,,the                                   
,,philosophy ,,of ,,history2            
,,in ,a                                 
,,course ,,of ,,lectures1               
,,delivered ,,at ,,vienna1              
,,by ,,frederick ,,von ,,schlegel4      
,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,german1     
,,with ,a ,,memoir ,,of ,,the ,,author1 
,,by ,,james ,,burton ,,robertson1      
,,esq4                                  
,,in ,,two ,,volumes4                   
,,vol4 ,,ii4                            
,,london                  ,,saunders    
,,and ,,otley1 ,,conduit ,,street4      
,,mdcccxxxv4                            
,b4 ,,bensley1 ,,printer4               
,,contents                              
,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4                       
,,lecture ,x4      ,on the ,christian   
point of view in the ,philosophy of     
,history4--,the      origin of          
,christianity1 considered in reference  
to the      political world4--,decline  
of the ,roman ,empire4                  
#a                                      

,,lecture ,,xi4      ,of the ancient    
,germans1 and of the invasion of the    
,northern      tribes4--,the march of   
,nature in the historical development   
of ,nations4--,further diffusion and    
internal consolidation of               
,christianity4--,great corruption of the
 world4--,rise of      ,mahometanism4   
#dj                                     
,,lecture ,,xii4      ,sketch of        
,mahomet and his                        
religion4--,establishment of the        
,saracenic ,empire4--,new organization  
of the ,european ,west1     and         
,restoration of the ,christian ,empire4 
#gh                                     
,,lecture ,,xiii4      ,on the formation
 and consolidation of the ,christian    
,government      in modern times4--,on  
the principle which led to the          
establishment of the old ,german        
,empire4                       #aag     
,,lecture ,,xiv4      ,on the struggles 
of the ,guelfs and                      
,ghibellines4--,spirit of      the      

,ghibelline age4--,origin of romantic   
poetry and      art4--,character of the 
scholastic science and the old          
jurisprudence4--,anarchical state of    
,western ,europe4           #aeb        
,,lecture ,,xv4      ,general           
observations on the ,philosophy of      
,history4 ,on the      corrupt state of 
society in the fifteenth                
century4--,origin      of               
,protestantism1 and character of the    
times of the      ,reformation4         
#aid                                    
,,lecture ,,xvi4      ,further          
development and extension of            
protestantism1 in      the period of the
 religious wars1 and subsequently       
thereto4--,on the different results of  
those wars in the      principal        
,european countries4                    
#bbh                                    
,,lecture ,,xvii4      ,parallel between
 the religious peace of ,germany and    
that      of the other countries of     
,europe4--,the political system      of 

the ,balance of ,power1 and the         
principle of false      ,illuminism     
prevalent in the eighteenth century4    
#bfh                                    
,,lecture ,,xviii4      ,on the general 
spirit of the age1 and on the universal 
,regeneration of ,society4              
#cjj                                    
,,philosophy ,,of ,,history4            
,,lecture ,x4           ,on the         
,christian point of view in the         
,philosophy of         ,history4--,the  
origin of ,christianity1 considered in  
reference to the political              
world4--,decline of the ,roman          
,empire4      ,a regular history of the 
life of our ,saviour1 recounted like any
 other  historical occurrence1 would in 
my opinion be out of place in a         
philosophy of history4 ,the subject is  
either too vast for profane  history1 or
 in its first beginnings too obscure1   
whether we consider  its internal       
importance1 or in a mere historical     
point of view1 its  outward appearance4 

,a thinking1 and in his way             
well-thinking ,roman1  when he had      
obtained a more accurate knowledge of   
the life of our  ,saviour from the      
accounts of the ,roman ,procurator1 or  
other ,roman  dignitaries in ,palestine1
 might have expressed himself respecting
 the  whole transaction in the following
 terms3 ,this is a very  extraordinary  
man1 endued with wonderful and divine   
power1 for such  vague and general      
admiration might well be indulged in by 
a ,heathen1  who yet adhered to the     
fundamental doctrines of his ancestral  
faith1--a man1 who1 he would continue to
 say1 has produced a great  moral       
revolution in minds1 and was1 according 
to the most credible  testimony1 of the 
purest character and most rigid morals1 
who taught  much that was sublime on the
 immortality of the soul and the secrets
  of futurity2 but who was accused by   
his enemies1 and delivered over to      
death by his own people4 ,such1 perhaps1
 would have been the judgment  of a     

,tacitus1 had he drawn his information  
from better and less  polluted sources4 
,so long however as all these           
transactions were  confined to the small
 province of ,judea1 the soundest and   
best  constituted ,roman mind could have
 scarcely felt a more than passing      
regret at the perpetration of so signal 
an act of private injustice2  and would1
 in other respects1 have not regarded it
 as an event which  could1 in a ,roman  
point of view1 be termed historical1 or 
worthy to  occupy a place in the more   
extended circle of his own world4    ,it
 was only when ,christianity had become 
a power in the world--the  principle of 
a new life1 and of a new form of life   
totally differing  from all preceding   
forms of existence1 that it began to    
attract the  attention of the ,romans1  
as a remarkable historical occurrence4  
,how  perfectly unintelligible1 strange 
and mysterious this mighty event at  its
 origin1 and for a long time afterwards1
 appeared to the ,romans2  how erroneous

 and absurd were their opinions and     
conduct in regard to  the ,christian    
religion1 we have already shewn by some 
characteristic  examples4    ,on the    
other hand1 when we view the whole      
transaction with the eye of  faith--when
 we consider all that has since grown up
 in the world out  of beginnings        
apparently so small--the case changes   
its aspect in our  regard2 and we are   
then inclined to believe that the       
mysteries and  miracles of our          
,saviour's life and death1 nay1 the     
whole system of his  doctrine1 which is 
intimately connected with those         
mysteries and  miracles1 and is itself  
the greatest mystery and miracle1 should
 be  abandoned exclusively to religion1 
and1 as they transcend the ordinary     
sphere of history1 would be misplaced in
 a work of this nature4 ,i will         
therefore pre-suppose a knowledge of    
these sacred mysteries1 and1  without   
entering into any examination of them1  
will endeavour to  describe the state of

 the world1 and the aspect of society1  
when the  ,christian religion first made
 its appearance4 ,a notice of some      
particular points of doctrine1 connected
 with politics and history1  either in  
respect to the past or to the future1 is
 by no means  incompatible with my plan2
 but a complete examination of the whole
  system of ,christian doctrines1 as of 
any other great system of  doctrine or  
philosophy1 would1 for the reason ,i    
have alleged1 be quite  misplaced in a  
work of this description4 ,i will in the
 next place  endeavour to shew the      
historical influence which this divine  
power has  exerted1 and point out how   
from its very origin1 and still more in 
its  progress1 it entirely renovated the
 face of the world4    ,doubtless the   
philosophy of history forms an essential
 part of the  science of divine and     
human things--things which in the mode  
of  conceiving or treating them1 should 
be rarely and even never entirely       
separated4 ,for how is it possible to   

attain to a just and correct  knowledge 
of human things1 in any department of   
life and science1  unless they be viewed
 in relation to and connection with the 
divine  principle1 which animates or    
directs them8 ,a certain medium1        
however1  is to be observed1 and the    
limits must be clearly and accurately   
traced between divine and human things1 
lest the one department should  be      
confounded with the other4 ,for as it is
 very prejudicial to  religion to make  
it merely a matter of learned historical
 research2 so  it is inconsistent with  
the object of historical philosophy to  
transform it into a mere series of      
religious meditations4 ,undoubtedly     
historical philosophy can and ought to  
assume the divine principle in  man--the
 divine image implanted in the human    
breast--as the great  pivot of human    
destiny1 the main and essential point in
 universal  history1 and the restoration
 of that ,image as the proper purpose of
  mankind4    ,thus the philosophic     

historian may endeavour1 as ,i have     
attempted1 to  point out the divine     
truth contained in the primitive        
revelation1 the  original word which was
 current among the nations of the       
primitive  age3 in the second period of 
the world--the decisive crisis between  
ancient and modern times--he will       
discover in the ,christian religion1    
the sole principle of the subsequent    
progress of mankind2 and the            
distinctive character and intellectual  
importance of the third or last  epoch  
of the world1 he will find only in that 
light1 which1 emerging  from the        
primitive revelation1 and the religion  
of love established by  the ,redeemer1  
has shone ever clearer and brighter with
 the progress of  ages1 and has changed 
and regenerated not only government and 
science1  but the whole system of human 
life4 ,here is the principle which      
furnishes the plan of classification for
 all the great epochs of  history4 ,from
 this philosophic survey of history1 the

 historian1 in  the accomplishment of   
his task1 may with great propriety point
 out and  illustrate the ways and views 
of divine ,providence in the conduct of 
particular nations and ages1 and in the 
destiny of remarkable  personages1 or   
historical characters1 when those views 
and ways are  strikingly perceptible to 
our feelings4 ,yet it is better that    
this  train of observations should not  
be too systematically prosecuted1 but   
should be introduced occasionally only1 
and as it were episodically1  in those  
passages of history1 where such         
reflections naturally present           
themselves2 and they should ever be     
confined within the limits of a  modest 
suggestion2 for all these reflections   
are only the esoteric  spirit--the      
internal religious idea of history4     
,otherwise the  historian will be       
exposed to the danger of introducing a  
system of  ,providential designs        
prematurely formed according to human   
insight and  human sagacity1 into the   

yet unfinished drama of the world's     
history1  whose comprehensive vastness  
and hidden mysteries1 besides1 far      
exceed  the narrow limits of all that   
man can conceive1 judge and know with   
certainty4 ,and this is a defect which  
many writers have not entirely  avoided 
in their otherwise very religious       
meditations on universal  history4 ,so  
far1 however1 as the historian confines 
his train of  reflections within the    
modest limits of a mere partial         
explanation1  and does not prematurely  
anticipate the general scheme of divine 
polity1 or plunge too deeply1 and with  
presumptuous confidence into  its       
details2 he will find much and obvious  
matter for such  considerations1 in the 
visible selection of particular         
individuals1  and particular nations and
 even ages for the accomplishment of    
certain  ends1 for the attainment on    
their part of prosperity1 glory1 or some
  high object in some particular sphere4
 ,but this power thus allotted to       

particular individuals or to particular 
nations1 exerts even at the  time a     
general influence on the fate of        
mankind1 and evidently  accomplishes the
 designs of ,providence with regard to  
the world at  large2 forms a point of   
transition from past ages1 or opens a   
passage  to some manifestation of divine
 power1 with respect to the future4 ,in 
the progress of human civilisation1 such
 designs are frequently  manifest4 ,nay1
 on the great question of the permission
 of evil1 when  it exerts a widely      
destructive influence in the moral and  
physical  world1 and on the views of    
,god in that permission2 the enlightened
  historian may sometimes succeed1 if   
not in penetrating into the hidden      
decrees of divine wisdom1 yet at least  
in uplifting a corner of the  mysterious
 veil which covers them4 ,in particular 
phenomena of  history--such for example 
as the destruction of a whole nation1   
the  ,jews for instance2 or in the      
overwhelming calamities1 the general    

miseries inflicted on a corrupt age1    
manifesting1 clearly as they do1  the   
retributive justice of ,god--calamities 
which1 when regarded from  this point of
 view 7and it is only from this point of
 view they can be  rightly judged71     
appear like a partial judgment of the   
world--in all  such historical          
phenomena1 a modest reference to the    
final causes of  such events may be     
exceedingly appropriate4 ,this idea of  
divine  justice1 and of ,god's judgments
 on the world exemplified in history1   
belongs undoubtedly to the province of  
historical philosophy2 and1 as  man's   
resemblance to his ,maker constitutes   
the first foundation-stone  of history1 
this more practical principle1 relating 
as it does1 to  real life and all its   
mighty phenomena1 forms the second4     
,but the ,mystery of grace in the divine
 ,redemption of mankind1  transcends the
 sphere of profane history4 ,the        
,christian philosophy of  history must  
indeed tacitly pre-suppose the truth of 

that mystery1 and  assume it as known1  
and indeed as self-evident to all       
well-thinking  persons--it must even1   
under the inspiration of this faith1    
refer to  it very many1 the greater     
part1 indeed almost all1 of the facts   
and  phenomena of history--but it should
 forbear to introduce it into its  own  
province1 and should leave it to the    
sanctuary of religion4 ,in the  same    
way1 whenever philosophy attempts to    
incorporate and rank this  mystery with 
her own speculative conceptions1 the    
consequence must  ever be hurtful to    
religion2 for1 as philosophy thus       
attempts to  explain and1 as it were1   
deduce this mystery from her own        
speculations1 the mystery of ,redemption
 ceases to be a divine fact1  and it is 
only as such that it is and can be the  
true and eternal  foundation of         
religion4 ,i wish here expressly to do  
away with an  opinion which is          
completely unhistorical1 and even       
subversive of all  history4 ,i cannot   

more truly and succintly designate this 
opinion1  than by stating it as         
follows3--,christ1 to say it in one     
word1 was a  ,jewish ,socrates2 and this
 purest1 noblest1 and sublimest of all  
ethical teachers 7according to the      
rationalists' interpretation of his     
history7 met with a fate no less        
deplorable for mankind than that  which 
befel the ,athenian philosopher1 and the
 wisest of all the  ,grecian sages4 ,in 
reply to this1 one observation only need
 be  made--,if ,christ were not more    
than a ,socrates1 then a ,socrates ,he  
was not4#a ,but this opinion is not only
 unhistorical1 or1 to speak  more       
properly1 anti-historical1 because it is
 in utter opposition  to all covenants1 
testimonies1 authentic records1 and even
 ,christ's  express declarations2 but   
fully as much1 and even still more on   
this  account1 that if we once remove   
this divine keystone in the arch of     
universal history1 the whole fabric of  
the world's history falls to  ruin--for 

its only foundation is this new         
manifestation of ,god's power  in the   
crisis of time--this hope in ,god       
abiding unto the end4 ,for1  although ,i
 do not consider a formal demonstration 
of the truth of the  ,christian religion
 as falling within the province of      
profane history2  yet the belief of its 
truth--a faith in its dogmas1 is the    
only clue  in such investigations4      
,without this faith1 the whole history  
of the  world would be nought else than 
an insoluble enigma--an inextricable    
labyrinth--a huge pile of the blocks and
 fragments of an unfinished             
edifice--and the great tragedy of       
humanity would remain devoid of all     
proper result4    ,confining myself     
within those limits which the very      
nature of the  subject1 and the force of
 circumstances prescribe1 and which ,i  
have  here thought it necessary to mark 
out with exactness1 ,i shall now1 in    
order to see under what circumstances   
,christianity first arose in the  world1

 and appeared on the domain of history1 
direct your attention  more immediately 
to the ,jewish state4    ,dependant at  
first on the ,grecian dynasty of ,egypt1
 and at a  subsequent period subdued by 
the ,soverigns of the new ,syrian       
monarchy1  which sprang out of the      
dismemberment of the ,macedonian empire1
 the  more virtuous portion of the      
,hebrew people evinced under the        
religious  persecution they had to      
sustain from the latter monarchs1 much  
constancy in the old faith of their     
fathers2 for which indeed several  of   
the heroic family of the ,maccabees had 
the courage to lay down  their lives4   
,from these rulers they were rescued by 
the ,romans1 who  took them under their 
powerful protection1 which1 with the    
,jews1 as  with all other nations1 was  
soon transformed into a systematic and  
very oppressive domination4 ,the ,jewish
 people were so far involved in  the    
civil war between ,csar and ,pompey1    
that each party favoured that  aspirant 

to the throne of ,judea1 most favourable
 to its own designs4  ,under the        
monarchy of ,augustus1 ,herod1 who was  
created tributary  sovereign of         
,palestine about forty years before the 
,christian ra1 was  the last who had    
been promoted to sovereignty amid this  
conflict of  parties4 ,the temple of    
,jerusalem1 that had been rebuilt with  
the  permission of ,cyrus1 still        
remained in all its pomp and grandeur4  
,if a  profane curiosity had tempted    
,crassus and ,pompey to intrude within  
its  sanctuary1 on the other hand1 the  
munificence of ,herod had added to  its 
size and increased its decorations4     
,although ,herod ever retained a        
partiality for ,roman customs1 and still
 more for ,grecian opinions1 yet  the   
temple of ,jerusalem considered1 not as 
the august sanctuary of  ,heaven's      
revelations to the chosen people1 but as
 the centre of  attraction for the      
,jewish nation1 situated as it was in   
the midst of a  great commercial city1  

7one of the largest in all ,western     
,asia71 and  forming at once the        
treasury1 and by its close proximity to 
the  citadel1 the rampart1 of the city  
and of the state1 must have been        
regarded by ,herod as the seat of his   
power1 and the nearest object of  his   
ambition4 ,there were at that period    
among the ,jews two parties1  which1    
like those of the ,patricians and       
,plebeians in the civil wars of  ,rome1 
bear some resemblance to the parties    
that at present divide the  world3      
although in their relative position     
towards each other1 as well  as in their
 internal character and tendency1 there 
are many important  points which        
distinguish them from the parties at    
present existing4  ,though from the     
predominant spirit and peculiar         
constitution of the  ,jewish people1 the
 subjects of contention between the two 
parties  related chiefly or more        
immediately to matters of religion2 yet 
politics were not entirely excluded from

 their disputes1 which  embraced in     
general the whole of human life and its 
various relations4  ,the ,pharisees were
 the chief scribes and doctors of the   
law1 and in  the state1 the honoured    
,patricians of the ,hebrews1 who sought 
to  maintain the ancient faith and      
ancient constitution of their country   
with its rights and jurisprudence1      
adhering indeed with a rigid            
scupulosity1 and a contentious subtilty 
to the letter of the old law1  while    
they had long forgotten its divine      
spirit1 and were notorious  for their   
attachment to their own interests1 their
 selfish feelings1  and false and       
contracted views4 ,as they acknowledged1
 and respected  with the most scrupulous
 fidelity all existing laws1 they sided1
  apparently at least1 with the ,romans2
 though they never entertained a        
cordial attachment for those conquerors2
 and indeed they ever  cherished the    
hope of being able to ensnare the great 
,teacher1 so  beloved by the ,jewish    

people1 into a declaration against the  
,roman  rule1 as in their limited views 
they conceived ,he must1 sooner or      
later1 be necessarily driven to that    
expedient in order to sustain his       
popularity4 ,but it cannot be doubted   
that the cause which the  ,pharisees    
defended was1 on the whole1 the         
legitimate cause of the  ,hebrews of    
that period1 since our ,saviour himself 
expressly  acknowledged this1 when he   
said of the ,pharisees1--,they sit in   
the  chair of ,moses1 and whatsoever    
they command you1 that do ye4 ,it was   
precisely because they had made the old 
law1 and the cause of ,god1  their own  
cause1 that so much was exacted of them2
 and that they were  judged with so much
 severity by our ,saviour1 apparently   
with greater  severity than were the    
,sadducees themselves1 who by an        
,epicurean  philosophy1 and a           
latitudinarian system of morals1 had    
fallen almost  entirely from the faith1 
had affixed a mere human interpretation 

to  ,scripture1 and had even called in  
question the doctrine of the            
immortality of the soul4 ,if in this    
sect there were individuals             
entertaining purer and more exalted     
notions of the truth1 we must  regard   
them rather as happy and honorable      
exceptions4 ,we must not1  besides1     
forget that the severe judgments on the 
,pharisees1 which  occur in ,scripture1 
refer only to the more degenerate among 
them1--a  great portion1 doubtless1     
perhaps the greater part2 but by no     
means  include the whole sect or body1  
among whom were many worthy             
individuals4    ,we ought also to       
recollect that the apostle ,paul was a  
,pharisee1 and  though a                
well-intentioned1 yet a very zealous1   
one1 for all his  writings shew the man 
who had sat at the feet of ,gamaliel3   
the latter  again was the grandson of   
the illustrious ,hillel1 who is named as
 one  of the last great doctors of the  
,hebrews1 who was profoundly versed  in 

their sacred traditions1 and was indeed 
one of the last pillars of  the         
,synagogue4 ,the ,jewish history or     
tradition mentions seven species  of    
false ,pharisees1 to whom all the       
reproaches of our ,saviour are          
perfectly applicable4 ,many other       
,pharisees1 besides the apostle ,paul1  
are mentioned with honour in ,holy      
,writ1 as friends and disciples of  our 
,redeemer1 though they had not the      
courage openly to declare  themselves   
his followers4    ,whenever1 in the     
history of mankind1 we arrive at some   
epoch of great  crisis1 or momentous    
collision1 we find invariably1 and in   
all  countries1 two contending parties  
like these1 appearing at once on the    
historical arena1 though in forms or    
positions variously modified4 ,the      
party defending antiquity1 often adheres
 only to the dead letter of  rigid law1 
forgetting its inward sense and living  
spirit2 while the  opposite party1 which
 has a strong conviction that the world 

stands in  need of a new legislation1   
and that the epoch of a new legislation 
approaches1 is not entirely in the      
wrong4 ,but when the members of the     
latter party have lost all faith in the 
sacred traditions of the past1  and have
 consequently forgotten that the great  
work of regeneration  can emanate from  
,god only2 they conceive that it is in  
their power to  accomplish this work1   
nay1 they fancy they have already       
succeeded in  their enterprise1 while   
all their futile attempts can accomplish
  nought but a total revolution in the  
past--a revolution brought about  either
 by external violence1 or1 in its best  
and mildest form1 by the  internal ruin 
of moral principle and feeling4 ,between
 these extreme  and conflicting parties1
 individuals are often found who fly    
from the  field of contention1 and seek 
out a higher asylum1 at least for       
themselves4 ,such were those small      
communities of holy contemplatives  that
 then existed among the ,jews1 the      

,essenians in ,palestine1 and the       
,therapunt in ,egypt2 but these         
ascetics1 limited in number1 formed a   
trifling exception by the side of the   
two great predominant sects4 ,it  was   
between these two leading parties--on   
one hand1 the narrow-minded  and selfish
 ,jewish legitimatists--stiff adherents 
to the letter of the  law1--and1 on the 
other hand1 the liberal                 
illumins2--between the old  promises and
 expectations of the ,hebrews1 and the  
,roman dominion1 now  become and        
acknowledged to be legitimate1 that our 
,saviour had to  steer2 and it required 
a more than human prudence to traverse  
this  critical period1 unaffected by the
 spirit of contending factions4  ,give  
unto ,csar what belongs to ,csar1 was   
his simple declaration1  when men sought
 to entrap him by their worldly cunning3
 and this  declaration has remained a   
fundamental precept of ,christianity1   
and  will continue unchanged to the end 
of time4 ,so will that other oracle1    

,thou art a rock1 and upon this rock ,i 
will build my church2 in this  there is 
a clear and distinct precept how        
,christians were to treat  those ,pagan 
pretensions of the ,romans which        
regarded acts of  political idolatry1   
such as the sacrifice before the image  
of the  ,emperor1 and acts of a similar 
kind2 and how1 as witnesses of the      
truth1 against all the powers of earth1 
they were to seal their  testimony with 
their blood4 ,the capital error of the  
,jews lay in this1  that in the         
,deliverer1 promised to them of old1    
they now generally  expected an earthly 
liberator destined to emancipate them   
from the  oppressive yoke of the        
,romans1 and to restore their national  
empire to  its highest glory and        
splendour4 ,and1 indeed1 had they not   
carried  their notions on this point to 
such extreme lengths1 and with such     
unyielding obstinacy1 much might have   
been alleged in their excuse4           
,according to the usual character of    

prophetic speech1 the portrait of  a    
spiritual ,deliverer1 invested with real
 glory and pomp1 had been  drawn in such
 vivid colours in those ancient         
prophecies1 that the  description might1
 in many passages at least1 be easily   
mistaken for  one of an earthly monarch4
 ,or1 to express my meaning with greater
  accuracy and precision1 as it is the  
peculiar character of sacred  prophecy  
to represent events about to follow1 in 
immediate contact  with the ultimate    
objects to which they tend1 there are   
often in those  prophetic descriptions  
of the future prosperity of the chosen  
people1  many passages on the remote    
period of the last ages of the world1   
and  on the universal triumph of        
,christianity throughout the earth at   
the  end of time2 there are often1 we   
say1 many of those passages which  also 
refer and indeed contain the closest    
allusions to the  commencement of the   
,christian redemption4 ,in the same way1
 although in  a different sort of       

subject1 we see our ,saviour himself    
foretell the  impending ruin of         
,jerusalem and of the ,jewish nation1   
while his  lamentations are closely     
linked1 and almost confounded with1     
prophetic  warnings respecting the awful
 and terrific scenes of latter times1   
and  the approaching day of general     
account2 although both these events1    
the ruin of the temporal ,jerusalem1 and
 the last glorious  transformation of   
nature1 when creation shall be          
consummated1 and a  new heaven and a new
 earth shall spring into existence1 are 
to be  strictly regarded as real and    
historical4 ,so close an attention1 and 
so great a power of discrimination are  
requisite to distinguish  between parts1
 to combine the whole1 and place each   
particular fact in  its proper point of 
view4 ,but the best excuse that can be  
offered for  the ,jews1 in this respect1
 is the fact1 as the scripture clearly  
showeth1 that all the followers of our  
,saviour1 and his most trusty           

disciples1 were at first under the same 
delusion1 and for a long time  believed 
that1 though the right moment had not   
yet arrived1 still  their master would  
certainly appear as the earthly         
,deliverer and  ,monarch of his nation2 
and indeed the idea of his sufferings   
and death  was so abhorrent to their    
feelings1 that they even dared to       
express  their disapprobation1 and      
upbraid their ,saviour for entertaining 
such  thoughts2 for it was only at a    
much later period the bandage fell  from
 their eyes4 ,and the great reproach    
which we are to make the ,jews  is that 
they should have adhered with such      
obstinacy to an error1 very  excusable  
under certain circumstances1 and that   
after all they had  heard1 seen and     
experienced1 they should have still     
closed their eyes  against the light4   
,the conduct of our ,saviour towards the
 ,jews is  often represented in a manner
 little conformable to historic truth1  
and to the spirit and character of this 

mighty revolution1 when it is  said that
 he entirely abrogated the whole system 
of the ,mosaic law4  ,the outward       
scaffolding was indeed removed1 when it 
had ceased to be  necessary2 such were  
all those laws which applied only to    
that state  of strict separation from   
,heathen nations1 which at an earlier   
period  had been of such absolute       
importance4 ,very many things were still
  retained2 and all now received in the 
fulfilment a higher spiritual           
signification2 and this was natural1    
when we consider that in ,judaism       
itself every thing which had not been   
designed merely for local and  temporary
 wants1 from the very commencement of   
that dispensation1 was  typical of      
,christianity4 ,the twelve apostles1 as 
well as the first  seventy-two          
disciples1 were taken exclusively from  
the chosen people1  and even1 in this   
respect1 the divine promises were       
completely  fulfilled1 and literally    
observed4 ,the constitution of the      

ancient  hierarchy has very evidently   
furnished the pattern for that of the   
,christian priesthood2 though this of   
course has been adapted to the  wider   
circle of a higher and more spiritual   
system4 ,the expression1  ,my kingdom is
 not of this world1 does not imply that 
it was  not to be in this world a real  
and effective power1 with a form  and   
organization clearly defined4 ,many have
 read so much1 or inferred  so much1    
from this declaration1 that they could  
not adopt an easier or  more polite     
method of shutting out this divine      
empire of truth from  the world4 ,in the
 hours of the greatest solemnity1 the   
divine ,master  revealed to his         
disciples the hidden sense of the       
ancient revelation  in all the plenitude
 of its mysteries4 ,as the ,saviour     
himself said  that every word and       
syllable of the old law must be         
literally  fulfilled2 as in general the 
spiritual interpretation of the divine  
oracles is by no means inconsistent with

 their literal truth and  inviolable    
sanctity2 so the same remark will apply 
to the new  revelation1 in which every  
word and every syllable of prophecy will
  receive a full and practical          
accomplishment before the consummation  
of  time4 ,even in another point of     
view1 particularly worthy the           
consideration of the historian1         
,christianity must be regarded only as  
a divine continuation1 a higher and more
 expansive form1 or spiritual           
renovation1 of the ,mosaic institution2 
and was so intended by its  divine      
,founder2 namely in those aspirations   
after futurity1 which now  so           
exclusively directed the whole of human 
life1 and its various  views4    ,that  
law of divine wisdom1 by which earthly  
existence is to be looked  upon only as 
a state of expectation1 of preparation1 
and of  struggle--a view of life alone  
accordant with human nature--that law   
has retained its full force in the new  
covenant4 ,for the primitive            

,christians1 death was what the ,saviour
 said of himself1 a return1 a  passing  
unto the ,father1 but life was one      
ceaseless struggle4 ,for him  who unto  
the end fought steadfast in this        
struggle1 the angel of death  was       
divested of his terrors2 he was a       
celestial messenger of peace1  that     
brought to the ,christian the bright    
garland of victory1 and the  crown of   
eternal life2 in this faith and in these
 sentiments1 did the  ,saints live1 and 
the martyrs die4 ,and as every human    
soul is conducted  to the realms above  
by the gentle hand of its divine        
guardian2 so the  ,saviour himself has  
announced to all mankind1 in many       
prophetic  passages1 that when the      
period of the dissolution of the world  
shall  approach1 he himself will return 
to the earth1 will renovate the face  of
 all things1 and bring them to a close4 
,so lively an assurance had  the first  
,christians of the immediate presence of
 their invisible lord  and guide1 so    

vivid a hope did they entertain of his  
speedy return to  the earth2 that1 in   
order to check the aspirations of a zeal
 that  would accelerate the period of   
consummation so ardently desired1       
divine ,providence judged it necessary  
that the ,prophet of the ,new           
,testament should close the volume of   
eternal revelation with that long       
succession of ages that were to witness 
the progressive struggle of             
humanity--all those centuries of        
,christianity that mankind was yet to   
traverse1 before the promise should be  
fulfilled1 and in the fulness  of time  
the final and universal triumph of      
,christianity throughout the  earth     
should be accomplished1 for all mankind 
must be gathered into  one fold1 and    
under one ,shepherd4 ,according to the  
spirit and precept  of the ,christian   
religion1 man must at every moment be   
prepared2 but  he must not1 in a        
presumptuous ardour1 accelerate the term
 of  existence fixed by the wisdom of   

,almighty ,god4 ,thus all those         
,christians who1 during the times of the
 most violent persecution of  the church
 under the ,romans1 courted the danger1 
and would not await  the honour of      
martyrdom1 were warned that such conduct
 was by no means  conformable to the    
will of ,god2 as it often happened that 
those who1  by such an overweening      
confidence in their own strength1 had   
wantonly  rushed to the field of danger1
 succumbed under their torments1 and    
fell from the faith4    ,had the ,jews  
but opened their eyes in the right time2
 had they  acknowledged the divine      
fulfilment of ancient promises in the   
mission  of ,christ1 which was in fact  
far more exalted and more splendid than 
any thing they had expected2 and had    
all1 or even the greater part1 of  the  
nation embraced ,christianity2 they     
would have become the mighty  stem--the 
great foundation--the central point of  
all modern history1  and all modern     
life4 ,but as they did not correspond to

 this call of  divine ,providence1 a    
call fully justified by their           
circumstances1  their early history1 and
 the prerogatives which the ,almighty   
had once  accorded to them above all    
other nations2 the justice of ,god      
required  that they should now receive a
 signal chastisement1 that they should  
be deprived of their national existence1
 dispersed among all the  nations of the
 earth2 and that1 in this state of ruin 
and dispersion1  they should serve as a 
memorable example to the world4 ,but    
this  humiliation of the ,jews1 which   
was calculated to draw down the         
contempt of the ,heathen1 who looked    
only to outward things1 should  have    
never given rise to oppression or       
ill-treatment among ,christian  nations2
 and the more so1 as it is still a      
problem whether any other  people placed
 in a similar situation1 and warped by  
selfish  prejudices1 and old and deep   
rooted errors1 would have done better2  
or  whether mankind in general1         

subjected to a similar trial1 would have
  come off more successfully4    ,the   
old temple of the holy city was not1    
like the idolatrous temples  of the     
,heathens1 a mere magnificent monument  
of national glory1  adorned with all the
 splendour of art2 but the idea and plan
 of the  whole structure1 its minutest  
parts1 every stone1 and every cipher1   
were clearly indicative and profoundly  
symbolical of that invisible  temple1   
that mighty city1 that divine kingdom of
 peace1 which ,christ  was to establish 
on earth1 and which he had now at length
 come to  establish4 ,even the name of  
,jerusalem1 according to the ,hebrew    
signification of the word1 has the      
emblematic sense of revelation and      
foundation1 or city of peace1 by which  
is understood not a mere  earthly and   
transitory peace1 but that higher and   
divine peace which  forms the subject of
 all the promises made unto the chosen  
people4  ,this prophetic sense and      
typical design of the holy city is so   

closely  connected with the origin and  
whole idea of the city1 that in some    
passages of the ,old ,testament such    
figurative expressions are used1 as  if 
the whole business1 nay the whole life1 
of man had no other object  than to     
build up the walls of ,jerusalem2 in the
 same sense as if a  ,christian moralist
 were to say2 the proper end and        
ultimate object of  mankind1 and of the 
history of all nations and ages1 is the 
kingdom of  ,god1 that is to say1 the   
ever wider diffusion and firmer         
consolidation  of ,christian truth and  
,christian perfection throughout the    
world4 ,when  the spiritual and internal
 sense of this mighty and historical    
hieroglyph of the ,jewish people was no 
longer understood2 when the  mighty     
truths which it embodied1 at the very   
moment they were about to  receive their
 full explanation and perfect           
development1 were  misunderstood and    
rejected2 what was more natural than    
that the  emblem1 which had lost its    

meaning1 should be effaced1 the temple  
destroyed1 and the city itself levelled 
and razed by the arm of divine  justice8
 ,this is the view which the ,christian 
historian must take of  that mighty and 
fearful catastrophe which now befell    
,jerusalem1 and  the whole ,jewish      
people under ,vespasian2 and indeed the 
impression  which this event made on the
 ,jews1 though somewhat diversified by  
national sentiments1 is in all essential
 points conformable to our own          
feelings4 ,that in every such widely    
destructive disaster1 which by  divine  
permission may afflict any portion of   
the human race1 the  loving wisdom of   
,god will know how to take each         
individual soul under  its special      
protection1 and will guard and spare it1
 at least1 in its  immortal part1 is a  
truth so evident to every religious     
mind1 that it  is unnecessary to enforce
 it at any length4 ,if1 as the          
,scripture  saith1 the hairs on a man's 
head are numbered1 so will each day1 nay

  each hour1 each pulsation of human    
existence be counted2 yea1 every        
heartfelt tear the eye of sorrow shall  
shed1 will be reckoned by the  guardian 
spirit of eternal love4 ,but this       
religious regard for the  fate of       
individuals1 and this humane sympathy   
with their misfortunes1  must be kept   
within its proper sphere in historical  
disquisitions1  where the principal     
design is to study and observe1 as far  
as the  limited perception of man will  
permit1 the mighty course of divine     
justice1 through all ages of the world4 
,when the ,jews were disappointed in the
 hope they had entertained of a         
liberator1 who was to be sent from      
above1 armed with divine power to       
deliver them from the stern yoke of     
,roman domination2 exasperated by  the  
ever increasing tyranny of their        
masters1 after several partial          
insurrections1 the whole nation1 three  
and thirty years after the  death of our
 ,lord1 broke out into open rebellion2  

and the whole  country1 torn by         
infuriated factions1 which fanatic hate 
inspired with  the courage of despair1  
exhibited all the horrors of the most   
terrific  revolution4 ,the savage       
warfare of the ,romans in such a deadly 
struggle1 we have already learned from  
the example of ,carthage2 for  however  
mild and benevolent might be the        
personal character of ,titus1  it was   
out of his power to introduce any change
 in the system of war2  and the number  
of men that perished in the siege and   
ravage of the  holy city is estimated at
 #a1cjj1jjj2 including the small number 
that  were led away captives1 or        
reserved to grace the triumph of the    
conqueror4 ,the ,emperor ,hadrian       
rebuilt the city1 which had been        
totally destroyed1 under the new and    
,pagan name of lia ,capitolina1  and    
even erected within it a temple to      
,jupiter3 but no ,jew was  permitted to 
enter within its walls4 ,at a later     
period the ,emperor  ,julian had        

intended to re-establish the ,jews in   
their ancient city1  and in all         
probability it was his hostility to     
,christianity which had  inspired him   
with the design2 but unexpected events  
and physical  obstacles#b opposed the   
execution of this plan4    ,the ,jewish 
covenant and the old revelation of the  
,hebrews formed the  chief corner-stone 
on which ,christianity was founded2 and 
the first  apostles of the new religion 
were all chosen from among that people4 
,the scriptures of the new covenant were
 composed in the ,greek tongue1  and the
 first apologies1 and other expositions 
of faith1 or books of  instruction by   
the primitive fathers1 were mostly      
written in the same  language4 ,we may  
therefore consider this language as     
forming the  second foundation-stone of 
the ,christian edifice4 ,though the     
political  consequences of the          
,macedonian conquests in ,asia were not 
of any  permanence1 yet the influence   
which these conquests have exerted on   

the intellectual character of nations1  
the ascendancy which they gave  to the  
,greeks over the whole civilized world  
of that period1 were by  no means       
unimportant4 ,it was by means of these  
conquests that the  philosophy and      
literature of the ,greeks became1 along 
with their  language1 predominant in    
,egypt and the ,western countries of    
,asia2 and  hence this language was     
adopted as the original tongue of       
,christianity2 because no other at that 
period had attained such  intellectual  
refinement1 or such general diffusion4  
,as in human  society every class and   
condition of life1 nay1 every           
individual1 by  the peculiar rights and 
advantages which each exclusively       
enjoys1  still serves the community1 and
 contributes to the weal of others1     
unconsciously and without precisely     
wishing it2 so in the history of  the   
world1 and in the progress of nations1  
all things are closely  interlinked1 and
 one serves as the instrument1          

auxiliary1 or bond of  union to the     
other2 and it was not one of the least  
important results  of the ,greek science
 and language1 that the two points      
wherein that  nation had risen to the   
greatest eminence1 and was endowed with 
the  greatest power1 should both have   
been so nearly allied with the cause  of
 ,christianity1 even from its origin4   
,the ,roman empire was the third        
foundation-stone of the ,christian      
religion2 for its vast extent           
facilitated in a singular manner the    
early and very rapid diffusion of       
,christianity1 and formed indeed the    
ground-work on which the fabric of  the 
new church was first constructed4    ,in
 the history of the primitive church1   
historians are wont to  separate the    
different branches of their subject1    
which form so many  different parts of a
 single whole1 and thus to describe     
separately the  dogmas and doctrines of 
the church1 its holy rites and          
sacraments1 its  liturgies and          

festivals1 and next its moral condition 
and external  relations2 and this       
division of the subject may1 no doubt1  
very well  answer the special design of 
such ecclesiastical histories4 ,but if  
we  wish to take a more general view of 
the subject1 to seize the spirit  of    
,christianity1 and form a just1 true and
 lively conception of the  primitive    
church1 we must be particularly careful 
not to forget in the  investigation of  
those several heads1 that they formed   
one undivided  and living whole in the  
eyes of the first ,christians1 amid the 
overflowing fulness of a new moral life2
 and of this spirit of unity1  as well  
as of the wonderful energy of faith and 
love which was its  never-failing       
source1 it is almost impossible for us  
to form a full  and adequate notion4    
,christianity in its primitive          
influence1 was like  an electric stroke1
 which traversed the world with the     
rapidity of  lightning--like a magnetic 
fluid of life1 which united even the    

most  distant members of humanity in one
 animating pulsation4 ,public prayer    
and the sacred mysteries formed a       
stronger and closer bond of love  among 
men1 than the still sacred ties of      
kindred and earthly  affection4 ,some   
persons have affected to compare the    
secret assemblies  of the primitive     
,christians with the pagan ,mysteries2  
and undoubtedly  it was only in secret1 
and in the retired and obscure oratory1 
that  the first followers of ,christ    
could gather together amid the fury of  
general persecution4 ,but1 from a       
competent knowledge which we possess  of
 the import of those pagan ,mysteries1  
they had about as much  resemblance to  
the religious assemblies of the         
primitive ,christians1  as the divine   
sacrifice of holy commemoration1 and the
 chalice  consecrated with the blood of 
the eternal ,covenant1 bore to the human
  sacrifices of the ,cainites4 ,the     
,christians saw and felt the presence   
of their invisible ,king and eternal    

,lord2 and when their souls  overflowed 
with the plenitude of spiritual and     
heavenly life1 how  could they value    
earthly existence1 and how must they not
 have been  willing to sacrifice it in  
the struggle against the powers of      
darkness2 for that struggle formed the  
whole and proper business of  their     
lives8--,hence we can understand the    
reason of the otherwise  incredibly     
rapid diffusion of ,christianity through
 all the provinces1  and even sometimes 
beyond the limits1 of the vast empire of
  ,rome2--like a heavenly flame1 it ran 
through all life1 kindling1 where  it   
found congenial sympathy1 all that it   
touched into a kindred  fervour4 ,hence1
 along with that mighty spirit of love  
which produced  so rapid a spread of the
 ,christian religion1 and which united  
in the  closest bonds the first         
,christian communities1 that energy of  
faith  which inspired such heroic       
fortitude under the dreadful and oft    
renewed persecutions of the ,romans4    

,the first persecution under ,nero  was 
only a momentary freak of blood-thirsty 
tyranny--a passing trait  of that       
monster's cruelty4 ,the first regular   
edict against the  ,christians in the   
,roman empire was passed by ,domitian in
 the #hgth year  of our era1 and1       
according to a custom which had been    
borrowed from  the ,jews1 he assimilated
 the offence of dissent from the        
national  religion to the crime of high 
treason4 ,the better ,nerva softened the
  rigour of this law1 and declared that 
the denunciations of slaves  against    
their masters were not to be received1  
but1 on the contrary1  such informers   
were to be severely punished4 ,trajan   
also1 on the  before-mentioned report of
 the younger ,pliny1 decided1 in the    
#abjth  year of our era1 that the       
,christians1 who were then uncommonly   
numerous1 were not to be sought after1  
but that1 when denounced1 they  should  
be punished according to the law        
existing against such  religious        

associations and communities4 ,but      
notwithstanding all these  apparent     
mitigations of severity introduced by   
the better emperors1  the criminal      
jurisprudence of the ,romans1 like their
 foreign warfare1  ever remained most   
atrocious2 and the passages and         
allusions which are  to be found in     
ancient historians1 concur with the     
general voice of  ,christian tradition  
in stating the prodigious cruelties     
inflicted on  the ,christians in those  
persecutions4 ,in general ,hadrian      
pursued that  milder and middle course  
of policy which ,trajan had commenced   
before  him2 he approved of legal and   
judicial persecutions against the       
,christians1 but he strictly prohibited 
those tumultuary attacks which  were the
 mere ebullitions of popular hatred4    
,with many vicissitudes1  ,christianity 
remained in this state until the reign  
of ,diocletian1  who1 pursuing a far    
more systematic plan than most of his   
predecessors1 attempted entirely to root

 it out2 but this was no  longer        
possible1 and the growing church        
received its first formal  edict of     
pacification at the hands of the emperor
 ,constantine4 ,the  pagan enthusiast   
,julian attempted a second time to      
subvert it1 but it  was now too late4   
,in the struggle against pagan cruelty  
and ,roman  persecution1 ,christianity  
had come off victorious2 in bondage1 and
  under every species of suffering1 it  
had proved the invincible might  of the 
divine arm2--and1 next to the apostles1 
the martyrs1 so highly  revered by the  
gratitude of ,christians1 must occupy   
the second place  among those who were  
instrumental in bringing about this     
mighty  renovation of society1 and who  
sealed their efforts with their blood4  
,but we must not imagine that the       
martyrs1 as mere men1 and by their      
unassisted strength1 could have endured 
such dreadful torments with  such       
unshaken constancy2 or1 again1 that they
 were the mere  unconscious instruments 

of a divine fatality1 without the       
co-operation  of their free1 clear and  
steadfast will4 ,by the side of those   
who were  constant1 many individuals    
were found that were not so1--many1 who1
  overcome by suffering1 delivered up   
the holy scriptures1 or entirely        
apostatized from the faith and          
sacrificed to idols2 so that it was     
afterwards a matter of dispute1 how far 
the lapsed could be  pardoned and       
received again into the church4         
,after that period was past which had   
witnessed the reign of those  inhuman   
tyrants that immediately succeeded      
,augustus1 several of the  more virtuous
 emperors sought by various expedients  
to bring about the  moral regeneration  
of the people and empire of ,rome4      
,trajan1 who  possessed much of the     
rectitude and old martial virtues that  
belonged  to the elder and better period
 of ,rome1 sought to introduce these    
again2 and1 though the effects of his   
policy were transient1 they  were still 

beneficial4 ,hadrian endeavoured to     
reanimate paganism1 and  to make it once
 more the basis of the empire and of    
public life2 for  this purpose1 he had  
recourse especially to the more profound
 and  austere ,theology of ,egypt2 and  
that new ,egyptian style1 which         
characterizes the later monuments of    
,roman art1 was connected with the      
emperor's predilection for the old      
religion of ,egypt4 ,but the healthy    
vigour1 the moral regeneration1 of      
public life1 and of the empire  itself1 
could not now be obtained by the        
maintenance1 or firmer  consolidation1  
of the pagan religion2 on the contrary1 
it is in the  erroneous nature of the   
primitive paganism of ,rome that we must
 seek  for the principal cause why1 even
 in that elder period now so highly     
extolled1 and which certainly was at    
least better1 a true1 pure1 and  stable 
system of morals and politics could     
never take root and  flourish4 ,under   
the two ,antonines1 the severe morality 

of ,stoicism was  regarded as the vital 
principle of moral regeneration1 and    
political  reform1 and a practical      
application of its principles was sought
 for  on all sides4 ,and certainly if   
the stoical philosophy1 with its mere   
dead letter of rigid justice1 and       
correct morality1 unsupported by the    
divine maxims of right faith1 and that  
spirit of exalted love which  true faith
 alone can impart1 could have           
accomplished this high  design2--if it  
had possessed within itself this mighty 
source1 this  creative energy of moral  
and social life2 the serious            
determination and  personal virtues of  
those imperial stoics might indeed have 
promised  to the declining age of ,rome 
the fulfilment of the last hope to which
  ,paganism yet clung4 ,but that which  
doth not rest on the basis of truth  can
 receive no life from any external      
cause2 and it can impart no life  to any
 thing without1 because it is decayed   
within1 and when the  illusive bloom of 

first youth has fled1 it sinks          
inevitably into its  native corruption4 
,when the ,lord doth not build the      
house1 saith the  ,psalmist1 those who  
would build it labour in vain4 ,to the  
better  times that had witnessed the    
rule of the three or four great monarchs
  we have mentioned1 the reign of a     
,commodus succeeded2 and thus the       
,empire1 down to the time of            
,diocletian1 beheld a constant mutation 
of  rulers1 sometimes benevolent1 or at 
least comparatively good1 whose  reigns 
however were often but of short         
duration1 sometimes weak and            
spiritless1 and sometimes again tyrants 
of the most abject and  atrocious cast4 
,among these latter ,sovereigns1        
however1 who in cruelty  and arbitrary  
caprice1 resembled the first successors 
of ,augustus1  there were no characters 
possessed of that strong ,roman sense   
which  distinguished ,tiberius2 and the 
empire in their hands assumed daily     
more and more a thoroughly effeminate   

and oriental complexion4    ,nothing was
 more subject to chance than the right  
of succession in the  ,roman empire1    
where the arbitrary application of the  
,roman principle  of adoption opened a  
wide field to the contention of parties2
 without  including the frequent        
recurrence of conspiraces in a military 
empire1  which1 as it was formed by a   
military conspiracy1 ever retained the  
stamp of its origin4 ,augustus had      
employed his whole life1 not without    
apparent success1 for a time at least1  
in endeavouring to give to  authority1  
acquired by force of arms1 the colour   
and forms of  legitimacy4 ,but how could
 it be ever forgotten that he1 as well  
as  ,csar1 had been raised to the       
,imperial throne by the army1 and amid  
the struggles of factions1 conspiracies1
 and civil wars4 ,the soldiers  knew    
this1 and recollected but too well the  
source whence the supreme  power in the 
state had emanated4 ,the influence of   
the ,prtorians1  especially1 was1 from  

their origin1 very considerable1 as they
  surrounded the ,emperor1 and formed   
his body-guard4 ,by virtue of his       
office the leader of the ,prtorians had 
a sort of negative and  controlling     
power1 like that of the ,censor and     
popular ,tribune in the  ancient        
republic1 except that this functionary  
wielded the sword1--a  power in some    
degree acknowledged by the ,emperor     
himself1 as it was  accounted one of the
 highest merits of ,trajan1 that to the 
chief of  that troop which defended the 
person1 and often decided the fate1 of  
the ,emperor1 he delivered the sword    
with these words3 ,for me1 if ,i  govern
 well--against me1 if ,i should become a
 tyrant4    ,thus the empire was        
entirely abandoned to chance and        
caprice1 and as  its origin was         
military1 it remained unto the end      
essentially a  military despotism4 ,the 
more powerful legions that were         
quartered in  the most important        
provinces1 especially in those of the   

frontiers1  soon began to feel that they
 were far superior in numbers and       
strength  to the effeminate ,prtorians  
of the capital4 ,several emperors were  
elected and proclaimed by these legions2
 and in the number1 such even  as were  
not ,romans1 and were of barbarian      
extraction2 for it happened  that1 in   
the provincial legions1 many foreigners1
 especially ,germans1  were engaged in  
the ,roman service in the provinces on  
the  ,north-western frontier4 ,several  
of the emperors thus chosen by the      
legions1 continued to reside where the  
centre of their power  existed--in the  
station1 or in some provincial capital  
conveniently  situated4 ,the ,senate had
 long been but a mere shadow of its     
former  greatness2 even the capital     
began to lose much of its importance4   
,at the same time the repeated          
incursions of the ,northern nations ever
  rendered a general invasion more      
imminent1 and the disaster1 which men   
had foreseen from afar1 appeared ever   

nearer its accomplishment4  ,already the
 first irruption of the ,cimbri and     
,teutones1 when not  merely an army for 
the sake of booty1 or to plant a        
military colony1  but a whole tribe with
 wives and children had migrated into   
the ,roman  territory1 threw ,rome into 
consternation during the civil wars1    
when  she was at the very height of her 
military prowess4 ,csar had spared  no  
exertion to reduce ,gaul to complete    
subjection1 and this country  had ever  
since adopted more and more the language
 and customs of ,rome4  ,he experienced 
from no people such vigorous resistance1
 as from the  ,germanic tribes2 and to  
protect against these nations the safety
 of  the empire1 by strongly fortifying 
the banks of the ,rhine and ,danube1    
constituted afterwards the first concern
 of the ,roman ,emperors4 ,what a  shock
 ,augustus received from the defeat of  
,varus1 by the ,german  ,arminius in his
 native woods6 ,even under the martial  
,trajan1 who was  almost the last       

conqueror in the line of ,roman         
,emperors1 men began to  entertain      
serious apprehensions of the invasion of
 the ,germanic  tribes4 ,the first great
 irruption was that of the ,alemanni1   
who1 under  ,marcus ,aurelius burst into
 the ,rhtian provinces1 while similar   
movements occurred in ,noricum and      
eastward towards ,pannonia4 ,however1   
,marcus ,aurelius1 by an energetic and  
successful resistance1 repelled  this   
first attempt1 and thus was the means of
 deterring the barbarians  for a long   
time from similar enterprises2 and a    
hundred years elapsed  before ,aurelian 
drove them again from ,italy1 over the  
,alps as far as  the ,lech4 ,among the  
,german nations1 the ,goths1 who from   
the  ,scandinavian ,isles had penetrated
 far into the interior of ,germany1     
particularly towards the eastern1 as    
afterwards towards the western1  parts  
of that country1 were pre-eminent in    
power4 ,they could not be  prevented    
from obtaining a firm footing in the    

,north-eastern  provinces1 by the ,black
 ,sea4 ,the ,emperor ,decius perished in
 the war  against this people2 and the  
,romans were obliged to surrender to    
them  by a formal treaty1 the further   
,dacia4 ,constantine1 indeed1 was       
victorious in the war he waged against  
them2 but he preferred to  conclude an  
advantageous peace1 to gain their       
friendship1 and enlist  their youth in  
the service of the ,roman armies4 ,of   
the later reigns  that of ,diocletian   
displayed the greatest energy2 but his  
cruel  persecution of the ,christians   
was1 even to judge from the mere        
external state of society1 as little    
adapted to the spirit of the age  as it 
was reprehensible in itself1 and hence  
his design remained  unaccomplished4    
,although1 after his abdication1        
,diocletian showed  himself a thorough  
,roman in private life1 yet1 while he   
swayed the  sceptre1 he deemed it       
expedient to surround the throne with   
all the  pomp and forms of ,asiatic     

homage4 ,the division of the empire     
among  several sovereigns appeared then1
 as afterwards1 under ,constantine and  
his successors1 an unavoidable and      
necessary evil2 or1 in other words1  the
 several parts and members of the vast  
body of the ,roman ,empire1  which      
approached nearer and nearer to its     
dissolution1 began to fall  to pieces1  
and that division itself accelerated    
again the destruction  of the state1 as 
it became the occasion of internal      
discord1 and  universal convulsion in   
the ,roman world4 ,the revolution       
accomplished  by ,constantine1 indeed1  
might have become a real1 and by far the
 most  comprehensive1 regeneration of   
the ,roman state1 as it substituted for 
its originally defective1 and now       
completely rotten1 foundation of        
,paganism1 a new principle of life1 a   
higher and more potent energy of  divine
 truth and eternal justice4 ,but        
,christianity had not yet near  become  
the universal religion of the people1   

and ,empire of  ,rome--otherwise the    
great re-action1 which took place under 
,julian1  had not been possible4 ,the   
peasantry1 in particular1 continued for 
a  long time yet attached to the old    
idolatry2 and hence the name of  ,pagans
 was derived4#c ,even ,constantine1     
though he publicly declared  himself a  
convert to ,christianity1 still did not 
dare to receive  baptism immediately1   
and thus enter fully into the great     
community of  ,christians4 ,the         
administration of the ,roman state was  
so completely  interwoven with ,pagan   
rites and ,pagan doctrines1 that1 from  
an act of  this public nature1 dangerous
 collisions might have at first easily  
ensued4 ,on the whole1 the old ,roman   
maxims and principles of  state-policy  
continued to prevail1 even for a long   
time after the  reign of ,constantine2  
and the period had not yet arrived when 
,christianity was to work a fundamental 
reform throughout the whole  political  
world1--and a ,christian government1 if 

,i may so speak1 was  to be established 
and organized on that eternal basis1 and
 to strike  deep root and grow into the 
faith and life of the people1 and into  
their habits and their feelings2 but    
this great revolution was  reserved for 
another and a later period4         #a  
,in confirmation of this pithy sentence 
of       ,schlegel's1 ,i may cite a     
remarkable passage from the             
celebrated ,lessing1 which1 as coming   
from an ,infidel1       may perhaps have
 more weight with the ,unitarian4 ,if   
,christ1 he says1 is not truly ,god1    
then ,mohammedanism       was an        
undoubted improvement on the ,christian 
religion3       ,mahomet1 on such a     
supposition1 would indisputably have    
been a greater man than ,christ1 as he  
would have been       far more          
veracious1 more circumspect1 and more   
zealous       for the honour of ,god1   
since ,christ1 by his       expressions1
 would have given dangerous occasion for
       idolatry2 while1 on the other    

hand1 not a single       expression of  
the kind can be laid to the charge of   
,mahomet4--,lessing's ,beitrge zur      
,geschichte und       ,litteratur4 ,vol4
 ,,ii4 p4 #daj4--,trans4         #b ,by 
this expression1 ,schlegel does not mean
 to       question the supernatural     
agency that produced those              
obstacles4--,trans         #c ,from the 
,latin word ,pagus1 a rural district4   
,,end ,,of ,,lecture ,x4                
,,lecture ,,xi4        ,of the ancient  
,germans1 and of the invasion of the    
,northern      tribes4--,the march of   
,nature in the historical development of
      ,nations4--,further diffusion and 
internal consolidation of               
,christianity4--,great corruption of the
 world4--,rise of      ,mahometanism4   
,the idolatry of the ancient ,germans1  
like the less poetical1 less            
artificial1 and less elaborate ,paganism
 of all primitive nations1  consisted in
 a simple adoration of ,nature1 such as 
existed among the  ,persians1 with whom 

they had a very close affinity in race  
and in  language4 ,thus the objects of  
their worship were the stars1 the sun   
and the moon1 the celestial spirits1 the
 various powers and elements  of        
,nature1 and in particular the mother   
earth1 under the name of the  goddess   
,hertha4 ,in the ,german and ,english   
names for the days of the  week1 the    
names of the gods1 ,thun1 ,wodan1 ,thor1
 and ,freya1 are still  preserved2 and  
these in the ,germanic mythology        
correspond to the  planets1 most clearly
 visible from our globe--,mars1         
,mercury1 ,jupiter1  and ,venus2 as it  
is also from these the ,romanic         
languages have taken  the names of the  
weekdays4 ,it does not appear1 indeed1  
that there  existed in ,germany quite so
 powerful1 influential1 and             
well-organized  a body of priests1 as   
the ,druids composed in ,gaul2 and we   
can only  discover the existence of     
certain secret rites and mysteries of a 
very  primitive simplicity2 as1 for     

instance1 the human sacrifice which was 
offered to the lake ,hertha1 in the     
,isle of ,rugen1 when a young man and   
maiden were thrown into its solitary    
waters4 ,it was in the obscurity  of    
woods1 under the sacred oak1 or by the  
,linden1 the tree of ,northern          
enchantment1 and on the mountaintops1   
they celebrated their rites1  festivals1
 and entertainments1 or arranged the    
,runic sticks to search  into futurity2 
and as1 among the ,greeks1 the ,delphic 
oracle in moments  of general danger was
 consulted1 and gave its advice on the  
most  important concerns of the nation2 
so the prophetesses and sybils of  the  
,north1 like the ,velleda mentioned by  
the ,romans1 exerted a very  decisive   
influence on the public councils4 ,old  
poetical traditions of  gods1 heroes1   
giants1 and spirits 7in many respects   
like those of  ,persia71 formed the     
keystone of the sacred recollections and
 national  existence of the ,germanic   
nations4    ,their original descent from

 ,asia remained ever strong and lively  
in  their remembrance1 and allusions to 
it were interwoven into the whole  body 
of their traditionary poetry2 and as in 
the ,persian traditions1  the ,arii are 
celebrated as the most generous and     
heroic nation of the  primitive ages1 so
 the ,asae occupy the most distinguished
 place in the  ,northern mythology4 ,in 
the ,scandinavian ,north1 which remained
 ,pagan  for many centuries after       
,germany had become ,christian1 there   
are still  extant many monuments and    
songs of a similar purport and strain2  
and  of these1 indeed1 abundant vestiges
 are to be found every-where4 ,these    
old historical traditions and this      
hereditary poetry had often a very      
powerful influence on real life1 and on 
the martial enterprises and             
achievements of the tribes2 and as in   
the heroic ages of the ,greeks1         
according to the ,homeric description1  
so in those times the bard1  proclaiming
 the history of gods and heroes1 and    

attending on the  person of the prince  
or general of the army1 was by no means 
an  unimportant personage4    ,a        
monarchy of such wide extent1 as the    
ancient kingdom of ,persia1 did  not    
exist in ,germany4 ,the constitution1 if
 we can apply such a term to  the wild  
freedom of those early ages1 was more   
like that of ,greece in  the heroic     
times1 when she was governed by her     
noble families1 and her  territory was  
divided into a number of petty kingdoms1
 which only  rarely united in a great   
league for a common enterprise4 ,this   
primitive ,germanic constitution was a  
very simple and free aristocracy  of    
,nature4 ,the tribe that composed the   
nation was an union or  confederacy of  
freemen and nobles under an hereditary  
tribe-prince1  or chosen leader2 and it 
was only at a later period that among   
some of  the ,germanic nations1 this    
confederacy gave way to a regular regal 
government4 ,every freeman1 and every   
man having a right to bear arms1  was a 

member of the ,hermannia1 which was     
afterwards called the  arriere-ban2 and 
it was this ancient ,hermannia that gave
 rise to the  ,roman name for ,germany4 
,the land was cultivated by bondsmen and
  slaves1 who had been either purchased1
 or taken prisoners in war1 or  were the
 conquered remnant of the ancient       
inhabitants of the country1  or even men
 who for some crime had forfeited their 
freedom and  nobility4 ,when the ,romans
 became better acquainted with the      
,germanic  nations1 the latter had      
partly become an agricultural people2   
and they  observed that very primitive  
custom of letting their fields lie      
alternately in fallow--a custom which   
has been so long retained in the  ,north
 of ,germany1 under the name of         
dreyfelder-wirthschaft4  ,private       
property in land itself was not yet     
marked out nor enclosed  within any     
exact limits--there was still much      
common land1 and this  was naturally an 
inducement for the different tribes1    

whenever they  had a favourable         
opportunity1 to change their abode and  
migrate4 ,but  this infant agriculture  
was still held subordinate to the       
occupations  of the chace and of the    
pastoral life1 which furnished the      
principal  means of subsistence4 ,the   
different forests that still exist in   
,germany are merely the remaining       
fragments of the one1 vast1  boundless  
,hercynian forest1 that once extended   
through the whole  interior of the      
country4 ,from the quantity of wood that
 yet remained1  the soil of ,germany was
 much more marshy1 and its atmosphere   
incomparably colder1 than at the present
 day4 ,the buffalo and the elk1  which  
at present are so very rarely to be met 
with in ,germany1 were  then animals    
indigenous to our country4    ,that this
 condition of the soil1 and this        
unsettled mode of life1 in a  growing   
population are circumstances quite      
sufficient to account for a  partial1   
though 7without other co-operating      

causes7 not perhaps for  the general1   
emigration of a whole tribe1 must be    
evident to every  person4 ,internal     
factions and wars are quite adequate    
causes for the  emigration of a whole   
tribe1 or1 at least1 of a considerable  
portion4  ,in the early ages it was     
customary1 when the population became   
too  numerous1 for the younger brothers1
 or a certain number of youths  chosen  
by lot1 to quit their country under the 
guidance of a leader of  their choice1  
or of one marked out by ,fame1 and1     
proceeding on an  expedition of         
adventure1 conquer other homes for      
themselves1 and seek  out their fortunes
 towards the east1 or towards the west1 
or beneath  the fairer sky of a southern
 region4 ,even in a more advanced1 nay  
in  the most advanced1 stage of         
civilization1 every state and nation is 
necessitated by nature1 if ,i may so    
speak1 to disburthen itself of a        
redundant population1 and to extend     
itself in new settlements--in one  word1

 to found colonies1 and to possess      
colonies4 ,this is the standing         
law1--the fundamental rule of health in 
the progressive development of  nations2
 and where this necessity does not exist
 in an equal degree1  we must consider  
it only a case of exception1 and we     
shall be sure to  find that some special
 cause precludes the operation of this  
principle  for a time3 for1 sooner or   
later1 nature will force us to this     
expedient4 ,the commercial colonies of  
the ,phoenicians and ,greeks  were in   
part founded1 and certainly at least    
defended1 extended and  consolidated by 
force of arms2 and it is only by similar
 means1 that  in modern times1 ,mexico  
and ,peru have become colonies of       
,spain4    ,but in those early ages1 and
 among those northern1 warlike children 
of  nature1 this natural necessity of   
emigration could take no other  course1 
nor have any other object but a military
 settlement4 ,such was  the result of   
the first irruption of the northern     

nations1 mentioned  in history--the     
expedition of the ,gauls into ,thrace1  
which was soon  succeeded by a second of
 a similar kind under ,brennus2 when    
that  ,gallic general marched at the    
head of his troops into ,macedon and    
,greece1 and became master of the rich  
temple of ,apollo at ,delphi1 and  of   
all its accumulated treasures4 ,a       
remnant of these troops finally  fixed  
their abode in ,asia ,minor1 and        
established a ,gallic settlement  in a  
province which from them received the   
name of ,galatia4 ,in  this first great 
expedition1 or irruption of the northern
 nations1 the  names of almost all the  
tribes and their leaders are ,celtic2   
still  some few ,german names are found 
amongst them2 and this may be easily    
accounted for1 when we recollect that   
the ,gauls1 who were then widely        
spread1 and inhabited even the ,north of
 ,italy1 were undoubtedly in  possession
 of most of the ,alpine countries1 and  
thus may easily have  engaged in their  

service some ,german tribes4 ,who knows 
but what some  marvellous tradition1 and
 fabulous account of the lovely climate 
and  delicious fruits of the ,southern  
regions1 together with recollections  of
 their original descent from the        
,southern nations of ,asia1 may have    
contributed to bring the ,cimbri and    
,teutones from the islands of           
,scandinavia to the plains of ,italy8   
,had the ,romans not dreaded the        
dangerous precedent1 and had they but   
allotted lands to these nations1  they  
might easily have kept terms of peace   
with them1 and enlisted  their most     
valiant youth in the service of their   
legions2 as1 indeed1  under the later   
emperors1 the flower of their troops was
 selected from  the ,gothic tribes4     
,but the case was widely different when 
the relations of peace and war1  the    
proximity of frontiers1 and the         
occupation of the ,german  territory1   
brought the ,romans in closer contact   
with the ,germanic  nations2 as1 for    

instance1 in the campaigns which ,csar  
conducted  against the chief of the     
,suevi1 ,ariovistus2 ,tiberius against  
,maroboduus1 king of the ,marcomanni2   
and the general of ,augustus  against   
the ,saxon prince1 ,hermann4 ,here both 
parties diligently  studied and observed
 each other's excellencies and defects1 
and mixed  in the most various          
intercourse4 ,thus ,hermann's father    
lived among the  ,romans2 his brother   
bore a ,roman name2 and his nephew was  
educated at  ,rome4 ,maroboduus himself 
repaired thither1 desirous like a       
prudent  foe1 to examine with his own   
eyes the capital of ,roman greatness and
  power4 ,among the ,german tribes and  
their leaders1 factions were  sometimes 
formed even against ,hermann and        
,maroboduus2 and at a later  period1    
these divisions had no inconsiderable   
influence on the  relations of the      
,germanic nations with the ,romans1 and 
on their  foreign enterprizes4 ,the     
,roman frontier on the banks of the     

,rhine and  the ,danube1 fortified by a 
long line of castles1 fortresses1 and   
cities1 lay for the most part within the
 ,german territory1 and was  inhabited  
by some ,german tribes1 or ,german      
settlers that had been  attracted       
thither4 ,here the nations of ,germany  
saw their brethren of a  kindred race1  
living indeed under the controul of     
,roman laws1 which  those1 who still    
retained their freedom1 sought to repel 
by force of  arms2 but on the other     
hand1 they observed the high cultivation
 of a  country1 blest with all the      
advantages of civilization1 and adorned 
with so many of the arts of life1 with  
the culture of the vine1 and a  variety 
of the most exquisite fruits4 ,and when1
 in the course of the  almost incessant 
wars waged on the frontier1 they either 
encountered a  feeble resistance1 or    
observed some defect in the mode of     
,roman  defence1 the desire to prosecute
 their fortune1 and penetrate into      
those beautiful countries1 must have    

considerably augmented4 ,as1 three      
centuries ago1 the fabulous accounts of 
treasures of gold1 and rich  ores of    
silver1 to be found in ,america1 drew   
hosts of ,spanish and  other ,european  
adventurers over the ,atlantic to the   
shores of the  newly-discovered         
continent2 so the charms of a southern  
sky1 the rich  fruits1 the vineyards1   
the blooming gardens of a warm1 lovely  
and  highly cultivated region1 wrought  
powerfully on the imaginations of  the  
,northerns1 and were often the motive of
 their expeditions and  armed           
migrations4    ,the first irruptions of 
the ,alemanni in the reign of ,marcus   
,aurelius1  and subsequent to it1 appear
 to have arisen immediately and         
naturally1  7as ,i have said17 out of   
the perpetual wars waged on the         
frontier1 on  the first advantage which 
those barbarians obtained over the      
,romans1  and on the first defect or    
weakness which they espied in the       
defensive  operations of their enemies4 

,that the warfare on the frontier was   
perpetuated almost without intermission1
 it is the more natural to  suppose1    
since the ,germanic nations by two armed
 confederacies of  their tribes1 had on 
their side opposed to the fortifications
 of the  ,roman boundaries a living     
frontier-wall4 ,the name of the         
,marcomanni  served to designate not a  
particular tribe1 but an armed          
confederation  for the defence of the   
whole nation2 and the same remark holds 
good of  the ,alemanni4 ,in the         
descriptions which the ,romans have     
given of  ,germany1 they were           
occasionally led1 by their ignorance of 
the  language1 to mistake a league for a
 people1 and to apply to a tribe  the   
denomination intended to denote a       
district or a custom4 ,but in  these    
accounts it is very easy to trace the   
three or four leading  nations of       
,germany1 that figure afterwards in its 
history1 and which1  on the dissolution 
of the ,roman empire1 possessed         

themselves of its  provinces1 spread    
through the different ,romanic          
countries1 and in the  course of time   
became the founders of the modern       
,european states4    ,these three       
principal nations of ,germany 7and such 
they were  considered by the ,romans17  
were the ,suevi1 the ,saxons1 and the   
,goths1  who may be best distinguished  
by the course of the rivers1 which      
flowed through the countries they       
inhabited4 ,the whole of that  extensive
 country1 afterwards called ,ancient    
,saxony1 and which lay  along the course
 and embouchures of the ,elbe1 the      
,eyder1 the ,ems and  the ,weser1       
including the whole sea-coast with      
,jutland and ,denmark1 all  the ,rhenish
 ,netherlands with the ,batavian shores1
 was inhabited by the  ,saxons2 a people
 7for it was only later their name was  
explained from  a peculiar national     
weapon1 or species of sword17 attached  
to the  soil1 and who were of all the   
,germanic tribes the least prone to     

emigration2 for1 as mariners1 they kept 
to the sea-coasts1 and the  banks of    
rivers4 ,it was only at the period when 
the tide of emigration  had reached its 
highest point that the ,saxons1 issuing 
from their  native seat1 not only       
possessed themselves of1 but as it were1
 peopled  anew1 the great ,british      
,isle2 and it is very possible that this
 not  widely dispersed1 but closely     
connected low-,german race1 then        
out-numbered all the other nations of   
,germany4 ,it was on the banks of  the  
,upper ,rhine and the ,upper ,danube    
that lay the original seat of the       
,suevi1 a race perhaps more mixed1 who  
occur in history under the name  of the 
,alemanni1 and were distinguished for a 
restless spirit of  adventure and       
migratory enterprize4 ,the name of the  
,franks1 a people  occupying so         
important a place in later history1     
denoted originally  rather a league than
 a particular nation2 and as their      
geographical  seat lay between those of 

the ,suevi and the ,saxons1 they were   
akin  in character and by descent to    
both those nations4 ,in their manners   
and mode of government they resembled   
the ,alemanni2 while in race and        
language they were originally more      
nearly allied to the ,saxons4 ,if the   
,franks are to be considered a distinct 
nation1 it is the ancient ,catti  or    
,hessians 7who have ever been included  
among that people7 that we  must regard 
as the main stock of the whole race4    
,but the second great primitive and     
leading race among the ,germanic        
nations were the ,goths1 a people whose 
territory spread from the  ,scandinavian
 ,peninsula1 and the shores of the      
,baltic1 along the whole  course of the 
,vistula1 as far as the ,black ,sea4    
,their language1 as it  exists in the   
yet extant ,gothic bible of ,ulphilas1  
is what we would  now call the high     
,dutch dialect2 though its form is more 
ancient1 and  is distinguished for a    
certain purity of structure1 not without

 its  peculiar charm4 ,this ,gothic     
dialect is1 in tone and form1 less akin 
to  the ,saxon and ,scandinavian        
languages1 except in so far as the      
branches  of a stem1 the nearer we      
approach the roots1 reveal more clearly 
their  common origin4 ,in the           
,scandinavian ,north1 the territories of
 these two  principal ,germanic races1  
the ,goths and the ,saxons1 were        
contiguous2  and1 proceeding from this  
common source1 the two nations branched 
out  into separate and various streams4 
,of a similar1 or at least of a         
kindred1 race to the ,goths1 were the   
,burgundians and ,vandals1 who          
afterwards founded the kingdoms of that 
name in ,gaul and ,spain4  ,hereditary  
monarchy attained to a more settled form
 among the ,goths  than among any other 
of the ,germanic nations2 and1 divided  
between two  different dynasties1 the   
,ostro-,goths were subject to the heroic
 family  of the ,amali1 and the         
,visi-,goths to that of the ,balti4 ,the

 ,roman  historians of that age often   
speak of their martial courage and      
magnanimity1 as well as of their lofty  
and commanding stature4    ,the real    
emigration of the ,northern tribes      
originated solely and  immediately with 
the ,goths2 and1 in the first period1   
was not produced  by any commotion among
 the ,asiatic nations1 as was afterwards
 the  case4 ,as early as the third      
century1 the ,goths took possession of  
the  countries situated on the ,northern
 coast of the ,euxine1 and penetrated   
into ,greece as far as ,athens4 ,the    
,emperor ,decius fell in the war        
against them1 and in the peace which    
they concluded with ,aurelian1  they    
retained the further ,dacia which had   
been previously surrendered4  ,they now 
became allies of the ,romans1 who were  
happy enough to  cultivate the relations
 of peace with them1 and to recruit     
their  legions with the ,gothic youth4  
,a hundred years later1 the ,goths on   
the  death of their king ,hermanric1    

were disturbed in their settlements     
near the ,black ,sea by the ,huns3 a    
people who1 according to the ,chinese   
annals1 originally inhabited the        
,northern frontier of ,china towards    
the ,eastern parts of the ,middle ,asia1
 and who afterwards1 bearing down       
westward1 took up their abode for a long
 time on the ,eastern shores of  the    
,caspian1 till at last they forced their
 way into the ,caucasian  regions1 and  
the territory of the ,goths on the      
borders of the ,black  ,sea4    ,it was 
only now1 when the minds of the ,german 
tribes of the ,west were  at the same   
time rising to a higher and higher pitch
 of excitement1  and the old ,empire of 
,rome was on every side crumbling into  
ruins1  that the tide of ,northern      
emigration burst out in all its full and
  fearful violence4 ,in the first       
irruptions1 the names of the different  
tribes1 as well as of their leaders1    
were almost all without exception       
,german2 but now we meet with many      

foreign names1 which discover not  only 
the ,asiatic ,huns1 but the ,sclavonian1
 and even perhaps1  occasionally1 the   
,finnish tribes1 that were undoubtedly  
then  intermingled with the ,goths in   
the vast empire of the latter4 ,for     
fifty years after the first invasion1   
the ,huns remained at peace in  their   
new settlements between the ,theiss and 
the ,danube1 nor did they  disturb the  
,roman ,empire till the time of ,attila4
 ,the ,goths offered to  defend the     
frontier against these barbarians1 and  
received in return  the province to the 
south of the ,danube4    ,the ,goths    
readily embraced ,christianity2 but they
 received it in the  ,arian form2 for at
 the time when religious instructors and
 the ,gothic  bishop ,ulphilas were sent
 from ,constantinople1 the ,arian party 
had the  ascendancy in that capital4    
,this circumstance had afterwards the   
most  fatal influence on the destinies  
of the ,roman ,empire2 for one of the   
chief causes of its downfal was this new

 contest in religious matters4  ,it was 
on this very account the second conquest
 of ,rome by the ,vandal  ,king         
,genseric was attended with far more    
devastation than the first  under the   
,visi-,goth ,king ,alaric2 for the      
former persecuted the  ,catholic church 
with all the animosity of an ,arian4    
,the ,goths were not  animated by       
feelings of hostility towards the       
,romans2 but were rather  disposed to   
admire the excellence and superiority of
 their  civilization4 ,when the ,emperor
 ,valens perished in the ,gothic war1   
which ,roman treachery had occasioned1  
,theodosius contrived to conclude  an   
advantageous peace with this people1    
when they stood at the very  gates of   
,constantinople1 took forty thousand of 
their troops into his  pay1 and renewed 
the armed confederacy of the ,goths     
which ,constantine  had formed4 ,when   
the ,gothic prince ,athanaric had       
contemplated with  astonishment the pomp
 and splendour of ,constantinople1 and  

had  conceived sentiments of respect for
 the personal character of  ,theodosius2
 the ,goths1 moved by the               
representations of their prince1        
declared to ,theodosius that as long as 
he lived1 they wished to have  no other 
king but himself4 ,but the case was     
altered under the sons of  ,theodosius2 
and1 to defend themselves from this     
people1 these princes  knew no other    
expedient than to let loose on ,italy   
these barbarians1  and to divert and    
point the storm of invasion towards that
 quarter4  ,this policy produced the    
expedition of the ,visi-,goth ,king     
,alaric to  ,rome1 and the first        
conquest of the eternal and seven-hilled
 city4    ,the disputes between ,rome   
and the new ,byzantine court did not a  
little  contribute to the downfal of the
 ,roman ,empire2 and the dexterity1 or  
rather craftiness1 which the politicians
 of ,constantinople displayed  on this1 
as on many other occasions1 was often   
attended with  consequences the most    

ruinous to ,italy4 ,as the universal    
empire of  ,rome had grown out of civil 
war1 so it was undermined and ruined    
more  by internal discord and           
corruption1 than by the power of the    
,goths2 a  nation with whom the ,romans 
might easily have contracted relations  
of  amity1 and induced to fraternize1   
and become by degrees one people  with  
themselves2 and indeed1 at various      
periods1 the policy of the  better      
,emperors had prepared the way for such 
an union4 ,as1 of all the  ,germanic    
nations1 the ,goths were the most       
powerful2 and as their  assistance would
 have enabled the ,romans to resist all 
the other  tribes2 such an alliance1 as 
,i here speak of1 would have            
accomplished  by pacific means the      
purpose of the great ,northern          
migration1 namely1  the union of the    
sound1 vigorous1 native spirit of the   
,germans with  the civilization of the  
,romans 7then indeed sunk to the lowest 
state  of debasement71 and whose polity 

and public life ,christianity itself    
was unable totally to regenerate4 ,and  
thus a long intermediate period  of     
conflict and confusion would have been  
rendered unnecessary4    ,during the    
troubles which followed the first       
conquest of ,rome by  ,alaric1 the      
,romans invoked from ,africa the aid of 
,genseric1 ,king of  the ,vandals1--a   
prince who both as a warrior1 and as a  
ruler1 was far  more cruel than ,alaric1
 and who every where spread terror on   
his  march4 ,jealous and suspicious of  
the ,goths1 he invited into ,italy      
,attila1 with all the nations which his 
martial prowess had subjected  or       
attached to his authority1 and          
occasioned the expedition of the  latter
 into the ,west1 where1 in the great    
battle on the banks of the  ,marna1 the 
,goths constituted the main portion of  
both the contending  armies4 ,the ,huns 
and some other of the invading nations  
were still  ,pagans2 and the history of 
that age amply demonstrated that wars   

are  ever more destructive in proportion
 as the armies are more numerous1  the  
throng of armed multitudes more dense1  
and the nations composing  them more    
various and dissimilar4 ,still the      
general oppression1  anarchy1           
desolation1 and misery1 in those times1 
are not to be traced  solely to wars and
 battles2 for1 during the most          
flourishing and  civilized ages of      
ancient ,rome1 wars were almost         
perpetually waged1  and were generally  
more1 and certainly not less1 bloody and
  destructive than the present4 ,the    
,bishop of ,rome contrived to avert  the
 torrent of hostilities from his        
capital1 and the city was spared4  ,on  
the death of ,attila1 the ,huns ceased  
to be formidable2 for the  power of that
 prince1 which depended far less on     
their numbers1 than  on his own military
 prowess and glory1 perished at once    
with him4    ,odoacer1 ,prince of the   
,heruli and ,rugians1 7nations also     
,gothic7 was  called to the ,empire of  

,rome from the banks of the ,danube4    
,from his  conquest dates the downfal of
 the ,western ,empire1 and the last     
,roman  youth who was yet dignified with
 the name of emperor1 was called        
,romulus1 #abbh years after the first   
,romulus1--the founder of the  eternal  
city--a city which after it had lost its
 outward and political  power1 became   
the centre of a vast sacerdotal         
dominion1 and again  occupied in        
succeeding times a mighty and important 
place in history4  ,when the sway of the
 ,heruli became an object of detestation
 in ,rome  and ,italy1 the ,greek       
,emperor ,zeno1 in a formal document1   
conferred on  the ,ostro-,goth ,king    
,theodoric1 who had been educated at    
,constantinople1 the dominion of ,italy2
 and the latter1 after his  victory over
 ,odoacer1 assumed the ,roman purple1 in
 lieu of the ,gothic  dress4 ,he was    
highly esteemed in ,rome1 and by all the
 ,germanic  nations2 his name1 like that
 of ,charlemagne after him1 was         

celebrated  in the heroic songs of the  
,germans1 while political writers and   
historical critics commend alike his    
talents and his virtues4 ,his rule  was 
generous and noble2 he loved and        
honoured the arts and sciences  which   
his age still possessed1 and the last of
 ,roman writers1  ,cassiodorius and     
,boethius1 were the ornaments of his    
reign4 ,factions  which arose on the    
death of this great prince1 and a crime 
perpetrated  on the relics of his       
house1#d afforded the active ,emperor of
 the  ,east1 ,justinian1 an opportunity 
to re-establish the ,greek sway in      
,italy1 by means of his successful      
,general1 ,belisarius4 ,military        
commanders like ,belisarius1 and some   
worthier and more enterprizing  princes 
on the throne of ,byzantium1 as well as 
that systematic course  of policy ,i    
have before described1 maintained the   
,byzantine ,empire2  while ,rome itself 
was ruined1 and ,italy fell under the   
dominion of the  ,lombards1 who         

succeeded the ,goths1 and were succeeded
 in their turn by  the ,franks--under   
whom the ,roman ,empire of ,germany was 
re-established1  and ,rome became1 and  
continued1 united with that empire      
during the  middle ages1 though for the 
most part only in name4    ,this rapid  
but faithful sketch of the migration of 
the ,northern  nations seemed necessary 
to enable us to form a right opinion on 
this  subject4 ,for this period1 which  
laid the mighty foundation on which  the
 whole ,teutonico--,romanic structure of
 the institutions1 laws1  manners1      
languages1 opinions1 and even the       
peculiar imaginative  character of      
modern ,european nations1 has been      
raised1 has not always  been fully      
understood1 or justly appreciated by    
many writers1 either  led away by a     
partial enthusiasm for the antique1 or  
enthralled by  modern opinions and      
prejudices--writers who wish to trace in
 all parts  of creation1 and even in    
universal history1 the same dead        

uniformity  and monotony of plan4 ,it is
 by no means common to meet with an     
,historical inquirer1 possessing a      
flexibility of fancy1 a justness of     
feeling1 and a soundness and correctness
 of judgment1 capable of  transporting  
him into the remote ages of history1 and
 the mythic  antiquity of nations4 ,but 
in the present instance1 and throughout 
the  whole of this chaotic epoch1 when  
the old fictions of the ,titanic wars   
appear to be actually realized1 and when
 the marvellous of events and           
sentiments is to be found in the obscure
 and meagre chronicles of that  age1    
which often unite fragments of popular  
mythology and ,pagan  tradition1 with   
real historic incidents2 it is perhaps  
still more  difficult to form an        
accurate judgment1 and to discriminate  
between  the elements of truth and      
falsehood4 ,as we cannot figure to      
ourselves  such a state of anarchy1 we  
are unable to comprehend it4 ,we should 
bear in mind how often in nature the    

fairest bloom of vegetation1 and  the   
richest fullness of organic life1 spring
 out of a state of  confusion and chaos1
 when the elemental powers1 after a long
 strife  and conflict1 settle at last   
into a state of harmonious equipoise1   
unite and fructify1 and in some creative
 moment1 when the struggle of  labour is
 over1 give birth to new and more       
beautiful forms of  existence4 ,ancient 
,egypt was indebted for its fertility to
 the  periodic inundations of the ,nile1
 which1 had they not been provided      
against by mounds and dams1 would have  
occasioned the utmost  desolation4 ,nay1
 doth not this earth we inhabit1 and    
which nourishes  us1 with all that fair 
and blooming vegetation spread over its 
surface1 with all that boundless wealth 
and variety of animal life1  and with   
all the civility and refinement of man's
 existence1 whose  abode it constitutes2
 doth not this earth1 ,i say1 teeming as
 it doth  with fertility and life1 rest 
on the gigantic remains of a primitive  

world submerged by the old floods1 and  
which was often torn1 convulsed  and    
rent asunder by the eruptions of        
subterraneous fire8 ,well1 the          
migration of the ,northern nations      
brought about a sort of chaotic         
struggle between the various elements of
 society--it was a new ,ogygean         
inundation of nations in the historical 
ages--but it laid the fruitful          
soil--the historical foundation of a new
 moral and intellectual form  of life4  
,this vast flux and reflux of nations1  
rolling in incessant  waves from the    
,east to the ,west1 and from the ,north 
to the ,south1 and  back again to the   
,east and to the ,north1 this emission  
of immense  armies issuing in all       
directions from a common centre1 and    
returning  again to that centre from    
every side--all this vast movement must 
be  looked upon as a strife and         
contention between the elemental powers 
of  human society4 ,the first effect1   
indeed1 of such a strife of nature's    

elements let loose is to destroy1 or at 
least1 to impair all existing  organic  
forms2 and it must be confessed1 this   
wild and protracted  state of confusion 
and anarchy does not present the most   
pleasing and  auspicious aspect to the  
eye of the historical observer4 ,with   
respect  to the latter circumstance1 we 
must recollect that the extremely slow  
progress1 and often unexpected delays1  
in the advancement of human  society1   
correspond not always1 and indeed       
rarely1 to our wishes and  expectations2
 while1 on the other hand1 there are    
epochs in history1  when we are amazed  
by the sudden out-burst of the most     
extraordinary  events1 and when a great 
splendour of moral and intellectual life
  surprises us of a sudden1 like a      
bright morning in ,spring4 ,in other    
words1 there is a strong1 wise and      
,fatherly hand which guides and         
conducts the destinies of individuals1  
as well as the march of  society1 and   
the course of ages2 or as the           

,scripture1 with touching  simplicity1  
saith1 the ,father hath reserved times  
unto himself2 and  ,time in his march   
keepeth not pace with the rapidity of   
our desires1  nor moveth according to   
our views and hopes4 ,but whatever may  
be1 if ,i  may so speak1 the fearful    
tardiness1 wherewith the views of       
,providence  over the destinies of the  
human race are accomplished2--a         
tardiness1  whereof man has to bear the 
greatest blame2 or whatever may be1 if  
,i  may so say1 the long delays of      
divine justice--the procrastination of  
the period of grace2--it cannot be      
doubted that the general result of  the 
great ,northern migration was most      
salutary1 and that that mixture  of the 
,germanic tribes with the degenerate    
population of ,rome--that  alliance     
between the healthy1 vigorous1 and      
native intellectual energy  of ,germany1
 and the rapidly decaying civilization  
of ,rome1 were  productive of the       
mightiest and most beneficial           

consequences4 ,whoever  doubts the truth
 of this observation1 may cure his      
scepticism by  comparing the splendour1 
activity and variety in the political   
and  intellectual existence of the      
modern ,european states1 that have      
sprung  out of this union of the        
,germanic and ,romanic nations1 with the
 dull  monotony1 the thorough moral and 
intellectual stupor which prevailed  in 
the later ,byzantine ,empire4    ,but ,i
 have more than once observed that1     
independently of that  progressive power
 of reason1 inherent in all the forms   
and departments  of human activity2 and 
independently of the operations of      
,divine  ,providence1 which form that   
high mysterious chain of unity which    
links  together the different periods of
 man's social progress2  independently1 
,i say1 of all these1 there is a law of 
nature--a high1  and secret principle of
 nature1 presiding over the life and    
growth of  human society--which1 if kept
 in due subordination to the higher     

principle of ,providence1 will not be   
found incompatible with it4 ,the        
prevalence of this law of nature may be 
clearly traced in the history  of       
mankind1 and even in that of particular 
nations1 when their social  progress is 
not impeded or interrupted by violent or
 irregular causes4  ,and in following   
the current of events in ,history1 the  
historical  observer can accurately     
distinguish the different periods of    
national  developement--the first period
 of artless1 yet marvellous1            
childhood--the next of the first bloom  
and flush of youth--later1 the  maturer 
vigour and activity of manhood--and at  
last the symptoms of  approaching age1 a
 state of general decay1 and second     
childishness4  ,this energy of nature1  
which1 together with the other1 higher  
and  divine principle of human destiny1 
is inherent in mankind1 displays  itself
 even in the sphere of intellect1 and   
particularly in the  flourishing eras of
 art and science4 ,it is even still     

more1 or at  least quite as1 perceptible
 in those creative moments already      
described1 of a new1 though perhaps1 at 
first1 a chaotic epoch of  human        
society3 so far1 at least1 as those     
plastic1 eventful moments  are not the  
mere offspring and counterfeit          
production of revolutionary             
violence--but have issued from the very 
well-spring of nature4 ,when  the latter
 is the case1 it will be found that the 
whole tendency of  these periods of     
extraordinary ferment in society is     
conducive to the  extension of the      
divine principle1 and to the promotion  
of the views  of ,providence1 as was    
eminently the case in the era of the    
great  ,northern migrations2 an era1    
when a catastrophe1 at first the most   
appalling1 led to the further triumph of
 ,christianity1 which conferred  on     
those robust1 ,northern children of     
nature the high consecration of  an     
empire1 which thereby1 in its ulterior  
progress1 far outshone the  ,roman1 or  

any other old ,pagan domination4 ,but   
unquestionably the two  conflicting     
elements in that eventful period1 which 
contained the  first germs of all modern
 civilization--the free-born energy of  
,germanic nature1 and the ,romanic      
refinement1 science1 and language1  were
 happily blended and harmonized by the  
,christian religion only1  which on that
 account must be regarded as the        
all-connecting bond--the  one           
all-animating principle of social life  
in modern ages4 ,but without  that new  
element of vital power furnished by the 
,northern emigrations1  ,christianity   
alone would not have regenerated the    
degraded people of  ,rome1 nor have     
restored its intellectual energy1 then  
sunk to too low  a state of debasement4 
,above all1 the primitive1 innate1 and  
deeply  rooted corruption of the ,roman 
government was beyond the power of      
remedy1 and could only be removed by    
time4    ,the evils of the age were     
indeed1 universal2 for1 even in the     

bosom of  ,christianity1 discord had    
broken out2 and where even faith was    
preserved in its purity1 there1 to use  
the expression of ,holy ,writ1  much of 
first love was gone4 ,but for this1 the 
influence of  ,christianity on the      
,roman empire1 and the ,roman world1    
would have been  far more extensive2 and
 a miraculous cure would have been      
wrought on  the moral distempers of     
society1 as on the physical diseases of 
individuals4 ,and as holy hermits were  
often able to command the  elements of  
nature and the savage beasts of the     
desert2 so a divine  power1 by its mild1
 conciliating1 prompt and effective     
influence would  in the first moment    
have allayed the wild jar and strife of 
the  social elements4 ,but these effects
 were accomplished only by slow         
degrees1 by the soothing influence of   
time1 and by the gradual  infusion of   
the spirit of ,christianity into the    
human mind4    ,the progressive         
corruption and ever growing disorders of

 the ,roman  world were productive of   
consequences in some degree important to
  ,christianity1 particularly in        
relation to after-ages4 ,to forsake and 
renounce that world of cruelty and vice1
 that kingdom of  dissimulation1 that   
age of confusion and barbarism1 and to  
seek by  preference an abode and asylum 
in the wilderness1 in the neighbourhood 
of lions and other savage animals of the
 desert1 required no  extraordinary     
impulse of ,christian feeling1 and      
scarcely more than a  high effort of    
human courage4 ,and thus in that        
convulsed period of the  ,roman ,empire1
 and under the accurst domination of its
 last tyrants1  ,christian anchorets    
peopled the solitudes of                
,thebais1--those solitudes  where the   
old pyramids and other monuments of hoar
 antiquity still  speak in mute signs to
 the traveller1 their grave and earnest 
language4 ,self-contemplation did not   
shut up these ,christian  anchorites    
within a narrow and egotistical sphere  

of thought1 as is  the case with the    
,indian recluse1 who1 to outward        
appearance1 leads  the same mode of     
life4 ,as the primitive ,christians     
evinced the power  of faith and charity 
by deeds and in sufferings1 in words and
 in works  of manifold kinds2 so prayer 
was to these solitaries the inward porch
  of a new and invisible world--a real  
business of life1 and a bond of  the    
closest and tenderest connection1       
whereby1 though separated from  the     
world1 they remained1 even at the       
remotest distance1 intimately  united   
with all who1 like themselves1 were     
firmly united to ,god4    ,thus it was  
that the ,primitive ,christians         
displayed the power of  divine ,hope1   
and ardent ,charity1 not only in their  
heroic constancy  under assaults1       
persecutions1 sufferings and torments of
 all1 even the  most exquisite1 kinds2  
but in their renunciation of society and
 of all  earthly enjoyments1 in their   
contempt and abandonment of a world1    

which seemed in truth eternally         
distracted and irretrievably undone4    
,in the eremitical life1 a simple       
handicraft was ordinarily coupled  with 
the duty of spiritual contemplation4    
,these first ,christian  ,anchorites of 
,egypt were the original and model of   
all later monastic  institutes2         
although1 conformably to the living and 
quite practical  spirit of              
,christianity1 these institutes have    
generally admitted into  their rules    
other useful and salutary exercises     
adapted either to the  general          
circumstances of the age1 or to the     
wants of individuals--such  as the      
education of youth--the cultivation of  
the sciences--the relief  of the        
poor--the care of the infirm--and the   
practice of other works  of charity4    
,the ,anchorites1 who lead a purely     
contemplative life1  constitute a       
comparatively small and rare exception  
in the ,christian  church2 and they are 
tolerated only because the ways of human

 nature  are so infinitely diversified1 
and often so strange and so singular4   
,to resist their internal foes1 to      
withstand the assaults of the           
fiend--the spirit of discord and        
corruption1 and to preserve inviolate   
the purity of morals1 as well as of     
faith1 the ,primitive ,christians as    
much needed the divine assistance1 as to
 enable them to endure  outwardly the   
torments of martyrdom1 or to renounce in
 holy solitude  the pleasures of the    
world4 ,in this respect three different 
kinds of  heresy1 which were so many    
trials the ,christian religion had to   
sustain1 are well worthy of our         
attention4 ,from the very birth of      
,christianity1 the ,gnostics gave loose 
to the ardour of an ,oriental  fancy1   
indulged in a variety of ,theosophistic 
speculations1 and with  their systems of
 ,divine ,emanations1 ,eradiations1     
,incarnations1 and  ,persons1 formed an 
almost mythological concatenation of    
ideas2 so that  had it been possible for

 this sect to become predominant1 and   
for  ,christianity to swerve into such a
 labyrinth of doctrines1 our divine     
religion would have degenerated into a  
system of metaphysical  fictions1 not   
unlike the philosophic mythology and    
poetical creed of  ,india4 ,happily     
these sects of ,gnostics were not       
numerous1 nor in  general of long       
duration2 and they were extremely       
divided among  themselves2 for a truly  
inventive fancy ever strikes out a path 
of  enquiry for itself4 ,but1 when      
considered in an intellectual point of  
view1 these sectaries1 amid all their   
strange and whimsical errors1  must ever
 command the attention of mankind4 ,it  
would seem from all  appearance1 7and   
indeed the nature of things would       
sufficiently  warrant the inference7    
that many of these sects combined with  
their  own peculiar notions1 the        
opinions of other oriental sects1       
totally  alien from ,christianity4 ,as  
the march of error is infinitely        

progressive1 and as1 from its very      
nature1 false opinion is sure to  branch
 out into a variety of ramifications1 it
 is often difficult to  determine with  
exactness whether some of these ,gnostic
 sects1 that  spread through ,central   
,asia1 and were lost in a multitude of  
others1  were or not of a ,christian    
origin4 ,of all the sects belonging to  
the  ,gnostic family1 the ,manichans    
alone appear to have had a longer       
existence2 and during the middle ages1  
they secretly germinated in  ,europe4   
,the second corruption of ,christianity 
was from ,arianism1 which  corresponds  
to what in modern times is termed       
,rationalism2 though the  former        
appeared in another and more ,christian 
form4 ,that the dispute  with ,arianism 
was no mere verbal dispute--that it     
involved a capital  article of faith--a 
question of life or death for           
,christianity--a  question whether the  
real ,foundation--the essential         
,corner-stone--and  ,beginning of our   

faith were really1 truly1 and in very   
deed divine1  and from ,god1 and equal  
with ,god1 or merely in a certain sense 
like to  ,god--7an opinion which the    
,platonic1 or any other system of       
philosophy might have included among its
 tenets7--that the dispute  with        
,arianism was no mere verbal dispute1   
must be evident to every  upright1      
ingenuous1 and unprejudiced mind4 ,no   
sect has ever been so  widely diffused1 
nor has ever taken such deep root2 and1 
by the arts  and evasions of a          
prodigious subitlty it maintained its   
principles  under the mask of apparent  
submission4 ,it was now that for the    
first  time1 the importance and power of
 a general council became apparent1  in 
order to oppose to the many-shaped1     
subtle1 and intangible spirit  of error1
 a brief1 but clear1 and definite       
formulary of that faith  which animated 
the bosom1 and was rooted in the        
conviction1 of every  ,christian4 ,this 
destructive rationalism of the early    

ages of  ,christianity was at last      
repressed1 and became finally extinct2  
though  the last ramifications of this  
sect have continued down to our times   
among the ,eutychians of ,armenia1 and  
the ,nestorians of ,ethiopia4    ,how   
much the unhappy disputes of ,arianism  
contributed in this period  of general  
decline1 towards the downfal of the     
,roman ,empire1 ,i have  already had    
occasion to notice4 ,but that passion   
for dispute1 which1  if not innate in   
man1 has at least become his second     
nature1 and is1  as it were1 the        
original sin of human intellect1        
displays itself in a  more striking     
degree in certain sects1 that did not   
question any  article of faith1 but     
merely some subordinate matters of      
opinion1 or  the rights of              
ecclesiastical authority1 and who       
conducted their  disputes with the most 
unyielding obstinacy--such a passion1 ,i
 say1  displays itself more strikingly  
in these sects than in others1 that     

called in question points of faith1 and 
who1 so far as they were  conscientious 
in their errors1 appear entitled to our 
respect and  forbearance4 ,among the    
former class of disputants1 must be     
ranked some  of the smaller1 less       
diffused1 and obscurer sects of the     
first ages of  the church1 like the     
,montanists and ,donatists2--sects1     
whose influence  was on that account by 
no means unimportant1 and who occupy no 
insignificant place in the history of   
their times2 for their errors           
constitute the third form of deviation  
from universal ,christianity4 ,in  the  
same category must we place the great   
schism of a later period1  which severed
 the ,greek from the ,western church2   
for this unhappy  separation1 as is well
 known1 had no relation to any important
 dogma  of ,christianity4    ,as the    
general councils of that period prove   
the self-preserving and  self-sustaining
 power of ,christianity1 so the energy  
of ,christian  faith and ,christian     

intellect displays its life1 activity   
and  scientific progress in the         
numberless and manifold productions of  
those first doctors of the church1 so   
highly revered by all succeeding  ages4 
,the style and language of these works  
must be estimated by the  standard of   
their age2 and it would be absurd to    
expect them to  possess1 in a like      
degree1 the attic simplicity of a       
,xenophon1 or the  full and elaborate   
periods of a ,livy4 ,but with this      
single exception1  these writings       
display the most varied talents for     
oratory and  philosophy1 united with    
extensive learning1 the purest feelings 
of  religious love1 and the most correct
 views in religion4 ,and1 to cite  but  
one or two examples out of the multitude
 of ecclesiastical  writers1 ,st4       
,augustine1 by the extent of his        
historical information1  by a philosophy
 zealous in its enquiries after truth1  
but still  irresolute1 presents the     
image of a ,christian ,cicero1 in a     

language  somewhat altered indeed1 but  
distinguished for a similar employment  
of  rhetoric4 ,nor was this great man   
destitute of political discernment  and 
penetration2 and he certainly possessed 
a much more decided talent  for         
speculative enquiry1 than the old ,roman
 who flourished in the last  age of the 
,republic4 ,there was next that learned 
and holy recluse1 ,st4  ,jerome1 who was
 as well versed in classical literature 
as in the  oriental languages1 and who  
was gifted with a depth of critical     
discernment1 and an original power of   
thought and expression1 equalled  by    
very few orators and thinkers in any    
age4    ,the dread of a false ,gnosis   
was at that period1 as often in         
subsequent  ages1 an obstacle to the    
progress of a profound ,christian       
philosophy4  ,the leaning of the great  
ecclesiastical writer1 ,origen1         
particularly  in his youth1 to some     
opinions of the ,gnostics1 excited long 
after his  death many doubts and        

controversies respecting some points of 
his  belief1 and tended at least to     
impair the reverence with which his     
philosophical genius was otherwise      
regarded4 ,this was particularly the    
case when the ,arians made use of some  
doubtful opinions of this great  man for
 the support of their system2 as indeed 
it often happens that  an elevated      
system of philosophy if not completed in
 its parts1 or at  least that the       
individual errors it may contain are    
seized upon by the  dull1 innovating    
spirit of a superficial1 and            
half-doubting faith1 and  debased to a  
quite alien and inferior sphere of      
speculation4    ,there is also another  
error1 or rather illusion1 which        
deserves to be  noticed1 as it is a     
characteristic incident in the history  
of those  early ages of the church2 for 
it was no regular system of error1 nor  
did its partisans constitute a sect2 but
 it was merely the exaggerated  opinion 
of some individuals in the bosom of the 

church1 who were  animated by no        
intentions hostile to ,christianity4 ,i 
allude to the 7so  called7 ,millenarian 
doctrine1 which1 as it refers to the    
future  historical destiny of           
,christianity1 possesses a high         
historical  interest4 ,though the       
,prophet of the ,new ,testament marked  
out the  period of a thousand years for 
the duration of the triumph of the      
church1 he expressly intimated thereby  
that that period could not be           
discovered nor determined by human      
penetration1 for1 as the scripture      
saith1 a thousand years are as one day  
with the ,lord1 and one day as  a       
thousand years2 and though the inspired 
writer expressly added1  that as the    
great combat1 which man is doomed to on 
the earth and in  earthly life1 can     
never be completely terminated1 a last  
combat  awaited humanity at the close of
 those thousand years2 many virtuous    
and praiseworthy men were still found1  
who depicted this kingdom of a  thousand

 years in the most sensual colours of   
earthly felicity1 and  thus destroyed   
all faith in that prophetic warning1 so 
necessary for  man and for all ages--all
 belief in the ideal conception of the  
kingdom of divine truth3 or1 with       
reckless precipitancy equally           
misapplied the words of the prophet1 and
 7as has often been the case  in        
succeeding times7 very unseasonably     
alarmed themselves and others2  though  
that long series of ages marked out by  
the ,apostle for the  progress of       
,christianity might have opened their   
eyes1 and taught them  differently4 ,but
 the principal cause which opposed1 and 
must ever  oppose an insurmountable     
difficulty to the ,millenarian system of
 that  and of all succeeding ages1 is   
the limit assigned to the judgment of   
,christians in all that relates to the  
inscrutable decrees of ,divine          
,providence2 whether those decrees      
regard individuals or mankind in        
general4 ,surely nothing could be       

conceived more disquieting1 more  fatal 
to human life1 than for every individual
 to know beforehand with  the utmost    
certainty from his birth the day and    
hour of his death2 and  no greater      
calamity could happen to any man than a 
revelation of such  a kind4 ,the same   
remark is equally applicable to the     
world in general1  where such           
fore-knowledge would only produce the   
utmost disorder and  confusion4 ,as in  
the case of a sick man reduced to       
imminent danger  from the increasing    
symptoms of dissolution2 though no man1 
not even  the physician1 can positively 
know and determine with certainty the   
course of events1 which is known to ,god
 alone1 still every friend  would wish  
that the patient should examine his     
interior1 unite his  thoughts to ,god1  
and set his house in order2 so cases may
 be imagined1  when this comparison     
would apply to mankind at large4        
,thus then on the ,roman soil1 and amid 
that world once so brilliant1           

,christianity had grown up1 like a      
tender1 luminous plant1 whose seed  had 
come down from ,heaven4 ,for the further
 expansion of that heavenly  seed1 for  
the formation of the ,christian state1  
and the political  organization of      
,christian nations1 we must allow that  
the all-wise and  powerful ,hand1 which 
guides the destinies of men and of      
nations1 the  march of ages1 and the    
course of events1 found it necessary to 
employ  at first very violent1 and 7if  
we may borrow a term of the medical     
art7 almost heroic remedies4 ,the cause 
of this undoubtedly must be  sought for 
in the fact1 that although many great   
and holy men are to  be found in the    
first ages of the church1 mankind on the
 whole had  very imperfectly            
corresponded to that mighty and divine  
impulse which  ,christianity had        
imparted to the world2 and had very soon
 and very  quickly fallen into the most 
fearful disputes4 ,scarce had that      
inundation of the ,northern nations     

burst in upon the blooming garden  of   
the ,christian ,west1 7and beneficial to
 mankind as have been the  remote       
consequences and final results of that  
revolution1 and  defensible therefore as
 it may be in a historical ,theodicea1  
still we  cannot deny that its immediate
 effects were most terrible and         
destructive27--scarce1 we say1 had this 
inundation of the ,northern  nations    
occurred1 when1 in the opposite quarter 
of the ,east1 there  broke out among the
 nations of ,asia1 that mighty ,arabian 
conflagration1 whose flames were        
scattered over the terrified globe1  by 
the sons of the desert1 guided by their 
new prophet of unbelief1  and animated  
themselves with all the enthusiasm of   
destruction4    ,i am at a loss to      
conceive how some could have regarded it
 as a  peculiar merit of this religion  
of empty arrogance and senseless  pride1
 that it maintains and inculcates with  
purity a belief in one  ,almighty       
,deity4 ,this1 as the ,scripture says1  

the demons themselves1 in  their realms 
of eternal darkness1 believe1 without   
being on that  account at all the       
better2 and it is only a profound       
ignorance of the  world and himself that
 could ever make man forget and         
obliterate from  his bosom that first   
foundation of all faith4 ,all the       
elements of  salvation1 reconciliation1 
mercy1 love1 and happiness for mankind1 
to  be found in eternal truth1 and a    
belief in that truth1 all these are     
wanting in the religion of ,mahomet4    
,there is not a more decided  contrast  
than that presented by the silent       
progress of the new and  divine light of
 truth in the primitive church1 amid    
oppression and  persecution1 in meek    
submission to every existing law1 and1  
except in  matters of faith1 in a       
patient1 unwearied1 and cheerful        
submission to  the hostile1 but still   
legitimate1 powers of the earth2 and1 on
 the  other hand1 that fanatic thirst of
 conquest inspired by ,mahomet--that    

express precept to propagate by fire and
 sword throughout the four  quarters of 
the globe the new ,unitarian faith of   
,arabia4 ,if  some writers instead of   
studying the history of modern ,europe1 
in  order to deduce from their          
researches new matter and occasion for  
reviving the old contests about the     
respective rights and limits of  the    
secular and ecclesiastical powers1 would
 only examine with  attention the       
history of the ancient ,caliphate1 they 
would soon  satisfy themselves of the   
fearful character of that ,institution1 
of  the infernal spirit that produced   
that anti-,christian combination of     
spiritual and temporal authority1 and of
 the horrible state of moral            
degradation to which it has reduced     
mankind in every country where it  has  
prevailed4    ,it was with the rapidity 
of a destructive fire that this mighty  
mischief spread over the countries of   
,asia1 and a large portion of  ,africa1 
till it soon menaced the ,southern      

extremities of ,europe4 ,when  ,mahomet 
died1 he was master of ,arabia1 a       
country that from the  earliest         
antiquity had remained in a state of    
absolute seclusion from  the rest of the
 world2 and consequently if this great  
revolution had  remained confined within
 the limits of this region1 the religion
 of  ,mahomet would never have exerted  
so mighty an historical influence on    
other nations and kingdoms4 ,but only a 
few score years from his  decease1 and  
under his immediate successors1 the     
whole ,western ,asia  between the       
,tigris and ,euphrates1 as far as the   
,mediterranean1 ,syria1  and ,palestine1
 down to ,mount ,taurus and the         
frontiers of ,asia ,minor1  and soon    
again the whole ,northern coast of      
,africa1 down to the  opposite shores of
 ,spain1 were subdued by the disciples  
of the ,koran2  while at the same moment
 the ,roman ,west and the ,empire of    
,persia were  menaced by the arms of    
these formidable invaders4 ,it was a    

general  principle with the ,mahometan  
conquerors to extirpate all recollection
  of antiquity in the countries which   
they subdued1 to give them an  entirely 
new form and aspect--or1 in other words1
 to destroy and  obliterate every       
vestige of the higher and better        
civilization that  had adorned those    
once flourishing regions4         #d    
,schlegel alludes to the murder of      
,amalasontha1       daughter of         
,theodoric1 and to the usurpation of    
,theodatus4--,trans4                    
,,end ,,of ,,lecture ,,xi4              
,,lecture ,,xii4        ,sketch of      
,mahomet and his                        
religion4--,establishment of the        
,saracenic ,empire4--,new organization  
of the ,european ,west1 and             
,restoration of the ,christian ,empire4 
,from the earliest period1 the pastoral 
tribes of ,arabia have lived  under     
their ,emirs1 in all the wild           
independence of ,nomade nations2  they  
were not however without cities1 as     

these were created and  rendered        
necessary by the trade of the caravan1  
which in its journies  through the      
wilderness1 and in its passage from one 
inhabited province  to another1 required
 these points of rest4 ,a few of the    
frontier-districts and maritime coasts  
were indeed possessed by some  of the   
more ancient ,egyptian ,pharaohs2 but   
the entire country was  never subdued or
 conquered either by the ,assyrians1 the
 ,persians1 or  the ,macedonian         
conquerors4 ,nor were the ,romans more  
successful2 and it  was only in the     
reign of ,trajan1 the last of ,roman    
emperors1 who  meditated schemes of     
conquest1 that a small frontier tract of
 ,arabia  ,petra was taken possession   
of1 and annexed to1 the ,roman ,empire4 
,immediately on the death of ,trajan1   
the ,roman government recurred to  the  
pacific policy of ,augustus1 who had    
considered it dangerous to  enlarge the 
empire by any new conquests3 and in     
consequence1 this  province of ,arabia  

was abandoned by the ,romans1 and left  
to the  enjoyment of its ancient        
freedom4    ,this long-established      
liberty and total independence on all   
foreign  conquerors and rulers has not a
 little contributed to exalt among the  
,arabs a strong self-consciousness4     
,their origin1 which is very nearly     
akin to that of the ,hebrews1 they      
deduce as descendants of ,yoktan  from  
,heber1 who was an ancestor of ,abraham1
 or from ,ishmael1 the son  of ,abraham1
 that was born in the desert4 ,among    
these free and warlike  pastoral        
nations1 the feelings of clanship1 the  
pride of noble  descent1 and the glory  
of an ancient and renowned race1 and    
again the  mutual hostility of tribes   
transmitted from one generation to      
another1  the never-to-be-cancelled debt
 of blood1 form the ruling and animating
  principle1 nay1 the almost exclusive  
purport of existence4 ,this             
tribe-spirit of the ,arabians has had a 
mighty influence on the  origin and     

first developement of the ,mahometan    
religion1 and has  stamped on it a      
peculiar character4 ,and among the      
,nomade nations in a  similar stage of  
social advancement1 and who combine the 
freedom of  the pastoral life with the  
commerce of caravans1 and are not total 
strangers to the refinement of cities1  
the faith of ,mahomet has not  only     
obtained the easiest access1 but has    
struck the deepest roots1  and finds1 as
 it were1 its most natural disciples4   
,for the ,tartar  nations in the        
interior parts of ,asia1 and the tribes 
of ,berbers1 who  are the original      
inhabitants of the ,north of ,africa1   
lead the same  mode of life1 though they
 cannot boast of the ancient origin and 
high  descent ascribed to the ,arabs4   
,compared with ,roman degeneracy1 with  
the corruption of the ,byzantine court1 
with ,assyrian effeminacy1 and  the     
immorality of the great ,asiatic cities1
 this tribe-character of  the ,arabians1
 as preserved in its purity during their

 ancient freedom1  appears undoubtedly  
to be of a less corrupt1 more moral and 
more  generous nature4 ,doubtless the   
,arabs possessed in the first ages of   
their history1 a great moral energy of  
will and strength of character1  and1   
even in the period of their decline1    
these qualities are still  perceptible4 
,on the other hand in this              
tribe-character1 and in  those feelings 
of clanship1 which determine all the    
social relations  among that people2    
pride1 party-animosities1 and the spirit
 of  revenge1 are the ruling elements of
 life1 and the passions to which  all   
things are made subservient1 or are     
sacrificed4 ,the moral  corruption of   
the human race1 the profound disorder of
 man's whole  being1 is proved as well  
by the constant proneness of civilized  
nations towards a soft voluptuousness of
 morals1 or by the innate  disposition  
of politer classes and ages to a spirit 
of speculative  contention1 as by the   
rude pride and animosities of tribes1   

which  considered in a natural point of 
view1 appear to be purer and less       
corrupt in their morals1 or to possess  
greater strength and generosity  of     
character4 ,those tribe-feelings and    
passions of pride and hatred1  anger and
 revenge1 so prevalent among the        
,arabians1 are displayed in  their      
ancient poetry1 and even constitute its 
essential spirit and  purport2 for      
except those parables1 riddles1 and     
proverbial sayings in  which the        
,orientals so much delight1 this poetry 
has no mythological  fictions1 like that
 of the ,indians and the ,greeks1 nor   
with the  exception of a certain        
enthusiasm of passion1 does it evince   
any truly  fertile and inventive power  
of imagination4    ,the old ,arabians   
never possessed1 like the ,indians1     
,egyptians1 and  ,greeks1 a poetical1   
high-wrought1 and scientifically        
arranged system  of ,polytheism4 ,the   
historical traditions of their different
 races had  much analogy with those of  

the ,hebrews1 and coincided with them in
 a  variety of points2 for as they were 
of the ,semitic race1 they deduced      
their origin from ,abraham and the other
 holy ,patriarchs of the  primitive     
world4 ,hence the tradition of a purer  
faith1 and the simple1  patriarchal     
worship of the ,deity1 appear to have   
never been totally  extinguished among  
the ,arabs2 though indeed the veracious 
,herodotus  asserts1 that they adored   
the ,assyrian ,venus under the name of  
,alilath4 ,but such a mixture of        
religious doctrines and practices is by 
no means incredible1 when we reflect on 
those periods in the history  of the    
,hebrews1 when though that people were  
in possession of the  ,mosaic revelation
 and code of laws1 and though their     
whole arrangment  of life were founded  
thereon2 though mighty and zealous      
prophets  perpetually arose to warn them
 of their errors2 they still went after 
,baal1 and still sacrificed their       
children to ,moloch4 ,in the age of     

,mahomet1 and shortly before his time1  
various kinds of idolatry had  found    
their way among the ,arabs from the     
neighbouring nations1 who if  not now1  
had formerly been plunged in the errors 
of ,paganism4 ,at the  same time several
 ,jewish tribes existed in ,arabia1 and 
even some  ,christian communities1      
belonging mostly to the ,oriental sects1
 mingled  with the rest of the          
population4 ,the neighbouring ,christian
 monarch1  or ,negus of thiopia1 also   
exerted considerable influence on the   
different tribes and communities of     
,arabia4    ,mahomet felt the most      
decided aversion to all ,pagan idolatry1
 and even  to all veneration of images2 
and it is very possible1 according to   
the  opinion of a great historian1 who  
on the whole does not judge the         
,arabian prophet unfavourably1 that the 
expectation which the ,jews  still      
entertained of the future coming of a   
,deliverer and ,prophet1  should have   
operated very powerfully on the mind and

 imagination of  ,mahomet4 ,in the same 
way as the ,jews1 then incomparably more
 active  than afterwards1 still expected
 ,him who had long since come2 so       
certain ,christian sects1 totally       
misunderstanding the ,scriptures1  which
 they interpreted according to their own
 arbitrary sense1  believed that the    
,holy ,ghost and the divine ,paraclete  
whom the ,saviour  had promised1 was yet
 to come2 although the ,saviour had     
promised that  the ,holy ,spirit should 
come down upon his disciples1 immediatly
 after  his ascension1 and had added1   
that the same spirit should for ever    
abide with them4 ,now every one who     
professed himself a ,christian1 knew    
very well from the ,holy ,scriptures1   
that a supernatural light had  descended
 on the ,apostles in the first assembly 
they held1 and  when1 as they thought1  
their ,lord and ,master had abandoned   
them2 and  that this light had          
transformed the disciples1 till then    
weak1  wavering1 and trembling before   

the world1 into apostolic men filled    
with the spirit of ,god1 into prophets  
of eternal truth and divine  love1      
humble1 but energetic1 and no less      
heroic than enlightened4 ,that          
,assister and ,comforter1 or that       
guiding ,paraclete promised by ,god to  
his disciples1 which in the ,apostles   
had proved itself a spirit of           
knowledge1 of illumination1 and of      
insight into the mysteries of  faith--in
 the martyrs1 a spirit of divine power  
and of heroic  constancy under          
sufferings1 was now in the great doctors
 of the  church1 and in the general     
councils the guiding spirit of wisdom1  
rightly discerning and steadfastly      
adhering to the truths of  revelation4  
,but this truth did not prevent many    
leaders of those sects  from regarding  
themselves in their own conceit as the  
,comforter and  the ,paraclete promised 
by ,god for the consolation of          
succeeding ages1  or even from          
permitting themselves to be so          

considered by their own  disciples4 ,the
 supposition of the great historian just
 now cited1 that  these ,judo-,christian
 expectations of the future coming of an
 earthly  ,deliverer1 ,redeemer and     
,teacher1 or ,prophet of the world1 may 
have  exerted no inconsiderable         
influence on the mind of ,mahomet1 and  
may  have awakened similar conceptions  
and imaginations in his own head1 is    
confirmed by the fact1 that the ,koran  
itself contains no very obscure         
allusions and references to the notion  
of the ,paraclete1 and to a             
supernatural and divine power and force 
under the very denomination  used among 
the later ,hebrews1 and according to the
 very word  sanctioned for that peculiar
 object4    ,in the time of ,mahomet1   
and shortly before him1 the ,caaba at   
,mecca  constituted the great sanctuary 
of ,arabian worship4 ,this1 if we may so
  designate it1 was a simple chapel of  
,pagan pilgrimage1 which contained  the 
black stone1 the object of the religious

 devotion of the ,arabs  from a very    
ancient period4 ,the idolatrous worship 
of such shapeless  or conical blocks of 
stone was by no means unknown to the    
wayward  genius of ancient ,polytheism4 
,we meet with a similar form of idolatry
  in the mythology of the ,greeks1      
though set off and embellished by the   
peculiar fancy of that people2 and      
instances of a like kind were to be     
found in the worship which the          
neighbouring people of ,syria paid to   
,belus or ,baal4 ,those stones which are
 frequently mentioned by ancient        
historians as having fallen from        
,heaven1 may probably have given rise   
to this peculiar species of idolatry2   
and the fact itself 7as now  indeed is  
often the case with the general         
traditions of antiquity7 is  sufficently
 proved by the existence of those       
well-known meteor-stones1  whose origin1
 though they have undergone chemical    
analysis1 and  mineralogical            
investigation1 still remains1 even in   

the present  advanced state of modern   
science1 a problem of no small          
difficulty4    ,the ,arabian tribe from 
which ,mahomet was sprung1 had long been
  intrusted with the care and custody of
 the ,caaba and the black stone1  and   
placed its highest glory in this its    
allotted dignity4 ,according  to the    
,arabian tradition1 ,abraham had first  
erected the ,caaba1 and the  ,amalecites
 had afterwards repaired it4 ,when the  
tribe of ,koreish1 who  were invested   
with this high charge1 had to rebuild   
this temple2 they  were at a loss to    
know how the sacred black stone should  
be fixed in  the walls1 and what hand   
should touch the consecrated piece1 when
  quite unexpectedly1 this honour fell  
to the lot of ,mahomet1 then a          
stripling of fifteen4 ,for this reason  
we may well suppose that this  ancient  
seat of ,arabian worship--the           
,caaba--produced one of those  youthful 
impressions that determined the future  
destiny of this  extraordinary man4     

,even in the religious system which he  
afterwards  founded1 this ancient       
sanctuary with its magical stone1 has   
remained  in every age a high object of 
veneration2 and it is only in our times 
that the temple of ,mecca has been      
exposed to the rage of the  ,wechabites1
 who though their religious fury has    
taken an  opposite course1 exhibit the  
old ,arabian character in all its       
fanatical violence4 ,but this old black 
stone-idol is a very remarkable  feature
 in the history of ,mahomet and of his  
religion4 ,in the holy  temple of the   
,caaba were kept and suspended the seven
 most remarkable  poems which had won   
the prize over the other tribe-songs of 
the  ,arabs1--a species of poetry       
peculiar to this people1 and breathing  
all  the enthusiasm of pride and hatred4
 ,in these compositions1 ,mahomet  held 
a very distinguished rank1 and long     
before he announced himself  as a       
prophet1 his poetry1 which far outshone 
that of his competitors1  had raised him

 to a high degree of honour and         
consideration4 ,it was  only in the     
fortieth or forty-second year of his    
age1 and after a long  and solitary     
abode in a cavern during what the       
,mahometans term1 the  night of divine  
decrees1 that ,mahomet formed the first 
determination1  and thought he felt the 
first inward calling to the mission of a
  prophet4 ,the first person that       
believed in this mission1 and           
acknowledged him for a prophet1 was his 
own wife ,cadijah1 who1 though  a rich  
widow1 had bestowed her hand on         
,mahomet1 when his sole  patrimony      
consisted of five camels and an         
,ethiopian maid-servant1 and  had thus  
raised him to a station of wealth and   
independence4 ,it is  worthy of notice1 
that it is only in the epileptic fits to
 which he  was subject1 that he is      
represented as having mysterious        
colloquies  with the angel ,gabriel4    
,others represent him as a lunatic2 and 
in  connection with this charge ,i may  

mention the story1 that he wished to    
pass with his disciples as a person     
transfigured in a supernatural  light1  
and that the credulity of his followers 
saw the moon1 or the  moon's light      
descend upon him1 pierce his garments1  
and replenish him4  ,that veneration for
 the moon1 which still forms a national 
or rather  religious characteristic of  
the ,mahometans1 may perhaps have its   
foundation in the elder superstition1 or
 ,pagan idolatry of the ,arabs4         
,modern historians have often complained
 of the difficulty of  ascertaining the 
precise truth in the history of         
,mahomet1 from the  severity of his     
opponents on the one hand1 and the      
enthusiastic  admiration of his ,eastern
 partisans1 on the other4 ,if we think  
proper  to follow those writers only1   
who by their acquaintaince with the     
language have copied from ,arabic       
authorities1 we shall find that their   
narratives are much distorted by        
fanaticism1 and rendered almost         

unintelligible by an absurd             
exaggeration4 ,independently of the     
evident  traces in this religion of a   
demoniacal influence and operation2     
undoubted historical facts will furnish 
us with sufficient data for  forming a  
clear and definitive opinion on the     
character of ,mahomet and  the nature of
 his religion4 ,although the ,arabs of  
that age1 like other  nations of that   
time1 and the ancient ,hebrews1         
universally thought  that supernatural  
works were to be expected from a        
prophet2 and that  the high power of    
miracles was necessary to prove a divine
 mission2  yet ,mahomet found it more   
fitting or convenient to declare1 that  
he  could dispense with the aid of      
miracles1 as he came not to found a new 
religion1 but to restore the purity of  
the old--the faith of ,abraham1  and the
 other ,patriarchs4 ,even though we had 
not such clear and  positive historical 
proofs and testimonies1 respecting the  
nature of  that presentient faith of    

,abraham1 and the other ,patriarchs of  
the ,old  ,testament--a faith which     
pointed to all the mysteries of         
futurity--still to suppose that the     
religion of those pious ,fathers of     
hoar antiquity1 were nothing more than  
that system of 7so called7  pure1 but in
 reality shallow1 and meaningless1      
,theism1 which the  pretended ,arabian  
,reformer has announced to the world1   
would be little  consonant with         
probability1 and little conformable to  
the nature and  march of the human mind4
 ,considered in its true internal       
spirit1 and  divested of its outward    
garb of oriental customs and symbolical 
language1 the religion of ,mahomet on a 
closer investigation will be  found     
rather to bear a stronger affinity to   
the inane and superficial  philosophy of
 the eighteenth century2 and if that    
philosophy were  honest and consistent1 
it would not hesitate loudly to proclaim
 and  openly to revere ,mahomet1 if not 
as a prophet1 still as a real  ,reformer

 of mankind1 the first promulgator and  
mighty teacher of  truth1 and the       
founder of the pure religion of reason4 
,such a dead empty ,theism1 such a mere 
negative ,unitarian faith1 is  little   
adapted for the true purposes of a      
religion1 though it may form  the basis 
of some scholastic system of            
,rationalist ,theology4 ,regarded  as a 
religious system1 the creed of ,mahomet 
is neither old nor new2  but is in part 
perfectly void and meaningless1 and in  
part composed of  very mixed materials4 
,the part in it which is new1 is that   
fanatic  spirit of conquest it has      
inculcated and diffused through the     
world2  and that part in it which is    
old1 is copied from the ,hebrew         
traditions  and the ,christian          
revelation1 or contains allusions to the
 one or to  the other1 including some   
old ,arabian customs and usages which   
this  religion has still retained4      
,in the first infancy of the ,mahometan 
faith1 and during the first  disputes   

and wars which occurred about that      
religion1 a number of  ,mahomet's       
followers were obliged to seek refuge in
 thiopia1 when the  ,christian monarch  
of that country asked them whether they 
were  ,christians4 ,they cited in reply 
several passages from the sayings and   
poems of their prophet1 relating to the 
,saviour1 to his birth1 and to  the     
,virgin ,mary4 ,in these the ,prophet   
spoke of the birth and origin  of our   
,saviour1 as of a ,gnostic eradiation or
 emanation of divine  power2 and though 
such language was by no means consonant 
with the  ,christian doctrine of the    
divinity of ,christ1 yet it was         
calculated to  produce on the minds of  
some of the ,eastern sectaries a very   
false and  deceitful impression4        
,favourable to ,christianity as some of 
these  expressions might at first sight 
appear to the ignorant2 there was  much 
again that betrayed a spirit of the most
 decided hostility  towards the         
,christian religion4 ,even the          

prohibition of wine was  perhaps not so 
much intended for a moral precept1      
which1 considered in  that point of     
view1 would be far too severe1 as for   
answering a  religious design of the    
founder2 for he might hope that the     
express  condemnation of a liquid which 
forms an essential element of the       
,christian sacrifice1 would necessarily 
recoil on that sacrifice  itself1 and   
thus raise an insuperable barrier       
between his creed1 and  the religion of 
,christ4 ,the peculiar spirit and true  
character of any  religious system1 must
 be judged not so much by the letter of 
its  professed doctrines1 as by its     
practice and prevailing usages4 ,and    
thus that established custom is         
extremely remarkable1 which makes it    
imperative on every ,jew1 who may wish  
to become a ,mahometan1  previously to  
receive the rite of baptism4 ,thus did  
,mahomet think to  stand upon the basis 
of ,christianity2 and while addressing  
the ,arabs1  he appealed solely to the  

religion of their first ancestor1 and of
  the other ,patriarchs1 he assigned in 
his graduated scale of  revelation1 the 
first degree to ,judaism1 the second to 
,christianity1  and the third and       
highest to his own ,islam4 ,that he was 
a mere  fanatic1 and entirely devoid of 
all ambitious or political views1 ,i    
cannot admit2 and although he himself   
had even been more unconscious  of a    
deliberate hostility towards the        
mysteries of the true religion1  another
 may have inspired him with that subtle 
design4    ,such then was this new1 or  
as the founder himself styled it1 this  
pure  old doctrine of all-conquering    
,islam and of all-surpassing faith1     
which this pretended restorer of the    
religion of ,abraham--this false        
,paraclete of misconceived promise and  
idle phantasy1 brought and  announced to
 the world3--a prophet without          
miracles--a faith  without              
mysteries--and a morality without love1 
which has  encouraged the thirst of     

blood1 and which began and terminated in
 the  most unbounded sensuality4        
,supposing even1 that one of the leading
  points in this system of morals1 the  
re-establishment of polygamy to  such a 
wide extent1 and at a period of the     
world when this institution  was        
formally abolished among many nations1  
and among others had fallen  into       
disuse1 could be in some measure excused
 by the customs of ,asia1  the wants of 
climate1 and the general prejudices of  
the nation1 or  other like cause2--what 
must we think of a code of morals       
professing  to be divine1 which in      
opposition to the ,christian doctrine of
 the  pure happiness enjoyed by the     
celestial spirits in the intuition of   
,god1 and to which man must even in this
 life1 aspire by vigilant  preparation1 
if he wishes to render himself worthy of
 that state--can  form no other ideal of
 supreme felicity--can devise no other  
expedient  to fill up the immense void  
which this religion has left in the     

supernatural world1 than a boundless    
,harem--a paradise of lust1  portrayed  
in the most glowing colours of          
sensuality6    ,that part of the        
,mussulman morality relating to our     
fellow-beings1 the  precept of          
alms-deeds which it prescribes1 is the  
only part entitled  to praise1 which we 
willingly accord2 and we sincerely      
trust1 that not  merely the commandment1
 but the custom and practice of charity 
among  ,christians may never prove      
inferior4 ,but in every other respect1  
this  religion permits not only hatred  
and vengeance1 in opposition to that    
,christian precept so repeatedly        
inculcated1 and so deeply engraven on   
our minds--the pardon of our enemies2   
but it encourages1 and even  commands   
irreconcileable hostility1 eternal      
warfare1 eternal  slaughter1 to         
propagate thoughout the world a belief  
in this  blood-stained prophet of pride 
and lust4 ,perhaps all the ,heathen     
nations put together1 in the long series

 of ages1 have not offered to  their    
false gods so many human victims1 as in 
this new ,arabian  idolatry have been   
sacrificed to this highly extolled1     
anti-,christian  prophet4 ,for the      
essence of idolatry is not in names or  
in words1 in  rites or in sacrifices2   
but in the nature of things1 in the     
actual  transactions of life1 in        
unchristian customs1 and anti-christian 
sentiments2 and there is even that old  
black stone-idol1 of which ,i  said     
before in a figurative sense1 that it   
has ever remained firmly  fixed in the  
religion of ,mahomet4 ,the commencement 
of this religion  was not marked by any 
contest about mysteries of faith1 or    
points of  doctrine2 but by combats of  
another kind more congenial to the      
spirit  of the ,arabs1 by a war which   
broke out between the party of ,mahomet1
  and the hostile tribe which refused to
 acknowledge him for a prophet1  and    
whose refusal occasioned his flight from
 ,mecca4 ,in this contest he  drew the  

sword1 fought courageously against the  
unbelievers1 and by  overpowering by    
force of arms all who refused to        
recognize him as a  prophet1 thought to 
prove his divine mission4 ,he met       
however with much  resistance1 and had  
many factions to overcome1 before he    
succeeded in  subduing the various      
tribes of his nation4 ,this contest     
lasted for ten  years1 up to the very   
moment of his death1 when he died master
 of all  ,arabia4 ,shortly before that  
event1 he wrote very insolent letters to
  the ,emperor ,heraclius1 and to the   
great king of ,persia1 summoning them   
to acknowledge him for a ,prophet1 and  
to believe in his mission4 ,both  gave  
rather evasive replies1 than positive   
refusals2--so great was the  terror     
which this new power of ,hell had       
already struck into the world4          
,immediately on the death of ,mahomet1 a
 great contest arose among his          
disciples4 ,on one side ,ali1 his       
son-in-law1 by marriage with his        

daughter ,fatima1 and on the other      
,abubeker1 his father-in-law1 whose     
daughter ,ayesha was the surviving widow
 of the ,prophet1 and who was           
afterwards succeeded by ,omar1 contended
 with all the might of their  respective
 adherents for superiority and dominion2
 and this bloody  family-quarrel1 which 
distracted the very infancy of the      
,arabian  ,empire1 has produced among   
,mahometan nations a long and protracted
  religious schism1 which has continued 
down to the present day4 ,this  was     
originally a mere personal dispute1 and 
not a dogmatic controversy  as among    
,christian sects2 for the religion of   
,mahomet furnishes no  matter for such  
controversies1 as in reality it contains
 little of a  doctrinal nature1 and     
recognizes no dogmas but the two        
contained in  the seven ,arabic words of
 the well-known symbol of               
,islam3--,there is  no ,god but ,god1   
and ,mahomet is the ,apostle of ,god4   
,the one of these  is a declaration of  

the self-evident tenet of the unity of  
,god1 but  levelled indirectly against  
the ,christian dogma of the ,trinity2   
while  the other expresses the divine   
mission of ,mahomet1 and by calling     
forth a veneration that leads to the    
contempt and rejection of all  things   
besides1 has in a practical point of    
view1 really established a  new species 
of idolatry4 ,abubeker and ,omar        
asserted that they alone  were the      
legitimate ,caliphs and successors of   
,mahomet2 and as the  ,partisans of ,ali
 rejected the supplement founded on oral
 tradition1 to  the poems and maxims of 
the ,prophet1 they were stigmatized as  
schismatics by the opposite party4 ,in  
,persia1 the sect of ,ali has  remained 
predominant down to the present day2 and
 as in that country1  the ancient       
traditions and old national poetry have 
been partly  preserved1 and have been   
combined in a very peculiar manner with 
the  tenets of ,mahometanism1 many      
bolder1 freer1 and less contracted      

notions have found their way among this 
people4 ,hence it is very  possible that
 on a closer investigation1 we could    
discover a great  difference in the     
intellectual character of these two     
sects1 not so  much perhaps in religious
 doctrines1 about which there is here   
little  room for enquiry1 as in moral   
feelings and views of life4    ,the     
progress of the ,arabian conquests was  
not checked by these  internal disputes4
 ,five years after the death of         
,mahomet1 and fifteen  from the         
commencement of the ,hegira1 the city of
 ,jerusalem was  conquered by the arms  
of the ,arabs2 and in the eighteenth    
year of the  same era1 ,egypt became a  
,mussulman province4 ,the thirtieth year
 of the  ,hegira was not yet terminated1
 before the whole ,empire of ,persia was
  subdued1 and its last monarch of the  
race of the ,sassanides1 ,yezdegerd  had
 perished in foreign parts1 a suppliant 
and a fugitive4 ,in the  fiftieth year  
of the ,hegira1 ,arabian vessels menaced

 and beseiged  ,constantinople1 which   
was indebted for its deliverance chiefly
 to the  use of the ,greek fire4 ,in the
 ninetieth year of the same era1 while  
on  one side the ,arabs extended their  
victorious arms over ,india1 they       
subverted on the other the ,visigoth    
kingdom in ,spain and ,portugal1 and    
became masters of the whole ,hesperian  
,peninsula1 as far as those             
inaccessible mountains1 in whose        
fastnesses a fugitive remnant of the    
ruling ,goths1 and of the old           
inhabitants of the country had          
intrenched  themselves1 thence to carry 
on that struggle for freedom1 which till
  the final conquest of ,granada1 and   
the complete expulsion of the ,moors    
from ,spain1 lasted for a period of     
eight hundred years4 ,after the  downfal
 of the first dynasty of ,caliphs of the
 house of ,ommiyah1 and  the subsequent 
accession of the ,abbassides to the     
empire1 a separate  and independent     
,caliphate was established in ,mussulman

 ,spain1 and  lasted there for several  
ages4 ,the ,arabs had scarce achieved   
the  conquest of ,spain1 when they      
aspired to the possession of the        
,visi-,goth and ,burgundian provinces of
 ,france4 ,but a term was at last  put  
to the progress of their arms1 by the   
mighty victory which the  ,frank hero1  
,charles ,martel1 gained between ,tours 
and ,poitiers1 over  their ,general     
,abderame1 who fell on the field with   
the flower of his  troops1 in the       
twentieth year after the conquest of    
,spain1 and in the  hundred and tenth   
year of the ,hegira4 ,thus did the arm  
of ,charles  ,martel save and deliver   
the ,christian nations of the ,west1    
from the  deadly grasp of all-destroying
 ,islam4 ,in ,asia the universal        
dominion  of the ,arabs was more and    
more firmly consolidated1 and the second
 of  the ,abbassides1 ,almansor1 erected
 the city of ,bagdad1 or the new        
,babylon1 not far from the country where
 the old was situated1 and  which was   

thenceforth the vast metropolis of an   
immense empire4#e    ,the new religion  
and conquests of the ,arabs may be      
considered in the  light of a new       
migration of nations1 as no             
inconsiderable portion of  the ,moorish 
population passed into ,spain2 and this 
,arabian migration  has exerted in ,asia
 in ,africa1 a far more extensive       
influence on  empire1 language1 manners1
 political institutions1 and            
intellectual  cultivation1 than the     
invasion of the ,germanic tribes has    
exercised in  ,europe4 ,when we compare 
the immigrations of the ,germanic tribes
 with  those of the ,arabs1 and consider
 the violence which characterized the   
latter1 the pernicious influence they   
have exerted on the human mind1  and on 
civilization1 and the despotism they    
have invariably introduced  into        
political and domestic society1 we may  
look upon the migrating  tribes of      
,germany1 almost as ,colonies1 which    
though originally they  partook of a    

warlike character1 yet inclined more and
 more and to a  peaceful nature1 and    
ultimately assumed that spirit1 when the
 tumult  of intermediate anarchy had    
subsided1 and ,christianity had more    
intimately blended and finally          
incorporated the new settlers and the   
old inhabitants4    ,as the divine      
author of ,christianity had promised his
 disciples1 that  the high power of ,god
 should ever abide with them1 should    
guide and  defend them2 and that the    
assisting and counselling ,spirit of    
truth1  of peaceful order1 and of active
 zeal should never be removed from      
them2 the efficay of this divine promise
 was now manifested during  this        
intermediate period of anarchy2 and     
though in a different form  from what it
 appeared in the earlier ages of the    
church1 yet was it  perfectly adapted to
 the exigencies of the time4 ,the great 
problem of  the age was first in this   
new agglomeration of nations1 to        
endeavour  to allay the agitated        

elements of society1 till after that    
agitation  had subsided1 they should    
grow and strengthen into organic life   
and  form2 and next1 to preserve the    
heritage of ,european science and       
letters1 and thus sow the seeds of a    
richer and more flourishing  harvest for
 future ages4 ,and to effect this by the
 mild and genial  influence of          
,christianity1 was the object1 the task1
 and the work of  the distinguished     
ecclesiastics1 bishops1 dignitaries1 and
 other  apostolic men of those ages4    
,the two great popes1 ,leo and ,gregory1
  shone conspicuous above all their     
contemporaries1 and were in that  period
 of anarchy1 a pillar of strength and a 
shield of safety to  afflicted ,rome and
 ,italy--the guardians of ,european     
society and of  ,christian science4     
,both by their practical and instructive
 writings1  are considered as the last  
of the ancient fathers2 and ,leo even is
  remarkable for great purity of diction
 and force of eloquence4 ,in  point of  

science and learning1 the succeeding    
bishops and dignitaries  of the church  
cannot indeed be compared with the      
ancient fathers2 but  on the other hand1
 they united with a true ,christian     
piety a practical  sense that never     
failed to discern everywhere what was   
fitting for the  emergency of the       
moment4 ,the ,monastic schools founded  
by ,st4 ,benedict  were indeed of a very
 different nature from the primitive    
eremitical  institutes of ,egypt2 and   
entirely adapted to the exigencies of   
,europe  in that age1 they were the     
asylums and seminaries of learning and  
philosophic contemplation2 and while    
they promoted the interests of          
education1 they were equally conducive  
to the progress of agriculture4  ,a     
number of works have sufficiently shewn 
how much the influence of  the          
,benedictine order1 which for many      
centuries extended over all the         
countries of the ,west1 has advanced the
 intellectual civilization of  modern   

,europe1 and indeed sown its first      
seeds4    ,by ,bishop ,boniface the     
,christian religion was established and 
widely  diffused in the interior of     
,germany4 ,at an earlier period1 other  
holy  men animated with an apostolic    
zeal1 forty of whom were sent by ,pope  
,gregory the ,great1 carried the light  
of the gospel into ,britain2  where it  
was received with peculiar avidity by   
the ,picts and ,scots1  and the old     
inhabitants of ,erin1 as well as by the 
,anglo-,saxons4 ,in  true ,christian    
piety1 and in such knowledge and science
 as the age  possessed1 ,england during 
this ,saxon period1 prior and down to   
the  reign of ,alfred1 maintained nearly
 a pre-eminence above the other         
kingdoms of the ,west4 ,even that       
apostle of the ,germans1 ,boniface1     
originally named ,winfried1 came from   
,england2 and among the writers of  the 
age1 ,alcuin asserted the intellectual  
superiority of the  ,anglo-,saxon       
,christians4 ,limited as was the        

knowledge of the ,western  world in     
those ages1 and narrow the circle of    
,european science and  learning1 still  
we find in those times1 but almost only 
in the ,west1  writers of very original 
powers1 and peculiar turn of mind1 whose
  writings1 composed either in a        
barbarous ,latin1 or in a half-formed   
,romanic vernacular tongue1 are the     
faithful and instructive mirrors of  the
 spirit of the times4 ,on the other     
hand1 the later ,byzantine  writers1    
though they possessed incomparably      
greater resources1 and  much more       
extensive philological acquirements1    
have produced nothing  but learned      
compilations4    ,now there arose in the
 ,west1 ,christian kings1 heroes and    
legislators1  both among the ,franks and
 the ,saxons1 such as ,charlemagne and  
,alfred1  who as men were not indeed    
faultless1 but who should be judged and 
appreciated according to the character  
of their times2 a knowledge of  which is
 necessary for rightly understanding the

 spirit of these  extraordinary men4 ,in
 peace and in war they endeavoured      
firmly to  establish a new model society
 on ,christian principles and maxims2   
and  they restored the ,western in the  
form of a great ,christian ,empire1     
destined to defend and protect all      
,christian states--all the civilized    
nations of the ,european ,confederacy   
against ,barbarian invasion and         
internal anarchy4    ,if we compare     
these ,frank and ,saxon ,kings and      
,emperors1 valiant and  chivalrous as   
they were1 thirsting for glory1 yet     
seeking and  establishing peace1        
honouring justice1 and founding or      
restoring laws1  on one hand with those 
,saracen rulers and caliphs1 ever       
burning with a  rage for conquest and   
destruction1 and on the other hand1 with
 that  ,byzantine court1 presenting     
almost always the uniform picture of    
corruption1 and ruling over an empire   
pining in hopeless decay--if we         
contrast those flashes of genius which  

distinguished the writings of  the      
,western nations1 with the dead1        
spiritless monotony pervading all  the  
productions of the ,byzantine intellect1
 superior as the ,greeks  were to the   
rest of ,europe in erudition1 science   
and literary stores2  we shall find in  
this comparison1 7taking into           
consideration the  imperfection of all  
human things1 and actions1 and persons1 
for even  in this period of the world1  
errors and defects are to be found in   
the  conduct of individuals mixed up    
with the most praiseworthy  qualities17 
we shall find1 ,i say1 in this          
comparison1 the best  vindication and   
the highest eulogium of the ,catholic   
,west and its  earlier history4 ,the    
misrepresentation of that history       
formerly so  frequently made by the     
passion1 the exaggerations1 and the     
prejudices  of party1 has still an      
injurious influence1 but is with us no  
longer  in season2 for the moment has   
arrived1 when fixed in the right centre1

  we must now begin to take a more      
complete and comprehensive survey of    
the primitive world1 and classical      
antiquity1 next of the history of  the  
middle age1 and of modern times1 down to
 the present day1 and to  that          
approaching futurity still in the crisis
 of its formation2 and  when we must    
judge them with more correctness in all 
their details1  and understand them     
better by examining their relative      
position in the  great plan of history1 
and estimate them all by the standard   
given to  us by ,god1 which is the only 
true one4 ,then we shall judge these    
particulars without predilection1 and   
without aversion1 sine odio et  sine    
dilectione1 which is somewhat more than 
that excellent and  greatest of all     
ancient historians1 who gave utterance  
to this saying1  really accomplished1 or
 was indeed in his time and with his    
principles  capable of accomplishing4   
,for it is only the knowledge and       
complete  comprehension of the great    

scheme of history1 which can enable us  
to  rise above the particular           
transactions of our own1 or of a foreign
  nation1 of the present times or of    
past ages2 and it is this  knowledge    
which can alone clearly and safely      
determine the feeling  with which we    
should regard particular historical     
facts4 ,but for that  end1 the ancient  
historian1 as well as all antiquity1    
wanted the clue  which ,christianity    
alone has given us1 to the internal     
connexion of  the world's history1 and  
which they who seek for it elsewhere but
 in  this religion1 will certainly seek 
in vain4    ,in this period of anarchy1 
and during the sway of the ,lombards1   
the  circumstances of the times gave to 
the ,popes a paramount authority in  the
 internal administration of the city and
 district of ,rome2 as well  as a       
general political influence over all    
,italy2--an influence which  was for the
 most part very salutary1 and tended    
effectually to ensure  the public peace 

and prosperity4 ,i must here observe    
that this  political position and power 
of the ,popes1 so naturally adapted to  
the  circumstances of the times1 and to 
the general situation of the  ,western  
world1 was first put in a clear and     
correct point of view by  writers not   
belonging to the ,catholic church4 ,for 
the political  historians on the        
,catholic side have1 in almost every    
country1  retained too lively a         
recollection of the warm disputes as to 
the  respective limits and rights of the
 ecclesiastical and secular power1  not 
to be swayed by such feelings in their  
conception and accounts of  an age long 
gone by2 and this has certainly weakened
 the impartiality  becoming the tribunal
 of history4    ,after the subversion of
 the ,ostro-,goth dominion in ,italy1   
the disgrace  or even dissatisfaction of
 the ,byzantine ,general1 ,narses1      
provoked the  incursion of the ,lombards
 into ,italy4 ,this people were not so  
exclusively devoted to the ,arian party1

 as a portion of them1 and  several     
among their kings1 professed the        
,catholic religion2 but they  were far  
from possessing the mild1 generous      
character of the ,goths1  and their sway
 often proved oppressive in ,italy4 ,yet
 every thing  appeared more desirable   
and more tolerable in the opinion of    
many  otherwise unprejudiced historians1
 than the impending danger of           
,byzantine rule4 ,when in the middle of 
the seventh century1 the ,greek         
,emperor ,constans ,,ii4 waged war in   
,italy against the ,lombards1 and in    
the course of the war conquered ,rome1  
the plunder1 especially of the          
treasures of ancient art1 was so        
immense1 that compared with these       
,greek devastations1 all the earlier and
 destructive ravages of the  ,goths     
appeared to be nothing4 ,the ships which
 were conveying to  ,constantinople all 
these plundered treasures of art1 fell  
into the  hands of the ,arabs1 and were 
destroyed1 so that it was never known   

what became of their valuable freight4  
,so true it is1 that ,rome  perished    
solely and entirely by her own hand1 by 
internal discord1 and  the weight of her
 own corruption1 and not by the hands of
 ,germans or  of ,goths4    ,when at the
 commencement of the eighth century1 the
 dominion of the  rude ,lombards became 
oppressive1 and the ,greek sway under   
the  ,iconoclast ,leo was still more    
detested1 and all the cities and        
provinces of ,italy had revolted against
 it2 ,pope ,gregory ,,ii4 without  any  
previous concert1 and by unanimous      
consent1 was placed at the head  of the 
,italian league1 and declared its chief2
 but he warned his  countrymen against  
the dangers of precipitation1 exhorted  
them to the  maintenance of peace1 and  
ever cherished the hope of obtaining a  
friendly reconciliation with the        
,byzantine ,emperor4 ,the rigid         
prohibition of the religious use of     
images was proper in those cases  only1 
where the use of them was not confined  

to a mere devotional  respect1 but was  
likely to degenerate into a real        
adoration and  idolatry1 and where a    
strict separation from ,pagan nations   
and their  rites was a matter of primary
 importance1 as was the case in the     
,jewish dispensation of old4 ,but now   
that the ,mahomedan proscription1  and  
scornful rejection of all holy emblems  
and images of devotion1  arose from a   
decidedly anti-christian spirit1 that   
displayed itself  either in open        
violence or secret machination against  
the ,christian  religion2 this          
,byzantine attack on images1 and this   
furious war  against all symbols of     
piety1 which in its ulterior            
consequences might  and must have       
proceeded to much greater lengths1 can  
be regarded only  as a mad contagion of 
the moral disease of the age4 ,this     
disorder and  phrenzy indeed subsided2  
and the ,greeks of the ,byzantine       
,empire in  their religious rites1 as   
well as dogmas1 have remained           

,christians1  and faithful to the old   
,christian traditions4 ,yet this        
controversy on  the use of images1 and  
the animosites and jealousies which it  
enkindled between the ,christians of the
 ,east and ,west1 did not a  little     
contribute to that perfectly groundless1
 irrational1 and  unhappy schism which  
has severed the ,greeks from the        
universal church4    ,the protracted    
contest between the kings of ,lombardy  
and the ,greek  ,exarchs of ,ravenna1   
7during whose disputes the ,popes felt  
the calling  and inclination1 but had   
not the power1 to exercise the high     
functions  of ,protectors to oppressed  
,italy17 naturally provoked the         
arbitration  of the ,franks1 led to the 
establishment of their ,protectorate    
over  ,italy1 and was thus the first    
occasion of the restoration of the      
,western ,empire1 and of the foundation 
of the great ,christian imperial        
monarchy4 ,the sublime idea of such an  
empire sprang solely and  entirely out  

of circumstances and events1 as they    
arose1 and had not  by any individual   
been fully anticipated1 much less       
clearly  understood4 ,hence we cannot   
attribute to any persons the blame or   
entire merit of events that really took 
place of themselves1 by the  mere force 
of circumstances1 the spirit of the     
times1 and the happy  impulse of a lofty
 inspiration4 ,nor can we at this remote
 distance of  time1 and under           
circumstances so totally dissimilar1    
institute a  formal discussion 7in the  
manner of the ,jurists7 on the          
lawfulness or  unlawfulness of any      
particular measure in this great series 
of public  acts4 ,no country besides was
 oppressed by so many and such          
contending  rulers1 as that ,italy which
 had once bowed all nations beneath her 
yoke4 ,sicily1 which had been conquered 
by the ,arabs1 laboured under  the most 
cruel oppression2 and it was the        
tyrannical conduct of the  ,greek       
governors that had paved the way for the

 conquest of that  island4 ,in the third
 century1 the ,franks had already       
migrated into  ,gaul2 their rulers were 
from the origin of their empire most    
devoted  to ,christianity2 and had      
besides in their conduct towards kindred
 or  neighbouring nations1 evinced a    
more judicious1 prudent1 and  systematic
 policy1 than had been shewn by any     
other ,germanic or ,gothic  tribe1 in   
the invasion and subsequent government  
of the ,roman  provinces4 ,this nation1 
which from its origin had ever been     
warmly  attached to the ,catholic       
church1 which had subdued the           
,visi-,goth  kingdom in ,gaul1 had      
become masters of the ,burgundian       
provinces1 while  it perpetually strove 
to extend and consolidate its dominion  
in the  interior of ,germany2 was now1  
after its splendid victory over the     
,saracens1 and the general protection   
which this victory had ensured to  all  
,christendom1 called into ,italy1 less  
by the ,pope and the ,romans1  than by  

the state of affairs1 and the urgency of
 times and  circumstances1 there to     
terminate anarchy1 and re-establish the 
ancient order of things1 or one better  
adapted to the exigencies  of the age4  
,the ,empire of the ,franks was         
henceforward the most  powerful state in
 the ,west1 and was indeed the great    
centre of the  civilized world2 as      
afterwards became1 though on a higher   
and more  extended scale1 the great     
,christian ,empire of the middle age in 
,germany and in ,italy4 ,here we find   
that high clue in human history to      
which we should ever adhere--on one     
side1 the luminous trace of the  more   
immediate providence of ,god--and on the
 other1 the gradual  unfolding of the   
human mind1 evinced in science as in    
language1 in  feelings as in modes of   
thinking--an intellectual developement1 
which  though often concealed1 and1 as  
it were1 buried beneath the agitated    
surface of external events1 forms       
7together with the conduct of divine    

providence17 the real and essential     
matter and purport in the history  and  
progress of human communities4 ,in this 
respect1 if we regard  either of the    
then two great rival powers in the      
,east1 we shall find  that neither the  
dead monotony of the ,byzantine ,empire1
 sinking ever  lower in the scale of    
moral1 political and intellectual       
degradation1  nor the more hasty growth 
and the internal distraction of the     
,saracenic ,empire1 7presenting1 as it  
does1 in its long series of  political  
catastrophes1 military revolutions1 and 
frequent changes of  dynasty1 the same  
tedious uniformity of despotism17 will  
furnish much  matter of interest or of  
moment to the philosophic historian4 ,it
 is in  this period of the world1 the   
gradual organization of the ,christian  
state1 as in a later age1 the           
developement of ,christian science1     
which chiefly commands our regard1      
naturally so curious after all that     
relates to the concerns and destinies of

 mankind1 and fixes our  attention      
exclusively1 or more particularly1 on   
that ,european ,west1  where all now    
displayed a fuller life1 and a more     
constant movement  and activity4    ,the
 territorial partitions1 and the various
 feuds and dissensions  which occurred  
between the ,frank kings1 possess but   
little1 or at best  a subordinate       
interest1 amid the great events of the  
times--it is the  leading idea of the   
age1 the progressive march of society at
 this  period1 which offers matter of   
instruction to the historian4 ,many     
faults and errors1 however1 stained the 
first execution of this grand  plan of a
 ,christian ,empire2--such for instance1
 were those wars which  ,charlemagne    
waged against the ,saxons1 as well as   
similar wars under  his predecessors in 
the preceding age2 for the propagation  
of the  ,christian religion by such     
means of coercion1 can scarcely ever be 
excused1 and in no case entirely        
justified4 ,the best excuse is perhaps  

in the fact1 that all wars between      
tribes nearly allied1 are like  family  
disputes1 usually conducted with greater
 stubbornness and  animosity4 ,however1 
in the year #ghd1 ,charlemagne concluded
 with the  ,saxons a peace which was    
very advantageous to the latter2 and the
  extremely prosperous and flourishing  
condition of the empire1 and even  of   
the countries in the ,north of ,germany1
 under ,henry the first king  of the    
,saxon race1 proves at least that the   
evil was confined within  very narrow   
limits1 and had not been productive of  
such wide-spread  and protracted        
desolation4    ,in the transition from  
the ,carlovingian1 to the ,capetian     
dynasty1 we  should not forget that the 
monarchy was not strictly hereditary in 
any  ,german state1 but was for the most
 part merely elective2 and it was  only 
he1 who had proved himself a valiant1   
prudent1 and powerful  defender of his  
nation1 that became the man of the      
public choice4  ,royalty was then       

considered more in the light of an      
office1 a charge1  a peculiar calling1  
than of an inheritance or patrimony4    
,the general  idea of the ,christian    
,empire1 was a universal protectorate   
over all  ,christian nations and        
countries--a mighty central dominion    
founded on  justice1 while the great    
connecting and pervading power of the   
whole  system was supposed to reside in 
the perfect unity of religious          
principles4 ,when this religious unity  
was destroyed1 the whole  political     
edifice fell to pieces2 and in the      
struggles of later times1  the          
artificial relations founded on a mere  
mechanical balance of  power1 on a      
republican equality of states1 without  
the foundation of  ,christian or any    
other solid principles1 have furnished1 
as experience  has shewn1 but a very bad
 substitute for that old ,christian     
brotherhood of the ,european states and 
nations2 and have in the  general       
subversion of ,christian morality1      

produced a sort of polite  disorder and 
refined anarchy4    ,in the partition of
 the ,carlovingian ,empire--a partition 
which was  only in accordance with those
 principles of descent which regulated  
the inheritance of the great            
families--we can trace an almost heroic1
  and if we might use the expression1 a 
nave patriarchal confidence in  the     
duration of that religious unity2 for it
 was only on such a basis  that men     
deemed it possible to combine the       
advantage of the domestic1  internal    
government of a country limited in      
extent1 with the controul  of one       
general superintending monarchy4 ,when a
 man of such consummate  prudence1 such 
long foresight1 and powerful            
understanding as  ,charlemagne deemed   
such a scheme not impracticable1 and    
thought it  possible to maintain the    
political unity of his empire1 under the
  joint dominion of his sons1 and by    
their subordination to their eldest     
brother2 we should learn not to judge   

the plan with too much  precipitation1  
and according to the notions of our     
times1 and our  present systems of      
policy4 ,this first partition which     
,charlemagne had  designed1 was         
prevented by the hand of death4 ,the    
entire division of  the whole           
,carlovingian ,empire into three        
distinct portions1 was first  effected  
by ,lewis the ,pious2 but the perpetual 
family dissensions  which occurred under
 his successors1 the weakness or        
violence of their  characters1 and the  
various factions which arose1 rendered  
totally  impossible the maintenance of  
that union1 which was originally sought 
to be perpetuated in the empire1 and led
 to the final dismemberment  and total  
dissolution of the old ,empire of the   
,franks1 when another  dynasty succeeded
 to the imperial crown4    ,in the      
primitive monarchy of the ,germans1     
however1 the existence of  the four     
great national dutchies1 which were     
subordinate to the  imperial crown1 far 

more happily accomplished this union of 
a local1  domestic1 and paternal        
government with the controul of one     
powerful  and superintending monarchy2  
so long at least as internal union      
subsisted1 and discord had not obtained 
the supremacy4 ,there then  existed1    
though mostly in a different form than  
afterwards1 a division  of powers in the
 state as well as in the church2 but    
unity in this  division1 or with this   
division1 was sought for only in        
,christian and  ,national sentiments2   
and as long as these subsisted in their 
integrity1 the body politic remained    
unimpaired4 ,at no time has a  political
 constitution or mode of government been
 devised1 which could  permanently      
supply the place of principle4    ,in   
the national meetings of the great and  
smaller states of that age1  in their   
assembled councils of dukes and princes1
 bishops1 counts and  lords1 nobles and 
freemen 7to whom were added the ,commons
 of the  cities1 when by their rights   

and privileges they began to obtain     
importance71 we must look for the first 
germ of all the succeeding  parliaments 
and states-general of the ,european     
nations1 and of the  rights of the      
different orders of society1 and the    
privileges and  corporate immunities of 
the cities4 ,all these rights and       
liberties  were purely local--they grew 
up on the root of national customs--they
  were founded on no speculative theory 
of universal equality1 but on  positive 
usage1 and special laws4 ,the union and 
stability of an empire  was then sought 
for not in the balance of artificial    
forms1 but in the  holy heritage of     
ancient customs1 in principle in short4 
,on this basis1 first of ,christian1    
then of national sentiments1 do all     
,christian states repose2 and when this 
foundation is destroyed1 those  states  
are undone4 ,ecclesiastical power had   
then a real and  substantial weight1 and
 a very extended circle of operation2   
although  its limits and relations with 

secular authority were not so rigidly   
circumscribed as afterwards4 ,to be     
sensible that this division of  power   
will not necessarily impair the unity of
 strength and spirit in  the social     
frame1 as long as principle remains     
pure1 and religious  concord is         
preserved2 we need only call to our     
recollection the fact1  that all        
,christian states and kingdoms have     
sprung from this happy  agreement       
between secular and ecclesiastical      
authority1 and that this  union was the 
sure foundation of their stability4 ,and
 so long as both  powers remained in    
harmonious accord1 the times were       
prosperous1 peace  and justice ever     
increased1 and the condition of nations 
was  flourishing and happy4             
,christianity1 says a great historian1  
who  manifests a greater predilection   
for antiquity1 and even for the         
oriental world1 but whose comprehensive 
intellect often rightly  appreciates the
 benign influence of this religion1     

which with us must  have the priority2  
,christianity was the electric spark    
which first  roused the warlike nations 
of the ,north1 rendered them susceptible
 of  a higher civilization1 stamped the 
peculiar character1 and founded the     
political institutions of modern        
nations1 which have sprung out of  such 
heterogeneous elements4 ,and we may add1
 ,christianity was the  connecting power
 which linked together the great        
community of ,european  nations1 not    
only in the moral and political         
relations of life1 but in  science and  
modes of thinking4 ,the church was like 
the all-embracing  vault of heaven1     
beneath whose kindly shelter1 those     
warlike nations  began to settle in     
peace1 and gradually to frame their laws
 and  institutions4 ,even the office of 
instruction1 the heritage of ancient    
knowledge1 the promotion of science1 and
 of all that tended to advance  the     
progress of the human mind1 devolved to 
the care of the church1  and were       

exclusively confined to the ,christian  
schools4 ,if science was  then of a very
 limited range1 it was still quite      
proportioned to the  exigencies and     
intellectual cultivation of the age2 for
 mankind cannot  transcend all the      
degrees of civilization by a single     
bound1 but must  mount slowly and in    
succession its various grades2 and at   
any rate1  science was not at that time 
unprofitably buried in libraries and in 
the closets of the learned1 as was      
afterwards the case in ,europe1 and     
even partly then among the ,byzantines4 
,the little knowledge which was  then   
possessed1 was by the more active       
spirit1 and the sound  understanding and
 practical sense of the ,european       
nations1 and their  better priesthood1  
applied with general advantage to the   
interests of  society4 ,science was not 
then1 as in the later period of its     
proud  ascendancy1 in open hostility    
with the pure dictates of faith and the 
institutions of life4 ,on that world so 

variously excited in peace1 as  in war1 
and by the different pursuits of art and
 industry1 useful  knowledge and        
wholesome speculation descended1 not    
like a violent  flood1 but like the soft
 distillations of the refreshing dew1 or
 the  gentle drops of fertilizing rain1 
from the ,heaven of faith which         
overarched the whole4         #e ,it may
 not perhaps be uninteresting to the    
reader       to compare with ,schlegel's
 account of ,mohammedanism1 an          
admirable1 though briefer sketch of the 
same religion       by the hand of      
another great master--the illustrious   
,goerres4 ,in the ,synopsis which he has
 published of the       ,lectures on    
,universal ,history1 that he has been   
for       several years delivering at   
,munich1 we find the       following    
remarkable passage on the ,mohammedan   
religion4 ,the author after speaking of 
the various       trials which the      
,christian church had to endure1 says   
,hence the young church must wrestle    

with all the forms       of error in the
 ,gnostic doctrines and in the other    
heresies2 one after the other she       
remains the       triumphant conqueress 
over all1 and maintains against         
every attack her well-balanced          
equilibrium4 ,at length1       when the 
contest has raged for centuries1 the    
enemy       combines in one focus all   
the scattered rays of error2       and  
the ,prophet of ,mecca knows how to     
balance himself       therein4 ,the     
rigid ,monotheism of his doctrine1 which
       by denying the ,trinity1 and with
 it all personal       manifestation of 
the ,deity1 limits its idea to the      
depths of ,eternity1 without admitting  
any true or       living communication  
of the ,god-head with what              
appertains to time1 naturally allures   
the metaphysical       pride which in   
this abstraction hath made itself its   
own ,god4 ,the ethical ,pantheism which 
this religion       professes1 while it 
furnishes a pretext1 a motive and a     

palliation to all the pretensions of the
 mighty1 to the       ambition of       
usurpers1 the violence of pride1 and the
       arrogance of tyranny1 and at the 
same time consoles and       disarms the
 injured and the oppressed1 by the      
inevitableness of destiny1 must draw to 
its preacher       the men of the sword1
 of violence1 and of blood1 and         
link those once bound indissolubly to   
him4 ,the sensual       ,eudaimonism1 to
 which his creed opens so free a scope  
both in this world and the next1 must   
rally round the       apostle of lust1  
the multitude that burns with all the   
passionate glow of that fervid zone1 and
 place under       his controul all the 
wild fiery energies of that             
region4 ,and thus do the cold doctrine1 
the cutting       steel1 and the        
destroying flame go before him as his   
missionaries2 and the ,south and the    
,east1 and soon even       a part of the
 ,european ,west1 are bowed under the   
yoke       of his religion3 and while in

 the ,caliphate he founds       for it a
 new spiritual and secular empire1 the  
modern       world between ,christianity
 and ,mohammedanism becomes             
divided into night and day4--,goerres   
,uber die       ,grundlage der          
,weltgeschicte1 page #ii-ajj4 ,breslaw1 
#ahcj4--,trans4                         
,,end ,,of ,,lecture ,,xii4             
,,lecture ,,xiii4        ,on the        
formation and consolidation of the      
,christian ,government      in modern   
times4--,on the principle which led to  
the      establishment of the old       
,german ,empire4      ,the first three  
centuries of the ,christian era and of  
modern history  compose the epoch when1 
by a second fiat of creation1 the light 
of  ,christianity spread through the    
whole ,roman world1 and when after      
undergoing long persecutions1 the       
religion of ,christ under ,constantine  
came victorious out of the struggle4    
,the second epoch or the  succeeding    
five centuries comprehend that chaotic  

and intermediate  state in the history  
of mankind1 or the transition from      
declining  antiquity to modern times1   
growing out of the ruins of the ancient 
world--the fermenting mixture of many   
and various elements of social  life4   
,but when at last the tempest had       
disburthened itself of its  fury1 the   
clouds had broken asunder1 and the pure 
firmament of  ,christian faith had      
stretched out its ample vault to shelter
 the rise  of new communities2 when the 
wild waters of that mighty inundation of
  nations had begun gradually to flow   
off2 then the ,germanic tribes          
incorporated with the ,romanic nations1 
laid the deep firm soil on  which modern
 ,european society was to spring up and 
flourish4 ,for it  was ,charlemagne who 
laid the sure foundation for ,christian 
government1  and all the improvements of
 its subsequent superstructure4 ,on this
  basis of ,christian government1 and   
,christian manners1 and under the  cover
 and vivifying influence of the luminous

 firmament of ,christian  faith1 sprang 
human science out of the small fragments
 of ancient art  and learning1 which had
 survived all these mighty devastations1
 till  at last it expanded into a fuller
 bloom1 and grew into a more heavenly   
and ,christian form4 ,this new progress 
of social man under the  ,christian form
 of government1 and this progress of the
 human mind in  ,christian science1 mark
 the third epoch of modern history1 or  
the  seven centuries which elapsed from 
the reign of ,charlemagne1 to the       
discovery of the ,new ,world1 and the   
commencement of the ,reformation4  ,it  
may naturally be supposed that these    
seven centuries which  witnessed the    
progressive civilization of modern      
nations1 and the  vigorous growth and   
wide spread of ,christian principles1   
were at the  same time a period of      
struggle both in the state and in       
science1 and  that in each of these     
departments1 the spirit of ,christianity
 was  intermixed with1 and most         

injuriously and fatally thwarted and    
opposed  by1 many unchristian elements4 
,and indeed1 to discover and            
discriminate between these conflicting  
elements1 to comprehend and  determine  
their mutual bearings one towards the   
other1 is the fit  problem for          
historical philosophy4 ,the progress of 
the ,christian state  and the           
advancement of ,christian science1 form 
during this period the  main subject of 
an universal history1 when this is not a
 mere  collection of special or national
 histories1 but truly universal1 in  the
 philosophic sense of the term2 treating
 solely of those subjects  common to all
 mankind1 or which illustrate the       
general march of  humanity4 ,hence all  
other historical views1 dictated by a   
predilection  for one's own             
country--inquiries into the political   
institutions of  one1 or several1 or all
 existing states--a review of the circle
 of  mercantile operations1 and their   
gradual extension1 and of the  progress 

of the mechanical arts--and lastly1     
curious and erudite  dissertations on   
literature1 philology and the fine arts 
7however  interesting1 instructive1 and 
in many respects useful1 such special   
dissertations may be in themselves7--all
 these must be either entirely  excluded
 from general history1 or must at least 
occupy a place very  subordinate to1 and
 are deserving of notice only as far as 
they  illustrate1 what must ever        
constitute the main subject of the      
,philosophy of ,history4 ,in the first  
ages of the world1 it is often          
difficult to obtain satisfactory        
information1 and a competent degree  of 
certainty on the subjects which are     
alone1 or at least chiefly1  worthy of  
attention4 ,but in modern times1 it is a
 far more arduous  task to select out of
 the immense multitude and variety of   
facts  susceptible of historical proof1 
those which are of a general interest   
for mankind1 and amid the crowd of      
details steadily to preserve the        

general outline of history4    ,it would
 be a great error to refer to the       
,christian constitution of  the state   
and of science1 every remarkable or     
important incident in  the history of   
government and of science1 merely       
because such  incidents have occurred in
 the middle age1 or among ,christian    
nations  of later times4 ,we must strive
 to form a loftier idea of the          
,christian  model both in science and in
 government1 so that the highest and    
noblest monuments in either1 should from
 human infirmity be considered  but     
faint approximations1 ,i do not say1 to 
the unattainable standard  of an        
imaginary perfection1 but to the sober  
reality of ,christian  truth4 ,although 
it is not possible rigidly to separate  
public life  from public opinions1 on   
account of the intimate union between   
both1  and the mutual influence which   
government and science exercise over    
one another2 yet as the state is the    
groundwork for the cultivation of       

science1 and the former must precede the
 latter1 ,i shall follow this           
historical order1 and commence with the 
constitution of the ,christian  state4  
,as here the question is not as to the  
,beau ,ideal of supreme  perfection1 or 
as to a precise1 rigid1 and scientific  
theory of the  ,christian state1 7for   
which here at least1 if not for the     
present age1  the time may not have     
arrived7--but merely as to a general    
outline of  such a theory--,i shall only
 observe1 that the ,christian state must
  rest on the basis of religious        
feelings4 ,for without feeling its      
relation to religion cannot be          
conceived--and such a mere relation1    
considered in itself1 would lose its    
religious character4 ,but the           
government which is founded on          
,christianity1 is on that account       
limited1 and is consequently in its very
 nature abhorrent either from  absolute 
despotism1 or the uncontrolled tyranny  
of popular factions4  ,in the next      

place1 the government founded on        
religion1 is one in which  sentiment1   
personal spirit1 and personal character 
are the primary and  ruling elements1   
and not the dead letter1 and the written
 formula of a  mere artificial          
constitution4 ,in this last respect one 
may say1 that  the ,christian government
 inclines very strongly towards         
monarchy2 for  in monarchy1 it is the   
sacred person of the king1 the character
 of the  ruler1 the spirit of his       
administration1 confidence in his       
person1 and  attachment to the          
hereditary dynasty1 which form the      
basis1 the  animating spirit1 and       
vivifying principle of the social       
system4 ,in a  republic it is not the   
person1 but the law which governs2 nay1 
the  written word of the law is there of
 the utmost importance2 and thus  the   
dead letter of the constitution is in a 
republic almost as  sacred1 as in a     
monarchy the person called and          
consecrated to the  functions of        

government by divine right4 ,but more   
than this we should  not say--namely1   
that the ,christian government1 founded 
as it is on  personality and on         
sentiment1 inclines on the whole        
strongly  towards the monarchical       
form--a leaning which is by no means    
incompatible with many ,republican      
usages and ,republican ,institutions  of
 a subordinate kind4 ,still less should 
we exaggerate this idea so  far1 as to  
maintain that the ,christian government 
is entirely and  necessarily            
monarchical1 even in its outward form2  
and that a ,republic  is objectionable  
at all times and under all circumstances
 without  distinction4 ,such absolutism 
in the doctrines of public law1 and in  
the theory of government1 is very remote
 from true ,christian  principles4 ,the 
unhistorical government of mere         
,reason--the  destructive principle of  
revolution--is indeed totally           
incompatible  with ,christianity2       
principally because the ,christian      

religion  tolerates and recognizes all  
legal institutions1 such as they are1   
without enquiring into their origin2 7as
 the gospel not only left  inviolate1   
but even respected the legality of the  
,roman dominion in  the conquered and   
incorporated countries27 and also       
because the  ,christian notion of right1
 like the ,christian system of          
government1 is  by no means absolute1   
but is ever qualified by circumstances4 
,a  ,republican government1 which is    
founded not so much on the abstract  or 
rationalist principle of absolute       
freedom and equality1 but on  ancient   
customs and hereditary rights1 on       
freedom of sentiment and  generosity of 
character1 consequently on personality1 
is by no means  essentially opposed to  
the true spirit of monarchy2 still less 
is it  inconsistent with the ,christian 
theory of government4 ,but a despotism1 
illegitimate not perhaps in its origin1 
but in its abuse of power1  strikes at  
the first principles of the ,christian  

state1 whose mild1  temperate1 and      
historical character is as abhorrent    
from absolutism1  as from the opposite  
principle of unqualified freedom and    
universal  equality--the revolutionary  
principle1 which involves the overthrow 
of  all existing rights4    ,as in the  
,christian's estimation1 the worth and  
excellence of an  individual is not to  
be judged by his outward appearance or  
by the  observance of certain forms1 but
 by the sincerity of his inward         
sentiments2 so the same observation will
 apply to states4 ,it is the  spirit and
 purpose of an action1 the nature of a  
deed1 the personal  conduct displayed in
 a public measure2 and not any outward  
form1 which  proves or determines the   
good or evil tendency of any important  
act1  which may be the subject of       
history4 ,that ,christian tone and      
spirit  which belongs to the government 
of the illustrious1 but not immaculate  
,charlemagne1 does not proceed from the 
circumstance1 that he1 like  ,alfred    

after him1 solicited the counsels and   
co-operation of his  ,bishops in framing
 laws for the various provinces of his  
empire1 7for  many of these laws        
contained moral injunctions17 or that at
 ,rome the  ,pope placed the ,imperial  
crown upon his head4 ,but the ,christian
 spirit  of his government is evinced by
 that lofty idea which filled up the    
whole of his active life--by his        
conception of the relations of church   
and state1 and of the utility of science
 for the civilization of  nations--by   
his project of an universal empire      
destined to embrace and  protect all    
civilized nations--the noble fabric of  
modern ,christendom1  of which he laid  
the first foundation-stone1 and which   
reveals his  enlarged views1            
comprehending alike his own age and     
succeeding times4    ,but whenever we   
meet in history with a government which 
independently  of outward forms1 is     
founded on the love of divine           
justice--on a  principle of             

self-devotion whereby rulers are ready  
to sacrifice their  own interest and    
even their own existence in the cause of
 justice and  of social order--these1 we
 may be sure are the certain and        
indubitable  marks of the realization of
 the ,christian theory of law and       
government4 ,on the other hand1 wherever
 we perceive despotism or  violence1 or 
what we feel to be absolute wrong1      
though they be veiled  under the        
sanction of spiritual or temporal power1
 then we may be sure  the whole         
enterprise is unchristian1 as the       
principle is unchristian4  ,of all the  
different forms of this political       
disease1 of the manifold  kinds of      
tyranny1 whether ecclesiastical or      
secular1 military or  commercial1       
domestic or municipal1 academic or      
aristocratic1 the  despotism of popular 
licentiousness is the most reprehensible
 in  principle1 and the most destructive
 in its effects4    ,with the usages and
 institutions of the ,germanic nations1 

this  peculiar temper of the ,christian 
religion perfectly harmonized2          
incomparably better at least1 than with 
the arbitrary government of  the ,roman 
state1 which even after the conversion  
of ,constantine1 still  retained in all 
essential points a ,pagan character4 ,in
 the old ,german  states1 the system of 
hereditary monarchy mostly              
prevailed2--but it  was quite alien from
 absolutism1 and was intermixed with    
many  ,republican institutions1 laws1   
and customs4 ,the whole system of those 
governments was founded on the          
historical basis of ancient usages--on  
the pure1 free and generous sentiment of
 honour--on personal glory and  personal
 character and talents4 ,as soon as this
 natural moral energy  of the ,germanic 
nations had received a religious        
consecration from  ,christianity1 and   
those energetic1 heroic souls had       
imbibed with  fervour1 simplicity1 and  
humility1 the maxims of the religion of 
love2  all the elements of a truly      

,christian government1 and ,christian   
system  of policy were then offered to  
mankind4 ,the political history of those
  ancient times has been mostly         
represented in a too systematic point of
  view1 for the purpose of favouring    
some particular object1 or  interest1 or
 some favourite opinion of modern times2
 since historians  employ all their     
ingenuity in tracing step by step1 and  
disclosing to  our view the first rise  
and gradual growth of any particular    
form of  government1 or principle of    
right--such as the establishment of     
royalty on the one hand1 and that of the
 constitution of the three  orders on   
the other4 ,but they remain quite       
unconcerned about every  more exalted   
principle in society4 ,to judge and     
appreciate not  according to the        
standard of our own or any other age1   
but according  to the dictates of       
eternal truth1 the manners1 the modes of
 thinking1  the tone of society1 the    
spirit and views which animated men1    

whatever  was good or evil1 christian or
 anti-christian in their sentiments1 is 
with these writers a matter of the      
utmost indifference4 ,if there is  any  
exception from the truth of this remark1
 it is when they meet with  some        
singular trait of manners or            
character--some historical paradox      
calculated to stimulate interest1 and   
which they then never fail to  sever    
from its general connexion with the age1
 to tear up from its  natural roots1 and
 exhibit to the curiosity of the        
beholder4 ,and yet  in such individual  
traits of character in the middle age1  
though they  be at first remarked only  
from their singularity1 and be not even 
fully understood1 more traces of        
historical life and truth are to be     
found1 than in those systematic         
representations of history1 drawn up    
with some specific political view1 and  
which aim at an elaborate  dissection   
and violent disrupture of institutions1 
which in those  early times1 were       

inseparably united in the life of       
,christian nations4  ,if the best and   
most praiseworthy measures adopted in   
that first  period of ,christian polity1
 for the settlement and further         
improvement  of the ,christian state1   
and for the establishment and           
application of  christian maxims and    
principles of government1 were nothing  
more but a  generous effort1 a good     
intention1 a rude design--a feeble1     
imperfect  approximation towards a      
divine term--yet we must consider them  
as  peculiar historical phenomena1 leave
 them in their individual  bearings1 and
 not prematurely force them into any    
systematic  connexion1 or attach them to
 any fixed or formal principle of right2
  for in the ,christian government1     
feeling and personality are the most    
essential things4    ,if ,i could       
overstep the narrow limits of this work1
 confined as it is  to a rapid sketch of
 the main and essential facts in the    
historical  progress of mankind1 ,i     

should prefer to draw a portrait of the 
mode of  government and prevalent       
opinions of that age1 out of the many   
characteristic traits in the lives of   
its distinguished rulers1 its  great and
 virtuous kings and emperors1 knights   
and heroes3--such as  that ,charlemagne1
 who would rightly open the series1 that
 pious  ,king ,alfred1 who in a far more
 contracted sphere1 was equally great1  
those first ,saxon ,kings and ,emperors 
of ,germany--princes distinguished  for 
their religious and virtuous sentiments1
 their great and upright  character1 and
 whose reigns exhibiting as they do1 the
 paramount  influence of religion on    
public life1 constitute the happiest    
era1 and  the truly golden period of our
 annals4 ,the peculiar nature and       
constitution1 the internal spirit and   
essence of the ,christian state1  would 
be much more clearly and vividly        
represented by the examples of  these   
great characters1 who to the pure will  
of their energetic1  heroic souls1      

united a practical knowledge of life1   
and a natural  insight into the         
principles of ,christian policy4 ,such a
 course ,i would  prefer to entangling  
myself in the usual disputes about the  
respective  relations of the spiritual  
and temporal powers1 and all the        
contentious points involved in that     
matter2 or to entering upon any         
dissertation respecting the decisive era
 in the developement of  royalty and its
 rights1 or in the progress of the      
constitution of the  three estates1 and 
of various municipal corporations2      
however useful  and instructive such    
enquiries may be in the special history 
of  particular countries4 ,and even in  
the latter respect1 those glorious      
names form a mighty epoch2 and in the   
history of almost all the great         
,european countries1 we meet with some  
holy and magnanimous monarch1  who laid 
the solid foundations of his country's  
constitution1 or  introduced a higher   
civility and refinement in life and     

manners4 ,such  were in ,hungary the    
holy ,king ,stephen1 and in ,france1 the
 great ,st4  ,lewis1 who in more unquiet
 times restored a better spirit1 and for
 a  while retarded the progress of      
corruption4 ,there were also other      
kings1 heroes and emperors1 like        
,rodolph of ,hapsburgh1 who without     
being honoured with the title of saints1
 were truly pious1 chivalric  and       
equitable monarchs1 and may be esteemed 
and revered as the  ,christian          
regenerators of their age1 and the      
founders of a true and  religious system
 of government and manners4 ,a lively   
sketch of such  men and rulers1 who     
acted and governed well and greatly     
according to  ,christian principles and 
views1 would1 ,i think1 furnish a far   
more  complete idea of the true nature  
of the ,christian state in this its     
first period of developement1 than any  
laboured or artificial  definition4     
,there are along with these individual  
characters1  individual and transient   

periods of prosperity1 which break out  
for  one generation or more in the      
history of those early times2 periods   
which can only be considered as         
historical exceptions from the general  
order of things4 ,even those more       
comprehensive1 and so far more  general 
political institutions1 evidently       
peculiar to those ,christian  ages1 and 
nowhere else to be found--like the truce
 of ,god1 which  repressed within       
certain limits the hereditary spirit of 
feud--or the  spiritual chivalry in the 
orders of the ,templars and of the      
,knights of  ,st4 ,john1 consecrated to 
warfare in the cause of ,god1 and       
opening as  they did1 in the time of the
 crusades1 to the same spirit of        
chivalrous feud a higher path and a more
 noble career--all these  political     
institutions1 ,i say1 springing out of  
the nature and  exigencies of their age1
 can be understood only by a reference  
to the  circumstances and prevailing    
spirit of the times1 and must therefore 

be judged as historical peculiarities4  
,as they often sprang up  suddenly      
without a visible or apparent cause1 and
 as if by some high  mysterious impulse1
 so they often sank again as rapidly2   
and the pure  spirit--the true import of
 such institutions appeared but for a   
moment1 like a silvery gleam2 then they 
degenerated1 or were  transformed into  
something totally different4 ,and we    
must not be  astonished at this1 since  
what is best and noblest in man--feeling
 and  its divine quality1 is most easily
 and rapidly impaired1 and may          
sometimes indeed preserve an external   
vigour1 when it has undergone an        
internal change1 and assumed a direction
 opposed to ,god and all  goodness4     
,there were also particular rulers      
possessed of an energetic  will and a   
comprehensive understanding1 who        
exercised a wide and  commanding1 but   
pernicious influence on their age1 and  
the world2 and  among these1 the most   
noted were ,barbarossa and that secret  

friend of  the ,saracens1 the emperor   
,frederick the ,second2 princes who with
 some  others1 must be regarded as the  
first authors of the great dissension4  
,after this dissension had broken out in
 the fearful struggle of the  ,guelphs  
and ,ghibellines1 and ,christendom was  
divided into two parties2  discord      
became general1 pursued its resistless  
course1 and acting in  those distracted 
times like some new destroying law of   
nature1  absorbed all personality and   
its influence in the general abyss of   
error1 or made it at least less         
conspicuous4    ,i will now endeavour to
 give a short sketch of the general     
progress of  ,european society in this  
its first period of developement1 and to
  point out the then peculiar nature and
 constitution of the  ,christian        
state2--from that epoch when            
,charlemagne laid the first  solid      
foundation for a permanent system of    
christian government and  christian     
manners1 down to the moment when an     

anti-christian spirit of  discord broke 
out with incurable violence1 and became 
universally  predominant4 ,i will at the
 same time endeavour to take an         
historical  survey of the whole         
,christian ,west1 as it has remained the
 theatre of  the subsequent progress of 
society1 and of the great transactions  
of  the world down to our times4    ,in 
the blame so commonly lavished1 7and not
 unreasonably1 when we  consider the    
historical consequences17 on the        
customary divisions in  the ,frankish or
 ,carlovingian ,empire1 and the other   
,german states1 men  forget that        
according to the old ,germanic idea1 a  
kingdom was nothing  more than any other
 great family estate1 or princely       
inheritance1 and  governed1 like these1 
by the same law of descent4 ,this was so
 from the  earliest times among both the
 principal races of the ,germans4 ,in   
this  manner we find the nation of the  
,goths divided into two kingdoms2 and   
as the ,saxons were with difficulty     

united under one head in their own      
ancestral country on the ,northern coast
 of ,germany2 so in the ,england  which 
they had conquered and newly peopled1 we
 find seven  principalities or petty    
kingdoms of ,anglo-,saxons co-existent  
with one  another2 and these were only  
by accident reduced to a less number1   
and  but for a time blended into one    
sovereignty4 ,we often ascribe to the   
men1 and to the spirit of those times1  
pretensions quite  inappropriate1       
inapplicable1 and perfectly modern4 ,so 
possessed are we  with the notion of our
 times as to the natural and eternal    
boundaries  of this or that country1 of 
the predestination of a people to       
political unity1 or of the necessary    
national unity of every  state--notions 
or prejudices which are held as so many 
mathematical  axioms1 in which we make  
the highest idea of policy to consist1  
to  which we ascribe an inviolable      
sanctity1 and which in our reverence1   
and in some cases1 we might almost      

say--idolatry1 we exalt above every     
thing else1 and would make every thing  
else subservient to4 ,to the  simplicity
 of those ancient times1 the excellence 
and advantages of a  mild1 domestic1    
paternal1 national sovereignty for the  
more convenient  administration of      
smaller states1 appeared great1 and     
superior to  every other consideration4 
,thus those who had to decide of        
themselves1  and without the imperious  
call of duty--without the feeling of a  
strong necessity for undertaking1 even  
at the sacrifice of a part at  least of 
their own national welfare1 the heavy   
burden of the imperial  office1 in that 
,christian empire evidently established 
by divine  ,providence for the          
protection of the church1 and all the   
nations  belonging to it2--without this 
strong feeling of duty1 ,i say1 they    
never would have deviated from the good 
old simple usage of dividing  the royal 
patrimony4 ,the more so indeed as the   
glory they sought was  rather of a      

chivalrous kind1 consequently purely    
personal2 and that  favourite idol of   
modern times--national vanity1 was      
perfectly unknown  to them4 ,their      
institution1 certainly1 would not be    
adapted to our  times2 nor was it even  
suited to those immediately succeeding2 
but an  age to be judged aright and duly
 appreciated1 must be estimated by its  
own standard1 and the opinions proper to
 it4 ,that even a division of           
sovereignty and partition of kingdoms is
 not incompatible with the  external    
union of the body politic for one       
general design1 so long as  the         
potentates are animated by a ,christian 
and brotherly feeling1 and  a spirit of 
union as to this one object--the        
all-uniting bond of  confederacy2 is a  
truth which may be proved by many       
pleasing and  glorious examples from the
 history of the earlier middle age1 and 
from  that of ,germany especially4 ,if  
on the one hand we would lay it down as 
a general historical law1 and axiom of  

state1 that separated or  divided       
kingdoms and countries can never combine
 for one common  object1 nor remain     
permanently united in feeling nor       
,christian  equity--so on the other     
hand1 we must remember that the division
 of  nations according to certain       
natural boundaries1 which we would fain 
regard as the only perfect and          
absolutely right one1 is like the       
quadrature of the circle1 a problem     
eluding all calculation1 and  remaining 
for ever insoluble1 since each one1     
according to his  peculiar political    
position1 or national prejudices1 views 
those  eternal boundaries in a different
 light1 and determines them             
differently4 ,thus in order to put an   
end to all discord and to the  injurious
 system of partition1 nothing would     
remain but the vulgar  resource of an   
universal monarchy and military         
dominion--a resource  which as often as 
it has been tried1 has been as little   
justified or  recommended by its        

historical results1 as that custom of   
partition  which prevailed in the       
,german ancestral kingdoms of the       
earlier middle  age4    ,the dangers of 
a bitter family feud1 or of the mutual  
jealousies of  the heirs to the several 
kingdoms as to their respective         
portions1  when these grew to any       
considerable extent1 were early enough  
perceived4 ,it is to be observed that in
 the first division of the  great       
,carlovingian empire into three parts1  
designed by ,charlemagne  himself1 but  
accomplished only under his feebler     
successor2 the  inheritance assigned to 
the eldest and imperial                 
brother--,lothaire1 was  together with  
,rome and ,italy1 the ,rhenish district 
situate between  ,france on the one     
side1 and the interior of ,germany on   
the other1 and  extending from          
,switzerland to the sea--a district     
where the ,romans had  planted many and 
most flourishing colonies1 and which for
 many ages  back had been far superior  

in civilization and refinement to the   
countries on either side4 ,with the same
 prospective care1 ,charlemagne  had    
already fixed his residence at          
,aix-la-,chapelle1 preferring the       
,rhenish province as the then true seat 
of civilization4 ,but in the  family    
quarrel and dissensions which ensued1   
this measure of  ,charlemagne as far as 
it was intended1 had no other permanent 
effect  than to cause amid the          
partitions of countries and changes of  
dynasty1  the continuance down to very  
modern times1 of ,lorraine as an        
independent kingdom or dutchy4 ,the     
,rhenish district long preserved its    
pre-eminence in refinement above the    
rest of ,germany2 and with some         
external changes1 was long the seat of  
empire4    ,in that dark old world of   
the ,north1 on which ,christianity was  
just  beginning to dawn1 no monarch     
after ,charlemagne1 shone so            
conspicuously as the virtuous ,alfred1  
,king of the ,west ,saxons in  ,england4

 ,and the same remark is applicable not 
only to him1 but to  ,england in        
general1 which during this first        
,christian period of modern  history1   
far outshone all other countries in     
literature and science1  as well as in  
religion1 piety1 and virtue4 ,the great 
,pope1 ,st4  ,gregory1 as ,i have       
already mentioned1 laid the foundations 
of  ,christianity and intellectual      
refinement in ,england1 whither he sent 
forty ,missionaries2 and so active was  
their zeal and efficacious  their       
influence1 that in the succeeding age1  
this first school of  ,christianity in  
,england sent forth to other countries  
the most eminent  men of their time4    
,such were the ,german apostle and      
bishop1 ,st4  ,boniface1 and ,alcuin1   
the learned friend and confidant of     
,charlemagne4  ,besides many ,latin     
writers produced by this yet flourishing
 ,english  school1 the great ,christian 
,philosopher ,scotus ,erigena1 lived in 
,england in the time of ,alfred2 and    

though this philosopher was perhaps  not
 quite free from speculative error1 he  
was far superior to his own  age1 and in
 the depth and originality of his       
conceptions1 was not  equalled1 and     
certainly not surpassed for many        
succeeding centuries4  ,king ,alfred1   
who though a bard and a writer in his   
own native speech1  prized equally the  
,latin literature1 and who defended his 
country  against the ,danes with the    
most perseverant valour1 was the first  
founder of the ,english constitution2   
for with the wisdom and pacific  spirit 
of a lawgiver1 he restored the old      
,saxon rights and privileges1  and the  
regulations relating to the cities and  
the different orders of  the state4 ,it 
was his virtuous courage1 which in the  
most trying  adversity1 ever remained   
cool and collected1 that alone rescued  
the  isle of freedom from the fierce1   
impetuous power of the ,danes4    ,the  
successful naval expeditions of the     
,normans to all the coasts of  ,europe1 

as far as ,sicily and even beyond it1   
and the incursion of the  ,magiars into 
,europe1 where they received the name of
 ,hungarians1 form  in the ninth century
 the close1 and are1 as it were1 the    
last  reverberation1 of the great       
immigration of the ,northern nations1   
and  must on that account not be        
entirely passed over in silence4 ,this  
last  maritime migration from the ,north
 began with a powerful and  enterprizing
 ruler of ,norway1 the fair-haired      
,harold2 and these naval  expeditions   
which were undertaken1 not merely from  
motives of vulgar  piracy1 or of martial
 adventure1 but for the foundation and  
permanent  settlement of new states1    
soon scoured all the coasts and regions 
of  the ,northern ocean1 as well as of  
the ,mediterranean sea4 ,the province   
in ,france which these freebooters      
conquered1 the ,french acknowledged  by 
the title of duchy of ,normandy2 and    
they were glad enough thus to  bind it  
to their king by the homage of fealty1  

and to attach it to1 if  not to         
incorporate it with1 their kingdom4     
,called to ,naples and ,sicily  by the  
,greeks1 who demanded their aid against 
the ,saracens1 the  ,normans there      
founded for themselves a kingdom of long
 duration4 ,after  ,christianity had    
introduced into ,denmark a better system
 of government  and legislation1 the    
powerful ,danish monarch1 ,canute the   
,great1 ruled  over ,england during this
 period of the ,norman sway2 till at    
last1  after a short interval of        
contest1 another ,norman1 ,william the  
,conqueror1 issuing from ,france1       
founded a new dynasty in ,england1 and  
established on the basis of the old free
 ,saxon constitution1 a high  chivalrous
 aristocracy4    ,from the remotest part
 of ,eastern ,asia1 situate between the 
,uzi and  the ,patzinacites1 an         
emigration of nations took a ,westward  
course  towards the country of the      
,chazars1 and at last led the nation of 
the  ,magiars from their original seat  

to ,pannonia1 where1 according to the   
testimony of contemporary writers1 the  
,avars1 the descendants of the  ancient 
,huns1 still lived under their ,chagan4 
,once excited into  tumultuous activity1
 these ,hungarians 7who were still      
,pagans7 roved as  far as the ,north of 
,italy1 and down to ,thessalonica in    
,greece1 and to  the very neighbourhood 
of ,constantinople2 they then advanced  
westward  in large squadrons far into   
the interior of ,germany1 even to       
,saxony4  ,it was here that the noble   
,king ,henry the ,first1 opposed a      
vigorous  resistance to their           
incursions1 and ,otho the ,great put a  
final term to  the progress of their    
arms by the victory on the banks of the 
,lech4  ,christianity1 which was        
introduced into ,hungary under ,geisa1  
the  father of ,king ,stephen1          
established a milder system of manners  
and of  legislation2 a system which ,st4
 ,stephen by a close union with         
,germany1  brought to full maturity4 ,at

 the same period1 ,poland under the     
happy  influence of the ,christian      
religion1 which introduced here a better
  system of manners and legislation1 was
 incorporated into the civilized        
community of the ,european nations1 and 
with ,germany in particular1  formed a  
very close political connexion4 ,it is  
particularly pleasing  to observe the   
very beneficial influence of            
,christianity in the  promotion of      
agriculture1 and in the advancement of  
intellectual  refinement in the         
,northern vallies of ,sweden1 during the
 reigns of  ,olaus and ,st4 ,eric2 when 
the old ,hall of ,odin at ,upsal was    
finally  destroyed1 and the new religion
 obtained the victory4    ,during the   
period of the ,norman glory1 the        
,russians 7a populous and  widely spread
 ,sclavonian nation1 inhabiting the vast
 and ancient  ,sarmatia1 formerly       
governed by the ,goths7 called to their 
assistance  the ,varangians1 who        
established a new dynasty at ,novogorod4

 ,either  from this circumstance1 or    
from the former dominion of the ,goths1 
the  country was by the neighbouring    
,finnish tribes afterwards called       
,gothland4 ,russia received             
,christianity at the hands of the       
,byzantines--and thus in its remote     
,north1 remained a stranger to the      
,catholic ,west--the more so1 indeed1 as
 the country1 invaded and  desolated by 
the ,moguls1 long groaned under the     
oppressive yoke of  these               
barbarians--till at length1 in very     
recent times1 and in the  very struggle 
of regeneration1 it has grown up into a 
mighty power4  ,thus the whole circuit  
of the ,christian ,west1 and all the    
kingdoms it  included1 was now tolerably
 well filled up2 and it then consisted  
of  ten principal countries or nations2 
but in forming this estimate we  must   
not attend to minuter subdivisions or   
mere national varieties1  or to the     
frequent partitions of kingdoms1 and    
alterations of  territory1 amid various 

conflicting or successive dynasties2 but
 we  should keep in view only the       
general and permanent outline of the    
,european states4 ,germany and ,italy1  
which were respectively the seats  of   
the ,christian empire and the ,papal    
dignity1 formed the centre of  ,europe4 
,along with these two states1 ,france   
and ,england were the most  active1 the 
most powerful1 and the most influential 
members of the  ,european commonwealth2 
while ,spain was principally occupied   
with her  own domestic contests against 
the ,saracens4 ,the ,scandinavian       
countries  were somewhat connected with 
the ,germanic ,empire1 and ,poland and  
,hungary1 after they had embraced       
,christianity1 were united with that    
empire in the closest bonds4 ,lastly1 in
 the far ,northern and ,eastern         
extremities of ,europe1 the ,byzantine  
,empire and the kingdom of the          
,muscovites1 7closely connected by the  
ties of religion17 formed the  extreme  
and remotest members of the ,christian  

,republic4 ,such was the  geographical  
extent1 and such the historical         
situation of ,christendom  at that      
period4    ,after the downfal of the    
,carlovingian family1 the empire was    
restored  to its pristine vigour by the 
election of the noble ,conrad1 ,duke of 
the ,franconians4 ,this pious1          
chivalrous1 wise and valiant monarch had
  to contend with many difficulties1 and
 fortune did not always smile  upon his 
efforts4 ,but he terminated his royal   
career with a deed1  which alone exalts 
him far above other celebrated          
conquerors and  rulers1 and was attended
 with more important consequences to    
after-times1 than have resulted from    
many brilliant reigns2 and this  single 
deed1 which forms the brightest jewel in
 the crown of glory  that adorns those  
ages1 so clearly reveals the true nature
 of  ,christian principles of           
government1 and the ,christian idea of  
political power1 that ,i may be         
permitted to notice it briefly4 ,when he

  felt his end approaching1 and         
perceived that of the four principal    
,german nations1 the ,saxons alone by   
their superior power1 were capable  of  
bringing to a successful issue the      
mighty struggle in which all  ,europe   
was at that critical period involved1 he
 bade his brother carry  to ,henry ,duke
 of ,saxony1 hitherto the rival of his  
house1 and who was  as magnanimous as   
fortunate1 the holy lance and           
consecrated sword of  the ancient kings1
 with all the other imperial insignia4  
,he thus  pointed him out as the        
successor of his own choice1 and in his 
regard  for the general weal1 and in his
 anxiety to maintain a great pacific    
power capable of defending the common   
interests of ,christendom1 he           
disregarded the suggestions of national 
vanity1 and sacrificed even  the glory  
of his own house4 ,so wise and          
judicious1 as well as heroic a          
sacrifice of all selfish glory1 for what
 the interests of society1 and  the     

necessities of the times evidently      
demand1 is that principle which  forms  
the very foundation1 and constitutes the
 true spirit of all  ,christian         
government4 ,and by this very deed      
,conrad became after  ,charlemagne1 the 
second restorer of the ,western ,empire1
 and the real  founder of the ,german   
nation2 for it was this noble resolve of
 his  great soul which alone saved the  
,germanic body from a complete          
dismemberment4 ,the event fully         
justified his choice4 ,the new ,king    
,henry1 victorious on every side1       
laboured to build a great number of     
cities1 to restore the reign of peace   
and justice1 and to maintain the  purity
 of ,christian manners and ,christian   
institutions2 and  prepared for his     
mightier son1 the great ,otho1 the      
,restoration of the  ,christian ,empire 
in ,italy1 whither the latter was loudly
 and  unanimously called4 ,this first   
age of the ,saxon ,emperors was the     
happy  period wherein ,germany possessed

 the greatest power and resources1 and  
enjoyed great internal peace and        
prosperity4 ,it is in this period1  too1
 that we trace the first beginnings of  
mental refinement1 in many  excellent   
and remarkable productions of the ,latin
 school1 which were  soon succeeded by  
the successful cultivation of the       
vernacular tongue4  ,quite as           
unhistorical1 and even still more absurd
 than the reproaches  urged against the 
,carlovingians for their impolitic      
partition of the  ,empire1 are those    
repeated lamentations and eternal       
regrets in which  modern historians     
indulge1 whenever they have occasion to 
notice the  frequent expeditions of the 
,german ,kings and ,emperors to ,rome   
and  ,italy1 and the connection which   
subsisted between the ,german nation    
and the ,christian ,imperial ,dignity--a
 connection which these writers         
consider a great misfortune4 ,they do   
not enter into the true idea of  this   
dignity--they do not comprehend the     

urgent need of those times  for an      
universal ,protectorate1 which might1   
like a bulwark1 defend  ,europe against 
internal anarchy1 and the invasions of  
barbarous  nations2 and which might     
prevent the light of ,christianity from 
being  perhaps extinguished in a second 
night of universal barbarism4 ,the      
modern critics of those ancient times   
cannot understand that high  ,christian 
feeling--that exalted principle of      
self-devotion1 whereby a  nation from   
its internal strength and natural       
situation1 was called by  the general   
voice to take on itself this burden for 
the common weal1  and to be the firm    
sustaining centre of the ,european      
system--a calling  which must           
necessarily occasion a mighty loss and  
heavy sacrifice of  repose and          
prosperity to the nation so undertaking 
the momentous  charge4 ,without this    
firm central power1 which held together 
the  ,european nations1 they would1     
yielding at the first shock1 have       

succumbed under the attacks of the      
,mahometans or ,moguls4    ,without this
 central power1 ,europe would have been 
broken up into a  multitude of petty    
states1 and have sunk into eternal and  
irremediable  anarchy2 whereas now1     
great as might be at times the          
confusion1 and  fearfully wild the      
spirit of warfare1 there was always a   
resource and  a remedy against such     
calamities4 ,as the religious vow of the
 knight  dignified his duties into a    
sort of ecclesiastical warfare2 so the  
high functions of the ,emperor were     
considered as partly  ecclesiastical1   
and he was looked on as the sworn       
liegeman of ,almighty  ,god1 intrusted  
with the high sword of universal        
justice4 ,it was the  exalted idea of   
this arduous and momentous charge1 far  
more than  schemes of selfish ambition  
and idle glory1 that filled up the lives
  of the most active and powerful of    
those ancient emperors4 ,hence this     
common regard for the general welfare of

 ,christendom1 which the  obligations of
 their respective stations imposed upon 
them1 produced a  very intimate union   
between the heads of the spiritual and  
temporal  authority in ,europe1 and     
placed them in a state of mutual        
dependance4  ,when the mighty emperor1  
,otho the ,great1 had been called into  
,italy1  and had witnessed with his own 
eyes the state of general corruption    
and degeneracy at ,rome1 where among the
 baronial factions which  surrounded the
 ,papal chair1 one of the more powerful 
families sought  by the most culpable   
intrigues to obtain a lasting1 and as it
 were1  hereditary possession of the    
holy see2 he exerted his imperial       
authority1 and deposed the ,pope1 who by
 means so unlawful had obtained  his    
dignity1 and on whom the general voice  
of the age had long  pronounced a       
sentence of condemnation1 causing a     
worthier ,pontiff to  be elected in his 
room4 ,there still existed among those  
of the same  mind in ,christendom1 an   

unerring feeling1 whereby the           
righteousness or  unrighteousness of any
 action1 its real spirit and purpose1   
were  easily and promptly determined    
without any anxious regard to mere      
outward forms4 ,but when that uniformity
 of feeling had disappeared1  and with  
it feeling itself had ceased to be a    
ruling principle of  public and         
political life1 the standard of         
political estimation rested  almost     
exclusively on outward forms1 and the   
contentious point of law  involved in   
those forms2 and as in every historical 
fact men saw but a  precedent fertile of
 application1 or even dangerous in its  
consequences1 they no longer formed a   
pure historical judgment on the  general
 spirit of any great action1 and they   
almost lost the very  notion of such a  
thing4 ,the whole world at that time was
 unanimous in  justifying the conduct of
 the great ,otho in that affair4 ,when  
however  the clergy of ,rome1 in their  
first feelings of gratitude and         

admiration at their deliverance from    
intolerable anarchy1 and the  toils of  
an unworthy family1 conferred on the    
emperor the future and  permanent power 
of choosing the ,pope1 it might have    
been easily  foreseen that so extended a
 prerogative1 little compatible as it   
was  with the independence of the       
church1 would in the sequel provoke a   
strong reaction4 ,this accordingly took 
place about a hundred years  later1 when
 a man of great energy of character1    
,pope ,gregory ,,vii4  arose to reform  
the church1 and achieve its independence
 against the  many unlawful             
encroachments of the secular power4 ,and
 when a prince1  distinguished indeed   
for his warlike qualities1 but utterly  
characterless and animated with an      
unquiet spirit1 who1 according to  the  
unanimous testimony of his              
contemporaries1 had incurred many and   
most serious charges2 when this prince  
first attacked and deposed the  ,pope1  
and the latter laid him under an        

excommunication1 the conduct of  the    
,pontiff was not only in strict         
accordance with the general opinion  of 
the age as to the mischievous rule of   
this secular potentate2 but  was quite  
conformable to the then prevailing      
doctrine of public law1  which          
sanctioned the responsibility and       
accountability of the temporal  power4  
,hence1 ,henry ,,iv4 found it more      
expedient to loose himself from  this   
excommunication by a feint submission1  
than to impugn it by open  force2       
although he never afterwards ceased     
persecuting the ,pope1 whose  constancy 
was proved in adversity and persecution4
 ,in our own times1  justice has been at
 last rendered to the great qualities of
 this  ,pontiff1 and it has been allowed
 he was perfectly free from all  selfish
 views1 and that the austere and        
decisive energy of his  character sprang
 from no other motive than a burning    
zeal for the  reform of the church and  
of mankind4 ,the ,german historians in  

particular1 and in truth those on the   
,protestant side1 have been the  first  
to perform this act of justice2 and the 
name of ,gregory ,,vii4 who  lived in   
times so different from our own1 has    
long ceased to be with  the ,germans a  
watch-word for party strife4    ,but on 
the matter at issue1 or rather on the   
opinion the world then  entertained     
respecting it1 it will be necessary to  
say a few words4  ,that the ,sovereign  
is in no way responsible seems in modern
 times to  be considered an immutable   
axiom1 or rather the first of all axioms
 in  the science of government2 and     
whenever a monarch in the history of    
the middle ages1 however vicious he may 
be and however forgetful of  his        
dignity1 meets with the treatment of the
 ,emperor ,henry ,,iv41  political      
indignation is raised to the highest    
pitch4 ,no one can have  the slightest  
intention of questioning the perfect    
justness of the  above state-axiom1     
under certain given circumstances4 ,but1

 if the  question be a parallel between 
the middle ages and modern times1 we    
may oppose to the scandal of the        
ecclesiastical excommunication          
pronounced against this prince during   
the former period1 the still  more fatal
 example which has occurred within the  
last three centuries1  of the public    
execution of several monarchs1 and of   
the assassination  of many others4      
,thus1 in this respect1 the history of  
the middle age  stands purer2 and this  
warns us to decide with less            
precipitancy on  the superiority of our 
own standard of political morality1 and 
on the  greater perfection of modern    
principles of state-policy4#f ,according
  to the feeling of right1 and the      
prevailing maxims of public law in  that
 age1 a mutual controul and             
responsibility subsisted between  church
 and state1 and between the heads of    
either4 ,in the most  esteemed          
constitutions of modern states1 there is
 also a mutual  dependence and possible 

controul4 ,thus the prince may dissolve 
the  parliament1 or resist its          
enactments by his veto2 and1 on the     
other hand1 the parliament1 by          
withholding its sanction to the         
imposition of taxes1 or refusing the    
grant of subsidies1 may weaken  the     
sinews of government1 and summon1 not   
indeed the king1 who seems  to be       
regarded as a mere cipher1 but the      
ministry to a most severe  reckoning4   
,the government loses all stay and      
support1 when the  ,opposition obtains a
 permanent and decided majority4        
,whether this  mutual dependence and    
controul in the modern theory of        
government be  less dangerous than in   
the ancient system1 is a question which 
it is  not so easy to decide4 ,as all   
the institutions of the middle age had a
  religious spirit and character1 it    
cannot excite our surprise that  this   
opposition between the spiritual and    
temporal power1 and this  mutual        
dependence of the heads of church and   

state should have been  founded in      
religion1 and in the religious character
 and purpose of the  ,imperial1 as well 
as of the ,papal1 dignity4 ,it was only 
by the  excesses of passion and         
violence1 by the exaggerated proceedings
 of  both the spiritual and temporal    
powers1 as well as by unfortunate       
accidents and a human imperfection1 by  
no means inherent in the nature  of the 
thing itself1 that the dispute between  
church and state grew to  such a fearful
 magnitude1 was so prolonged1 and often 
became almost  incurable4 ,but how      
easily1 even then1 peace might be       
restored between  the spiritual and     
temporal powers by the wisdom1 the      
prudence1 the  good-will1 and           
conciliatory temper of both1 is proved  
by the peaceable  termination of the    
quarrel respecting investiture under the
 successor  of ,henry ,,iv4 ,in the     
sequel1 indeed1 the harsh1 stern1       
inflexible  character of the ,ghibelline
 ,emperors1 especially ,barbarossa1     

again  perplexed this question2 when    
from the contest growing more and more  
violent betwixt the ,guelfs and         
,ghibellines1 the political schism      
became wider and wider1 and discord     
seemed to be again the mistress of  the 
world4         #f ,in confirmation of   
what ,schlegel asserts in the           
text1 ,i shall cite a few passages from 
some       distinguished ,protestant    
,historians of ,germany4 ,to shew       
my readers the enlarged1 liberal and    
enlightened views       taken by the    
,protestant writers of that country on  
the       political influence of the    
,papacy in the middle age1       and on 
the services which at that momentous    
period the       hierarchy rendered to  
the cause of social order1       liberty
 and civilization1 it were easy to      
transcribe       matter more than       
sufficient to fill a volume4 ,let a few 
examples suffice4--,the ,northern       
nations1 says the       celebrated      
historian of ,switzerland1 ,john        

,muller1       rushing in upon the most 
beautiful countries of ,europe1         
trampling under foot1 or disturbing and 
convulsing all       social             
institutions1 menaced the whole ,western
 world       with a barbarism similar to
 that which1 under the       ,ottoman   
sceptre1 has obliterated every thing    
good1       great and beautiful that    
ancient ,greece and ,asia had           
produced4 ,yet the ,bishops and other   
,dignitaries       7,versteher7 of the  
church1 strong in their authority1      
contrived to impose a restraint on those
 giants of the       ,north who1 as     
regards intelligence1 were but children4
       ,they would not have been more   
successful than the ,greek              
prelates1 had they been subject to four 
different       ,patriarchs4 ,the ,popes
 of ,rome1 7whose primitive history     
is as obscure and defective as that of  
the ancient       ,roman ,republic1     
since we know little of the first       
,popes1 except that they devoted their  

lives for the       faith1 as ,decius   
had done for his country17 the ,popes1  
we say1 employed their authority with   
the same address       which we admire  
in the ancient ,senate1 to render their 
see independent1 subject to its         
immediate action the       whole        
,western hierarchy1 and establish its   
sway1 far       beyond the boundaries of
 the ancient empire1 on the       ruins 
of the ,northern religions4 ,thus       
whoever refused       to honour the     
,christ1 trembled before the ,pope2 and 
one       faith and one church were     
preserved in ,europe1 amid the          
breaking up and subdivision of the      
newly-founded       kingdoms into a     
thousand petty principalities4 ,we know 
what ,pope made ,charlemagne the first  
,emperor2 but who       made the first  
,pope8 ,the ,pope1 they say1 was only a 
,bishop2 yes1 but at the same time1 the 
,holy ,father1       the ,sovereign     
,pontiff1 the great ,caliph1 7as he was 
called by ,ho-,albufreda1 ,prince of    

,hamath7 of all the       kingdoms and  
principalities1 of all the lordships and
       cities of the ,west4 ,it is he   
who controuled by the fear       of ,god
 the stormy youth of our modern states4 
,at       present even1 when his        
authority is no longer       formidable1
 he is still very puissant by the       
benedictions which he showers2 he is    
still an object of       veneration to  
innumerable hearts1 honoured by the     
kings       who honour the nations1     
invested with a power1 before           
which in the long succession of ages1   
from the ,csars       to the ,house of  
,hapsburg1 a host of nations and all    
their great names have vanished4        
,we declaim against the ,pope6 as if it 
were such a       misfortune that there 
should exist an authority to            
superintend the practice of ,christian  
morality1 and to       say to ambition  
and to despotism1 ,halt6--so far1 and no
       further6 ,bisher1 und nicht      
weiter6 ,so speaks the       illustrious

 ,john ,muller4 ,the celebrated ,herder 
allows       that without the hierarchy1
 ,europe in all probability       had   
become the prey of tyrants1 the theatre 
of eternal       wars1 or even a desert4
         ,the hierarchy1 says ,beck1    
opposed the progress of       despotism 
in ,europe1 preserved the elements of   
civilization1 and upheld in the         
recollection of men       what is so    
easily effaced--the ties which bind     
earth to       ,heaven4 ,those ignorant 
men1 as we affect to call them1         
have settled almost all the countries of
 ,europe4 ,the       fruits of that time
 are the formation of the third         
estate1 whence dates the true existence 
of nations--and       the establishment 
of cities1 wherein social life and      
true liberty were developed4--,beck on  
the ,middle       ,age1 page #ac4       
,leipzick1 #ahbd4         ,the weak1    
says ,ruhs1 in his ,manual of the       
,history of       the ,middle ,age1 then
 found in spiritual authority a         

better protection against the           
encroachments of the       powerful than
 afterwards in the balance of power--a  
system which1 as it was a thing purely  
abstract1       devoid of all external  
guarantee1 must soon have lost       all
 influence4 ,the ,pope was always       
present to terminate       the wars     
which had broken out among ,christian   
princes1       and to protect the people
 against the injustice and       tyranny
 of their rulers4 ,the ,clergy therefore
 every       where showed themselves    
opposed to the power of kings1          
when the latter wished to become        
perfectly       absolute--they wished   
not to domineer over them1 but          
confine them within the legitimate      
bounds of their       authority4 ,the   
,priesthood was consequently always for 
princes1 when powerful vassals attacked 
the rights of       the ,sovereign--they
 were the natural and constant          
guardians of the rights and liberty of  
all       classes4--,manual of the      

,history of the ,middle ,age4           
#ahaf4--,trans4                         
,,end ,,of ,,lecture ,,xiii4            
,,lecture ,,xiv4        ,on the         
struggles of the ,guelfs and            
,ghibellines4--,spirit of the           
,ghibelline age4--,origin of romantic   
poetry and art4--,character      of the 
scholastic science and the old          
jurisprudence4--,anarchical      state  
of ,western ,europe4      ,the most     
rapid sketch of the history of the      
middle age1 if it  contained but a few  
lively1 characteristic and faithful     
traits on a  subject inexhaustible in   
itself1 would suffice to convince any   
reasonable man that great characters1   
7abounding almost more than in  any     
other period of history17 important     
interests1 mighty motives1 and  lofty   
feelings and ideas were there in mutual 
collision2 and that in  what is called  
the anarchy of the middle age we find an
 active and  stirring life1 the most    
splendid feats of heroism1 and many     

luminous  traces of a higher power4 ,the
 most careful consideration and profound
  investigation of the history of those 
ages1 invariably discovers that  all    
that was then great and good in the     
state1 as well as in the  church1       
proceeded from ,christianity1 and from  
the wonderful efficacy  of religious    
principles4 ,whatever was imperfect1    
defective1 and  hurtful1 belonged not to
 that moral principle which animated    
society1  and which was itself the best1
 the noblest1 and the soundest2 but was 
in the character of men1 we might almost
 say1 in the character of the  age      
itself1 which1 though perhaps not       
originally and purposely  selfish1 had  
yet become so in the violence of the    
conflict4 ,and by  selfishness1 ,i do   
not precisely understand a vulgar       
self-interest1 or  an ordinary ambition1
 but that absolute will or conduct which
 springs  from some unalterable         
resolution1 which1 hurrying from one    
extreme to  another1 is sure to produce 

a perpetual alternation of extreme      
measures4 ,in some cases this conduct   
proceeded from a want of  penetration1  
prudence1 and steadiness1 which did not 
always accompany  the deeds of heroic   
enthusiasm1 the astonishing energy of   
will and  strength of character which   
distinguished the men of those ages4    
,the  principle then really bad1 the    
principle hostile to good1 must be      
ascribed to that inclination to discord1
 innate in man1 or which at  least has  
become his second nature--an inclination
 which1 when united  with those other   
mighty qualities of the age1 assumed    
indeed the most  formidable shape4      
,the whole middle age1 however1 must not
 by any means be depicted as a  period  
of universal anarchy2 as1 from the great
 difference of times1  and the fact that
 much in the manners and political      
institutions of  those ages is now      
scarcely intelligible1 modern writers   
are but too  apt to indulge in this     
strain of censure4 ,above all1 we must  

be  careful to distinguish in the       
history of the middle ages the variety  
of epochs4 ,as long as those religious  
principles on which church and  state   
depended1 were maintained in their unity
 and intregrity1 the  social stability  
of that first and happier period is     
indeed  remarkable1 and forms a striking
 contrast with the succeeding age4 ,for 
private feuds1 restrained within certain
 bounds by the manners of  chivalry and 
the laws of honour1 or the more         
protracted1 and  frequently renewed     
struggles of a warlike nation to repel  
the inroads  of barbarians1 or the      
aggressions of turbulent neighbours1 are
 no  adequate proofs of general anarchy4
 ,but a full knowledge and just         
appreciation of the power of principle1 
which during that better  period was the
 ,christian foundation of the state1 is 
of so much more  importance to our age1 
as in these times when principle has    
given way  to the mutable opinion of the
 moment1 and the latter exerts so mighty

  an influence on public life2 though   
men have the power to throw off  this   
ursurped dominion1 they will not return 
to that unity and  stabilty of          
principle1 however strongly they may    
feel the necessity of  restoring its    
saving influence4 ,no parallel could be 
more profitable  and instructive than   
the comparison between an age and a     
state1 where  principle was predominant1
 and another where opinion was          
paramount4    ,all that was great and   
good in the history of the middle age1  
as ,i  observed at the commencement of  
this lecture1 existed only in           
fragments1 and this has very much       
contributed to heighten the  appearance 
of anarchy throughout the whole of this 
great period of  human history4 ,of this
 the blame must be sought for in a      
combination  of many injurious causes1  
and in the resistance of many opposing  
elements4 ,that wonderful power of      
regeneration1 by which the whole of     
,western ,christendom1 after every      

mighty destruction1 and reign of        
confusion in church and state1 has1 in a
 form somewhat modified1  sprung up     
anew1 renovated and exalted1 can be     
ascribed only to that  religion which   
was in ,christian countries the first1  
and for so many  centuries the          
apparently almost indestructible support
 of the social  edifice4 ,in many and   
memorable periods of regeneration1 down 
to our  own times1 this truth has been  
repeatedly manifested2 unless perhaps   
this self-renovating power conspicuous  
in the progress of ,christian  ,europe1 
as well as of the particular nations    
composing it1 languishing  and decaying 
by degrees1 become at last utterly      
extinct4    ,among the characteristic1  
remarkable1 and peculiarly ,christian   
institutions of the middle age1 we ought
 especially to mention that             
ecclesiastical truce1 or peace of ,god1 
which towards the commencement  of the  
eleventh century1 opposed a powerful    
barrier to the growing and  restless    

spirit of private warfare4 ,without its 
being possible to  specify exactly1 how 
or where this institution first arose1  
it was at  once proclaimed in several   
places1 and generally received with     
pious  faith1 as a voice of             
reconciliation from above1 an immediate 
revelation and benign dispensation of   
divine ,providence2 and every  week the 
tolling of the bell announced the sacred
 truce from ,wednesday  evening to      
,monday morning1 during which time all  
feuds were to  subside1 and all         
hostilities to cease4 ,it may indeed    
here be asked in  the spirit of modern  
times1 why were only four1 and not the  
whole  seven days of the week fixed     
upon1 for the cessation of disorder8 and
  it may be further said that a severe  
criminal code1 and a prompt1  vigorous  
and enlightened administration of the   
law1 would have  rendered such          
expedients unnecessary4 ,and it is thus 
that men speak  and reason without any  
knowledge of that age2 for many feuds1  

troubles1 and contests then existed1 as 
in all ages have existed and  still     
exist1 which no criminal legislation can
 reach3 and who will not  deem it the   
part of prudence and a real gain1 when  
peace is not  attainable1 to obtain at  
least a safe and honourable armistice1  
or to  subtract from the principle of   
war four sevenths of its baneful        
influence and actual duration8 ,and how 
happy would men have accounted          
themselves1 if1 in other and later times
 of disorder1 when nought was           
reverenced or respected1 and every thing
 sacred was an object of  hatred and    
persecution1 they could1 amid the       
general confusion1 have  found shelter  
under such a wall of safety1 or been    
blessed with such a  holiday of peace1  
though only at particular times of the  
week6 ,we  should rather admire the     
power of religion1 whereby such a       
prohibition  without the aid of external
 force1 or secular authority1 and       
running  directly counter to the ruling 

passion of the age1 was received with   
such pious faith1 and followed with such
 humble docility4    ,in the first      
crusade1 religious feeling and          
enthusiasm was the great  spring of     
action2 and in the outset1 at least1 it 
was far more the  glowing eloquence of  
,peter the hermit1 his affecting        
description of  the ,holy ,land1 and of 
the holy places groaning under the      
,saracen yoke1  which contributed to    
bring about this memorable expedition1  
than the  pretended policy of the ,popes
 for causing the depression of regal    
power1 and the promotion of popular     
freedom4 ,these mighty  consequences1   
though in fact historically true1 became
 apparent only  at a much later period1 
and so far from being pre-concerted1    
were then  not even foreseen4 ,as the   
first ,crusade occurred in the most     
brilliant  period of ,norman glory1 the 
,norman heroes1 especially those from   
,france1 took a very active and         
prominent part in it4 ,the warfare which

  the ,saracens waged against           
,christendom was considered 7and then   
perhaps not without reason17 as a state 
of permanent and universal  hostility4  
,the chivalrous and defensive wars of   
,christian nations  against the         
unbelievers were looked upon in the same
 light2 and if we  may judge from       
posterior events1 ,jerusalem and ,egypt1
 in that long and  memorable contest    
between ,europe and ,asia1 could very   
well be  regarded1 both in a military   
and political point of view1 as the     
bulwarks of ,christendom4 ,feats of     
prodigious1 and almost incredible1      
heroism were achieved in the ,holy      
,land2 and1 at the close of the         
eleventh century1 the victorious cross  
was planted in the holy city1  and the  
pious ,christian hero1 ,godfrey1        
proclaimed ,king of ,jerusalem1  though 
this title1 as suited only to the divine
 ,son of ,david1 he with  all humility  
renounced4    ,in this holy city the    
first two spiritual orders of chivalry  

sprang  up2 the knights of ,st4 ,john1  
who took up arms for the defence of     
pilgrimage1 and in their vows combined  
the care of the sick pilgrims  with the 
management of the sword2 and the        
,templars1 so called after  the temple  
of ,solomon1 and from a recollection of 
the remarkable  secrets connected with  
that edifice4 ,chivalrous institutions  
of this  kind1 wherein ,christianity    
contrived to blend the most opposite    
qualities and inclinations of human     
nature1 could not have sprung up  under 
a mathematical government of reason1 or 
in a state where every  thing is reduced
 to the level of a dead uniformity1 and 
general  equality1 and where all feeling
 and personality are effaced4 ,but the  
voice of ages has decided completely in 
favour of these marvellous  institutes1 
and even in our own times1 amid all the 
changes and  fluctuations of opinion1   
they have preserved the respect1 and    
obtained the forbearance1 of mankind4   
,even in the second ,crusade which took 

place about fifty years later1  when the
 new progress of the ,saracen arms      
appeared to threaten the  safety of the 
holy city1 it was far more the pious    
eloquence of ,st4  ,bernard than any    
scheme or calculation of policy1 which  
set the whole  ,european world in       
motion4 ,the number of warriors and     
armed pilgrims  who1 under the guidance 
of the ,emperor ,conrad1 and the ,king  
of ,france1  poured in upon the ,holy   
,land1 is computed at more than half a  
million4  ,the religious enthusiasm and 
chivalric heroism which formed the sole 
and animating principle of the whole    
enterprise1 were not always  accompanied
 with sufficient prudence1 wisdom and   
circumspection4 ,the  want of these     
qualities at least1 as regarded the     
influences of  climate1 the physical    
wants of so vast an army1 and a         
geographical  knowledge of localities1  
is too often apparent2 and in default of
 this  necessary foresight and          
preparatory information1 many thousands 

perished in the second as well as in the
 first ,crusade2 a fate which  indeed is
 not unfrequent in wars1 where great    
bodies of people are  exposed to toil   
and hardship in a foreign climate4      
,these expeditions  were indeed like new
 migrations of nations1 which took an   
opposite  direction from the first1 and 
rolled backward from ,europe towards    
ancient ,asia4 ,the great multitude of  
men engaged1 would sufficiently  account
 for these memorable expeditions1 as it 
proves the redundance  of population in 
,europe1 which sought on this occasion1 
and by means  of this kind1 to disburden
 itself of its surplus numbers4 ,and if 
this  numerous population may have given
 rise to1 or afforded materials for1    
turbulence and anarchy1 still on the    
other hand1 it furnishes a proof  that  
that anarchy was not of so destructive  
and depopulating a nature1  as the      
descriptions of modern historians would 
sometimes lead us to  suppose4    ,the  
real point of transition in ,german     

history from good to  evil1--from those 
,christian principles which were ever   
predominant in  the earlier period1 to  
the unappeasable contests of the ,guelfs
 and  ,ghibellines in the later middle  
age1 must be fixed in the reign of the  
,emperor ,frederick the ,first4 ,the    
hostile treatment of the old ,saxon     
race1 the destruction of that first and 
greatest of the old national  dutchies  
of the ,germans1 was occasioned by the  
jealousy of the ,east  ,franconians     
under the dynasty of that race2 and this
 measure1 begun  during the reign1 7in  
every respect so mischievous7 of ,henry 
the  ,fourth1 who thus became chargeable
 with this mighty injustice towards  the
 whole ,german nation1 was now brought  
to a head by the ,emperor  ,barbarossa4 
,and thus1 with the most signal         
ingratitude1 was cut off by  the root   
that noble stem whence ,german glory and
 ,german power had  sprung2 for the     
reigns of the great ,saxon ,emperors    
form precisely the  most prosperous and 

most brilliant period of ,german        
history1 such  indeed as has never been 
again witnessed4 ,with the same         
unrelenting  severity and atrocious     
cruelty1 this ,ghibelline ,emperor      
destroyed the  confederate cities of    
,lombardy1 and with them crushed the    
fair plant  of ,italian civilization    
just then beginning to blossom4         
,these two great historical parties--the
 ,guelfs and ,ghibellines1 are  the same
 which we meet with in other periods of 
history1 and even in  our own times1    
though under other names1 often in a    
form very  different from that of the   
present day1 and not always in the same 
relative position towards each other2   
but in the middle age they  appeared in 
the larger and more gigantic proportions
 of the vigorous1  heroic character     
belonging to that epoch4 ,there is ever 
the one party  aspiring after greater   
freedom1 and the other immovably        
attached to  the ancient faith1 and to  
the principles it inculcates4 ,that the 

liberal principles of innovation should1
 according to the peculiar  complexion  
which these opinions take in every age1 
have emanated even  from imperial power1
 and should have sought to establish    
their  dominion in the world by force of
 arms1 is not improbable in itself2  and
 examples of a like kind are not wanting
 in history4 ,and in this  shape we find
 these principles in the middle age1    
where for a long  while they exerted the
 greatest influence1 and at last became 
almost  predominant4 ,on the other hand 
the legitimate attachment to the old    
permanent principle of faith appeared   
here in the form of an  ecclesiastical  
opposition to secular ascendancy4 ,but  
in the time of  ,barbarossa1 the solemn 
reconciliation which took place between 
this  ,emperor and the ,pope1 restored  
harmony between the heads of church and 
state1 and at last composed the long    
feud4 ,this powerful ,emperor1          
accompanied by the ,king of ,france1 and
 the lion-hearted ,richard1  undertook a

 new crusade1 in order to deliver       
,jerusalem which had been  wrested from 
the ,christians by ,saladin2 but before 
he could accomplish  his design1 death  
terminated his active career4           
,although the last ,ghibelline ,emperor 
,frederick the ,second1 had been        
educated by ,pope ,innocent ,,iii41 a   
,pontiff distinguished by his  enlarged 
views1 and great intellectual           
endowments1 and who had  undertaken the 
care and guardianship of the ,emperor's 
childhood2 yet  the old dispute broke   
out again under this monarch with more  
violence  and more implacable animosity 
than ever4 ,this quarrel was never more 
appeased1 at least during the sway of   
,frederick ,,ii4 and his family2  and it
 terminated only with the downfal of the
 ,hohenstaufen1 the most  powerful of   
all the princely houses of the middle   
age4 ,yet the  ,ghibelline name1        
heretofore stamped in characters of     
blood upon the  earth1 subsisted a long 
while yet2 and for ages after1 the      

,ghibelline  spirit continued to be the 
prevailing one in ,europe4 ,although the
  later ,swabian ,princes and ,emperors 
of this house1 such as ,henry ,,vi4  and
 others1 were the patrons of poetry1 and
 of the ,provenal  minstrels and ,german
 ,minnesingers2 yet they all resembled  
one another  in an unbending sternness  
of character4 ,henry ,,vi4 perpetrated  
the most  enormous cruelties at ,naples2
 the blood-thirsty ,ezzelin1 while      
,governor of ,lombardy under ,frederick 
the ,second1 has left behind him  so    
fearful a recollection in ,italy1 such a
 character in the pages of  history1    
that his very name need only be         
mentioned1 and will dispense  with all  
minuter historical details4 ,the last of
 this family1  ,conradin1 was an        
innocent victim of the public hatred    
borne to his  ancestors1 and he perished
 on a scaffold at ,naples by the hands  
of  ,charles of ,anjou1 the brother of  
,st4 ,lewis1 who had seized on the      
kingdom of the two ,sicilies1 the lawful

 patrimony of the royal youth4  ,the    
,emperor ,frederick the ,second--a      
prince who for his times had  received a
 most polite education1 and was endowed 
with the greatest  and most original    
powers of mind1--was not only accused by
 the ,pope in  the excommunication he   
pronounced against him of a secret but  
decided  enmity to the ,christian       
religion2 but in the general opinion of 
the  world1 laboured under the same     
suspicion4 ,however1 by a prudent peace1
  which this prince concluded with the  
,sultan of ,egypt1 he terminated  his   
crusade more successfully than his      
grandfather had done his own2  for by   
this he won back the holy places1 and   
placed the crown of  ,jerusalem on his  
head4 ,he was the first who brought into
 ,europe the  ,arabic translation of    
,aristotle's works2 and as at this      
period a  mighty change took place in   
the science and philosophy of the middle
  age1 and as even the art and poetry of
 ,european nations began to  display new

 life and energy1 it may not be amiss to
 give here a rapid  sketch of these     
important changes1 as they serve to     
characterize the  times4    ,chivalry   
was in itself the poetry of life2 what  
wonder then that that  life of          
imagination1 should have opened a new   
fountain of poesy in the  traditional   
songs1 the fairy lays1 the varied       
minstrelsy1 and knightly  narratives of 
,germany and ,france1 ,spain and        
,england1 since in these  countries1    
chivalry was the ruling element of      
society1 and had made  the greatest     
progress8--,for the more immediate      
object of this  ,philosophy of          
,history1--and in order to contemplate  
the progress of  mankind in matters more
 serious and important1 ,i have thought 
the  moral principles of men in the     
middle age1 and their political         
doctrines1 as they were founded on      
religion1 or on the system of           
opposition to religion1 to be of far    
greater moment and importance  than the 

mere sthetic part of those ages2 for    
sentimentalists may  indulge in a       
certain vague1 superficial love and     
predilection for the  times of chivalry1
 for the romantic spirit of the         
chivalrous life1 and  of the chivalrous 
poetry1 and of the whole system of      
modern art which  has thence emanated2  
and nevertheless all the deeper problems
 of life  involved in that momentous    
epoch may remain unexamined1 unsolved1  
or  even misunderstood4    ,on the      
nature of this romantic tendency1       
inasmuch as it exerted a  mighty        
influence on life1 and was a motive of  
vast and undoubted  weight in many of   
the most important historical events of 
those ages1  ,i shall merely say a word 
by way of psychological illustration2   
for  this is applicable to the          
prevailing forms of mind1 the peculiar  
intellectual bearings of whole nations  
and ages1 as to those of  individuals4  
,as where opinion is the ruling         
principle of life--it is  very soon     

broken1 divided1 parcelled out and lost 
in a chaos of  heterogeneous theories1  
and the age--the world--life itself are 
involved in interminable disputes2 so   
when religious feeling  constitutes the 
primary principle of life2 and it hath  
been  dismembered1 and torn from its    
right centre1 been driven to some       
extreme2 and opinions flowing from this 
source have been carried into  action2  
then all the great transactions of      
public life exhibit that  overruling    
influence of imagination1 perceptible   
not in the earlier1  but in the later   
periods of the middle age1 especially   
from the great  epoch of the ,crusades4 
,although these and other like great    
historical  events of that period bear  
many noble traces of the high religious 
source whence they sprang2 yet such a   
paramount influence of  imagination over
 real life1 must in this partial excess 
be regarded as  the consequence of the  
dismemberment of man's psychological    
powers--a  symptom of the dissolution of

 that internal harmony which can never  
subsist in society1 unless it be        
previously established in               
consciousness4 ,the radical vice of the 
middle age--that is to say1 the  one    
most prevalent in its later period from 
the time of the  ,ghibellines--if one   
may venture to characterize it with such
  psychological generality--is          
discernible in the productions of the   
poetry1 art and science of that age4    
,and the relations which these  bore to 
society--the distinctive character--the 
peculiar spirit of  this critical period
 in the progress of ,christian nations1 
are matters  of the highest interest and
 greatest moment4 ,this vice consisted  
in  that disposition to extremes--that  
leaning towards the absolute ,i have    
already spoken of1 as manifested in     
will1 in determination1 in  rule--or in 
science1 speculation1 and poetry4 ,the  
first germ1 or at  least the first      
disposition to this fault1 lies in the  
very origin of  modern nations1         

especially those five whose political   
existence sprang  out of the union of   
the ,germanic constitution1 manners1 and
 character1  with the ,latin            
civilization1 literature1 and language  
in the ,romanic  countries2 or which at 
least were formed by a very strong      
infusion of  the ,roman spirit--,i mean 
the ,german and ,english1 the ,french1  
,spanish1  and ,italian nations4 ,where 
the character of the ,german tribes1 the
  free1 heroic energy of ,germanic      
nature was blended and incorporated     
with the strong worldly sense of the    
,romans by the influence of  ,christian 
principles and religious love2 there    
sprang out of that  happy union those   
great and mild characters1 to which ,i  
have already  drawn your attention1 and 
which flourished during the first period
 of  the ,german ,empire and of the     
middle age4 ,but as soon as the         
influence  of the ,christian religion   
began to decline1 and its power was     
enfeebled1 clouded or obscured1 the two 

elements1 which had been  united in the 
human race1 fell asunder2 and on one    
side was to be seen  nothing but mere   
,roman astuteness 7as is often enough   
the case in the  later history of       
,france and ,italy72 and on the side of 
the ,germanic  nations1 nothing but a   
rude martial impetuosity and chivalric  
pride1  uncontrolled and unsoftened by  
the principle of religion4 ,or when     
again the rigid principles of that old  
worldly sense and instinct of  dominion1
 which belonged to the ,romans1 were    
conjoined with the heroic  energy of the
 ,north1 without however the healing and
 conciliatory  influence of the religion
 of love2 this combination1 which is    
conspicuous in the vehement but fearful 
characters engaged in the  ,ghibelline  
contests1 was indeed the most           
unfortunate of all4    ,how the tendency
 towards the absolute--that abyss to    
mankind1 which  along with love1        
confounds and swallows up all life--then
 hurried the  political world from one  

extreme to another1 we have already     
mentioned1 so far as was necessary for  
our object4    ,but even in the art and 
poetry1 as well as the science of the   
middle  age1 this leaning towards the   
absolute is equally apparent1 and the   
more so1 as both reached their full     
maturity at that period only when  this 
had become the ruling spirit of the age4
 ,as1 on one hand1 the  chivalrous      
poetry1 especially in its origin1 was   
excessively  fantastical1 until later it
 was fashioned into a form of milder    
symmetry1 and made to pour forth the    
touching1 heart-felt tones of  romantic 
art2 so on the other hand the scholastic
 philosophy was  bewildered in a maze of
 subtleties not so much metaphysical as 
merely  logical1 and often quite        
destitute of sense4 ,the singular       
manner1  indeed1 in which the ,italian  
poet ,dante1 has in his mighty poem of  
visions1 wherein he displays the most   
masterly and classical  condensation of 
language1 and the profoundest poetical  

art1 contrived  to sustain in his       
progress through the three regions of   
the invisible  world that fantastic     
spirit1 7which was not confined to the  
chivalrous  poetry1 but was common to   
every department of imagination in that 
age17 next the stern maxims of the      
,ghibelline state-policy1 and a         
congenial worship of ,roman antiquity1  
and has managed to unite all  these     
qualities with the subtle distinctions  
of the scholastic  philosophy2 this     
singular manner1 indeed1 has never been 
an object of  general imitation1 nor has
 it opened a path to the subsequent     
labours  of art4 ,but this work will    
ever remain an extraordinary1 wonderful1
  and characteristic monument1 wherein  
the peculiar spirit of this  first      
scholastico-romantic epoch of ,european 
art and science is  displayed in a most 
remarkable manner4 ,in this spirit there
 were many  heterogeneous elements1 not 
confined to their separate and distinct 
spheres1 but often in the strangest     

juxta-position1 or rather  confusion4   
,and thus a regular scholastic science  
of love1 with all the  borrowed forms of
 the philosophy of the day1 formed often
 the purport  of the most tender        
romantic lays or devices2 and logical   
antitheses1  syllogisms1 and subtleties 
were solved in rhyme and verse1 with a  
most  charming play of fancy4 ,it is    
these vagaries 7and so they are in many 
respects7 which so captivate our        
feelings in the poetry of               
,petrarch--one of the restorers of      
ancient literature and of modern        
learning4    ,more strongly still than  
in its poetry1 the richness of an       
inventive  imagination displayed itself 
in the wonderful architecture of the    
middle age1 as so many splendid         
monuments in ,germany1 ,england1 a part 
of ,france1 and in the ,north of ,italy 
and ,venice can attest4 ,the style  of  
the ,byzantine churches was the first   
and principal model of this  ,gothic    
architecture2 though a fantastic        

monument of ,arabic  architecture may   
here and there perhaps have had some    
influence in its  formation4 ,the       
elaborate and ornate style1 and the     
fantastic  singularity of this          
architecture1 breathe the true spirit of
 the  ,german middle age4 ,at this time1
 painting1 too1 began to make some      
progress in ,italy and ,germany2 though 
its progress was incomparably  slower   
than that of architecture1 and the art  
reached its perfection  only in the     
fifteenth century2 but devoted entirely 
to religious  subjects1 and consecrated 
to the use of churches or private       
devotion1  painting remained1 down to   
the time of ,raphael1 an art peculiarly 
,christian1 and displayed the           
profoundest import1 and the most        
masterly  power4 ,from this period1     
renouncing1 for the most part1 the      
religious  character of the elder       
,christian painting1 art began to be    
affected by  that enthusiasm for the    
,pagan antique1 which indeed was not    

limited to  the fine arts1 but was the  
prevailing character of literature and  
science in this second period of        
,european culture4 ,and ,i have made    
these few remarks1 not so much for the  
sake of art itself1 which would  require
 a separate investigation1 but as       
tending to elucidate the  various epochs
 and stages in the progress of modern   
civilization4    ,it was an ill-boding  
gift that the ,ghibelline ,emperor made 
to ,europe  when he brought from the    
,east the works of ,aristotle1          
translated1 or  rather burlesqued1 into 
,arabic1 and thence turned again into   
,latin1  till at last they became often 
perfectly unintelligible4 ,the elder    
,christian philosophers belonging to the
 first period of the middle  age1 such  
as in ,england 7which still retained a  
high pre-eminence in  ,latin literature 
and ,christian science17 a ,scotus      
,erigena1 the  contemporary of          
,alfred1--a ,st4 ,anselm1 so highly     
revered in  theology1--and afterwards in

 ,france1 an ,abelard1 and also a ,st4  
,bernard1 in whose eloquence there runs 
so pure a vein of piety--and so         
charming a mysticism of feeling--all    
these elder ,christian  philosophers1   
both in thought and language were       
incomparably clearer  and more precise  
than the schoolmen of succeeding times1 
and were for  the most part entirely    
free from that interminable play of an  
idle  logic1 and those empty            
metaphysical subtleties4 ,the natural   
sciences  were then in too low and      
feeble a state to form any distinct     
branch of  human inquiry2 and this very 
circumstance contributed1 as was then   
indeed perfectly natural1 to knit closer
 the ties which connected  philosophy   
with theology4 ,but independently of the
 peculiar  circumstances of those times1
 it is evident that ,christian          
philosophy  can be founded on religion  
only1 and not on any theory1 wherein    
nature  occupies the first and highest  
place--not on any doctrine1 which       

contains the germ of a ,pagan worship of
 nature1 renewed under a  scientific    
form4 ,as little can a ,christian       
philosophy rest on the  principle of    
,individualism--a reason which submits  
not humbly to ,god  and his revelation1 
but which1 all concentrated in itself1  
aspires to  be all-sufficing and        
all-creative4 ,in either respect1 the   
,stagyrite1  when studied even in the   
original1 and thoroughly understood1    
would  have been a guide very unsafe1   
very likely to mislead1 as well in      
natural philosophy as in the higher     
problems of ,metaphysics4 ,the best  and
 most instructive of his writings1 his  
ethical or political works1  could not  
even be understood by those scholastic  
admirers of the  ,grecian sage2 for the 
profound allusions they contained to the
 customs  and political history of      
,greece made the knowledge of these1 and
 a  complete investigation of the       
original sources of information1        
absolutely necessary to their           

comprehension4 ,even his logical and    
rhetorical books derive their chief and 
liveliest interest from the  fact that  
they were intended to remedy the        
dialectic malady of ,grecian  intellect1
 and to oppose the all-usurping         
influence of a false  rhetoric among the
 ,greeks4 ,lastly1 to comprehend fully1 
rightly  appreciate1 and turn to        
advantage1 as our times are enabled to  
do1 the  most solid works of the        
profound ancient--those on mixed physics
 and  natural history1 the schoolmen    
were entirely destitute of the          
necessary aids and preparatory          
information4    ,if the ,christian      
philosophers of the middle age1 instead 
of adopting  the ,aristotelian system1  
had built and improved on the philosophy
 of  those first great original thinkers
 of ,christian ,europe already          
mentioned1 or on the philosophy of the  
primitive fathers1 even those  of the   
,latin church1 for by them also the     
,platonic doctrines 7the only  doctrines

 of antiquity at all reconcileable with 
a philosophy of  revelation17 had long  
been planted and naturalized on the     
,christian  soil2--if this had been the 
case1 the edifice of ,christian         
philosophy  would have been raised with 
far greater ease and rapidity1 and been 
wrought into a much more beautiful      
structure4 ,or if even the ,greek       
originals had been deemed absolutely    
indispensable towards such an  object1  
it had been better that1 instead of     
waiting till the  destruction of        
,constantinople1 the powerful ,emperors 
and ,potentates1  who patronized art and
 science1 had1 during the short duration
 of the  ,latin ,empire at              
,constantinople1 brought away with them 
those  philological treasures1 instead  
of the works of ,aristotle so absurdly  
disfigured in the ,arabic1 and in the   
still more unintelligible ,latin        
version4 ,it was1 on one hand1 the      
inclination of the age to absolute      
modes of thinking1 to the art of logical

 tournaments1 and on the  other1 a hope1
 secretly entertained1 that by the      
pretended magical  power of these       
logical devices1 one might learn and    
obtain the mastery  of many profound    
secrets of nature 7which by the way     
should have been  sought anywhere but in
 the real ,aristotle72 finally1 the     
unquenchable  thirst after a fruit of   
knowledge1 deemed forbidden--it was all 
these  circumstances1 which created now 
that universal and irresistible rage    
for ,aristotle1 reputed as he was to    
contain the very essence of all  liberal
 science and philosophy4    ,the whole  
foundation of the scholastic philosophy 
was thoroughly and  essentially false2  
and it had the most prejudicial and     
injurious  influence1 not only on       
theology1 but on the whole spirit and   
modes of  thinking of this age4 ,when   
however the evil appeared nearly        
incurable1  and the false current of    
opinion was too strong to be resisted1 a
  mighty service was rendered to        

mankind1 when acute and sagacious       
theologians1 endowed with philosophical 
talents and discernment1 like  a ,st4   
,thomas ,aquinas1 adopting the common1  
but erroneous1 basis of  this old       
,aristotelian rationalism1 founded on it
 a system in which  they attempted to   
reconcile this philosophy with the      
dictates of  faith1 and thus1 in this   
respect at least1 avert from their age  
the  dangerous consequences of this     
false direction of the human mind4 ,yet1
  on the whole1 this was but an apparent
 reconciliation2 and the  scholastic    
philosophy1 or in other words1 the      
rationalism of the  middle age1 broke   
out often afterwards into a haughty and 
violent  opposition to the doctrines of 
revelation4    ,this scholastic spirit  
of the now degenerate middle age exerted
 its  pernicious influence on life      
itself1 and on the sciences more        
immediately connected with life1        
particularly jurisprudence4 ,for when   
the first ,ghibelline ,frederick1 on the

 plains of ,roncaglia1 gave his  solemn 
sanction to the ,roman law1 and to all  
those absolute rights and  prerogatives 
of the crown which were thence to be    
deduced1 he thereby  opened a door to an
 intricate scholastic jurisprudence1 to 
all the  learned subtlety of processes1 
and the interminable logic of law2 and  
conferred on mankind a boon as little   
propitious as the ,arabic  ,aristotle1  
which his descendant1 the second        
,frederick1 afterwards  brought into    
,europe4 ,the vast pandects of          
,justinian were already the  recognized 
code of laws1 under the ,eastern        
,franconian ,emperors1 long  before the 
,german ,jurist ,irnerius opened his    
school of civil law in  the ,university 
of ,bologna4 ,those old ,roman ,formulas
 of universal  dominion which are       
occasionally to be found in the ,corpus 
,juris1  suited perfectly the spirit and
 policy of the ,ghibelline ,emperors1   
who1 in particular cases1 alleged them  
against the ,greek ,emperors and  other 

,potentates1 as clear proofs of the     
universal monarchy which  appertained to
 them4 ,but it was particularly from the
 ,ghibelline  period that the ,roman law
 became a favourite science1 and its    
study a  new mania among the ,european  
nations1 especially on account of the   
leaning to absolute principles in that  
system of jurisprudence1 whose          
artificial forms of rigid law were      
indeed little congenial to the  spirit  
of ,christianity1 to modern society1 and
 ,german manners4    ,the true problem  
for the legal science of ,christian     
,europe to solve  would have been       
this--to adopt the forms of the old     
,roman  jurisprudence1 so highly wrought
 and finished in its way1 and to  reform
 its spirit by the doctrines and        
principles of ,christian  justice2 and  
at the same time to employ the many     
excellent materials  to be found in the 
native laws of ,european nations1 and in
 all the old  ,germanic codes4 ,these   
laws were indeed of a very local nature1

 adapted  mostly to infant communities  
and the simple manners of warlike       
tribes1  and by no means appropriate to 
a more advanced stage of civilization2  
yet they contained the solid substance  
of genuine freedom and exalted  equity4 
,but this task ought to have been       
accomplished in that earlier  period    
when ,christianity1 which had united and
 harmonized so many  discordant         
elements1 had still retained all its    
influence--an  influence which was      
afterwards wanting4 ,those ages1        
however1 which  were so thoroughly      
,christian1 and on that very account of 
such  political importance1 were        
deficient in science2 and hence1 as ,i  
have  already observed1 it was not so   
much deliberate selfishness1 or  hostile
 opposition1 but the real want of       
knowledge and foresight which           
occasioned the civil and political      
institutions of ,christian states to  be
 left imperfect4 ,it is only in very    
recent times that an attempt has  been  

made to solve the problem which earlier 
ages had left unexecuted1  or to supply 
this old deficiency of a ,christian     
system of  jurisprudence4 ,and if       
hitherto this task has never been       
adequately1 or  completely1             
accomplished1 though all the conditions 
have long existed  for the solution of  
this necessary problem of ,european     
society2 it  would not be right to defer
 again the execution of the work1 and   
thus  lose once more the seasonable     
moment4    ,how1 after the struggle of  
parties had become more general1 and an 
absolute mode of thinking the ruling    
character of the age1 the violent       
contests between church and state1      
between the ,secular and                
,ecclesiastical authorities tended to   
promote their mutual injury and         
destruction1 ,i shall now endeavour     
briefly to state4 ,after the last       
excommunication pronounced against      
,frederick ,,ii41 one anti-emperor had  
followed another in succession2 and     

,german princes1 a prince of the  royal 
household of ,england1 and a king of    
,castile1 had filled  successively the  
imperial throne2 none were generally and
 legally  recognized1 and it was the    
reign of universal anarchy and savage   
club-law4 ,it was a dark interregnum in 
social order1 as if the sun of  justice 
and of peace had withdrawn its light    
from a world of  corruption and         
irreconcilable hate2 and for a whole    
generation this  state of wild disorder1
 and fear of still greater calamities1  
lasted4  ,the loss of ,jerusalem and all
 the ,holy ,land to the ,christians1    
which  now took place1 added to the     
general gloom of the times4    ,in vain 
had ,st4 ,lewis in his last ,crusade    
against ,egypt1 once more  exerted all  
his energies for the deliverance and    
preservation of the  ,christian         
possessions in the ,east2 possessions1  
which had they been  retained1 might in 
the end have formed a rampart and a     
barrier against  the inroads of the     

,mussulman power into the adjoining     
provinces of  ,europe4 ,still the danger
 from this quarter was not so imminent2 
for it  was not till a hundred years    
later that the ,turks burst from ,asia  
,minor into ,europe1 conquered the      
,northern provinces of the ,byzantine   
,empire1 and began to menace the        
,christian kingdoms of the ,west4 ,but  
there was a nearer and mightier danger  
rolling on against ,europe--the         
formidable power of the ,moguls1 which  
surprised it in this period of  the     
great interregnum4 ,as if the hostile   
spirit of destruction had  anticipated  
or known that the power of ,christendom 
could be subverted  only by internal    
discord2 an old sage or priest of the   
still ,pagan  ,moguls1 had1 about a     
generation before1 announced to the     
youth1 who  was afterwards called       
,zingis ,khan1 7that is to say lord of  
the world1  and who is known by this    
name in history17 that in a vision1 he  
had  seen the ,great ,spirit1 seated on 

his flaming throne1 judge the nations   
of the earth1 and that1 by his decision1
 the dominion of the world had  been    
allotted to the young ,khan of the      
,moguls4 ,filled with this  spirit1     
,zingis traversed the world with his    
countless hosts2 conquered  ,china1     
,thibet and ,japan1 subdued the         
,mussulman ,empire of ,carizme1 and     
penetrated as far as the ,caspian ,sea4 
,the conqueror's four sons  continued   
the work which he had commenced1 and    
divided the earth into  four parts for  
their task of desolation4 ,the one to   
whom was assigned  the ,western portion 
of the earth invaded ,christendom with  
his  innumerable squadrons2 the throne  
of ,rurick1 the greatest ,christian     
potentate in the ,north1 was overturned2
 and for several centuries1  ,russia1   
incorporated with the government of     
,kipzak1 groaned under the  oppressive  
yoke of the ,mogul sway4 ,poland was    
overrun by the  all-wasting hosts of    
,moguls2 the ,king of ,hungary was      

defeated1 and  forced to flee his       
country2 ,silesia was laid waste1 and   
the bloody  discomfiture of the         
,christian army at ,lignitz filled the  
whole ,western  world with              
consternation4 ,happily the destroyers  
penetrated no further  into ,europe2 and
 the stream of their conquests1 as if   
diverted by a  protecting hand1 took its
 course first towards the ,arabian      
,caliphate  of ,bagdad1 which they put  
an end to2 and afterwards towards       
,india1 and  other ,asiatic and         
,mahometan countries4 ,this was a       
passing1 but awful1  warning to         
,christendom1 how much she needed the   
strong arm of a  powerful ,protector1   
and that union alone would enable her to
 resist  the assaults and inroads of    
barbarous nations4 ,it was the strong   
feeling of such a necessity which had   
first inspired the idea of the  ,western
 ,empire4    ,in the ,german ,empire    
order was first restored by ,rodolph of 
,hapsburgh1  who1 notwithstanding his   

earldom of ,alsace and his other        
hereditary  demesnes in the ,alps1 had  
not yet so much power as many other     
aspirants to the imperial crown2 but his
 chivalrous virtues ranked him  high in 
the estimation of many of the princes4  
,a happy and singular  coincidence of   
accidental circumstances occasioned his 
unexpected  election to the empire1     
which appeared to him1 as to many       
others1 a  calling from above4 ,being on
 the most peaceful understanding with   
the  ,pope1 he yet abandoned his        
expedition to ,rome2 for he was1 above  
all  things1 anxious to put an end to   
anarchy1 to establish the public        
tranquillity on a solid basis1 and1 as  
far as was then possible1 to  restore   
the reign of justice4 ,the high services
 which by this he  rendered to his      
country in those distracted times1      
,history has not  been backward to      
acknowledge2 and1 as the ,patriarch of  
the imperial  house of ,hapsburgh1 he   
has been the founder of a power which1  

in  succeeding ages1 has ever proved a  
pillar of strength and security to      
,germany and even ,europe4 ,but often   
again did anarchy rear her head1  and   
often did disorder obtain the ascendant 
in ,germany1 as well as in  other       
,european states4 ,nations felt the want
 of one mighty1  independent1 and       
protecting power--they lamented the     
decline of those  ,christian principles 
which had knit so closely all the ties  
of public  and private life2 and they   
saw with regret the gradual approach of 
the  general dissolution and mighty ruin
 of ,european society4 ,under           
,rodolph's successors1 down to          
,maximilian and ,charles the ,fifth1 the
  ,emperors were confined in their      
sphere of action to ,germany and its    
internal affairs1 which do not here     
immediately concern us4 ,the            
expeditions to ,rome tended1 indeed1 to 
keep alive the remembrance of  the old  
imperial rights and claims2 but they    
were productive of no  permanent        

advantage1 nor real extension of power4 
,it was only in the  summoning of       
general councils 7the want of which was 
soon so urgently  felt for the          
well-being of the church and of         
,christendom71 that the  imperial power 
was really exerted in favour of the     
general interests  of ,europe4    ,but  
the evils which ensued to the church and
 its head1 from its  unhappy conflict   
with the temporal power1 were far more  
extensive and  fatal in their           
consequences4 ,in the mighty contests   
between the ,popes  and ,emperors1 it   
was actual right which was the subject  
of dispute2  and1 in truth1 the first   
basis and highest principle of all right
 in  ,christian states1 and indeed in   
all human society2 and however much of  
error the exaggerations of later times  
may have infused into these  disputes1  
it was a sublime idea which animated    
either party4 ,in  ,france1 which now   
took up that attitude of hostility      
towards the head  of the church which   

the ,emperors had once assumed1 an      
entirely new era  in ,european policy1  
which had now ceased to be ,christian1  
commenced  with the reign of            
,philip-le-bel4 ,in the place of those  
great motives  and lofty ideas which    
animated a ,gregory ,,vii41 on the one  
hand1 and a  ,conrad or ,barbarossa1 on 
the other1 we meet with a vulgar policy1
 a  selfish cupidity1 and an unworthy   
cunning4 ,in every point of view1       
,philip the ,fair may be considered as  
the worthy predecessor of ,louis  ,,xi4 
,even his conduct towards the whole     
order of ,templars1 their  execution1 or
 rather judicial murder1 for the purpose
 of confiscation1  was a deed of        
violence which nothing could justify2   
even had the  suspicion entertained     
against the more corrupt portion of the 
order1  of having introduced from the   
,east certain unchristian tenets1 rites 
and practices1 been not entirely        
destitute of foundation4 ,but yet this  
suspicion did not affect the whole body1

 nor even the then worthy  grandmaster1 
as was shortly afterwards acknowledged  
by the ,king of  ,portugal and the ,pope
 himself2 and1 in any case1 an          
ecclesiastical  affair of so much       
importance ought to have been           
investigated and  determined by a mode  
of procedure very different from this   
arbitrary  and despotic course4    ,the 
untimely exaggerations and absolute     
pretensions of ,boniface ,,viii41       
which1 though ,papal1 may almost be     
termed ,ghibelline 7in the  same sense  
that we have applied that term to the   
acts of preceding  emperors71 must have 
proved very welcome to ,philip the      
,fair4 ,he found  in the conduct of the 
,pope1 a pretext for enticing him into  
,france1 in  order1 on the first vacancy
 in the ,holy ,see1 to promote the      
election  of a ,pope favourable to his  
views1 and fix him at ,avignon4 ,it was 
a  deep-laid plan of policy on his part1
 to fix the residence of the  ,popes for
 ever within his territories1 in order  

more easily to extort  their consent to 
all his selfish projects1 as in the case
 of the  ,templars2 a policy by which   
the ,popes1 during seventy years1 were  
kept  in a state of absolute dependance 
on the court of ,france4 ,and when at   
last one of the ,popes succeeded in     
rescuing the chair of ,peter from  this 
,babylonish captivity1 and placing it   
again at ,rome1 ,popes were  elected one
 against the other at ,rome and         
,avignon2 and a schism broke  out in the
 church which lasted for forty years1   
till it was finally  quelled by the     
general council of ,constance4 ,a deeper
 wound could not  have been inflicted on
 ,christianity than this division in the
 church1  which led minds astray1 and   
introduced an indescribable confusion in
  all the relations of public and       
private life4 ,as1 without the          
all-protecting and all-connecting       
authority of the first ,christian       
,emperors1 ,europe in general1 and      
,germany in particular1 would much      

sooner have been split and dismembered1 
and been deprived of all power  of      
permanent resistance against foreign    
aggression1 and barbarian  inroads2 so1 
without the ,papal power1 which was     
founded on1 and  adapted for1 unity1 and
 which held together the fabric of the  
church1  ,christianity would very soon  
have been lost and extinguished in a    
multitude of particular sects1 petty    
congregations1 and opposite  parties1   
even where totally dissimilar systems of
 religion did not  spring up4 ,the      
maintenance of orthodoxy in the ,greek  
church1 where the  ,patriarch does not  
possess the same spiritual power1 nor   
the same  extensive influence on        
society1 as the ,pope during the middle 
ages1  cannot be fairly adduced as an   
objection to the truth of this          
observation4 ,for it would be absurd to 
expect from the active1  stirring1      
restless1 and animated spirit of the    
,western nations1 moving  on as they did
 through a series of rapid1 incessant1  

and progressive  changes1 that innate   
monotony of thought even in faith1 which
 was  natural to the dead1 torpid       
,byzantine mind4 ,when the ,western     
church  had been weakened and convulsed 
by the conflict with the secular  power1
 the prejudicial and fatal effects of   
this contest became  apparent in        
religion itself and the internal region 
of faith4 ,at  first1 indeed1 there     
arose a mighty moral power of resistance
 against  the growing corruption and the
 impending evil--a great spiritual      
remedy1 which sprang out of religion1   
and was perfectly conformable to  its   
spirit4 ,it was here again apparent how 
that strengthening ,spirit  of aid and  
counsel--that ,paraclete promised to the
 church by its  divine ,founder1 knows  
at every period1 and on every new       
occurrence of  danger1 to employ the    
remedies the best and most fitting for  
the  exigences of the time2 remedies of 
which the high origin is clearly        
discernible1 though in the hands of men 

they no longer retain their  primitive  
character1 and do not accomplish all the
 good they might  have effected1 or even
 become at last more and more perverted4
    ,the great wealth of the church was 
not the sole1 but one of the  principal 
subjects of dispute with the secular    
power1 and was even a  stumbling-block  
to many1 especially among the people4   
,it was this  wealth1 indeed1 which had 
furnished the means of cultivating and  
fertilizing the soil of ,europe1 and    
sowing the seeds of science on  the soil
 of human intellect2 for the existence  
of the clergy had been  founded on      
landed property1 and by this means they 
had become  naturalized and domiciliated
 in the state1 and among the nation2    
till  the splendid endowments which they
 received from the liberality of        
religious zeal1 made the abbots1        
bishops1 and the whole of the higher    
clergy1 wealthy lords1 senators1 and    
princes4 ,this wealth and this  power1  
the clergy1 especially in the earlier   

times1 generally employed  in a manner  
the most praiseworthy1 and the most     
conducive to the  welfare of the        
community4 ,the annals of modern        
,europe1 and the history  of every great
 and petty state within it1 are full of 
the high  political services which the  
excellent churchmen of the middle age   
rendered to the public weal4 ,this was  
universally acknowledged1 and  any      
sudden separation of the higher clergy  
from the state--any  degradation of that
 body from the exalted station which    
they occupied  therein1 would have been 
a most serious loss to society4 ,in the 
contests of the emperors and other      
princes with the church and its  head1  
the immediate and original object of    
dispute was not  ecclesiastical         
property1 which no one ever dreamed of  
attacking2 but  the jurisdiction over   
that property1 and the acknowledgment of
 that  jurisdiction4 ,it is easy to     
conceive that all the members of the    
higher clergy had not rendered services 

equally eminent1 and that the           
employment of their riches had not been 
equally laudable and  blameless4 ,but1  
independently of individual abuses and  
scandals1 the  great wealth of the      
dignified clergy1 the eminent and       
splendid rank  they occupied in the     
state and in society1 were ever a       
stumbling-block  to the people1 and even
 to some ecclesiastics1 and seemed in   
contradiction with the original rule and
 evangelical poverty of the  primitive  
,christians4 ,this was the first cause1 
the principal subject1  and1 as it were1
 the favourite text of that popular     
opposition which  now1 after the example
 had been set by princes and potentates1
 began  to unfurl its banners against   
the church4    ,nothing therefore could 
be better adapted to the exigences of   
the age  than that1 in opposition to the
 too great worldly pomp of many of the  
high though meritorious and virtuous    
dignitaries of that time1  communities  
of men1 animated by the sincerest piety1

 and the most  austere spirit of        
humility and self-denial1 should have   
arisen to make  themselves all in all to
 the people1 and set the example of     
perfect  evangelical poverty2 or to     
devote their undivided zeal to popular  
instruction and the office of preaching4
 ,men of real sanctity1 and the  most   
humble piety1 and gifted with wonderful 
powers1 entered on this  new path of    
religious zeal2 and many amongst them1  
with a truly  high-minded freedom1      
reprehended the abuses and the moral    
corruption  then existing in church and 
state1 and among all orders of society4 
,they met with contradiction and        
opposition1 and even at an early  period
 incurred much blame2 but here we must  
be careful to  distinguish human        
infirmity and partial degeneracy from   
the holy  origin of those               
establishments--from that spark of      
divine inspiration  which called these1 
and all other ecclesiastical institutes1
 into  existence4 ,and thus that tide of

 popular opposition to the church1      
which had received its first impulse    
from the secular power1 and the         
contests of the ,ghibelline ,emperors1  
rolled on with an ever increasing       
force1 swell1 and violence4 ,scarce had 
the ,waldenses disappeared1 when  a     
religious sect still more numerous1 the 
,albigenses--broke out in the  ,south of
 ,france1 and not content with          
displaying the usual popular  opposition
 to the riches and real abuses of the   
church1 broached many  errors and       
doctrines of the ,eastern sects1 which  
during the ,crusades  may have found    
their way into that country4 ,for this  
reason it was  thought justifiable to   
proclaim against them a formal ,crusade1
 and1 by  a most atrocious war of       
extermination1 wherein the remedy       
appears no  less reprehensible than the 
evil itself1 princes put down this      
popular  sect1 which they regarded as   
rebellious not only against the church1 
but the state itself4    ,wickliffe in  

,england was the first single bold      
,reformer that appeared1  and he was    
succeeded soon afterwards by an         
,innovator1 whose enterprise  was       
attended with far more important        
consequences--,john ,huss in  ,bohemia4 
,their writings1 abounding not only in  
the wonted condemnation  of real abuses1
 but in many fanciful doctrines1        
unfounded assertions1  and germs of     
heresy1 their cause as well as the      
general state of  affairs1 and the      
problem of the age1 became more         
complicated and  perilous4    ,john     
,huss was summoned before the council of
 ,constance1 which had  terminated so   
successfully the schism in the ,papacy2 
but there1  without any regard to the   
imperial safe-conduct which he had      
received1  he was condemned1 and        
delivered over to capital punishment4   
,as one  injustice1 one act of bloody   
severity1 is sure to bring on another1 a
  few years afterwards the ,senators of 
,prague were precipitated from a        

window4 ,this was the signal for a      
general rising of the people2 ,ziska1   
at the head of his infuriated troops1   
ravaged ,bohemia1 burst into the        
neighbouring provinces of ,germany1 and1
 with a ,hussite army of seventy        
thousand men spread terror every where  
on his march4 ,this insurrection  was   
indeed suppressed1 but ,europe grew     
every day more and more ripe  for a     
,revolution4    ,a new and pressing     
danger1 which had been long foreseen1   
now  threatened ,europe from an opposite
 quarter4 ,the ,turks1 who for almost  a
 century had been in possession of the  
,northern provinces of the  ,byzantine  
,empire1 became now masters of          
,constantinople1 and the old  church of 
,st4 ,sophia was converted into a       
,mosque4 ,that portion of  ,europe which
 stood in most immediate                
danger1--,germany1 ,austria1  ,hungary  
and ,poland--was now compelled to make1 
for the space of more  than two         
centuries1 resistance to the progress of

 the ,turkish power  the object of its  
most assiduous attention2 and this was a
  circumstance which tended to impede   
the emperors in all their other         
enterprises1 to divert their efforts1   
and consume their best energies1  and so
 far1 in the then existing              
embarrassments in church and state1     
exerted a very fatal influence on the   
whole system of ,european  society4     
,the immediate effects of the siege and 
fall of ,constantinople were  highly    
favourable to literature and science in 
the last half of the  fifteenth century2
 when the ,greek fugitives1 by the rich 
and long-lost  treasures of classical   
knowledge which they brought1 created a 
new and  brilliant era in letters and   
science2 in ,italy in the first         
instance1  then in ,germany 7at that    
time so closely connected with ,italy71 
and  lastly in the rest of ,europe4 ,the
 knowledge of their classical tongue    
and ancient literature had never been   
totally extinguished among the  ,greek  

scholars and ecclesiastics2 but in their
 hands this knowledge  remained a mere  
dead treasure1 which was only afterwards
 turned to  profitable account1 and to  
the service of society1 by the more     
active  spirit of the ,europeans4       
,the better of the late ,byzantine      
,emperors1 particularly some of the     
,palologi1 had cultivated the sciences1 
and1 by their love and  encouragement of
 learning1 had given a new life to      
literature4 ,even in  the period        
immediately preceding the fall and      
conquest of  ,constantinople1 many      
,greeks had taken refuge in ,italy1     
particularly  during the various        
attempts made to bring about the        
re-union of the  ,greek with the ,roman 
church2--attempts1 however1 which with  
the  exception of a small number of     
individuals who went over to the        
,catholic church1 were not attended with
 any general success4 ,in ,italy  the   
,greek fugitives established schools for
 their own language and  literature1 and

 founded libraries2 and if in the time  
of ,petrarch few  ,italians could be    
named that were conversant with that    
language and  literature1 7and among    
these zealous promoters of ,greek       
learning1  ,boccaccio must be included  
with himself17 ,florence now under the  
,medici1 the first ,cosmo1 and ,lorenzo 
the ,great1 became a flourishing        
seminary of ,grecian letters and        
erudition2 and at ,rome also1 the house 
of ,cardinal ,bessarion was a true      
,platonic academy of science4 ,even the 
study of the ancient ,roman writers     
received a new stimulus1 and was        
prosecuted with a more classical taste  
and spirit4 ,courtly literati1  and     
,latin poets formed on the old classical
 models--political writers  in the      
,latin tongue1 which was still the      
language of diplomacy--statesmen  and   
politicians of the greatest influence1  
trained up in the school of  ,greek and 
,roman history and politics--and polite 
dilettanti of ,pagan  antiquity1--all   

now gave the tone to this new and second
 epoch in the  intellectual culture of  
,europe4 ,but the ruling spirit and tone
 of the  age proceeded mainly from the  
revival of the ancient literature and   
learning of the ,greeks4 ,natural       
philosophy1 whatever extension it may   
have received from the improvements in  
astronomy1 and a more  comprehensive    
knowledge of the globe obtained by the  
discovery of the  ,new ,world1 had not  
yet been wrought into a scientific form1
 capable of  exerting1 as it did        
afterwards1 an effective influence on   
the ,european  mind1 or of giving it a  
new direction4 ,in this period of the   
restoration of science1 some            
individuals1 like ,picus ,mirandola1 and
  above all1 the ,german ,reuchlin1     
followed a ,platonic track in search of 
a more profound philosophy2 or1 like    
,bessarion1 ,marsilius ,ficinus and     
others1 illustrated and diffused the    
philosophy of ,plato4 ,but these  were  
partial exceptions1 and these first     

attempts were not always  faultless4    
,yet it must ever be a matter of regret 
that the beginning  then made towards a 
better and more profound philosophy     
should have  been left unfinished4 ,to  
this the old scholastic philosophy was  
then a  powerful obstacle1 and the      
spirit of anarchy1 which the religious  
contests of the following age called    
into existence1 struck at the  root of  
all lofty speculation2 and even in the  
flourishing age of the  ,medici1 it was 
the sthetic part of ancient literature1 
and the  political application of       
classical knowledge1 which formed the   
main  and almost exclusive object of    
pursuit4    ,thus this regeneration1 as 
it was called1 was very imperfect and   
incomplete2 and1 in a general sense1 was
 really not such2--even in  science     
itself1 the advantages which mankind had
 obtained1 and which  they were so eager
 to display1 were more like a passing   
blossom1 than  a sound and vigorous     
root4 ,many of those classical spirits  

were more  conversant and more at home  
in ancient ,rome and ,athens1 in the    
manners1 history1 politics of antiquity1
 or even in its mythology  7then        
investigated with peculiar fondness and 
enthusiasm71 than in  their own age1 in 
the existing relations of society1 or in
 the  doctrines and principles of       
,christianity4    ,the prevailing       
character of this new epoch of          
intellectual  cultivation1 which        
succeeded to the scholastico-romantic   
period of  ,european art and science1   
was by those modes of thinking and those
  modes of life1 which1 with more or    
less modification and variety1 it       
diffused over all the ,european         
countries2 at the best a very partial   
enthusiasm for ,pagan antiquity1 not    
merely in the department of art1  but in
 the whole compass of literature1 nay   
even in history1 politics1  and morals  
also4 ,if we compare with the fearful   
commotions of the  following age this   
classical enthusiasm1 often so ill      

suited to the  existing relations of    
society2 its influence on the world will
 appear  like an enchanting draught1    
which intoxicated for a while the       
,european  nations1 drew them after     
objects totally foreign1 made them      
forget  themselves in an illusive       
consciousness of their intellectual     
refinement1 and lulling them into a     
false security1 blinded them to  their  
own corruption1 and the greatness of the
 impending danger--the  yawning abyss on
 whose verge they then stood4           
,,end ,,of ,,lecture ,,xiv4             
,,lecture ,,xv4        ,general         
observations on the ,philosophy of      
,history4--,on the      corrupt state of
 society in the fifteenth               
century4--,origin of                    
,protestantism1 and character of the    
times of the ,reformation4      ,the    
,philosophy of ,history--that is to say1
 the right comprehension of  its        
wonderful course1 the solution and      
illustration of its mighty  problems1   

and of the complex enigmas of humanity1 
and its destiny in  the lapse of        
ages--is not to be found in isolated    
events1 or detached  historical facts1  
but in the principles of social         
progress4 ,historical  particulars can  
only serve to characterize the inward   
motives1 the  prevailing opinions1 the  
decisive moments1 the critical points in
 the  progress of human society2 and    
thus place more vividly before our eyes 
the peculiar character of every         
age--each step of mankind in            
intellectual refinement and moral       
improvement4 ,to this end1 historical   
details are indispensable2 for the      
ruling principles of social             
developement are of a more exalted kind1
 and not mere organic laws of  nature1  
from which as in physiology1 when the   
first principle of the  disorder is well
 understood1 we can accurately deduce   
and partly at  least determine          
beforehand1 the nature of the different 
phenomena and  symptoms1 the rule of    

health1 the diagnostic of the disease1  
as well  as the method of cure1 the     
approach of the crisis1 and its natural 
declension1 without being obliged to go 
through the labyrinth of all  the       
different cases that may have ever      
existed4 ,again1 it is not in  the      
history of man1 as in natural history1  
where the structure of the  various     
plants and animals forms by close       
analogy one connected system  of species
 and genera2 and where the growth1      
bloom1 decay and  extinction of         
individuals follow in an uniform order1 
like day and  night1 or like the change 
of the seasons4 ,but in the sphere of   
human  freedom2 as man is a natural     
creature1 but a natural creature endowed
  with free-will1 that is to say1 with  
the faculty of moral  determination     
between the good or heavenly impulse1   
and the wicked or  hostile principle2   
all these organic laws of nature form   
only the  physical basis of his progress
 and history4 ,and hardly do they form  

this--but rather a mere disposition of  
which the direction depends on  man1 or 
on the use he makes of his own freedom4 
,it is only when that  higher principle 
of man's free-will has been weakened1   
debased1  obscured1 extinguished1 and   
utterly confounded1 that those laws of  
nature can hold good in history4 ,then  
indeed the symptoms of a  diseased age1 
the organic vices of a nation1 the      
prognostics of a  general crisis of the 
world may be determined to a certain    
extent with  the precision of medical   
science4 ,though the general feelings of
  mankind clearly declare the soul to be
 endowed with the faculty of  free-will2
 yet to reason1 this freedom is an      
almost inextricable  enigma1 the        
solution of which must be furnished by  
faith4 ,or rather  this is a mystery1 of
 which the key and explanation must be  
sought for  in ,god and his ,revelation2
 and the same will apply to every higher
  principle1 that transcends nature1 and
 nature's laws4    ,along with the      

principle of man's free-will which rises
 above  necessity1 that law of          
nature--there is another higher and     
divine  principle in the historical     
progress of nations2 and this is the    
visible guidance of an all-loving and   
all-ruling ,providence displayed  in the
 course of history1 and the march of    
human destiny1 whether in  things great 
or small4 ,but the power of evil is     
something more than a  mere power of    
nature1 and in comparison with this1 it 
is a power of a  higher and more        
spiritual kind4 ,it is that power whose 
influence is  not only felt in the      
sensual inclinations of nature1 but     
which under  the mask of a false        
liberty1 unceasingly labours to rob man 
of his  true freedom4 ,thus ,providence 
is not a mere vague notion1 a formula of
  belief1 or a feeling of virtuous      
anticipation--a mere pious              
conjecture--but it is the real1         
effective1 historical1 redeeming power  
of ,god1 which restores to man1 and the 

whole human race their lost  freedom1   
and with it the effectual power of good4
 ,the problem of human  existence       
consists in this1 that man in the great 
stage of history1 as  in the little     
details of private life1 has to choose  
and determine  between a true heavenly  
freedom1 ever faithful and steadfast to 
,god1  and the false1 rebellious freedom
 of a will separated from ,god4 ,the    
mere licence of passion or of sensual   
appetite is no liberty1 but a  stern    
bondage under the yoke of nature4 ,but  
as that false and criminal  freedom is  
spiritual1 so it is superior to nature2 
and it is strictly  conformable to      
truth1 to regard him as the first author
 of this false  liberty1 whom revelation
 represents as the mightiest1 the most  
potent1  and the most intellectual      
egotist among all created beings either 
in  the visible or invisible world4     
,without this freedom of choice innate  
in man or imparted to him1--this        
faculty of determining between the      

divine impulse and the suggestions  of  
the spirit of evil1 there would be no   
history1 and without a faith  in such a 
principle1 there could be no ,philosophy
 of ,history4 ,if  free-will were a mere
 psychological illusion2 if consequently
 man were  incapable of sentiment or    
deliberate action2 if all in life were  
predetermined by necessity1 and subject1
 like nature1 to a blind1  immutable    
destiny2 in that case1 what we call     
history1 or the  description of mankind1
 would merely constitute a branch of    
natural  science4 ,but such notions are 
utterly repugnant to the general belief 
and the most intimate feelings of       
mankind1 according to which1 it is      
precisely the conflict between the good 
or divine principle on the one  hand1   
and the evil or adverse principle on the
 other1 which forms the  purport of     
human life and human history1 from the  
beginning to the end  of time4 ,without 
the idea of a ,god-head regulating the  
course of human  destiny1 of an         

all-ruling ,providence1 and the saving  
and redeeming  power of ,god2 the       
history of the world would be a         
labyrinth without an  outlet--a confused
 pile of ages buried upon ages--a mighty
 tragedy  without a right beginning1 or 
a proper ending2 and this melancholy and
  tragical impression is produced on our
 minds by several of the great  ancient 
historians1 particularly the profoundest
 of them  all1--,tacitus1 who towards   
the close of antiquity1 glances so dark 
a  retrospect upon the past4    ,but the
 greatest historical mystery--the       
deepest and most complicated  enigma of 
the world1 is the permission of evil on 
the part of ,god1  which can find its   
explanation and solution only in the    
unfettered  freedom of man1 in the      
destination of the latter for a state of
  struggle1 exposed to the influences of
 two contending powers1 and  which      
commences with the first earthly mission
 of ,adam4 ,this is  nothing else but   
the real and entire exercise1--the      

divinely ordained  trial of the faculty 
of freedom1 imparted to the firstling of
 the new  creation1--the image of ,god1 
in the conflict and the victory over    
temptation1 and all hostile spirits4    
,that man only who recognizes the       
permission of ,god given to evil in its 
at first inconceivably wide  extent--the
 whole magnitude of the power permitted 
to the wicked  principle1 according to  
the inscrutable decrees of ,god1 from   
the curse  of ,cain--and the sign of    
that curse--its unimpeded transmission  
through all the labyrinths of error1 and
 truth grossly disfigured--through  all 
the false religions of ,heathenism1--all
 the ages of extreme moral  corruption1 
and eternally repeated1 and ever        
increasing crime1 down to  the period   
when the anti-christian principle--the  
spirit of evil shall  usurp entire      
dominion of the world2 when mankind     
sufficiently  prepared1 shall be        
summoned to the last decisive trial--the
 last great  conflict with the enemy in 

all the fulness of his power3--that man 
only we say1 is capable of understanding
 the great phenomena of  universal      
history in their often strange and dark 
complexity1 as far  at least as human   
eye can penetrate into those hidden and 
mysterious  ways of ,providence4 ,but he
 who regards every thing in humanity1   
and  the progress of humanity1 in a mere
 natural or rationalist point of  view1 
and will explain everything by such     
views2 who though perhaps  not without a
 certain instinctive feeling of an      
all-ruling  ,providence--a certain pious
 deference for its secret ways and high 
designs1 yet is devoid of a full        
knowledge of1 and deep insight into1    
the conduct of ,providence--he to whom  
the power of evil is not clear1         
evident1 and fully intelligible2 he will
 ever rest on the surface of  events and
 historical facts1 and satisfied with   
the outward appearance  of things1      
neither comprehend the meaning of the   
whole1 nor understand  the import of any

 part4 ,but the matter of greatest      
moment is to watch  the ,spirit of ,god1
 revealing itself in history1           
enlightening and  directing the         
judgments of men1 saving and conducting 
mankind1 and  even here below           
admonishing1 judging and chastising     
nations and  generations2 to watch this 
,spirit in its progress through all     
ages1  and discern the fiery marks and  
traces of its footsteps4 ,this          
three-fold law of the world--these three
 mighty principles in the  historical   
progress of mankind--the hidden ways of 
a ,providence  delivering and           
emancipating the human race--next the   
free-will of man1  doomed to a decisive 
choice in the struggle of life1 and     
every action  and sentiment springing   
from that freedom--lastly the power     
permitted  by ,god to the evil          
principle1 cannot be deduced as things  
absolutely  necessary1 like the         
phenomena of nature1 or the laws of     
human reason4  ,such a general deduction

 would by no means answer the object    
intended2  but it is in the             
characteristic marks of particular      
events and  historical facts1 that the  
visible traces of invisible power and   
design1 or of high and hidden wisdom    
must be sought for4 ,and hence the      
,philosophy of ,history is not a theory 
standing apart and separated  from      
history--but its results must be drawn  
out of the multitude of  historical     
facts--from the faithful records of     
ages1 and must spring  up1 as it were1  
of themselves1 from bare observation4   
,and here an  unprejudiced mind will    
discern the motive1 and also1 the       
justification  of the course we have    
pursued2 for in the ,philosophy of      
,history1 we  have not to do with any   
system--any series of abstract notions1 
positions1 and conclusions1 as in the   
construction of a mere  theory--but with
 the general principles only of         
historical  investigation and historical
 judgment4    ,in the multitude1        

however1 of historical phenomena1 all   
things1  especially in times of great   
party-conflicts1 are of a mixed nature1 
where in the selection of characteristic
 traits1 we should rather  avoid than   
seek for any rude and violent contrasts4
 ,for while on the  one hand1 in any    
great historical contest1 we are bound  
to recognize  the full justice of the   
true cause1 yet on the other1 we shall  
often  find some flaw--some stain--some 
weak point connected with that          
cause--not inherent in the cause itself1
 but chargeable solely on  human        
infirmity4 ,or when we must condemn the 
,revolution of any period1  as          
pernicious in its general relations1 and
 reprehensible in itself1  we shall     
often see some motive lie concealed in  
its origin--in its  first proceedings1  
which taken in itself1 and abstractedly 
of  subsequent errors1 and the false    
consequences thence deduced1  comprises 
some important indications of           
right--some lofty aspirations  after    

truth4 ,every general assertion must be 
restricted by exceptions1  and qualified
 by various modifications2 and as in    
historical events1  so in historical    
narration and speculation1 nothing is so
 hurtful and  unprofitable as an        
absolute mode of reflection1 enquiry1   
and decision4  ,this remark we may apply
 by anticipation to the whole period of 
latter  ages1 and as inculcating the    
necessity of that conciliatory spirit1  
which true philosophy cannot fail of    
adopting for its rule4 ,it is only  when
 we have gone very deeply into the      
varied and complex nature of  the       
circumstances of any age1 and examined  
in their manifold bearings  those       
historical phenomena which attend or    
produce the critical  turning-points1   
the decisive eras of history1 that we   
can clearly  discover the spiritual     
elements--the great ideas which lie at  
the  bottom of a mighty revolution in   
society4 ,in every other abstract       
science1 an exception from the rule     

appears a contradiction--but in  the    
science of history1 every real exception
 serves but the better to  make us      
comprehend and judge the rest4    ,such 
an exception ,i have now to point out in
 reference to my remarks  on the        
intellectual progress of ,europe1 in    
those two epochs of its  mental         
cultivation1 one of which ,i designated 
as the scholastico-romantic  era1 the   
other as the era of enthusiasm for the  
,pagan antique2 the  former being       
inadequate to the wants of that age1 as 
well as of  posterity1 and the other    
secretly destructive of the old         
,christian  order of things4 ,but on the
 whole1 from the tone prevalent in      
either  period1 ,i do not know ,i could 
have otherwise characterized the spirit 
peculiar to those two epochs4 ,yet even 
in those periods1 and in the  sphere of 
philosophic and religious meditation1   
the spirit of  ,christianity showed     
itself independent of1 and superior to  
the temper  of the times2 and between   

these opposite eras1 we meet with works 
displaying a clear and beautiful        
simplicity of expression1 united with   
the utmost purity and depth of ascetic  
feelings4 ,among several others1  ,i    
need only cite the ,german ,thomas a    
,kempis1 whose most celebrated  work has
 become a manual of devotion for all the
 ,european nations1  while those who    
know the philosophic spirit which reigns
 in his other  writings1 can well       
recognize in this the same clear        
masterly mind1  which throwing off the  
abstruse forms of the school1 pours     
itself  forth in a most lovely          
simplicity of diction4    ,i may be     
permitted to cite this glorious         
exception of a mind1 that  amid the     
degenerate science of that age1 rose    
into the pure atmosphere  of ,christian 
philosophy1 inasmuch as it serves to    
throw a light on the  general spirit of 
the times4 ,had that mild light of moral
 truth and  divine charity not been then
 so rare an exception2 had that spirit  

of  ,christian morality been somewhat   
more widely diffused2 the violent       
commotions in the following generation  
would not have occurred2 for  they would
 have had no motive1 nor object1 nor any
 possible source of  existence4 ,but in 
direct opposition to that pious         
,fleming1 there was a  great ,italian   
writer1 who gave the tone to the moral  
and political  opinions of his age1 and 
exerted the mightiest influence on his  
times1  both as a moralist and as a     
politician4 ,i allude to ,machiavelli1  
who  may serve as a proof1 that the     
maxims and principles of ,pagan         
antiquity1 with which the scholars of   
that age were imbued1 were not  confined
 to the departments of art and of       
imagination1 or of mere  erudition1 but 
had a very powerful influence on        
politics3 and however  much one may     
attempt to excuse1 or explain away the  
design of one of  his works1#g still all
 his other political writings clearly   
and  evidently shew that he was actuated

 by no other maxims of state-policy     
than the old ,roman and ,pagan          
principle1 of grasping1 inexorable1 and 
selfish cunning4 ,this writer announced 
only with greater clearness and         
precision what were already the         
prevailing principles of his times1  and
 was thus the means of bringing those   
principles to fulness and  maturity4    
,when the ,christian bond of union      
between the ,european states and        
nations had been so completely          
dissevered1 policy1 together with all   
moral principle1 became for the most    
part ,pagan1 came to consider all  means
 as lawful for its ends1 respected not  
the sacredness of any  institution1 and 
was guided in all its projects by       
selfishness1  cupidity1 or ambition4    
,animated with this spirit1 and guided  
by these  views1 ,lewis ,,xi4           
consolidated the absolute authority of  
the crown in  the interior of his       
dominions1 with the same inflexible     
perseverance  of character1 and the same

 consummate political art1 which in his 
endeavours to maintain his power against
 the ,duke of ,burgundy and  other      
neighbours1 characterized his foreign   
policy4 ,in ,ferdinand the  ,catholic1  
,king of ,spain1 who permanently united 
the two kingdoms of  ,arragon and       
,castile1 put an end to the ,arab       
dominion by the conquest  of ,granada1  
and came into possession of the golden  
mines of ,america2  the arbitrary       
principles of policy and of government1 
which were then  so generally prevalent1
 are particularly perceptible4 ,the     
barbarous  persecution1 and the         
expulsion of the ,jews from ,spain1 was 
certainly  prejudicial to the welfare of
 the country1 was in itself an act of   
reprehensible severity1 and was1 above  
all1 a dangerous precedent for  the     
further extension and application of the
 same oppressive policy  towards the    
,arabian population 7still very numerous
 in many provinces  of ,spain71 and     
towards the peaceable descendants of the

 old ,mahomedan  conquerors4 ,from the  
contests carried on in ,spain itself1   
with the  ,mahomedans for the space of  
eight centuries1 a religious war almost 
entered into the system of national     
policy4 ,the wisdom of a great and      
lenient monarch1 like ,charles the      
,fifth1 might indeed mitigate the  evils
 of the times1 and as long as he lived1 
and as far as  circumstances permitted1 
might oppose a check to the torrent of  
the  new opinions in ,germany4 ,but with
 all his pacific endeavours he was      
unable either to prevent the rupture and
 separation of a part of  ,germany1 or  
to stop the progress of arbitrary       
principles of  government1 which under  
his successor on the ,spanish throne1   
became  perfectly irresistible4 ,the    
intermixture of political and           
ecclesiastical affairs and institutions 
existed more or less  everywhere1 and in
 truth had a deep historical foundation 
in the  peculiar circumstances of place2
 and unless we deeply investigate all   

the particulars of those local          
circumstances1 and accurately           
discriminate their several              
peculiarities1 it would be difficult1   
and  indeed rash to pronounce a general 
opinion respecting them--as so  sweeping
 a judgment would give a false and      
erroneous turn to a censure  apparently 
well-founded1 and often just in itself4 
,the ,inquisition in  ,spain for        
instance1 was from the very peculiar    
character which it took  in that        
country1 far more a political than an   
ecclesiastical  institute4 ,if the      
secular power had been guilty of        
arbitrary and  violent encroachments on 
ecclesiastical jurisdiction1            
ecclesiastical  power in its turn had   
from the spirit of the times become in  
many  respects too secular4    ,when the
 ,popes had returned to ,rome from the  
captivity of ,avignon1  experience      
taught them how necessary to their      
dignity and  independence was the       
possession of a sovereign principality1 

which  however inconsiderable1 should be
 at least free from foreign controul4   
,nay1 since the ,german ,empire had     
become really extinct1 or existed  only 
in name1 it was the interest of the     
secular powers themselves1  that the    
political authority of the ,pope within 
the ecclesiastical  states should rest  
on a firm and secure foundation1 and    
should thus  afford them a guarantee    
that the sovereign ,pontiff would not   
again be  in a state of exclusive       
dependance on any one of the different  
powers--divided as they now all were in 
interests1 and animated by  mutual      
jealousy4 ,without taking into account  
the personal scandals of  ,alexander    
,,vi41 the mode in which some ,popes1   
especially of the ,borgia  family1      
sought to consolidate their power within
 the ecclesiastical  territory1 must    
have appeared very revolting in the     
spiritual heads of  ,christendom4 ,and  
although ,julius ,,ii4 possessed many   
great and princely  qualities2 still an 

injurious impression must have been     
produced on  the public and popular     
mind1 when the chief ecclesiastic1 and a
 prince  of peace girded on the sword1  
and put on the martial cuirass4 ,the    
name  of the ,medicean ,pope1 ,leo ,x41 
is one celebrated in the history of art 
and science1 and serves to denote its   
most brilliant era2 he possessed        
perhaps all the qualities most          
calculated to shed lustre round the     
throne of a secular monarch2 but he was 
not the ,pontiff to discern  the fearful
 dangers and urgent necessities of the  
church in that age1  to avert those     
dangers by his foresight1 or to surmount
 them by  conciliation4    ,a succession
 of such ,pontiffs immediately prior to 
the breaking out of  the ,reformation1  
is of no slight historical importance4  
,it would  really appear as if the      
church were destined1 by the losses it  
experienced1 to learn the greatness of  
the danger to which its too  worldly    
policy exposed it1 and to be brought    

back by misfortune to its  true1 proper1
 and essential destination4 ,indeed at  
that time1 the  materials of political  
combustion were by no means wanting in  
,italy4  ,even in the absence of the    
,popes1 a political fanatic1 ,rienzi1   
had  excited a ,revolution for the      
purpose of restoring the ancient        
,republic2 and the internal feuds and   
civil wars of ,florence were the        
effects of factions1 almost inseparable 
from a state constituted like  the      
,florentine ,republic4 ,in the last     
period of civil disorder1 shortly  after
 ,lorenzo's death1 a religious fanatic1 
the ,dominican  ,savanarola--appeared at
 the head of a political ,revolution2   
and his  revolutionary principles were  
strangely mixed up with his religious   
tenets4 ,here evidently is a fact not   
undeserving of attention1 if we  would  
wish to form a right estimate of the    
state and circumstances of  that age--it
 is that the very origin of this new    
species of fanaticism  or heresy1 and   

not its ulterior progress 7as in the    
case of the  ,hussites17 was marked and 
accompanied by political commotions1 and
  crimes against the state4    ,when    
that bond of religious unity--that high 
fellowship of ,christian  feeling which 
had united the various states of        
,christendom1 was in a  great measure   
dissolved1 the different powers of      
,europe 7as is usually  the case among  
neighbouring independent nations1 when  
directed by  separate views of policy7  
the different powers of ,europe engaged 
in a  system of alliances subject to    
various fluctuations1 but all formed on 
the principle of a mere dynamical       
equilibrium--just as if government  and 
social power1 even under the influence  
of ,christianity1 were  nought but a    
mere material weight--a mere lever of   
physical force4  ,ever since the        
expedition of ,charles ,,viii4 into     
,italy had provoked  resistance1 and    
occasioned a re-action1 the dominion of 
that country1  for which ,spain and     

,france contended with all their might1 
was a  peculiar subject of jealousy     
between those states1 and gave rise to  
many wars4 ,the other powers that took  
an active part in this game of          
political alliances--this system of the 
balance of power1--were  ,venice1 the   
,emperor ,maximilian1 and the ,pope4    
,how very much an active  participation 
in affairs of so worldly a nature was   
unbefitting the  last-named potentate1  
,i need not stop to observe4 ,that      
conduct gave  occasion afterwards to a  
great public scandal4 ,for instance1    
when the  ,pope had formed an alliance  
with the ,king of ,france against       
,charles ,v42  and to resent this1 the  
,emperor's ,german army 7among whom were
 a  great many entertaining the opinions
 of ,luther71 had proceeded to the      
conquest of ,rome2 this was a fresh and 
mighty source of scandal at  that       
momentous epoch4 ,nay1 the great        
dissatisfaction of the ,emperor  with   
the conduct of some ,popes 7though this 

referred merely to their  political     
acts71 when coupled with his            
conciliatory conduct towards  the       
,german ,protestants1 induced many to   
question the sincerity of his           
attachment to the ,catholic faith4      
,however false and unfounded such a     
surmise might be1 still all things      
contributed to foster the belief1  and  
on all sides there was a concurrence of 
circumstances to lead the  public mind  
more and more astray4    ,the good and  
high-minded ,emperor1 ,maximilian1 who  
had meditated1 and  might have          
accomplished many other noble projects  
and important  enterprises1 was         
compelled to labour during his whole    
life1 though in  vain1 to discover in   
the total absence of all physical       
resources1 some  counterpoise to the    
power of ,france1 and some barrier and  
security  against the encroachments of  
,turkish ambition4 ,but when fortune had
  placed on the head of ,charles ,v4 the
 united crowns of ,spain and  ,burgundy1

 the necessity of choosing an ,emperor1 
who like those of  earlier ages1 might  
be capable of coping with all the       
dangers of the  times1 was universally  
felt2 and this feeling led to the       
election of  ,charles4 ,but for this    
choice1 the system of ,european states  
would  have fallen to pieces1 and       
,christendom become a prey as well to   
foreign conquest as to internal anarchy4
 ,the mind of ,charles was  entirely    
occupied with the old idea of an        
universal ,christian ,empire1  and a    
religious feeling was at the bottom of  
all his political schemes  and          
enterprises4 ,but whatever might be the 
extent of the countries  over which he  
reigned1 and whatever the apparent      
greatness of his  power1 yet amid the   
various designs he had to prosecute1 and
 in the  struggle he had to maintain    
against the combined array of so many   
hostile elements1 he felt the want of   
those real resources which are  to be   
found in a compact and well-united      

monarchy4 ,to the ,spanish  crown he    
imparted great splendour1 and even in   
,italy remained the  master2 but he met 
with very imperfect success in his      
efforts against  ,mohammedan power--a   
power from whose oppressions1 and still 
further  encroachments1 it was the first
 duty of the ,emperor1 as the armed     
,protector of ,christendom1 to defend   
the ,european states4 ,his  conciliatory
 policy towards the ,german ,protestants
 did not attain its  object1 for amid   
the general ferment of the age1 the     
torrent of  religious opinions bore down
 all before it4 ,his wish to            
re-establish  order in church and state 
by means of a general council1 and      
thereby  to consolidate anew the old    
foundations of faith1 was fully         
accomplished only after his death4      
,in all that regards the origin and     
first breaking out of the  ,reformation1
 ,i wish to premise that all controversy
 on points of  dogma1 all controversy on
 the merits or demerits of individuals1 

the  worthiness or unworthiness of      
persons1 does not enter into the plan of
  this work4 ,my object is particularly 
to describe the various manner in  which
 the religious revolution commenced in  
the three or four  countries over which 
it exerted the most remarkable          
influence2 as well  as the dissimilar   
form which it finally assumed in each of
 those  countries4 ,i wish particularly 
to trace the influence of the           
reformation on the progress of          
,christian states1 and on ,european     
literature and science2 two things which
 constitute the main subject  of the    
last chapters of this ,philosophy of    
,history4 ,but we must notice  briefly1 
and as far as is necessary to the       
elucidation of the subject1  the point  
of connection existing between persons  
and doctrines1 and  the historical event
 which alone is the subject of our      
enquiries4 ,in  the first place1 it is  
evident of itself1 that a man who       
accomplished  so mighty a ,revolution in

 the human mind1 and in his age1 could  
have  been endowed with no common powers
 of intellect1 and no ordinary  strength
 of character4 ,even his writings       
display an astonishing  boldness and    
energy of thought and language1 united  
with a spirit of  impetuous1 passionate1
 and convulsive enthusiasm4 ,the latter 
qualities  are not indeed very          
compatible with a prudent1 enlightened1 
and  dispassionate judgment4 ,the       
opinion as to the use which was made of 
those high powers of genius must of     
course vary with the religious          
principles of each individual2 but the  
extent of those intellectual  endowments
 themselves1 and the strength and       
perseverance of character  with which   
they were united1 must be universally   
admitted4 ,many who  did not adhere     
afterwards to the new opinions1 still   
thought at the  commencement of the     
,reformation1 that ,luther was the real 
man for his  age1 who had received a    
high vocation to accomplish the great   

work of  regeneration1 the strong       
necessity of which was then universally 
felt2  for no well-thinking man then    
dreamed of a subversion of the ancient  
faith4 ,if at this great distance of    
time1 we pick out of the writings  of   
this individual1 many very harsh        
expressions1 nay particular words1      
which are not only coarse1 but          
absolutely gross1 nothing of any moment 
can be proved or determined by such     
selections4 ,indeed the age in  general1
 not only in ,germany1 but in other very
 highly civilized  countries1 was       
characterized by a certain coarseness in
 manners and  language1 and by a total  
absence of all excessive polish and     
over-refinement of character4 ,but this 
coarseness would have been  productive  
of no very destructive effects2 for     
intelligent men well  knew that the     
wounds of old abuses lay deep1 and were 
ulcerated in  their very roots2 and no  
one was therefore shocked if the knife1 
destined to amputate abuses1 cut        

somewhat deep4 ,luther acquired1 too1   
the respect of princes1 even of those   
opposed to him4 ,thus when  shortly     
after the commencement of the           
,reformation1 a general  insurrection of
 peasants broke out1 which renewed all  
the excesses of  the ,hussites2 ,luther 
so far from exciting the rebels1 like   
some of the  new ,gospellers1 opposed   
them with all the powers of his         
commanding  eloquence1 and all the      
weight of his high authority2 for he was
 by no  means in politics an advocate   
for democracy1 like ,zuinglius and      
,calvin1 but he asserted the absolute   
power of princes1 though he made  his   
advocacy subservient to his own         
religious views and projects4 ,it  was  
by such conduct1 and the influence which
 he thereby acquired1 as  well as by the
 sanction of the civil power1 that the  
,reformation was  promoted and          
consolidated4 ,without this1            
,protestantism would have sunk  into the
 lawless anarchy which marked the       

proceedings of the ,hussites1  and to   
which the war of the peasants rapidly   
tended2 and it would  inevitably have   
been suppressed1 like all the earlier   
popular  commotions--for under the      
latter form1 ,protestantism may be said 
to  have sprung up several centuries    
before4 ,and besides1 none of the  other
 heads and leaders of the new religious 
party had the power1 or  were in a      
situation to uphold the ,protestant     
religion--its present  existence is     
solely and entirely the work and the    
deed of one man1  unique in his way1 and
 who holds unquestionably a conspicuous 
place in  the history of the world4     
,much was staked on the soul of that    
man1 and  this was in every respect a   
mighty and critical moment in the annals
  of mankind1 and the march of time4    
,the real problem for the age would     
have been to terminate this unhappy     
confusion of doctrines1 that is to  say1
 that disorder and not unfrequent       
confusion in the relations of  the      

ecclesiastical and civil powers1        
7occasioned by the general state  of    
things in ,europe1 and by the           
circumstances which first promoted the  
political and intellectual civilization 
of the ,west7--in a word1 to  compose   
the old dispute between church and      
state1 and bring it to a  just          
,christian settlement by a peaceful and 
amicable arrangement4 ,then  the many   
existing1 though scattered1 rays of true
 ,christian piety1  humility1 and       
self-denial1 as well as the new         
discoveries in science  would have      
acquired a more intense and more        
extended power--an event  which was now 
entirely prevented by a great civil war 
between two  religious parties1 and was 
not brought to a full accomplishment    
till a  much later period4 ,but the     
total rejection of the traditions of the
  past 7and here was the capital vice   
and error of this ,revolution71         
rendered the evil incurable1 and even   
for ,biblical learning and  philology   

now so highly valued1 the true key of   
interpretation1 which  sacred tradition 
alone can furnish1 was irretrievably    
lost1 as the  sequel has but too well   
proved4 ,and even if this were not the  
case1  how could mere learned institutes
 of ,biblical philology1 united with    
popular schools of morality1 constitute 
the spirit and essence of a  religion8  
,this is no where so fully understood1  
and so deeply felt1  as in ,protestant  
,germany at the present day--,germany1  
where lies the  root of ,protestantism1 
its mighty centre1 its all-ruling       
spirit1 its  vital power1 and its       
life-blood--,germany1 where to supply   
the want of  the true spirit of         
religion1 a remedy is sought sometimes  
in the  external forms of liturgy1#h    
sometimes in the pompous apparatus of   
,biblical philology and research1       
destitute of the true key of            
interpretation#i2 sometimes in the empty
 philosophy of ,rationalism1  and       
sometimes in the mazes of a mere        

interior ,pietism4    ,undoubtedly even 
within the pale of ,catholicism1 we meet
 occasionally  with individuals who     
adopt the same1 or at least very similar
 systems1  who either give in to the    
principle of ,rationalism1 or to a false
  theological illuminism 7as in the     
recent period of ,neology71 or like     
some of the ,jansenists1 indulge in the 
unsafe and illusive suggestions  of a   
sentimental mysticism4 ,for the contests
 of two hostile parties  will not always
 prevent the imitation of defects1 and  
the contagion of  errors2 and this is   
only an additional reason1 why in a work
 of this  kind1 we should abstain from  
entering more closely and minutely into 
the nature of these controversies4 ,in  
contemplating the first steps of  this  
great ,revolution2 in considering the   
circumstances of that  period1 we       
experience a feeling of regret1 that the
 great problem of  that age1 the arduous
 task which devolved on it1 of          
accomplishing an  universal regeneration

 and real ,reformation of the world1    
should have  remained unexecuted1 from  
the very revolutionary turn which       
affairs  took--nay1 that this task      
should not even have been understood or 
felt  by any of the leading characters  
of the time4 ,the earlier disputes      
between the spiritual and temporal      
powers had related to the dominion  over
 certain territories1 or over           
,ecclesiastical property in general1    
and especially to the jurisdiction of   
the state over the latter  species of   
property4 ,the allurements which the    
confiscation of church  property held   
out to cupidity1 must be ranked among   
the main causes  which contributed to   
the diffusion of ,protestantism4 ,thus1 
for  instance1 ,prussia1 the country of 
the ,teutonic order1 was now  converted 
into a secular dutchy2 and in the       
interior of ,germany1 a  celebrated     
knight1#aj led away by the spirit of    
that age of feud1  invaded one of the   
,ecclesiastical electorates1 thinking no

 doubt1 that  that state1 like every    
other ,ecclesiastical domain1 was the   
lawful  booty of the first comer4 ,but  
independently of these partial changes  
and minor transactions1 7and in many    
,protestant countries1 such as  ,england
 and ,sweden1 church property remained  
inviolate1 and even  ,episcopacy was    
retained17 the hostility of the ,german 
,reformers to the  church was of a      
different and more spiritual nature2 and
 it was the  religious dignity of the   
priesthood which was more especially the
  object of their destructive efforts4  
,and this is the point1 where  doctrinal
 controversy enters within the province 
of history2 for the  priesthood stands  
or falls with faith in the sacred       
mysteries4 ,the  rejection of these     
mysteries1 by one half of the           
,protestant body in  ,switzerland1      
,france1 ,england1 and the ,netherlands1
 ,luther not only  discountenanced1 but 
strenuously reprobated2 yet it was only 
by a  subtle distinction he attempted to

 separate those mysteries from the      
functions of the priesthood2 and it was 
not difficult to foresee that  together 
with faith in the sacred mysteries1     
respect for the clergy  must sooner or  
later be destroyed1 as indeed experience
 has  sufficiently demonstrated4 ,for   
that great mystery of religion1 on      
which the whole dignity of the          
,christian priesthood depends1 forms the
  simple1 but very deep internal        
keystone of all ,christian doctrines2   
and thus the rejection1 or even the     
infringement of this dogma1 shakes  the 
foundations of religion1 and leads to   
its total overthrow4 ,the  pacific      
conferences of learned and well-meaning 
men of both parties1  though often      
renewed1 were not attended with real and
 ultimate success2  although sometimes1 
in looking at the language of such a man
 as the  mild ,melancthon1 we are almost
 perplexed to discover the few points   
which do not coincide with the old      
,catholic doctrines--so nearly akin1    

and almost identical do the two         
religious systems appear1 when we       
merely consider their separate parts4   
,equally fruitless were all those       
honest attempts at pacification1        
incessantly made by the ,emperor        
,charles1 who sought by his interim to  
create delay1 while he indulged  a      
secret hope1 that the agitated waves of 
anarchy1--all that mighty  tempest of   
opinion1 would be allayed by time1 and  
would finally be  stilled4 ,but that    
interim has been of longer duration than
 was at  first calculated1 and it still 
awaits the judgment of ,god for its     
great day of termination4    ,when we   
consider ,luther's original powers of   
mind1 independently of  the use and     
employment which he made of those       
extraordinary powers1  7for even the    
greatest comet1 though it should cover  
half the heavens  with the splendour of 
its light1 can never possess1 or be     
supposed to  possess1 the sun's genial  
warmth27--when ,i say1 we consider the  

intellectual endowments of this         
extraordinary man solely in  themselves2
 the boldness of his speculations and   
the vigour of his  eloquence will be    
found to form an epoch1 not only 7as is 
universally  acknowledged7 in the       
history of the ,german language1 but in 
the  progress of ,european science and  
,european culture4 ,after the first     
period in the intellectual history of   
,europe1 which ,i denominated the       
scholastico-romantic epoch1 and after   
the second1 which ,i termed the  epoch  
of enthusiasm for ,pagan ,antiquity1 and
 in which a ,christian  simplicity of   
eloquence and a depth of scientific     
enquiry appear as  only happy and       
occasional exceptions2 a third epoch now
 arose1 which  from the general spirit  
of the age1 and the tone of the         
writings1  which exerted a commanding   
influence over the times1 cannot be     
otherwise designated than as the era of 
a polemico-barbarous  eloquence4 ,this  
rude polemic spirit which had its origin

 in the  ,reformation1 and in that      
concussion of faith1 and consequently of
 all  thought and all science which     
,protestantism occasioned1 continued1   
down to the end of the seventeenth      
century1 to prevail in the              
controversial writings and philosophic  
speculations both of ,germany  and      
,england4 ,this spirit was not          
incompatible with a sort of deep        
mystical sensibility1 and a certain     
original boldness of thought and        
expression1 such1 for instance1 as      
,luther's writings display2 yet we      
cannot at all regard in a favourable    
light the general spirit of that        
intellectual epoch1 or consider it as   
one by any means adapted to the         
intellectual exigencies of that age4    
,but with respect to the language  and  
literature of ,germany1 so far as these 
are of general interest1 ,i  should wish
 to make one observation4 ,besides      
,thomas  ,kempis1 whom ,i  have already 
mentioned1 ,i might cite several other  

religious writers  of the fifteenth     
century and even of an earlier period1  
who though  less known1 were            
distinguished by a similar spirit1      
partly among those  who made use of the 
,latin language1 then universally       
current1 and  partly among those who1   
like ,taulerus1 for example1 made the   
,german  the vehicle of their thoughts4 
,and indeed were we to compare the      
gentle simplicity1 the charming         
clearness of thought and expression     
which reign in the works of these       
writers1 with the productions of the    
following age of barbarous polemic      
strife1 we should then be furnished     
with the best criterion for duly        
appreciating the earlier and the  later 
period4    ,with respect to those       
institutes of the church1 which had     
early  devoted themselves to the task of
 the propagation of the gospel1 or of   
the defence and support of religion1 and
 made this spiritual conflict  and holy 
engagement the business of their lives2 

it now happened1 as  it had often       
occurred before1 that the proper        
defenders of the church  arose at that  
moment1 and adopted that course and mode
 of defence  which the circumstances of 
the church precisely required4 ,the     
powerful  prelates of the old ,episcopal
 sees1 who had rendered such high and   
imperishable services to the cause of   
,european civilization1 though  they    
might not be unfaithful to the original 
spirit of their calling1  and might be  
no strangers to science1 were1 however1 
much too  dependant on government1 and  
mixed up in affairs of state4 ,the more 
popular and mendicant orders1 from their
 very nature and character1  and their  
peculiar habits of life and modes of    
speech1 were not always  calculated to  
exert due influence on government and   
the upper classes  of society1 while    
their ardent zeal1 unmindful of times   
and  circumstances1 often transgressed  
the bounds of moderation4 ,the great    
want of the age was a religious order1  

which established in opposition  to     
,protestantism1 should not be dependant 
on the state1 but devoted  exclusively  
to the interests of the church2 a       
religious order1 which  well equipped   
with modern learning1 science and       
accomplishment1  possessing a knowledge 
of the world1 acquainted with the spirit
 of the  times1 and pursuing the course 
which expediency dictated1 with         
prudence and circumspection1 should     
undertake the defence of the  ,catholic 
religion1 and the propagation of the    
gospel in foreign  countries1 and       
worthily and successfully prosecute this
 twofold  object4 ,such an order was the
 society of the ,jesuits in its first   
institution2 and that among the founders
 and first members of this  order1 there
 were men of undoubted piety and eminent
 sanctity1 men  animated by the         
sublimest principles of ,christian      
self-denial1  possessed of great        
intellectual endowments1 and favoured by
 ,god with  high preternatural powers1  

no unprejudiced historical enquirer will
  deny4 ,whether the reproaches which   
have been made to many members of  this 
order1 of having exerted an undue       
political influence1 and  displayed a   
spirit of intrigue and ambition in the  
history of this  period1 be well-founded
 or not1 ,i shall not stop to enquire2  
because  such charges at best can affect
 individuals only1 and not the society1 
whose very name indeed has become in our
 times the watch-word of party  strife  
and contention4 ,the severest           
condemnation of the ,jesuits  proceeds  
from a quarter where we clearly discern 
the most implacable  hostility to       
,christianity and to all religion2 and  
this circumstance  ought to furnish the 
,jesuits with an additional claim to our
 good  opinion2 but any judgment on the 
merits of this society1 as this is a    
question which more immediately regards 
the present age1 is quite  foreign to   
the purpose of the present work4 ,if    
some members of the  order adopted at   

this period those absolute maxims and   
principles of  policy and government1   
which in general characterized that age2
 and if  the writings of others were    
distinguished by that rude polemic tone 
and spirit spoken of above1 and which   
was equally characteristic of  those    
times2 it would be unjust to lay to the 
charge of the order1 or  even of        
particular members1 failings and defects
 which were common to  the age1 and a   
perfect exemption from which is the most
 rare of human  excellencies4    ,a     
violent insurrection can be put down    
only by forcible means2 but  every      
system of terror1 of whatsoever nature1 
is sure to provoke1  sooner or later1 a 
re-action equally terrible4 ,and if the 
dangerous  disease be checked by means  
merely external1 and no healing remedy  
be  applied to the root and principle of
 the disorder1 nor used to  renovate the
 impaired organs of life--if the fire be
 smothered in its  own flames--it will  
lie concealed beneath the ashes1 and    

will burn in  secret1 till the first    
casual and unlucky spark shall kindle it
 anew  into a fiercer blaze4 ,such1 in  
my opinion1 are the plain and obvious   
principles which the historian should   
bear in mind1 while passing in  review  
periods of revolution like the one under
 consideration2  principles1 which even 
now are susceptible of no very remote   
application4    ,in that first period of
 ferment which marked the birth of the  
reformation1 the revolt of the peasants 
had been put down with amazing          
promptitude and vigour4 ,it was but ten 
years later1 when in the north  of      
,germany1 a new insurrection broke out1 
which from its religious  complexion1   
seemed still more revolting1 whose      
adherents sought to  establish on earth 
the invisible empire of ,god by fire and
 sword1 and  whose new spiritual        
monarch1 ,john of ,leyden1 made his     
triumphant entry  into ,munster1 amid   
many and dreadful excesses2 till at last
 this  savage fanaticism was crushed1   

and 7as invariably happens in similar   
cases71 met with a bloody end4    ,but  
the most singular phenomenon at this    
momentous epoch was ,henry  ,,viii4 of  
,england3 a prince who while he adhered 
to the ,catholic  doctrines1 and        
zealously asserted them against ,luther1
 yet severed  his kingdom from the      
church1 declared himself its spiritual  
head1 and  by that monstrous and        
unchristian combination of the two      
powers1  appeared in the midst of       
,christendom1 like the ,caliph of       
,england4  ,when1 too1 we take into     
consideration the private life of this  
,prince1  his endless series of         
divorces1 and the execution of his      
,queens2 his  conduct was a greater     
scandal to his contemporaries1 and fixes
 a  deeper stain on the history of his  
age1 than any other earlier example  in 
,italy1 or elsewhere1 several of which  
have been already mentioned4  ,the      
executions on account of religion which 
took place under ,henry1  and which1 as 

he was opposed to both ,catholics and   
,protestants1  affected the two parties 
alike1 were of a peculiarly odious and  
blood-thirsty character4 ,on this       
subject ,i wish to make one             
observation4 ,from the connection which 
then subsisted between church  and      
state1 a case might easily arise1 where 
a religious error would  become a       
political crime4 ,when an insurrection  
originating in a  religious cause1      
breaks out and threatens the peace of   
society1 like  the religious war of the 
,hussites1 and the revolt of the ,german
  peasants1 no other resource remains   
but to put down force by force4  ,but   
when the first violence has subsided1   
another and a better and a  truly moral 
remedy should1 if possible1 be applied  
to the evil2 and  this remedy was not   
always administered in a right1 benign1 
and truly  ,christian form4 ,strange and
 fanciful have been1 in all times and   
places1 the offsprings of human error4  
,thus even in the most modern  times1   

and in a peaceful and civilized country1
 examples still occur1  where religious 
errors lead their unhappy dupes to      
violent attempts on  their own lives1 or
 the lives of others2 and a wise        
legislation and  humane judicature      
should rather treat these errors as     
mental diseases1  than judge them       
according to the rigid letter of        
criminal law4 ,how  much more should not
 this be the case1 when religious error 
is  confined to the sphere of           
speculation1 and is not attended with   
any  practical consequences4 ,it is     
often perhaps not easy to draw the line 
of demarcation between measures of wise 
precaution against the  assaults of a   
dangerous fanaticism1 and unchristian   
modes of  punishment4 ,but certainly the
 criminal process of ,ecclesiastical    
tribunals at that period1 was not only  
opposed to the spirit of  ,christianity1
 but at utter variance with the express 
and ancient  canons of the church1 and  
urgent admonitions of the ,fathers1 that

 the  church should strenuously avoid   
the shedding of blood4 ,men sought to   
evade this wise and beautiful law1 by   
abandoning all executions to the        
secular arm2 but except in the          
punishment of actual crimes1 and in the 
necessary defence against open          
insurrection1 we must admit that the    
spirit of this law was grievously       
violated4 ,a vindictive criminal        
jurisprudence1 which was then dictated  
by the mutual rage of  contending       
parties1 and which was made still more  
revolting to  ,christian feelings by the
 religious colouring it assumed1 remains
 a  stigma on that age2 for it was the  
work not of one1 but of both  religious 
parties1 or to speak more properly1 of  
members of both  parties4 ,the          
commencement1 indeed1 of this great     
disorder--of this  great departure from 
the law of love--is to be found in the  
middle  age1 during the strife of       
exasperated factions2 but how small are 
those beginnings when compared with the 

excesses of subsequent times4  ,when we 
hear the middle age called barbarous1 we
 should remember that  that epithet     
applies with far greater force to the   
truly barbarous era  of the             
,reformation1 and of the religious wars 
which that event  produced1 and which   
continued down to the period when a sort
 of moral  and political pacification   
was re-established1 apparently at least1
 in  society and in the human mind4     
#g ,the ,prince4         #h ,schlegel   
here alludes to the ,ordinances         
promulgated       a few years ago by the
 ,king of ,prussia1 for the reform      
of the ,protestant ,liturgy4         #i 
,the author here refers to that mania   
for ,biblical       criticism1 long     
prevalent in ,protestant ,germany1 and  
which however it may inform our reason1 
and gratify a       laudable curiosity1 
is in itself no guide to the            
knowledge of religious truth4--,trans4  
#aj ,schlegel here alludes to ,prince   
,albert of       ,brandenburgh4         

,,end ,,of ,,lecture ,,xv4              
,,lecture ,,xvi4        ,further        
developement and extension of           
,protestantism1 in the      period of   
the religious wars1 and subsequently    
thereto4--,on      the different results
 of those wars in the principal         
,european      countries4      ,the true
 ,reformation1 loudly demanded in the   
fifteenth century as the  most urgent   
want of the times1 not only by the      
capricious voice of the  multitude1 but 
by the first and most legitimate organs 
of opinion in  church and state1 and the
 nature of which had been long before   
clearly  stated1 and fully and generally
 understood1--ought to have been a      
divine ,reformation4 ,then would it have
 carried with it its own high           
sanction--it would have proved it by the
 fact--and at no time and  under no     
condition would it have severed itself  
from the sacred centre  and venerable   
basis of ,christian tradition1 in order1
 reckless of all  legitimate decisions1 

preceding as well as actual1 to         
perpetuate  discord1 and seek in        
negation itself a new and peculiar basis
 for the  edifice of schismatic opinion4
 ,such a vast1 extensive1 deep1 and     
effectual ,reform1 which while it kept  
within the limits of ancient  faith1 and
 steadily adhered to its divine centre1 
would at the same  time renovate and    
revivify the church1 was not then       
accomplished4 ,the  disciplinary canons 
of the council of ,trent undoubtedly    
contained many  wise1 excellent and     
wholesome regulations1 whose efficacy   
has been  proved by the experience of   
the different ,catholic countries1 and  
whose reception has been determined by  
the local circumstances of  each2 for   
these regulations intended for the      
correction and removal of  abuses1 and  
for the revival of ancient discipline1  
were not adopted  without modification1 
nor received to a like extent in all    
,catholic  countries4 ,on the other     
hand1 with respect to the ,protestants1 

the  decrees of the council of ,trent1  
from the very nature of things1 could   
be only of a defensive character4       
,instead of the desired ,reformation1   
,protestantism early enough announced   
itself as a new and peculiar  religion1 
and still more was it constituted as    
such2 but the rupture  was already      
consummated--the evil had become        
incurable1 before the  remedy was       
applied4 ,protestantism was the work of 
man2 and it appears  in no other light  
even in the history which its own       
disciples have  drawn of its origin4    
,the ,partisans of the ,reformation     
proclaimed  indeed at the outset1 that  
if it were more than a human work1 it   
would  endure1 and that its duration    
would serve as a proof of its divine    
origin4 ,but surely no one will consider
 this an adequate proof1 when  he       
reflects that the great ,mohammedan     
heresy1 which more than any  other      
destroys and obliterates the divine     
image stamped on the human  soul1 has   

stood its ground for full twelve hundred
 years2 though this  religion1 if it    
proceed from no worse source1 is at best
 a human work4  ,but even as the mere   
work of man1 the ,reformation was       
unquestionably a  mighty1 extraordinary1
 and momentous revolution1 which when   
once it  had been outwardly established 
in the world1 7though inwardly it       
remained in a state of perpetual        
agitation17 has thenceforward mostly    
directed the march of modern times1     
influenced the legislation and  policy  
of the ,european states1 and stamped the
 character of modern  science1 down to  
our own days1 when though its influence 
has not been  so exclusive and          
undivided1 as at an earlier period1 it  
has been still  the main and stirring   
cause of all the great political        
changes1 and  all the new and           
astonishing events of our age4 ,we must 
endeavour to  view this great           
,revolution with the impartial eye of   
the historian1  and labour duly to      

comprehend and judge it in all its      
manifold  bearings1 and in all its      
remote consequences2 and if we should   
feel  inclined to lament and deplore the
 long continuance of this unhappy       
division in the great ,european family1 
we should remember that such a  feeling 
of regret1 however innocent and natural 
in our own bosoms1 and  in our own      
conviction1 can furnish no adequate     
criterion for an  historical decision4  
,at any rate1 we should in no case      
immoderately  repine at such an event1  
and murmur against ,destiny1 that is to 
say1  the ruling ,providence which      
permits the occurrence of such evils4   
,the  permission by ,god of a mere      
human1 unsanctioned enterprise1 nay1 of 
a  mighty1 general1 protracted1 and     
incurable division among mankind--a     
system of opposition with all its       
unhappy consequences1 its moral         
impediments1 and its political          
disasters2 such a permission forms1 as  
,i have already observed1 the great     

enigma of history--the wonderful  secret
 of the divine decrees in the conduct of
 mankind1 as well as in  the conduct of 
individuals4 ,perhaps this great enigma 
will then only  be perfectly unravelled1
 and the mystery which hangs over this  
subject1 then only be perfectly         
dispelled1 when this mighty ,revolution 
shall have been terminated1 and brought 
to a close4 ,even now1 the  experience  
we have acquired1 however imperfect and 
limited it may be1  makes one thing     
evident2 namely1 that the influence of  
,protestantism  has not been confined to
 those states and countries where it    
became  predominant1 and where it       
received a public and legal             
establishment4  ,far greater was the    
danger1 far more fatal were the         
consequences1 when  an open rupture1 a  
formal separation from the church did   
not take  place1 or had1 if a temporary1
 at least no permanent existence--but   
where ,protestantism1 that is to say1   
the spirit of ,protestantism1 a  like or

 a kindred set of opinions1 was infused 
into the moral system  of countries     
externally ,catholic1 and secretly      
instilled into the  veins of the body   
politic1 gradually corroded its vitals2 
till at  last1 amid a false and apparent
 repose1 the long suppressed element of 
revolutionary innovation infected with  
its deadly virus1 opinion1  science1 and
 lastly1 government and society4 ,the   
conscience in its  enquiries after      
religious truth1 to whatever decision it
 may come1  only looks to the           
determination of a point of faith as the
 sole clue  of its investigations4 ,but 
in historical enquiries1 this rigid     
intersecting line of faith forms no     
adequate rule of judgment4 ,the         
experience of our own times1 or that of 
the last generation has  proved1 that   
innovations in faith1 politics and      
philosophy ingrafted  on a ,catholic    
nation1 are far more fatal to its       
repose1 and that of  its neighbours1    
than a system of ,protestantism which   

has settled into  a state of permanent  
peace and stability4 ,hence for         
instance1 the  policy and political     
interests of ,england1 which is a state 
more than  any other essentially        
,protestant1 have often been in perfect 
accordance with the political system of 
an old leading ,catholic power4  ,and ,i
 would ask1 has the ,atheism of the     
eighteenth century been  productive of  
fewer commotions and less convulsion in 
the world1 than  ,protestantism in the  
first period of its existence1 or in the
 era of  religious wars2 although the   
infidel party in the last century by no 
means constituted a distinct and        
separate sect1 but was like a deadly    
contagion of the spirit of the times1   
infecting all beside and around1  above 
and below it1 whithersoever the wind of 
chance1 or the breath of  fanatic zeal  
might carry it4    ,according to my own 
personal conviction1 the theological    
point of view  is to be preferred in    
historical enquiries as the best and    

final rule  of investigation4 ,but in   
these latter times1 when religious      
opinion is  so divided1 and where the   
juridical view of things1 in which each 
party struggles to make out a favourable
 case for itself1 leads only  to endless
 disputes2 the historian is compelled to
 view the diseased  state of society    
with the eye of a pathologist4 ,in      
medicine it is  considered far better   
and more advantageous1 that a dangerous 
disease  should be got rid of in a      
decisive but happily terminated struggle
 for  life or death1 than that by any   
sudden check given to the crisis1 the   
disorder should fall on any internal    
part1 and thus attack and corrode  the  
vital powers4 ,this principle1 which the
 history of particular  countries has   
shewn to be equally applicable to man's 
moral existence1  may be applied to the 
general state of ,europe at that period4
 ,if  ,protestantism had then been      
outwardly suppressed and put down1 would
  it not have raged inwardly1 that is to

 say1 would not the most  essential part
 of ,protestantism1 the spirit of       
,revolutionary  innovation1 the spirit  
of destructive negation1 rationalism1 in
 a  word1 have secretly remained8 ,and  
may we not conclude from the  examples  
of a partial experience1 that that      
secret and inward working  of the       
disease would have been far more        
dangerous and fatal8--,i should  wish   
that these and other like expressions   
before made use of1 should  not be taken
 as so many categorical assertions2 for 
the question of  doctrine1 lying as it  
does beyond the reach of doubt1 does not
 fall  within the limits of my plan1 and
 the perfect reconciliation of minds  is
 not in the power of man1 but can come  
only from ,god4 ,but these  expressions 
are merely meant to convey a            
conciliatory view of things  in history1
 7and1 as is the proper duty of the     
philosophic historian17  to vindicate   
the ways of providence4 ,undoubtedly    
this great religious  contest1 this long

 protracted struggle has tended to      
excite the  emulation of both parties in
 the pursuits of learning1 and the      
labours  of science1 to stir up a mutual
 vigilance in the moral conduct of      
individuals1 as well as in the          
administration of states1 and thus to   
keep both parties in a state of salutary
 watchfulness and activity4  ,even from 
the collision of these two conflicting  
elements1 there has  sprung up in some  
countries a new and third element1 which
 though not  such as could be desired1  
nor entirely conformable to             
,christianity1  has still been          
productive of important and remarkable  
consequences4 ,of  the eight or nine    
countries1 in which ,protestantism has  
obtained a  firm footing1 and acquired a
 permanent existence1 there are three in
  particular1 where it has been attended
 with mighty historical  effects1 and   
where the originally destructive        
conflict of hostile  elements has given 
birth to three new and momentous        

phenomena in the  history of mankind4   
,these are1 in ,germany the religious   
pacification1  which forms the basis of 
her future prosperity1 stamps the       
peculiar  character of the ,german      
nation1 and designates its future moral 
destiny3 in ,england1 the highly valued1
 or as it is there called1 the  glorious
 ,constitution of #afhh1 whose mere     
outward form1 or dead  letter1 has been 
an object of desire to so many other    
nations3--lastly  in ,france1 the       
,revolution in philosophy1 produced by  
the indirect  influence of              
,protestantism1 and the combination of  
so many ,protestant1  or semi-protestant
 elements1 and which gave birth to a    
frightful  political ,revolution1 which 
after a short intervenient period of    
military despotism1 has been succeeded  
in its turn by a mighty epoch  of moral 
and social regeneration--a regeneration 
which indeed has not  yet been          
consummated1 which is still in a state  
of precarious and  convulsive labour1   

but is even on that account the more    
entitled to  the historian's attention4 
,of the countries immediately contiguous
 to ,germany1 the home and  cradle of   
,protestantism1 ,switzerland was at the 
commencement of the  ,reformation1 the  
theatre of a fierce civil war1 in which 
the ,swiss  ,reformer fell fighting on  
the field of battle4 ,but the strong    
federal  spirit of the ,swiss1 the      
necessity of mutual defence1 and the    
nearly  equal numbers and strength of   
both religious parties1 produced at an  
early period a religious pacification4  
,the indirect ,protestant  influence    
which ,french ,switzerland has exerted  
over ,france1 has  continued very great 
and powerful from ,calvin to ,rousseau4 
,after the  ,german treaty of           
,westphalia1 the ,austrian ,emperors    
established in  ,hungary1 which was     
already half subdued by the ,turks1 and 
still more  exposed to their ravages1   
the principle of religious toleration--a
  principle that became a received maxim

 of state1 and was incorporated  into   
the very constitution of the country4   
,in the last half of the  sixteenth     
century1 there penetrated into ,poland  
the sect of ,socinus1  which professed  
tenets distinct from those of the       
primitive ,reformers1  and which with   
the usually rapid march of religious    
innovation1 and  schismatic dissent1 had
 now rejected along with the great      
,mystery of  devotion1 the fundamental  
article of ,christian theology1 the     
doctrine  of the ,trinity4 ,as long as  
the ,socinians formed a distinct and    
separate body of religionists1 they were
 not very numerous in ,poland1  or      
elsewhere2 but during the prevailing    
infidelity of the eighteenth  century1  
they acquired many more disciples1 and  
in many countries have  become almost   
the predominant sect4--,how ,prussia1   
the land of the  ,teutonic order was    
transformed into a secular duchy1 which 
for about a  century remained connected 
with ,poland1 ,i have already had       

occasion to  observe4 ,into no country  
of ,europe was ,christianity introduced 
so  late as into ,lithuania1 where the  
faith was planted only towards the  end 
of the fourteenth century4 ,in the      
ancient ,russian provinces of  ,poland1 
as well as in ,hungary and other        
neighbouring countries1 a  large portion
 of the population belonged to the      
,greek church4 ,in the  great struggle  
of the following age1 and in the        
perpetual wars which  ,poland had to    
sustain against ,turkey1 ,sweden and    
,russia1 all these  hostile and         
heterogeneous elements of which ,i have 
spoken1 and to  which may be added the  
real or apparent attachment of the      
religious  ,dissenters to ,sweden1      
increased the general ferment and       
confusion in  the ,polish state1 down to
 the final dissolution and dismemberment
 of  the kingdom4 ,russia1 which towards
 the end of the fifteenth century  had  
been restored to a high degree of power 
and splendour by ,wassili  ,ivanowitch1 

7who entertained the most friendly      
relations with the  ,emperor            
,maximilian1 and who had established in 
his ,empire the ,german  ,hanseatic     
league71 ,russia still remained totally 
separated from the  ,european community1
 and was exempt from the influence of   
,protestantism1 like ,spain and ,italy  
at the opposite extremity of  ,europe4  
,the ,scandinavian countries at the     
commencement of the  fifteenth century1 
had been incorporated into one state1   
and  considered merely in a geographical
 point of view1 they might have  formed 
a great and lasting power in the ,north2
 and under many  vicissitudes1 they     
remained united till the sixteenth      
century4 ,yet  the voice and feelings of
 the two nations were against the       
,union2 and  ,gustavus ,vasa effected at
 once the total and definitive          
separation of  ,sweden from ,denmark1   
the establishment of his own monarchical
 sway in  the former country1 and the   
introduction of ,protestantism1 which   

was  brought into ,sweden1 not as in    
other countries1 by the torrent of      
popular opinion1 but by the arm of      
power--by the authority of a  sovereign 
who knew how to conduct the enterprise  
with steady  perseverance1 and slow1    
patient and consummate skill4 ,in       
,sweden1  however1 ,episcopacy was      
retained4 ,by its situation betwixt     
,prussia and  ,poland1 and by the       
,protestant influence in ,germany1      
,sweden became for  a time in the       
seventeenth century a great ,european   
power2 and to this  political eminence  
the personal qualities of ,gustavus     
,adolphus1 as  well as of several other 
,swedish monarchs principally           
contributed4 ,in  ,sweden1              
,protestantism did not give rise to any 
events of a new and  peculiar character1
 or of great historical moment1 as in   
,england and  ,germany4 ,the            
,reformation was established in         
,denmark1 chiefly though  not           
exclusively as in ,sweden1 by sovereign 

power2 in ,iceland1 its  establishment  
was almost the work of violence4 ,in    
those still regions  of the ,north1 the 
real abuses and scandals existing in the
 ,catholic  church were neither so great
 nor numerous as in the ,southern       
countries4 ,there was greater simplicity
 of manners2 and corruption  was much   
less diffused1 much less generally known
 than even in  ,germany2 and thus the   
ancient faith had struck deeper roots in
 the  minds of men1 and could not be    
eradicated but with difficulty4 ,to that
  old ,revolutionary spirit of the      
,swedes1 which in their earlier history 
had often displayed itself in the       
party-contests of their high            
aristocracy1 a wider field was now      
opened by the ,reformation  introduced  
by the court2 and armed in the          
,protestant cause1 this  spirit found   
fuller scope in the troubles of ,poland1
 in its connection  with ,prussia and   
other states1 and above all1 in the     
great religious  war of ,germany4 ,when 

at a later period1 and after the        
,swedish  ascendancy in ,europe had     
passed away1 this spirit became         
compressed  within narrower limits1 and 
was thrown back upon itself1 it then    
broke  out into many violent internal   
commotions4    ,it was only under the   
successor of the despotic ,henry that   
,protestantism was really introduced    
into ,england2 but it there  appeared   
under two different forms1 and with two 
parties in a state of  mutual and       
violent hostility4 ,in ,england         
,episcopacy was retained2 but  in       
,scotland1 the ,puritans1 the           
,methodists of those days1 had the      
ascendant4 ,but under ,queen ,mary1 the 
wife of ,philip ,,ii41 ,king of  ,spain1
 a ,catholic re-action took place2 and  
this again was succeeded  by a          
,protestant re-action under ,elizabeth1 
whose steady and inflexible  policy     
alone consolidated the establishment of 
,protestantism--a policy  at whose      
shrine the head of the unhappy ,mary    

,stuart fell a sacrifice4  ,thus things 
proceeded from one extremity to         
another--from the  execution of ,king   
,charles ,i4 to the establishment of a  
,republic1 and  the absolute sway of a  
,protector--till amid the various       
disputes of  the ,scotch and ,english   
,protestants1 and the various struggles 
of  national rivalry1 the court fell    
back upon ,catholicism4 ,at last1 ,king 
,william from ,holland1 a century before
 the breaking out of the ,french        
,revolution1 gave the final triumph to  
,protestantism1 and brought to  maturity
 the glorious constitution of that      
island1 which has been so  repeatedly   
transplanted1 imitated and modified on  
the ,continent and in  other parts of   
the world4 ,on this basis1 a thorough   
,protestant policy  was established1    
which affected even the public and      
international law  of ,europe--a policy 
which has so eminently characterized    
,england in  modern times1 particularly 
during the period of her great power1   

and  which was followed1 or even        
accompanied by a ,protestant philosophy4
 ,i  should premise that this           
,protestantism in philosophy should not 
by any  means be confounded with1 but   
should carefully be distinguished from1 
the ,revolutionary philosophy--from an  
unbridled anarchy in science and        
speculation1 though the former in its   
corruption may easily degenerate  into  
the latter4 ,for the modern             
,paganism--the avowed ,atheism of the   
eighteenth century acquired many more   
partisans and assumed a far  bolder     
attitude on the ,continent1 than in the 
,constitutional island1  which even in  
philosophy oscillates in a sort of      
artificial equipoise  between truth and 
error4    ,in the ,netherlands1         
,protestantism was indeed a strong      
co-operative  cause1 but not the only   
cause of the rupture with ,spain2 for   
even in  earlier times the ,burgundian  
spirit had been prone to turbulence1 and
  the arbitrary rule of the ,spaniards  

had excited in other countries  also    
general dissatisfaction1 aversion1 and  
resistance4 ,when the  ,protestant half 
of the ,netherlands had separated from  
,spain1 and had  established the        
sovereign and independent state of      
,holland1 the latter  ever exerted a    
powerful influence on ,england in all   
religious and  political matters1 in the
 same way as ,belgium has ever exercised
 a  marked influence over ,france4 ,but 
in ,holland1 ,protestantism did not     
give rise1 as in ,germany and ,england1 
to any events of a new and  peculiar    
character1 if we except the general     
toleration of religious  sects1 which   
was there carried to a further extent   
than in any other  state4    ,in her own
 interior1 ,spain had an arduous problem
 to solve--she had to  overcome the old 
energetic resistance of a whole         
people1--the  tolerably numerous        
descendants of the former lords and     
conquerors of  the country1 who still   
adhered to the ,arabian manners and     

language1  and even in part professed   
the doctrines of ,mohammedanism4 ,this  
struggle1 which commenced under ,philip 
,,ii4 by very severe laws  against the  
,moriscoes1 terminated under ,philip the
 ,third1 with the  barbarous expulsion  
of the whole ,moorish population to the 
coasts of  ,africa4 ,that from the      
intimate and manifold relations which   
existed  between ,spain and ,germany    
under ,charles ,v41 the armies of the   
,emperor  may have introduced into      
,spain the opinions of the new ,german  
gospellers to a greater extent perhaps  
than can be now stated with  certainty1 
or than is now susceptible of minute and
 accurate proof1 is  by no means        
improbable2 and this fact would serve to
 explain1 though  not entirely to       
justify many acts of the ,spanish       
government4 ,at any  rate1 the ,spanish 
mind and character1 in other repects so 
generous and  upright1 so little prone  
to selfish cunning or fickle frivolity1 
became in the long strife and           

animosities of a fierce religious war1  
more and more partial and exclusive1    
arbitrary and violent4 ,there yet       
lingered1 however1 many chivalrous      
virtues peculiar to this  high-minded   
nation--many extraordinary and lofty    
effusions of  religious genius1 such as 
are displayed in the wonderful writings 
of  ,st4 ,theresa1 whose holy           
meditations are couched in language of  
such  inimitable beauty4 ,among no other
 people did the spirit and character  of
 the middle age1 in its most beautiful  
and dignified form1 so long  continue   
and survive in manners1 ways of         
thinking1 intellectual  culture1 and    
works of imagination and poetry1 as     
among the ,spaniards2  and it is not the
 mere effect of chance1 but it is a very
 remarkable  and characteristic fact1   
that in ,spain alone1 the peculiar      
poetry of  the middle age attained to   
its utmost perfection1 and reached its  
last  exquisite bloom4    ,in ,italy1   
too1 art and poetry flourished in her   

beautiful language2  and classical      
erudition made considerable progress1   
and even arrived  to a very advanced    
state1 during that troubled period when 
the rest of  ,europe was involved in    
religious disputes and civil wars4 ,but 
the fair  and flourishing ,italian      
literature of that age may be compared  
to a  blooming garden1 situated on a    
volcanic soil4 ,no immediate danger then
  threatened ,italy1 though we are not  
to estimate private opinions by  the    
standard of those which publicly        
prevailed2 there were at least no       
public examples of that excessive       
partiality and passionate enthusiasm    
for ,pagan antiquity1 which occurred in 
that earlier and brilliant  period of   
moral ferment and false security--the   
fifteenth century4 ,on  the contrary1 in
 some individual instances the real     
progress of  science was impeded1 and on
 the whole its march retarded by a dread
 of  the danger of its abuse2 and hence 
the old scholasticism remained  longer  

than was right in hereditary possession 
of its exclusive  empire1 although that 
contentious and partly negative         
,rationalism of  the middle age was ill 
calculated to supply the place of a     
truly  ,christian philosophy1 which the 
circumstances of the church then so     
imperiously demanded4 ,it should then   
have been borne in mind1 that  every new
 error--every new shape which the old   
,proteus may assume in  the changing    
spirit of time1 requires1 not indeed a  
new philosophy  7for philosophy itself1 
which is1 as the ancients said1 the     
science of  divine and human things1 is 
in the sanctuary of its highest subjects
  and problems an edifice unchangeable  
through all ages1 and built on  the     
everlasting foundation of divine truth71
 but a new form and  direction given to 
philosophy1 a new resuscitation of its  
powers4  ,indeed the venerable ,bishop  
and holy man of ,god1 ,st4 ,charles     
,borromeo1  had in his ,manual of       
,religion furnished an example1 in which

 we see  the utmost profundity of       
ascetic science united with a beautiful 
lucidness of expression1 and the        
greatest simplicity and purity of       
taste4 ,but the regular philosophy of   
the schools remained for a long  time   
yet much too scholastic2 and it was     
prejudicial1 or at least                
disadvantageous to the ,catholic cause1 
that the first foundations of a  better 
philosophy1 of one at least more        
faithful to its high vocation1  and of  
an enlarged and improved science1 should
 have been laid by men1  like ,bacon and
 ,leibnitz1 who belonged to the opposite
 party4    ,protestantism had penetrated
 into ,france from ,french ,switzerland1
 as  the very name of ,hugonots         
indicates4 ,the religious wars in       
,france  broke out much later than in   
,germany2 and the religious disputes in 
that country had this distinctive       
character2 that the ,princes and  noble 
leaders of the ,opposition1 the factious
 among the high  aristocracy1 and the   

contending parties at ,court1 made the  
,protestants  7who formed indeed only   
the minority among the people1 and still
 more  in the state1 but yet a very     
important and powerful minority71 the   
tools and instruments of their own      
political designs and intrigues4 ,it  is
 this peculiar combination of           
circumstances which has stamped the     
character of the ,french religious wars1
 and which distinguishes them  from     
those of ,germany4 ,the religious wars  
in the former country were  not of such 
long and uninterrupted duration1 nor    
were they of so  destructive and        
desolating a character as the thirty    
years' war4 ,on  the other hand1 the    
treaties of religious pacification were 
of much  shorter duration1 and were     
renewed even five or six times1 for they
  were ever followed by new             
insurrections4 ,even the edict of       
,nantes1  which was destined to         
terminate this long anarchy1 did not    
prevent the  recurrence of troubles     

after the assassination of ,henry ,,iv41
 and was  itself totally repealed at a  
subsequent period4 ,the various         
political  intrigues of discontented    
nobles1 and of factious leaders of the  
,opposition1 gave a very hateful        
complexion to the religious wars in     
,france2 and that disposition to        
vindictive retaliation1 which swayed    
parties in the various alternations of  
power1 presented formidable1  and almost
 insurmountable obstacles to the        
establishment of a  permanent religious 
peace4 ,that odious character in the    
religious wars  of ,france1 appears in  
,england under equally revolting colours
 in the  despotism of the eighth ,henry1
 in the crafty policy of ,elizabeth1 in 
the great anarchical and regicide       
rebellion1 and in the tyranny of        
,cromwell1 and has been often and       
strongly pourtrayed by the national     
historians4 ,it is extremely worthy of  
remark1 as the fact serves to  explain  
many posterior events in history1 that  

the struggle in ,france  remained       
undecided1 partook from first to last of
 an uncertain and  fluctuating          
character1 and led neither to the       
establishment of a free  ,constitution1 
as in ,england2 nor to the foundation of
 a firm1 lasting1  and irrevocable      
religious pacification1 as in ,germany4 
,but this  struggle remained an unsolved
 problem of state-policy1 like the      
religious dispute itself--a dispute     
whose contagion infected the  ,catholics
 themselves1 inoculated that portion of 
the population1 and  continued to rage  
among their descendants4 ,in ,france1   
the ,protestants  were in a decided     
minority1 and it was by other and       
subordinate causes  that they acquired a
 temporary power and importance in the  
first  religious wars2 but in ,england  
they probably became the majority at a  
very early period1 though not such an   
overwhelming majority as they  form at  
the present day4    ,the ,catholic and  
,protestant parties then divided        

,germany into two  nearly equal         
portions1 as in point of numbers they do
 at the present  day2 and although      
political power does not depend on      
numbers1  particularly when1 as was at  
that time the case1 so many             
heterogeneous elements were combined1   
yet both the contending parties  were   
sufficiently strong not to succumb      
easily in the contest4 ,it is  this fact
 which ultimately established the       
necessity of a cordial and  permanent   
religious peace1 and caused that        
necessity to be so  universally         
acknowledged4 ,but this very equality of
 numbers1 and still  more the active    
interference of almost all the great    
continental  powers in the contest1     
rendered it at first more obstinate and 
lasting4 ,never was there a religious   
war1 so widely extended and so          
complicated in its operations1 so       
protracted in duration1 and  entailing  
misery on so many generations4 ,that    
period of thirty years'  havoc1 in which

 the early civilization1 and the noblest
 energies of  ,germany were destroyed1  
forms in history the great wall of      
separation  between the ancient         
,germany1 which in the middle age was   
the most  powerful1 flourishing1 and    
wealthy country in ,europe1 and the new 
,germany of recent and happier times1   
which is now gradually recovering  from 
her long exhaustion and general         
desolation1 and rising again into  light
 and life from the sepulchral           
darkness--the night of death1 to  which 
her ancient disputes had consigned her4 
,we can be little astonished at the     
origin of this war--indeed it is  almost
 a matter of surprise that hostilities  
did not break out sooner2  and the very 
fact that external warfare was so long  
suppressed1 may  account for the        
violence and animosity of the first     
conflict4 ,the  first religious peace   
was in reality a mere truce--another    
prolonged  interim which still left many
 debateable points1 that with the most  

honest intentions in both parties it was
 extremely difficult1 and  almost       
impossible to settle by a peaceful and  
equitable adjustment4  ,where so much   
combustible matter existed1 the merest  
accident might  enkindle a              
conflagration4 ,this first occurred in  
,bohemia1 where the  old insurrection of
 the ,hussites had been put down by     
force--7the only  way in which on its   
first outbreak1 it could have been      
suppressed7 but  where as it now        
appeared that no vital remedy had been  
applied to the  roots of the disorder1  
much diseased and inflammable matter yet
  remained4 ,still the revolt of        
,bohemia was not the only cause or      
subject of a war1 which some historians 
have considered rather as a  complicated
 series of wars1 partially varying in   
their object4 ,the  whole country--the  
age itself seemed involved in warfare2  
and war  appeared as the permanent      
policy1 the ruling spirit1 the          
inveterate  habit1 and natural necessity

 of mankind4 ,as a masterly hand#aa has 
seized and pourtrayed many events and   
incidents--many scenes and acts  of this
 great tragedy--the religious feelings1 
and steadfast and  inflexible character 
of the ,emperor ,ferdinand ,,ii4--the   
high military  glory and conquests of   
the ,swedish monarch ,gustavus          
,adolphus--and the  genius and          
disastrous fate of the ,general         
,wallenstein2--it is  unnecessary to    
dwell at any length on these great      
historical  recollections1 though the   
subject is inexhaustible in itself4 ,the
  peace which was the fruit of a high   
and imperious necessity1 is in the      
point of view we here take1 of far      
greater interest4    ,with respect to   
indemnities1 the treaty of ,westphalia  
did not differ  from any other treaty of
 general peace1 in which lands and      
parcels of  land are to be allotted1 and
 even secularized1 but where the number 
of  claimants exceeds the portions of   
allotment4 ,considered1 too1 as a       

treaty which restored1 and fixed on a   
firm basis1 the peace of the  ,german   
,empire1 the treaty of ,westphalia did  
not depend in this1 as in  other        
respects1 on the force of its own       
articles1 but on the general  system of 
,european policy--on the principle of   
the balance of power  which regulated   
that policy--a principle which then1 and
 still more in  later times1 this treaty
 has much contributed to diffuse and    
extend4  ,but it is as a solemn pact of 
religious peace1 that ,i wish here      
particularly to consider the treaty of  
,westphalia--as the final  conclusion of
 all religious wars 7and in this respect
 it has never  been materially          
violated7--as a lasting covenant of     
religious freedom1  whose main principle
 continues deeply implanted in the      
,german mind1  while the two other      
relations in which this treaty remained 
so  incomplete1 have for the most part  
lost their practical interest4  ,when we
 contemplate1 too1 this treaty as a     

noble labour of equity--the  successful 
work of unwearied industry1 it has no   
parallel among  preceding treaties of   
peace2 and hence it has become the basis
 of the  international law of ,europe1  
and the textbook of diplomatic science  
in  modern times even down to our own   
days4 ,hence its long1 undisturbed      
duration4 ,the nations--the age itself  
blessed it as the termination of  their 
long calamities2 but far greater has    
been its influence on  after-times4 ,the
 religious peace which it established1  
has become in  modern times a national  
habitude--a second nature to the ,german
  people2 for here and no where else    
must we look for its high  historical   
destination4 ,it may be said that this1 
like every other  peace where the       
question of right remains the subject of
 dispute1 is  only a truce--another mere
 interim--but it is a sacred and eternal
  truce--a divine interim--that is to   
say1 an intermediate state of  peace to 
last till ,god shall pronounce his final

 and unfailing award4  ,of little moment
 to the philosopher1 who considers this 
religious  peace in its vast bearings on
 the past1 the present1 and the         
momentous  future1 is the reflection of 
the ,jurist how far1 and under what     
restrictions this treaty in the altered 
circumstances of recent times1  can be  
considered as really valid and          
politically binding4 ,for more  than any
 other treaty1 has this solemn pact of  
religious peace been  interwoven with   
life1 and become a reality4 ,and when we
 take a wide  survey of the world1 and  
include the future in our prospective   
ken1 we  may say1 that now that most of 
the separate articles of this treaty    
have lost their value1 and are no longer
 susceptible of execution1 the  general 
spirit and object--the high import of   
this religious peace are  much nearer   
their fulfilment than formerly1 when the
 practical  application of this treaty  
to particular cases was solely          
considered4  ,for that outward1 but     

lasting covenant of religious           
peace--that holy  truce and interim     
forms the prelude and introduction to   
another1  higher1 far more              
comprehensive1 spiritual and divine     
peace1 for which  our age--the epoch of 
a mighty regeneration--is irrevocably   
destined4  ,for how can ,christianity1  
that is to say1 eternal truth itself1 be
 for  ever torn by divisions8 ,the      
solution of the great problem of the    
last  three hundred years is by no means
 complicated1 if we understand it in    
this sense1 but extremely simple4 ,for1 
if as it is the object of all  true and 
elevated philosophy to prove1 faith and 
science are really  and essentially one1
 faith will be restored to its former   
unity1 and  then the schism between     
faith and science will cease4    ,even  
as regards the political relations of   
the present times1 this  great1         
fundamental treaty of peace has become a
 new ,christian basis of  international 
law2 for the spirit of ,christianity    

requires that where  absolute justice1  
which is rarely attainable1 cannot be   
found1 a  system of peaceable and       
equitable compromise should before all  
things  be preferred4 ,and hence this   
treaty has1 for all succeeding times1   
stamped the pacific and conservative    
policy of the great ,german power  of   
,austria4 ,in ,france and ,england1     
indeed1 religious wars afterwards       
occurred2 but they were merely the last 
agitations--the after-pains of  that    
fearful period of convulsive labour4    
,these commotions were soon  allayed2   
and the example and precedent of this   
great religious  pacification in        
,germany1 highly and universally admired
 as it was1  caused the principle of    
religious toleration to be tacitly      
acknowledged as one which religion and  
necessity alike prescribed for  the     
imitation of all ,europe4    ,among the 
last and most frightful consequences of 
the general  revolution in the church1  
was the calamitous execution of ,king   

,charles  the ,first1 which for the sake
 of order1 ,i have previously adverted  
to1  and which took place a year after  
the establishment of the great          
religious peace in ,germany1 and was    
followed forty years afterwards by  the 
great national peace of ,england--the   
final settlement of the  ,british       
constitution4 ,among the lamentable     
events which occurred at  that period in
 ,france1 was the revocation of the     
,edict of ,nantes1 the  last1 and       
comparatively speaking1 the most solid  
and durable of the  treaties of         
religious peace made in that country--a 
revocation which  can by no means       
astonish us1 since this edict1 destitute
 of all  internal and external          
guarantees1 and which emanated solely   
from  absolute power1 could not offer   
the same security1 nor possess the  same
 durability1 as the great1 fundamental  
treaty of ,westphalia4 ,yet  both in    
,france and abroad1 this measure1 so    
appalling to the whole  ,european world1

 was1 after so long an interval1        
extremely unexpected4  ,one of the      
effects of this measure was a cruel war 
of extermination  carried on in the     
mountains of the ,cevennes against the  
,protestants1  who appear to have there 
derived a part of their tenets from some
 of  the earlier sects of the middle    
age4 ,with respect to the revocation of 
the ,edict of ,nantes1 considering it   
merely as an act of authority1 and      
independently of the blow which it gave 
to the establishment of a  permanent    
religious peace1 we can only say that   
such an abuse of power  on the part of  
the majority1 7and it is to the         
influence of a  preponderant majority   
this act was ascribed by public         
opinion17 such  an abuse of power was a 
very dangerous precedent in the native  
land of  all violent reactions2 and thus
 in our days the emigration of the      
,french nobility has been the great     
historical counter-blow to the          
banishment of the ,hugonots4    ,this   

violent expulsion of the ,protestants   
could not even accomplish  the immediate
 object of its authors2 for the spirit  
of ,protestantism  had struck much too  
deep roots in ,france2 and the evil     
could not be  removed by mere physical  
force1 and without the application of a 
moral  remedy4 ,the ,protestant         
influence of ,french ,switzerland was   
not  destroyed1 and indeed it became    
still more powerful in the sequel2      
while a far deeper wound was inflicted  
on the ,catholic cause in ,france  by   
the spread of ,jansenistical principles 
from the ,netherlands1 which1  supported
 as those principles were by great      
literary talents1 exerted  then a mighty
 influence over the ,french nation4 ,the
 essence of  ,jansenism was the         
,rationalism of ,calvin1 combined with  
feelings of  pietism1 and covered over  
with a deep varnish of ,catholicism4 ,it
 was  not the small party of the        
,jansenists of ,utrecht1 excluded as    
they  were from the church1 and         

completely separated from the two great 
religious parties of ,europe1 that could
 injure the ,catholic cause in  ,france2
 but it was that modified or disguised  
,jansenism which had  crept into the    
very bosom of the ,gallican church1 and 
there grew up in  secret1 that was most 
to be feared4 ,all these partial or     
disguised  influences of the spirit of  
,protestantism derived their full       
sanction  from the theory of a ,gallican
 church1 such as it was proclaimed by   
the  supreme authority in the state4 ,in
 the ,protestant constitution of        
,england1 indeed1 the principle of a    
,national church1 like the  ,anglican1  
7however such a principle may be opposed
 to the very essence  and fundamental   
maxims of ,christianity71 is not        
inconsistent with the  origin and       
general doctrines of that church4 ,but  
in the ,catholic  church1 where the     
principle of national dissent is not    
admissible to a  like extent1 such a    
system is perfectly absurd1 and carries 

with it  its own refutation4 ,the older 
theory of a ,germanic church cannot be  
here adduced as an historical precedent2
 for that theory was started  with a    
view to regulate the external relations 
of the church1 or to  fix with more     
precision the limits of the ,papal and  
,imperial power1  but did not refer to  
matters of doctrine1 or to the internal 
discipline of the church4 ,yet with this
 system of a ,germanic church1  in the  
period of the ,ghibelline ascendancy1   
many errors were mixed  up--the first   
germs of the schism afterwards          
consummated4 ,but this  disguised1      
half-schism of the ,gallican church1 not
 less fatal in its  historical effects  
than the open schism of the ,greeks1 has
 contributed  very materially towards   
the decline of religion in ,france1 down
 to the  period of the ,restoration4 ,it
 was not only the dispute with ,rome1   
which ,louis ,,xiv4 carried to such     
fearful extremes2 but the alliances  he 
so frequently renewed with the ,swedish 

conqueror1 and with the  ,turkish power 
7still so formidable to the whole of    
,christendom71 which  must1 as coming   
from a ,catholic quarter1 have given    
much scandal to  the age2 and we must at
 least allow that the foreign policy of 
,lewis  ,,xiv4 was scarcely in any      
respect ,christian1 and that it prepared
 the  way for that relaxation of moral  
and religious principles which took     
place in ,france under his feebler      
successors4 ,lewis ,,xiv4 undoubtedly   
well knew how to strengthen his regal   
prerogative1 and render it more         
absolute1 and in this work1 like several
 of his predecessors1 evinced  the most 
systematic art1 and the greatest        
determination of character4  ,but all   
the great problems of that age--all the 
religious questions  which then divided 
the world1 which forming as they did the
 highest  object of all practical       
reflection and conduct were then so     
warmly  agitated1 could not be brought  
to a permanent1 adequate1 and generally 

satisfactory solution by the capricious 
mandates of power1 or the  partial      
adjudications of regal authority4 ,and  
if in this establishment  of absolute   
power in the interior1 no regard is paid
 to the lawful  rights either of        
,foreign nations1 or of the people at   
home1 what  security is there that such 
a system will or can endure8    ,the    
splendour of the then ,french literature
 is one of the main pillars  on which   
the glory of that reign and century     
depends--this literature  which attained
 so high a degree of perfection1        
contains however to  some extent the    
germs of that political scepticism1 and 
those  religious errors1 which led to   
the disasters of subsequent times4 ,an  
sthetic cristicism of pure art1 falls   
not within the limits of the  plan ,i   
have traced out to myself1 and ,i can   
notice subjects of this  nature only    
inasmuch as they serve to denote the    
character of  particular ages and       
nations4 ,as in no country was the      

spirit of the  middle age--the          
scholastico-romantic character of the   
first period of  ,european cultivation1 
both in the tone of feeling and the mode
 of  expression so long preserved1 nor  
raised to such a state of high          
refinement and beautiful perfection1 as 
in ,spain2 so we may say that  the      
peculiar characteristic of the ,french  
mind in the age of ,lewis  ,,xiv4       
consisted in a studious and minute      
avoidance of the two principal  defects 
in the intellectual productions of the  
middle age--the  scholastic vagueness   
and obscurity in works of speculation on
 the one  hand1 and the fantastic       
wildness in works of imagination on the 
other4  ,that choice and exquisite taste
 which prevails in all those models of  
secular and clerical1 historical1       
poetical1 and philosophic eloquence1    
which that age produced in such         
abundance1 originated in this species   
of precision averse from all excess and 
obscurity4 ,and it was by the  clearness

 and lightness it owed to this principle
 that the ,french  language became1 in  
the eighteenth century1 the universal   
model and  most convenient medium1 not  
only of conversation1 but of epistolary 
communication1 among the polite classes 
of all ,european nations4 ,but  in a    
comprehensive survey of general         
literature1 this standard of a  pleasing
 style must not be considered as        
universally applicable1 or  higher than 
any other2 and without wishing to       
compare objects totally  dissimilar in  
themselves1 ,i may observe that although
 among all the  classical writers and   
orators of that age1 ,bossuet is the    
greatest in  point of style1 and at the 
same time the most solid and            
intellectual1  yet the naive loquacity  
and infantine simplicity which          
distinguish the incorrect1 old ,french  
diction of ,st4 ,francis of ,sales1  are
 peculiarly graceful and attractive in  
themselves2 while in the  depth and     
clearness of the ascetic spirit1 the    

,saint far surpasses the  former writer 
more celebrated in the world4    ,in the
 regular philosophy of the schools1 the 
,latin was mostly the  prevailing       
language during the seventeenth century4
 ,in this the system  of ,descartes then
 formed an epoch2 or at least obtained  
very general  credit4 ,his fanciful     
vortices in nature1 as well as his rigid
  demonstration by reason1 of that      
principle which is exalted above all    
reason1 comprise rather the first germ  
of the various errors in the  physics   
and metaphysics of the succeeding age1  
than a sound basis of  true science1 and
 a ,christian philosophy of the human   
mind4 ,spinoza  was the immediate       
disciple of ,descartes1 but it is in    
,germany alone  that his rationalist    
system of pantheism1 expressed as it is 
in the  forms of mathematical           
demonstration1 and embellished by a     
morality  pure and noble1 7at least in  
appearance and in its general outline17 
has been justly appreciated in its true 

metaphysical import1 and has  found     
philosophic critics and imitators4 ,but 
in its negative bearings1  the          
philosophy of ,spinoza1 together with   
other writings by that  inquirer and    
others on and against revelation1 had a 
very extensive  influence in those      
times2 and that philosophy forms the    
notable point  of transition to the     
metaphysical speculations of our own    
age4 ,socinus  had directed his attacks 
against the great mystery in the        
existence of  the living ,god--the      
,christian dogma of the ,trinity4 ,in   
the system of  ,spinoza1 philosophic    
,protestantism1 or the progressive      
spirit of  negation1 advanced one step  
further2 for he denied the personal     
existence1 or the living personality of 
,god1 and endeavoured to  substitute for
 the notion of the ,god-head the empty  
idea of the  ,infinite4    ,on the other
 hand1 the systems of ,bacon and        
,leibnitz were two  different           
foundations laid in that age for a      

higher and a better  philosophy--systems
 which by a more extensive developement 
and  harmonious combination of their    
parts might have been moulded into a    
frame of phylosophy thoroughly          
,christian4 ,almost all the scientific  
labours of ,leibnitz were directed to   
this point1 namely1 the  demonstration1 
confirmation1 and exemplification of the
 truths of  ,christianity1 by the aid of
 science4 ,the vast system of           
spiritualism1  exalted far above all    
ideas of nature1 which was propounded1  
or rather  sketched out by ,leibnitz1   
7with the exception of some peculiar    
opinions and mere hypotheses17 agrees   
perfectly with that purer  ,platonism   
which all the ,christian writers and    
fathers of the first  ages inculcated4  
,and the fundamental principles of such 
a philosophy1  if exposed in their      
native clearness and simplicity and     
without  adventitious alloy1 are the    
same which in their general spirit are  
to  be clearly traced1 or are tacitly   

implied in the sacred ,scriptures1      
whose lofty purposes1 however1 rise far 
above the narrow forms and  limited     
sphere of philosophic investigation4    
,how well ,leibnitz  understood and     
appreciated1 and how far he subscribed  
to the truth of  the ,catholic religion1
 has been brought to light in a singular
 manner  in our own days2#ab and if we  
except some oversights1 very pardonable 
under all circumstances1 his philosophic
 sketch of the ,catholic system  of     
theology1 is in its masterly brevity one
 of the boldest and  happiest           
expositions of that religion1 at least  
for the general  purposes of the world4 
,the other great celebrated             
philosophical system  of modern times1  
was based in the principles of the      
philosophy of  experience--a system     
which has tended to enlarge almost      
immeasurably  the field of natural      
discoveries4 ,as the founder of the     
philosophy of  experience--,bacon had   
conceived it1 that philosophy1 if we    

except some  particular defects and     
individual errors1 is by no means at    
variance  with the ,christian philosophy
 of ,revelation2 for the latter is in   
itself a philosophy of experience1      
though of another1 higher1 and          
spiritual kind4 ,and it is the more     
necessary to keep this in view1 as      
otherwise the ordinary abyss of         
rationalism can scarcely be avoided4    
,the case is widely different when the  
principles of the empirical  philosophy1
 as in ,locke and his followers1 are    
directed against  everything exalted1   
supernatural and spiritual in man and   
his  consciousness4 ,by this important  
distinction1 ,bacon is an ,european     
philosopher1 like ,leibnitz2 but ,locke 
is a mere ,english philosopher2  as it  
was in ,england this ,protestant        
philosophy sprang up and kept  pace with
 the ,protestantism of state1 engendered
 and nurtured by the  ,constitution of  
#afhh4 ,however1 in ,england1 the       
,protestant philosophy1  true to its    

character1 kept within the limits of a  
mitigated  scepticism1 and did not      
plunge into the same wild1 revolutionary
  excesses as the ,french philosophy of 
the eighteenth century1 that  started   
with the same principles4    ,the high  
intellectual cultivation of the ,english
 is by no means  confined to this       
negative philosophy1 but is of a very   
peculiar  character1 and like the       
,british ,constitution1 combines in the 
most  singular manner the most          
heterogeneous elements4 ,for although   
the  ,british ,constitution is generally
 considered as the fashionable model    
for our times1 and in one respect may   
indeed be so considered2 yet a  powerful
 aristocracy and many parts of the      
feudal constitution of the  middle age1 
are there established in a sort of      
harmony1 or at least  permanent         
equipoise with the more modern elements 
of commerce and  democracy4 ,the heroic 
spirit of chivalry1 and the whole moral 
character of the middle age were long   

paramount in ,england2 and hence  in the
 poetry of no country1 if we except the 
,spanish1 is that spirit  so            
conspicuous4 ,the struggles between the 
houses of ,york and ,lancaster  during  
the fifteenth century1 which in the     
rugged and almost savage  sternness of  
those heroic characters1 bear no little 
resemblance to  the contests of the     
,guelfs and ,ghibellines1 form the      
heroic and  traditionary1 though not    
very remote era of ,british history--an 
era  which witnessed1 too1 the high     
military glory that ,england acquired in
  the many battles and chivalrous       
engagements fought on the ,french soil4 
,the great national poet of ,england1   
who has taken the subject of many  of   
his dramas from that glorious period of 
his country's annals1  maintains a sort 
of sceptical medium--a kind of poetical 
balance  between the romantic enthusiasm
 of elder times1 and the clear-sighted  
penetration of modern2 and it is in this
 peculiar combination of  qualities1    

that the originality of his genius1 his 
unfathomable depth  and high            
intellectual charm partly consist4 ,as  
the ,constitution of  ,england--that is1
 the balance of her social              
institutions--sprang out  of the old and
 mighty struggles which had convulsed   
that country2 we  must not be surprised 
at finding in her higher poetry1 which  
is only  the image and reflection of    
life1 the same artificial union and     
combination of the conflicting elements 
existing in her political  organization4
 ,a profound analysis of art1 conducted 
exclusively with  this view1 and towards
 which the ,german mind has a strong and
 perhaps  excessive inclination1 would  
be foreign to my present plan4 ,to point
  out the traits of analogy existing    
between the productions of  intellect1  
and the ages and nations to which they  
severally belong1  may serve to throw a 
clearer and more vivid light on         
important periods  and momentous epochs 
of history2 and it is with this view ,i 

have  indulged now1 as formerly1 in     
short parallels of this kind4 ,down to  
the most recent times1 this marked      
predilection for the romantic world  of 
the middle ages1 and the chivalrous     
days1 as well as the bold  genius of    
poets bursting through all vulgar       
trammels1 have been the  distinctive    
character of ,english poetry1 and have  
partly tended to  make it so great a    
favourite with all the nations of       
,europe4    ,on the other hand1 the     
negative philosophy of the ,english     
remains true  to its character1 in as   
far as carefully shunning all objects of
 a  higher nature1 it has for the most  
part made it a principle to limit  its  
views entirely to man1 without          
attempting to dive and penetrate  into  
the profound mysteries of the ,deity1 or
 into the internal secrets  of nature4  
,to this a high philosophy will object1 
man is no isolated  being2 but as he was
 originally placed by his ,creator in   
nature1 it is  only in that connexion   

with ,god and ,nature1 that the         
mysteries of his  inward being1 and the 
history of his outward progress can be  
fully  understood and explained4 ,in    
historical researches and narrations1   
when these are confined to special      
subjects and particular eras1 and  do   
not attempt the more comprehensive plan 
of the ,philosophy of  ,history1 that   
confined spirit of philosophic          
investigation which  limits its views   
exclusively to man1 is not prejudicial2 
for on the  other hand1 the flexible    
powers of poetical genius 7unless their 
activity be cramped by the sceptical    
influence of a ,protestant  philosophy71
 keep the mind alive to all high and    
generous qualities1  characteristic     
peculiarities1 and original greatness in
 men and  events4 ,hence that department
 of ,british literature which embraces  
historic research and narrative1 is     
peculiarly fertile1 and has met  with a 
general and ,european success4    ,the  
,protestantism of state1 which was      

brought to maturity by the  ,english    
,constitution1 was during the eighteenth
 century1 when ,england  held generally 
the foremost rank among the nations1    
extended and  applied in the system of  
the balance of power1 to the whole      
,continent  of ,europe4 ,but the        
,protestantism of science which         
originated there1  formed together with 
the system of religious peace1 the first
  foundation of ,illuminism2 and denotes
 the whole period of its history  from  
the commencement of the eighteenth      
century down to the ,french             
,revolution4         #aa ,the author    
here alludes to the history of the      
,thirty years' war by                   
,schiller4--,trans4         #ab ,the    
author alludes to the ,systema          
,theologicum of       ,leibnitz1 first  
published in ,paris in the year #ahai1  
from the manuscript sent by the court of
 ,prussia to       that of ,france4 ,it 
was published by the ,abbe ,emery1 who  
accompanied the ,latin original with a  

,french       translation4--,trans4     
,,end ,,of ,,lecture ,,xvi4             
,,lecture ,,xvii4        ,parallel      
between the religious peace of ,germany 
and that of the      other countries of 
,europe4--,the political system of the  
,balance      of ,power1 and the        
principle of false ,illuminism prevalent
 in      the eighteenth century4        
,the great benefits of the religious    
peace of ,germany1 which founded  upon1 
and springing out of a great historical 
necessity1 has struck  such deep roots  
in the public mind1 and at last become a
 second nature  to the ,germans1 may be 
best appreciated by a comparison with   
the state  of religious liberty such as 
it now exists1 or did recently exist    
among other nations--and those in truth 
which are in every other  respect the   
most civilized of modern ,europe4 ,in   
,germany1 indeed1 the  strict and       
vigilant maintenance of that religious  
peace1 on which her  whole political    
existence depends1 and without which she

 would fall  into an anarchic struggle  
of parties2 has received in recent times
 a  new confirmation2 and this religious
 peace1 which has been revived1  not    
indeed in its old forms1 but in its     
general spirit and essential  import1   
has become only the more necessary1 as  
by the recent  partitions of            
territories1 a great intermixture of    
religions has been  introduced into     
states where formerly one religion only 
prevailed4  ,thus in that state1#ac     
which was originally the greatest of all
 the  ,protestant states of ,germany1   
and is now even still more powerful than
  formerly1 a full half of the          
population is ,catholic4 ,nearly to the 
same extent1 the same observation will  
apply1 though inversely1 to  that       
,catholic state#ad in ,germany1 which   
next to the ,imperial state  itself1 is 
the greatest4 ,so strongly has this     
,magna ,charta#ae of the  religious     
liberty of ,germany1 7which scarcely    
needs any external  securities1 now that

 most of those securities no longer     
exist1 or at  least have been very      
materially altered in the forms under   
which they  formerly existed in the     
,confederation and in the ,imperial     
courts of  ,judicature71 so strongly1 ,i
 say1 has this ,magna ,charta taken root
 both  in the public mind and           
state-policy of ,germany1 that the      
principle of  religious freedom no      
longer depends on the degree of         
population1 or  the relation of numbers4
 ,thus1 for example1 in the ,german     
,catholic  provinces of the ,austrian   
,empire1 the ,protestants1 though       
compared  with the rest of the          
population they form so very small a    
minority1  have been long in possession 
of the most unlimited religious freedom2
  and in the country#af which was the   
very cradle of ,protestantism1 the  fact
 that the royal dynasty and a very small
 minority of the nation  profess the    
,catholic religion1 has been no obstacle
 to the most  cordial1 deep1 and solid  

attachment on the part of the people to 
their  old hereditary rulers--an        
attachment which has been evinced in the
  most unequivocal and affecting manner 
by all classes of the nation at  every  
period of misfortune4 ,if now we look to
 the other great states  and civilized  
countries of ,europe1 which like        
,germany were involved  for a century   
and more in the turmoil of religious    
wars1 and consider  what issue these    
wars have had1 what results they have   
produced1 we  shall find that in        
,england civil war indeed no longer     
rages4 ,but how  the relations between  
the ,anglican church on the one hand1   
which force  alone maintains in its     
political privileges and ascendancy1 and
 the  ,protestant dissenters 7who have a
 different character from those in      
,germany1 or elsewhere1 and are         
distinguished by a very violent         
sectarian spirit7 and the ,catholic     
population of ,ireland1 on the  other2  
how these relations1 ,i say1 can be said

 to exhibit a state of  religious peace1
 ,i am at a loss to understand2 for at  
no very remote  period the latter       
country was the theatre of a bloody     
civil war4 ,we  must at least allow that
 a solid and permanent internal peace1 a
  perfect conciliation of minds1 and an 
equitable adjustment of the  respective 
rights and claims of both parties1 have 
apparently not yet  been brought to a   
quiet and satisfactory issue4 ,nay1 to  
judge from  those great parliamentary   
discussions in ,england1 wherein not    
unfrequently and from passages the most 
obscure1 and the least  observed by the 
superficial eye1 the most secret        
motives1 the deepest  springs of policy1
 and the most hidden thoughts and       
disquietudes of  the statesman come to  
light in that wonderful stage of public 
life2 it  would appear that great       
self-apprehension reigned in the minds  
of  ,english politicians2--a fear which 
is the more likely to arise on  every   
serious retrospect that people take of  

the old abyss of their  civil contests2 
for more than any other nation1 they are
 conversant  with their own annals1 and 
have them ever before their eyes1 and   
live  in the past with all the intense  
feelings of the present4 ,hence every   
individual among them knows full well   
that the fearful and fermenting         
elements of their great old civil       
commotion have never been perfectly     
appeased1 and finally allayed1 but have 
been merely repressed from  time to     
time1 and prevented from breaking out   
anew by means of a  ,constitution1 which
 on that account is reputed glorious4   
,and  must not every ,englishman ask    
himself the peremptory question1 how a  
country can be1 or be termed free1 when 
its ,catholic inhabitants1  amounting to
 a third part of its entire population1 
are doomed to  undergo indescribable    
tyranny1 and are in fact treated like a 
conquered nation8#ag    ,in ,france     
there prevails on matters of religion an
 indifference of  feeling1 rather than  

any party contentions1 or violent       
animosities1 at  least among the greater
 part of the nation2 and so long as the 
matter  is not mixed up with political  
considerations1 this feeling of         
indifference will bend to one opinion or
 to the other4 ,even in former  times   
the religious wars1 though violent      
enough1 were not of so long  and        
uninterrupted a duration and so widely  
destructive a nature1 as in  ,germany1  
and comparatively speaking at least1    
were not attended with  such frightful  
circumstances1 as in ,england4 ,but on  
the other hand1  they did not lead to   
those mighty1 definite and permanent    
results1  such as in ,germany1 a        
religious pacification--and in ,england1
 the  establishment of a free           
,constitution4 ,and in the revocation of
 the  edict of ,nantes1 accomplished in 
defiance of all antecedent promises1    
stipulations and rights1 the victory of 
the ,catholic majority of the  nation1  
unjust in itself1 was merely apparent   

and illusive1 for all  the great        
problems of moral life remained         
unsolved1 and the hostile  and          
fermenting elements of ,protestantism or
 a species of  semi-protestantism       
retained their full force2 till a       
hundred years  after this arbitrary     
proceeding1 an immense and formidable   
reaction  occurred in the breaking out  
of the great ,revolution4 ,that grand   
conflict of the ,european nations which 
sprang out of this ,revolution1  and    
attended its whole course1 must be      
looked upon in no other light  than as a
 religious war2 for a formal separation 
not only from the  church1 but from all 
,christianity--a total abolition of the 
,christian  religion was an object of   
this ,revolution which lasted nine      
years1  before a sort of religious peace
 was established1 by which it seemed  to
 be acknowledged1 that religion1 for a  
time at least1 was not an  absolutely   
superfluous want of the people2 for the 
attempt of  theophilanthropy1 or the    

public and legal establishment of a pure
  rationalist religion had no success4  
,but as respected persons1 this  peace  
was not of long duration1 as was but too
 soon apparent in the  ill-treatment and
 imprisonment of the head of the church4
 ,the drama of  the old ,ghibelline     
times was renewed1 and ,ghibelline      
principles and  maxims of policy were   
openly avowed4 ,if the military success 
of the  ,french had been of longer      
continuance1 these principles would have
  made incomparably greater progress1   
and would have been more clearly        
unfolded1 as there was a secret         
inclination to a certain ,mahometan     
junction of civil and ecclesiastical    
power in the hands of the same  person4 
,it could not1 however1 have escaped the
 keen perception of  ,buonaparte1 how   
much the feelings and opinions of       
,europe1 7whatever  indifference it may 
manifest about religion1 and however    
easily it  may give its sanction to     
encroachments on spiritual power1 from  

want  of knowledge or of interest in    
those matters17 are ever adverse to a   
complete and anti-christian fusion of   
secular and ecclesiastical  authority4  
,that fanatic and destructive character 
which distinguished  the ,revolutionary 
struggle in its origin1 remained the    
same1 though  somewhat modified in its  
form during the time of the ,imperial   
conquests2 and the general resistance of
 the nations of ,europe1 down  to the   
final triumph of the ,allies1 retained  
to the last the character  of a         
religious war1 carried on in defence of 
all that was most sacred  to humanity4  
,thus that great struggle must be       
considered as a  five-and-twenty years' 
religious war1 or rather perhaps in its 
origin1  a war of irreligion1 though it 
is not worth while to dispute about a   
word4 ,for this reason1 in the country  
where this mighty ,revolution had  its  
birth1 the restoration of monarchy is   
inseparably connected with  that of     
religion2 and it is by a religious      

regeneration1 that the  statesmen of    
that kingdom1 who are well-wishers to   
their country1 and  have in view its    
permanent well-being1 and not the idle  
and transient  splendour of military    
glory1 should endeavour to secure the   
future  destinies of ,france4    ,this  
universal and convulsive crisis of the  
world in latter times1 now  that it has 
happily and entirely passed by1 has     
created a mighty  chasm1 and thrown up a
 wall of separation between the present 
age and  the eighteenth century4 ,now   
that the conflict is over1 and all the  
illusions incident to that state of     
struggle have passed away1 the          
eighteenth century1 which bore that     
great ,revolution in its womb1 and  at  
last brought it into life1 can be judged
 with greater impartiality  and historic
 freedom1 and better understood1 and    
more duly appreciated  in all its       
comprehensive bearings4 ,for during the 
existence of any  struggle1 it is       
apparently given to few mortals to form 

respecting  passing events a judgment   
which can be truly termed historical2 as
 in  general1 a certain distance of time
 is requisite to the formation of  just 
and accurate opinions4 ,in this last    
section of universal history1  it would 
be idle and superfluous to enter into a 
minute detail of  facts so generally    
known4 ,it is on that account the more  
important for  the due illustration and 
philosophic investigation of a period so
 near  to us1 briefly to point out amid 
the multitude of well-known facts1  the 
leading and determining causes of all   
the events which occurred4  ,the leading
 and stirring principles of all         
occurrences and enterprises  in the     
eighteenth century1 as the history of   
that age abundantly  proves1 may be     
traced on the one hand1 to the system of
 the ,balance of  ,power in the internal
 government and outward relations of    
states2 and  on the other1 to the       
principle of illuminism in the          
department of  morals1 though this      

principle was not confined to the sphere
 of mind1  but exerted a great practical
 influence on real life1 and finally    
brought about a total revolution in the 
state4 ,both these  principles--the     
system of the balance of power1 which   
was the  protestantism of state--and the
 principle of illuminism1 which from    
its negative character1 agreed in the   
main with the ,protestantism of         
philosophy1 and was only a natural      
consequence of that philosophy1--had    
their origin chiefly in ,england1 and   
there first1 or more than  elsewhere1   
reached their development4 ,for from the
 commencement of the  eighteenth century
 down to the mighty ,revolution which   
closed it1  ,england was the state that 
took the lead in every occurrence and   
transaction1 gave the tone to the age1  
and formed the strong central  lever to 
the system of the ,balance of ,power4   
,the plan of such a system  had indeed  
been openly avowed several centuries    
before1 and had been  acted upon as a   

principle in many political enterprises 
and  negotiations2 but the then existing
 circumstances of the world1 which      
required and admitted of a far higher   
law of adjudication1 confined  the      
operation of this principle within very 
narrow limits4 ,thus it was  a far      
higher principle of ,christian equity1  
which constituted the  basis of the holy
 ,roman ,empire of ,germany in the      
middle age2 and it  was only when that  
empire had been weakened and undermined 
by various  shocks1 external and        
internal1 that the system of the        
,balance of ,power  began towards the   
latter part of the fifteenth century1 to
 exert a  commanding influence4 ,italy  
was in general the theatre and arena for
  the workings of that policy2 ,spain1  
,france1 and ,austria1 next ,venice1    
the ,pope1 and ,switzerland1 the active 
agents in that changeful  struggle2 and 
,naples and ,lombardy the subject of    
dispute1 and the  prize of contention4  
,but when the progress and success of   

the ,turkish  arms from without1 and the
 formidable1 growing and fermenting     
elements  of religious strife from      
within1 had threatened ,europe with     
total  ruin1 or at least with the most  
formidable danger1 the new1 inferior    
principle of policy was compelled to    
yield to the urgent necessities  of the 
times1 and to old opinions not yet      
totally extinct4 ,men felt  the absolute
 want of an ,emperor and general        
,protector of ,christendom1  invested as
 in ancient times1 with power really    
adequate to his  dignity2 and this was  
the motive which led to the election of 
the  ,emperor ,charles ,v4 ,the extent  
of his empire1 however1 made his power  
appear greater than it was in reality4  
,if a decided and formidable            
preponderance of power existed any      
where1 we must look for it on the  side 
of the ,turks1 whose triumphant arms    
brought them ever nearer  towards       
,europe1 and whose progress ,charles was
 little able to arrest4  ,france1       

situated as she was in the centre of    
,europe1 had nothing to  apprehend from 
the ,turks1 while she was sufficiently  
strong and  powerful to disregard danger
 from any quarter4 ,her rivalry with    
,spain1  and her perpetual wars with the
 ,emperor1 were exceedingly injurious to
  ,europe1 as they cramped and impeded  
all the operations of the emperor  in   
behalf of ,christendom1 and all his     
exertions for providing for its         
external and internal security4 ,but to 
no country were those wars more  hurtful
 than to ,france herself1 which had need
 of all her energies for  the           
maintenance of internal tranquillity1 in
 order by her undivided  activity1 to be
 able to allay and settle the various   
elements of  religious strife1 which    
afterwards broke out with such fearful  
violence4 ,at that period1 and even     
during the seventeenth century1 the     
wars of ,turkey were generally          
considered as religious wars1 partly    
from the dreadful consequences which    

ensued to the ,christian religion  in   
the conquered countries1 where if it    
were not entirely extirpated1  it was at
 least doomed to the severest           
oppression2 and partly from the  fanatic
 and sanguinary character of those wars 
themselves4 ,the  alliances which       
,france during the religious wars of the
 seventeenth  century1 and contrary to  
the interests of her own creed1 entered 
into  with ,sweden and ,turkey1 under   
pretence of maintaining the ,balance of 
,power1 were more than anything else    
prejudicial to the ,catholic cause1     
inflicted a deep wound on ,christian    
principles1 and contributed much  to    
mislead the opinion of the age4 ,the    
final result of this policy was  the    
establishment of a decided preponderance
 on the part of ,france1  towards the   
end of the seventeenth century--a       
preponderance which then  at least must 
be ascribed to ,lewis ,,xiv4 only4      
,now that the religious wars were       
terminated1 this appeared the period    

proper for the establishment of the     
system of the ,balance of ,power--a     
system which must ever be called into   
action1 when every higher  principle of 
international adjudication has ceased to
 be  applicable--and which1 as it was   
the source whence had emanated the      
whole moral and intellectual culture of 
the eighteenth century1  attained now a 
more systematic form1 and held a more   
brilliant and  dignified place1 than at 
any former period of history4 ,england  
was the  strong1 central prop of the    
great lever for the ,european ,balance  
of  ,power1 while ,austria1 which in    
every age has been true to a pacific    
system of policy1 7although her moral   
existence depended on far higher        
principles of religion71 formed on the  
,continent the other main stay  to the  
system of the ,balance of ,power1 now   
become the universal  principle of      
international policy4 ,and this firm    
alliance between the  two powers was in 
general1 the external basis of this     

system1  independently of the many      
fluctuations which were inherent to its 
very  nature4 ,we must not however      
confound this principle of policy with a
  conservative and pacific system1      
acting according to existing and        
acknowledged rights2 for although the   
former system be much akin to  the      
latter1 and both may easily and         
naturally co-operate in a common        
resistance to an overgrown power1       
regardless of all right2 still they  are
 far from being one and the same2 and   
differ widely in many  characteristic   
properties1 nay in their very nature4   
,the fundamental  law of the            
conservative and pacific policy is      
,right--not an abstract  notion and pure
 ideal of absolute justice1 by which the
 international  policy of states is to  
be fashioned and regulated2 but rather  
7if for  the sake of greater clearness  
,i may be allowed the use of a          
mathematical phrase7 an applied right1  
that is to say1 an existing and         

acknowledged right4 ,for if we seek the 
first origin and ultimate  foundation of
 all right and all justice1 we must seek
 it in ,god alone1  who is the eternal  
arbiter of the world1 of states and     
nations as well  as of individuals1 and 
who well knows how to requite every     
great  political injustice on his       
appointed day of retribution1 to visit  
it  with unexpected punishment1 and to  
reduce it to its own nothingness by  an 
often fearful award4 ,but so soon as    
man1 or any earthly power  presumes to  
lay its hand upon this work--to propose 
to itself absolute  justice1 to judge   
and regulate all things by that         
standard1 and to  model the world in    
conformity to it--the consequence is a  
total  ,revolution in all the relations 
of society--an entire subversion of  all
 existing order2 and it is this false   
idea which is the principle  or the     
pretext of all those fanatic attempts at
 universal conquest1  and of every      
,revolution not directed to the         

attainment of specific  rights1 but     
aiming at sweeping1 unqualified and     
universal change4 ,it  is only when in  
the general system of existing and      
positive  international rights1 some    
occurrence has produced a chasm--some   
interstice appears--some particular     
question remains1 or becomes anew1  open
 and debateable ground--that a pacific  
policy acting on the  principle ,i have 
mentioned1 can and will in such special 
cases1 revert  to the original1 pure and
 eternal justice of ,god4 ,but in the   
material  system of the ,balance of     
,power1 right and wrong are not the     
ultimate  object1 nor the sole criterion
 of political estimation1 nor the sole  
rule of political negociations2 but the 
great object is the prevention  or      
removal of any ascendancy which         
endangers or even threatens danger  to  
the general interests of the powers4    
,both systems of policy may  very well  
concur in their effects1 and in most    
cases really do concur1  for the        

establishment of political ascendancy is
 generally founded on  the violation of 
existing rights1 or may easily lead     
thereto4 ,but this  is not absolutely   
necessary2 cases may easily be conceived
 where right  is clearly on the side of 
ascendant might1 as was once the case in
 the  middle of the eighteenth century1 
and as happened in another way  towards 
the beginning of the same age1 when the 
cause of justice was  espoused by       
preponderant power only4 ,and in such   
cases1 with a total  disregard to       
justice1 this system of the material    
,balance of ,power  will fling its      
weight into the opposing scale1 in order
 to impede the  progress of overgrown   
dominion4 ,in another respect1 also1 the
  character and ordinary tendency of    
this system differ widely from that     
pacific policy1 which aims at the       
preservation of all existing and        
acknowledged rights4 ,in the latter     
system1 it is only the actual           
disturbance and real violation of the   

general peace of nations1 which  can    
lead to the declaration of war4 ,but on 
the contrary1 in the former  system it  
is merely a formidable preponderance of 
power--a mere  possibility of its       
abuse--a dread of future danger1 which  
is deemed a  sufficient motive for      
engaging in hostilities--a motive by    
which a  state1 where this is the       
exclusive principle of policy1 is       
undoubtedly1 as has often been objected 
to ,england1 more easily and  more      
quickly determined1 than any other3 and 
such a motive may operate  the more     
easily in a country like ,england1 where
 those inducements for  entering into   
war with more haste than is expedient or
 desirable1 are  strengthened by the    
fact1 that an insular and naval state1  
concentrated within itself1 can carry on
 hostilities with all the  advantages of
 peace1 and with the wonted activity of 
trade4 ,england  during the eighteenth  
century acquired the highest glory1 and 
in  general made a very beneficial use  

of her great power1 in contributing  to 
the general aid1 security and freedom of
 ,europe2 and in what is  here said1 it 
is by no means intended to cast a slur  
on1 or to  undervalue the old and       
well-acquired power of ,great ,britain1 
as such a  censure would be futile in   
itself1 and extremely misplaced here4   
,but  for the right understanding of the
 peculiar political character and       
tendencies of an age1 like the          
eighteenth century1 so near to our own  
times1 it is necessary to observe that  
the system of the ,balance of  ,power is
 either merely the substitute for a     
higher principle1 where  the latter is  
no longer susceptible of application1 or
 in those cases  where the latter hath  
really force1 the system of the ,balance
 of ,power  must be considered a mere   
supplement--a subordinate auxiliary for 
the  settlement of incidental questions4
 ,but with the great ,revolution  which 
closed the eighteenth century1 there    
commenced an epoch of  intellectual as  

well as political barbarism and         
desolation1 to which  the mere negative 
principle of an equilibrium of power1   
however it  might be adequate to the    
ordinary relations of civilized states1 
was  no longer applicable2 for now a    
higher principle of moral and social    
reparation was needed4 ,in no department
 of human activity can the  positive    
power of evil be overcome by a mere     
negative principle of  resistance1 but  
solely by a principle of a homogeneous1 
though loftier  nature--a divine power  
acting within the same circle4 ,a mighty
  religious war1 which has shaken all   
moral existence to its centre1 and      
convulsed it in all its depths1 can be  
completely terminated only by a  true   
religious peace4 ,but such a peace      
depends on the moral force of           
principle1 and not on the exact         
measurement of any physical             
equilibrium4 ,as during the late        
frightful ,revolution1 the political    
relations of every state have been      

changed1 and the whole ,balance of      
,power in ,europe been disturbed1 no    
force can now easily alter or  replace  
what has thus been established4 ,of     
this1 ,england herself may  afford us an
 example4 ,certainly that great country 
in ,southern  ,asia--the richest of all 
the countries in the world--and which   
,great  ,britain has annexed to her     
sway1 by means of a navy that gives her 
the  empire of the seas1 and whose      
population five or six times exceeds    
that of the ocean-queen1 and equals in  
numbers the best half of  ,europe2 has  
brought an accession of strength to     
,england1 which can not  possibly be    
measured1 judged1 or condemned according
 to the old narrow  rules of the system 
of the ,balance of ,power2 since so many
 vast and  important results have       
accrued1 and in all probability will yet
 accrue  to ,europe and ,india herself  
from this most singular1 and in the     
history of the world1 quite             
unprecedented connection2 and since in  

other respects1 not only the internal   
administration of ,hindostan1 but  the  
entire conduct of the ,english in those 
transactions1 has been at  once so wise 
and glorious4 ,as the shallow1          
superficial notion of  illuminism1 which
 during the greater part of the         
eighteenth century  was considered the  
all-ruling principle and highest object 
of all  science and speculation1 is no  
longer adequate to the present views of 
philosophy2 in like manner the system of
 the ,balance of ,power has  ceased to  
be any longer applicable to the state of
 ,europe in the late  general warfare1  
or to that state of things which it has 
given rise  to2 and it is not from this 
system we can expect the final          
settlement  and adjustment of things1   
and the solution of the ,gordian        
knot--the  great enigma of the world in 
our times4    ,after the system of the  
,balance of ,power1 the next leading and
  characteristic principle in the       
history of the eighteenth century1 is   

the notion of illuminism1 which         
exercised on the internal civilization  
of all ,european nations the same       
influence which the former system       
exerted on their external relations4    
,people are so accustomed to  confound  
the principle of enlightenment with the 
abuse and false  application made of it 
during the last century1 that in order  
to  represent this great epoch in all   
its historical bearings1 ,i shall       
endeavour to shew that to an impartial  
judge and observer1 it offers  many and 
diverse points for consideration4 ,for  
we must remember that  there was a true 
enlightenment by the side of a false    
one1 and that  enlightenment was not    
every where of a negative character1    
precipitate  in its progress1 and       
destructive in its effects4 ,in its     
first obscure  beginnings1 it had a     
solid1 irreproachable1 and very         
beneficial  character and tendency4     
,during the public calamities1 and      
general  anarchy of the seventeenth     

century1 the natural sciences in all    
their  various branches1 made silent but
 very extraordinary progress2 and       
numberless were the advantages of these 
new discoveries to all the  useful arts 
and sciences1 especially in those       
commercial and maritime  states where   
such knowledge was mostly needed4 ,a    
bold1 enterprising  genius1#ah heir to  
the most splendid throne in the ,north1 
had as an  apprentice and artisan       
appropriated on the spot all these      
advantages  of modern civilization1 and 
turned them to full account in          
navigation1  in the various mechanic    
arts1 in the foundation of cities1 and  
in the  general civilization of his     
subjects2 and thus he became the founder
  of the present greatness of           
,russia2--a greatness which is built on 
a  species of enlightenment1 that so far
 from being of a futile and rash        
nature1 and of a destructive tendency1  
has exerted a gradual but  beneficial   
influence over the whole extent of an   

empire1 which  stretches far into two   
continents of the globe4 ,it was only by
 that  true and genuine improvement and 
civilization1 which commenced under     
,peter the ,great1 that ,russia acquired
 the knowledge and mastery of her  own  
resources1 and thus rose to a high and  
permanent grade in the  scale of        
nations4    ,the separation of the      
,russian church from the authority of   
the ,greek  patriarch1 who had now      
fallen under ,turkish dependance1       
appeared a  necessary condition for     
opening a door in ,russia to the moral  
and  intellectual civilization of       
,europe2 nor when we consider that such 
a  step was but the continuation of an  
original schism1 can we deem it a       
subject of blame4 ,it does not appear1  
however1 that the system of a  national 
church1 which has sprung out of this    
separation1 has  been here as much      
abused as in the ,anglican church1 or in
 that system  of anti-papal opposition  
nearly akin to it1 adopted in one or    

more  ,catholic countries of ,europe4   
,the very system1 however1 of an        
exclusively national religion1 must ever
 be an object of the greatest           
solicitude1 for it is but too easily    
susceptible of an extension most  fatal 
to ,christian government1 which nothing 
so much impairs and  undermines as any  
leaning to the ,mahometan confusion of  
spiritual and  temporal power in the    
hands of the same person4    ,men have  
often blamed that harsh junction of     
opposites observable in  the sudden and 
artificial civilization of ,russia2 that
 is to say1 the  contrast which there   
exists between the highest intellectual 
luxury1  and the most exquisite and     
fashionable refinement in thought and   
manners among the higher classes1 at the
 court and in the capital1 and  the very
 low grade of civilization1 the state of
 utter or at least  semi-barbarism1 to  
which so large a portion of the         
population are  reduced4 ,but no very   
prejudicial effects have resulted to    

society in  ,russia1 from this          
conjunction of elements1 and from the   
obstacles  which so many vast masses    
have opposed to the progress of         
civilization2 and even that hurry and   
precipitancy in the career of           
enlightenment1 which was the great fault
 of almost all other ,european          
countries1 was by this means avoided1 or
 rather prevented by the very  nature of
 things4 ,the only thing here to be     
apprehended and guarded  against was    
this1 that in copying the civilization  
of ,europe1 ,russia  should not         
introduce along with it those negative  
and destructive  principles--those      
maxims of liberalism and irreligion     
which were  almost exclusively prevalent
 in ,european literature and science    
during  the eighteenth century2 in a    
word that ,protestantism1 7in the wide  
and  comprehensive signification of that
 term17 should not become too           
predominant in the public mind4    ,the 
first ground-work of the modern         

civilization of ,russia1 as laid  down  
by ,peter the ,great1 was of a          
thoroughly practical nature1  directed  
in part to objects of commercial        
utility1 after the manner of  the ,dutch
 and ,english4 ,the moral corruption    
occasioned by the ,french  philosophy   
introduced under ,catherine ,,ii41 was  
confined to a small  circle2 and in the 
course of succeeding times1 this        
philosophy came to  be considered as an 
exotic element of destruction1 which so 
far from  being adequate to the         
exigencies of the age1 struck at the    
very root  of society4 ,in a more recent
 period1 liberal and ,revolutionary     
theories of government1 copied from     
constitutional countries1 may at  most  
have led to a criminal enterprise2 but  
have not exercised any the  least       
permanent influence on the bulk of the  
nation4 ,but the great and  essential   
point for this ,european and ,asiatic   
,empire1--the seat of a  progressive    
enlightenment1--as well as for the rest 

of ,europe1 is  still this--that this   
enlightenment1 which is the basis on    
which this  empire is founded1 should   
never take an irreligious course1 but   
should  ever maintain a decidedly       
religious character4 ,and in this       
respect  more than any other1 a generous
 monarch#ai who became great in the     
school of adversity1 must be considered 
as the second founder of  ,russian      
greatness1 because he has stamped on    
this empire a strong1  permanent        
religious impress4 ,i do not allude here
 of course to any  fanatic measure of   
coercion1 but to the moral influence of 
religion--to its firm establishment as  
the general principle of  ,european     
government in the present times4    ,the
 principle of illuminism1 when properly 
conceived1 has nothing at  all          
reprehensible in itself1 or at variance 
with the ,christian  religion4 ,in the  
same way that ,christianity1 if not only
 its dogmas  were developed1 but its    
general influence extended1 and made    

triumphant in the world1 would soon     
supplant the existing human             
,reformation1 and be the true1 the      
divine reformation of mankind1 of  the  
world1 and even of the visible creation2
 so it is itself the true  illumination1
 whereof ,holy ,writ speaketh3 it is    
that light of eternal  light1 which was 
in the beginning1 and which was the life
 of men1 7as  the words from the mouth  
of eternal ,truth declare17 and in which
 men  are once more to find their life4 
,but to descend from this lofty idea    
into the world of historical experience1
 we should carefully  distinguish       
between a true1 lasting1 and vivifying  
illumination1 and a  false1 mimic1 and  
illusive species of enlightenment4 ,one 
thing is the  warm1 genial light of the 
sun returning to the new-born spring1 or
 the  fresh glow of morning after the   
lengthened night--and another the       
transient glimmer of a bonfire1 which   
after exciting a false alarm1  sinks    
rapidly again into darkness4 ,one thing 

is the solitary midnight  lamp of silent
 meditation--and another the lightning  
which flashes  athwart the gloomy       
heavens1 or the dark lantern of the     
murderer  stealing his way along in the 
night1 or the torchlight in the robbers'
  cave1 where the spoil is divided1 and 
new misdeeds are concerted4    ,for all 
these various significations of true and
 false illumination1  the eighteenth    
century in its real or pretended        
enlightenment may  furnish us with      
historical proofs4 ,thus without        
misapprehending or  disowning that true 
and divine light visible even in the    
progress of  science1 or without        
rejecting1 or contracting in too narrow 
bounds the  salutary and necessary light
 of human reason1 still we must be      
careful  to distinguish from the former 
the light which is illusive1 or         
changeable1 as well as that which is    
spurious1 and counterfeited by  the     
powers of darkness4    ,in this consists
 the sign of a false enlightenment--if  

not merely in  its origin1 and in its   
outward effects1 but in its own nature  
as well  as undeviating course1 it      
retains a negative character1 and is    
therefore hollow and superficial4 ,but  
any system which is originally          
destitute of a firm and solid           
foundation1 may easily be driven into an
  irregular and devious1 and ultimately 
into a most fatal course4 ,this  is in  
short the essential distinction         
observable in the progress of a  genuine
 and a spurious species of              
enlightenment4 ,this illuminism         
exercised so general an influence in the
 eighteenth century on church  and      
state1 on science and on social life1 on
 the relations of policy  and the course
 of public events1 that even ,spain and 
the ,papal  territories were not exempt 
from its influence--an influence which  
was  perceptible on the one hand1 in    
many useful reforms in the internal     
administration of those states--and on  
the other hand1 in the  expulsion of the

 ,jesuits1 which was first commenced by 
,portugal and  ,spain1 and to which the 
jealousy of other religious orders had  
contributed4 ,but the whole transaction 
must be ascribed to a  destructive party
 of ,illuminati1 that had secretly grown
 up in those  countries1 and now        
expanded to public view1 and appeared in
 full  power4 ,to such a party those    
religious orders which had fallen into a
  state of real degeneracy1 inactivity1 
and ignorance1 so far from being        
objects of hatred1 were exceedingly     
welcome for the promotion of their      
secret views4 ,but not so an order1     
which was distinguished for its  zeal   
and activity1 its devotion to the       
interests of the church1 its  scientific
 acquirements1 and knowledge of the     
world4 ,a critical  enquiry into the    
truth or falsehood of the several       
charges and  accusations against the    
,jesuits1 must be reserved to a special 
history  of those countries ,i have     
named1 or to a particular history of the

  order4 ,but their expulsion is here   
mentioned1 as it is a very              
characteristic circumstance in the      
history of that age of pretended        
illumination4 ,it may be generally      
thought that the determination which    
,pope ,ganganelli at last came to for   
the suppression of the order1 was       
extorted from him by the overruling     
influence of the secular powers4  ,but  
if such a supposition be really         
admissible1 it is evident on the  other 
hand1 that the restoration of the order 
was effected by the  virtuous ,pontiff  
who ruled the church in the late period 
of  oppression1 at the very moment when 
the iron yoke of military  despotism    
weighed heaviest on the nations of      
,europe4    ,the true progress of       
,christian enlightenment in the pursuits
 of  philosophy and science1 ,i shall   
have occasion to mention afterwards4    
,the principle of toleration1 which was 
solidly established by the  ,german     
treaty of religious peace1 became an    

essential element of  social            
illumination4 ,by degrees this principle
 was admitted throughout  almost all    
,europe--yet we must observe that its   
adoption cannot be  determined by one   
uniform1 invariable rule in all         
countries1 but that  local              
circumstances1 respecting which it is   
often difficult for the  distant        
observer to come to a right judgment1   
must and ought to  produce numerous     
modifications in the application of the 
principle4  ,that wide toleration which 
in ,holland and ,north ,america has for 
a long  time incorporated into the state
 a multitude of petty sects1 would  not 
be practicable or expedient in other    
countries4 ,the religious  liberty which
 in the ,russian ,empire is extended    
even to ,mahometans1  and to certain    
tribes of ,buddhists and ,pagans1 would 
not apply to the  circumstances of most 
other civilized countries4 ,there are in
 the  deep-rooted habits of nations1 and
 in the constitution of individual      

states1 very peculiar1 and often        
apparently singular1 circumstances  and 
combinations1 which no man should judge 
of hastily1 and according  to abstract  
principles1 until he has obtained a     
close1 accurate1 and  deep insight into 
the historical condition and situation  
of a country4  ,thus while ,england is  
intolerant in her ,constitution at home1
 she  gives the fullest latitude in     
,canada to the ,north ,american         
principle  of religious freedom2 and the
 whole ,british ,empire in ,india is    
founded  on toleration--that is to say1 
on the principle of governing the       
,indians according to their own laws1   
manners1 customs1 and opinions4  ,by    
this policy the ,english have become    
almost complete masters of this  great  
and fertile country2 and their          
enlightened rule forms a strong         
contrast to the earlier tyranny of the  
,mahometans1 who hold the ,indian       
idolatry in the utmost abhorrence2      
although that idolatry1 amid a  chaos of

 errors and fables1 contains many better
 and higher vestiges  of ancient truth1 
than the mere negative and fanatic      
superstition of  ,mahomet4 ,even the    
,french1 when they had a firm footing in
 ,india1  committed a capital fault in  
forming alliances more with the         
,mahometans than with the native ,indian
 powers4    ,in ,europe1 ,norway alone1 
among the ,protestant states1 has       
maintained  down to our times laws of   
severe exclusion against every religion 
differing from the established one--an  
exclusion which extends as well  to     
,jews as to ,catholics2 while ,spain and
 ,portugal only1 among ,catholic        
countries1 offer an example of similar  
intolerance4 ,to abolish  suddenly      
without urgent and overpowering reasons1
 or some new  historical emergency1 laws
 which have thus grown out of the       
general  circumstances of a country1    
which have existed for ages1 and have   
taken deep root in the manners and      
habits of life1 provokes suspicion1  and

 may occasion danger4 ,but we must not  
suppose that a severe and  exclusive    
system of legislation1 like that        
existing in ,spain1 can  always         
counteract the occult and far more      
dangerous opposition of  secret sects   
and societies4 ,this might be proved1 or
 rendered probable  by many facts in the
 history of those countries during the  
eighteenth  century4 ,in ,italy this    
rigid and exclusive legislation was     
never  carried to the same unqualified  
extent4 ,intolerance there never        
extended to the ,jews1 nor to the ,greek
 schismatics1 and in recent  times it   
does not1 as formerly1 affect the       
,protestants4 ,in ,germany1  toleration 
was legally established by the treaty of
 ,westphalia1 and  there the cause of   
toleration stood in no need of the      
modern principle  of illuminism--the    
all-stirring and animating principle of 
the  eighteenth century4 ,but here      
illuminism in its first negative period 
was directed against prejudices and     

abuses of another kind4 ,in certain     
,protestant countries in the ,north of  
,germany1 this period of  illumination  
dates from the abolition of trials for  
witchcraft4 ,and  against so modest a   
beginning not the slightest objection   
could be  urged2 for in general the     
criminal law which the later and already
  degenerate middle age bequeathed to   
modern times1 afforded ample scope  for 
amelioration1 and contained many        
barbarous edicts that deserved to  be   
abolished4 ,the use of torture1 and of  
un-christian and excruciating  modes of 
execution1 were next the objects of     
,reform4 ,the total  abolition of       
capital punishment1 which this legal    
,reform soon aimed at  in its ulterior  
progress1 the experience of mankind has 
not yet found  to be either possible or 
practicable4 ,who will be disposed to   
deny  that the many abuses which were   
now corrected1 and the many vulgar      
prejudices which were refuted or done   
away with1 were especially at  the      

outset1 in a great measure such as were 
truly deserving of that  name1 and that 
very many of those reforms were useful  
and necessary1  just and wholesome4 ,it 
appears1 however1 sometimes1 that       
barbarous  abuses thus hastily and      
precipitately removed1 soon reappear    
under  other forms and denominations4   
,this may easily be the case1 where     
those useful and necessary reforms are  
confined to the outward  surface1 and do
 not penetrate to the roots1 and        
internal essence of  things4--,it is    
worthy of remark1 that in the absence of
 solid and  positive principles1 the    
mere removal of abuses--a mere negative 
course of conduct1 will never alone     
attain the desired end1 nor is it  in   
itself always safe and certain4 ,soon a 
rash and passionate  precipitancy will  
be apparent in the conduct of           
affairs--the standard  and real term of 
our exertions will be lost sight of1 and
 things will  fall into a ruinous       
course2 and such is the character of    

that period  of transition from the age 
of illuminism to the time of the ,french
  ,revolution4 ,was there a single      
object1 not only in the questions       
relating to humanity1 but in the whole  
department of public life and  general  
belief1 in religion and in government1  
which was not soon  regarded as a       
prejudice or an abuse8    ,in ,germany1 
when the ,empress ,maria ,theresa       
ascended the ,imperial  throne1 the long
 established peace of the empire1 which 
it had once  cost such efforts to secure
 and preserve1 appeared to the new      
school  of philosophy1 a ridiculous     
prejudice of unenlightened1 pedantic    
,burghers of state4 ,but fifty years    
afterwards1 during the atheistic  and   
revolutionary period of the ,french     
philosophy1 immediately prior  to the   
,french ,revolution1 as well as at its  
commencement1  ,christianity1 and in    
fact all religion1 was considered as a  
mere  prejudice of the infancy of the   
human mind1 totally destitute of        

foundation in truth1 and no longer      
adapted to the spirit of the age2       
monarchy and the whole civilization of  
modern ,europe as abuses no  longer to  
be tolerated4 ,it was only when men had 
reached this extreme  term of their     
boasted enlightenment1 that a re-action 
took place4 ,but  prior to this1 towards
 the middle of the eighteenth century1  
and in  the ten years immediatedly      
subsequent1 the spirit of the age bore  
all  before it in its irresistible      
progress4 ,as in ancient times1 monarchs
  had competed for the title of ,most   
,christian1 or ,most ,catholic1 so now  
the potentates pre-eminent for power and
 understanding1 were flattered  by the  
title of enlightened4 ,it is not without
 a great shock to our  feelings1 we     
contemplate the close intimacy which    
subsisted between a  monarch grown grey 
in the toils of war and the cares of    
state1 a  powerful ,empress of a        
,northern court1 and the most depraved  
champions  of ,french infidelity4 ,with 

respect to the third of those eminent   
potentates of the age of illuminism1    
,joseph ,,ii41 it has never been  denied
 by those most competent to form a      
correct opinion on this  subject1 that  
among the various measures and          
regulations passed in the  short reign  
of that active emperor1 although some   
are not entitled to  the same praise1   
yet many were really adapted to the     
exigencies of the  age1 and have been   
attended with the most beneficial       
consequences to  industry and to        
intellectual cultivation4 ,but the      
serious turn which  things afterwards   
took1 the universal convulsion1 and     
remodelling of  the world1 have long    
fully demonstrated1 that not one or two 
only1 but  many of the most active and  
enlightened sovereigns of that age1     
yielded far too much to the prevailing  
principles of the time1 and  followed   
too readily the spirit of that age in   
its wild1 rapid1 and  all-destructive   
career4    ,to the many elements of     

internal ferment already existing in    
,france1  the imitation of ,english     
manners under the ,regent1 which was    
soon  succeeded by an imitation of      
,english literature and philosophy1     
added  a source of equal danger4 ,for to
 maintain within certain prescribed     
limits this ,english philosophy that    
reduces everything to the  experience of
 sensation1 the ,french wanted that     
sense of equilibrium  innate in the     
,english1 and which their constitution  
had rendered  almost instinctive to     
them2 and by means of which in          
philosophy1 as in  their internal       
government1 and in their relations with 
,foreign states1  they can keep within  
bounds2 and with them a philosophy1     
however  unspiritual and ungodly1 does  
not so rapidly rush into a headlong and 
destructive course1 as it did in ,france
 and in ,europe during the  atheistical 
and revolutionary period of literature  
and science2 for  the deadly influence  
of this spirit was not confined to      

,france--the  land of its birth--but    
spread over every country4 ,this is the 
important and essential distinction     
between the philosophy of ,locke or  of 
,hume for example1 which ,i before      
designated as the ,protestantism of     
philosophy1 in opposition to the        
thoroughly revolutionary philosophy  of 
,french atheism--for though the former  
by its opposition to all  spiritual     
ideas is of a negative character1 yet   
most of its partisans  and champions    
contrive to make some sort of           
capitulation with divine  faith1 and to 
preserve a kind of belief in moral      
feeling4 ,the ,french  philosophy was in
 fact a new ,pagan idolatry of nature1  
and even the  most splendid discoveries 
of natural science1 which might and     
ought to  have pointed to a higher      
principle1 were not contemplated in     
their  true spirit1 nor employed to     
proper advantage1 but were even made the
  instruments of a fanatic hostility    
towards the ,deity4 ,even among the     

comparatively better natural            
philosophers of ,france1 materialism was
  too generally the basis of their      
science1 and a sensual enthusiasm for   
nature too much the prevailing tone of  
their writings4    ,the more brilliant  
the talents which led the way in this   
new impious  and ,revolutionary career  
of the ,european mind1 the more         
generally  pernicious was the result4   
,such was the case with that scoffer1   
whose  genius could adapt itself to all 
the forms1 moods1 and styles of the  old
 ,french literature1 and who wielding1  
as he did1 with so masterly a  hand the 
weapon of a lawless wit1 directed it    
without intermission  during his whole  
life against everything holy and        
venerable1 of what  nature and kind     
soever4 ,as those errors are the most   
dangerous1 which  as containing a       
portion of truth1 carry with them a     
greater power of  conviction2 so        
,rousseau has perhaps exercised a more  
fatal influence  than that other spirit1

 who with his mockery polluted all      
things4 ,we  cannot precisely term him  
un-christian--at least such an epithet  
cannot be applied to him in the same    
unqualified and universal  extent--and  
when compared with the ,atomical        
philosophy and the  ,atheistical        
idolatry of nature1 his fanatic worship 
of nature will be  found of a more      
spiritual cast4 ,the great eloquence of 
this man  entitles him perhaps as       
clearly to the first rank among the     
orators of  his nation during the       
eighteenth century1 as ,bossuet with    
very  different religious principles    
holds in his own age4 ,eloquence less   
powerful than ,rousseau's could not well
 have sufficed to draw his age  into an 
admiration for that savage equality     
which he preached up--to  have excited  
its enthusiasm for the state of the     
,caribees and the  ,iroquois1 which1    
looking back with regret to man's       
original happiness  in the pure freedom 
of nature1 he represented as his proper 

destiny1  utterly marred as he was1 by  
,european civilization4 ,this was not a 
mere idle freak of imagination1 such as 
any false enchantment of  romance might 
display--but ,rousseau endeavoured to   
demonstrate with  all the rigid         
deductions of mathematical proof1 the   
happy equality of  the savage state2 and
 with the most earnest conviction and   
blind  fanaticism1 his system was       
applied to the actual relations of life4
  ,the result was that period of godless
 freedom--freedom separated from  ,god  
and from every divine principle whether 
of conduct or belief1 and  which1 as    
usual1 was soon succeeded by the false  
unity of a crushing  despotism1 equally 
hostile to every heavenly and exalted   
motive of  human action4 ,but such has  
been the frightfully accelerated march  
of  events in these latter times1 that  
the former stages of the  ,revolutionary
 course in ancient ,rome--the attempt of
 the elder  ,brutus--the establishment  
of a ,republic--the wars with the rival 

,carthage--the rapid career of military 
conquests--and the transition  to       
despotism1 down to ,tiberius or         
,dioclesian--have been here traversed   
in the short period of scarcely one     
generation4 ,it would be unjust  always 
to term this the ,french ,revolution1 or
 to consider it  exclusively as such--it
 was a general political malady--an     
universal  epidemic of the age4 ,in     
,holland and ,belgium a ,revolution had 
previously broken out--the ,polish      
,revolution occurred about the same     
time2 but though the ,belgian1 and more 
particularly the ,polish  ,revolutions  
were of a totally different character   
from the ,french1  they still presented 
to the turbulent spirit of the age1 one 
example  more of political commotion4   
,but ,north ,america had been to ,france
 and  the rest of ,europe1 the real     
school and nursery of all these         
,revolutionary principles4 ,natural     
contagion1 or wilful propagation  spread
 this disorder over many other          

countries--but ,france continued  to be 
the centre and general focus of         
,revolution4    ,even when the whole    
power of the ,revolution had been       
concentrated in  the person of a single 
man1 its general march was not          
materially  changed4 ,with respect to   
,foreign states and countries1 the      
,french  ,revolution produced a         
protracted religious war of twenty-one  
years2  for it was such not only from   
its origin1 but from its ,revolutionary 
and destructive character1 and from its 
fanatic opposition to  everything holy4 
,there was a fixed principle at the     
bottom of this  modern ,paganism4 ,it   
was political idolatry--and it matters  
little what  may be the immediate object
 of this idolatry--what the idol of the 
day1 whether a ,republic and the goddess
 of reason--the grande  nation--or the  
lust of conquest and the glory of arms4 
,it is still the  same demon of         
political destruction--the same         
anti-,christian spirit of  government1  

which wishes to mislead the age1 and    
control the world4  ,the great religious
 war1 which has desolated all ,europe1  
can be  finally terminated only by a new
 and general religious peace3--but the  
great gulph of perdition to our age is  
that political idolatry1  whatever shape
 it may assume--whatever name it may    
bear4 ,until that  idolatry be          
abolished1 until that abyss of ruin be  
closed up1 the  house of the ,lord1     
where peace and righteousness embrace   
each other1  can never be founded on a  
renovated earth4         #ac ,prussia4  
#ad ,bavaria4         #ae ,the ,treaty  
of ,westphalia4         #af ,saxony4    
#ag ,the passing of the ,catholic       
,relief ,bill has       happily rendered
 this observation obsolete4--,trans4    
#ah ,peter the ,great4         #ai ,the 
late ,emperor ,alexander4               
,,end ,,of ,,lecture ,,xvii4            
,,lecture ,,xviii4        ,on the       
general spirit of the age1 and on the   
universal      ,regeneration of         

,society4                 ,i come soon1 
and will renew all things4      ,there  
are in the history of the eighteenth    
century1 many phenomena  which occurred 
so suddenly1 so instantaneously1 so     
contrary to all  expectation1 that      
although on deeper consideration we may 
discover  their efficient causes in the 
past1 in the natural state of things1   
and in the general situation of the     
world1 yet are there many  circumstances
 which prove that there was a           
deliberate1 though secret1  preparation 
of events1 as1 indeed1 in many instances
 has been actually  demonstrated4 ,i    
must now say a few words on this secret 
and mysterious  branch of ,illuminism1  
and on the progress it made during the  
period of  its sway1 in order to        
complete the sketch of that period1 and 
to shew  the influence of this          
principle1 both in regard to the origin 
and  general spirit of the ,revolution1 
7which in its fanaticism believed       
itself a regeneration of the world71 and

 in regard to the true  restoration of  
society founded on the basis of         
,christian justice4 ,but  there is this 
peculiar circumstance in this historical
 enquiry1 that  those who as            
eye-witnesses could best speak from     
their personal  experience1 cannot      
always be considered the most credible  
vouchers2  for we never know1 or can    
know what their particular views and    
interests may lead them to say or       
conceal1 to suppress wholly or in  part4
 ,however it has so happened1 that in   
the universal convulsion and  overthrow 
of society1 many things have come to    
light on this  mysterious and esoteric  
clue in modern history--things which    
when  combined together1 furnish us with
 a not incorrect1 and a tolerably       
complete idea of this mighty element of 
the ,revolution1 and of  ,illuminism    
both true and false1 which has exercised
 so evident and  various an influence on
 the world4 ,and it is only on such     
historical  grounds 7which are quite    

sufficient for our purpose1 and can     
alone be  made the matter of            
consideration here71 ,i am at all       
competent to  pronounce an opinion on   
this subject1 or1 as ,i should rather   
say1 to  give an account of this event2 
and it is from historical sources1      
references and facts alone1 that the    
following sketch has been taken4    ,as 
to the origin of this esoteric          
influence1 the impartial historical     
enquirer cannot doubt 7whatever motives 
or views some may have to deny  the     
fact1 or throw doubt on its             
authenticity71 that the order of        
,templars was the channel by which this 
society in its ancient and long         
preserved form was introduced into the  
,west4 ,the religious  ,masonic symbols 
may be accounted for by the ,solomonian 
traditions connected with the very      
foundation of the order of  ,templars2  
and indeed the occasion of these symbols
 may be traced in  other passages of    
,holy ,writ1 and in other parts of      

sacred history1 and  they may very well 
admit of a ,christian interpretation4   
,traces of  these symbols may be found  
in the monuments of the old ,german     
architecture of the middle age4 ,any    
secret spiritual association1  however1 
diffused at once among ,christians and  
,mahometans1 cannot be  of a very       
,christian nature1 nor long continue so4
 ,nay the very idea of  an esoteric     
society for the propagation of any      
secret doctrines is not  compatible with
 the very principle of ,christianity    
itself2 for  ,christianity is a divine  
mystery1 which according to the         
intention of  its divine ,founder1 lies 
open to all1 and is daily exposed on    
every  altar4 ,for this reason1 in a    
,revelation imparted to all alike1 there
  can be no secrecy1 as in the ,pagan   
mysteries1 where by the side of the     
popular mythology and the public        
religion of the state1 certain  esoteric
 doctrines were inculcated to the       
initiated only4 ,this would  be to      

constitute a church within a church--a  
measure to be as little  tolerated or   
justified1 as an ,imperium in ,imperio2 
and in an age  where worldly interests  
and public or secret views of policy    
have far  greater ascendancy than       
religious opinions or sentiments1 such a
  secret parasitical church would       
unquestionably1 as experience has       
already proved1 be very soon transformed
 into a secret directory for  political 
changes and ,revolutions4 ,that in this 
society the  un-christian principles of 
a negative ,illuminism1 veiled as they  
often  were in sentiments of universal  
philanthropy1 were of a date tolerably  
modern1 all historical analogies would  
lead us to suppose4 ,on the  other hand1
 the ,christian opinions which survived 
in this order1  7though in our times1   
amid the innumerable factions which have
  agitated this society by their        
contests1 the adherents to ,christian   
principles form a small minority of its 
members17 the ,christian  opinions      

surviving in this order partook1        
conformably to the  historical origin ,i
 have assigned1 more of an oriental and 
,gnostic  character4 ,the great1 or at  
least1 not inconsiderable influence     
which  this society exercises in        
politics1 we may discover in those      
,revolutions1 which after having        
convulsed our quarter of the globe1     
have rolled onwards to the new world1   
where the two principal  ,revolutionary 
factions in one of those ,south         
,american states1 whose  troubles are   
not yet terminated1 are called the      
,scots and the  ,yorkists1 from the two 
parties which divide the ,english       
,masonic  lodges4 ,who does not know1 or
 who does not remember1 that the ruler  
of  the world in the period just passed1
 made use of this vehicle in all  the   
countries he conquered1 to delude and   
deceive the nations with  false hopes4  
,and on this account he was styled by   
his partisans the  man of his age1 and  
in fact he was a slave to the spirit of 

his age4 ,a  society1 from whose bosom1 
as from the secret laboratory of        
,revolution1 the ,illumins1 the         
,jacobins1 and the ,carbonari1 have     
successively proceeded1 cannot possibly 
be termed1 or be in fact very           
beneficial to mankind1 politically      
sound1 or truly ,christian in its  views
 and tendency4 ,still ,i must here      
observe1 that it has been the  fate of  
the oldest of all secret societies1 that
 its venerable forms  which are known to
 all the initiated1 should serve as a   
cloak to every  new conspiracy4 ,in the 
next place1 we must not forget that this
 order  itself appears to be split and  
divided into a multitude of different   
sects and factions2 and that on this    
account we must not suppose that  all   
those fearful aberrations1 and wild     
excesses of impiety1 all those  openly  
destructive or secretly undermining     
principles of ,revolution  were         
universally approved of by this society4
 ,on the contrary1 such a  supposition  

would be utterly false1 or at least1    
very exaggerated4 ,the  mere notice of  
all the highly estimable characters1    
mistaken but on  this point--of most    
distinguished and illustrious personages
 in the  eighteenth century1 members of 
this association1--would suffice to     
annul1 or at least materially modify1   
this sweeping censure4 ,from many       
indications1 we may consider it certain1
 or at least extremely  probable1 that  
in no country did this esoteric society 
so well  harmonize with the state and   
the whole established order of things1  
as  in that country where all the       
conflicting elements of morals and      
society are brought into a sort of      
strange and artificial equipoise--,i    
mean ,england4 ,if now we turn our view 
to the ,continent of ,europe1 and  even 
to those countries which were the chief 
theatre of the  ,revolution1 we shall   
see that there1 among many other        
factions1 a  ,christian party had sprung
 up in this society--a party which1     

though  it formed a very small minority 
in point of numbers1 possessed by its   
profounder doctrines1 and the           
interesting fragments of ancient        
tradition it had preserved1 a great     
moral ascendancy2 and this many         
historical facts1 and many written      
documents1 which have since  obtained   
publicity1 place beyond the shadow of a 
doubt4 ,instead of  bringing forward the
 names of some ,german writers less     
generally  known1 ,i prefer to allege1  
in confirmation of what ,i have said1   
the  example of a ,french writer1 who   
well denotes the internal and more      
hidden character of the ,revolution4    
,the ,christian theosophist1 ,st4       
,martin1 who was a disciple of this     
school1 stands in his age quite  apart  
from the other organs of the then       
prevailing ,atheistical  philosophy4 ,he
 was however a most decided             
,revolutionist1 7but a  disinterested   
fanatic1 guided entirely in his conduct 
by high and  moral motives71 from his   

utter contempt and abhorrence for the   
whole  moral and political system of    
,europe1 as it then stood--a contempt in
  which1 if we cannot entirely agree    
with him1 we cannot in many  instances  
withhold from him at least a sort of    
negative  approbation--and1 secondly1 he
 was a ,revolutionist by his            
enthusiastic  hope of a complete        
,christian regeneration of society1     
conceived indeed  according to his own  
views1 or the views of his party4 ,among
 the  ,french writers of the            
,restoration1 none have so thoroughly   
understood  this remarkable philosopher1
 and so well known how to appreciate him
  in all the depths of his errors1 as   
well as in the many excellent  things   
which his writings contain1 and to apply
 to him the necessary  corrections1 as  
,count ,maistre4    ,this secret clue in
 the history of the ,revolution must not
 be  overlooked1 if we would wish to    
form a due estimate of its character2   
for it greatly contributed to the       

illusion of many1 by no means           
ill-intentioned persons1 who saw or     
wished to see in the ,revolution  but   
the inevitable1 necessary1 though in its
 origin1 harsh and severe1  regeneration
 of ,christian states and nations1 then 
so widely gone off  from their original 
destination4 ,this illusive notion of a 
false  restoration of society was       
particularly prevalent during the       
,imperial  sway of that extraordinary   
man1 whose true biography--,i mean the  
high  moral law of his destiny1 or the  
theological key to his life--seems      
still to exceed the critical powers of  
our age4 ,seven years were  allotted him
 for the growth of his power--for       
fourteen years the  world was delivered 
over into his hands2 and seven years    
were left him  for solitary reflection1 
the first of which he misemployed in    
embroiling the world anew4 ,on the use  
he made of the extraordinary  power that
 had been imparted to him---of that     
formidable dominion  which had fallen to

 his lot1 history has long pronounced   
her sentence4  ,never is such power     
permitted but in the period of1 and with
 a view  to1 some awful reckoning1 and a
 still more fearful probation of        
mankind4 ,but if his ,restoration--that 
is to say1 the ,restoration which  his  
infatuated partisans attributed to him1 
was most certainly a false  one2--the   
question naturally occurs1 whether the  
,restoration attempted  by his          
successors has been perfectly sound1 or 
at least quite  complete2 and what may  
be the defects in the new system1 and   
how they  may be supplied8    ,a mere   
treaty of territorial arrangements could
 not and can never  constitute a great  
religious and international pacification
 for the  whole of ,europe4 ,the        
re-establishment of subverted           
thrones--the  ,restoration of exiled    
sovereigns and dynasties1 will not in   
themselves  have any security nor       
permanence1 unless based on moral       
principles and  maxims4 ,after the      

severe unexpected lesson again inflicted
 on ,europe1  religion was at last made 
the basis of ,european policy2 and we   
must  not make it a matter of reproach1 
that this principle still retained  so  
indefinite a character2 for this was    
necessary at the beginning at  least1 in
 order to remove any misconception1 or  
any possible suspicion  of interested   
views4 ,and not only doth the stability 
and future  existence of the whole      
,christian and civilized world depend on
 this  bond of religious                
confederacy1--which we can only hope may
 be ever  more and more firmly knit--but
 every great power in particular is more
  especially called upon to take a part 
therein4 ,that the moral strength  and  
stability of the ,russian ,empire mainly
 depends on religion--that  every       
departure from its sacred spirit must   
have the most fatal  effects on its     
whole system1 has already been declared 
by her late  monarch1 distinguished     
alike in adverse and in prosperous      

fortune1 an  axiom of state-policy1 and 
can scarcely ever be again forgotten4   
,but  in that country1 where the        
elements of ,protestantism 7to use that 
word  in its most comprehensive         
signification7 obtained such weight in  
the  outset of its literary refinement1 
and are so incorporated with the  whole 
political system of the state1 the      
toleration extended to every  form of   
worship1 should not be withheld from    
that church1 which is the  mother-church
 of the rest of ,europe1 and of ,poland 
inclusively2#bj  nor should the         
religious liberty of individuals be in  
that respect at  all restricted4    ,it 
is equally evident that in that country 
of ,europe where monarchy  has been     
restored1 the restoration of religion   
must go hand in hand  with that of      
monarchy1 and that the latter would lose
 all security  were the former removed4 
,in the pacific monarchy1#ba            
unchangeably  attached as she is to her 
ancient principles1 religion has ever   

been1  more than any other principle1   
the recognised basis of her existence4  
,as to the fifth#bb ,germanico-,european
 monarchy recently created1 the  solid  
maintenance of religion is the only     
means to allay the disquiet  incident to
 such a state1 and to secure its future 
existence4 ,any act  of even indirect   
hostility towards the ,catholic         
body--one half of the  nation#bc--;any  
infringement on the liberty of          
individuals in that  sacred concern--a  
liberty which must be guaranteed not    
only by the  letter of the law1 but by  
real1 effective and practical           
measures--would not only be in utter    
opposition to those religious           
principles1 rapidly spreading as they   
are in all ,europe1 and  particularly in
 ,germany2 but would violate and render 
insecure the  great fundamental and long
 established principle of toleration2 as
 has  hitherto been acknowledged4 ,it is
 only in ,england that ,anglicanism has 
raised her doubts as to the utility of a

 religious fraternity among  the        
,christian states and nations--doubts   
which are connected with the  still     
exclusively ,protestant character of the
 ,english ,constitution1  and which on  
many occasions may lead ,england to a   
sort of schismatical  rupture with the  
rest of ,europe4 ,on several occasions  
we must  contemplate with regret1 how   
that mighty ,england1 in the eighteenth 
century so brilliant and so powerful by 
the sway she exerted over the  whole    
,european mind1 no longer seems to feel 
herself at home in the  nineteenth      
century1 nor to know where to find her  
place in the new  order of things4      
,but as respects ,europe at large1 the  
maxims and principles of  liberalism are
 only a partial return to the           
,revolution--they can have  no other    
tendency but to ,revolution4 ,liberalism
 will never obtain a  majority among the
 well-thinking persons of any of the    
,european  states1 except by some gross 
error--some singular degeneracy in that 

party1 which really does not constitute 
a party1 and ought not to be  called    
such--,i mean the men who in politics   
are attached to monarchy1  and in       
religion to ,christianity4    ,the mere 
principle of a mechanical ,balance of   
,power to serve as a  negative check on 
overgrown dominion--a system which      
emanated from  ,england1 and was in the 
eighteenth century universally          
received--has  ceased to be applicable1 
or to be of service to the existing     
state of  things in ,europe2 for all the
 remedies which it can offer1 tend only 
to aggravate the evil when it has once  
occurred4 ,in religion alone are  to be 
found the remedies and the safeguards1  
the emancipation and  consolidation of  
the whole civilized world1 as well as of
 every  particular state4 ,the most     
imminent danger to our age1 and the     
possible abuse of religion itself1 are  
the excesses of the absolute4  ,great is
 the danger1 when in a vindictive spirit
 of re-action1 a  revolutionary conduct 

is adopted by the party of legitimacy2  
when  passion itself is consecrated into
 a maxim of reason1 and held up as  the 
only valid and just mode of proceeding2 
and when1 the sacredness  of religion   
itself is hawked about as some          
fashionable opinion2 as if  the         
world-redeeming power of faith and truth
 consisted in the mere  dead letter1 and
 in the recited formula4 ,true life can 
spring only  from the vivifying spirit  
of eternal truth4 ,in science the       
absolute is  the abyss which swallows up
 the living truth1 and leaves behind    
only  the hollow idea1 and the dead     
formula4 ,in the political world the    
absolute in conduct and speculation is  
that false spirit of time1  opposed to  
all good and to the fulness of divine   
truth1 which in a  great measure rules  
the world1 and may entirely rule it1 and
 lead it  for ever to its final ruin4   
,as errors would not be dangerous or    
deceptive1 and would have little effect1
 unless they contained a  portion or    

appearance of truth2 this false spirit  
of time which  successively assumes all 
forms of destruction1 since it has      
abandoned  the path of eternal truth1   
consists in this--it withdraws          
particular  facts from their historical 
connection1 and holds them up as the    
centre and term of a system1 without any
 limitation1 and without any  regard to 
historical circumstances4 ,the true     
foundation1 and the right  term of      
things1 in the history of society as in 
the lives of  individuals1 cannot be    
thus severed from their historical      
connection1  and their place in the     
natural order of events4 ,in any        
speculation or  enterprise conducted by 
this passionate spirit of exaggeration1 
the  living spirit must evaporate1 and  
only the dead and deadening formula     
survive4 ,what idols may successively be
 worshipped by the changing  spirit of  
time which easily bounds from one       
extreme to another1 cannot  be          
determined before-hand4 ,it is even     

possible that for a while  eternal truth
 itself may be profaned and perverted to
 such an idol of  the day--,i mean the  
counterfeit form of truth2--for the     
spirit of  time1 however it may assume  
the garb1 can never attain the inward   
essence and living energy of truth4     
,whatever may be the alternate  idol1   
and the reigning object of its worship1 
or of its passionate  rhetoric1 it still
 remains essentially the same--that is  
to say1 the  absolute1 alike deadening  
to intellect1 and destructive to life4  
,in  science1 the absolute is the idol  
of vain and empty systems1 of dead  and 
abstract reason4    ,the ,christian     
faith has the living ,god and his       
revelation for its  object1 and is      
itself that revelation2 hence every     
doctrine taken from  this source is     
something real and positive4 ,the       
defence of truth  against error will    
then only be attended with permanent    
success1 when  the divine doctrine1 in  
whatever department it may be1 is       

represented  with intellectual energy as
 a living principle2 and at the same    
time  placed in its historical          
connection1 with a due regard to every  
other  historical reality4 ,this calm1  
historical judgment of things--this     
acute insight into subjects1 whether    
they be real facts or  intellectual     
phenomena--is the invariable concomitant
 of truth1 and  the indispensable       
condition to the full knowledge of      
truth4 ,this is  the more so1 indeed1 as
 religion1 which forms the basis of all 
truth1  and of all knowledge1 naturally 
traces with attentive eye the           
mysterious clue of ,divine ,providence  
and ,divine permission through the  long
 labyrinth of human errors and human    
follies1 be they of a  practical or a   
speculative nature4 ,error1 on the other
 hand1 is always  unhistorical2 the     
spirit of time almost always passionate2
 and both  consequently untrue4 ,the    
conflict against error cannot be brought
 to a  prompter and more successful     

issue1 than by separating in every      
system  of moral and speculative error1 
and according to the standard of  divine
 truth1 the absolute1 which is the basis
 of such systems1 into  its two         
component parts of truth and falsehood4 
,for when we  acknowledge and point out 
the truth to be found in those systems1 
there only remains error1 whose inanity 
it requires little labour1  little cost 
of talent1 or time to expose and make   
evident to every  eye4 ,but in real life
 the struggle of parties often ceases to
 be  purely intellectual--their physical
 energy is displayed in violent         
commotions2 and in proportion as all    
parties become absolute1 so their       
struggle becomes one of violent and     
mutual destruction--a circumstance      
which most fatally impedes the great    
work of religious regeneration--the     
mighty problem of our age1 which so far 
from being brought to a  satisfactory   
termination1 is not yet even solved4 ,in
 this respect it  is no doubt a critical

 fact1 that in certain quarters of      
,european  life1 nay even in some entire
 countries1 parties and governments     
should be more and more carried away by 
the spirit of absolutism4 ,for  this is 
not a question of names1 and it is very 
evident that not those  parties1 which  
are called1 or call themselves absolute1
 are the most  so in reality2 since now1
 as in all periods of violent party     
struggles1 a whimsical mistake in names1
 a great disorder of ideas1  and a      
,babel confusion of tongues1 occur even 
in those languages  otherwise           
distinguished for their clearness and   
precision4    ,fixedness of principle1  
consistency in reasoning1 firmness of   
character1 and the severe1 dogmatic     
precision of faith1 as these are  the   
qualities which form the best test of   
man in the intercourse of  life1 so they
 ought by no means to be confounded with
 absolutism  either in conduct or       
speculation2 for all these qualities are
 very  compatible with the calm         

historical judgment of things1 and a    
conscientious regard for all historical 
circumstances4 ,among the  ,french      
writers of recent times who have devoted
 themselves to the task  of the         
religious regeneration of the public    
mind1 no one possesses the  above-named 
qualities in a higher1 or in so         
remarkable a degree1 as  ,count         
,maistre2 and yet of all the writers of 
this class1 he is the  least open to the
 charge of promoting a passionate spirit
 of reaction2  and in my own opinion1 he
 must be entirely acquitted of such an  
imputation4 ,some more rhetorical       
defenders1 however1 of religion in      
,france1 cannot certainly be entirely   
absolved from the charge of  favouring  
this absolute and exaggerated spirit of 
re-action2 and so  they unquestionably1 
even more than their opponents1 injure  
the cause  which they wish to defend4   
,but many imputations of this sort which
  party spirit has alleged1 are entirely
 without foundation2 as when the        

opposition in the country ,i speak of1  
extends to the government1 and  to all  
the different ministries since the      
,restoration1 the charge of  political  
absolutism1 and of a spirit of          
re-action2 every one must  clearly see  
that no cause has really been given for 
such imputations4  ,and that in a       
country where the most hostile parties  
and all  conceivable opinions are       
tolerated1 a small number of ,jesuits   
should  partake of the general          
toleration1 is a circumstance that can  
excite  blame1 jealousy and hypocritical
 alarm1 only in the breasts of men      
animated by the unjust and vindictive   
spirit of faction4 ,to the  distant and 
impartial observer1 the greatest and    
most imminent danger  to ,france appears
 to be a relapse to ,revolution by means
 of  liberalism4#bd    ,the dogmatic    
decision and definiteness of ,catholic  
faith on the one  hand1 and the firmly  
rooted private convictions of           
,protestantism on  the other1 are very  

compatible with an historical judgment  
of  historical events4 ,difficult as    
this may appear to the absolute spirit  
of our age1 it is this very historical  
impartiality which must prepare  the way
 for the complete triumph of truth1 and 
the consummate glory of  ,christianity4 
,and it is in this consists the great   
distinction between  true toleration and
 the fatal indifferentism of our age1   
and of the  age immediately preceding4  
,true toleration is founded on the      
humble  and consequently religious      
principle and firm hope1 that while one 
leaves in quiet what has already an     
historical existence1 ,god will  conduct
 and arrange all things1 and bring them 
to their appointed end4  ,this is widely
 remote from that pretended equality of 
all religions1  provided they inculcate 
but a good morality--a system which     
strikes at  the root of all religion4   
,intolerance1 on the other hand1 is     
grounded  in the proud1 and therefore   
impious opinion1 that it can mould all  

things to what it fancies they ought to 
be1 without any regard to the  limits of
 human weakness--and without reflecting 
that what is put  down by outward force1
 not unfrequently grows up in secret in 
an  altered1 though still more          
dangerous1 form4 ,of this truth1 it     
would  not be difficult to adduce many  
historical proofs4    ,in the absolute  
spirit of our age1 and in the absolute  
character of  its factions1 there is a  
deep-rooted intellectual pride1 which is
 not  so much personal or individual1 as
 social1 for it refers to the           
historical destiny of mankind1 and of   
this age in particular4 ,actuated  by   
this pride1 a spirit exalted by moral   
energy1 or invested with  external      
power1 fancies it can give a real       
existence to that which can  only be the
 work of ,god3 as from him alone proceed
 all those mighty1  and real            
regenerations of the world1 among which 
,christianity--a  revolution in the high
 and divine sense of the word--occupies 

the  first place2 and in these plastic  
moments1 every thing is possible  that  
man can wish or dare to hope1 if in what
 he adds on his own part1  he mars not  
much in what the bounteous monarch of   
the universe1 from  the overflowings of 
his ineffable love1 outpours upon his   
earth4 ,for  the last three hundred     
years this human pride has been at      
work--a  pride that wishes to originate 
events1 instead of humbly awaiting      
them1 and of resting contented with the 
place assigned to it among  those       
events1 and of making the best and most 
charitable use of those  circumstances  
which ,providence has decreed4    ,what 
,i said before with regard to the       
,reformation may be equally  applied to 
the principle and period of ,illuminism4
 ,the idea itself is  perfectly         
blameless1 and it is unfair to pronounce
 on it an  indiscriminate censure1 and  
to treat it as an unqualified abuse4 ,it
  was indeed but a very small portion of
 this illuminism of the  eighteenth     

century1 that was really derived from   
the truths of  ,christianity1 and the   
pure light of ,revelation4 ,the rest was
 the mere  work of man1 consequently    
vain and empty1 or at least defective1  
corrupt in parts1 and1 on the whole1    
destitute of a solid foundation1  and   
therefore devoid of all permanent       
strength and duration4    ,but when     
once1 after the complete victory of     
truth1 the divine  ,reformation shall   
appear2--then that human ,reformation1  
which till now  hath existed1 will sink 
to the ground1 and disappear from the   
world4  ,then by the universal triumph  
of ,christianity1 and the thorough      
religious regeneration of the age1 of   
the world1 and of governments           
themselves1 will dawn the era of a true 
,christian ,illuminism4  ,this period is
 not perhaps so remote from our own1 as 
the natural  indolence of the human     
mind1 which after every great           
occurrence1 loves  to sink again into   
the death-sleep of ordinary life1 would 

be disposed  to believe4 ,yet must this 
exalted religious hope--this high       
historical  expectation be coupled with 
great apprehension1 as to the full      
display  of divine justice in the world4
 ,for how is such a religious           
regeneration possible1 until every      
species1 form1 and denomination of      
political idolatry be eradicated1 and   
entirely extirpated from the  earth8    
,never was there a period that pointed  
so strongly1 so clearly1 so  generally  
towards the future1 as our own4 ,on this
 account we should  endeavour clearly   
and accurately to distinguish between   
what on the  one hand man may by slow1  
progressive1 but unweared exertions--by 
the  pacific adjustment of all disputed 
points--and by the cultivation of  his  
intellectual qualities1 contribute      
towards the great work of the  religious
 regeneration of government and         
science--and what on the  other hand he 
should look for in silent awe from a    
higher  ,providence--from the new       

creative fiat of a last period of       
consummation1 unable as he is to produce
 or call it forth4 ,we are  directed    
much more towards the future than       
towards the past2--but in  order to     
comprehend in all its magnitude the     
problem of our age1 it  sufficeth not   
that we should seek this social         
regeneration in the  eighteenth         
century--an age in no respect entitled  
to praise--or in the  reign of ,lewis   
the ,fourteenth1 and his times of false 
national glory4  ,the birth of          
,christianity must be the great point of
 survey to which  we must recur1 not to 
bring back1 or counterfeit the forms of 
ages  past1 which are no longer         
applicable to our own2 but clearly to   
examine what has remained incomplete1   
what has not yet been attained4  ,for   
unquestionably1 all that has been       
neglected in the earlier periods  and   
stages of ,christian civilization1 must 
be made good in this true1  consummate  
regeneration of society4 ,if truth is to

 obtain a complete  victory--if         
,christianity is really to triumph on   
the earth--then must  the state become  
,christian1 and science become          
,christian4 ,but these  two objects have
 never been generally1 nor completely   
realized2  although during the many ages
 mankind have been ,christian1 they have
  struggled for the attainment of both2 
and though this political  struggle and 
this intellectual aspiration form the   
purport of modern  history4 ,the ,roman 
,empire1 even after the true religion   
had become  predominant1 was too        
thoroughly and radically corrupt1 ever  
to form a  truly ,christian state4 ,the 
sound1 unvitiated natural energy of the 
,germanic nations1 seemed far better    
fitted for such a destiny1 after  they  
had received from ,christianity a high  
religious consecration for  this        
purpose4 ,there was1 if we may so speak1
 in the interior of each  state1 as well
 as in the general system of            
,christendom1 a most  magnificent       

foundation laid for a truly ,christian  
structure of  government4 ,but this     
ground-work remained unfinished1 after  
the  internal divisions in the state1   
then the divisions between church and   
state1 and lastly1 the divisions in the 
church and in religion itself1  had     
interrupted the successful beginnings of
 a most glorious work4    ,the          
ecclesiastical writers of the first ages
 furnish a solid  foundation for all the
 future labours of ,christian science2  
but their  science does not comprehend  
all the branches of human knowledge4 ,in
  the middle age1 undoubtedly1 this     
foundation of a ,christian science1     
laid down by the early fathers1 was     
slowly prosecuted and in detail2  but on
 the whole1 many hurtful influences of  
the time had reduced  science and       
speculation to a very low ebb1 when     
suddenly in the  fifteenth century all  
the literary treasures of ancient       
,greece1 and  all the new discoveries in
 geography and physics1 were offered to 

philosophy4 ,scarcely had philosophy    
begun to examine these mighty  stores of
 ancient and modern science1 in order to
 give them a  ,christian form1 and to   
appropriate them to the use of religion 
and  modern society1 when the world     
again broke out into disputes2 and this 
noble beginning of a ,christian         
philosophy was interrupted1 and has     
since remained an unfinished fragment   
for a later and a happier  period4 ,such
 then is the two-fold problem of a real 
and complete  regeneration which our age
 is called upon to solve2--on one hand1 
the  further extension of ,christian    
government1 and of ,catholic principles 
of legislation1 in opposition to the    
,revolutionary spirit of the age1  and  
to the anti-,christian principle of     
government hitherto so  exclusively     
prevalent2 and on the other hand the    
establishment of a  ,christian          
philosophy1 or ,catholic science4 ,as ,i
 before characterized  the political    
spirit of the eighteenth century by the 

term--,protestantism  of state 7taking  
that word in a purely philosophic sense1
 and not as a  religious designation7--a
 system which found its one main support
 in  an old ,catholic ,empire2#be and as
 ,i characterized the intellectual      
spirit of the same age by the term      
,protestantism of science2--a  science  
which made the greatest progress and    
exerted the widest  influence in        
another#bf great ,catholic country2     
systems in which  nothing irreligious   
was originally intended1 but which      
became so by  their too exclusive or    
negative bearing3 so ,i may here permit 
myself  to say1 in like manner1 that the
 destiny of this age--the peculiar  want
 of the nineteenth century1 is the      
establishment of those ,catholic        
principles of government1 and the       
general construction of a ,catholic     
system of science4 ,this expression is  
used in a mere scientific sense1  and   
refers to all that is positively and    
completely religious in  thought and    

feeling4 ,in the certain conviction that
 this cannot be  misunderstood in an    
exclusive or polemical sense1 ,i will   
expressly add  that this foundation of  
,catholic legislation for the future    
political  existence of ,europe may be  
laid by one1 or more than one1          
non-catholic  power2 and that ,i even   
cherish the hope1 that it is our own    
,germany1  one half whereof is          
,protestant1 which more than any other  
country is  destined to complete the    
fabric of ,catholic science1 and of a   
true  ,christian philosophy in all the  
departments of human knowledge4    ,the 
religious hope of a true and complete   
regeneration of the age1 by  a          
,christian system of government and a   
,christian system of science1  forms the
 conclusion to this ,philosophy of      
,history4 ,the bond of a  religious     
union between all the ,european states  
will be more closely  knit1 and be more 
comprehensive1 in proportion as each    
nation advances  in the work of its own 

religious regeneration1 and carefully   
avoids  all relapse to the old          
revolutionary spirit--all worship of the
 false  idols of mistaken freedom1 or   
illusive glory1 and rejects every other 
new form or species of political        
idolatry4 ,for it is the very nature  of
 political idolatry to lead to the      
mutual destruction of parties1  and     
consequently it can never possess the   
elements of stability4    ,philosophy1  
as it is the vivifying centre of all    
other sciences1 must  be the principal  
concern and the highest object of the   
labours of  ,christian science4 ,yet    
history1 which is so closely and so     
variously  connected with religion1 must
 by no means be forgotten1 nor must     
historical research be separated from   
philosophic speculation4 ,on the        
contrary1 it is the religious spirit and
 views already pervading the  combined  
efforts of historical learning and      
philosophic speculation1  that chiefly  
distinguish this new era of a better    

intellectual  culture1 or as ,i should  
rather express myself1 this first stage 
of a  return to the great religious     
restoration4 ,and ,i may venture to     
assert  that this spirit1 at least in   
the present century1 has become ever    
more and more the prevailing            
characteristic of ,german science1 and  
on  this science1 in its relation to the
 moral wants1 and spiritual  calling of 
the nineteenth century1 ,i have now a   
few observations to  make4 ,like an     
image reflected in a mirror1 or like    
those symptoms  which precede and       
announce a crisis in human events1 the  
centre-point  of all government1 or the 
religious basis of legislation1 is sure 
to  be reflected in the whole mental    
culture1 or in the most remarkable      
intellectual productions of a nation4   
,in ,england1 the equilibrium of a      
constitution that combines in itself so 
many conflicting elements1 is  reflected
 in its philosophy4 ,the revolutionary  
spirit was prevalent in  the ,french    

literature of the eighteenth century    
long before it broke  out in real life2 
and the struggle is still very animated 
between the  intellectual defenders and 
champions of the monarchical and        
religious  ,restoration1 and of the     
newly awakened liberal opposition4 ,in  
like  manner1 as the ,german people     
were1 and still are1 half ,catholic and 
half ,protestant1 it is religious peace 
which in all literature1 and            
particularly in philosophy1 forms the   
basis of their modern  intellectual     
culture4 ,the mere sthetic part of      
,german letters1 as  regards art and    
poetry1--that artist-like enthusiasm    
peculiar to our  nation--the struggles  
which convulsed the infancy of our      
literature--the successive imitation and
 rejection of the ,french and  ,english 
models--the very general diffusion of   
classical learning--the  newly enkindled
 love for our native speech1 and for the
 early history  of our country1 and its 
elder monuments of art--all these are   

subjects  of minor interest in the      
,european point of view we here take1   
and form  but the prelude and           
introduction to that higher ,german     
science and  philosophy1 which is now   
more immediately the subject of our     
enquiries4 ,historical research should  
never be separated from any  philosophy1
 still less from the ,german2 as        
historical erudition is the  most       
effectual counterpoise to that absolute 
spirit1 so prevalent in  ,german science
 and ,german speculation4    ,art and   
poetry constitute that department of    
intellect wherein every  nation should  
mostly follow the impulse of its own    
spirit1 its own  feelings1 and its own  
turn of fancy2 and we must regard it as 
an  exception when the poetry of any    
particular nation1 7such1 for  instance1
 as that of the ,english at the present 
day71 is felt and  received by other    
nations as an ,european poetry4 ,on the 
other hand1  history is a sort of       
intellectual common open to all         

,european nations4  ,the ,english1 who  
in this department were ever so active  
and  distinguished1 have1 in very recent
 times1 produced works on their own     
national history1 which really merit the
 name of classical monuments  of the new
 religious restoration4 ,science in     
general1 and philosophy  in particular1 
should never be exclusive or            
national--should never be  called       
,english or ,german--but should be      
general and ,european4 ,and if  this is 
not so entirely the case as in the      
nature of things it ought  to be--we    
must ascribe it to the defects of       
particular forms4 ,of this  truth the   
example of the ,french language may     
convince us2 for no one  will deny the  
metaphysical profundity of ,count       
,maistre1 or the  dialectic perspicacity
 of the ,viscount ,de ,bonald4 ,although
 those  absolute principles which appear
 to characterize the ,european nations  
at this time1 have much less influence  
on real life and on the social          

relations in ,germany than in any other 
country2 yet the false spirit  of the   
absolute seems to be quite native to    
,german science and  philosophy2 and for
 a long period1 has been the principal  
cause which  has cramped the religious  
spirit and feelings so natural to the   
,german  character1 or at least has     
given them a false direction4    ,with  
regard to religious opinions1           
,protestantism in ,germany has not  been
 split into a multitude of new1 various1
 and jarring sects1 as in  other        
countries1 such as ,england1 ,holland1  
and ,north ,america1 where it  was      
exclusively or for the most part        
predominant2 for even the  ,hernhutters 
were not properly a sect4 ,it is only   
very recently the  ,pietists have formed
 themselves into a party opposed to the 
,rationalists--but their doctrines are  
not sufficiently precise and            
determinate to constitute them a sect1  
according to the proper  signification  
of that word4 ,pietism consists rather  

in a deep1 though  vague1 sentiment of  
religion1 and in a fusion of various and
 opposite  religious views and          
doctrines4 ,undoubtedly this moral      
fusion of  opinions1 as well as that    
outward complication of the interests   
and  doctrines of ,catholicism and      
,protestantism1 and of so many private  
views in matters of religion1 produced  
many wild and fanciful  abortions       
peculiar to the age2 many pure          
idiosyncrasies among the  ,protestants1 
whether they made half advances towards 
the ,catholic  church1 or pursued the   
opposite path of absolute               
individualism--or  among the ,catholics 
still more monstrous                    
amalgamations--,protestant or           
semi-,protestant innovations in doctrine
 aimed at by  individuals--innovations  
which originated in the principles of   
,illuminism1 and were countenanced by   
the well-known policy of certain        
sovereigns4 ,much as we may feel        
disposed1 or are even bound to oppose   

with all our might1 such moral          
abortions1 when the question regards    
their practical operation--yet ,i do not
 think we ought to pronounce  an        
absolutely unfavourable judgment on     
their general intellectual  tendency4   
,the real primary evil of the eighteenth
 century--an utter  indifference for all
 religious doctrines and concerns1--the 
dangerous  spirit of complete           
indifferentism1 from whose contagion    
many purely  ,catholic countries did not
 escape1 took less strong hold in       
,germany1  and obtained less general    
diffusion than in any other country4 ,a 
deep1  indelible religious feeling still
 continued to characterize the ,german  
nation1 and to give a tone to its       
philosophical speculations4 ,we should  
not pay too much attention to some      
transient and partial paradoxes3--,i    
well recollect the words of an old1 very
 experienced1 pious1 and  enlightened   
ecclesiastic1 who well understood the   
,german character1  and who used to say2

 ,if we don't give a religion to the    
,germans1 they  will make one out for   
themselves4    ,even in the greatest    
errors of their philosophy1 a certain   
religious  bearing and tendency can     
easily be pointed out4 ,however in a    
country  like ,germany1 where religious 
opinions and interests are so various   
and so intermixed1 a long time must     
elapse before a profound  philosophy1   
which would satisfy these yearnings of  
religious desire1  can attain its full  
moral developement1 or assume a clear   
outward  tangible form4 ,if ,i before   
said of the ,english1 in reference to   
the  struggle going on between the      
conflicting elements of their           
government--a struggle which in one form
 or other every great ,european  nation 
has to settle in its own interior1 and  
to bring to a successful  issue--that it
 would appear by many expressions in    
their parliamentary  proceedings1 from  
those in particular at the head of      
affairs1 and who  are best acquainted   

with them1 that a secret                
self-apprehension besets  the minds of  
,english politicians2--so ,i may now say
 of our ,german  nation1 among whom the 
conflict lies principally1 or more      
immediately  in the sphere of religion  
and philosophy2 that more than all other
  nations the ,germans are destitute of 
self-knowledge and of mutual  concord2  
and the cause of this must be sought for
 in the unfulfilment  of their religious
 and philosophical destiny1 and in the  
yet unallayed  discord between opposite 
elements of faith and various systems of
  science4    ,in the first period of   
,german literature1 the ,protestants had
 quite  the preponderance2 but since    
then1 the balance1 at least in science1 
has been completely restored4 ,i speak  
here of internal religious  principles1 
and not of outward confessions of faith1
 which cannot be  made the criterion for
 a philosophic classification4 ,for     
otherwise by  descending into details1  
,i might cite1 among the few quite      

irreligious  organs of ,german          
philosophy1 some writers 7happily rare  
exceptions7  who belonged to ,catholic  
,germany2 and on the other hand1 among  
those  foremost and most distinguished  
in reviving the pure ,platonic          
philosophy1 and whose profound religious
 conceptions have given quite  a        
,christian form to natural philosophy   
itself1 ,i might adduce the  names of   
men who were members of the ,protestant 
church4 ,philosophy  itself has not to  
determine1 nor to illustrate religious  
dogmas1 nor  does it stand in immediate 
connection with them4 ,the main point to
  which ,i wish to direct attention1 and
 which is necessary to render           
philosophy ,christian2 is that an       
internal harmony or unison should be    
preserved between faith and science2    
next that the principle of  divine      
revelation should be regarded as the    
basis1 not only of  theology but of     
every other science2 and lastly1 that   
even nature  herself should be studied  

and investigated by this high religious 
light1 and thus made to receive from    
science a new and transparent  lustre4  
,the modern ,german philosophy even in  
its infancy1 when it was  yet pretty    
closely allied to the ,english school1  
and mostly started  with the same       
problems 7though it gave to these a     
deeper and a wider  solution71 aimed at 
this harmony between faith and science4 
,it  understood both indeed in the very 
limited sense of a mere faith of  reason
 and science of reason1 influenced as it
 was by the ,rationalism  then so       
generally diffused1 not only in         
,protestant but even in  ,catholic      
countries1 and notably in ,catholic     
,germany4 ,but at the same  time other  
profound thinkers sought another and    
higher foundation for  philosophy in the
 idea of revelation2 a revelation which 
some  understood in a mere general and  
speculative1 though not irreligious1    
sense--and others in the ,christian     
sense of positive faith and pious       

feeling4 ,the capital vice of ,german   
philosophy is the absolute--the         
philosophic reflection of the general   
vice of the spirit of the age1  which   
exerts an absolute influence on life    
itself--whether this vice  of ,german   
philosophy assume the form of the       
absolute ego1#bg or that  of the        
,pantheistic naturalism1#bh or that of  
absolute reason4#bi ,it  is this which  
originally gave to the natural          
philosophy of the ,germans  a false     
,pantheistic direction1 for the real    
materialism which has  found so many    
advocates among the ,french             
,naturalists1 has from the  very ideal  
tendency of the ,german mind1           
experienced little favour in  ,germany4 
,yet this foreign influence was not of  
long continuance--,german  physics      
became deeply imbued with a religious   
spirit1 and the ,german  natural        
philosophy is now in the hands of its   
first representatives  decidedly        
,christian4 ,and this progress in the   

great work of the  religious            
regeneration of science1 ,i must        
consider as the noblest  triumph of     
genius1 for it is precisely in the      
department of physics  the problem was  
the most difficult2 and all that rich   
and boundless  treasure of new          
discoveries in nature1 which are ever   
better  understood when viewed in       
connection with the high truths of      
religion1  must be looked upon as the   
property of ,christian science4 ,the    
various  systems of philosophic         
,rationalism1 mutually subversive1 as   
they are1  of each other1 will fall to  
the ground1 and the vulgar ,rationalism 
which is but an emanation of the higher1
 and which still prevails in  some      
particular schools1 and in many of the  
lower walks of ,german  literature1 will
 finally disappear2 in proportion as    
,german philosophy  becomes imbued with 
the spirit of religion1 and ,german     
science becomes  thoroughly ,christian1 
or ,catholic4 ,in the firm hope that    

this will  certainly happen1 ,i have    
given publicity to these first essays of
 a  philosophy ,i had long in secret    
prepared2 and of which the first part1  
the ,philosophy of ,life1 treats of     
consciousness1 or of the inward  man3   
the second1 this ,philosophy of         
,history1 which ,i now have here        
brought to a close1 considers the       
outward man1 or the progress of  states 
and nations through all ages of the     
world4    ,that in this progress of     
mankind1 a divine ,hand and conducting  
,providence are clearly discernible2    
that earthly and visible power has  not 
alone co-operated in this progress1 and 
in the opposition which  has impeded it2
 but that the struggle has been in part 
carried on  under divine1 and against   
invisible might2--is a truth1 ,i trust1 
which  if not proved to mathematical    
evidence1 7an evidence here neither     
appropriate nor applicable71 has still  
been substantiated on firm and  solid   
grounds4 ,we may conclude our work1 by a

 retrospective view of  society1        
considered in reference to that         
invisible world and higher  region1 from
 which the operations of this visible   
world proceed1 in  which its great      
destinies have their root1 and which is 
the ultimate  and highest term of all   
its movements4    ,christianity is the  
emancipation of the human race from the 
bondage of  that inimical spirit1 who   
denies ,god1 and1 as far as in him lies1
  leads all created intelligences       
astray4 ,hence the ,scripture styles    
him1 the ,prince of this world2 and so  
he was in fact1 but in ancient  history 
only1 when among all the nations of the 
earth1 and amid the  pomp of martial    
glory1 and the splendour of ,pagan life1
 he had  established the throne of his  
domination4 ,since this divine era in   
the  history of man1 since the          
commencement of his emancipation in     
modern  times1 this spirit can no longer
 be called the prince of this world1    
but the spirit of time1 the spirit      

opposed to divine influence1  and to the
 ,christian religion1 apparent in those 
who consider and  estimate time and all 
things temporal1 not by the law and     
feeling of  eternity1 but for temporal  
interests or from temporal motives1     
change1  or undervalue1 and forget the  
thoughts and faith of eternity4    ,in  
the first ages of the ,christian church1
 this spirit of time  appeared as a     
beguiling sectarian spirit4 ,this spirit
 obtained its  highest triumph in the   
new and false faith of a fanatic        
,unitarianism1  utterly opposed to the  
religion of love1 and which severed from
  ,christianity so large a portion of   
the ,eastern church1 and whole  regions 
of ,asia4 ,in the middle ages this      
spirit displayed itself1 not  so much in
 hostile sects1 as in scholastic        
disputes1 in divisions  between church  
and state1 and in the internal disorders
 of both4 ,at  the commencement of the  
new era of the world1 the spirit of time
  claimed as an urgent want of mankind1 

full freedom of faith2 a claim  of which
 the immediate consequence was only a   
bloody warfare1 and a  fatal struggle of
 life and death protracted beyond a     
century4 ,when  this struggle was       
terminated1 or rather appeased1 it was  
succeeded by  an utter indifference for 
all religions1 provided only their      
morality  were good2 and the spirit of  
time proclaimed religious               
indifferentism1  as the order of the    
day4 ,this apparent calm was followed by
 the  revolutionary tempest1 and now    
that this has passed away1 the spirit   
of time has in our days become          
absolute--that is to say1 it has        
perverted reason to party--passion1 or  
exalted passion1 to the place  of       
reason2 and this is the existing form   
and last metamorphosis of the  old evil 
spirit of time4    ,turning now to that 
,divine aid which has supported mankind 
in their  ever-enduring struggle against
 their own infirmities1 against all the 
obstacles of nature1 and natural        

circumstances1 and against the          
opposition of the evil spirit2 ,i have  
endeavoured to shew1 that in the  first 
thousand years of ,primitive ,history1  
,divine ,revelation1 although  preserved
 in its native purity but in the one    
original source1 still  flowed in       
copious streams through the religious   
traditions of the  other great nations  
of that pristine epoch2 and that        
troubled as the  current might be by the
 admixture of many errors1 yet was it   
easy to  trace it in the midst of this  
slime and pollution1 to its pure and    
sacred source4 ,and with such a belief  
must commence every religious  view of  
universal history4 ,and it is only with 
this religious belief1  and perception  
of the traces of divine revelation1 we  
can rightly  comprehend and judge this  
primitive epoch of history4 ,we shall   
prize  with deeper1 more earnest1 and   
more solid affection1 the great and     
divine era of man's redemption and      
emancipation 7occurring as it does  in  

the middle-point of human history71 the 
more accurately we  discriminate between
 what is essentially divine and         
unchangeably  eternal in this revelation
 of love1 and the elements of           
destruction  which man has opposed      
thereto1 or intermingled therewith4 ,and
 it is  only in the spirit of love1 the 
history of ,christian times can be      
rightly understood and accurately       
judged4 ,in later ages1 when the  spirit
 of discord has triumphed over love1    
historical hope is our only  remaining  
clue in the labyrinth of history4 ,it is
 only with sentiments  of grateful      
admiration1 of amazement1 and awe1 we   
trace in the special  dispensations of  
providence1 for the advancement of      
,christianity and  the progress of      
modern society1 the wonderful           
concurrence of events  towards the      
single object of divine love1 or the    
unexpected exercise  of divine justice  
long delayed2 such as ,i have in the    
proper places  endeavoured to point out4

 ,with this faith in ,primitive         
,revelation1 and  in the glorious       
consummation of ,christian love1 ,i     
cannot better  conclude this ,philosophy
 of ,history1 than with the religious   
hope ,i  have more than once expressed1 
and which is more particularly          
applicable to these times--the dawn of  
an approaching era3--that by  the       
thorough religious regeneration of the  
state1 and of science1 the  cause of    
,god and ,christianity may obtain a     
complete triumph on the  earth4         
#bj ,what a melancholy foreboding is    
contained in these       words6--,trans4
         #ba ,austria4         #bb      
,prussia4         #bc ,schlegel here    
conveys an indirect censure on the      
,prussian government1 for some acts of  
an intolerant       nature towards its  
,catholic subjects4--,trans4         #bd
 ,this was spoken exactly two years     
before the       ,french ,revolution of 
,july1 #ahcj4--,trans4         #be      
,austria4         #bf ,france4          

#bg ,schlegel alludes to the philosophy 
of ,fichte1       which was an ideal    
subjective ,pantheism4         #bh ,the 
author here alludes to the philosophy of
       ,schelling1 which was more a     
material and objective       ,pantheism1
 not unlike the system of ,spinoza4     
#bi ,this last expression contains1 ,i  
believe1 an       allusion to the       
philosophy of ,hegel4--,trans4          
,,finis4                                
,b4 ,,bensley1 ,,printer4               
,transcriber's ,note3    ,footnotes were
 renumbered sequentially and moved to   
the end  of the lecture in which the    
related anchor appears4 ,words in       
italics are surrounded by underscores1  
like this4    ,the items listed below   
were considered printer's errors and    
were  corrected as noted4 ,obsolete and 
archaic words and other spelling  errors
 were not changed4      ,unprinted      
periods were added at end of sentences  
and abbreviations4    deleted duplicate 
'being' 444 hope of being able 444      

',seuvi' to ',suevi' 444 those of the   
,suevi and the ,saxons1444    'vegetion'
 to 'vegetation' 444 and blooming       
vegetation spread 444    ',asyrian' to  
',assyrian' 444 the ,assyrian ,venus 444
    'decended' to 'descended' 444 light 
had descended 444    capitalized        
',latin' 444 barbarous ,latin1444       
'and' to 'a' 444 firmly to establish a  
new model society 444    moved comma    
inside close parenthesis 444 of         
despotism17 will 444    'goverment' to  
'government' 444 the ,christian         
government 444    two instances of      
',charlemange' to ',charlemagne'        
'constition' to 'constitution'          
444peculiar nature and constitution 444 
'aud' to 'and' 444 and so active was    
their 444    ',christain' to            
',christian' 444 manners and ,christian 
institutions2444    removed hyphen from 
'party-strife' 444 a watch-word for     
party strife 444    'ecclesiastal' to   
ecclesiastical' 444 ecclesiastical      
excommunication 444    'althongh' to    

'although' 444 although that            
idolatry1444    'inteterests' to        
'interests' 444 complication of the     
interests 444    'harmouy' to 'harmony' 
444 aimed at this harmony between 444   
,footnote #f1 added open quote to       
beginning of second paragraph4          
capitalized ',systema' 444 ,systema     
,theologicum of ,leibnitz1444