4 ,a solemn fast was held4 ,let us seek ,god1 said they1 a right way for us1 and for our little ones1 and for all our substance4 ,on a sunny morning in ,july1 #afbj1 the pilgrims knelt upon the seashore at ,delfthaven1 while their pastor1 ,mr4 ,robinson1 prayed for the success of their journey4 ,out upon the gleaming sea a little ship lay waiting4 ,money was wanting and so only one hundred could depart4 ,they left the remainder with tears and fond farewells1 to follow when they could4 ,mr4 ,robinson dismissed them with counsels which breathed a pure and high-toned wisdom4 ,some of the words which he then uttered1 seemed to have a prophetic import4 ,this will be readily seen from the following extract3 ,the ,lord has more truth yet to break forth out of ,his holy word4 ,luther and ,calvin were great and shining lights in their times1 yet they penetrated not into the whole counsel of ,god4 ,i beseech of you1 remember it1 that you be ready to receive whatever truth shall be made known to you4 ,who will attempt to deny that ,god1 through him1 spake words pregnant with a meaning that men at that age did not understand8 #aca ,a prosperous wind soon wafted them across the ,north sea and they sighted the coast of ,england4 ,after considerable delay at ,southampton1 ,dartmouth1 and ,plymouth1 the ,mayflower started early in ,september on her long and lonely voyage from the old world to the new4 ,after a boisterous voyage of sixty-three days they espied land1 and in two days more cast anchor in the harbor of ,cape ,cod4 ,how truthful the lines1 ,the heavy clouds hung dark ,the woods and waters o'er1 ,when a band of exiles moored their bark ,on the wild ,new ,england shore6 ,it was a bleak-looking and discouraging coast which lay before them4 ,nothing met the eye but low sand-hills1 covered with stunted trees down to the margin of the sea4 ,at first no suitable locality for a settlement could be found2 but at length they selected a spot where the soil appeared to be good1 with delicate springs of water4 ,on ,december #bb1 #afbj1 the pilgrims landed--stepping ashore upon a huge boulder of granite1 which is still preserved as a memorial of that event4 ,the cold was so excessive that the spray froze upon their clothes till they resembled men cased in armor4 ,they had been badly fed on board the ship1 which1 together with exposure1 caused sickness to prevail among them4 ,every second day a grave had to be dug in the frozen ground4 ,the care of the sick and the burying of the dead1 sadly hindered their work2 but the building of their little town went on4 ,when ,spring arrived there were only fifty survivors1 and these were sadly enfeebled and dispirited4 ,upon an eminence beside their town they erected a structure which served a double purpose4 ,the upper story was used for a fort1 in which were placed six small cannon4 ,the lower story served for a meeting-house and school-house4 ,the pilgrims had already drawn up and signed in the cabin of the ,mayflower1 a document forming themselves into an organized government1 to which they unanimously promised obedience4 ,under this constitution they elected ,john ,carver to be their first governor4 ,it is true they acknowledged ,king ,james1 but they left no very large place for his authority4 #acb ,image3 ,landing of the ,pilgrims4 #acc ,they had experienced what despotism was1 and they determined from the first to be a self-governing people4 ,in memory of the hospitalities which they had received at the last ,english port from which they had sailed1 this colony took the name of ,plymouth4 ,the years which followed the settlement of ,plymouth was a time through which good men found it bitter to live4 ,charles ,i41 was upon the throne of ,england4 ,william ,laud1 archbishop of ,canterbury1 was the king's right-hand man for dealing out persecution4 ,whoever refused to perform the religious ceremonies commanded by ,laud was forthwith imprisoned4 ,a ,scotch clergyman named ,leighton1 was publicly whipped1 branded on the cheek1 had one of his ears cut off and his nostrils slit1 for calling ,laud's ceremonies the inventions of men4 ,many others were treated in a similar manner4 ,meanwhile ,john ,hampden1 the incorruptible patriot1 was arrested for not paying an unlawful tax4 ,a greater than he--his cousin1 ,oliver ,cromwell--was leading his quiet1 rural life at ,huntington1 not without many anxious and indignant thoughts about the evils of his time4 ,he walked over his fields and along the streams1 ,pondering the solemn miracle of life ,as one who1 wandering in a starless night1 ,feels momently the jar of unseen waves1 ,and hears the thunder of an unknown sea ,breaking along an unimagined shore4 ,and as he walked he prayed4 ,the weary victims of this senseless persecution looked to ,new ,england for refuge4 ,the pilgrims wrote to their friends at home2 and every letter was read with interest4 ,they had hardships to tell of at first2 then they had prosperity and comfort2 always they had liberty6 ,every ,summer a few ships were freighted for the settlements4 ,at one time eight ships lay in the ,thames1 with their passengers on board1 when the order was issued1 that no one should leave without the king's permission4 ,the soldiers cleared the ships1 and the poor emigrants were driven back in despair to endure the miseries from which they were so eager to escape4 ,among these were ,hampden and ,cromwell4 ,well would it have been for the #acd king if he had let them go6 ,but ,god had a work for them to do4 ,they were to be the instruments in ,his hand ,to hurl down wrong from its high seat1 ,to the poor and oppressed1 firm friends and true4 ,the details of the long war between the king and the people we need not here relate4 ,the result was the death of the unhappy monarch1 and another step forward by the ,british people in the principles of self-government4 ,meanwhile the settlements in ,america continued to flourish4 ,the virgin soil yielded abundant harvests4 ,from the fleece of their sheep1 and the flax of their fields they made a supply of clothing4 ,they felled the timber of their boundless forests1 and built ships and sent away to foreign countries1 the timber1 the fish and the furs which were not required at home4 ,they were a noble people who had thus begun to strike their roots in the great forests of the west4 ,their peculiarities may indeed amuse us2 as for example the strange names they gave their children4 ,many of the boys bore names in memory of some fortunate circumstance1 or historical event1 as ,rejoice in the ,lord1 ,pillar of ,fire1 ,strength of ,israel1 ,praise ,god ,barebones1 etc42 while the girls rejoiced in such names as ,truth1 ,temperance1 ,patience1 ,chastity1 and ,love the ,lord4 ,we may smile at these things2 yet the most wise of all ages will admire the purity and earnestness of this people4 ,they brought with them the love of learning4 ,in a very few years schools began to appear4 ,such means as could be afforded were freely given4 ,some tolerably qualified brother was entreated to become the schoolmaster4 ,soon a law was passed that every township1 containing fifty families1 must have a common school4 ,harvard ,college was established within fifteen years of the landing4 ,the founders of ,new ,england were men who had known at home the value of books4 ,brewster carried with him a library of two hundred and seventy-five volumes1 and his was not the largest collection in the colony4 ,at that time books were very scarce and twenty times more costly than they are now4 ,twenty-three years after the landing of the pilgrims1 the population of ,new ,england had grown to twenty-four thousand4 #ace ,forty-nine little wooden towns1 with their wooden churches1 wooden forts and wooden ramparts1 were dotted here and there over the land4 ,there were then four separate colonies3 ,plymouth1 ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut and ,new ,haven4 ,for mutual defense and protection these colonies united together and thus formed the first confederation of states on the western continent4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,conflict ,,in ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,,description ,,of ,,holland--,a ,,land ,,of ,,refuge--,,tyranny ,,of ,,alva--,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,independence--,,siege ,,of ,,leyden--,,the ,,country ,,submerged--,,famine ,,in ,,the ,,city--,,speech ,,of ,,the ,,mayor--,,heroic ,,conduct--,,trust ,,in ,,god--,,storm ,,raises ,,the ,,waters--,,spaniards ,,retreat--,,leyden ,,is ,,saved--,,thanksgiving--,,waters ,,retire4 ,in a previous chapter have been described the circumstances which led to the colonization of ,acadia and ,new ,england4 ,while these events were transpiring in old ,england and ,new ,england1 others of scarcely less importance were occurring in ,holland1 or the ,netherlands1 as it is frequently called1 and in its colony of ,new ,netherlands4 ,it is a fact too frequently forgotten1 that at least three of the thirteen original states were colonized by ,holland4 ,it is true ,pennsylvania and ,delaware received a few colonists from ,sweden and ,finland1 who had settled there to escape religious persecution2 but their dominions in the new world were not of long duration4 ,to ,holland and ,england belong the chief glory of colonizing the lands embraced in the ,united ,colonies of #aggf4 ,the country now embraced in the states of ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey and #acf ,delaware1 received the name of ,new ,netherlands1 and like the inhabitants of ,new ,england1 they were for the most part a religious people4 ,during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ,holland had been the refuge of exiles from many lands4 ,when ,john ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague fell under papal vengeance1 many of their followers there found a home4 ,when the fury of persecution was raging against the ,waldenses1 many of them fled to ,holland for protection4 ,after the terrible massacre of the ,french protestants or ,huguenots1 as they were called1 in #aegb1 many of them took refuge in the ,netherlands4 ,this liberty-loving population was the cause of that deadly hatred manifested toward them by the ,duke of ,alva4 ,this insatiate monster1 during his brief administration1 caused more than eighteen thousand persons to perish by the hand of the executioner4 ,his cruelties at length aroused the indignation of the people1 and brought about those notable events so well described by the historian1 ,motley1 in his ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,this contest was one of the most memorable in the history of the human race1 for in it was clearly shown the wonderful providence of ,god4 ,holland1 as is well known1 is a low1 flat country1 so low1 in fact1 that the inhabitants have been obliged to build dykes1 or embankments of earth1 along the coast1 in order to protect the country from the waters of the ocean during high tides and storms4 ,were it not for this precaution1 ,holland would frequently present the appearance of a vast1 shallow bay or lake1 thickly studded with orchards dwellings and cities half submerged in the water4 ,at this time ,holland was under the dominion of ,spain4 ,the tyranny of ,alva1 the governor1 provoked the people to resistance1 and ,king ,philip sent an army from ,spain to enforce submission4 ,rather than longer endure this oppression1 the brave ,hollanders resolved to achieve their independence or perish in the attempt4 ,the fortifications of their country were few1 but1 in one respect1 they held the keys of the ocean4 ,they opened the flood-gates of the dykes and prepared to submerge the country when the first storm should come4 ,meanwhile the ,spaniards were besieging ,leyden1 and if that city fell1 the #acg conquest of the country would inevitably follow4 ,the ,hollanders well knew that the ocean would damage their fields and destroy their growing crops1 but they preferred the chances of starvation to an indiscriminate massacre4 ,leyden was situated twenty miles inland4 ,it was impossible to bring ,leyden to the ocean4 ,they prayed that ,god would aid their efforts to bring the ocean to ,leyden4 ,meantime the besieged city was at its last gasp4 ,at the dawn of each day the brave defenders turned their eyes toward the vanes of the church steeples1 that they might ascertain the direction of the wind4 ,so long as an easterly wind prevailed1 they felt that they must look in vain for the welcome ocean4 ,yet1 while thus patiently waiting1 they were literally starving4 ,such was the condition of ,leyden on the #aath of ,september1 #aegd4 ,the commander of the ,dutch fleet1 ,admiral ,boisot1 had constructed a number of flat boats1 by which he hoped to be able to bring provisions and munitions of war to the besieged city4 ,but a week elapsed after the opening of the dykes1 and no storm nor high tide had come to force the ocean inland4 ,the flotilla of boats now lay motionless in shallow water1 having accomplished less than two miles4 ,everything wore a gloomy aspect2 still the hearts of the patriots were lifted to ,god in prayer4 ,on the #ahth the wind shifted to the north-west1 and for three days blew a gale4 ,the waters rose rapidly1 and before the second was closed1 the flat boats were again afloat4 ,onward the boats flew before the breeze1 and soon arrived at the villages of ,zoetermeer and ,benthuyzen4 ,a strong force of ,spaniards were stationed at each place1 but they were astonished to see these brave and liberty-loving men1 sailing on a sea1 where a few hours before1 was dry and solid land4 ,some of their officers even asked in amazement1 was it true that ,god and the elements were going to fight against them8 ,few things are more appalling to the imagination than the rising ocean tide1 when man feels himself within its power4 ,the ,spanish soldiers saw the waters deepening and closing around them1 and1 as it were1 devouring the earth beneath their feet1 while on the waves rode a flotilla1 manned by a liberty-loving and determined race1 whose courage was known throughout the world4 ,no wonder the ,spaniards were seized with a panic and fled precipitately4 #ach ,behind them came the roaring tide2 and thousands sank beneath the deepening flood4 ,in a few hours the flotilla had arrived at ,north ,aa1 from whence ,admiral ,boiset sent1 on ,september #bhth1 a carrier pigeon with a letter of encouragement to the famished inhabitants of ,leyden4 ,as time passed on1 the mortality in the city became frightful4 ,mothers dropped dead in the streets with their dead children in their arms4 ,a terrible plague1 engendered by hardships and famine1 was sweeping away the people like grass before the scythe4 ,from six to eight thousand human beings sank before this scourge alone1 yet the people resolutely held out--women and men mutually encouraging each other to resist the entrance of the foreign foe--an evil more horrible than pest or famine4 ,the heroism of the ,hollanders towered to sublimity4 ,true a few of the faint-hearted one day assailed the mayor of ,leyden1 the heroic ,adrian ,van der ,werf1 with threats and reproaches as he passed through the streets4 ,he stepped to one side and mounted the steps of the church of ,st4 ,pancras4 ,there he stood1 a tall1 haggard1 imposing figure1 with dark visage1 and a tranquil1 but commanding eye4 ,he waved his broad-brimmed hat for silence1 and then exclaimed3 ,what would ye1 my friends8 ,why do ye murmur that we do not break our vows and surrender the city to the ,spaniards8--a fate more horrible than the agony which she now endures4 ,i tell you1 ,i have made an oath to hold the city1 and may ,god give me strength to keep my oath6 ,i can die but once2 whether by your hands1 the enemy's1 or by the hand of ,god4 ,my own fate is indifferent to me1 not so that of the city entrusted to my care4 ,i know that we shall starve if not soon relieved2 but starvation is preferable to the dishonored death which is our only alternative4 ,your menaces move me not2 my life is at your disposal1 here is my sword1 plunge it into my breast1 and divide my flesh among you4 ,take my body to appease your hunger1 but expect no surrender1 so long as ,i remain alive4 ,the words of the firm1 old mayor1 inspired a new courage in the hearts of those who heard him1 and a shout of applause and defiance arose from the famishing1 but enthusiastic crowd4 ,after exchanging new vows of fidelity with their magistrate1 #aci they left the place and again ascended tower and battlement to watch for the coming fleet4 ,from the ramparts they hurled renewed defiance at the enemy4 ,ye call us rat-eaters and dog-eaters1 they cried1 and it is true4 ,so long then1 as ye hear dog bark1 or cat mew1 within the walls of the city1 ye may know that it still holds out4 ,and when all has perished but ourselves1 be sure that we will each devour our left arms1 retaining our right to defend our women1 our liberty and our religion1 against the foreign tyrant4 ,should ,god1 in ,his providence1 deny us all relief1 even then will we maintain ourselves against your entrance4 ,when the last hour has come1 with our own hands we will set fire to the city and perish1 men1 women and children1 together in the flames1 rather than suffer our homes to be polluted and our liberties to be crushed4 ,the ,spaniards shouted back derisively3 ,as well can the prince of ,orange pluck down the stars from the sky as bring the ocean to the walls of ,leyden for your relief4 ,but they had forgotten that prayer moves the arm that moves the world2 that ,he1 whom the winds and seas obey1 and who holds the tempests as in the hollow of his hand1 had heard the cry of that patient and persecuted people1 and was sending the darkness and the storm1 to sweep away their enemies as with the besom of destruction4 ,when the stoutest hearts began to fail1 the tempest came again to their relief4 ,a violent gale1 on the night of the #ast of ,october1 came storming from the north-west1 shifting after a few hours1 and then blowing still more violently from the south-west4 ,the waters of the ,north sea were piled in vast masses upon the southern coast1 and then dashed furiously land-ward4 ,the waters rose higher than ever before known1 and swept with unobstructed fury across the ruined dykes4 ,the fleet of flat-boats at ,north ,aa1 was no longer stranded4 ,at midnight1 amidst the storm and darkness1 ,admiral ,boisot gave orders to advance4 ,a few sentinels challenged them as they swept by the village of ,zoeterwoude4 ,the answer was a flash from ,boisot's cannon1 lighting the dark1 wild waste of waters4 ,then came a fierce naval midnight battle4 ,it was a strange spectacle among the branches of those quiet orchards and #adj chimney stacks of half submerged farm-houses4 ,swiftly the fleet sailed on over the waters between ,zoeterwoude and ,zwieten4 ,as they approached shallows the sailors dashed into the sea and literally shouldered the vessels through4 ,these forts and that of ,lammen might have proved serious obstacles1 had not the panic1 which had hitherto driven their foes before the advancing patriots1 come again to their relief4 ,a long procession of lights was seen to flit across the black face of the waters1 in the dead of night4 ,the ,spaniards had fled precipitately along a road which led in a westerly direction toward the ,hague4 ,their narrow path was rapidly vanishing in the waves1 and hundreds sank in the constantly deepening flood1 to rise no more4 ,the morning dawned1 but all was calm and still around the city of ,leyden4 ,the hand of ,god which had sent the ocean and the tempest for her deliverance1 had likewise struck her enemies with terror4 ,the lights which had been seen during the night1 were lanterns of the retreating ,spaniards4 ,the succoring fleet sailed victoriously into the city on the morning of the #crd of ,october1 #aegd4 ,bread was freely given to the poor creatures1 who for months had tasted no wholesome human food4 ,when the admiral stepped on shore a procession was formed consisting of citizens1 sailors1 soldiers1 women and children4 ,they repaired to the great cathedral2 and they who had been firm in their resistance to an earthly tyrant1 now bowed in humble gratitude before the ,king of kings4 ,after prayers the whole1 vast congregation1 joined in the thanksgiving hymn4 ,thousands of voices raised the song1 but few were able to carry it to its conclusion1 for the universal emotion1 deepened by the music1 became too full for utterance4 ,the hymn was abruptly suspended while the multitude wept like children4 ,on the following day1 the #dth of ,october1 the wind shifted to the north-east1 and again blew a tempest4 ,it was as if the waters1 having now done their work1 had been rolled back to the ocean by an ,omnipotent hand1 for in the course of a few days the land was bare again1 and the work of reconstructing the dykes commenced4 #ada ,from this terrible ordeal came out many illustrious characters4 ,its results tended to civil and religious liberty1 as well as the great principle of federal union which has since been carried out to such a wonderful extent4 ,these principles the ,dutch emigrants brought with them2 and when a few years afterwards their settlements fell into the hands of the ,english they were already assimilated to the ideas prevailing in the ,new ,england colonies4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,early ,,colonial ,,history4 ,,rise ,,of ,,quakerism--,,george ,,fox--,,william ,,penn--,,founds ,,pennsylvania--,,kindness ,,to ,,the ,,indians--,,philadelphia ,,founded--,,maryland1 ,,carolina ,,and ,,georgia ,,settled--,,roger ,,williams--,,rhode ,,island ,,founded--,,its ,,toleration4 ,the history of ,pennsylvania as a distinct colony began in #afhb4 ,its founder1 ,william ,penn1 was the son of ,admiral ,penn1 who had gained many victories for ,england and enjoyed the favor of the king1 as well as of the great statesmen of his time4 ,at this time there was in ,england a numerous sect called ,quakers4 ,some of their principles were true1 and most of them were far in advance of the opinions generally entertained in that age4 ,the rise of the people called ,quakers is one of the memorable events in the history of man4 ,it marks the moment when intellectual freedom was claimed by the people as an inalienable right4 ,the sect had its birth in a period of intense national activity1 when zeal for reform was invading all ranks of society1 and even subverting the throne4 ,its creed was summed up in one short phrase1 ,the inner light or voice of ,god in the soul4 ,their leader1 ,george ,fox1 professed to #adb have visions from heaven4 ,having listened to the revelation which had been made to his soul1 he thirsted for a reform in every branch of learning4 ,the physician and the scientist should quit their strife of unintelligible words and solve the appearances of nature by an intimate study of the laws of being4 ,the lawyers should abandon their deceit and seek to establish justice among men according to the teachings of the ,savior4 ,and the priests should cease to preach for hire1 and seek ,god in prayer as the oracle of all truth4 ,image3 ,fox in ,discussion4 #adc ,no wonder there was a great commotion4 ,in ,lancaster1 forty priests appeared against him at once4 ,nothing could daunt his enthusiasm4 ,when cast into jail among felons1 he claimed of the public tribunals a release1 only to continue his exertions4 ,if cruelly beaten1 or set in the stocks1 or ridiculed as mad1 he none the less proclaimed the principles of his faith4 ,when driven from the church1 he preached in the open air2 when refused shelter at a private dwelling or humble tavern1 he slept without fear under a haystack4 ,his fame increased2 crowds gathered like flocks of pigeons to hear him4 ,his voice and frame in prayer are described as the most awful and reverent ever felt or seen4 ,his clear convictions and glowing thoughts delivered in plain words made him powerful among the masses and the terror of the priests in public discussions to which he defied the world4 ,by degrees the hypocrites1 as the historian ,barclay called them1 feared to dispute with him4 ,the simplicity of the truth he uttered and the plainness of his speech found such ready acceptance among the people1 that the priests trembled and scud as he drew near1 so that it was a dreadful thing to them when it was told them1 ',the man in leathern breeches is come4' ,far from rejecting ,christianity1 the ,quakers insisted that they alone followed its primitive simplicity4 ,they believed in the unity of truth2 that there can be no contradiction between correct reason and revelation2 and that the ,holy ,spirit is the guide that leads into all truth4 ,the ,quakers read the ,bible not with idolatry but with delight1 for in there own souls they had a testimony that it was true4 ,the scriptures1 says ,barclay1 are not religion but a record of it2 a declaration of the fountain1 but not the fountain itself4 ,in reading a record of those times it might appear to one that ,god was then ready to restore ,his ,priesthood and set up ,his kingdom on the earth4 ,but mankind were not yet ready nor was there a fit place in all the inhabited countries of the world for its establishment4 #add ,image3 ,penn's ,treaty with the ,indians4 ,the well-known ,william ,penn joined this sect1 and by this act greatly provoked his father's displeasure4 ,like ,moses of old he refused the favors and honors of the monarch1 choosing #ade rather to obey what he considered to be the truth than to enjoy all the pomp and pleasures of the world4 ,space will not permit us to relate the story of his sufferings while an exile from his father's home2 how he traveled to and fro on the continent of ,europe1 from the ,weser to the ,main1 from the ,rhine to the ,danube1 distributing tracts1 preaching to princes and to peasants1 and rebuking every attempt to enthrall the mind of man4 ,before he had reached the age of twenty-five1 he had thrice suffered unjust imprisonment4 ,to the king's messenger1 who asked him to recant1 he heroically replied1 ,club-law may make hypocrites1 it never can make converts ,single handed and alone he plead his cause before the highest courts of ,england4 ,in vain did wicked men endeavor to construe the laws of ,england to his injury4 ,after a tedious trial he was at length acquitted1 though the jurymen were fined forty marks apiece for not bringing in a verdict of guilty4 ,his constancy called forth the admiration of his father4 ,son ,william1 said the dying admiral1 if you and your friends keep to your plain way of preaching and living1 you will make an end of the priests4 ,at the admiral's death1 ,william succeeded to his father's possessions4 ,it deeply grieved him that his ,quaker brethren should endure such wrongs as were continually heaped upon them4 ,he1 therefore1 formed the design of leading them forth to ,america4 ,the king had owed ,penn's father sixteen thousand pounds1 nearly equal to eighty thousand dollars of our money4 ,penn offered to relinquish this claim for a grant of land2 and the king readily bestowed upon him a vast region1 stretching west from the river ,delaware1 to which was given the name of ,pennsylvania4 ,here ,penn proposed to found a state1 free and self-governing4 ,he claimed it to be his highest ambition to make men as free and happy as they can be4 ,when he arrived1 he proclaimed to the people that he wished them to be governed by laws of their own making4 ,he was as good as his word4 ,the people elected their own representatives by whom a constitution was framed1 and ,penn signed this charter of their liberties4 ,penn also dealt justly and kindly with the ,indians1 and they showed a love for him such as they bestowed on no other ,englishman4 #adf ,soon after his arrival1 he invited the chief men of the ,indian tribes to a conference4 ,the meeting took place beneath a huge elm-tree4 ,the ancient forest had long given way to the houses and streets of ,philadelphia2 but a monument still points out to the stranger the scene of this interview4 ,they met1 ,penn assured them1 on the broad pathway of good faith and good will4 ,all was to be openness and love4 ,and ,penn meant what he said4 ,strong in the power of truth and kindness1 he bent the fierce savages of the ,delaware tribe to his will4 ,they vowed to live in love with ,william ,penn and his children as long as the moon and the sun should endure4 ,long years after1 aged ,indians were accustomed to come from the distant forests and recount with deep emotion the words that ,penn had spoken to them under the old elm-tree4 ,the fame of ,penn's settlements went abroad in all lands4 ,an asylum was opened for the good and oppressed of every nation4 ,grave and ,god-fearing men from all the ,protestant countries of ,europe sought a home where they might live as conscience taught them4 ,for here the exiles met from every clime1 ,and spoke in friendship every distant tongue2 ,men1 from the blood of warring ,europe sprung1 ,were but divided by the running brook2 ,and happy where no ,rhenish trumpet sung1 ,the blue-eyed ,german changed his sword to pruning-hook4 ,the new colony grew apace4 ,during the first year twenty-two vessels arrived1 bringing two thousand persons4 ,in three years ,philadelphia was a town of six hundred houses4 ,thus did ,penn prove himself a benefactor to his race4 ,may we not also consider him an instrument in the hands of ,god for the execution of ,his purposes8 ,meanwhile ,maryland had been colonized by ,catholics under ,lord ,baltimore1 in #afcd4 ,the first colonists were exiles who fled here to escape persecution in their native land4 ,let it also be said to their credit that they were the first who embodied in their laws complete religious toleration4 ,a few scattering colonists had settled within the boundaries of the ,carolinas as early as #afec1 and these colonies also became a refuge for the ,huguenots of ,france4 #adg ,lastly ,georgia was colonized1 in #agcb1 by the ,english philanthropist ,james ,oglethorpe2 and it also became an asylum and a refuge for the deserving poor4 ,had these states been colonized immediately after the discovery of ,america1 they must inevitably have brought with them the institutions of ,catholic ,europe4 ,such1 for example1 as still characterize the civilization of ,mexico4 ,even had they been colonized a century earlier1 the colonists would not have been disciplined sufficiently in the principles of civil liberty to have built up free and self-governing states4 ,who does not see a divine providence--a marvelous wisdom in all this8 ,though the pilgrims had left their native lands1 that they might enjoy the liberty to worship ,god in the way which they deemed right2 yet they had not discovered that people who differed from them were as well entitled to be tolerated as they themselves were4 ,simple as it seems there are many to this day who have not found out that every one is entitled to think for himself4 ,one day there stepped ashore at ,boston1 a young man named ,roger ,williams4 ,he was a man of culture and refinement1 a lover of truth and justice1 a man of rare virtue and power4 ,he had been an intimate friend of ,cromwell and ,milton1 in the bright days of the poet's youth4 ,williams brought to ,america what was then considered strange opinions4 ,long thought had satisfied him that in regard to religious belief and worship man is responsible to ,god alone4 ,new ,england society was not sufficiently advanced to receive such sentiments4 ,williams had become minister at ,salem where he was held in high esteem4 ,in time his opinions drew upon him the unfavorable notice of the authorities2 and he was brought to trial before the general court of ,massachusetts4 ,his townsmen and congregation deserted him4 ,his poor wife reproached him bitterly for the evil he was bringing on his family4 ,still he was firm and continued to testify against the soul-oppression he saw around him4 ,at length the court declared him guilty and pronounced against him the sentence of banishment4 ,all honor to this brave and good man6 ,he1 of all the men of his time1 saw most clearly the beauty of #adh absolute freedom in matters of conscience4 ,he cheerfully left his home and wandered in the wilderness4 ,during the part of one winter he lived with ,massasoit1 the ,indian chief1 who befriended him and gave him a grant of land1 now included in the state of ,rhode ,island4 ,here he laid out a city which he called ,providence1 in grateful recognition of the power which had guided his steps4 ,to-day it is one of the most beautiful and thrifty cities in the ,united ,states4 ,roger ,williams cherished a very forgiving spirit towards those who sent him into exile4 ,learning that the ,indians were planning the destruction of the ,massachusetts colony1 he boldly went among the ,indians and dissuaded them from their purpose4 ,thus did this good man put his life in peril for his enemies4 ,providence ,plantation1 as it was called1 became a shelter for all who were distressed for conscience sake2 and so it has continued to the present time4 ,rhode ,island has no record of persecution in her history4 ,massachusetts continued to drive out misbelievers4 ,rhode ,island took them in4 ,when ,massachusetts was convulsed with supposed witchcraft and the horrors of witch-burning1 ,rhode ,island gave no heed to such delusions4 ,in after years1 ,roger ,williams became the president of the colony which he had founded4 ,the neighboring states were at that time severely punishing the ,quakers with the lash1 branding-iron and imprisonment2 and they invited ,rhode ,island to join in the persecution4 ,mr4 ,williams replied that he had no law to punish any man for his belief4 ,he was opposed to the doctrines of the ,quakers4 ,in his seventy-third year he rowed thirty miles in an open boat to wage a public debate against them4 ,in this manner1 and this only1 would he resist the progress of opinions which he deemed pernicious4 ,thus to the end of his life stood forth this good man's loyalty to the absolute liberty of the human conscience4 ,from the foregoing1 we may get some idea of the moral and social condition of ,england and her colonies during the latter part of the seventeenth century4 #adi ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,modern ,,england ,,and ,,her ,,colonies4 ,,condition ,,of ,,english ,,society--,,manufacture ,,of ,,gin ,,and ,,rum--,,origin ,,of ,,methodism--,,eloquence ,,of ,,whitfield--,,john ,,and ,,charles ,,wesley--,,remarkable ,,teachings--,,robert ,,raikes--,,john ,,howard--,,william ,,wilberforce--,,mechanical ,,inventions--,,growth ,,of ,,american ,,freedom--,,three ,,great ,,battles--,,cook',s ,,voyages--,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language--,,greatness ,,of ,,pitt--,,washington',s ,,early ,,life--,,benjamin ,,franklin4 ,westward the course of empire takes its way4 ,from the first settling of the ,north ,american colonies1 the relations between ,europe and ,america were such that every great revolution occurring in the parent country had its due effect in the colonies4 ,in #afhh1 just sixty-eight years after the sailing of the pilgrims1 another famous departure took place from the coast of ,holland4 ,it was that of ,william1 prince of ,orange1 coming to deliver ,england from tyranny1 and give a new course to ,english history4 ,a powerful fleet and army sailed with the prince1 the wicked and foolish ,king ,james fled from the people he had so long misruled1 and ,william1 prince of ,orange1 with ,mary his wife1 were proclaimed joint king and queen of ,england4 ,with the revolution of #afhh1 a new spirit appears in ,england4 ,hitherto ,english philosophy and literature were almost unknown upon the continent4 ,it was only after the revolution that we hear of foreigners visiting ,england1 learning ,english and seeking to understand ,english life and character4 ,thus on the eve of the eighteenth century ,english ideas took a #aej great stride forward4 ,the people instead of the king became the virtual rulers of the nation4 ,the preceding age had done its work4 ,it had given to the world the philosophy of ,newton1 the literature of ,shakspeare1 and ,addison1 ,pope and ,swift1 the political agitation of ,cromwell1 and the colonization of ,america4 ,the avenues of knowledge were thus opened to the masses4 ,even the dullest and most backward minds began to have notions of literature and the discoveries of science4 ,the ancient forms of royalty and chivalry had lost their prestige and stood in the shady background of the past4 ,a new world of citizens henceforth occupies the ground1 attracts the gaze1 imposes its ideas on the public manners and stamps its image on the minds of men4 ,in #agji appeared the first newspaper1 a sheet as big as a man's hand which the editor did not know how to fill4 ,at the present time there are more than #a1jjj1jjj1jjj copies of newspapers published in the ,english language annually1 many of which contain more reading matter in a single number than the whole ,new ,testament scriptures4 ,with the increase of intelligence the power of the people began to be felt4 ,increased intelligence brought political reforms1 and these in turn were followed by a reform in morals and manners4 ,during the reign of the ,stuarts the morals of the people had been extremely low4 ,as an illustration might be mentioned the disrespect shown to the clergy4 ,a parish priest was only permitted to dine at the second table1 after his superiors 787 had been served4 ,he might fill himself with the beef and cabbage1 but did not dare to touch the better dishes until invited to do so by the hostess4 ,a law had been passed during the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 that no clergyman should marry a servant-girl without the consent of her mistress4 ,most of the prominent statesmen during the previous half century were unbelievers in any form of religion4 ,such were the irreligious tendencies of the age1 that drunkenness and foul talk were considered no reproach to ,robert ,walpole1 prime minister of ,england4 ,purity of life was sneered at by the nobility as out of fashion4 ,for example1 ,lord ,chesterfield1 in his letters to his son 7which were designed for publication71 #aea instructs him in the art of seduction1 as part of a polite education4 ,at the lower end of the social scale lay the masses of the extremely poor4 ,they were ignorant and brutal to a degree which it is hard to conceive4 ,the manufacture of gin and rum had been discovered in #afhd2 and intemperance overran the nation as a plague4 ,tavern-keepers1 on their sign-boards1 invited the people to come and get drunk for a penny4 ,for two pence they might get dead drunk1 and have a place to lie down with no charge for straw4 ,much of this social degradation was due1 without doubt1 to the apathy and sloth of the religious teachers4 ,such was the condition of society when a remarkable religious revival began in a small knot of ,oxford students whose revolt against the wickedness of the times expressed itself in enthusiastic religious worship and an austere and methodical regularity of life1 that gave them the nickname of ,methodists4 ,of these students1 three soon attracted special attention by their religious fervor and even extravagance4 ,one of these1 ,george ,whitfield1 became the greatest orator4 ,his voice was soon heard in the wildest and most barbarous corners of the land1 among the bleak moors of ,northumberland1 in the dens of ,london1 and in the dark and gloomy mines of ,cornwall4 ,whitfield's preaching was such as ,england had never heard before1 theatrical1 extravagant1 sometimes common-place1 but winning favor by its earnestness and deep tremulous sympathy for the sins and sorrows of mankind4 ,he was no common enthusiast who could so eloquently plead the cause of the erring and unfortunate as to draw out the last cent from the cool and calculating ,franklin1 and command admiration from the fastidious and skeptical ,horace ,walpole2 or who could look down1 from the top of a green knoll at ,kingswood1 on twenty thousand colliers1 grimy from the ,bristol coal-pits1 and see as he preached1 the tears making white channels down their blackened cheeks4 ,on the rough and ignorant masses to whom they spoke1 the effects of ,whitfield and his co-workers were mighty both for good and ill4 ,their preaching stirred a passionate hatred in #aeb the hearts of their opponents4 ,their lives were often in danger2 they were mobbed1 ducked1 stoned and smothered with filth2 but the enthusiasm they aroused among their followers was equally intense4 ,very important to the cause was ,charles ,wesley1 a student at ,oxford1 who came as the sweet singer of the movement4 ,his hymns expressed the fiery zeal of its converts1 in lines so chaste and beautiful that many of the cultured classes were numbered among the adherents of the movement4 ,but most important of all was the elder brother1 ,john ,wesley1 an ordained minister of the ,church of ,england1 who by his learning1 energy and power of organization gave stability to the movement4 ,no man of that age surpassed him in self-denial and trust in ,god4 ,with all his extravagance and superstition1 ,wesley's mind was essentially practical and orderly4 ,he1 beyond most men of his age1 saw that he lacked divine authority to found a church4 ,hence to the last he clung passionately to the ,church of ,england1 and looked upon the sect he had formed as only a lay society or branch in full communication with the parent church4 ,for a long time he would not permit his co-workers to administer the sacrament of the ,lord's supper2 as he considered they did not possess the requisite authority4 ,wesley saw with wonderful clearness a fact that no one of that age perceived or1 if he did1 had not the moral courage to declare4 ,he perceived the universal as well as the total apostasy of the so-called ,christian church4 ,in his #idth sermon he says2 ,the real cause why the extraordinary gifts of the ,holy ,ghost were no longer to be found in the ,christian church was because the ,christians were turned heathens again1 and had only a dead form left4 ,in another place he says3 ,a string of opinions is no more ,christian faith1 than a string of beads is ,christian holiness4 ,the justifying faith which he considered so essential and taught so earnestly1 implied a personal revelation--an inward evidence of ,christianity4 ,thus he unconsciously yet logically taught the insufficiency of the ancient scriptures as a guide to salvation4 ,it also implied the need of new and continuous revelation as necessary for the vitality and growth of the church4 ,wesley continued his labors for upwards of fifty-two #aec years1 traveling and preaching until within a short time of his death1 which occurred in his eighty-eighth year4 ,at the time of his death1 his followers numbered more than one hundred thousand4 ,now they are estimated at nearly eight millions4 ,image3 ,john ,wesley4 ,it was the teachings and practices of the ,puritans1 the ,quakers and the ,methodists that gave to ,england that great moral impulse which led to the establishment of ,sunday schools by ,robert ,raikes of ,gloucester1 the reforming of prisons by ,john ,howard1 and the abolition of the slave trade by ,william ,wilberforce4 ,the ardor and perseverance which these men showed in behalf of the poor1 the wronged and the afflicted1 excited a wave of human sympathy throughout the length and breadth of the civilized world4 ,it is from this time that may be dated the commencement of charity schools1 foundling hospitals1 insane asylums and other institutions #aed of benevolence for which ,english-speaking people are now so famous4 ,while the moral and religious movements were in progress1 others of a political or scientific nature1 were pressing forward with rapid strides4 ,amid the tumult of these times1 ,james ,brindley was quietly making ,england a net work of canals4 ,watt was silently perfecting his invention of the steam-engine and ,adam ,smith was working out the great problem of political and industrial economy1 which has made ,england and her colonies the leading commercial and manufacturing countries of the world4 ,meanwhile ,john ,hargreaves1 ,richard ,arkwright and ,samuel ,crompton1 by their inventions were revolutionizing the art of spinning and weaving4 ,however1 these ingenious devices would have done but little had it not been for the new and inexhaustible labor force of the steam-engine which had then come into general use4 ,one of the first effects was to develop the iron manufactures of ,england4 ,previous to #agej1 ,england and her colonies imported four-fifths of their iron goods from ,sweden2 now they produce more than four-fifths of all the iron used in the world4 ,the influence of the steam-engine and spinning jenny on the civilization of ,england is beyond human calculation4 ,mines were developed1 manufactories established and the whole national industry so increased that the population of ,england was twice doubled in less than fifty years4 ,at the same time agriculture was so improved that one-sixth of the people raised food for the remainder4 ,while these events were transpiring in ,england they had their due influence in the colonies4 ,europe saw for the first time a state growing up amidst the forests of the west1 where religious freedom had become complete4 ,religious tolerance had been brought about by strange circumstances--a medley of religious sects such as the world had never seen before4 ,new ,england was the stronghold of the ,puritans4 ,in some of the southern colonies the ,episcopal church was established by law and the bulk of the settlers clung to it4 ,the ,roman ,catholics formed a large majority in ,maryland4 ,pennsylvania was a state of ,quakers4 ,presbyterians and ,baptists fled from #aee persecution to colonize ,new ,jersey2 ,lutherans and ,moravians from ,germany abounded among the settlers of ,georgia1 and the persecuted ,huguenots of ,france had fled from their native land to the forests of ,carolina4 ,in such a chaos of creeds1 religious persecution was well nigh impossible4 ,as there were but few large fortunes among the colonists1 so nearly all had the same social standing and privileges4 ,education was general4 ,it was the proud boast of many of the colonies that every man and woman could read and write4 ,such was the condition of the colonies in #agdh1 when ,montesquieu1 the wisest and most reflecting statesman of ,france1 declared that a free1 prosperous and great people were forming in the forests of ,america4 ,the hereditary dynasties of the old world were all unconscious of the rapid growth of this power1 which was soon to involve them in its new and prevailing influence4 ,the hour of revolution was at hand1 promising freedom to conscience and dominion to intelligence4 ,from the fragments of ,european society--fragments that in some instances had been considered worthless--humanity in the providence of ,god was building up a self-governing and democratic dominion4 ,about the middle of the eighteenth century occurred three famous battles which did much to determine the destinies of men for ages to come4 ,the first of these1 was the great victory achieved by the ,english arms on the plains of ,plassey1 ,june #bc1 #ageg1 which laid the foundation of the empire of ,british ,india1 an empire which comprises more than one hundred and twenty millions of people4 ,the second was the victory of ,rossbach1 which determined the re-union of the ,german states and laid the foundation of the present ,german empire4 ,the third was the triumph of ,wolfe on the plains of ,abraham1 ,september #ac1 #agei1 for with it virtually began the history of the ,united ,states4 ,france had ever been an enemy whose dread had knit the colonists together and to the mother country1 ,england4 ,by wresting ,canada from her grasp and breaking through the line with which ,france had barred the ,british colonists from the basin of the ,mississippi1 ,pitt laid the foundation of the great republic of the ,west4 #aef ,hitherto the possessions of ,france in ,north ,america had been twenty times as vast as those of ,england2 henceforth they were destined to dwindle into insignificance and eventually become extinct4 ,the close of the seven years' war1 which ended at the peace of ,paris1 #agfc1 was a turning point in the history of the world4 ,england was no longer a mere ,european power4 ,her future action lay in a wider sphere than that of ,europe4 ,mistress of ,north ,america1 the future mistress of ,india1 claiming as her own the empire of the seas1 ,britain suddenly towered high above rival nations whose interest and position1 being on a single continent1 doomed them to comparative insignificance in the after history of mankind4 ,it is this that gives ,william ,pitt so peculiar a position among the statesmen of the world4 ,it was his faith1 his daring--shall we not say his inspiration8--that called the ,english people to a sense of the destiny that lay before them4 ,with ,england on one side and her ,american colonies on the other1 the ,atlantic was dwindling into a mere strait within the ,british realms2 but beyond it to the westward lay a vast ocean where the ,british flag was almost unknown4 ,true the ,pacific ocean had been discovered by ,balboa in #aeac1 and crossed by ,magellan in #aeba4 ,dutch voyagers had discovered that ,great ,southern ,land1 which they had named ,new ,holland and also the northern extremity of ,new ,zealand4 ,but the discoveries had remained unheeded for more than a century4 ,it was not till #aggh that1 under ,pitt's direction1 ,captain ,cook was sent into the ,pacific ocean on a voyage of discovery4 ,he discovered the ,sandwich ,islands circumnavigated ,new ,zealand and took possession of ,australia1 or ,new ,holland1 in the name of the ,english king4 ,the reports which he published of that vast ocean and those far-off islands1 of their coral reefs1 and palms1 and bread-fruit1 and gum trees1 and kangaroos1 and tattooed warriors1 awoke an interest in the minds of the ,english concerning this world of wonders4 ,they saw in all this a vast realm opened for the expansion of the ,english race1 and ,english civilization4 #aeg ,the extension of the ,english language over vast territories and populations is without a parallel in the history of the world4 ,fully one-fifth of the surface of the globe and one-fourth of its population are under the dominion of ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,the ,english language is now spoken1 and ,english and ,american literature is read in every zone4 ,they spread where ,winter piles deep snows on bleak ,canadian plains1 ,and where on green ,pacific isles eternal summer reigns4 ,they glad ,acadia's misty coasts1 ,jamaica's glowing isle1 ,and bide where gay with early flowers green ,texan prairies smile4 ,they dwell where ,californian brooks wash down their sands of gold1 ,and track the ,frazier's swelling flood thro' sunset valleys rolled2 ,they're found in ,borneo's camphor groves1 on shores of fierce ,malay1 ,in valleys washed by ,ganges' flood where ,ceylon's zephyrs stray4 ,old ,albions laws1 ,columbia's songs rejoice the captive's limbs2 ,the dark ,liberian soothes her child with ,english cradle hymns1 ,tasmanian maids are wooed and won1 in gentle ,saxon speech4 ,australian boys read ,crusoe's life1 by ,sidney's sheltered beach4 ,they speak to men so far apart1 that while this praise we sing1 ,some may rejoice with autumn fruits1 others with flowers of spring1 ,they speak with ,shakspeare's searching thoughts and ,bryant's lofty mind1 ,with ,alfred's laws and ,franklin's lore1 to cheer and bless mankind4 ,who does not see a marvelous wisdom in all this8 ,the language thus widely spread was destined to be the medium by which the gospel is to be spread in all the nations of the earth4 ,who does not perceive that the statesmanship of ,pitt was one of the great instrumentalities for the execution of the divine purposes8 ,like all great men1 ,pitt was in advance of the age in which he lived4 ,but ,england could not forget the eminent services of him1 who had done so much to promote her greatness4 ,the ashes of ,pitt 7now best known as the earl of ,chatham7 repose in ,westminster ,abbey1 the burial place of #aeh the kings of ,england4 ,history will declare that among statesmen1 few have left a more stainless1 none a more splendid name4 ,while these leading events were transpiring around them two remarkable persons were developing in the ,american colonies4 ,one of these was ,george ,washington1 the other1 ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,washington was born in #agcb4 ,his father1 a gentleman of good fortune1 died when his future illustrious son was only eleven years of age4 ,upon ,washington's mother devolved the care of his early education4 ,she was a devout woman1 of excellent sense and deep affections1 yet of a temper which could brook no shadow of insubordination4 ,under her rule--gentle and yet strong1 ,george learned obedience and self-control4 ,in boyhood he gave remarkable promise of those excellencies which distinguished his mature years4 ,his person was large and powerful4 ,he was accustomed to labor1 which gave him endurance to perform the work that lay before him4 ,his education was limited to the common ,english branches1 mathematics and land surveying4 ,in his eighteenth year he was employed by the government as surveyor of public lands4 ,many of his measurements are still on record1 and long experience has established their unvarying accuracy4 ,a massive intellect and an iron strength of will were given to him1 with a gentle1 loving heart1 dauntless courage1 and loftiness of purpose4 ,he possessed1 in a wonderful degree1 clear perceptions of his duty1 and a deep insight into the wants of his time4 ,while ,washington's boyhood was being passed on the banks of the ,potomac1 ,benjamin ,franklin was toiling hard in the city of ,philadelphia to earn an honest livelihood4 ,he edited a newspaper1 bound books1 made ink1 sold rags1 soap and coffee4 ,he also published the first ,american almanac4 ,a facsimile of the title page is given on the next page4 #aei ,image3 ,a ,facsimile of the ,title ,page for ,poor ,richard1 #aggc ,almanac4 #afj ,image3 ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,he was a thriving man1 but he was not ashamed to convey along the streets in a wheelbarrow the paper which he bought for the purpose of his trade4 ,as a boy1 he had been studious and thoughtful4 ,as a man1 he was prudent1 sagacious and trustworthy4 ,when he had earned a moderate competency he #afa ceased to labor at his business4 ,henceforth he labored to serve his fellow-men4 ,philadelphia owes to ,franklin her university1 her hospital1 and her first and greatest library4 ,it was he who discovered the identity of lightning and electricity4 ,before the revolution he was sent to ,england to plead the cause of the colonists4 ,during the war he was sent as ambassador to the court of ,france4 ,at the close of the war he was appointed one of the commissioners to negotiate a treaty of peace between the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain4 ,the last great work of his life was to aid in the forming of the constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,he continued in public office till within six months of his death and in public service till within twenty-four days of it4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,eve ,,of ,,revolution4 ,,gathering ,,of ,,political ,,forces--,,general ,,revolution--,,civil ,,reforms--,,decay ,,of ,,old ,,institutions--,,rosseau ,,and ,,his ,,writings--,,voltaire--,,holland1 ,a ,,political ,,refuge--,,american ,,settlers--,,lines ,,of ,,albert ,b4 ,,street--,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,colonies--,,love ,,for ,,england--,,causes ,,of ,,revolution--,,manufactures ,,forbidden--,,stamp ,,act--,,tax ,,on ,,tea--,,philadelphia ,,convention--,,address ,,to ,,the ,,king--,,appeal ,,to ,,england--,,to ,,canada--,,incident ,,in ,,old ,,south ,,church1 ,,boston--,,paul ,,revere',s ,,ride4 ,freedom1 thy brow1 ,glorious in beauty though it be1 is scarred ,with tokens of old wars2 thy massive limbs ,are strong with struggling4 ,power at thee has launched ,his bolts1 and with his lightnings smitten thee4 ,they could not quench the light thou hast from heaven4 ,who has failed to observe on a calm summer day the elements of a storm collecting silently1 and gradually1 until the whole heavens grew dark1 and the light of the sun was hid8 ,the calm was changed into a tempest1 the lightning flashed1 the thunder roared1 the clouds piled up #afb thicker and heavier until at length the storm burst1 the rain fell in torrents deluging the earth and in some cases uprooting the plants it was designed to nourish and strengthen4 ,so1 too1 in the political world the forces gather gradually1 until they have attained sufficient power1 and then burst upon the affrighted nations in all the tumult of a terrible revolution4 ,there are few intelligent people in this age but what have a general idea of the history of the world2 yet how comparatively few are there who realize the fact1 that in the seventy-five years which elapsed between #agge and #ahej the great majority of civilized nations passed through a great social and political change4 ,among the nations so affected may be mentioned the ,united ,states1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,italy1 ,greece1 ,belgium1 ,poland1 ,hungary1 ,turkey1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america and nearly all the ,south ,american states4 ,to this may be added the great commotions in ,russia1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,denmark1 ,holland1 ,switzerland and the states of the ,german empire caused by the wars of ,napoleon4 ,in ,england1 ,ireland and ,canada1 wars were only averted by civil reforms and concessions to popular rights4 ,for ,europe this epoch was the result of the struggles of generations4 ,at the close of the seven years' war in #agfc the representatives of even the ,catholic powers admitted the decay of old institutions4 ,the ,catholic monarchies headed by the pope1 in their struggle against ,protestantism and free thought had encountered defeat4 ,from this great struggle came forth a principle of all-pervading energy4 ,the life-giving truth of the ,reformation was the right of private judgment4 ,the world was rising up against superstition2 the oppression of industry was passing away4 ,the use of reason was no longer considered a crime1 but was on the other hand1 considered a duty4 ,ideas of the brotherhood of man were flashing across the minds of leading men4 ,at this juncture a remarkable political writer made his appearance4 ,from the discipleship of ,calvin1 from the republic of ,geneva1 from the abodes of poverty1 ,jean ,jacques ,rosseau came as the advocate of the poor and the oppressed4 ,through him the sons of toil breathed out their wrongs1 #afc and a new class gained a voice in the world of published thought4 ,though full of weaknesses and jealousies and betrayed by poverty into shameful deeds1 he possessed a deep and real feeling for humanity4 ,in an age of skepticism he solaced the ills of life by trust in ,god4 ,fearlessly questioning all the grandeurs of the world1 he breathed the spirit of revolution into words of flame4 ,what though the church of ,rome cursed his writings with her ban2 and parliaments burned them at the gibbet by the hangman's hand6 ,what though ,france drove him from her soil1 and the republic of his birth disowned her son6 ,what though the wise and noble hooted at his wildness6 ,yet from the woes of the world in which he had suffered1 from the wrongs of the down-trodden which he had shared1 he derived an eloquence that went to the heart of the masses of ,europe4 ,beyond most men of his time he saw the hand of ,providence in the history of men4 ,nor ,god alone in the still calm we find1 ,he mounts the storm and rides upon the wind4 ,institutions may crumble and governments fall1 but it is only that they may renew a better youth2 the petals of the flower wither that fruit may form4 ,on the banks of the stream of time not a great deed has been done by a hero1 or monument raised by a nation1 but tells the story of human progress4 ,each people that has disappeared1 every great institution that has passed away1 has been but a step in the ladder by which humanity ascends to a higher plane4 ,the generations that handed the truth1 from rank to rank down the ages1 have themselves become dust2 but the light still increases its ever-burning flame4 ,from the intelligence that had been slowly ripening sprang the ,american revolution4 ,while ,rosseau was putting his burning thoughts in print1 and ,voltaire1 the prince of scoffers1 was hurling his venomed shafts of sarcasm at the priesthood of the ,roman church1 farther north was the little country1 ,holland1 which had already gained a large share of civil and religious liberty4 ,here thought ranged through the wide domain of speculative reason2 here the literary fugitive found an asylum1 and the boldest writings1 which in other countries were circulated by stealth1 were openly published to the world4 #afd ,while the learned and thoughtful men of ,europe were thinking1 the pioneers of ,america were acting4 ,nothing could restrain them from peopling the wilderness4 ,to be a land-owner was the ruling passion of the ,new ,england man4 ,in general1 marriages were early and very fruitful4 ,the sons1 as they grew up skilled in the use of the ax and the rifle1 would1 one after another1 move from the old homestead2 and1 with a wife1 a yoke of oxen1 a cow and a few necessary implements1 build a small hut in the forest and by dint of industry soon win for themselves plenty and independence4 ,the beautiful lines of ,albert ,b4 ,street well describe the circumstances as well as the character of the men who founded ,american institutions and moulded the national character3 ,his echoing ax the settler swung ,amid the sea-like solitude1 ,and rushing1 thundering down were flung ,the ,titans of the wood4 ,loud shrieked the eagle as he dashed ,from out his mossy nest1 which crashed ,with its supporting bough1 ,and the first sunlight leaping flashed ,on the wolf's haunt below4 ,rude was the garb1 and strong the frame ,of him who plied his ceaseless toil3 ,to form the garb1 the wild-wood game ,contributed their spoil2 ,the soul that warmed that frame disdained ,the tinsel gaud and glare1 that reigned ,where men their crowds collect2 ,the simple fur untrimmed1 unstained1 ,this forest tamer decked4 ,his roof adorned a pleasant spot1 ',mid the black logs1 green glowed the grain1 ,and fruits and plants the woods knew not ,bloomed in the sun and rain4 ,the smoke-wreath curling o'er the dell1 ,the lowing herds--the tinkling bell1 ,all made a landscape strange4 ,which was the living chronicle ,of deeds that wrought the change4 #afe ,humble the lot1 yet his the race1 ,when liberty sent forth her cry1 ,who thronged in conflict's deadliest place ,to fight--to bleed--to die2 ,who cumbered ,bunker's hight of red4 ,by hope through weary years were led ,and witnessed ,yorktown's sun ,blaze on a nations banner spread-- ,a nation's freedom won4 ,a century and a half had now passed since the first colony had been planted on ,american soil4 ,the colonists were fast ripening into fitness for independence4 ,they had increased with marvelous rapidity4 ,europe never ceased to send forth her needy thousands4 ,america opened wide her hospitable doors and gave assurance of liberty and comfort to all who came4 ,the thirteen colonies now contained a population of about three millions4 ,up to the year #agfd1 the ,americans cherished a deep reverence and affection for the mother country4 ,they were proud to be considered ,british subjects1 and of the lofty place ,england held among the nations of the earth4 ,they gloried in the splendor of her military achievements4 ,they copied her manners and her fashions4 ,her language1 laws and literature were as fondly cherished by the colonists as by the ,english themselves4 ,why was it then that such a marvelous change should take place in the minds of the ,american people1 during the next twelve years8 ,in #agfd the colonists loved ,england as their mother country4 ,in #aggf they had learned to despise her authority4 ,they bound themselves1 by solemn oaths1 to use no article of ,english manufacture4 ,they publicly burned the ,acts of the ,english ,parliament4 ,they even killed the king's soldiers and cast from them forever his authority4 ,by what terrible magic was this change wrought so swiftly3 that three millions of people should be taught to abhor the country they once loved8 ,to answer this question rightly we must remember that the cause of the colonists was one of popular rights against royal prerogative1 that the best and wisest men in ,england were in favor of the colonists2 that even ,william ,pitt1 the #aff greatest statesman ,england had ever seen1 declared openly in ,parliament1 ,i rejoice that ,america has resisted4 ,we must also bear in mind that for many years ,england had governed her ,american colonies harshly2 and in a spirit of undisguised selfishness1 ,america was ruled not for her own good but for the good of ,english commerce4 ,the colonists were not allowed to export their products except to ,england4 ,no foreign ships were permitted to enter colonial ports4 ,whatever were the exorbitant demands of ,english manufacturers or merchants1 still the colonists were not permitted to buy at a cheaper market4 ,still more1 certain goods1 woolen for example1 were not allowed to be sent from one colony to another4 ,the manufacture of hats was forbidden1 and even the ,bible was not allowed to be printed in ,america4 ,the colonists had long borne the cost of their own government and defense4 ,but in that age of profuse expenditure on useless wars1 the king and nobility of ,england thought to gather from ,america's toiling sons the means to pay for their own misrule4 ,the ,parliament of ,england passed a law to tax ,america4 ,the colonists replied they were willing to vote what moneys the king required of them2 but they vehemently denied the right of any assembly1 in which they were not represented1 to take from them any portion of their property4 ,another law was also passed requiring a royal stamp to be placed on every legal document4 ,benjamin ,franklin had been sent to ,england by the colonists4 ,he went to plead their cause before the ,british government4 ,he told them plainly that the colonists could not submit to such taxation4 ,the act was to come in force on the first of ,november1 #agfc4 ,on that day the church bells were tolled1 and the people wore the aspect of those on whom some heavy calamity had fallen4 ,not one of the stamps was ever sold in ,america4 ,without stamps mercantile transactions ceased to be binding1 notes were not legal1 marriages were null4 ,yet the business of life went on4 ,men married2 they bought2 they sold--illegally1 because without stamps2 but no harm came of it4 ,england heard with amazement that ,america refused to obey the law4 ,the great statesman1 ,pitt1 denounced the act1 #afg and1 at length1 it was repealed4 ,the repeal of the stamp act only delayed for a little the fast-coming crisis4 ,it was during this agitation that the colonists first felt the need of a commercial and political union4 ,the idea of a general congress of the states was suggested1 which soon afterwards met in the city of ,new ,york4 ,the king of ,england was still determined to tax ,america1 and soon levied a tax on tea4 ,the people determined they would drink no more tea rather than pay the tax4 ,one day ships loaded with taxed tea arrived in ,boston harbor4 ,there was a great commotion2 the men ran together to hold council4 ,it was ,sunday1 and the people of ,boston were very strict1 yet here was an emergency in the presence of which all ordinary rules were suspended4 ,the crisis had come at length4 ,if that tea was landed1 it would be sold2 it would be used1 and ,american liberty would become a by-word upon the earth4 ,the brave and liberty-loving ,samuel ,adams was the leading man of ,boston at that time4 ,he was a man in middle life just forty-two years of age1 of cultivated mind and stainless reputation1 a powerful speaker and writer1 and a man in whose sagacity and moderation all men trusted4 ,he resembled ,cromwell in some particulars--his love of liberty1 undaunted courage and trust in ,god4 ,he was among the first to see that there was no resting place short of independence4 ,he said3 ,our forefathers were driven from the land of their birth in the cause of religious liberty4 ,they made themselves homes in the wilds of ,america4 ,we have earned a competence and are self-sustaining4 ,we are free and need no king but ,god4 ,the men of ,boston felt the power of his resolute spirit and manfully followed where ,samuel ,adams led4 ,several days of excitement and discussion followed4 ,people flocked in from the neighboring towns4 ,the time was spent mainly in political meetings4 ,at ,fanueil ,hall1 in the churches and at the market place1 the rights of the people were discussed4 ,one day a meeting was held and the excited people continued in hot debate till the shades of evening fell4 ,at length ,samuel ,adams stood up in the dimly lighted church and announced3 ,this meeting can do nothing more to save the country4 ,with a stern shout the meeting broke up4 ,fifty men disguised #afh as ,indians hurried down to the wharf1 each man with a hatchet in his hand4 ,the crowd followed1 and stood on the shore in silence while the so-called ,indians went on board the ship1 broke open the chests of tea and threw them and their contents into the sea4 ,no wonder ,king ,george was in a rage4 ,no wonder that he demanded that the guilty parties1 if they could be found1 should be sent to ,england for trial4 ,the great statesman1 ,william ,pitt1 also called the ,earl of ,chatham1 pleaded for measures of conciliation2 but all in vain4 ,general ,gage with four regiments was sent to ,boston4 ,he threw up fortifications and lay as in a hostile city4 ,the colonists appointed a day of fasting and prayer4 ,they knew that their cause was just4 ,they looked to ,him for protection1 who holds the nations in the hollow of ,his hand4 ,they knew that ,he1 who had guided them across the rolling deep and had preserved them in the wilderness1 could also protect them from the rage and avarice of wicked men4 ,they also formed themselves into military companies4 ,they occupied themselves with drill4 ,they laid up stores of ammunition4 ,most of them had muskets and could use them4 ,he who had no musket1 now got one4 ,they hoped that civil war might be averted1 but there was no harm in being ready4 ,while these things were going on in ,boston1 a congress of delegates had met in ,philadelphia and were busy discussing measures in regard to the troubles that were thickening around them4 ,twelve colonies were represented but ,georgia1 the youngest and feeblest colony1 still paused timidly on the brink of the perilous enterprise4 ,some of the truly great men of ,america met in that congress4 ,of it the great ,earl of ,chatham said3 ,for genuine sagacity1 for singular moderation1 for solid wisdom the congress of ,philadelphia shines unrivalled4 ,that quaint old building where they met became one of the spots ever dear to the patriot's heart4 ,among the famous men assembled there were ,george ,washington whose massive sense and copious knowledge attracted attention1 and made him a guiding power1 and ,patrick ,henry1 then a young man4 ,he brought to the council a wisdom beyond his years1 and a fiery eloquence1 which1 to some of his hearers1 seemed almost more than human4 ,he had already shown that he was #afi unfitted for farming or merchandising4 ,he was now to prove that he could utter words which would sweep over a continent1 thrill men's hearts like the most sublime strains of music1 and rouse them up to high and noble deeds4 ,there also was ,richard ,henry ,lee1 with his bewitching voice1 his ripe scholarship1 and rich stores of historical and political knowledge1 which would have graced the highest assemblies of the old world4 ,nor should we forget to mention the noble-minded farmer1 ,john ,dickinson1 whose published letters had done so much to form the public sentiment4 ,his enthusiastic love of ,england was now overborne by a sense of wrong4 ,and last1 but by no means least1 we may place on the list the name of ,benjamin ,franklin1 the sage philosopher1 the practical scientist1 the shrewd diplomatist1 the incorruptible patriot1 the wise philanthropist4 ,such were some of the men whom ,god raised up to mould the character of the infant nation4 ,still they did not wish for separation4 ,they wished to have their wrongs redressed and continue ,british subjects4 ,they drew up a narrative of their wrongs4 ,they implored ,king ,george to remove those grievances4 ,they even addressed the people of ,great ,britain1 as subjects of the same empire1 as men possessing common sympathies and common interests2 yet they added that they would not be 'hewers of wood and drawers of water' to any nation in the world4 ,had all the colonists been ,englishmen or descendants of ,englishmen no more could have been expected4 ,when we recollect that they had been gathered from many nations and different climes1 their subserviency to the interests of the ,british empire is remarkable4 ,the colonists even appealed to their fellow-colonists in ,canada for aid and sympathy4 ,but ,canada1 newly conquered from ,france1 was peopled almost wholly by ,frenchmen4 ,they were strangers to the religious struggles through which the more southern colonists had passed4 ,and so from ,canada there came no response of sympathy or help4 ,king ,george now determined to reduce the colonists to obedience4 ,all trade with the colonies was forbidden4 ,no ship of any nation was permitted to enter ,american ports or bring supplies to the settlers in ,america4 ,in justice to the #agj ,english people it should be said1 that in those days they had no control over the government of their country4 ,all this was managed for them by a few great families4 ,their allotted part was to toil hard1 pay their taxes1 and be silent4 ,if they had been permitted to speak1 their voice would have been on the side of popular rights4 ,they would have vindicated the men who asserted the right of self-government--a right which the great mass of ,englishmen were not to enjoy for many a long year after4 ,two incidents occurred about this time which well illustrate the spirit of the people4 ,it was the ,sabbath morning before the battle of ,lexington4 ,the scene of the first is the ,old ,south ,church1 itself rich with the mementos of the past4 ,its walls are lined with monuments4 ,the burying-ground around the church is a picturesque spot and was first used about #affj4 ,the trees interweave their branches above the tombs1 and only pencil-rays of sunlight break the broad1 cool shadows of the spot4 ,the ,boston branch of the ,winslow family rests here1 and here also sleeps the famous ,mary ,chilson1 who is said to have been the first to step on shore from the ,mayflower4 ,she died in #afgi4 ,here lie the remains of ,governor ,john ,winthrop2 ,hon4 ,john ,philips1 the first mayor of the city2 ,robert ,treat ,paine1 one of the signers of the ,declaration of ,independence2 and many others among which should not be forgotten the name of ,paul ,revere4 ,at this church the governor of the colony and other ,british government officials usually attended4 ,on this beautiful ,april ,sabbath morning they had come as usual2 and the happy yet determined people were quietly talking and loitering among the graves of their ancestors4 ,at length the pastor came1 and they followed him into the church4 ,the hymn they sang is known as the ninety-fourth psalm4 ,it commences3 ,o ,lord our ,god1 to whom alone1 all vengeance doth belong2 ,o mighty ,god1 who vengeance ownest1 shine forth avenging wrong1 ,thy folk they break in pieces1 ,lord1 thine heritage oppress1 ,the widow they and stranger slay1 and kill the fatherless4 ,the pastor's text was ,psalms xlvi41 #a3 ,god is our refuge and strength1 a very present help in trouble4 #aga ,he spoke of the wrongs the colonists had endured1 the position they held in regard to posterity1 and the responsibility which rested upon them to plant the institutions of liberty for the benefit of future generations4 ,warming with his theme1 he uttered sentences which caused the hearts of foes to quake and the hearts of friends to glow and burn within them4 ,standing on the platform of truth and right1 he dared to hurl defiance at a tyrant king4 ,the governor1 ,berkley1 interrupted the speaker1 and1 calling him a traitor1 demanded that he should cease4 ,some of the militia of ,boston foreseeing the danger of the daring speaker had followed him to the church1 and already stood in the vestibule4 ,just at that moment the trumpet sounded1 the drums beat and the great church-bell rang out its clarion notes calling the citizens to arms4 ,such was the spirit of the people that the governor sought in vain to stay their indignation which swept like a flood over the land4 ,with the ,puritans liberty was a part of their religion4 ,the other incident occurred on the eve of the battle of ,lexington4 ,early in ,april #agge1 ,general ,gage learned that considerable stores of ammunition were collected at the village of ,concord1 eighteen miles from ,boston1 and he determined to capture them4 ,late on the night of ,april #ahth1 eight hundred soldiers set out on this errand4 ,the patriots observed that there was something more than ordinary in progress4 ,companies of soldiers were massed on ,boston common under pretense of learning a new military exercise4 ,doctor1 afterwards ,general1 ,joseph ,warren1 who fell at ,bunker ,hill1 received notice of the design of the troops1 and at once sent ,paul ,revere to arouse the country4 ,it was agreed that a signal light should be placed in the tower of the ,old ,north ,church to notify the watchers of the direction the troops had taken--one if by land1 two if by sea4 ,paul ,revere then rowed across the stream to ,charlestown4 ,he was not a moment too soon4 ,general ,gage heard that his plans were discovered1 and orders were at once given that no person should be allowed to leave ,boston4 ,had these orders been given five minutes sooner1 the whole course of the revolution #agb might have been changed4 ,as it was ,revere reached the other side in safety4 ,having obtained a fleet and sure-footed steed he stood impatiently watching the belfry tower of the ,old ,north ,church4 ,meanwhile ,warren1 in disguise1 wandered through the darkness and listened with eager ears till he heard the measured tread of the grenadiers marching down to the boats4 ,then with lantern in hand he climbed up into the belfry and a gleam of light shone over the dark and silent city4 ,paul ,revere sprang into the saddle1 but paused a moment and gazed until a second light gleamed out distinctly and clearly4 ,then ,a hurry of hoofs in a village street1 ,a shape in the moonlight1 a bulk in the dark1 ,and beneath from the pebbles in passing1 a spark ,struck out by the steed that flies fearless and fleet2 ,that was all6 ,and yet thro' the darkness and gloom ,the fate of a nation was riding that night1 ,and the spark struck out by the steed in his flight ,kindled the land into flame with its heat4 ,it was twelve by the village clock ,when he crossed the bridge into ,medford town4 ,it was one by the village clock ,when he rode into ,lexington4 ,he saw the gilded weathercock swim ,in the moonlight as he passed1 ,and the meeting-house windows blank and bare ,gaze at him with a spectral glare ,as if they already stood aghast1 ,at the bloody work they would look upon4 ,you know the rest4 ,in the books you have read ,how the ,british regulars fired and fled1 ,how the farmers gave them ball for ball1 ,from behind each fence and farm-yard wall1 ,chasing the red-coats down the lane1 ,then crossing the fields to emerge again ,under the trees1 at the turn of the road1 ,and only pausing to fire and load4 ,so through the night rode ,paul ,revere2 ,and so through the night went his cry of alarm ,to every ,middlesex village and farm-- ,a cry of defiance and not of fear-- ,a voice in the darkness1 a knock at the door1 #agc ,a word that shall echo for evermore6 ,for1 borne on the night wind of the past ,through human history to the last ,the good shall pray and by faith shall hear ,a delivering foot-fall as of that steed ,and a midnight message as of ,paul ,revere4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,boys ,,of '#gf4 ,,battle ,,of ,,lexington--,,officers ,,chosen--,a ,,year ,,of ,,discussion--,,declaration ,,of ,,independence--,,spirit ,,of ,,english ,,nobility--,,defeat ,,of ,,american ,,forces--,,success ,,at ,,trenton ,,and ,,princeton--,,sufferings ,,at ,,valley ,,forge--,,washington',s ,,prayer--,,burgoyne',s ,,campaign--,,arrival ,,of ,,la ,,fayette--,,arnold',s ,,treason--,,andre',s ,,death--,,siege ,,of ,,yorktown--,,close ,,of ,,the ,,war--,,treaty ,,of ,,peace--,,army ,,disbanded--,,washington ,,resigns ,,his ,,commission--,,constitutional ,,convention--,,washington ,,elected ,,president--,,his ,,death--,,his ,,tomb4 ,with the battle of ,lexington the war of the ,revolution may be said to commence4 ,henceforth the colonies were united4 ,georgia no longer hesitated1 but sent her delegates to the continental ,congress4 ,resolutions were unanimously passed to provide for the defense of the country4 ,but it was not till after the battle of ,bunker ,hill that the people favored independence4 ,when the tidings of the battle arrived1 ,patrick ,henry exclaimed3 ,this was needed to rouse the country to action4 ,on the same day ,congress appointed ,george ,washington commander-in-chief of the colonial forces4 ,on the day following it elected its four major-generals4 #agd ,from deference to ,massachusetts1 for the noble part she had taken1 the first of these was ,artemas ,ward4 ,the second was ,charles ,lee1 the son of an ,english officer1 the third was ,philip ,schuyler1 of ,new ,york2 the fourth was ,israel ,putnam1 of ,connecticut4 ,thus the country took up arms with only one general officer1 who drew to himself the trust and love of the country4 ,washington immediately accepted the position and wrote to his brother3 ,i bid adieu to every kind and domestic ease1 and embark on a wide ocean1 boundless in its prospect1 and in which1 perhaps1 no safe harbor is to be found4 ,image3 ,george ,washington4 ,trumbull1 the governor of ,connecticut1 wrote to him3 ,now be strong and very courageous2 may the ,god of the armies of ,israel give you wisdom and fortitude and cover your head in the day of battle and danger4 ,to this ,washington replied3 ,the cause of our common country calls us both to an active and dangerous duty2 divine ,providence1 which wisely orders the affairs of men1 will enable us to discharge it with fidelity and success4 ,such were the sentiments which animated the colonists in ,june1 #agge4 ,a year of discussion and anxiety followed1 during #age which a remarkable pamphlet was published1 entitled1 ,common ,sense4 ,the writer1 who embodied in words the vague longing of the people1 mixed with crude notions of his own1 was ,thomas ,paine1 the son of an ,english ,quaker1 and1 at that time1 a little under forty years of age4 ,in after years he became a profligate and a reviler of the scriptures1 yet1 at that time1 his writings did much to prepare the ,american people for self-government4 ,however1 it was not until ,june1 #aggf1 that the colonists gave up the hope of reconciliation4 ,at that time the ,assembly of ,virginia issued a famous circular entitled1 ,the ,rights of ,man4 ,the leading principles which it taught were1 that government ought to be instituted for the benefit of the people2 that freedom of speech and of the press should never be interfered with2 and that religion can be directed only by reason and conviction1 not by fraud or violence4 ,a month later1 ,july #dth1 #aggf1 the continental ,congress issued ,,the ,,declaration ,,of ,,independence4 ,and for the support of this declaration they added3 ,with a firm reliance on the protection of ,,divine ,,providence1 we mutually pledge to each other1 our lives1 our fortunes and our sacred honor4 ,thus the youthful nation1 as it took its place among the powers of the world1 proclaimed its faith in the truth and reality and unchangeableness of freedom1 virtue and right4 ,the heart of ,jefferson1 in writing the declaration1 and of ,congress in adopting it1 beat for all humanity4 ,the assertion of right was made for all nations and for all coming generations4 ,it was addressed to all mankind and was destined to make the circuit of the world4 ,as it passed by the despotic countries of ,europe1 and the astonished people read with mingled surprise and joy1 that all men are created equal1 and have an equal right to life1 liberty and the pursuit of happiness1 they started as from the sleep of years2 like those1 who have been exiles from their native land from childhood1 start up when they suddenly hear the dimly remembered accents of their mother tongue4 ,when the news of the declaration of independence reached ,england the spirit of the nobility was vehement against the ,americans4 ,had the decision of the conflict hung on the #agf strength of armies alone1 the colonists could not have gained the victory2 but it involved the interests of ,europe's toiling millions1 and brought into action ideas which had hitherto no opportunity for expression1 and forces which until then had no sphere of action4 ,the principles that gave life to the new institutions pervaded history like a prophecy1 and seemed like the realizing of the golden age of which the poets dreamed4 ,the most profound thinkers and most intense lovers of the race saw in ,america's future an opportunity for man's higher development2 the spiritual-minded saw in the history and circumstances of ,america the wonder-working and controlling hand of ,providence4 ,the history of the military campaigns of #aggf and #aggg1 are too well known to need repetition here4 ,the ,americans were beaten in every attack made upon them1 from the battle of ,bunker ,hill1 ,june #ag1 #agge1 to the battle of ,fort ,mifflin1 ,october #bb1 #aggg4 ,at ,cambridge they had no powder1 yet their courage and perseverance held out4 ,they lost ,long ,island1 ,new ,york1 ,fort ,washington and more than three thousand men4 ,they fled through ,new ,jersey followed by the victorious ,english4 ,the ,american army kept on dwindling and shrinking till it comprised scarcely seven thousand men1 ill armed1 unpaid1 ill clad and unfed4 ,during those two years and four months the only battles1 that were precursors of success and gave renewed hope and vigor to the patriot cause1 were the brilliant successes at ,trenton and ,princeton4 #agg ,image3 ,washington ,crossing the ,delaware4 ,it was the night before ,christmas4 ,the ,british lay waiting fur the ,delaware river to freeze over1 that they might again pursue ,washington and his little band4 ,meanwhile the ,americans collected all the boats up and down the river for seventy miles4 ,after dark they commenced to cross the river4 ,the night was dark and tempestuous1 and the weather so intensely cold that two of the soldiers were frozen to death4 ,yet amidst the floating ice and gusts of wind they fearlessly rowed across the river4 ,at day-break ,christmas morning they attacked the astonished royalists4 ,three times as many prisoners were taken as the number of the ,american troops engaged4 ,the ,americans then recrossed the river taking the #agh prisoners with them4 ,a week later1 ,washington made another night march and surprised the ,british at ,princeton1 capturing prisoners and making good his escape4 ,these exploits1 inconsiderable as they may seem1 greatly raised the spirits of the ,american people4 ,when triumphs like these were possible1 under circumstances so discouraging1 there was no need to despair4 ,though the ,british advanced on ,philadelphia and took possession of it1 still there was a feeling of insecurity in the ,british army4 ,they knew not what moment they might be attacked4 ,notwithstanding these successes many of the ,american officers left the army in disgust4 ,the nation could not pay her soldiers and made no promise of future indemnity4 ,the ,british had full possession of ,new ,york1 and were rioting and feasting at ,philadelphia4 ,meanwhile ,washington with his little army had retreated to a secluded place among the ,pennsylvania hills1 which was known by the name of ,valley ,forge4 ,as the men moved toward the spot selected for their winter resting-place1 they had no clothes to cover their nakedness1 blankets to lie on1 nor tents to sleep under4 ,for the want of shoes1 their marches through frost and snow might be traced by the blood from their feet1 and they were almost as often without provisions as with them4 ,an extract from one of ,washington's letters to ,congress may not be out of place3 ,we have this day no less than two thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight men unfit for duty1 because they are barefoot or otherwise naked4 ,our whole strength in continental troops amounts to no more than eight thousand two hundred men4 ,since the fourth instant1 owing to hardships and exposures1 our numbers have decreased nearly two thousand men4 ,numbers are obliged to sit all night by the fires2 or sleep on a cold1 bleak hill1 under frost and snow1 without clothes or blankets4 ,all this time the ,british soldiers in ,philadelphia were well provided for2 the officers were living in luxury at the expense of the inhabitants4 ,the days were spent in pastime1 the nights in entertainments4 #agi ,it was at this period of the war--the darkest through which the nation ever passed--that the following incident occurred4 ,it was observed that each day after ,washington had visited the hospital tents and administered to the sick whatever necessities or comforts he had in his power to bestow1 he retired into the forest at some distance from the camp4 ,curiosity prompted an individual1 named ,isaac ,pitts1 to follow him4 ,there1 at the foot of a large tree1 with head uncovered1 kneeling in the snow1 was seen the commander-in-chief of the ,american armies1 engaged in prayer before ,god4 ,with an anxious and burdened mind--a mind conscious of its need of divine support and consolation--,washington went and rolled those mighty burdens--too heavy for him to bear unaided--upon the arm of ,omnipotence4 ,isaac ,pitts related what he had seen and heard1 and on a subsequent day at least three persons beheld the venerated father of his country1 at prayer before his ,god4 ,it is recorded in ,matthew vi41 #f3 ,but thou1 when thou prayest1 enter into thy closet1 and when thou hast shut thy door1 pray to thy ,father which is in secret2 and thy ,father1 which seeth in secret shall reward thee openly4 ,may we not believe that the high moral courage which dared greater perils than the whistling of bullets2 that will of mighty strength which having chosen the right1 though unpopular1 never deviated from it2 that calm self-command1 which bore up under the greatest reverses and still preserved its equanimity amidst the taunts of enemies and censure of friends--may we not believe that these things were among the open rewards of secret prayer8 ,from that time forward success seems to have attended the ,american arms4 ,meanwhile the tidings of ,american heroism and suffering had reached the old world and thrilled the hearts of the lovers of liberty in ,europe4 ,prominent among these was the ,marquis de la ,fayette1 a young ,french nobleman1 then scarcely nineteen years of age1 who offered to serve in the ,american army1 without pension or allowance4 ,the king of ,france dreaded the growth of civil and political liberty2 yet he could not withstand the temptation to wreak a terrible vengeance on ,england for having wrested ,canada from his #ahj grasp4 ,he sent a fleet and army to ,america1 which greatly aided the cause of ,independence4 ,thus did the rage of wicked men further the designs of ,providence4 ,while ,washington was still hemmed in among the hills of ,pennsylvania1 the ,british general1 ,burgoyne1 had marched from ,canada into the heart of ,new ,england4 ,at his approach every man took down his musket from the wall and hurried to the front4 ,little discipline had they1 but a resolute purpose and a sure aim4 ,difficulties thickened around the fated army4 ,image3 ,scene of ,burgoyne's ,surrender4 ,at length1 ,burgoyne found himself at ,saratoga4 ,it was now ,october4 ,heavy rains fell4 ,provisions were growing scanty4 ,gradually it became evident that the ,british were surrounded4 ,night and day a circle of fire encompassed them4 ,burgoyne called his officers together4 ,there was but one thing to do and it was done4 ,the ,british army surrendered4 ,nearly six thousand brave men1 in sorrow and in shame1 laid down their arms4 ,the men who took them were mere peasants4 ,no two of them were dressed alike4 ,these grotesque ,american #aha warriors behaved towards their conquered enemies with true nobility4 ,general ,gates1 the ,american commander1 kept his men strictly within their lines1 that they might not witness the piling of the ,british arms4 ,no taunt was offered1 no look of disrespect was directed against the fallen4 ,all were mute in astonishment and pity4 ,image3 ,meeting ,place of ,andre and ,arnold4 ,one of the saddest incidents of the war1 was the tragic fate of ,major ,andre4 ,the ,americans had a strong fortress at ,west ,point1 on the ,hudson river4 ,the ,english desired to #ahb obtain this place1 as its possession would give them command of the ,hudson river1 up which their ships might sail more than a hundred miles4 ,but that fort1 sitting impregnably on rocks1 two hundred feet above the river1 was hard to win4 ,benedict ,arnold1 a proud and ambitious ,american officer1 was in command of this post4 ,loving money more than duty1 he determined to sell this fortress to the ,english4 ,he opened negotiations with ,sir ,henry ,clinton1 then in command of the ,english at ,new ,york1 who sent ,major ,andre to arrange the terms of the transfer4 ,at midnight ,major ,andre landed from a ,british ship at a lonely place1 where ,arnold awaited him4 ,their conference lasted so long1 that it was deemed unsafe for ,andre to return to the ship4 ,it was determined that the next night he should attempt1 in disguise1 to reach ,new ,york by land4 ,the pass given to him by ,arnold1 permitted him to go through the ,american lines4 ,his danger might now be considered at an end1 and1 under cover of the darkness1 he rode cheerfully on his lonely journey1 till he came to a small stream4 ,thick woods on each side made the darkness still more gloomy4 ,suddenly three men stepped from among the trees and ordered him to halt4 ,thinking them to be friends1 he told them he was a ,british officer on very important business4 ,alas for ,andre6 they were ,americans4 ,andre was searched1 and in his boots were discovered ,arnold's drawings of ,west ,point4 ,the men knew then that he was a spy4 ,he vainly offered them a large sum of money1 but the men nobly refused to sell their liberty and their country for gold4 ,andre was tried1 condemned1 and1 ten days after1 executed4 ,his death caused deep sensation throughout the army and ,england4 ,men in ,england began to inquire into the causes of this terrible1 fratricidal war4 ,while the ,british general1 ,clinton1 was holding ,new ,york1 ,lord ,cornwallis was fortifying himself in ,yorktown1 ,virginia4 ,the ,french fleet sailed for the ,chesapeake bay1 and ,washington decided to act in concert with the ,french1 and lay siege to ,yorktown4 ,the bombarding was carried on with extraordinary energy4 ,in a few days the defenses lay in utter ruins4 ,cornwallis determined to evacuate ,yorktown and join ,clinton #ahc at ,new ,york4 ,one night he began to embark his men in order to cross the ,york river and set out on his desperate march4 ,a violent storm arose and scattered his boats4 ,all hope was now at an end4 ,in about a fortnight from the opening of the siege1 the ,british army1 eight thousand strong1 laid down its arms4 ,well might the colonists rejoice for their long and bitter struggle was about to close4 ,eight years had passed since the first blood was shed at ,lexington4 ,the representatives of the ,english people had learned the causes of the ,american revolution1 and refused to continue the fratricidal war4 ,the independence of the ,united ,states was acknowledged and the ,british forces were withdrawn4 ,on the #cjth of ,november1 #aghb1 a treaty of peace was signed at ,versailles1 between the commissioners1 ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,john ,adams and ,john ,jay1 appointed by the ,congress of the ,united ,states and those of ,great ,britain4 ,the treaty was not a compact imposed by force1 but a perpetual settlement of all that had been called in question4 ,by doing this act of justice to her former colonies1 ,england rescued her own liberties from imminent danger1 and gave a pledge of liberty to her other dependencies4 ,that selfish colonial policy1 which had led to the cruel and unnatural war1 was laid aside forever4 ,great ,britain was henceforth the mother of nations--the great colonizing power--destined to found colonies in every quarter of the globe1 and sow the islands of the ocean with the seeds of freedom4 ,for the ,united ,states1 the war which began on ,lexington ,green1 ended with the independence and possession of a country1 which has increased till it is now thirty times larger than the parent state4 ,the boys of '#gf had fought their last battle4 ,december #dth1 #aghc1 ,washington came to disband the army4 ,many of the soldiers had been home by permission4 ,they now came to bid farewell to their commander-in-chief1 and then return to their great work of building a nation4 ,washington and his soldiers met for the last time4 ,no more beating of drums or roar of cannon2 no more weary marches or the clash of arms4 ,they had fought side by side1 and the memories of #ahd those conflicts could never be effaced4 ,washington said3 ,with a heart full of love and gratitude1 ,i now take leave of you1 most devoutly wishing1 that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy1 as your former ones have been glorious and honorable4 ,the officers then took his hand4 ,there were tears upon his cheek1 and the officers felt a choking in their throats4 ,they passed out of doors down to the ferry4 ,washington stepped into a boat1 took off his hat and waved a farewell4 ,the oars of the rowers soon bore him from ,new ,york to the ,new ,jersey side4 ,at noon on the #bjth of ,december1 he stood in the old hall of the state house at ,annapolis1 in the presence of the ,congress1 which had called him from his quiet home eight years before1 to take command of the armies of the ,united ,states4 ,now he was to resign it4 ,he said3 ,i commend the interests of our country to the protection of ,almighty ,god1 and those who have the superintendence of them to ,his holy keeping4 ,having finished the work assigned me1 and bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body1 under whose order ,i have so long acted1 ,i here offer my commission and take leave of all employments of public life4 ,thus did ,washington gladly return to his home on the ,potomac4 ,the simple grandeur of his character was now revealed beyond the possibility of misconception4 ,afterwards he was twice elected president2 yet never abused the trust reposed in him4 ,there were many who would have made him king4 ,he trampled on their offer1 and went back to his fields of corn and quiet haunts at ,mount ,vernon4 ,the grandest act of his public life was to give up power2 the most magnanimous deed of his private life1 was to liberate his slaves4 ,during the ,revolution most of the states had adopted written codes or constitutions on which all their civil laws were based4 ,they were virtually1 at that time1 thirteen independent states4 ,congress had but little authority2 could not enforce laws or collect taxes4 ,a general constitution was needed1 which would fuse them into one nationality1 and control their conflicting interests4 #ahe ,image3 ,mount ,vernon4 ,in #aghg1 fifty-five delegates met in ,philadelphia4 ,they came together to devise means for perpetuating the liberty they had so dearly won4 ,washington was appointed to preside over the ,convention2 ,thomas ,jefferson1 ,patrick ,henry1 ,alexander ,hamilton and many other wise men were there4 ,benjamin ,franklin brought to this--his latest and greatest task--the ripe experience of eighty-two years4 ,there were many perplexing questions to be settled4 ,some of the states were large1 others small3 ought the small ones to have equal voice in the government with the large ones8 ,they decided that ,congress should consist of a ,senate and ,house of ,representatives--two senators from each state1 no matter what its size or number of population2 but the representatives were to be elected according to population4 ,for four months the delegates discussed the momentous issues that came before them4 ,they sat with closed doors2 the world will never know how wise or foolish1 how eloquent or angry were their words4 ,at #ahf one time it seemed impossible to reconcile their differences4 ,benjamin ,franklin proposed that the blessing of ,god should be asked upon their labors4 ,from that time forward1 prayer was offered each morning1 and greater unanimity prevailed in counsel4 ,a spirit of concession was manifest1 and a willingness to give up their private interests for the general good4 #ahg ,thus did the ,spirit of ,god act on the hearts of the founders of this nation4 ,image3 ,the ,tomb of ,washington4 ,at length they embodied their labors in a written constitution1 which1 by a vote of the people1 became1 in #aghi1 the supreme law of the land4 ,with few amendments the original constitution remains in full force now1 receiving1 as it increases in age1 the growing reverence of right minded people4 ,washington was the first president4 ,he took the oath of office ,april #cjth1 #aghi1 in the presence of a vast multitude4 ,he served eight years1 and then retired again to ,mount ,vernon1 where he died in the sixty-eighth year of his age1 ,december #ae1 #agii4 ,his countrymen mourned him with a sorrow1 sincere and deep4 ,their reverence for him has not diminished with the progress of the years4 ,to this day the steamers1 which ply upon the ,potomac1 strike mournful notes as they sweep past ,mount ,vernon1 where ,washington spent the happiest years of his life1 and where he now reposes4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,progress ,,of ,,liberty ,,in ,,europe4 ,,influence ,,of ,,la ,,fayette--,,despotism ,,in ,,france--,,the ,,bastile--,,corruptions ,,of ,,the ,,church--,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,revolution--,,the ,,marseillaise--,,its ,,wonderful ,,influence--,,reign ,,of ,,terror--,,napoleon ,,bonaparte--,,his ,,wonderful ,,career--,,jewish ,,sanhedrim--,,fall ,,of ,,napoleon--,,his ,,death--,,progress ,,of ,,liberty4 ,when the war of independence was over ,la ,fayette returned to ,france4 ,he was the lightning-rod by which the current of republican sentiments flashed from ,america to ,europe4 ,he was the hero of the hour4 ,a man #ahh who had helped to set up a republic in ,america1 was a dangerous element for old despotic ,france to receive into her bosom4 ,with the charm of a great name1 immense wealth and boundless popularity to aid him1 he everywhere urged that men should be free and self-governing4 ,the influence of ,la ,fayette was soon apparent4 ,the people of ,france were living under a government which had come down from the feudal ages4 ,they wished to follow the example of the ,united ,states1 but how could this be accomplished8 ,the king could do as he pleased--make war1 build fleets1 tax the people1 even send men to prison when charged with no crime1 keeping them in prison till they became old and gray-haired1 or until death set them free4 ,of all the gloomy prisons of ,france1 the ,bastile was the most horrible4 ,its dark1 deep dungeons were ever dripping with water and alive with vermin4 ,no straggling ray of light ever entered them ,the floor was covered with mud and slime and the bones of victims who had died of starvation4 ,louis ,,xv41 king of ,france was accustomed to sign his name to blank letters and give them to his friends to fill in as they pleased the names of those they wished to punish4 ,one day1 the king wanted money1 and demanded #abj1jjj of ,m4 ,massot4 ,i cannot pay it1 he replied4 ,into the ,bastile with him1 cried the king1 and ordered his goods to be seized4 ,m4 ,catalan was very rich4 ,the king cast him into the ,bastile and he did not get out till he handed over #a1bjj1jjj6 ,madame de ,pompadour1 the mistress of the king1 ruled ,france1 and woe to him who provoked her displeasure6 ,m4 ,latude1 twenty years old1 offended her1 and the great door of the ,bastile closed upon him4 ,the years rolled on1 ,madame de ,pompadour and the king went down to the grave1 yet ,m4 ,latude was still a prisoner in the ,bastile4 ,thus for sixty years did ,louis ,,xv41 plunder and imprison the people of ,france4 ,the nobility1 the priests and the officers of the government paid no taxes1 but1 on the other hand1 received great revenues from the people4 ,they had nothing to do except to eat1 drink1 attend balls or hunting parties and play cards4 ,they lived in fine castles1 and had beautiful parks1 gardens and hunting-grounds4 ,the tax collectors came several times a year to #ahi the poor man's home1 but never to the castle4 ,of every sixteen dollars produced from the land by the hard-working peasants1 the king took four1 the priests took four1 and the nobleman who owned the land took five1 leaving only three for the poor man and his family4 ,meanwhile ,louis ,,xvi4 succeeded to the throne4 ,the church was as corrupt as the king4 ,the priests lived luxuriously on the revenue wrung from the toiling people4 ,they charged the people enormous fees for every service1 for baptism1 marriage1 burial1 and masses for the dead4 ,from the cradle to the grave it was one continual extortion4 ,such was the condition of the people when ,la ,fayette presented to the ,national ,assembly a ,declaration of ,rights4 ,it resembled the ,declaration of ,independence in many particulars1 and declared that all men are free and equal4 ,it was on ,saturday1 ,july #aath1 #aghi1 that ,la ,fayette presented the ,declaration of ,rights4 ,sunday came1 and the troops were marching4 ,the king had resolved to disperse the ,national ,assembly1 and if the people resisted to mow them down with cannon balls4 ,a great crowd assembled in the ,palais ,royal ,garden4 ,they eagerly asked ,what is to be done8 ,a young man named ,camille ,desmoulins1 sprang upon a table1 with a pistol in each hand to defend himself4 ,to arms6 to arms6 he cried1 we must defend ourselves6 ,he plucked a green leaf and put it in his hat-band1 for a plume4 ,the people followed his example4 ,they had no arms1 but there were muskets in the great arsenal1 called the ,hotel des ,invalides4 ,they broke it open and armed themselves4 ,the cry rung through the streets1 ,down with the ,bastile6 ,they rushed to the gloomy prison and planted their cannon to batter down the gates4 ,the guards in the ,bastile were heart and soul with the people4 ,they hung out a white flag1 and the prison was surrendered4 ,then came forth to the light of day the emaciated victims who had been so long immured in its filthy dungeons4 ,a duke rode to the king's palace at ,versailles to tell the news4 ,it is a revolt1 exclaimed the king4 ,the duke replied1 ,nay1 sire1 it is a revolution4 ,the deluge of blood had come4 ,revengeful men were roaming the streets of ,paris murdering the nobles and the clergy4 ,the ,national ,assembly ordered #aij the ,bastile to be torn down1 and the people leveled it to the ground4 ,in ,strasburg1 was a young man named ,rouget de l',isle4 ,one day he was dining with his friend ,dietrich1 and they talked of liberty and equal rights4 ,after dinner1 he went to his chamber1 sat down to the clavichord and began to play and sing4 ,his soul was on fire for liberty for ,france4 ,he seemed to be wrought upon by a higher power4 ,words came1 and with them a strange1 wild melody4 ,he did not know which came first4 ,he sang and played1 and played and sang1 and felt a strange delight4 ,at length his head fell upon his breast3 he was asleep4 ,the morning sun was shining in his face when he awoke and the song was still stirring in his heart4 ,he called in his friend ,dietrich to hear it1 he liked it well1 and other friends were called in to hear it4 ,a young lady sat down to the clavichord and played while ,rouget de l',isle sang3 ,ye sons of freedom1 wake to glory6 ,hark6 hark6 what myriads bid you rise6 ,your children1 wives and grand-sires hoary1 ,behold their tears and hear their cries6 ,shall hateful tyrants1 mischief breeding1 ,with hireling host1 a ruffian band1 ,while peace and liberty lie bleeding1 ,affright and desolate the land8 ,do you not hear the prisoners moaning8 ,arise ye brave1 the sword unsheath1 ',neath tyrants yoke no longer groaning1 ,resolved on liberty or death4 ,the peculiar genius of the ,french language1 as well as the strange versification of the song1 will not permit of an exact translation4 ,for the benefit of those of our readers who understand the ,french language we give one of the stanzas as originally written3 ,quoi6 des cohortes etrangeres1 ,feraient la loi dans nos foyers1 ,quoi6 ces phalanges mercenaires ,terrasseraient nos fiers gueriers4 #aia ,grand ,dieu6 par des mains enchainees1 ,nos fronts sous le joug se plieraient1 ,de vils despotes deviendraient1 ,les maitres de nos destinees4 ,in a few hours all ,strasburg was singing it4 ,it went from village to village1 from city to city1 from province to province1 and became known as the ,marseillaise1 or national song of ,france1 which above all other songs ever written has stirred the hearts of men4 ,great events took place4 ,the king of ,france and his beautiful queen1 ,maria ,antoinette1 were beheaded4 ,a republic was started1 but was soon overthrown1 and the government seized by blood-thirsty villains4 ,more than a million people perished by the guillotine1 war1 famine and starvation4 ,the nation waded through a sea of blood4 ,old things passed away never to return4 ,the internal history of ,france during a period of two years from the fall of the monarchy1 is perhaps the most appalling record1 which the annals of the human family present4 ,why did not ,france succeed in establishing a free government8 ,because all such must be founded on intelligence1 virtue1 and faith in ,god and immortality4 ,out of the revolution came the one man who could restore order to ,france--,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,it does not come within the limits of this work to relate the various wars of ,napoleon4 ,the ,french revolution--abortive as it seemed--rendered forever impossible the continuance of the despotism which had heretofore governed ,europe4 ,napoleon1 though one of the worst despots1 sowed revolutionary principles broad-cast over ,europe4 ,his judicial code taught the equality of man before the law4 ,his overthrow of so many princes taught the people to place a lower estimate on the sanctity of crowned heads4 ,his consolidation of the petty ,german states1 awakened the desire for a united ,germany and paved the way for its accomplishment4 ,he introduced constitutional government to ,italy1 ,westphalia and ,spain4 ,he weakened the temporal power of the pope1 and dealt fatal blows at the feudal nobility4 ,his rude assaults shook to its foundations the whole fabric of ,european despotism1 and led the lower orders of the people to entertain new ideas regarding their own rights4 #aib ,never before had influences so powerful been brought so widely into operation over vast multitudes of men4 ,image3 ,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,napoleon1 with the exception of ,oliver ,cromwell1 was the first great statesman in ,europe to engage in designs for the advantage of the ,jews4 ,in #ahjf1 the world heard with amazement that ,napoleon had summoned a grand ,sanhedrim of the ,jews to assemble at ,paris4 ,the twelve great questions which ,napoleon submitted to the ,jewish ,rabbis thus assembled and the answers which they gave to him1 did much to dispel popular prejudice against that people1 and prepare the way for their social and material advancement4 ,some of these questions and answers were of peculiar importance in a religious point of view4 ,from these we learn1 that in #ahjf1 among the ,jewish people1 and among some of the advanced thinkers of that age1 marriage was considered null and void unless the ceremony was #aic performed by a person possessing divine authority4 ,further1 that polygamy is taught in the ,jewish scriptures1 but had been discontinued by the ,jews by virtue of a decree of the ,synod of ,worms1 in ,a4 ,d4 #ajcj4 7,for further particulars see ,journal des ,debats pour #ahjg4 ,milman's ,history of the ,jews1 page #eib47 ,the influence which ,napoleon exerted upon the course of human affairs is without parallel in history4 ,in comparison with these1 the conquest of ,caesar and ,alexander dwindle into insignificance4 ,never before had any man inflicted upon his fellows1 miseries so appalling2 yet did never one man's hand scatter seeds destined to produce a harvest of political change1 so vast and so beneficent4 ,to the despots of ,europe he was the dreaded apostle of democracy4 ,the amazing events which followed each other in so swift succession in ,france were watched with profound interest in other lands4 ,the results were quickly apparent4 ,when ,napoleon fell1 the desire for self-government had silently spread over ,europe4 ,the anxiety1 which the dethroned monarchs evinced to please their subjects1 began to disclose to the people the secret of their own strength4 ,a congress of delegates from the great powers met in ,vienna1 in #ahad1 to restore the thrones to the kings who had been exiled during the wars of ,napoleon4 ,they were blind to the lesson which the revolution had taught4 ,they dreamed not of the new forces which had been silently growing strong underneath the tumult and confusion of universal war4 ,napoleon was at length banished to ,st4 ,helena1 a rocky island in the ,south ,atlantic1 far from any other inhabited land1 where he died1 ,may #eth1 #ahba4 ,thus darkly closed a career the most brilliant1 the most influential1 and the most remarkable of modern times4 ,the power of the people now began to be everywhere felt4 ,in #ahbj1 the ,american possessions of ,spain rose against the despotism under which they had long suffered1 and successfully asserted their independence4 ,insurrections broke out in ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,naples and ,piedmont1 and only ended when they obtained constitutional government4 #aid ,across the ,adriatic1 ,greece took encouragement from the energy of her neighbors to assert the liberty of which ,turkish oppression defrauded her4 ,helped by ,europe1 she succeeded4 ,image3 ,the ,city of ,athens4 ,athens1 once the seat of learning and philosophy1 the home of poets1 painters and sculptors1 the city that once led the world in civilization and art1 became the capital of the modern kingdom of ,greece4 #aie ,the influence continued to spread until it effected all the states of western ,europe4 ,it turned men's minds everywhere to political thought and discussion4 ,it quickened the hardy mountaineers of ,switzerland to reorganize their republican institutions1 on the basis of equal rights4 ,the little republic of the mountains founded so long ago1 in the days of ,william ,tell1 started on a new era of prosperity4 ,france1 in #ahcj1 once more attempted to throw off the yoke of her ancient kings4 ,image3 ,scene in ,switzerland4 ,these events may be said to mark the complete political awakening of ,europe4 ,western ,europe was now free and #aif self-governing4 ,the long and painful transition from despotism to responsible government was at length accomplished4 ,one hundred and eighty millions of ,europeans had risen from a degraded vassalage to the rank and condition of freemen4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,forces ,,of ,,civilization ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,,the ,,genius ,,of ,,the ,,age--,,european ,,wars--,,america ,,tranquil--,,declaration ,,of ,,war--,,divisions ,,of ,,north ,,america--,,united ,,states--,,canada--,,mexico--,,american ,,common ,,schools--,,their ,,influence--,,progress ,,of ,,invention--,,first ,,steamboat--,,first ,,locomotive--,,electric ,,telegraph--,,improvements ,,in ,,printing--,,spiritual ,,darkness--,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,god--,,wants ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,age--,,joseph ,,smith--,,his ,,tragic ,,death--,,conclusion4 ,human history should be a record of progress--a record of accumulating knowledge and increasing wisdom1 of continual advancement from a lower to a higher platform of intelligence and well-being4 ,each generation should pass on to the next the treasures which it has inherited1 beneficially modified by its own experience1 and enlarged by the acquisitions which itself has gained4 ,sometimes the stream of human development seems to pause and the years seem to roll on without change4 ,yet this is only apparent4 ,all the while there is a silent accumulation of forces1 which at length burst forth in the violent overthrow of evils1 which had been endured for generations4 ,the nineteenth century1 has witnessed progress beyond all precedent1 for it has beheld the overthrow of the barriers that prevented progress4 ,it has vindicated for all succeeding ages1 #aig the right of man to his own unimpeded development4 ,the genius of the age has tended to the abolition of serfdom and slavery1 and the up-lifting of the poor1 the down-trodden and oppressed4 ,more than at all previous times it has seen the removal of artificial obstacles placed in the path of human progress by the selfishness and ignorance of the strong4 ,at the opening of the nineteenth century1 all ,europe was occupied with war4 ,from the ,north to the shores of the ,mediterranean1 from the confines of ,asia to the ,atlantic1 men toiled to burn each other's cities1 to waste each other's fields1 and destroy each other's lives4 ,in some places there was heard the shout of victory1 in some the wail of defeat4 ,the first twelve years of the century were spent by ,america in profound tranquility4 ,she looked from afar with a serene neutrality upon the furious efforts which the ,european nations were making to compass the ruin of each other4 ,in process of time1 ,england and ,france1 eagerly bent on mutual harm1 adopted measures which nearly destroyed trans-,atlantic commerce4 ,american ships lay in unprofitable idleness2 grass grew upon the untrodden wharfs of ,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 ,moreover the high-handed ,british enforced a hateful claim to search ,american ships and take away any sailors suspected of being ,british subjects4 ,these grievances might have been peacefully redressed2 but ,america and ,england were too angry to be reasonable4 ,james ,madison was president at that time4 ,he did not want to go to war1 but he desired to be elected president a second time4 ,his friends who were eager for war informed him that unless he declared war he could not be re-elected4 ,with closed doors the bill proposing war was discussed4 ,it was passed in secret session1 and on ,june #aith1 #ahab1 ,president ,madison affixed his signature1 and issued a proclamation declaring war against ,great ,britain4 ,the principal ,european powers1 including ,england1 were then engaged in a mighty struggle against ,napoleon4 ,england could spare scarcely three thousand men for the defense of her colonies4 ,the ,british forces in ,america were principally composed of ,canadian voluntiers and militia4 #aih ,then came a war of mingled success and disaster4 ,the surrender of ,detroit1 the disaster at ,queenston ,heights1 the victory of ,perry1 the midnight struggle at ,lundy's ,lane1 the capture of ,washington1 the terrible havoc at ,new ,orleans--all these are too well known to need repetition here4 ,after two years and a half of mutual injuries1 a treaty of peace was signed in which nothing was said about the imprisonment of seamen2 but from that day to the present no ,american citizen has been imprisoned on board a ,british vessel4 ,then came an era of peaceful industrial progress without parallel in the annals of the human family4 ,the forces of modern civilization began to work4 ,north ,america was now divided into three great divisions1 the ,united ,states1 ,canada and ,mexico4 ,for obvious reasons the ,united ,states has developed the most rapidly4 ,the dominion of ,canada is destined in process of years to become a powerful empire4 ,its area is more than three million five hundred thousand square miles1 which is more than that of the ,united ,states1 and nearly equal to the whole of ,europe4 ,most of this enormous region proves to be of marvelous fertility1 producing in abundance nearly all the grains of temperate regions4 ,millions of acres are added annually to the area under cultivation4 ,the vast and magnificent region watered by the ,saskatchewan and ,assiniboine seems destined to become one of the granaries of the world4 ,quietly and peacefully1 the dominion is growing in power and influence4 ,the area of cultivated land is fast extending4 ,manufactures of all kinds are rapidly multiplying1 and in ship-building and commerce she has already outstripped the great republic4 ,in these respects1 if considered separate from ,england1 ,canada now ranks the fourth power in the world4 ,recent developments indicate that ,mexico has an important work to do in the economy of ,god4 ,in the last few years she has made astonishing progress in the arts1 sciences and social condition of her people4 ,as an illustration one of her sons1 the late ,president ,juarez showed himself to be one of the most remarkable men that has lived on this continent during the present century4 ,the population of ,north ,america in #ahjj1 was scarcely more than ten millions1 now it approaches seventy #aii millions and increases in a ratio that defies calculation4 ,already it is the theater of some of the most important events in the world's history1 and greater events still await the coming years4 ,at the time that ,america commenced to be governed by the first written constitution that the world had ever seen1 one of the great questions that was asked by the leading minds of the age as well as by the toiling millions of ,europe was3 ,what will be the future of ,america1 what the forces that will mould and fashion it8 ,one of these was the common school4 ,here the future citizens met upon a level4 ,money and position in society counted nothing2 merit won4 ,a boy with a patch on each knee1 his jacket in rags1 who lived in a cabin1 whose breakfast was potato and salt1 and whose supper was mush1 and milk1 quite likely stood at the head of the class2 while the boy who wore good clothes and whose father was rich1 possibly found himself at the foot of the long line of spellers4 ,from these schools many of the boys made their way through college1 became teachers1 ministers1 lawyers1 legislators and governors4 ,the lessons there learned together1 with the instructions of honest ,god-fearing parents1 laid the foundation of character and made them the pioneers of a new civilization4 ,the education of the masses multiplied the number thinkers4 ,as a consequence1 mechanical skill and invention is the peculiar growth of the present century and the ,united ,states in this regard ranks among the foremost nations of the world4 ,from the creation of the world down to the middle of the last century1 nearly all the work of the world had been done by the muscular labor of men or animals4 ,but in ,england and ,america men were discovering that machinery might be made to do work of human hands4 ,it was not until #agfd1 that ,james ,watt commenced his wonderful inventions1 and ten years more elapsed before his engine was of any practical use4 ,meanwhile ,hargreaves1 ,arkwright and ,crompton had invented machines for the manufacture of cloth4 ,in ,america there were lands well adapted for raising cotton1 but owing to #bjj the difficulty of extricating the seeds from the cotton1 but little was used and that little was very expensive4 ,in #aghd1 only eight bagfuls of cotton were exported from ,savannah to ,england but when ,eli ,whitney invented the cotton-gin in #agib1 a great change took place4 ,it was seen immediately that the machine would do the work of hundreds of men and a new industry and new product was given to the world4 ,inconsiderable as these inventions may seem1 they changed the clothing material of the ,english-speaking people throughout the world4 ,in a few years their costume so changed that they might be looked upon as belonging to a different race and a different civilization4 ,on ,august #bgth1 #aghg1 while the ,national convention was at work at ,philadelphia framing the constitution they were invited to behold a sight that the world had never seen4 ,it was ,john ,fitch gliding up stream in the first practical steamboat ever constructed4 ,in ,july1 #aghh1 the boat made its first trip from ,philadelphia up the river to ,burlington--amid the cheering of crowds and the salvos of artillery4 ,it continued to make trips during part of two years but never exceeded three miles an hour4 ,as the machinery was imperfect and the running expensive1 it was at length abandoned4 ,genius is far-sighted and prophetic4 ,john ,fitch looking into the future saw that the time would come when steamships would traverse the ocean1 and glide to and fro upon the great rivers of the ,west4 ,he went to ,ohio to spend his last days1 and when the shadow of death was upon him1 he made this request1 ,bury me on the banks of the ,ohio that ,i may be where the song of the boatmen and the music of the engines shall enliven the stillness of my resting place4 ,twenty years passed away before ,fitch's idea was realized4 ,at length ,robert ,fulton built the ,clermont in #ahjg and started up the ,hudson river4 ,the country people knew not what to make of it4 ,a ,dutchman shouted to his wife1 ,the devil is on his way up the river with a sawmill in a boat4 ,fulton had succeeded where others had failed4 ,it was the beginning of a new era in navigation4 ,in #ahai1 the ,savannah was the first steamboat to cross the ,atlantic ocean4 ,john ,stevens of ,hoboken1 ,new ,jersey appeared in #ahab before ,congress with a plan for a railroad4 #bja ,image3 ,an ,ocean ,steamer4 #bjb ,two years later1 ,july #beth1 #ahad1 ,george ,stevenson of ,england completed and ran the ,rocket1 the first practical locomotive in the world4 ,but it was not till ,september1 #ahbe1 that the first railway for passengers was opened in ,england4 ,six years later railway trains were running in ,america4 ,the improved facilities for traveling by means of steam1 have had a wonderful influence upon society4 ,a century ago human society was composed of a multitude of little communities1 dwelling apart1 mutually ignorant1 and therefore1 cherishing mutual antipathies4 ,facilities of travel brought together men of different towns and different countries4 ,they learned how little there was1 on either side1 to hate1 how much to love4 ,thus ancient prejudice was broken up by the fuller knowledge gained by this extended acquaintance4 ,peculiarities of dialect and manners grew indistinct1 and errors of opinion were corrected by friendly conflict of mind4 ,in #ahcb1 ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 conceived the idea of the electric telegraph1 and in #ahcg1 ,congress granted him thirty thousand dollars to aid his great enterprise4 ,in #ahdd1 ,professor ,morse sent his first message over the world's first electric telegraph4 ,the words were1 ,what hath ,god wrought6 ,thus it was found that the same mysterious and terrible power which flashes out in the midnight storm was ready to convey across continents and seas the messages of man4 ,this use of electricity is of peculiar interest4 ,it is the first invention which is apparently final4 ,in the race of improvement all other inventions and instrumentalities may be superceded4 ,but what agency for conveying intelligence can ever excel that which is instantaneous8 ,it would seem that here1 for the first time1 the human mind has reached the utmost limits of its progress4 ,from the time of its first invention to the year #ahad1 scarcely any improvement had been made on the printing press4 ,a rude machine1 printing at its best scarcely #aej copies per hour1 was still universally in use4 ,now we have machines that print #be1jjj copies per hour2 books and papers have greatly cheapened in consequence4 ,such were some of the forces at work upon society during the first half of the nineteenth century4 #bjc ,but while mankind had progressed in science they had remained stationary in religion2 and how could it be otherwise8 ,invention and discovery are but the unfolding of the laws1 attributes and objects of nature to man's limited understanding--the action of the divine will on the minds of men4 ,when ,god revealed nature's laws1 man progressed scientifically3 until ,god revealed religious truth man groped in spiritual darkness4 ,the intellectual light of that age only made to observing minds1 their spiritual night more palpable2 even as a candle shining in the night only intensifies the surrounding gloom4 ,many leading minds perceived somewhat1 the errors of the times1 and sought to bring about reform in various ways4 ,these attempts brought forth discussion and division4 ,the disintegration which had commenced in the days of ,luther1 now worked with unexampled rapidity1 until the various so-called ,christian sects numbered more than six hundred1 each tenacious of its own ideas1 and bitterly denouncing all the others4 ,none of these jarring sects ever had divine authority2 in fact1 they denied the possibility of revelation from ,god4 ,even admitting their claims1 their creeds are only the crystallized ideas of the leading men of the age that gave them birth4 ,for example1 ,rome depended not upon revelation1 nor even upon the letter of the scriptures1 but upon the tradition of the fathers4 ,in other words1 the rule of faith1 in the church of ,rome was the conflicting opinions of men--often ill-informed and superstitious--who lived between the great apostasy and the time of ,luther4 ,so again1 the creed of ,lutherism is only the best ideas of men who lived in ,central ,europe three hundred and fifty years ago4 ,in like manner1 ,presbyterianism is the reflex of the stern and rugged character of the ,scotch in the #agth century4 ,so also ,methodism and ,quakerism are the products of zealous ,english reformers in the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,all of the religions that existed in ,america at the beginning of this century1 were the outgrowth of ,european thought4 ,they were systems that had been transplanted from foreign lands1 by no means adapted to the progressive ideas that prevail on this continent4 #bjd ,humanly speaking1 it was time to establish a religion1 which should harmonize with the circumstances and age in which we live4 ,divinely speaking1 man had become so developed and disciplined that he could receive the gospel4 ,it was the ,lord's due time to again reveal ,his will and set up ,his kingdom upon the earth4 ,not only was the age peculiar1 but likewise the land in which this work was to be accomplished4 ,the governments of ,european countries were all committed to some particular creed1 some peculiar form of religious worship4 ,but in ,america there was no established religion4 ,all were free to accept or reject the truth untrammelled by the arbitrary requirements of the civil law4 ,the instrumentalities used for the establishment of this work were very peculiar4 ,no hoary-headed philosopher1 full of worldly wisdom2 no crafty politician1 zealous for a party or sect2 no profound doctor of divinity1 deeply versed in antiquarian lore1 was appointed to do this work4 ,no6 ,a pure and ingenuous youth1 who had spent the few years of his mortal life in the quiet and peaceful avocations of agricultural life--a youth who had not yet drunk in the poison of man's theology--such was the instrument chosen by the ,almighty for the execution of ,his purposes4 ,the sublime and tragic history of ,joseph ,smith is too well known to need repetition here4 ,a few leading facts will suffice4 ,joseph ,smith was born ,december #bcrd1 #ahje1 at ,sharon1 ,windsor ,co41 ,vt4 ,he received his first vision on the morning of a beautiful1 clear day1 early in the ,spring of #ahbj4 ,joseph was then a little more than fourteen years of age4 ,three years and a half passed away1 when he received his second vision4 ,it was ,september #bast1 #ahbc2 he had retired to rest when the divine messenger made his appearance4 ,during the night the angel appeared three times to ,joseph1 and immediately after1 the dawn approached2 so that their interviews must have occupied the whole of that night4 ,thrice had the angel descended1 and thrice had he ascended1 with all the circumstances of reality4 ,there is something grand in the very simplicity of the narrative of ,joseph and all the more impressive when we consider his mental and physical #bje characteristics--a man of lofty stature and giant mind4 ,he dwelt in the very glare and illumination of a spiritual existence1 and yet was the founder1 organizer and leader of a latter-day ,israel4 ,not more real was ,jacob's angel with whom he wrestled all night1 than were the angels of our times to ,joseph4 ,then he commenced a life of toil and persecution--toil in the service of his divine ,master1 persecution from the enemy of all good4 ,we can only understand the life and character of ,joseph ,smith1 when we consider the peculiar wants of the present age4 ,never was there a time in the history of the race when learning and general intelligence were so well diffused as at the present4 ,the press is throwing off continually its millions of printed pages which are scattered broadcast1 as the leaves of autumn4 ,never was there a time of more intense activity4 ,who can pass through the crowded streets of our cities1 listen to the throbbing of the steam engine1 the hum of machinery1 gaze at the vast trains that are driven with fire and vapor along our railways1 or view those magnificent structures that cross the mighty deep without feeling that this is an earnest age8 ,now this earnest1 active1 thinking age1 demands a religion that has life and power in it4 ,not a religion of cold formality and narrow sectarianism1 but a religion that will satisfy the intelligent with its truths1 and touch the heart with its love1 and sway the will with its persuasiveness1 and gratify the taste with its beauties1 and fill the imagination with its sublimities4 ,a religion is wanted that will enlist upon its side the whole nature of man and command his willing and devoted homage2 a religion1 that1 bearing the full impress of its ,author's image1 shall carry its own credentials with it1 and which1 clothed with all the elements of truth and righteousness1 beauty and grandeur1 of love and power1 shall be revered by all those who love the truth1 and dreaded by all who love it not4 ,it is evident to every thinking mind that the strife and confusion and babel of the six hundred jarring sects of ,christendom can not do this4 ,their half-deserted cathedrals and cold1 formal ceremonies1 as well as the triumphant march of infidelity #bjf and crime1 attest the fact1 that they have lost their hold on the masses of men4 ,as in the days of old the ,lord renewed his communications with man through the dutiful and obedient ,samuel2 so in this age he spake to the youthful ,joseph4 ,and how did ,joseph accomplish so much in so short a time8 ,simply because he entered into his work with his whole heart4 ,he allowed no inferior object to weaken his interest or divide his attention1 and he continually sought the inspiration of the ,almighty1 who came to his aid and enabled him to accomplish in the short space of a few years the mightiest work that any man has wrought since the ,savior was upon the earth4 ,after an active and self-sacrificing life of nearly thirty-nine years1 he was brutally murdered by a mob ,june #bgth1 #ahdd4 ,thus lived1 suffered1 toiled1 and died1 the martyr-prophet of the nineteenth century4 ,thus flashed athwart the spiritual darkness of his age1 the light of the latter days4 ,even as in days of old the light shone in the darkness and the darkness comprehended it not4 ,contemplating his death the mind instinctively reverts to that scene1 when the ,savior suffered on ,calvary1 eighteen hundred years ago4 ,across the ages stride the footprints of the self-same spirit4 ,unconsciously are associated the death of the ,redeemer and the martyrdom of ,his servant4 ,already the principles enunciated by ,joseph ,smith1 have shaken the religious world from center to circumference4 ,the ignorant may effect to scorn1 yet the day is nigh1 when ,america will be proud of her prophet son4 #bjg ,list of ,illustrations ,mount ,calvary - ,frontispiece ,jerusalem - #aj ,coliseum - #ad ,fakir - #af ,damascus - #bi ,interior of a ,saracen ,palace - #da ,eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius - #df ,constantinople - #di ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre - #ee ,ancient ,vessels - #fb ,dungeon of the ,inquisition - #fi ,christopher ,columbus - #gi ,ships of ,columbus - #hb ,landing of ,columbus - #hc ,the ,straits of ,magellan - #ij ,the ,rack - #ic ,ancient ,peruvian ,residence - #ajh ,ancient ,tower at ,newport - #aaj ,mammoth - #aae ,mummy - #aai ,massacre of the ,incas - #aea ,landing of the ,pilgrims - #acb ,fox in ,discussion - #adb ,penn's ,treaty with the ,indians - #add ,john ,wesley - #aec ,first ,american ,almanac - #aei ,benjamin ,franklin - #afj ,george ,washington - #agd #bjh ,washington ,crossing the ,delaware - #agg ,scene of ,burgoyne's ,surrender - #ahj ,meeting ,place of ,andre and ,arnold - #aha ,mount ,vernon - #ahe ,the ,tomb of ,washington - #ahf ,napoleon ,bonaparte - #aib ,the ,city of ,athens - #aid ,scene in ,switzerland - #aie ,an ,ocean ,steamer - #bja #bji ,,index4 ,abou-,beker #bh ,adam ,smith #ga1 #aed ,alhazin #cg ,andalusia #ca1 #dj ,america ,discovered #hd ,american ,antiquities #aji-aab ,africa1 ,first ,map of #hi ,apostasy of ,primitive ,church #ac ,arabia1 ,description of #bj ,arabic ,notation #cf ,ayesha #bh ,armada1 ,invincible #ajd1 #aje ,ancient ,american ,races #aad1 #aag ,acadia1 ,colonization of #abf1 #abg ,almanac1 ,first ,american #aeh1 #aei ,adams1 ,samuel #afg ,antimony1 ,why so ,called #gc ,arnold's ,treason #ahb ,andre1 ,major #aha ,american ,revolution #agc ,al ,mamun ,measures the ,earth #cg ,andalusia1 ,conquest of #ca ,atmospheric ,refraction #ch ,arabian ,astronomy #cf ,arnold of ,brescia #fg1 #fh ,bacon1 ,roger #gc ,bastile #ahh1ahi ,bozrah #bb1bh ,bagdad1 ,university of #ce ,boheim1 ,hans #id ,balboa ,discovers ,pacific ,ocean #hi ,bruno1 ,death of #ajd #baj ,barbarism of ,europe #db ,boniface ,,ix4 #gf ,byzantium #dh1 #ej ,bible ,first ,printed #gh ,brewster #abi1 #acj ,library #acd ,brindley1 ,james #aed ,british ,india #aee1 #aef ,burgoyne's ,surrender #ahj ,bonaparte #ahj ,bible1 ,influence of #abd ,caaba #ba ,cadijah #bd ,caliphate #bg ,caliphs ,patronize ,learning #ce ,chivalry1 ,rise of #fe1 #ff ,canada #aih ,first ,settlements in #abf ,common ,schools1 ,effect of #aii ,christians ,persecuted #ac ,christian1 ,early ,sects #bc ,columbus #gh ,vessels of #ha ,compass1 ,mariner's #cg ,constantine1 ,crimes of #dg ,constantinople #dh ,view of #di ,siege of #ej1 #ea ,cholula1 ,pyramid of #aab ,cotton-,gin1 ,invention of #bjj ,copernicus #ajc1 #ajd ,constitutional ,convention #ahe ,coliseum #ad ,crusades #ei of ,children #fa ,results of #fc ,culture of ,women ,among ,saracens #db ,cyril of ,alexandria #dd the ,priest #ga #baa ,civilization of ,mexico #aag1 #aah of ,peru #aah1 #abj ,champlain's ,voyages #abf ,chatham1 ,earl of #afh ,cromwell #acc ,confederation1 ,first ,american #ace ,colonizing of ,new ,england #abh ,charles ,i4 #acc1 #acd ,chemistry1 ,origin of #cf ,carver1 ,john #aca ,cartier1 ,jacques #abf ,damascus1 ,capture of #bi ,destruction of ,jerusalem #aa1 #ab ,destruction of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii #de ,dominicans #fg ,discovery of ,america #hd ,declaration of ,independence #age ,delaware ,crossed by ,washington #agf ,diet of ,worms #ie ,earth ,proved to be ,round #cg ,circumnavigated #hi1 #ib ,earl of ,chatham #afh ,extent of ,primitive ,church #i ,extension of ,english ,language #aeg ,europe ,assumes ,modern ,form #gd ,everlasting ,gospel1 ,the #ga1 #gb ,everlasting ,gospel1 ,its ,teachings #gb ,everlasting ,gospel1 ,its ,influence #gc ,esdras1 ,account of #hg ,english ,revolution #adi ,electric ,telegraph #bjb ,england's ,dominion #aef ,ebn ,junis ,invents the ,pendulum #ch ,franciscans #fg ,frederick ,,ii4 of ,italy #gj ,his ,liberal ,policy #ga ,fox1 ,george #ada-adc ,fitch1 ,john #bjj ,french ,revolution #ahi #bab ,fall ,river ,skeleton #aji ,franklin1 ,benjamin #aeh1 #afa ,female ,physicians #dc ,gregorian ,calendar #cg ,gutenberg #gg ,gin ,first ,made #aea ,general ,gates #aha ,general ,revolution #afb ,galileo1 ,his ,degradation #ajd ,globes ,first ,used by ,arabs #cd1 #dc ,greece1 ,kingdom of #aid ,hampden1 ,john #acc ,harvard ,college ,founded #acc ,holland1 ,description of #acf ,henry1 ,patrick #afh ,heraclius1 ,emperor #cj ,haroun al ,raschid #cf ,herculaneum ,destroyed #de ,huss ,burned #ib ,hypatia #dd ,huguenots1 ,massacre of #acf ,flee to ,america #adf1 #aee ,howard1 ,john #aec ,henry ,,iv4 of ,germany1 a ,penitent #ee ,human ,sacrifices #aac ,incas1 ,massacre of #abj1 #aba ,india1 ,british #aee1 #aef ,indians1 ,penn's ,treaty with #adf ,indian ,races ,destroyed #ajg ,inquisition ,established #gj ,innocent ,,iii4 #fg1 #fh1 #gj ,influence of ,minstrels #ff ,invention of ,printing #gg ,invention of ,steelyards #ch ,jamestown ,founded #abg ,jerusalem destroyed by ,romans #ab ,captured by ,saracens #bi ,taken by ,crusaders #fj ,joss ,fritz #id #bac ,juarez #aih ,judaism1 ,golden ,age of #ci ,jews ,expelled from ,spain #aji ,koran #bc ,khaled #bh ,la ,fayette #ahg ,leyden1 ,siege of #acg-adj ,luther1 ,martin #ie1if ,locomotive1 ,first #bjb ,levaur1 ,massacre of #gj ,massacre in ,southern ,france #fh ,mahomet #ba-bf ,mahometan ,schools #ch ,marco ,polo1 ,travels of #gc1 #gd ,magellan's ,voyage #hi-ib ,monasteries1 ,rise of #ah ,munzer's ,proclamation #ih ,mexican ,pyramids #aab ,year #aai ,arts and ,sciences #aah ,mammoth1 ,remains of #aae ,maryland ,colonized #adf ,methodists1 ,rise of #aea ,montesquieu #aee ,marseillaise #aia ,morse1 ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 #bjb ,nestorians #bb ,newport ,tower #aaj ,newspaper1 ,first #aej ,napoleon ,bonaparte #aib his ,influence #aic his ,death #aic ,netherlands1 ,independence of #acf ,omar ,caliph #bi ,ottoman ,turks #cc ,oliver ,cromwell #acc ,old ,south ,church ,incident #agj ,peter ,waldo #fg ,peter the ,hermit #eh #bad ,pompeii ,destroyed #de ,peasant's ,war #ig ,printing1 ,invention of #gg ,persecution of ,christians #ac of ,quakers #adh ,peru1 ,description of #aah1 #abj ,penn1 ,william #adc-adf ,pennsylvania ,founded #ade ,pitt1 ,william #aee1 #aeg ,paine1 ,thomas #age ,pilgrim ,fathers #abi1 #acc ,pyramids of ,mexico #aab ,quebec ,founded #abf ,quetzalcoatl #aab1 #abb ,quakerism1 ,rise of #ada ,queen ,isabella #ha ,raymond1 ,earl of ,toulouse #fh ,relic-,worship #ed ,richard the ,lion-,hearted #fa-fc ,rise of ,chivalry #fe1 #ff ,reformation #ie-ii ,religion of ,mexico #aaf1 #aag ,roger ,williams #adg ,rum1 ,first ,made #aea ,revolutions ,general #afb ,rosseau #afc ,revere1 ,paul #agb ,rouget de l',isle #aij ,revolution1 ,french #ahi ,railroad1 ,first #bjb ,robinson's ,prophecy #acj ,saracen1 ,conquest of #cj ,discoveries #cf ,expelled from ,spain #aji ,cities #dj ,schools #db ,ships of ,columbus #ha ,servetus1 ,death of #ajc ,smith1 ,adam #aed #bae ,stamp ,act #aff ,steamboat1 ,first #bjj ,smith1 ,joseph #bjd ,his ,birth #bjd ,his ,death #bjf ,spain1 ,degradation of #aji ,spanish-,american ,revolution #aic ,skeleton1 ,fall ,river #aji ,ten ,tribes #hg ,treaty of ,peace #ahc ,telegraph ,invented #bjb ,twilight1 ,reason of #ach ,valley ,forge #agh ,vasco de ,gama #hi ,vesuvius1 ,eruption of #df ,van der ,werf1 ,speech of #aci ,voltaire #afc ,worms1 ,diet of #ie ,synod of #aib ,worship1 ,corrupted #ag ,waldenses1 ,rise of #fg ,waldo1 ,peter #fg ,witchcraft #ajj1 #aja ,williams1 ,roger #adg ,whitfield1 ,george #aea ,wesley1 ,charles #aeb ,wesley1 ,john #aeb ,wilberforce1 ,william #aec ,watt1 ,james #aed ,washington's ,boyhood #aeh ,washington ,chosen ,general #agd as ,president #ahd ,washington's ,death #ahg ,woman1 ,condition of1 ,among the ,saracens #db1 #dc ,wyandotts1 ,tradition of #abb ,ziska1 ,john #id ,transcriber's ,note3 ,some obvious printer's errors have been corrected as seemed reasonable1 such as certain punctuation errors 7like omitted periods1 periods to commas or semi-colons to commas1 and some mismatched quotation marks1 etc474 ,some inconsistent or obvious spelling errors or typos within the text were also corrected 7e4 g41 make to made1 begining to beginning1 conviced to convinced1 satisfiy to satisfy1 immedite to immediate1 successsful to successful1 maratime to maritime1 gunpower to gunpowder1 bowlder to boulder1 asend to ascend1 degardation to degradation1 forgivness to forgiveness1 en to ten1 myrtyr to martyr1 continet to continent1 gratitute to gratitude1 loyality to loyalty1 philanthrophist to philanthropist1 extavagant to extravagant1 justifiying to justifying1 weakend to weakened1 ,fich's to ,fitch's1 ,reedemer to ,redeemer1 matyrdom to martyrdom1 etc41 etc474 ,the book used as a reference for this e-book transcription originally belonged to ,o4 ,n4 ,toomey1 and was digitized by the ,harold ,b4 ,lee ,library at ,brigham ,young ,university4 ,it can be viewed or downloaded free at https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/handofpr ovidence#jj;award4