,transcriber's ,note3 ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,for more transcriber's notes1 please go to the end of this e-book4 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,a ,,primitive ,,rite ,,and ,,its ,,bearings ,,on ,,scripture ,,by ,h4 ,,clay ,,trumbull ,d4,d4 ,author of 8,kadesh ,barnea40 ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #ahhe ,,copyright1 #ahhe ,,by ,h4 ,,clay ,,trumbull ,,grant ,,faires ,,philadelphia ,,preface4 ,it was while engaged in the preparation of a book--still unfinished--on the ,sway of ,friendship in the ,world's ,forces1 that ,i came upon facts concerning the primitive rite of covenanting by the inter-transfusion of blood1 which induced me to turn aside from my other studies1 in order to pursue investigations in this direction4 ,having an engagement to deliver a series of lectures before the ,summer ,school of ,hebrew1 under ,professor ,w4 ,r4 ,harper1 of ,chicago1 at the buildings of the ,episcopal ,divinity ,school1 in ,philadelphia1 ,i decided to make this rite and its linkings the theme of that series2 and ,i delivered three lectures1 accordingly1 ,june #af-ah1 #ahhe4 ,the interest manifested in the subject by those who heard the ,lectures1 as well as the importance of the theme itself1 has seemed sufficient to warrant its presentation to a larger public4 ,in this publishing1 the form of the original ,lectures has1 for convenience sake1 been adhered to2 although some considerable additions to the text1 in the way of illustrative facts1 have been made1 since the delivery of the ,lectures2 while other similar material is given in an ,appendix4 ,from the very freshness of the subject itself1 there was added difficulty in gathering the material for its illustration and exposition4 ,so far as ,i could learn1 no one had gone over the ground before me1 in this particular line of research2 hence the various items essential to a fair statement of the case must be searched for through many diverse volumes of travel and of history and of archological compilation1 with only here and there an incidental disclosure in return4 ,yet1 each new discovery opened the way for other discoveries beyond2 and even after the ,lectures1 in their present form1 were already in type1 ,i gained many fresh facts1 which ,i wish had been earlier available to me4 ,indeed1 ,i may say that no portion of the volume is of more importance than the ,appendix2 where are added facts and reasonings bearing directly on well-nigh every main point of the original ,lectures4 ,there is cause for just surprise that the chief facts of this entire subject have been so generally overlooked1 in all the theological discussions1 and in all the physio-sociological researches1 of the earlier and the later times4 ,yet this only furnishes another illustration of the inevitably cramping influence of a pre-conceived fixed theory1--to which all the ascertained facts must be conformed1--in any attempt at thorough and impartial scientific investigation4 ,it would seem to be because of such cramping1 that no one of the modern students of myth and folk-lore1 of primitive ideas and customs1 and of man's origin and history1 has brought into their true prominence1 if indeed he has even noticed them in passing1 the universally dominating primitive convictions3 that the blood is the life2 that the heart1 as the blood-fountain1 is the very soul of every personality2 that blood-transfer is soul-transfer2 that blood-sharing1 human1 or divine-human1 secures an inter-union of natures2 and that a union of the human nature with the divine is the highest ultimate attainment reached out after by the most primitive1 as well as by the most enlightened1 mind of humanity4 ,certainly1 the collation of facts comprised in this volume grew out of no pre-conceived theory on the part of its author4 ,whatever theory shows itself in their present arrangement1 is simply that which the facts themselves have seemed to enforce and establish1 in their consecutive disclosure4 ,i should have been glad to take much more time for the study of this theme1 and for the re-arranging of its material1 before its presentation to the public2 but1 with the pressure of other work upon me1 the choice was between hurrying it out in its present shape1 and postponing it indefinitely4 ,all things considered1 ,i chose the former alternative4 ,in the prosecution of my investigations1 ,i acknowledge kindly aid from ,professor ,dr4 ,georg ,ebers1 ,principal ,sir ,william ,muir1 ,dr4 ,yung ,wing1 ,dean ,e4 ,t4 ,bartlett1 ,professors ,doctors ,john ,p4 ,peters and ,j4 ,g4 ,lansing1 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,m4 ,h4 ,bixby1 ,drs4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton and ,charles ,w4 ,dulles1 the ,rev4 ,messrs4 ,r4 ,m4 ,luther and ,chester ,holcombe1 and ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,barber2 in addition to constant and valuable assistance from ,mr4 ,john ,t4 ,napier1 to whom ,i am particularly indebted for the philological comparisons in the ,oriental field1 including the ,egyptian1 the ,arabic1 and the ,hebrew4 ,at the best1 my work in this volume is only tentative and suggestive4 ,its chief value is likely to be in its stimulating of others to fuller and more satisfactory research in the field here brought to notice4 ,sufficient1 however1 is certainly shown1 to indicate that the realm of true ,biblical theology is as yet by no means thoroughly explored4 ,h4 ,,clay ,,trumbull4 ,,philadelphia1 ,august #ad1 #ahhe4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,preface iii ,,lecture ,i4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,rite ,,itself4 7#a47 ,,sources ,,of ,,bible ,,study1 #c4 7#b47 ,,an ,,ancient ,,semitic ,,rite1 #d4 7#c47 ,,the ,,primitive ,,rite ,,in ,,africa1 #ab4 7#d47 ,,traces ,,of ,,the ,,rite ,,in ,,europe1 #ci4 7#e47 ,,world-,,wide ,,sweep ,,of ,,the ,,rite1 #dc4 7#f47 ,,light ,,from ,,the ,,classics1 #eh4 7#g47 ,,the ,,bond ,,of ,,the ,,covenant1 #fe4 7#h47 ,,the ,,rite ,,and ,,its ,,token ,,in ,,egypt1 #gg4 7#i47 ,,other ,,gleams ,,of ,,the ,,rite1 #he4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,suggestions ,,and ,,perversions ,,of ,,the ,,rite4 7#a47 ,,sacredness ,,of ,,blood ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,heart1 #ii4 7#b47 ,,vivifying ,,power ,,of ,,blood1 #aaj4 7#c47 ,a ,,new ,,nature ,,through ,,new ,,blood1 #abf4 7#d47 ,,life ,,from ,,any ,,blood1 ,,and ,,by ,a ,,touch1 #acd4 7#e47 ,,inspiration ,,through ,,blood1 #aci4 7#f47 ,,inter-,,communion ,,through ,,blood1 #adg4 7#g47 ,,symbolic ,,substitutes ,,for ,,blood1 #aia4 7#h47 ,,blood ,,covenant ,,involvings1 #bjb4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,indications ,,of ,,the ,,rite ,,in ,,the ,,bible4 7#a47 ,,limitations ,,of ,,inquiry1 #bji4 7#b47 ,,primitive ,,teachings ,,of ,,blood1 #baj4 7#c47 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,in ,,circumcision1 #bae4 7#d47 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,tested1 #bbd4 7#e47 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,and ,,its ,,tokens ,,in ,,the ,,passover1 #bcj4 7#f47 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,at ,,sinai1 #bch4 7#g47 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,in ,,the ,,mosaic ,,ritual1 #bdj4 7#h47 ,,the ,,primitive ,,rite ,,illustrated1 #bfc4 7#i47 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,in ,,the ,,gospels1 #bga4 7#aj47 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,applied1 #bhf4 ,,appendix4 ,,importance ,,of ,,this ,,rite ,,strangely ,,undervalued1 #big4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,blood1 ,,in ,,the ,,heart1 ,,in ,,the ,,liver1 #bii4 ,,transmigration ,,of ,,souls1 #caj4 ,,the ,,blood-,,rite ,,in ,,burmah1 #cac4 ,,blood-,,stained ,,tree ,,of ,,the ,,covenant1 #caf4 ,,blood-,,drinking1 #cbj4 ,,covenant-,,cutting1 #cbb4 ,,blood-,,bathing1 #cbd4 ,,blood-,,ransoming1 #cbd4 ,,the ,,covenant-,,reminder1 #cbf4 ,,hints ,,of ,,blood ,,union1 #ccb4 ,,indexes4 ,,topical ,,index1 #cde4 ,,scriptural ,,index1 #cdi4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,rite ,,itself4 ,i4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,rite ,,itself4 #a4 ,,sources ,,of ,,bible ,,study4 ,those who are most familiar with the ,bible1 and who have already given most time to its study1 have largest desire and largest expectation of more knowledge through its farther study4 ,and1 more and more1 ,bible study has come to include very much that is outside of the ,bible4 ,for a long time1 the outside study of the ,bible was directed chiefly to the languages in which the ,bible was written1 and to the archology and the manners and customs of what are commonly known as the ,lands of the ,bible4 ,nor are these well-worked fields1 by any means1 yet exhausted4 ,more still remains to be gleaned from them1 each and all1 than has been gathered thence by all searchers in their varied lore4 ,but1 latterly1 it has been realized1 that1 while the ,bible is an ,oriental book1 written primarily for ,orientals1 and therefore to be understood only through an understanding of ,oriental modes of thought and speech1 it is also a record of ,god's revelation to the whole human race2 hence1 its inspired pages are to receive illumination from all disclosures of the primitive characteristics and customs of that race1 everywhere4 ,not alone those who insist on the belief that there was a gradual development of the race from a barbarous beginning1 but those also who believe that man started on a higher plane1 and in his degradation retained perverted vestiges of ,god's original revelation to him1 are finding profit in the study of primitive myths1 and of aboriginal religious rites and ceremonies1 all the world over4 ,here1 also1 what has been already gained1 is but an earnest of what will yet be compassed in the realm of truest biblical research4 #b4 ,,an ,,ancient ,,semitic ,,rite4 ,one of these primitive rites1 which is deserving of more attention than it has yet received1 as throwing light on many important phases of ,bible teaching1 is the rite of blood-covenanting3 a form of mutual covenanting1 by which two persons enter into the closest1 the most enduring1 and the most sacred of compacts1 as friends and brothers1 or as more than brothers1 through the inter-commingling of their blood1 by means of its mutual tasting1 or of its inter-transfusion4 ,this rite is still observed in the unchanging ,east2 and there are historic traces of it1 from time immemorial1 in every quarter of the globe2 yet it has been strangely overlooked by biblical critics and biblical commentators generally1 in these later centuries4 ,in bringing this rite of the covenant of blood into new prominence1 it may be well for me to tell of it as it was described to me by an intelligent native ,syrian1 who saw it consummated in a village at the base of the mountains of ,lebanon2 and then to add evidences of its wide-spread existence in the ,east and elsewhere1 in earlier and in later times4 ,it was two young men1 who were to enter into this covenant4 ,they had known each other1 and had been intimate1 for years2 but now they were to become brother-friends1 in the covenant of blood4 ,their relatives and neighbors were called together1 in the open place before the village fountain1 to witness the sealing compact4 ,the young men publicly announced their purpose1 and their reasons for it4 ,their declarations were written down1 in duplicate1--one paper for each friend1--and signed by themselves and by several witnesses4 ,one of the friends took a sharp lancet1 and opened a vein in the other's arm4 ,into the opening thus made1 he inserted a quill1 through which he sucked the living blood4 ,the lancet-blade was carefully wiped on one of the duplicate covenant-papers1 and then it was taken by the other friend1 who made a like incision in its first user's arm1 and drank his blood through the quill1 wiping the blade on the duplicate covenant-record4 ,the two friends declared together3 8,we are brothers in a covenant made before ,god3 who deceiveth the other1 him will ,god deceive40 ,each blood-marked covenant-record1 was then folded carefully1 to be sewed up in a small leathern case1 or amulet1 about an inch square2 to be worn thenceforward by one of the covenant-brothers1 suspended about the neck1 or bound upon the arm1 in token of the indissoluble relation4 ,the compact thus made1 is called1 ,m'hadat ed-,dam 7 71 the 8,covenant of ,blood40 ,the two persons thus conjoined1 are1 ,akhwat el-,m'hadah 7 71 8,brothers of the ,covenant40 ,the rite itself is recognized1 in ,syria1 as one of the very old customs of the land1 as 'dah qadeemeh 7 7 8a primitive rite40 ,there are many forms of covenanting in ,syria1 but this is the extremest and most sacred of them all4 ,as it is the inter-commingling of very lives1 nothing can transcend it4 ,it forms a tie1 or a union1 which cannot be dissolved4 ,in marriage1 divorce is a possibility3 not so in the covenant of blood4 ,although now comparatively rare1 in view of its responsibilities and of its indissolubleness1 this covenant is sometimes entered into by confidential partners in business1 or by fellow-travelers2 again1 by robbers on the road--who would themselves rest fearlessly on its obligations1 and who could be rested on within its limits1 however untrustworthy they or their fellows might be to any other compact4 ,yet1 again1 it is the chosen compact of loving friends2 of those who are drawn to it only by mutual love and trust4 ,this covenant is commonly between two persons of the same religion--,muhammadans1 ,druzes1 or ,nazarenes2 yet it has been known between two persons of different religions2#a and in such a case it would be held as a closer tie than that of birth#b or sect4 ,he who has entered into this compact with another1 counts himself the possessor of a double life2 for his friend1 whose blood he has shared1 is ready to lay down his life with him1 or for him4#c ,hence the leathern case1 or ,bayt hejb 7 7 8,house of the amulet10#d containing the record of the covenant 7'uhdah1 71 is counted a proud badge of honor1 by one who possesses it2 and he has an added sense of security1 because he will not be alone when he falleth4#e ,i have received personal testimony from native ,syrians1 concerning the observance of this rite in ,damascus1 in ,aleppo1 in ,hsbayya1 in ,abayh1 along the road between ,tyre and ,sidon1 and among the ,koords resident in ,salehayyah4 ,all the ,syrians who have been my informants1 are at one concerning the traditional extreme antiquity of this rite1 and its exceptional force and sacredness4 ,in view of the ,oriental method of evidencing the closest possible affection and confidence1 by the sucking of the loved one's blood1 there would seem to be more than a coincidence in the fact1 that the ,arabic words for friendship1 for affection1 for blood1 and for leech1 or blood-sucker1 are but variations from a common root4#f ',alaqa 77 means 8to love10 8to adhere10 8to feed40 ',alaq 771 in the singular1 means 8love10 8friendship10 8attachment10 8blood40 ,as the plural of 'alaqa 771 'alaq means 8leeches10 or 8blood-suckers40 ,the truest friend clings like a leech1 and draws blood in order to the sharing thereby of his friend's life and nature4 ,a native ,syrian1 who had traveled extensively in the ,east1 and who was familiar with the covenant of blood in its more common form1 as already described1 told me of a practice somewhat akin to it1 whereby a bandit-chieftain would pledge his men to implicit and unqualified1 life-surrendering fidelity to himself2 or1 whereby a conspirator against the government would bind1 in advance1 to his plans1 his fellow conspirators1--by a ceremony known as ,sharb el-'ahd 7 7 8,drinking the covenant40 ,the methods of such covenanting are various2 but they are all of the nature of tests of obedience and of endurance4 ,they sometimes include licking a heated iron with the tongue1 or gashing the tongue1 or swallowing pounded glass or other dangerous potions2 but1 in all cases1 the idea seems to be1 that the life of the one covenanting is1 by this covenant1 devoted--surrendered as it were--to the one with whom he covenants2 and the rite is uniformly accompanied with a solemn and an imprecatory appeal to ,god1 as witnessing and guarding the compact4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wetzstein1 a ,german scholar1 diplomat1 and traveler1 who has given much study to the peoples east of the ,jordan1 makes reference to the binding force and the profound obligation of the covenants of brotherhood1 in that portion of the ,east2 although he gives no description of the methods of the covenant-rite4 ,speaking of two ,bedween--,habbs and ,hosayn--who had been 8brothered0 7verbrdert71 he explains by saying3 8,we must by this term understand the ,covenant of ,brotherhood#g 7,chuwwat el-,ahd 71 which is in use to-day not only among the ,hadari the ,villagers1 but also among the ,bedween2 and is indeed of pre-,muhammadan origin4 ,the brother in such a covenant must guard the other brother from treachery1 and must succor him in peril4 ,so far as may be necessary1 the one must provide for the wants of the other2 and the survivor has weighty obligations in behalf of the family of the one deceased40 ,then1 as showing how completely the idea of a common life in the lives of two friends thus covenanted--if1 indeed1 they have become sharers of the same blood--sways the ,oriental mind1 ,wetzstein adds3 8,the marriage of a man and woman between whom this covenant exists1 is held to be incest40#h ,there are1 indeed1 various evidences that the tie of blood-covenanting is reckoned1 in the ,east1 even a closer tie than that of natural descent2 that a 8friend0 by this tie is nearer and is dearer1 8sticketh closer10 than a 8brother0 by birth4 ,we1 in the ,west1 are accustomed to say1 that 8blood is thicker than water02 but the ,arabs have the idea that blood is thicker than milk1 than a mother's milk4 ,with them1 any two children nourished at the same breast are called 8milk-brothers10#i or 8sucking brothers02#aj and the tie between such is very strong4 ,a boy and a girl in this relation cannot marry1 even though by birth they had no family relationship4 ,among even the more bigoted of the ,druzes1 a ,druze girl who is a 8sucking sister0 of a ,nazarene boy is allowed a sister's privileges with him4 ,he can see her uncovered face1 even to the time of her marriage4 ,but1 the ,arabs hold that brothers in the covenant of blood are closer than brothers at a common breast2 that those who have tasted each other's blood are in a surer covenant than those who have tasted the same milk together2 that 8blood-lickers10#aa as the blood-brothers are sometimes called1 are more truly one1 than 8milk-brothers10 or 8sucking brothers02 that1 indeed1 blood is thicker than milk1 as well as thicker than water4 ,this distinction it is which seems to be referred to in a citation from the ,arabic poet ,el-,a'asha1 by the ,arabic lexicographer ,qamus1 which has been a puzzle to ,lane1 and ,freytag1 and others4#ab ,lane's translation of the passage is3 8,two foster-brothers by the sucking of the breast of one mother1 swore together by dark blood1 into which they dipped their hands1 that they should not ever become separated40 ,in other words1 two milk-brothers became blood-brothers1 by interlocking their hands under their own blood1 in the covenant of blood-friendship4 ,they had been closely inter-linked before2 now they were as one2 for blood is thicker than milk4 ,the oneness of nature which comes of sharing the same blood1 by its inter-transfusion1 is rightly deemed1 by the ,arabs1 completer than the oneness of nature which comes of sharing the same milk2 or even than that which comes through having blood from a common source1 by natural descent4 #c4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,rite ,,in ,,africa4 ,travelers in the heart of ,africa1 also1 report the covenant of 8blood-brotherhood10 or of 8strong-friendship10 as in vogue among various ,african tribes2 although1 naturally retaining less of primitive sacredness there than among ,semites4 ,the rite is1 in some cases1 observed after the manner of the ,syrians1 by the contracting parties tasting each other's blood2 while1 in other cases1 it is performed by the inter-transfusion of blood between the two4 ,the first mention which ,i find of it1 in the writings of modern travelers in ,africa1 is by the lamented hero-missionary1 ,dr4 ,livingstone4 ,he calls the rite ,kasendi4 ,it was in the region of ,lake ,dilolo1 at the watershed between the ,indian ,ocean and the ,atlantic1 in ,july1 #ahed1 that he made blood-friendship1 vicariously1 with ,queen ,manenko1 of the ,balonda tribes4#ac ,she was represented1 in this ceremony1 by her husband1 the ebony 8,prince ,consort02 while ,livingstone's representative was one of his ,makololo attendants4 ,woman's right to rule--when she has the right--seems to be as clearly recognized in ,central ,africa1 to-day1 as it was in ,ethiopia in the days of ,candace1 or in ,sheba in the days of ,balkees4 ,describing the ceremony1 ,livingstone says3#ad 8,it is accomplished thus3 ,the hands of the parties are joined 7in this case ,pitsane and ,sambanza were the parties engaged74 ,small incisions are made on the clasped hands1 on the pits of the stomach of each1 and on the right cheeks and foreheads4 ,a small quantity of blood is taken off from these points1 in both parties1 by means of a stalk of grass4 ,the blood from one person is put into a pot of beer1 and that of the second into another2 each then drinks the other's blood1 and they are supposed to become perpetual friends1 or relations4 ,during the drinking of the beer1 some of the party continue beating the ground with short clubs1 and utter sentences by way of ratifying the treaty4 ,the men belonging to each principal's party1 then finish the beer4 ,the principals in the performance of #8,kasendi' are henceforth considered blood-relations1 and are bound to disclose to each other any impending evil4 ,if ,sekeletu chief of ,pitsane's tribe--the ,makololo-- should resolve to attack the ,balonda ,sambanza's--or1 more properly1 ,manenko's--people1 ,pitsane would be under obligation to give ,sambanza warning to escape2 and so1 on the other side4 ,the ceremony concluded in this case they now presented each other with the most valuable presents they had to bestow4 ,sambanza walked off with ,pitsane's suit of green baize faced with red1 which had been made in ,loanda2 and ,pitsane1 besides abundant supplies of food1 obtained two shells of as great value1 in regions far from the sea1 #8as the ,lord ,mayor's badge is in ,london1' similar to that one1 which ,i had received from ,shinte the uncle of ,manenko40#ae ,of the binding force of this covenant1 ,livingstone says farther3 8,on one occasion ,i became blood-relation to a young woman by accident4 ,she had a large cartilaginous tumor between the bones of the forearm1 which as it gradually enlarged1 so distended the muscles as to render her unable to work4 ,she applied to me to excise it4 ,i requested her to bring her husband1 if he were willing to have the operation performed2 and while removing the tumor1 one of the small arteries squirted some blood into my eye4 ,she remarked1 when ,i was wiping the blood out of it1 #8,you were a friend before2 now you are a blood-relation2 and when you pass this way always send me word1 that ,i may cook food for you4'0#af ,of the influence of these inter-tribal blood-friendships1 in ,central ,africa1 ,dr4 ,livingstone speaks most favorably4 ,their primitive character is made the more probable1 in view of the fact that he first found them existing in a region where1 in his opinion1 the dress and household utensils of the people are identical with those which are represented on the monuments of ancient ,egypt4#ag ,although it is within our own generation that this mode of covenanting in the region referred to1 has been made familiar to us1 the rite itself is of old1 elsewhere if not1 indeed1 there2 as other travelers following in the track of ,livingstone have noted and reported4 ,commander ,cameron1 who1 while in charge of the ,livingstone ,search ,expedition1 was the first ,european traveler to cross the whole breadth of the ,african continent in its central latitudes1 gives several illustrations of the observance of this rite4 ,in ,june1 #ahgd1 at the westward of ,lake ,tanganyika1 ,syde1 a guide of ,cameron1 entered into this covenant of blood with ,pakwanya1 a local chief4 8,after a certain amount of palaver10 says ,cameron1 8,syde and ,pakwanya exchanged presents1 much to the advantage of the former for in the ,east1 the person of higher rank is supposed to give the more costly gifts in any such exchange2 more especially in this case as he ,syde borrowed the beads of me and afterward forgot to repay me4 ,pakwanya then performed a tune on his harmonium1 or whatever the instrument which he had might be called1 and the business of fraternizing was proceeded with4 ,pakwanya's head man acted as his sponsor1 and one of my askari assumed the like office for ,syde4 8,the first operation consisted of making an incision on each of their right wrists1 just sufficient to draw blood2 a little of which was scraped off and smeared on the other's cut2 after which gunpowder was rubbed in thereby securing a permanent token on the arm4 ,the concluding part of the ceremony was performed by ,pakwanya's sponsor holding a sword resting on his shoulder1 while he who acted as sponsor for ,syde went through the motions of sharpening a knife upon it4 ,both sponsors meanwhile made a speech1 calling down imprecations on ,pakwanya and all his relations1 past1 present1 and future1 and prayed that their graves might be defiled by pigs if he broke the brotherhood in word1 thought1 or deed4 ,the same form having been gone through with1 with respect to ,syde1 the sponsors changing duties1 the brother-making was complete40#ah ,concerning the origin of this rite1 in this region1 ,cameron says3 8,this custom of #8making brothers1' ,i believe to be really of ,semitic origin1 and to have been introduced into ,africa by the heathen ,arabs before the days of ,mohammed2 and this idea is strengthened by the fact that when the first traders from ,zanzibar crossed the ,tanganyika1 the ceremony was unknown so far as those traders knew to the westward of that lake40#ai ,cameron was1 of course1 unaware of the world-wide prevalence of this rite2 but his suggestion that its particular form just here had a ,semitic origin1 receives support in a peculiar difference noted between the ,asiatic and the ,african ceremonies4 ,it will be remembered1 that1 among the ,syrians1 the blood of the covenant is taken into the mouth1 and the record of the covenant is bound upon the arm4 ,the ,africans1 not fully appreciating the force of a written record1 are in the habit of reversing this order1 according to ,cameron's account4 ,describing the rite as observed between his men and the natives1 on the ,luama ,river1 he says3 8,the brotherhood business having been completed by putting the blood from one party on to the arm of the other1 some pen and ink marks were made on a piece of paper1 which1 together with a charge of powder1 was put into a kettleful of water4 ,all hands then drank of the decoction1 the natives being told that it was a very great medicine40#bj ,that was 8drinking the covenant0#ba with a vengeance2 nor is it difficult to see how this idea originated4 ,the gallant and adventurous ,henry ,m4 ,stanley also reports this rite of 8blood-brotherhood10 or of 8strong friendship10 in the story of his romantic experiences in the wilds of ,africa4 ,on numerous occasions the observance of this rite was a means of protection and relief to ,stanley4 ,one of its more notable illustrations was in his compact with 8,mirambo1 the warrior chief of ,western ,unyamwezi20#bb whose leadership in warfare ,stanley compares to that of both ,frederick the ,great#bc and ,napoleon4#bd ,it was during his first journey in pursuit of ,livingstone1 in #ahga1 that ,stanley first encountered the forces of ,mirambo1 and was worsted in the conflict4#be ,writing of him1 after his second expedition1 ,stanley describes ,mirambo1 as 8the #8,mars of ,africa1' who since #ahga has made his name feared by both native and foreigner from ,usui to ,urori1 and from ,uvinza to ,ugogo1 a country embracing #ij1jjj square miles2 who1 from the village chieftainship over ,uyoweh1 has made for himself a name as well known as that of ,mtesa throughout the eastern half of ,equatorial ,africa2 a household word from ,nyangw to ,zanzibar1 and the theme of many a song of the bards of ,unyamwezi1 ,ukimbu1 ,ukonongo1 ,uzinja1 and ,uvinza40#bf ,for a time1 during his second exploring expedition1 ,stanley was inclined to avoid ,mirambo1 but becoming 8impressed with his ubiquitous powers10#bg he decided to meet him1 and if possible make 8strong friendship0 with him4 ,they came together1 first1 at ,serombo1 ,april #bb1 #ahgf4 ,mirambo 8quite captivated0 ,stanley4 8,he was a thorough ,african gentleman in appearance4444 ,a handsome1 regular-featured1 mild-voiced1 soft-spoken man1 with what one might call a #8meek' demeanor2 very generous and open-handed20 his eyes having 8the steady1 calm gaze of a master40#bh ,the ,african hero and the heroic ,american agreed to 8make strong friendship0 with each other4 ,stanley thus describes the ceremony3 8,manwa ,sera ,stanley's #8chief captain' was requested to seal our friendship by performing the ceremony of blood-brotherhood between ,mirambo and myself4 ,having caused us to sit fronting each other on a straw-carpet1 he made an incision in each of our right legs1 from which he extracted blood1 and inter-changing it1 he exclaimed aloud3 #8,if either of you break this brotherhood now established between you1 may the lion devour him1 the serpent poison him1 bitterness be in his food1 his friends desert him1 his gun burst in his hands and wound him1 and everything that is bad do wrong to him until death4'0#bi ,the same blood now flowed in the veins of both ,stanley and ,mirambo4 ,they were friends and brothers in a sacred covenant2 life for life4 ,at the conclusion of the covenant1 they exchanged gifts2 as the customary ratification1 or accompaniment1 of the compact4 ,they even vied with each other in proofs of their unselfish fidelity1 in this new covenant of friendship4#cj ,again and again1 before and after this incident1 ,stanley entered into the covenant of blood-brotherhood with representative ,africans2 in some instances by the opening of his own veins2 at other times by allowing one of his personal escort to bleed for him4 ,in ,january1 #ahge1 a 8great magic doctor of ,vinyata0 came to ,stanley's tent to pay a friendly visit1 8bringing with him a fine1 fat ox as a peace offering40 ,after an exchange of gifts1 says ,stanley1 8he entreated me to go through the process of blood-brotherhood1 which ,i underwent with all the ceremonious gravity of a pagan40#ca ,three months later1 in ,april1 #ahge1 when ,stanley found himself and his party in the treacherous toils of ,shekka1 the ,king of ,bumbireh1 he made several vain attempts to 8induce ,shekka1 with gifts1 to go through the process of blood-brotherhood40 ,stanley's second captain1 ,safeni1 was the adroit1 but unsuccessful1 agent in the negotiations4 8,go frankly and smilingly1 ,safeni1 up to ,shekka1 on the top of that hill10 said ,stanley1 8and offer him these three fundo of beads1 and ask him to exchange blood with you40 ,but the wily king was not to be dissuaded from his warlike purposes in that way4 8,safeni returned4 ,shekka had refused the pledge of peace40#cb ,his desire was to take blood1 if at all1 without any exchange4 ,after still another three months1 in ,july1 #ahge1 ,stanley1 at ,refuge ,island1 reports better success in securing peace and friendship through blood-giving and blood-receiving4 8,through the influence of young ,lukanjah--the cousin of the ,king of ,ukerew0--he says1 8the natives of the mainland had been induced to exchange their churlish disposition for one of cordial welcome2 and the process of blood-brotherhood had been formally gone through with1 between ,manwa ,sera1 on my part1 and ,kijaju1 ,king of ,komeh1 and the ,king of ,itawagumba1 on the other part40#cc ,it was at 8,kampunzu1 in the district of ,uvinza1 where dwell the true aborigines of the forest country10--a people whom ,stanley afterwards found to be cannibals--that this rite was once more observed between the explorers and the natives4 8,blood-brotherhood being considered as a pledge of good-will and peace10 says ,stanley1 8,frank ,pocock a young ,englishman who was an attendant of ,stanley and the chief of ,kampunzu went through the ordeal2 and we interchanged presents0--as is the custom in the observance of this rite4#cd ,at the island of ,mpika1 on the ,livingstone ,river1 in ,december1 #ahgf1 there was another bright episode in ,stanley's course of travel1 through this mode of sealing friendship4 ,disease had been making sad havoc in ,stanley's party4 ,he had been compelled to fight his way along through a region of cannibals4 ,while he was halting for a breakfast on the river bank over against ,mpika1 an attack on him was preparing by the excited inhabitants of the island4 ,just then his scouts captured a native trading party of men and women who were returning to ,mpika1 from inland2 and to them his interpreters made clear his pacific intentions4 8,by means of these people10 he says1 8we succeeded in checking the warlike demonstrations of the islanders1 and in finally persuading them to make blood-brotherhood2 after which we invited canoes to come and receive these hostages their friends4 ,as they hesitated to do so1 we embarked them in our own boat1 and conveyed them across to the island4 ,the news then spread quickly along the whole length of the island that we were friends1 and as we resumed our journey1 crowds from the shore cried out to us1 #8,mwend ,ki-vuk-vuk' 7#8,go in peace6'70#ce ,once more it was at the conclusion of a bloody conflict1 in the district of ,vinya-,njara1 just below ,mpika ,island1 that peace was sealed by blood4 ,when practical victory was on ,stanley's side1 at the cost of four of his men killed1 and thirteen more of them wounded1 then he sought this means of amity4 8,with the aid of our interpreters10 he says1 8we communicated our terms1 viz41 that we would occupy ,vinya-,njara1 and retain all the canoes unless they made peace4 ,we also informed them that we had one prisoner1 who would be surrendered to them if they availed themselves of our offer of peace3 that we had suffered heavily1 and they had also suffered2 that war was an evil which wise men avoided2 that if they came with two canoes with their chiefs1 two canoes with our chiefs should meet them in mid-stream1 and make blood-brotherhood2 and that on that condition some of their canoes should be restored1 and we would purchase the rest40 ,the natives took time for the considering of this proposition1 and then accepted it4 8,on the #bbnd of ,december1 the ceremony of blood-brotherhood having been formally concluded1 in mid-river1 between ,safeni and the chief of ,vinya-,njara10 continues ,stanley1 8our captive1 and fifteen canoes1 were returned1 and twenty-three canoes were retained by us for a satisfactory equivalent2 and thus our desperate struggle terminated40#cf ,on the ,livingstone1 just below the ,equator1 in ,february1 #ahgg1 ,stanley's party was facing starvation1 having been for some time 8unable to purchase food1 or indeed to approach a settlement for any amicable purpose40 ,the explorers came to look at 8each other as fated victims of protracted famine1 or of the rage of savages1 like those of ,mangala40 8,we continued our journey10 goes on the record1 8though grievously hungry1 past ,bwena and ,inguba1 doing our utmost to induce the staring fishermen to communicate with us2 without any success4 ,they became at once officiously busy with guns1 and dangerously active4 ,we arrived at ,ikengo1 and as we were almost despairing1 we proceeded to a small island opposite this settlement1 and prepared to encamp4 ,soon a canoe with seven men came dashing across1 and we prepared our moneys for exhibition4 ,they unhesitatingly advanced1 and ran their canoe alongside of us4 ,we were rapturously joyful1 and returned them a most cordial welcome1 as the act was a most auspicious sign of confidence4 ,we were liberal1 and the natives fearlessly accepted our presents2 and from this giving of gifts we proceeded to seal this incipient friendship with our blood1 with all due ceremony40#cg ,and by this transfusion of blood1 the starving were re-vivified1 and the despairing were given hope4 ,twice1 again1 within a few weeks after this experience1 there was a call on ,stanley of blood for blood1 in friendship's compact4 ,the people of ,chumbiri welcomed the travelers4 8,they readily subscribed to all the requirements of friendship1 blood-brotherhood1 and an exchange of a few small gifts40#ch ,itsi1 the king of ,ntamo1 with several of his elders and a showy escort1 came out to meet ,stanley2 and there was a friendly greeting on both sides4 8,they then broached the subject of blood-brotherhood4 ,we were willing10 says ,stanley1 8but they wished to defer the ceremony until they had first shown their friendly feelings to us40 ,thereupon gifts were exchanged1 and the king indicated his preference for a 8big goat0 of ,stanley's1 as his benefaction--which1 after some parleying1 was transferred to him4 ,then came the covenant-rite4 8,the treaty with ,itsi10 says ,stanley1 8was exceedingly ceremonious1 and involved the exchange of charms4 ,itsi transferred to me for my protection through life1 a small gourdful of a curious powder1 which had rather a saline taste2 and ,i delivered over to him1 as the white man's charm against all evil1 a half-ounce vial of magnesia2 further1 a small scratch in ,frank's arm1 and another in ,itsi's arm1 supplied blood sufficient to unite us in one1 and by an indivisible bond of fraternity40#ci ,four years after this experience of blood-covenanting1 by proxy1 with young ,itsi1 ,stanley found himself again at ,ntamo1 or across the river from it2 this time in the interest of the ,international ,association of the ,congo4 ,being short of food1 he had sent out a party of foragers1 and was waiting their return with interest4 8,during the absence of the food-hunters10 he says1 8we heard the drums of ,ntamo1 and we followed with interested eyes the departure of two large canoes from the landing-place1 their ascent to the place opposite1 and their final crossing over towards us4 ,then we knew that ,ngalyema of ,ntamo had condescended to come and visit us4 ,as soon as he arrived ,i recognized him as the ,itsi with whom1 in #ahgg1 ,i had made blood-brotherhood by proxy4 ,during the four years that had elapsed1 he had become a great man4444 ,he was now about thirty-four years old1 of well-built form1 proud in his bearing1 covetous and grasping in disposition1 and1 like all other lawless barbarians1 prone to be cruel and sanguinary whenever he might safely vent his evil humor4 ,superstition had found in him an apt and docile pupil1 and fetishism held him as one of its most abject slaves4 ,this was the man in whose hands the destinies of the ,association ,internationale du ,congo were held1 and upon whose graciousness depended our only hope of being able to effect a peaceful lodgment on the ,upper ,congo40 ,a pagan ,african was an ,african pagan1 even while the blood-brother of a ,european ,christian4 ,yet1 the tie of blood-covenanting was the strongest tie known in ,central ,africa4 ,frank ,pocock1 whose covenant-blood flowed in ,itsi's veins1 was dead2#dj yet for his sake his master1 ,stanley1 was welcomed by ,itsi as a brother2 and in true ,eastern fashion he was invited to prove anew his continuing faith by a fresh series of love-showing gifts4 8,my brother being the supreme lord of ,ntamo1 as well as the deepest-voiced and most arrogant rogue among the whole tribe10 says ,stanley1 8first demanded the two asses which ,stanley had with him1 then a large mirror1 which was succeeded by a splendid gold-embroidered coat1 jewelry1 glass clasps1 long brass chains1 a figured table-cloth1 fifteen other pieces of fine cloth1 and a japanned tin box with a #8,chubb' lock4 ,finally1 gratified by such liberality1 ,ngalyema surrendered to me his sceptre1 which consisted of a long staff1 banded profusely with brass1 and decorated with coils of brass wire1 which was to be carried by me and shown to all men that ,i was the brother of ,ngalyema or1 ,itsi of ,ntamo60#da ,some time after this1 when trouble arose between ,stanley and ,ngalyema1 the former suggested that perhaps it would be better to cancel their brotherhood4 8#8,no1 no1 no1' cried ,ngalyema1 anxiously2 #8our brotherhood cannot be broken2 our blood is now one4'0 ,yet at this time ,stanley's brotherhood with ,ngalyema was only by the blood of his deceased retainer1 ,frank ,pocock4 ,more commonly1 the rite of blood-friendship among the ,african tribes seems to be by the inter-transfusion of blood2 but the ancient ,syrian method is by no means unknown on that continent4 ,stanley tells of one crisis of hunger1 among the cannibals of ,rubunga1 when the hostility of the natives on the river bank was averted by a shrewd display of proffered trinkets from the boats of the expedition4 8,we raised our anchor10 he says1 8and with two strokes of the oars had run our boat ashore2 and1 snatching a string or two of cowries or shell-money1 ,i sprang on land1 followed by the coxswain ,uledi1 and in a second ,i had seized the skinny hand of the old chief1 and was pressing it hard for joy4 ,warm-hearted ,uledi1 who the moment before was breathing furious hate of all savages1 and of the procrastinating old chief in particular1 embraced him with a filial warmth4 ,young ,saywa1 and ,murabo1 and ,shumari1 prompt as tinder upon all occasions1 grasped the lesser chiefs' hands1 and devoted themselves with smiles and jovial frank bearing to conquer the last remnants of savage sullenness1 and succeeded so well that1 in an incredible short time1 the blood-brotherhood ceremony between the suddenly formed friends was solemnly entered into1 and the irrevocable pact of peace and good will had been accomplished40#db ,apparently unaware of the method of the ancient ,semitic rite1 here found in a degraded form1 ,stanley seems surprised at the mutual tasting of blood between the contracting friends1 in this instance4 ,he says3 8,blood-brotherhood was a beastly cannibalistic ceremony with these people1 yet much sought after1--whether for the satisfaction of their thirst for blood1 or that it involved an interchange of gifts1 of which they must needs reap the most benefit4 ,after an incision was made in each arm1 both brothers bent their heads1 and the aborigine was observed to suck with the greatest fervor2 whether for love of blood or excess of friendship1 it would be difficult to say40#dc ,during his latest visit to ,africa1 in the ,congo region1 ,stanley had many another occasion to enter into the covenant of blood with native chiefs1 or to rest on that covenant as before consummated4 ,his every description of the rite itself has its value1 as illustrating the varying forms and the essential unity of the ceremony of blood-covenanting1 the world over4 ,a reference has already been made#dd to ,stanley's meeting1 on this expedition1 with ,ngalyema1 who1 under the name of ,itsi1 had entered into blood-brotherhood with ,frank ,pocock1 four years before4 ,that brotherhood by proxy had several severe strains1 in the progress of negotiations between ,stanley and ,ngalyema2 and after some eight months of these varying experiences1 it was urgently pressed on ,stanley by the chiefs of ,kintamo 7which is another name for ,ntamo71 that he should personally covenant by blood with ,ngalyema1 and so put an end to all danger of conflict between them4 ,to this ,stanley assented1 and the record of the transaction is given accordingly1 under date of ,april #i1 #ahhb3 8,brotherhood with ,ngalyema was performed4 ,we crossed arms2 an incision was made in each arm2 some salt was placed on the wound1 and then a mutual rubbing took place1 while the great fetish man of ,kintamo pronounced an inconceivable number of curses on my head if ever ,i proved false4 ,susi ,livingstone's head man1 now with ,stanley1 not to be outdone by him1 solicited the gods to visit unheard-of atrocious vengeances on ,ngalyema if he dared to make the slightest breach in the sacred brotherhood which made him and ,bula ,matari#de one and indivisible for ever40#df ,in ,june1 #ahhc1 ,stanley visited1 by invitation1 ,mangombo1 the chief of ,irebu1 on the ,upper ,congo1 and became his blood-brother4 ,describing his landing at this 8,venice of the ,congo10 he says3 8,mangombo1 with a curious long staff1 a fathom and a half in length1 having a small spade of brass at one end1 much resembling a baker's cake-spade1 stood in front4 ,he was a man probably sixty years old1 but active and by no means aged-looking1 and he waited to greet me4444 ,generally the first day of acquaintance with the ,congo river tribes is devoted to chatting1 sounding one another's principles1 and getting at one another's ideas4 ,the chief entertains his guest with gifts of food1 goats1 beer1 fish1 c42 then1 on the next day1 commences business and reciprocal exchange of gifts4 ,so it was at ,irebu4 ,mangombo gave four hairy thin-tailed sheep1 ten glorious bunches of bananas1 two great pots of beer1 and the usual accompaniments of small stores4 ,the next day we made blood-brotherhood4 ,the fetish-man pricked each of our right arms1 pressed the blood out2 then1 with a pinch of scrapings from my gun stock1 a little salt1 a few dusty scrapings from a long pod1 dropped over the wounded arms1 444 the black and white arms were mutually rubbed together for the inter-transfusion of the flowing blood4 ,the fetish-man took the long pod in his hand1 and slightly touched our necks1 our heads1 our arms1 and our legs1 muttering rapidly his litany of incantations4 ,what was left of the medicine ,mangombo and ,i carefully folded in a banana leaf ,was this the #8house of the amulet8'#dg1 and we bore it reverently between us to a banana grove close by1 and buried the dust out of sight4 ,mangombo1 now my brother1 by solemn interchange of blood1--consecrated to my service1 as ,i was devoted in the sacred fetish bond to his service1--revealed his trouble1 and implored my aid40#dh ,yet again1 ,stanley 8made friendship0 with the ,bakuti1 at ,wangata1 8after the customary forms of blood-brotherhood02#di similarly with two chiefs1 ,iuka and ,mungawa1 at ,lukolela2#ej with ,miyongo of ,usindi2#ea and with the chiefs of ,bolombo2#eb of ,yambinga1#ec of ,mokulu1#ed of ,irungu1#ee of ,upoto1#ef of ,uranga2#eg and so all along his course of travel4 ,one of the fullest and most picturesque of his descriptions of this rite1 is in connection with its observance with a son of the great chief of the ,bangala1 at ,iboko2 and the main details of that description are worthy of reproduction here4 ,the ,bangala1 or 8the ,ashantees of the ,livingstone ,river10 as ,stanley characterizes them1 are a strong and a superior people1 and they fought fiercely against ,stanley1 when he was passing their country in #ahgg4eh 8,the senior chief1 ,mata ,bwyki 7lord of many guns71 was now1 in ,october1 #ahhc1 an old grey-haired man10 says ,stanley1 8of ,herculean stature and breadth of shoulder1 with a large square face1 and an altogether massive head1 out of which his solitary eye seemed to glare with penetrative power4 ,i should judge him to be six feet1 two inches1 in height4 ,he had a strong1 sonorous voice1 which1 when lifted to speak to his tribe1 was heard clearly several hundred yards off4 ,he was now probably between seventy-five and eighty years old4444 ,he was not the tallest man1 nor the best looking1 nor the sweetest-dispositioned man1 ,i had met in all ,africa2 but if the completeness and perfection of the human figure1 combining size with strength1 and proportion of body1 limbs1 and head1 with an expression of power in the face1 be considered1 he must have been at one time the grandest type of physical manhood to be found in ,equatorial ,africa4 ,as he stood before us on this day1 we thought of him as an ancient ,milo1 an aged ,hercules1 an old ,samson--a really grand looking old man4 ,at his side were seven tall sons1 by different mothers1 and although they were stalwart men and boys1 the whitened crown of ,mata ,bwyki's head rose by a couple of inches above the highest head40 ,nearly two thousand persons assembled1 at ,iboko1 to witness the 8palaver0 that must precede a decision to enter into 8strong friendship40 ,at the place of meeting1 8mats of split rattan were spread in a large semicircle around a row of curved and box stools1 for the principal chiefs4 ,in the centre of the line1 opposite this1 was left a space for myself and people10 continues ,stanley4 8,we had first to undergo the process of steady and silent examination from nearly two thousand pairs of eyes4 ,then1 after ,yumbila1 the guide1 had detailed in his own manner1 who we were1 and what was our mission up the great river2 how we had built towns at many places1 and made blood-brotherhood with the chiefs of great districts1 such as ,irebu1 ,ukuti1 ,usindi1 ,ngomb1 ,lukolela1 ,bolobo1 ,mswata1 and ,kintamo1 he urged upon them the pleasure it would be to me to make a like compact1 sealed with blood1 with the great chiefs of populous ,iboko4 ,he pictured the benefits likely to accrue to ,iboko1 and ,mata ,bwyki in particular1 if a bond of brotherhood was made between two chiefs like ,mata ,bwyki and ,tandelay1 ,stanley1 or as he was known1 ,bula ,matari40 ,there was no prompt response to ,stanley's request for strong friendship with the ,bangala4 ,there were prejudices to be removed1 and old memories to be overborne2 and ,yumbila's eloquence and tact were put to their severest test1 in the endeavor to bring about a state of feeling that would make the covenant of blood a possibility here4 ,but the triumph was won4 8,a forked palm branch was brought10 says ,stanley4 8,kokoro1 the heir of ,mata ,bwyki1 came forward1 seized it1 and kneeled before me2 as1 drawing out his short falchion1 he cried1 #8,hold the other branch1 ,bula ,matari6' ,i obeyed him1 and lifting his hand he cleaved the branch in two4 #8,thus1' he said1 #8,i declare my wish to be your brother4' 8,then a fetish-man came forward with his lancets1 long pod1 pinch of salt1 and fresh green banana leaf4 ,he held the staff of ,kokoro's sword-bladed spear1 while one of my rifles was brought from the steamer4 ,the shaft of the spear and the stock of the rifle were then scraped on the leaf1 a pinch of salt was dropped on the wood1 and finally a little dust from the long pod was scraped on the curious mixture4 ,then1 our arms were crossed1--the white arm over the brown arm1--and an incision was made in each2 and over the blood was dropped a few grains of the dusty compound2 and the white arm was rubbed over the brown arm in the intermingling of blood40 8,now ,mata ,bwyki lifted his mighty form1 and with his long giant's staff drove back the compressed crowd1 clearing a wide circle1 and then roaring out in his most magnificent style1 leonine in its lung-force1 kingly in its effect3 #8,people of ,iboko6 ,you by the river side1 and you of inland4 ,men of the ,bangala1 listen to the words of ,mata ,bwyki4 ,you see ,tandelay before you4 ,his other name is ,bula ,matari4 ,he is the man with the many canoes1 and has brought back strange smoke-boats4 ,he has come to see ,mata ,bwyki4 ,he has asked ,mata ,bwyki to be his friend4 ,mata ,bwyki has taken him by the hand1 and has become his blood-brother4 ,tandelay belongs to ,iboko now4 ,he has become this day one of the ,bangala4 ,o1 ,iboko6 listen to the voice of ,mata ,bwyki4' 7,i thought they must have been incurably deaf1 not to have heard that voice74 #8,bula ,matari and ,mata ,bwyki are one to-day4 ,we have joined hands4 ,hurt not ,bula ,matari's people2 steal not from them2 offend them not4 ,bring food and sell to him at a fair price1 gently1 kindly1 and in peace2 for he is my brother4 ,hear you1 ye people of ,iboko--you by the river side1 and you of the interior8' 8#8,we hear1 ,mata ,bwyki6' shouted the multitude40#ei ,and the ceremony was ended4 ,a little later than this1 ,stanley1 or ,tandelay1 or ,bula ,matari1 as the natives called him1 was at ,bumba1 and there again he exchanged blood in friendship4 8,myombi1 the chief10 he says1 8was easily persuaded by ,yumbila to make blood-brotherhood with me2 and for the fiftieth time my poor arm was scarified1 and my blood shed for the cause of civilization4 ,probably one thousand people of both sexes looked on the scene1 wonderingly and strangely4 ,a young branch of a palm was cut1 twisted1 and a knot tied at each end2 the knots were dipped in wood ashes1 and then seized and held by each of us1 while the medicine-man practised his blood-letting art1 and lanced us both1 until ,myombi winced with pain2 after which the knotted branch was severed2 and1 in some incomprehensible manner1 ,i had become united forever to my fiftieth brother2 to whom ,i was under the obligation of defending him against all foes until death40#fj ,the blood of a fair proportion of all the first families of ,equatorial ,africa now courses in ,stanley's veins2 and if ever there was an ,american citizen who could appropriate to himself preeminently the national motto1 8,e pluribus unum10 ,stanley is the man4 ,the root-idea of this rite of blood-friendship seems to include the belief1 that the blood is the life of a living being2 not merely that the blood is essential to life1 but that1 in a peculiar sense1 it is life2 that it actually vivifies by its presence2 and that by its passing from one organism to another it carries and imparts life4 ,the inter-commingling of the blood of two organisms is1 therefore1 according to this view1 equivalent to the inter-commingling of the lives1 of the personalities1 of the natures1 thus brought together2 so that there is1 thereby and thenceforward1 one life in the two bodies1 a common life between the two friends3 a thought which ,aristotle recognizes in his citation of the ancient 8proverb03 8,one soul in two bodies10#fa a proverb which has not lost its currency in any of the centuries4 ,that the blood can retain its vivifying power whether passing into another by way of the lips or by way of the veins1 is1 on the face of it1 no less plausible1 than that the administering of stimulants1 tonics1 nutriments1 nervines1 or ansthetics1 hypodermically1 may be equally potent1 in certain cases1 with the more common and normal method of seeking assimilation by the process of digestion4 ,that the blood of the living has a peculiar vivifying force1 in its transference from one organism to another1 is one of the clearly proven re-disclosures of modern medical science2 and this transference of blood has been made to advantage by way of the veins1 of the stomach1 of the intestines1 of the tissue1 and even of the lungs--through dry-spraying4#fb #d4 ,,traces ,,of ,,the ,,rite ,,in ,,europe4#fc ,different methods of observing this primitive rite of blood-covenanting are indicated in the legendary lore of the ,norseland peoples2 and these methods1 in all their variety1 give added proof of the ever underlying idea of an inter-commingling of lives through an inter-commingling of blood4 ,odin was the beneficent god of light and knowledge1 the promoter of heroism1 and the protector of sacred covenants1 in the mythology of the ,north4 ,lk1 or ,lok1 on the other hand1 was the discordant and corrupting divinity2 symbolizing1 in his personality1 8sin1 shrewdness1 deceitfulness1 treachery1 malice10 and other phases of evil4#fd ,in the poetic myths of the ,norseland1 it is claimed that at the beginning ,odin and ,lk were in close union instead of being at variance2#fe just as the ,egyptian cosmogony made ,osiris and ,set in original accord1 although in subsequent hostility2#ff and as the ,zoroastrians claimed that ,ormuzd and ,ahriman were at one1 before they were in conflict4#fg ,odin and ,lk are1 indeed1 said to have been1 at one time1 in the close and sacred union of blood-friendship2 having covenanted in that union by mingling their blood in a bowl1 and drinking therefrom together4 ,the ,elder ,edda1#fh or the earliest collection of ,scandinavian songs1 makes reference to this confraternity of ,odin and ,lk4 ,at a banquet of the gods1 ,lk1 who had not been invited1 found an entrance1 and there reproached his fellow divinities for their hostility to him4 ,recalling the indissoluble tie of blood-friendship1 he said3 8,father of ,slaughter1#fi ,odin1 say1 ,rememberest not the former day1 ,when ruddy in the goblet stood1 ,for mutual drink1 our blended blood8 ,rememberest not1 thou then didst swear1 ,the festive banquet ne'er to share1 ,unless thy brother ,lok was there80 ,in citing this illustration of the ancient rite1 a modern historian of chivalry has said3 8,among barbarous people the barbarians of ,europe the fraternity of arms the sacred brotherhood of heroes was established by the horrid custom of the new brothers drinking each other's blood2 but if this practice was barbarous1 nothing was farther from barbarism than the sentiment which inspired it40#gj ,another of the methods by which the rite of blood-friendship was observed in the ,norseland1 was by causing the blood of the two covenanting persons to inter-flow from their pierced hands1 while they lay together underneath a lifted sod4 ,the idea involved seems to have been1 the burial of the two individuals1 in their separate personal lives1 and the intermingling of those lives--by the intermingling of their blood--while in their temporary grave2 in order to their rising again with a common life#ga--one life1 one soul1 in two bodies4 ,thus it is told1 in one of the ,icelandic ,sagas1 of ,thorstein1 the heroic son of ,viking1 proffering 8foster-brotherhood10 or blood-friendship1 to the valiant ,angantyr1 ,jarl of the ,orkneys4 8,then this was resolved upon1 and secured by firm pledges on both sides4 ,they opened a vein in the hollow of their hands1 crept beneath the sod1 and there with clasped hands inter-blood-flowing they solemnly swore that each of them should avenge the other if any one of them should be slain by weapons40 ,this was1 in fact1 a three-fold covenant of blood2 for ,king ,bele1 who had just been in combat with ,angantyr1 was already in blood-friendship with ,thorstein4#gb ,the rite of blood-friendship1 in one form and another finds frequent mention in the ,norseland ,sagas4 ,thus1 in the ,saga of ,fridthjof the ,bold1 the son of ,thorstein3 8,champions twelve1 too1 had he--gray-haired1 and princes in exploits1-- ,comrades his father had loved1 steel-breasted and scarred o'er the forehead4 ,last on the champions' bench1 equal-aged with ,fridthjof1 a stripling ,sat1 like a rose among withered leaves2 ,bjorn called they the hero-- ,glad as a child1 but firm like a man1 and yet wise as a graybeard2 ,up with ,fridthjof he'd grown2 they had mingled blood with each other1 ,foster-brothers in ,northman wise2 and they swore to continue ,steadfast in weal and woe1 each other revenging in battle40#gc ,a vestige of this primitive rite1 coming down to us through ,european channels1 is found1 as are so many other traces of primitive rites1 in the inherited folk-lore of ,english-speaking children on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,an ,american clergyman's wife said recently1 on this point3 8,i remember1 that while ,i was a school-girl1 it was the custom1 when one of our companions pricked her finger1 so that the blood came1 for one or another of us to say #8,oh1 let me suck the blood2 then we shall be friends4'0 ,and that is but an illustration of the outreaching after this indissoluble bond1 on the part of thirty generations of children of ,norseland and ,anglo-,saxon stock1 since the days of ,fridthjof and ,bjorn2 as that same yearning had been felt by those of a hundred generations before that time4 #e4 ,,world-,,wide ,,sweep ,,of ,,the ,,rite4 ,concerning traces of the rite of blood-covenanting in ,china1 where there are to be found fewest resemblances to the primitive customs of the ,asiatic ,semites1 ,dr4 ,yung ,wing1 the eminent ,chinese educationalist and diplomat1 gives me the following illustration3 8,in the year #afgd1 when ,knhi was ,emperor1 of the present dynasty1 we find that the ,buddhist priests of ,shanlin ,monastery in ,fuhkin ,province had rebelled against the authorities on account of persecution4 ,in their encounters with the troops1 they fought against great odds1 and were finally defeated and scattered in different provinces1 where they organized centres of the ,triad ,society1 which claims an antiquity dated as far back as the ,freemasons of the ,west4 ,five of these priests fled to the province of ,hakwong1 and there1 ,chin ,kinnan1 a member of the ,hanlin ,college1 who was degraded from office by his enemies1 joined them2 and it is said that they drank blood1 and took the oath of brotherhood1 to stand by each other in life or death40 ,along the southwestern border of the ,chinese ,empire1 in ,burmah1 this rite of blood-friendship is still practiced2 as may be seen from illustrations of it1 which are given in the ,appendix of this work4 ,in his ,history of ,madagascar1 the ,rev4 ,william ,ellis1 tells of this rite as he observed it in that island1 and as he learned of it from ,borneo4 ,he says3 8,another popular engagement in use among the ,malagasy is that of forming brotherhoods1 which though not peculiar to them1 is one of the most remarkable usages of the country4444 ,its object is to cement two individuals in the bonds of most sacred friendship4444 ,more than two may thus associate1 if they please2 but the practice is usually limited to that number1 and rarely embraces more than three or four individuals4 ,it is called fatrid1 i4 e41 #8dead blood1' either because the oath is taken over the blood of a fowl killed for the occasion1 or because a small portion of blood is drawn from each individual1 when thus pledging friendship1 and drunk by those to whom friendship is pledged1 with execrations of vengeance on each other in case of violating the sacred oath4 ,to obtain the blood1 a slight incision is made in the skin covering the centre of the bosom1 significantly called ambavafo1 #8the mouth of the heart4' ,allusion is made to this1 in the formula of this tragi-comical ceremony4 8,when two or more persons have agreed on forming this bond of fraternity1 a suitable place and hour are determined upon1 and some gunpowder and a ball are brought1 together with a small quantity of ginger1 a spear1 and two particular kinds of grass4 ,a fowl also is procured2 its head is nearly cut off2 and it is left in this state to continue bleeding during the ceremony4#gd 8,the parties then pronounce a long form of imprecation1 and a mutual vow1 to this effect3--#8,should either of us prove disloyal to the sovereign1 or unfaithful to each other1#ge then perish the day1 and perish the night4#gf ,awful is that1 solemn is that1 which we are now both about to perform6 ,o the mouth of the heart6--this is to be cut1 and we shall drink each other's blood4 ,o this ball6 ,o this powder6 ,o this ginger6 ,o this fowl weltering in its blood6--it shall be killed1 it shall be put to excruciating agonies1--it shall be killed by us1 it shall be speared at this corner of the hearth 7,alakaforo or ,adimizam1 ,s4 ,w47 ,and whoever would seek to kill or injure us1 to injure our wives1 or our children1 to waste our money or our property2 or if either of us should seek to do what would not be approved of by the king or by the people2 should one of us deceive the other by making that which is unjust appear just2 should one accuse the other falsely2 should either of us with our wives and children be lost and reduced to slavery1 7forbid that such should be our lot67--then1 that good may arise out of evil1 we follow this custom of the people2 and we do it for the purpose of assisting one another with our families1 if lost in slavery1 by whatever property either of us may possess2 for our wives are as one to us1 and each other's children as his own1#gg and our riches as common property4 ,o the mouth of the heart6 ,o the ball6 ,o the powder6 ,o the ginger6 ,o this miserable fowl weltering in its blood6--thy liver do we eat1 thy liver do we eat4 ,and should either of us retract from the terms of this oath1 let him instantly become a fool1 let him instantly become blind1 let this covenant prove a curse to him3 let him not be a human being3 let there be no heir to inherit after him1 but let him be reduced1 and float with the water never to see its source2 let him never obtain2 what is out of doors1 may it never enter2 and what is within may it never go out2 the little obtained1 may he be deprived of it2#gh and let him never obtain justice from the sovereign nor from the people6 ,but if we keep and observe this covenant1 let these things bear witness4#gi ,o mouth of the heart6 7repeating as before71--may this cause us to live long and happy with our wives and our children2 may we be approved by the sovereign1 and beloved by the people2 may we get money1 may we obtain property1 cattle1 c42 may we marry wives1 7vady kely72 may we have good robes1 and wear a good piece of cloth on our bodies2#hj since1 amidst our toils and labor1 these are the things we seek after4#ha ,and this we do that we may with all fidelity assist each other to the last4' 8,the incision is then made1 as already mentioned2 a small quantity of blood is extracted and drank by the covenanting parties respectively1 they saying as they take it1 #8,these are our last words1 ,we will be like rice and water2#hb in town they do not separate1 and in the fields they do not forsake one another2 we will be as the right and left hand of the body2 if one be injured1 the other necessarily sympathizes and suffers with it4'0#hc ,speaking of the terms and the influence of this covenant1 in ,madagascar1 ,mr4 ,ellis says1 that while absolute community of all worldly possessions is not a literal fact on the part of these blood-friends1 8the engagement involves a sort of moral obligation for one to assist the other in every extremity40 8,however devoid of meaning10 he adds1 8some part of the ceremony of forming this brotherhood may appear1 and whatever indications of barbarity of feeling may appear in others1 it is less exceptionable than many of the rites that prevail among the people4444 ,so far as those who have resided in the country have observed its effects1 they appear almost invariably to have been safe to the community1 and beneficial to the individuals by whom the compact was formed40 ,yet again1 this covenant of blood-friendship is found in different parts of ,borneo4 ,in the days of ,mr4 ,ellis1 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,medhurst1 a missionary of the ,london ,missionary ,society1 in ,java1 described it1 in reporting a visit made to the ,dayaks of ,borneo1 by one of his assistants together with a missionary of the ,rhenish ,missionary ,society4#hd ,telling of the kindly greeting given to these visitors at a place called ,golong1 he says that the natives wished 8to establish a fraternal agreement with the missionaries1 on condition that the latter should teach them the ways of ,god4 ,the travelers replied1 that if the ,dayaks became the disciples of ,christ1 they would be constituted the brethren of ,christ without any formal compact4 ,the ,dayaks1 however1 insisted that the travelers should enter into a compact with them1 according to the custom of the country1 by means of blood4 ,the missionaries were startled at this1 thinking that the ,dayaks meant to murder them1 and committed themselves to their ,heavenly ,father1 praying that1 whether living or dying1 they might lie at the feet of their ,saviour4 ,it appears1 however1 that it is the custom of the ,dayaks1 when they enter into a covenant1 to draw a little blood from the arms of the covenanting parties1 and1 having mixed it with water1 each to drink1 in this way1 the blood of the other4 8,mr4 ,barenstein one of the missionaries having consented for both to the ceremony1 they all took off their coats1 and two officers came forward with small knives1 to take a little blood out of the arm of each of them the two missionaries and two ,dayak chiefs4 ,this being mixed together in four glasses of water1 they drank1 severally1 each from the glass of the other2 after which they joined hands and kissed4 ,the people then came forward1 and made obeisance to the missionaries1 as the friends of the ,dayak ,king1 crying out with loud voices1 #8,let us be friends and brethren forever2 and may ,god help the ,dayaks to obtain the knowledge of ,god from the missionaries6' ,the two chiefs then said1 #8,brethren1 be not afraid to dwell with us2 for we will do you no harm2 and if others wish to hurt you1 we will defend you with our life's blood1 and die ourselves ere you be slain4 ,god be witness1 and this whole assembly be witness1 that this is true4' ,whereupon the whole company shouted1 ,balaak6 or #8,good1' #8,be it so4'0 ,yet another method of observing this rite1 is reported from among the ,kayans of ,borneo2 quite a different people from the ,dayaks4 ,its description is from the narrative of ,mr4 ,spenser ,st4 ,john1 as follows3 8,sigauding a ,kayan chief sent on board to request me to become his brother1 by going through the sacred custom of imbibing each other's blood4 ,i say imbibing1 because it is either mixed with water and drunk1 or else is placed within a native cigar1 and drawn in with the smoke4 ,i agreed to do so1 and the following day was fixed for the ceremony4 ,it is called ,berbiang by the ,kayans2 ,bersabibah1 by the ,borneans the ,dayaks4 ,i landed with our party of ,malays1 and after a preliminary talk1 to allow the population to assemble1 the affair commenced4444 ,stripping my left arm1 ,kum ,lia took a small piece of wood1 shaped like a knife-blade1 and1 slightly piercing the skin1 brought blood to the surface2 this he carefully scraped off4 ,then one of my ,malays drew blood in the same way from ,sigauding2 and1 a small cigarette being produced1 the blood on the wooden blade was spread on the tobacco4 ,a chief then arose1 and1 walking to an open place1 looked forth upon the river1 and invoked their god and all the spirits of good and evil to be witness of this tie of brotherhood4 ,the cigarette blood-stained was then lighted1 and each of us took several puffs receiving each other's blood by inhalation1 and the ceremony was over40#he ,this is a new method of smoking the 8pipe of peace0--or1 the cigarette of inter-union6 ,borneo1 indeed1 furnishes many illustrations of primitive customs1 both social and religious4 ,one of the latest and most venturesome explorers of ,north ,borneo was the gallant and lamented ,frank ,hatton1 a son of the widely known international journalist1 ,joseph ,hatton4 ,in a sketch of his son's life-work1 the father says#hf3 8,his was the first white foot in many of the hitherto unknown villages of ,borneo2 in him many of the wild tribes saw the first white man4444 ,speaking the language of the natives1 and possessing that special faculty of kindly firmness so necessary to the efficient control of uncivilized peoples1 he journeyed through the strange land not only unmolested1 but frequently carrying away tokens of native affection4 ,several powerful chiefs made him their #8blood-brother'2 and here and there the tribes prayed to him as if he were a god40 ,it would seem from the description of ,mr4 ,hatton1 that1 in some instances1 in ,borneo1 the blood-covenanting is by the substitute blood of a fowl held by the two parties to the covenant1 while its head is cut off by a third person2 without any drinking of each other's blood by those who enter into the covenant4 ,yet however this may be1 the other method still prevails there4 ,another recent traveler in the ,malay ,archipelago1 who1 also1 is a trained and careful observer1 tells of this rite1 as he found it in ,timor1 and other islands of that region1 among a people who represent the ,malays1 the ,papuan1 and the ,polynesian races4 ,his description is3 8,the ceremony of blood-brotherhood1 444 or the swearing of eternal friendship1 is of an interesting nature1 and is celebrated often by fearful orgies excesses of the communion idea1 especially when friendship is being made between families1 or tribes1 or kingdoms4 ,the ceremony is the same in substance whether between two individuals1 or between large companies4 ,the contracting parties slash their arms1 and collect the blood into a bamboo1 into which kanipa 7coarse gin7 or laru 7palm wine7 is poured4 ,having provided themselves with a small fig-tree 7halik7 they adjourn to some retired spot1 taking with them the sword and spear from the ,luli chamber the sacred room of their own houses if between private individuals1 or from the ,uma-,luli of their suku the sacred building of their village if between large companies4 ,planting there the fig-tree1 flanked by the sacred sword and spear1 they hang on it a bamboo-receptacle1 into which--after pledging each other in a portion of the mixed blood and gin--the remainder of that mixture is poured4 ,then each swears1 #8,if ,i be false1 and be not a true friend1 may my blood issue from my mouth1 ears1 nose1 as it does from this bamboo6'--the bottom of the receptacle being pricked at the same moment1 to allow the blood and gin to escape4 ,the blood-stained tree remains and grows as a witness of their contract40 ,of the close and binding nature of this blood-compact1 among the ,timorese1 the observer goes on to say3 8,it is one of their most sacred oaths1 and is almost never1 ,i am told1 violated2 at least between individuals40 ,as to its limitless force and scope1 he adds3 8,one brother one of these brother-friends in the covenant of blood coming to another brother's house1 is in every respect regarded as free to do as he pleases1 and is as much at home as its owner4 ,nothing is withheld from him2 even his friend's wife is not denied him1 and a child born of such a union would be recognized by the husband as his2 for are not--as they reason--these brother-friends of one blood--of one and the same life80#hg ,the covenant of blood-friendship has been noted also among the native races of both ,north and ,south ,america4 ,a writer of three centuries ago1 told of it as among the aborigines of ,yucatan4 8,when the ,indians of ,pontonchan10 he said1 8receive new friends covenant in a new friendship 444 as a proof of their friendship1 they mutually1 each1 in the sight of the friend1 draw some blood 444 from the tongue1 hand1 or arm1 or from some other part of the body40#hh ,and this ceremony is said to have formed 8a compact for life40#hi ,in ,brazil1 the ,indians were said to have a rite of brotherhood so close and sacred that1 as in the case of the ,bedween beyond the ,jordan1#ij its covenanting parties were counted as of one blood2 so that marriage between those thus linked would be deemed incestuous4 8,there was a word in their language to express a friend who was loved like a brother2 it is written ,atourrassap #8erroneously1 beyond a doubt1' adds ,southey1 #8because their speech is without the r'4 ,they who called each other by this name1 had all things in common2 the tie was held to be as sacred as that of consanguinity1 and one could not marry the daughter or sister of the other40#ia ,a similar tie of adopted brotherhood1 or of close and sacred friendship1 is recognized among the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,writing of the ,dakotas1 or the ,sioux1 ,dr4 ,riggs1 the veteran missionary and scholar1 says3 8,where one ,dakota takes another as his koda1 i4 e41 god1 or friend1 ,think of that1 for sacredness of union--#8god1 or friend'6 they become brothers in each other's families1 and are1 as such1 of course unable to intermarry40#ib ,and ,burton1 the famous traveler1 who made this same tribe a study1 says of the ,dakotas3 8,they are fond of adoption1 and of making brotherhoods like the ,africans ,burton is familiar with the customs of ,african tribes2 and so strong is the tie that marriage with the sister of an adopted brother is within the prohibited degree40#ic ,among the people of the ,society ,islands1 and perhaps also among those of other ,south ,sea ,islands1 the term tayo is applied to an attached personal friend1 in a peculiar relation of intimacy4 ,the formal ceremony of brotherhood1 whereby one becomes the tayo of another1 in these islands1 ,i have not found described2 but the closeness and sacredness of the relation1 as it is held by many of the natives1 would seem to indicate the inter-mingling of blood in the covenanting1 now or in former times4 ,the early missionaries to those islands1 speaking of the prevalent unchastity there1 make this exception3 8,if a person is a tayo of the husband1 he must indulge in no liberties with the sisters or the daughters1 because they are considered as his own sisters or daughters2 and incest is held in abhorrence by them2 nor will any temptations engage them to violate this bond of purity4 ,the wife1 however1 is excepted1 and considered as common property for the tayo4#id ,lieutenant ,corner a still earlier voyager also added1 that a tayoship formed between different sexes put the most solemn barrier against all personal liberties40#ie ,here is evidenced that same view of the absolute oneness of nature through a oneness of blood1 which shows itself among the ,semites of ,syria1#if among the ,malays of ,timor1#ig and among the ,indians of ,america4#ih ,and so this close and sacred covenant relation1 this rite of blood-friendship1 this inter-oneness of life by an inter-oneness of blood1 shows itself in the primitive ,east1 and in the wild and pre-historic ,west2 in the frozen ,north1 as in the torrid ,south4 ,its traces are everywhere4 ,it is of old1 and it is of to-day2 as universal and as full of meaning as life itself4 ,it will be observed that we have already noted proofs of the independent existence of this rite of blood-brotherhood1 or blood-friendship1 among the three great primitive divisions of the race--the ,semitic1 the ,hamitic1 and the ,japhetic2 and this in ,asia1 ,africa1 ,europe1 ,america1 and the ,islands of the ,sea2 again1 among the five modern and more popular divisions of the human family3 ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 ,ethiopian1 ,malay1 and ,american4 ,this fact in itself would seem to point to a common origin of its various manifestations1 in the early ,oriental home of the now scattered peoples of the world4 ,many references to this rite1 in the pages of classic literature1 seem to have the same indicative bearing1 as to its nature and primitive source4 #f4 ,,light ,,from ,,the ,,classics4 ,lucian1 the bright ,greek thinker1 who was born and trained in the ,east1 writing in the middle of the second century of our era1 is explicit as to the nature and method of this covenant as then practised in the ,east4 ,in his 8,toxaris or ,friendship10#ii ,mnesippus the ,greek1 and ,toxaris the ,scythian1 are discussing friendship4 ,toxaris declares3 8,it can easily be shown that ,scythian friends are much more faithful than ,greek friends2 and that friendship is esteemed more highly among us than among you40 ,then ,toxaris goes on to say#ajj3 8,but first ,i wish to tell you in what manner we in ,scythia make friends2 not in our drinking bouts as you do1 nor simply because a man is of the same age as ourselves1 or because he is our neighbor4 ,but1 on the contrary1 when we see a good man1 and one capable of great deeds1 to him we all hasten1 and 7as you do in the case of marrying1 so we think it right to do in the case of our friends7 we court him1 and we who would be friends do all things together1 so that we may not offend against friendship1 or seem worthy to be rejected4 ,and whenever one decides to be a friend1 we who would join in the covenant make the greatest of all oaths1 to live with one another1 and to die1 if need be1 the one for the other4 ,and this is the manner of it3 ,thereupon1 cutting our fingers1 all simultaneously1 we let the blood drop into a vessel1 and having dipped the points of our swords into it1 both of us holding them together1#aja we drink it4 ,there is nothing which can loose us from one another after that40 ,yet a little earlier than ,lucian1 ,tacitus1 foremost among ,latin historians1 gives record of this rite of blood-brotherhood as practised in the ,east4 ,he is telling1 in his ,annals1 of ,rhadamistus1 leader of the ,iberians1 who pretends to seek a covenant with ,mithradates1 ,king of the ,armenians 7yet farther east than ,scythia71 which should make firm the peace between the two nations1 8diis testibus10 8the gods being witnesses40 ,here ,tacitus makes an explanation3#ajb 8,it is the custom of ,oriental kings1 as often as they come together to make covenant1 to join right hands1 to tie the thumbs together1 and to tighten them with a knot4 ,then1 when the blood is thus pressed to the finger tips1 they draw blood by a light stroke1 and lick#ajc it in turn4 ,this they regard as a divine#ajd covenant1 made sacred as it were1 by mutual blood or blended lives40 ,there are several references1 by classical writers1 to this blood-friendship1 or to this blood-covenanting1 in connection with ,catiline's conspiracy against the ,roman ,republic4 ,sallust1 the historian of that conspiracy1 says3 8,there were those at that time who said that ,catiline1 at this conference with his accomplices when he inducted them into the oath of partnership in crime1 carried round in goblets human blood1 mixed with wine2 and that after all had tasted of it1 with an imprecatory oath1 as is men's wont in solemn rites in 8,sharb el ',ahd10#aje as the ,arabs would say he opened to them his plans40#ajf ,florus1 a later ,latin historian1 describing this conspiracy1 says3 8,there was added the pledge of the league1--human blood1--which they drank as it was borne round to them in goblets40#ajg ,and yet later1 ,tertullian suggests that it was their own blood1 mingled with wine1 of which the fellow-conspirators drank together4 8,concerning the eating of blood and other such tragic dishes10 he says1 8you read 7,i do not know where71 that blood drawn from the arms1 and tasted by one another1 was the method of making covenant among certain nations4 ,i know not but that under ,catiline such blood was tasted40#ajh ,in the ,pitti ,palace1 in ,florence1 there is a famous painting of the conspiracy of ,catiline1 by ,salvator ,rosa2 it is1 indeed1 ,salvator ,rosa's masterpiece1 in the line of historical painting4 ,this painting represents the covenanting by blood4 ,two conspirators stand face to face1 their right hands clasped above a votive altar4 ,the bared right arm of each is incised1 a little below the elbow4 ,the blood is streaming from the arm of one1 into a cup which he holds1 with his left hand1 to receive it2 while the dripping arm of the other conspirator shows that his blood has already flowed into the commingling cup4#aji ,the uplifted hand of the daysman between the conspirators seems to indicate the imprecatory vows which the two are assuming1 in the presence of the gods1 and of the witnesses who stand about the altar4 ,this is a clear indication of the traditional form of covenanting between ,catiline and his fellow conspirators4 ,as far back1 even1 as the fifth century before ,christ1 we find an explicit description of this ,oriental rite of blood-covenanting1 in the writings of 8the ,father of ,history40 8,now the ,scythians10 says ,herodotus1#aaj 8make covenants in the following manner1 with whomsoever they make them4 ,having poured out wine into a great earthen drinking-bowl1 they mingle with it the blood of those cutting covenant1 striking the body of each person having a part in it with a small knife1 or cutting it slightly with a sword4 ,thereafter1 they dip into the bowl1 sword1 arrows1 axe1 and javelin4#aaa ,but while they are doing this1 they utter many invokings of curse upon a breach of this covenant2#aab and1 afterwards1 not only those who make the covenant1 but those of their followers who are of the highest rank1 drink off the wine mingled with blood40 ,again ,herodotus says of this custom1 in his day#aac3 8,now the ,arabians reverence in a very high degree pledges between man and man4 ,they make these pledges in the following way4 ,when they wish to make pledges to one another1 a third man1 standing in the midst of the two1 cuts with a sharp stone the inside of the hands along the thumbs of the two making the pledges4 ,after that1 plucking some woolen floss from the garments of each of the two1 he anoints with the blood seven stones as the 8heap of witness0#aad which are set in the midst4 ,while he is doing this he invokes ,dionysus and ,urania4 ,when this rite is completed1 he that has made the pledges to one from without introduces the former stranger to his friends#aae--or the fellow citizen to his fellows if the rite was performed with a fellow-citizen40 ,thus it is clear1 that the rite of blood-brotherhood1 or of blood-friendship1 which is to-day a revered form of sacred covenanting in the unchangeable ,east1 was recognized as an established custom among ,oriental peoples twenty-three centuries ago4 ,its beginning must certainly have been prior to that time2 if not indeed long prior4 ,an indication of the extreme antiquity of this rite would seem to be shown in a term employed in its designation by the ,romans1 early in our ,christian era2 when both the meaning and the origin of the term itself were already lost in the dim past4 ,festus1#aaf a writer1 of fifteen centuries or more ago1 concerning ,latin antiquities1 is reported#aag as saying1 of this drink of the covenant of blood3 8,a certain kind of drink1 of mingled wine and blood1 was called assiratum by the ancients2 for the ancient ,latins called blood1 assir40 ,our modern lexicons give this isolated claim1 made by ,festus1 of the existence of any such word as 8assir0 signifying 8blood10 in 8the ancient ,latin language20#aah and some of them try to show the possibilities of its origin2#aai but no convincing proof of any such word and meaning in the ,latin can be found4 ,turning1 however1 to the languages of the ,east1 where the binding vow of blood-friendship was pledged in the drink of wine and blood1 or of blood alone1 from time immemorial1 we have no difficulty in finding the meaning of 8assir40 ,asar 77 is a common ,hebrew word1 signifying 8to bind together0--as in a mutual covenant4 ,issar 771 again1 is a vow of self-renunciation4 ,thus we have ,asar issar 'al nephesh 7 7 8,to bind a self-devoting vow upon one's life0#abj--upon one's blood2 8for the blood is the life40#aba ,in the ,arabic1 also1 asara 77 means 8to bind10 or 8to tie02 while asar 77 is 8a covenant10 or 8a compact02 and aswr 77 is 8a bracelet02 which in itself is 8a band10 and may be 8a fetter40#abb ,so1 again1 in the ,assyrian1 esiru 7,illustration7 is in its root form 8to bind02 and as a substantive it is 8a bracelet10 or 8a fetter40#abc ,the ,syriac gives esar 7,illustration71 8a bond10 or 8a belt40#abd ,all these1 with the root idea1 8to bind0--as a covenant binds4 ,in the light of these disclosures1 it is easy to see how the 8issar0 or the 8assar10 when it was a covenant of blood1 came to be counted by the ,latins the blood which was a covenant4 #g4 ,,the ,,bond ,,of ,,the ,,covenant4 ,just here it may be well to emphasize the fact1 that1 from time immemorial1 and the world over1 the armlet1 the bracelet1 and the ring1 have been counted the symbols of a boundless bond between giver and receiver2 the tokens of a mutual1 unending covenant4 ,possibly1--probably1 as ,i think1--this is in consequence of the primitive custom of binding1 as an amulet1 the enclosed record--enclosed in the 8house of the amulet0#abe--of the covenant of blood on the arm of either participant in that rite2 possibly1 again1 it is an outgrowth of the common root idea of a covenant and a bracelet1 as a binding agency4 ,blood-covenanting and bracelet-binding seem--as already shown--to be intertwined in the languages of the ,oriental progenitors of the race4 ,there are1 likewise1 indications of this intertwining in the customs of peoples1 ,east and ,west4 ,for example1 in ,india1 where blood-shedding is peculiarly objectionable1 the gift and acceptance of a bracelet is an ancient covenant-tie1 seemingly akin to blood-brotherhood4 ,of this custom1 an ,indian authority says3 8,amongst the rajput races of ,india the women adopt a brother by the gift of a bracelet4 ,the intrinsic value of such pledges is never looked to1 nor is it necessary that it should be costly1 though it varies with the means and rank of the donor1 and may be of flock silk and spangles1 or of gold chains and gems4 ,the acceptance of the pledge is by the #8katchli'1 or corset1 of simple silk or satin1 or gold brocade and pearls4 ,colonel ,tod was the ,rakhi-bund ,bhai the ,bracelet-bound ,brother of the three queens of ,oodipur1 ,bundi1 and ,kotch2 as also of ,chund-,bai1 the maiden sister of the ,rana1 and of many ladies of the chieftains of rank4 ,though the bracelet may be sent by maidens1 it is only on occasions of urgent necessity and danger4 ,the adopted brother may hazard his life in his adopted sister's cause1 and yet never receive a mite in reward2 for he cannot even see the fair object2 who1 as brother of her adoption1 has constituted him her defender40#abf 8,the 444 #8,bracelet-bound ,brother1' feels himself called upon to espouse the cause of the lady from whom he has received the gift1 and to defend her against all her enemies1 whenever she shall demand his assistance40 ,thus1 the ,great ,mogul1 ,hoomyoon1 father of the yet more celebrated ,akbar1 was in his early life bound1 and afterwards loyally recognized his binding1 as 8the sworn knight of one of the princesses of ,rajasthan1 who1 according to the custom of her country1 secured the sword of the prince in her service by the gift of a bracelet40 ,when he had a throne of his own to care for1 this princess1 ,kurnivati1 being besieged at ,cheetore1 sent to ,hoomyoon1 then prosecuting a vigorous campaign in ,bengal2 and he1 as in duty bound1 8instantly obeyed the summons02 and although he was not in season to rescue her1 he 8evinced his fidelity by avenging the fall of the city40#abg ,it is noteworthy1 just here1 that the ,oriental biographer of the ,mogul ,akbar calls attention to the fact1 that while the ,persians describe close friendship as chiefly subsisting between men1 8in ,hindostan it is celebrated between man and woman02#abh as indeed1 it is among the ,arab tribes ,east of the ,jordan4#abi ,in the ,norseland1 an oath of fidelity was taken on a ring1 or a bracelet1 kept in the temple of the gods2 and the gift and acceptance of a bracelet1 or a ring1 was a common symbol of a covenant of fidelity4 ,thus1 in 8,hvaml10 the high song of ,odin1 we find3 8,odin1 ,i believe1 ,a ring-oath gave4 ,who1 in his faith will trust80 ,and in 8,viga ,glum's ,saga10 it is related3 8,in the midst of a wedding party1 ,glum calls upon ,thorarin1 his accuser1 to hear his oath1 and taking in his hand a silver ring which had been dipped in sacrificial blood1 he cites two witnesses to testify to his oath on the ring1 and to his having appealed to the gods in his denial of the charge made against him40 ,in the 8,saga of ,fridthjof the ,bold10 when ,fridthjof is bidding farewell to his beloved ,ingeborg1 he covenants fidelity to her by the gift of 8,an arm-ring1 all over famous2 ,forged by the halting ,volund1 'twas1--the old ,north-story's ,vulcan 444 ,heaven was grav'd thereupon1 with the twelve immortals' strong castles-- ,signs of the changing months1 but the skald had ,sun-houses named them40 ,as ,fridthjof gave this pledge to ,ingeborg1 he said3 8,forget me never2 and1 ,in sweet remembrance of our youthful love1 ,this arm-ring take2 a fair ,volunder-work1 ,with all heaven's wonders carved i' th' shining gold4 ,ah6 the best wonder is a faithful heart 444 ,how prettily becomes it thy white arm-- ,a glow-worm twining round a lily stem40 ,and the subsequent story of that covenanting arm-ring1 fills thrilling pages in ,norseland lore4#acj ,yet again1 in the ,german cycle of the 8,nibelungen ,lied10 ,gotelind1 the wife of ,sir ,rudeger1 gives bracelets to the warrior-bard ,folker1 to bind him as her knightly champion in the court of ,king ,etzel1 to which he goes4 ,her jewel casket is brought to her4 8,from this she took twelve bracelets1 and drew them o'er his hand2 #8,these you must take1 and with you bear hence to ,etzel's land1 ,and for the sake of ,gotelind the same at court must wear1 ,that ,i may learn1 when hither again you all repair1 ,what service you have done me in yon assembly bright4' ,the lady's wish thereafter full well perform'd the knight40 ,and when the fight waxed sore at the court of ,etzel1 the daring and dying ,folker called on ,sir ,rudeger1 to bear witness to his bracelet-bound fidelity3 8,for me1 most noble margrave6 you must a message bear2 ,these bracelets red were given me late by your lady fair1 ,to wear at this high festal before the royal ,hun4 ,view them thyself1 and tell her that ,i've her bidding done40#aca ,it would1 indeed1 seem1 that from this root-idea of the binding force of an endless covenant1 symbolized in the form1 and in the primitive name1 of the bracelet1 the armlet1 the ring1--there has come down to us the use of the wedding-ring1 or the wedding-bracelet1 and of the signet-ring as the seal of the most sacred covenants4 ,the signet-ring appears in earliest history4 ,when ,pharaoh would exalt ,joseph over all the land of ,egypt1 8,pharaoh took off his ring from his hand1 and put it upon ,joseph's hand40#acb ,similarly with ,ahasuerus and ,haman3 8,the king took his ring from his hand1 and gave it unto ,haman20 and the irrevocable decrees when written were 8sealed with the king's ring40 ,when again ,haman was deposed and ,mordecai was exalted1 8the king took off his ring1 which he had taken from ,haman1 and gave it unto ,mordecai40#acc ,the re-instatement of the prodigal son1 in the parable1 was by putting 8a ring on his hand40#acd ,and these illustrations out of ancient ,egypt1 ,persia1 and ,syria1 indicate a world-wide custom1 so far4 ,one's signet-ring stood for his very self1 and represented1 thus1 his blood1 as his life4 ,the use of rings1 or bracelets1 or armlets1 in the covenant of betrothal1 or of marriage1 is from of old1 and it is of wide-spread acceptance4#ace ,references to it are cited from ,pliny1 ,tertullian1 ,juvenal1 ,isidore2 and traces of it are found1 earlier or later1 among the peoples of ,asia1 ,africa1 ,europe1 and the ,islands of the ,sea4 ,in ,iceland1 the covenanting-ring was large enough for the palm of the hand to be passed through2 so1 in betrothal 8the bridegroom passed four fingers and his palm through one of these rings1 and in this manner he received the hand of the bride40 ,in ,ireland1 long ago1 8a usual gift from a woman to her betrothed husband was a pair of bracelets made of her own hair02 as if a portion of her very self--as in the case of one's blood--entered into the covenant rite4 ,again in ,ireland1 as also among the old ,romans1 the wedding-ring was in the form of two hands clasped 7called a 8fede07 in token of union and fidelity4 ,sometimes1 in ,england1 the wedding-ring was worn upon the thumb1 as extant portraits illustrate2 and as suggested in ,butler's ,hudibras3 8,others were for abolishing ,that tool of matrimony1 a ring1 ,with which the unsanctify'd bridegroom ,is marry'd only to a thumb40 ,in ,southern's 8,maid's ,last ,prayer10 the heroine says3 8,marry him ,i must1 and wear my wedding-ring upon my thumb too1 that ,i'm resolved40#acf ,these thumb-weddings were said to be introduced from the ,east#acg2 and ,chardin reports a form of marriage in ,ceylon1 by the binding together of the thumbs of the contracting parties2#ach as1 according to the classics1 the thumbs were bound together in the rite of blood-covenanting4#aci ,indeed1 the selection of the ring-finger for the wedding-covenant has commonly been attributed to the relation of that finger to the heart as the blood-centre1 and as the seat of life4 8,aulus ,gellius tells us1 that ,appianus asserts1 in his ,egyptian books1 that a very delicate nerve runs from the fourth finger of the left hand to the heart1 on which account this finger is used for the marriage-ring40 ,macrobius says that in ,roman espousals the woman put the covenant ring 8on the third finger of her left hand not counting the thumb1 because it was believed that a nerve ran from that finger to the heart40 ,and as to the significance of this point1 it has been said3 8,the fact of the nerve connection with the heart has nothing to do with the question3 that the ancients believed it1 is all we require to know40#adj ,among the ,copts of ,egypt1 both the blood and the ring have their part in the covenant of marriage4 ,two rings are employed1 one for the bride and one for the bridegroom4 ,at the door of the bridegroom's house1 as the bride approaches it1 a lamb or a sheep is slaughtered2 and the bride must have a care to step over the covenanting-blood as she enters the door1 to join the bridegroom4 ,it is after this ceremony1 that the two contracting parties exchange the rings1 which are as the tokens of the covenant of blood4#ada ,in ,borneo1 among the ,tring ,dayaks1 the marriage ceremony includes the smearing with a bloody sword1 the clasped hands of the bride and groom1 in conjunction with an invoking of the protecting spirits4#adb ,in this case1 the wedding-ring would seem to be a bond of blood4 ,again1 in ,little ,russia1 the bride gives to the bridegroom a covenanting draught in 8a cup of wine1 in which a ring has been put02#adc as if in that case the wine and the blood-bond of the covenant were commingled in a true assiratum4#add ,that this latter custom is an ancient one1 would seem to be indicated by the indirect reference to it in ,sir ,walter ,scott's ballad of 8,the ,noble ,moringer10 a medival lay2 where the long absent knight returns from the ,holy ,land1 just in time to be at the wedding-feast of his enticed wife4 ,he appears unrecognized at the feast1 as a poor palmer4 ,a cup of wine is sent to him by the bride4 8,it was the noble ,moringer that dropped amid the wine ,a bridal ring of burning gold so costly and so fine3 ,now listen1 gentles1 to my song1 it tells you but the sooth1 ',twas with that very ring of gold he pledged his bridal truth40 ,clearly this was not the ring he gave at his bridal1 but the one which he accepted1 in the covenanting-cup1 from his bride4 ,the cup was carried back from the palmer to the bride1 for her drinking4 8,the ring hath caught the ,lady's eye2 she views it close and near2 ,then might you hear her shriek aloud1 #8,the ,moringer is here6' ,then might you see her start from seat1 while tears in torrents fell2 ,but whether 'twas from joy or woe1 the ladies best can tell40 ,to the present day1 an important ceremony at the coronation of a sovereign of ,great ,britain1 is the investiture of the sovereign per annulum1 or 8by the ring40 ,the ring is placed on the fourth finger of the sovereign's right hand1 by the ,archbishop of ,canterbury2 and it is called 8,the ,wedding ,ring of ,england10 as it symbolizes the covenant union of the sovereign and his people4 ,a similar practice prevails at the coronation of ,european sovereigns generally4 ,it also runs back to the days of the early ,roman emperors1 and of ,alexander the ,great4#ade ,that a ring1 or a circlet1 worn around a thumb1 or a finger1 or an arm1 in token of an endless covenant between its giver and receiver1 has been looked upon1 in all ages1 as the symbol of an inter-union of the lives thereby brought together1 is unmistakable2 whether the covenanting life-blood be drawn for such inter-commingling1 directly from the member so encircled1 or not4 ,the very covenant itself1 or its binding force1 has been sometimes thought to depend on the circlet representing it2 as if the life which was pledged passed into the token of its pledging4 ,thus ,lord ,bacon says3 8,it is supposed to be a help to the continuance of love1 to wear a ring or bracelet of the person beloved20#adf and he suggests that 8a trial should be made by two persons1 of the effect of compact and agreement2 that a ring should be put on for each other's sake1 to try whether1 if one should break his promise the other would have any feeling of it in his absence40 ,in other words1 that the test should be made1 to see whether the inter-union of lives symbolized by the covenant-token be a reality4 ,on this idea it is1 that many persons are unwilling to remove the wedding-ring from the finger1 while the compact holds4#adg ,it is not improbable1 indeed1 that the armlets1 or bracelets1 which were found on the arms of ,oriental kings1 and of ,oriental divinities as well1 were intended to indicate1 or to symbolize1 the personal inter-union claimed to exist between those kings and divinities4 ,thus an armlet1 worn by ,thotmes ,,iii41 is preserved in the museum at ,leyden4 ,it bears the cartouche of the ,king1 having on it his sacred name1 with its reference to his inter-union with his god4 ,it was much the same in ,nineveh4#adh ,lane says1 that upon the seal ring commonly worn by the modern ,egyptian 8is engraved the wearer's name10 and that this name 8is usually accompanied by the words #8,his servant' 7signifying #8the servant1 or worshiper of ,god'71 and often by other words expressive of the person's trust in ,god40#adi ,as the token of the blood-covenant is sometimes fastened about the arm1 and sometimes about the neck2 so the encircling necklace1 as well as the encircling armlet1 is sometimes counted the symbol of a covenant of very life4 ,this is peculiarly the case in ,india2 where the bracelet-brotherhood has been shown to be an apparent equivalent of the blood-brotherhood4 ,among the folk-lore stories of ,india1 it is a common thing to hear of a necklace which holds the soul of the wearer4 ,that necklace removed1 the wearer dies4 ,that necklace restored1 the wearer lives again4 8,sodewa ,bai was born with a golden necklace about her neck1 concerning which also her parents consulted astrologers1 who said1 #8,this is no common child2 the necklace of gold about her neck contains your daughter's soul2 let it therefore be guarded with the utmost care2 for if it were taken off1 and worn by another person1 she would die4'0 ,on that necklace of life1 the story hangs4 ,the necklace was stolen by a servant1 and ,sodewa ,bai died4 ,being placed in a canopied tomb1 she revived1 night by night1 when the servant laid off the stolen necklace which contained the soul of ,sodewa ,bai4 ,the loss was at last discovered by her husband2 the necklace was restored to her1 and she lived again4#aej ,and this is but one story of many4 ,in the ,brahman marriage ceremony the bridegroom receives his bride by binding a covenanting necklace about her neck4 8,a small ornament of gold1 called tahly1 which is the sign of their being actually in the state of marriage1 444 is fastened by a short string dyed yellow with saffron40#aea ,and a ,sanskrit word for 8saffron0 is also a word for 8blood40#aeb ,the importance of this symbolism of the token of the blood-covenant1 in its bearing on the root-idea of an inter-union of natures by an inter-commingling of blood1 will be more clearly shown1 by and by4 #h4 ,,the ,,rite ,,and ,,its ,,token ,,in ,,egypt4 ,going back1 now1 to the world's most ancient records1 in the monuments of ,egypt1 we find evidence of the existence of the covenant of blood1 in those early days4 ,even then1 it seems to have been a custom to covenant by tasting the blood from another's arm2 and this inter-transference of blood was supposed to carry an inter-commingling1 or an inter-merging1 of natures4 ,so far was this symbolic thought carried1 that the ancient ,egyptians spoke of the departed spirit1 as having entered into the nature1 and1 indeed1 into the very being1 of the gods1 by the rite of tasting blood from the divine arm4 8,the ,book of the ,dead10 as it is commonly called1 or 8,the ,book of the ,going ,forth into ,day10--78,the path of the just is as the shining light1 that shineth more and more unto the perfect day10#aec7--;is a group1 or series1 of ancient ,egyptian writings1 representing the state and the needs and the progress of the soul after death4#aed ,a copy of this ,funereal ,ritual1 as it is sometimes called1 8more or less complete1 according to the fortune of the deceased1 was deposited in the case of every mummy40#aee 8,as the ,book of the ,dead is the most ancient1 so it is undoubtedly the most important of the sacred books of the ,egyptians20#aef it is1 in fact1 8according to ,egyptian notions1 essentially an inspired work20#aeg hence its contents have an exceptional dogmatic value4 ,in this ,book of the ,dead1 there are several obvious references to the rite of blood-covenanting4 ,some of these are in a chapter of the ,ritual which was found transcribed in a coffin of the ,eleventh ,dynasty2 thus carrying it back to a period prior to the days of ,abraham4#aeh 8,give me your arm2 ,i am made as ye10 says the departed soul1 speaking to the gods4#aei ,then1 in explanation of this statement1 the pre-historic gloss of the ,ritual goes on to say3 8,the blood is that which proceeds from the member of the ,sun1 after he goes along cutting himself20#afj the covenant blood which unites the soul and the god is drawn from the flesh of ,r1 when he has cut himself in the rite of that covenant4 ,by this covenant-cutting1 the deceased becomes one with the covenanting gods4 ,again1 the departed soul1 speaking as ,osiris1--or as the ,osirian1 which every mummy represents1#afa--says3 8,i am the soul in his two halves40 ,once more there follows the explanation3 8,the soul in his two halves is the soul of the ,sun of ,r1 and the soul of ,osiris of the deceased40 ,here is substantially the proverb of friendship cited by ,aristotle1 8,one soul in two bodies10 at least two thousand years before the days of the ,greek philosopher4 ,how much earlier it was recognized1 does not yet appear4 ,again1 when the deceased comes to the gateway of light1 he speaks of himself as linked with the great god ,seb2 as one 8who loves his arm10#afb and who is1 therefore1 sure of admittance to him1 within the gates4 ,by the covenant of the blood-giving arm1 8the ,osiris opens the turning door2 he has opened the turning door40 ,through oneness of blood1 he has come into oneness of life1 with the gods2 there is no longer the barrier of a door between them4 ,the separating veil is rent4 ,an added indication that the covenant of blood-friendship furnished the ancient ,egyptians with their highest conception of a union with the divine nature through an interflowing of the divine blood--as the divine life--is found in the amulet of this covenant2 corresponding with the token of the covenant of blood-friendship1 which1 as fastened to the arm1 or about the neck1 is deemed so sacred and so precious1 in the primitive ,east to-day4 ,the hieroglyphic word1 tat1 tet1 or tot1 7,illustration7 translated 8arm10 is also translated 8bracelet10 or 8armlet10 7,illustration7#afc as if in suggestion of the truth1 already referred to1#afd that the blood-furnishing arm was represented by the token of the arm-encircling1 or of the neck-encircling1 bond1 in the covenant of blood4 ,moreover1 a 8red talisman10 or red amulet1 stained with 8the blood of ,isis10 and containing a record of the covenant1 was placed at the neck of the mummy as an assurance of safety to his soul4#afe 8,when this book this amulet-record has been made10 says the ,ritual1 8it causes ,isis to protect him the ,osirian1 and ,horus he rejoices to see him40 8,if this book this covenant-token is known10 says ,horus1 8he the deceased is in the service of ,osiris4444 ,his name is like that of the gods40 ,there are various other references to this rite1 or other indications of its existence1 than those already cited1 in the ,book of the ,dead4 8,i have welcomed ,thoth 7or the king7 with blood2 taking the gore from the blessed of ,seb10#aff is one of these gleams4 ,again1 there are incidental mentions of the tasting of blood1 by gods and by men2#afg and of the proffering1 or the uplifting1 of the blood-filled arm1 in covenant with the gods4#afh ,on a recently deciphered stle of the days of ,rameses ,,iv41 of the ,twentieth ,dynasty1 about twelve centuries before ,christ1 there is an apparent reference to this blood-covenanting1 and to its amulet record4 ,the inscription is a specimen of a funereal ritual1 not unlike some portions of the ,book of the ,dead4 ,the deceased is represented as saying1 according to the translation of ,piehl#afi3 8,i am become familiar with ,thoth1 by his writings1 on the day when he spat upon his arm40 ,the ,egyptian word1 khenmes1 here translated 8familiar10 means 8united with10 or 8joined with40 ,the word here rendered 8writings10 is hetepoo2 which1 in the singular1 hetep1 in the ,book of ,dead1 stands for the record of the covenant on the blood-stained amulet4#agj ,the word peqas 7,illustration7 rendered 8spat10 by ,piehl1 is an obscure term1 variously rendered 8moistened10 8washed10 8wiped10 8healed40#aga ,it is clear therefore that this passage may fairly be read3 8,i am become united with ,thoth1 by the covenant-record1 on the day when he moistened1 or healed his arm02 and if the arm were healed1 it had been cut1 and so moistened4 ,indeed it is quite probable that this word peqas has a root connection with peq1 peqa1 peqau1 8a gap10 8an opening10 8to divide02 and even with penqu1 7,illustration7 8to bleed40 ,apparently1 the unfamiliarity of ,egyptologists with this rite of blood-covenanting1 by the cutting of the arm1 has hindered the recognition of the full force of many of the terms involved4 ,ebers1 in his 8,uarda10 has incidentally given an illustration of the custom of blood-covenanting in ancient ,egypt4 ,it is when the surgeon ,nebsecht has saved the life of ,uarda1 and her soldier-father1 ,kaschta1 would show his gratitude1 and would pledge his life-long fidelity in return4 8#8,if at any time thou dost want help1 call me1 and ,i will protect thee against twenty enemies4 ,thou hast saved my child--good6 ,life for life4 ,i sign myself thy blood-ally--there6' 8,with these words he drew his poniard1 out of his girdle4 ,he scratched his arm1 and let a few drops of his blood run down on a stone at the feet of ,nebsecht4 8#8,look6' he said4 #8,there is my blood6 ,kaschta has signed himself thine2 and thou canst dispose of my life as of thine own4 ,what ,i have said1 ,i have said4'0#agb #i4 ,,other ,,gleams ,,of ,,the ,,rite4 ,in this last cited illustration1 from ,uarda1 there would1 at first glance1 seem to be the covenant proffered1 rather than the covenant entered into2 the covenant all on one side1 instead of the mutual covenant4 ,but this is1 if it were possible1 only a more unselfish and a more trustful mode than the other1 of covenanting by blood2 of pledging the life1 by pledging the blood1 to one who is already trusted absolutely4 ,and this mode of proffering the covenant of blood1 or of pledging one's self in devotedness by the giving of one's blood1 is still a custom in the ,east2 as it has been in both the ,east and the ,west1 from time immemorial4 ,for example1 in a series of illustrations of ,oriental manners1 prepared under the direction of the ,french ambassador to ,turkey1 at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 there appears a ,turkish lover gashing his arm in the presence of his lady-love1 as a proof of his loving attachment to her2 and the accompanying statement is made1 that the relative flow of blood thus devoted indicates the measure of affection--or of affectionate devotedness4#agc ,a custom akin to this was found in ,otaheite1 when the ,south ,sea ,islands were first visited by ,english missionaries4 ,the measure of love1 in time of joy or in time of grief1 was indicated by the measure of blood drawn from the person of the loving one4 ,particularly was this the case with the women2 perhaps because they1 in ,otaheite as elsewhere1 are more loving in their nature1 and readier to give of their very life in love4 8,when a woman takes a husband10 says a historian of the first missionary work in ,otaheite1 8she immediately provides herself with a shark's tooth1 which is fixed1 with the bread-fruit gum1 on an instrument that leaves about a quarter of an inch of the tooth bare1 for the purpose of wounding the head1 like a lancet4 ,some of these have two or three teeth1 and struck forcibly they bring blood in copious streams2 according to the love they bear the party1 and the violence of their grief1 the strokes are repeated on the head2 and this has been known to bring on fever1 and terminate in madness4 ,if any accident happen to the husband1 to his relations1 or friends1 or their child1 the shark's tooth goes to work2 and even if the child only fall down and hurt itself1 the blood and tears mingle together4444 ,they have a very similar way of expressing their joy as well as sorrow2 for whether a relation dies1 or a dear friend returns from a journey1 the shark's tooth instrument 444 is again employed1 and the blood streams down4444 ,when a person of eminence dies 444 the relatives and friends 444 repeat before it the corpse some of the tender scenes which happened during their life time1 and wiping the blood which the shark's teeth has drawn1 deposit the cloth on the tupapow as the proof of their affection40#agd ,in illustration of this custom1 the same writer says1 in the course of his narrative3 8,when we had got within a short mile of the ,isthmus1 in passing a few houses1 an aged woman1 mother to the young man who carried my linen1 met us1 and to express her joy at seeing her son1 struck herself several times on the head with a shark's tooth1 till the blood flowed plentifully down her breast and shoulders1 whilst the son beheld it with entire insensibility ,he saw in it only the common proof of his mother's devoted love4444 ,the son seeing that ,i was not pleased with what was done1 observed coolly1 that it was the custom of ,otaheite40#age ,this custom is again referred to by ,mr4 ,ellis1 as observed by him in the ,georgian and the ,society ,islands1 a generation later than the authority above cited4 ,he speaks of the shark's tooth blood-letter1 as employed by men1 as well as by women2 although more commonly by the latter4 ,he adds another illustration of the truth1 that it is the blood itself1 and not any suffering caused by its flowing1 that is counted the proof of affection2 by its representing the outpoured life1 in pledge of covenant fidelity4 ,describing the scenes of blood-giving grief1 over the dead bodies of the mourned loved ones1 he says3 8,the females on these occasions sometimes put on a kind of short apron1 of a particular sort of cloth2 which they held up with one hand1 while they cut themselves with the other4 ,in this apron they caught the blood that flowed from these grief-inflicted wounds1 until it the apron was almost saturated4 ,it was then dried in the sun1 and given to the nearest surviving relatives1 as a proof of the affection of the donor1 and was preserved by the bereaved family as a token of the estimation in which the departed had been held40#agf ,there is even more of vividness in this memorial1 than in that suggested by the ,psalmist1 when he says3 8,put thou my tears into thy bottle40#agg ,there would seem to be a suggestion of this same idea in one of ,grimm's folk-lore fairy tales of the ,north4 ,a queen's daughter is going away from her home1 attended by a single servant4 ,her loving mother would fain watch and guard her in her absence4 ,accordingly1 8as soon as the hour of departure had arrived1 the mother took her daughter into a chamber1 and there1 with a knife1 she cut her own finger with it1 so that it bled4 ,then1 she held her napkin beneath1 and let three drops of blood fall into it2 which she gave to her daughter1 saying3 #8,dear child1 preserve this well1 and it will help you out of trouble4'0#agh ,that blood represented the mother's very life4 ,it was accustomed to speak out in words of counsel and warning to the daughter4 ,but by and by the napkin which held it was lost1 and then the power of the young princess over her mother's servant was gone1 and the poor princess was alone in the wide world1 at the mercy of strangers4 ,acting on the symbolism of this covenanting with another by the loving proffer of one's blood1 men have reached out toward ,god1 or toward the gods1 in desire for a covenant of union1 and in expression of fidelity of devotedness1 by the giving of their blood ,god-ward4 ,this1 also1 has been in the ,east and in the ,west1 in ancient days and until to-day4 ,there was a gleam of this1 in the ,canaanitish worship of ,baal1 in the contest between his priests and the prophet ,elijah1 before ,king ,ahab1 at ,mount ,carmel4 ,first1 those priests shed the blood of the substitute bullock1 at the altar of their god1 and 8called on the name of ,baal from morning even until noon1 saying1 ,o ,baal hear us6 ,but there was no voice1 nor any that answered40 ,then they grew more earnest in their supplications1 and more demonstrative in their proofs of devotedness4 8,they leaped or1 limped about the altar which was made4444 ,and they cried aloud1 and cut themselves after their manner with knives and lances1 till the blood gushed out upon them40#agi ,similar methods of showing love for ,god are in vogue among the natives of ,armenia1 to-day4 ,describing a scene of worship by religious devotees in that region1 ,dr4 ,van ,lennep says3 8,one of them cuts his forehead with a sword1 so that #8the blood gushes out4' ,he wears a sheet in front1 to protect his clothes1 and his face is covered with clots of blood40#ahj ,clearly1 in this case1 as in many others elsewhere1 it is not as a means of self-torture1 but as a proof of self-devotedness1 that the blood is poured out--the life is proffered--by the devotee1 toward ,god4 ,among the primitive peoples of ,north and of ,south ,america1 it was the custom of priests and people1 to draw blood from their own bodies1 from their tongues1 their ears1 their noses1 their limbs and members1 when they went into their temples to worship1 and to anoint with that blood the images of their gods4#aha ,the thorns of the maguey--a species of aloe--were1 in many regions1 kept ready at places of sacrifice1 for convenient use in this covenant blood-letting4#ahb ,a careful student of these early ,american customs has said of the obvious purpose of this yielding of one's blood in worship1 that it 8might be regarded as an act of individual devotion1 a gift made to the gods by the worshiper himself1 out of his own very substance of his very life1 as in the blood-covenant4444 ,the priests in particular owed it to their special character in their covenant relation to the divinities1 to draw their blood for the benefit of the gods in renewed pledge to the gods2 and nothing could be stranger than the refined methods they adopted to accomplish this end4 ,for instance1 they would pass strings or splinters through their lips or ears1 and so draw a little blood4 ,but then a fresh string1 or a fresh splinter1 must be added every day1 and so it might go on indefinitely2 for the more there were1 the more meritorious was the act20#ahc precisely as is the standard of love-showing by blood-letting among ,turkish lovers and ,otaheitan wives and mothers1 in modern times4 ,a similar giving of blood1 in proof of devotedness1 and in outreaching for inter-communion with the gods through blood1 is reported in ,india1 in recent times4 ,bishop ,caldwell1 of ,madras1 referred to it1 a generation ago1 in his description of the 8,devil ,dance0 among the ,tinnevelly ,shawars4#ahd ,the devotee1 in this dance1 8cuts and lacerates himself till the blood flows1 lashes himself with a huge whip1 presses a burning torch to his breast1 drinks the blood which flows from his own wounds1 or drains the blood of the sacrifice2 putting the throat of a decapitated goat to his mouth40 ,hereby he has given of his own blood to the gods1 or to the devils1 and has drunk of the substitute blood of the divinities--in the consecrated sacrifice2 as if in consummation of the blood-covenant with the supernal powers4 8,then as if he had acquired new life through inter-union with the object of his worship1 he begins to brandish his staff of bells1 and to dance with a quick but wild unsteady step4 ,suddenly the afflatus descends2 there is no mistaking that glare or those frantic leaps4 ,he snorts1 he swears1 he gyrates4 ,the demon has now taken bodily possession of him4 ,the twain are one4 ,the two natures are intermingled4444 ,the devil-dancer is now worshiped as a present deity1 and every bystander consults him respecting his diseases1 his wants1 the welfare of his absent relations1 the offerings to be made for the accomplishments of his wishes1 and in short everything for which superhuman knowledge is supposed to be available40 ,in this instance1 the mutual covenant is represented2 the devotee both giving and receiving blood1 as a means of union4 ,on this idea of giving one's self to another1 by giving of one's blood1 it is1 that the popular tradition was based1 that witches and sorcerers covenanted with ,satan by signing a compact in their own blood4 ,and again it was in recognition of the idea that two natures were inter-united in such a covenant1 that the compact was sometimes said to be signed in ,satan's blood4 ,among the many women charged with witchcraft in ,england1 by the famous ,matthew ,hopkins1 the 8witch-finder0 in the middle of the ,seventeenth century1 was one1 at ,yarmouth1 of whom it is reported1 that her first temptation came to her when she went home from her place of employment1 discouraged and exasperated by her trials4 8,that night when she was in bed1 she heard a knock at the door1 and going to her window1 she saw 7it being moonlight7 a tall black man there3 and asked what he would have8 ,he told her that she was discontented1 because she could not get work2 and that he would put her into a way that she should never want anything4 ,on this she let him in1 and asked him what he had to say to her4 ,he told her he must first see her hand2 and taking out something like a penknife1 he gave it a little scratch1 so that a little blood followed2 a scar being still visible when she told the story4 ,then he took some of the blood in a pen1 and pulling a book out of his pocket1 bid her write her name2 and when she said she could not1 he said he would guide her hand4 ,when this was done1 he bid her now ask what she would have40#ahe ,in signing with her own blood1 she had pledged her very life to the 8tall black man40 ,cotton ,mather1 in his 8,wonders of the ,invisible ,world10 cites a ,swedish trial for witchcraft1 where the possessed children1 who were witnesses1 said that the witches1 at the trysting-place where they were observed1 were compelled 8to give themselves unto the devil1 and vow that they would serve him4 ,hereupon they cut their fingers1 and with blood writ their names in his book40 ,in some cases 8the mark of the cut finger was still to be found40 ,moreover the devil gave meat and drink both to the witches and to the children they brought with them4 ,again1 ,mather cites the testimony of a witness who had been invited to covenant with the ,devil1 by signing the ,devil's book4 8,once1 with the book1 there was a pen offered him1 and an inkhorn with liquor in it that looked like blood40#ahf ,another ,new ,england writer on witchcraft says that 8the witch as a slave binds herself by vow1 to believe in the ,devil1 and to give him either body or soul1 or both1 under his handwriting1 or some part of his blood40#ahg ,it is1 evidently1 on this popular tradition1 that ,goethe's ,faust covenants in blood with ,mephistopheles4 ,,mephistopheles4 8,but one thing6--accidents may happen2 hence ,a line or two in writing grant1 ,i pray40 ,,faust4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,spirit of evil6 what dost thou require8 ,brass1 marble1 parchment1 paper1 dost desire8 ,shall ,i with chisel1 pen1 or graver1 write8 ,thy choice is free2 to me 'tis all the same40 ,,mephistopheles4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,a scrap is for our compact good4 ,thou under-signest merely with a drop of blood40 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,blood is a juice of very special kind40#ahh ,even 8within modern memory in ,europe10 there have been traces of the primitive rite of covenanting with ,god by the proffer of one's blood4 ,in the ,russian province of ,esthonia1 he who would observe this rite1 8had to draw drops of blood from his fore finger10 and at the same time to pledge himself in solemn covenant with ,god4 8,i name thee ,i invoke thee with my blood1 and ,i betroth thee ,i entrust myself to thee with my blood10--was the form of his covenanting4 ,then he who had given of his blood in self-surrendering devotedness1 made his confident supplications to ,god with whom he had thus covenanted2 and his prayer in behalf of all his possessions was3 8,let them be blessed through my blood and thy might40#ahi ,thus1 in ancient ,egypt1 in ancient ,canaan1 in ancient ,mexico1 in modern ,turkey1 in modern ,russia1 in modern ,india1 and in modern ,otaheite2 in ,africa1 in ,asia1 in ,america1 in ,europe1 and in ,oceanica3 ,blood-giving was life-giving4 ,life-giving was love-showing4 ,love-showing was a heart-yearning after union in love and in life and in blood and in very being4 ,that was the primitive thought in the primitive religions of all the world4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,of the possibility of a covenant between those of different religions1 ,lane says 7,arab4-,eng4 ,lexicon1 s4 v4 ',ahd73 8,hence 7dho 'ahd7 an appellation given to a ,christian and a ,jew 7and a ,sabean1 who is a subject of a ,muslim government7 meaning one between whom and the ,muslims a compact1 or covenant exists1 whereby the latter are responsible for his security and freedom and toleration as long as he lives agreeably to the compact40 ,and the ,blood ,covenant is more sacred and more binding than any other compact4 #b ,prov4 #ah 3 #bd4 #c ,john #ae 3 #ac4 #d ,see ,lane's ,lex4 s4 v4 8,hejb40 #e ,eccl4 #d 3 #i1 #aj4 #f ,see ,freytag1 and ,catafago1 s4 v4 #g ,see 8,brothers of the ,covenant10 p4 #f1 supra4 #h ,sprachliches aus den ,zeltlagern der syrischen ,wste1 p4 #cg4 #i ,see ,redhouse's ,turkish and ,english ,dictionary1 s4 vv4 sood and soot4 #aj ,see ,lane1 and ,freytag1 s4 vv4 rada'a1 and thady4 #aa ,see reference to ,ibn ,hishm1 #abe1 in ,prof4 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith's ,old ,test4 in ,jewish ,church1 ,notes to ,lect4 ,,xii4 ,see1 also1 p4 #ei1 infra4 #ab ,see ,lane1 and ,freytag1 s4 v4 sahama2 also ,smith's ,old ,test4 in ,jewish ,church1 ,notes to ,lect4 ,,xii4 #ac ,see ,livingstone's ,travels and ,res4 in ,so4 ,africa1 pp4 #bij-bif4 #ad ,ibid41 p4 #ebe4 #ae ,see ,livingstone's ,travels and ,res4 in ,so4 ,africa1 p4 #cbd f4 #af ,see ,livingstone's ,travels and ,res4 in ,so4 ,africa1 p4 #ebf4 #ag ,ibid41 p4 #bac4 #ah ,cameron's ,across ,africa1 ,i41 #ccc4 #ai ,ibid41 ,i41 #ccc f4 #bj ,across ,africa1 ,i41 #cfi4 #ba ,see page #i1 supra4 #bb ,through the ,dark ,continent1 ,i41 #ajg1 #acj f4 #bc ,ibid41 ,i41 #dib4 #bd ,ibid41 ,i41 #eb1 #dib4 #be ,how ,i found ,livingstone1 pp4 #bfg-cjd4 #bf ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,i41 #dhi f4 #bg ,ibid41 ,i41 #acj4 #bh ,ibid41 ,i41 #dhg-dib4 #bi ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,i41 #dic4 #cj ,ibid41 ,i41 #dic f4 #ca ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,i41 #abc4 #cb ,ibid41 ,i41 #bbg-bcg4 #cc ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,i41 #bfh4 #cd ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #add-adf4 #ce ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,,ii41 #agg f4 #cf ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,,ii41 #ahh4 #cg ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,,ii41 #cje f4 #ch ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #cae4 #ci ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,,ii41 #ccj-ccb4 #dj ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,,ii41 #djb-djh4 #da ,the ,congo1 ,i41 #cjd-cab4 #db ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,,ii41 #bha-bhc4 #dc ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,,ii41 #bhf4 #dd ,see pages #bf-bh1 supra4 #de 8,bula ,matari10 or 8,rock ,breaker10 or ,road ,maker1 was a name given to ,stanley by the natives4 #df ,the ,congo1 ,i41 #chc-che4 #dg ,see page #g f41 supra4 #dh ,the ,congo1 ,,ii41 #ba-bd4 #di ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #ch4 #ej ,the ,congo1 ,,ii41 #dh4 #ea ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #fh4 #eb ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #gi4 #ec ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #aji4 #ed ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #aah4 #ee ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #acb4 #ef ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #aga4 #eg ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #agg4 #eh ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,,ii41 #big-cjb4 #ei ,the ,congo1 ,,ii41 #gi-ij4 #fj ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #ajd f4 #fa ,aristotle's ,ethics1 ,,ix41 #h1 #c4 ,this is not made as an original statement1 by ,aristotle1 but as the citation of one of the well-known 8proverbs0 of friendship4 #fb ,see ,nouveau ,dictionnaire de ,mdecine et de ,chirurgie ,pratiques1 7ed4 #ahhd7 s4 v4 8,transfusion40 #fc ,see ,appendix1 infra4 #fd ,see ,carlyle's ,heroes and ,hero-,worship1 ,lect4 ,i42 also ,anderson's ,norse ,mythology1 pp4 #bae-bbj1 #cga-cgd4 #fe ,see ,anderson's ,norse ,mythol41 pp4 #cgb1 #djh f4 #ff ,see ,wilkinson's ,ancient ,egyptians1 ,,iii41 #adb2 ,renouf's ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #aah f42 ,ebers's ,picturesque ,egypt1 ,i41 #ajj f4 #fg ,see ,de ,wette's ,biblische ,dogmatik1 #gi4 #fh ,see ,carlyle's ,hero ,worship1 ,lect4 ,i4 #fi ,odin 8is the author of war40 ,he is called 8,valfather 7,father of the slain71 because he chooses for his sons all who fall in combat40 ,anderson's ,norse ,mythol41 p4 #bae f4 #gj ,mills's ,history of ,chivalry1 chap4 ,,iv4 #ga ,rom4 #f 3 #d-f2 ,col4 #b 3 #ab4 #gb ,anderson's ,viking ,tales of the ,north1 p4 #ei4 #gc ,ibid41 p4 #aia f4 #gd ,apparently these articles form a 8heap of witness10 or are the aggregated symbolic witnesses of the transaction2 as something answering to this usage is found in connection with the rite in various parts of the world4 #ge ,he who would be true in friendship must be true in all things4 ,the good friend is a good citizen4 ,see #a ,peter #b 3 #ag4 #gf ,see ,job #c 3 #b-i4 #gg ,here is the idea of an absolute inter-merging of natures1 by this rite4 #gh ,see ,matt4 #ac 3 #ab2 #be 3 #bi4 #gi ,here is an indication of the witness-bearing nature of these accessories of the rite4 #hj ,compare these blessings and cursings with those under the ,mosaic laws3 ,deut4 #bg 3 #i-bf2 #bh 3 #a-fh4 #ha ,see ,matt4 #f 3 #ca1 #cb4 #hb 8,this is a natural1 simple1 and beautiful allusion in common use among the ,malagasy1 to denote an inseparable association4 ,the rice is planted in water1 grows in water1 is boiled in water1 and water is the universal beverage taken with it when eaten40 #hc ,ellis's ,hist4 of ,madagascar1 ,i41 #ahg-aij4 #hd ,cited in ,ellis's ,hist4 of ,mad41 ,i41 #aia1 note4 #he ,st4 ,john's ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east1 ,i41 #aaf f4 #hf ,in 8,the ,century ,magazine0 for ,july1 #ahhe1 p4 #dcg4 #hg ,forbes's ,a ,naturalist's ,wanderings in the ,eastern ,archipelago1 p4 #deb4 #hh ,peter ,martyr's ,de ,rebus ,oceanicis et ,novo ,orbe1 p4 #cch2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #cd4 #hi ,see ,bancroft's ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,coast1 ,i41 #gda4 #ij ,see page #aj1 supra4 #ia ,southey's ,brazil1 ,i41 #bdj4 #ib ,lynd's ,history of the ,dakotas1 p4 #gc1 note4 #ic ,burton's ,city of the ,saints1 p4 #aag4 #id ,see page #ed1 supra4 #ie ,miss4 ,voyage to ,so4 ,pacif4 ,ocean1 p4 #cfj f4 #if ,see page #aj1 supra4 #ig ,see page #ed1 supra4 #ih ,see page #ee f41 supra4 #ii ,opera1 p4 #ede4 #ajj ,toxaris1 chap4 #cg4 #aja ,see references to arms as accessories to the rite1 in ,africa1 and in ,madagascar1 and in ,timor1 at pages #af1 #cb1 #ce f41 #de f41 #ec1 supra4 #ajb ,annales1 ,,xii41 #dg4 #ajc ,see page #aa1 supra4 #ajd ,arcanum2 literally 8mysterious10--not in the sense of secret1 or occult1 but with reference to its sacred and supernatural origin and sanction4 #aje ,see p4 #i1 supra4 #ajf ,catilina1 cap4 ,,xxii4 #ajg ,histori1 ,,iv41 #a1 #d4 #ajh ,apologet41 cap4 ,,ix4 #aji ,see stamp on outside cover4 #aaj ,hist41 ,,iv41 #gj4 #aaa ,see note 7footnote #aja71 at page #ei1 supra4 #aab ,see the references to imprecatory invokings1 in connection with the observance of the rite in ,syria1 in ,central ,africa1 in ,madagascar1 and in ,timor1 at pages #i1 #bj1 #ca1 #df f41 #ec1 supra4 #aac ,hist41 ,,iii41 #h4 #aad ,see page #de supra1 note 7footnote #gd74 #aae ,see references to the welcoming of new friends by the natives of ,africa and of ,borneo1 at the celebration of this rite1 at pages #cf f41 #ea1 supra4 #aaf ,sextus ,pompeius ,festus1 whose chief work1 in the third or fourth ,christian century1 was an epitome1 with added notes and criticisms1 of an unpreserved work of ,m4 ,verrius ,flaccus1 on the ,latin language and antiquities4 #aag ,see ,rosenmller's ,scholia in ,vet4 ,test41 apud ,psa4 #af 3 #d4 #aah ,see ,scheller's1 and ,harpers'1 ,latin ,dictionary1 s4 v4 8,assiratum40 #aai ,see ,curtius's ,griechische ,etymologie1 s4 v41 7ear74 #abj ,see ,gesenius1 and ,fuerst1 s4 vv4 #aba ,deut4 #ab 3 #bc4 #abb ,see ,lane1 and ,freytag1 s4 vv4 #abc ,see ,delitzsch's ,assyrische ,lesestcke1 ,the ,syllabary1 p4 #bj2 and ,sayce's ,assyrian ,grammar1 ,the ,syllabary4 #abd ,see ,castellus's ,lexicon ,syriacum1 s4 v4 #abe ,see page #g1 supra4 #abf ,cited from 8,tod's ,travels1 ,journal ,indian ,archipelago1 ,vol4 ,v41 ,no4 #ab10 in ,balfour's ,cycl4 of ,india1 s4 v41 8,brother40 #abg ,see ,elliott and ,roberts's ,views in ,india1 ,,ii41 #fd4 #abh ,ayeen ,akbery1 ,,ii41 #dec4 #abi ,see citation from ,wetzstein1 at page #i f41 supra4 #acj ,see ,anderson's ,norse ,mythol41 p4 #adi2 his ,viking ,tales1 pp4 #ahd1 #bcg1 #bgb f42 ,wood's ,wedding ,day in all ,ages and ,countries1 p4 #aci4 #aca ,lettsom's ,nibelungen ,lied1 pp4 #bii1 #chh4 #acb ,gen4 #da 3 #da1 #db4 #acc ,esther #c 3 #aj-ab2 #h 3 #b4 #acd ,luke #ae 3 #bb4 #ace ,see ,wood's ,wedding ,day2 also ,jones's ,finger ,ring ,lore4 #acf ,cited in ,jones's ,finger ,ring ,lore1 p4 #bhi4 #acg ,see ,ibid41 pp4 #hg-ij4 #ach ,persian- und ,ost-,indische ,reise1 ,,ii41 #aif4 #aci ,see pp4 #ei f41 #fb1 supra4 #adj ,see ,godwyn's ,roman ,histori1 p4 #fi2 ,brewer's ,dict4 of ,phrase and ,fable1 s4 vv4 8,ring10 8,ring ,finger02 ,jones's ,finger ,ring ,lore1 p4 #bge4 ,see also ,appendix1 infra4 #ada ,lane's ,mod4 ,egypt41 ,,ii41 #bic4 #adb ,see ,bock's ,head ,hunters of ,borneo1 p4 #bba f4 #adc ,finger ,ring ,lore1 p4 #agd4 #add ,see page #fc f41 supra4 #ade ,see ,finger ,ring ,lore1 pp4 #agg-aig4 #adf ,cited in ,jones's ,credulities ,past and ,present1 p4 #bjd f4 #adg ,see ,appendix4 #adh ,see ,wilkinson's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,ii41 #cdj-cdc2 ,layard's ,nineveh and its ,remains1 ,,ii41 #bej1 #ceh2 also #b ,sam4 #a 3 #aj4 #adi ,modern ,egyptians1 ,i41 #ci4 #aej ,frere's ,old ,deccan ,days1 pp4 #bbe-bde4 #aea ,dubois's ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,india1 ,part ,,ii41 chap4 #g4 #aeb ,see p4 #aid1 supra4 #aec ,prov4 #d 3 #ah4 #aed ,see ,lepsius's ,todtenbuch2 ,bunsen's ,egypt's ,place in ,universal ,history1 ,v41 #abe-acc2 ,renouf's ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt1 pp4 #agi-bjh4 #aee ,see ,lenormant and ,chevallier's ,ancient ,history of the ,east1 ,i41 #cjh4 #aef ,renouf's ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #bjh4 #aeg ,bunsen's ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #acc4 #aeh ,see ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #abg4 #aei ,ibid41 ,v41 #agd f4 #afj ,this is the rendering of ,birch4 ,ebers has looked for an explanation of this gloss1 in the rite of circumcision 7gypten u4 d4 ,bcher ,mose's1 p4 #bhd f472 but the primary reference to the 8arm0 of the god1 and to the union secured through the interflowing blood1 point to the blood-covenant as the employed figure of speech2 although circumcision1 as will be seen presently1 was likewise a symbol of the blood-covenant--for one's self and for one's seed4 ,brugsch also sees a similar meaning1 to that suggested by ,ebers1 in this reference to the blood4 ,his rendering of the original text is3 8,reach me your hands4 ,i have become that which ye are0 7,religion u4 ,mythol4 d4 alt4 gypt41 ,i41 #bai74 ,le ,page ,renouf1 looking for the symbolisms of material nature in all these statements1 would find here 8the crimson of a sunset0 in the 8blood which flows from the ,sun-god ,r1 as he hastens to his suicide0 7,trans4 of ,soc4 of ,bib4 ,arch41 ,vol4 ,,viii41 ,part #b1 p4 #baa74 ,this1 however1 does not conflict with the spiritual symbolism of oneness of nature through oneness of blood4 ,and no one of these last three suggested meanings accounts for the oneness with the gods through blood1 which the deceased claims1 unless the symbolism of blood-covenanting be recognized in the terminology4 ,that symbolism being recognized1 the precise source of the flowing blood becomes a minor matter4 #afa ,see ,wilkinson's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #dgc2 ,renouf's ,relig4 of ,anc4 ,egypt1 pp4 #aia-aic2 ,lenormant's ,chaldean ,magic1 p4 #hh4 #afb ,see ,todtenbuch1 chap4 ,,lxviii42 ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #baa4 #afc ,see ,pierret's ,vocabulaire ,hiroglyphique1 p4 #gba f42 also1 ,birch's 8,dict4 of ,hierog40 in ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #eai4 #afd ,see page #fe f41 supra4 #afe ,see ,todtenbuch1 chap4 ,,clvi42 ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #cae2 ,trans4 of ,soc4 of ,bib4 ,arch41 ,,viii41 #b1 #baa4 ,this amulet is also called tet2 a word of the same phonetic force as tet1 the 8arm10 or the 8bracelet10 but of different letters4 ,this word 7,illustration7 seems to have the root-idea of 8word20 as if it were applied to the text of the blood-covenant4 ,the amulet as constructed for the mummy1 was stained with the water or liquid of the tree called ankh am 7,illustration74 ,the amulet itself1 according to ,brugsch1 was also called ankh merer 7,illustration74 ,but ankh 7,illustration7 means either to live 7the ordinary meaning71 or to swear1 to make oath 7more rarely71 and merer 7,illustration7 is a reduplicated form of mer 7,illustration7 to love1 love1 friendship4 ,the meaning of ankh merer1 as applied to the blood-amulet may be1 oath1 or covenant1 or pledge of love or friendship4 ,the word merer1 in the compound ankh merer1 is followed with the determinative of the flying scarabus 7,illustration7 which was commonly placed 7,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #cdf7 upon the breast1 in lieu of the heart of the dead 7,ibid41 ,,iii41 #dhf74 ,see page #ajj1 infra4 ,and here the inquiry is suggested1 ,was the ankh am the same as the modern henneh8 ,note the connection of henneh with the marriage festivities in the ,east to-day4 8,paint one hand with henna1 mother2 ,paint one hand and leave the other4 ,bracelets on the right with henna2 ,on the left give drink to henna40 7,jessup's ,syrian ,home ,life1 p4 #cd47 #aff ,see ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #bcb4 #afg ,see ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #agd1 #bed1 #bhb4 #afh ,ibid41 ,v41 #cbc4 #afi ,see ,zeitschrift fr gyptische ,sprache1 erstes ,heft1 #ahhe1 p4 #af4 #agj ,see page #ha f41 supra4 #aga ,see ,pierret1 ,brugsch1 ,birch1 s4 v4 #agb ,uarda1 ,i41 #aib4 #agc ,ferriol's ,recueil de cent ,estampes representant differentes ,nations du ,levant1 ,carte #dc1 and ,explication1 p4 #af4 #agd ,first ,miss4 ,voyage to the ,so4 ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #ceb-cfc4 #age ,ibid41 p4 #aif4 #agf ,ellis's ,polynesian ,researches1 ,i41 #ebi4 #agg ,psa4 #ef 3 #h4 #agh 8,the ,goose ,girl10 in ,grimm's ,household ,tales4 #agi #a ,kings #ah 3 #bf-bh4 #ahj ,van ,lennep's ,bible ,lands1 pp4 #gfg-gfi4 #aha ,see ,herrera's ,gen4 ,hist4 of ,cont4 and ,isl4 of ,america1 ,,iii41 #bji1 #baa1 #baf1 #cjj f42 ,clavigero's ,hist4 of ,mex41 ,bk4 ,,vi41 chaps4 #bb1 #ch2 ,motolinia's ,hist4 ,ind4 de ,nueva ,espaa1 p4 #bb2 ,landa's ,relat4 ,yucatan1 ,,xxxv42 ,ximenez's ,hist4 ,ind4 ,gautem41 pp4 #aga-aha2 ,palacio's ,san ,salv4 and ,hond4 7in ,squier's ,coll41 ,i47 #fe ff41 #ajf1 #aaf2 ,simon's ,ter4 ,not4 ,conq4 ,tier4 ,firm4 en ,nue ,gran4 7in ,kingsborough's ,antiq4 of ,mex41 ,,viii47 #bjh1 #bdh2 all cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #bj-bf1 #bh1 #cc4 ,see1 also1 ,bancroft's ,native ,races of ,pacif4 ,coast1 ,i41 #ffe1 #gbc2 ,,ii41 #bei1 #cjf1 #gjh1 #gaj4 #ahb ,serving the purpose of the ,otaheitan shark's-teeth4 ,see page #hf f41 supra4 #ahc ,rville's ,native ,religions of ,mexico and ,peru1 p4 #hd f4 #ahd ,cited in ,adam's ,curiosities of ,superstition4 #ahe ,cited in ,benson's ,remarkable ,trials and ,notorious ,characters1 p4 #aa4 #ahf ,cited in ,drake's ,the ,witchcraft ,delusion in ,new ,england1 ,i41 #ahg2 ,,ii41 #bad4 #ahg ,ibid41 ,i1 xviii4 ,see also1 ,appendix1 infra4 #ahh ,faust1 ,swanwick's translation1 ,part ,i41 lines #acfj-achf4 #ahi ,see ,tylor's ,primitive ,culture1 ,,ii41 #djb2 citing ,boecler's ,ehsten ,aberglabische ,gebrache1 #d4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,suggestions ,,and ,,perversions ,,of ,,the ,,rite4 ,,ii4 ,,suggestions ,,and ,,perversions ,,of ,,the ,,rite4 #a4 ,,sacredness ,,of ,,blood ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,heart4 ,apart from1 and yet linked with1 the explicit proofs of the rite of blood-covenanting throughout the primitive world1 there are many indications of the root-idea of this form of covenanting2 in the popular estimate of blood1 and of all the marvelous possibilities through blood-transference4 ,these indications1 also1 are of old1 and from everywhere4 ,to go back again to the earlier written history of the world2 it is evident that the ancient ,egyptians recognized blood as in a peculiar sense life itself2 and that they counted the heart1--as the blood-source and the blood-centre1--the symbol and the substance of life4 ,in the ,book of the ,dead1 the deceased speaks of his heart1--or his blood-fountain1--as his life2 and as giving him the right to appear in the presence of the gods3 8,my heart was my mother2 my heart was my mother2 my heart was my being on earth2 placed within me2 returned to me by the chief gods1 placing me before the gods0#aij in the presence of the gods4 ,in the process of embalming1 the heart was always preserved with jealous care2#aia and sometimes it was embalmed by itself in a sepulchral vase4#aib ,it was the heart--as the life1 which is the blood--that seems to have been put into the scales of the divine ,judge for the settling of the soul's destiny2#aic according to all the ,egyptian pictures of the judgment4 ,throughout the ,book of the ,dead1 and in all the sacred teachings and practices of the ancient ,egyptians1 with reference to human life and human destiny1 the heart is obviously recognized as the analogon of blood1 and blood as the analogon of life4 ,moreover1 the life1 which is represented by the blood and by the heart1 appears to be counted peculiarly the gift and the guarded treasure of ,deity1 and as being in itself a resemblance to1 if not actually a part of1 the divine nature4#aid ,even of the lower animals1 the heart and the heart's blood were counted sacred to the gods1 and were not to be eaten by the ,egyptians2 as if life belonged only to the ,giver of life1 and1 when passing out from a lower organism1 must return1 or be returned1 only to its original ,source4 ,when the soul stands before the forty-two judges1 in the ,hall of the ,two ,truths1 to give answer concerning its sins1 one of its protesting avowals1 as recorded in the ,book of the ,dead1 is3 8,oh ,glowing ,feet1 coming out of the darkness6 ,i have not eaten the heart20#aie ,in my earthly life-course1 ,i have not committed the sacrilege of heart-eating4 ,yet1 of the sacrificial offering of 8a red cow10 as prescribed in the ,book of the ,dead1 8of the blood squeezed from the heart1 one hundred drops10#aif make a portion for the gods4 ,in one of the tombs of ,memphis1 there is represented a scene of slaughtering animals4 ,as the heart of an animal is taken out1 the butcher who holds it says1--as shown by the accompanying hieroglyphics1--8,take care of this heart20#aig as if that were a portion to be guarded sacredly4 8,keep thy heart with all diligence or1 as the margin has it1 8above all thou guardest02 for out of it are the issues of life40#aih ,it may1 indeed1 have been from the lore of ,egypt that ,solomon obtained this proverb of the ages1 to pass it onward to posterity with his stamp of inspiration4 ,it would even seem that the blood of animals was not allowed to be eaten by the ,egyptians2 although there has been a question at that point1 among ,egyptologists4 ,wilkinson thinks that they did employ it in cooking2#aii but this is only his inference from a pictured representation of the blood being caught in a vessel1 when an animal is slaughtered for the table4 ,on the other hand1 that same picture shows the vessel of blood being borne away1 afterwards1 on uplifted hands2#bjj as it would have been if it were designed for a sacred libation4 ,again1 the other picture1 reported by ,birch1 as showing the butcher's care of the heart1 represents the blood as 8collected in a jar with a long spout02 such as was used for sacred libations4#bja ,it is evident that blood was offered to the gods of ,egypt in libation1 as was also wine4#bjb ,indeed the common ,egyptian word for blood 7,illustration1 senf7 is regularly followed by the determinative of outpouring 7,illustration74 ,the word tesher1 8red10 is sometimes used as a synonym for senf2 in this case 7and in this only7 the determinative of outpouring is added to the hieroglyphics for tesher4 ,moreover1 among the forty-two judges1 before whom the dead appears1 he who is 8,eater of ,blood0 comes next in order before the 8,eater of ,hearts02#bjc as if blood-eating1 like heart-eating1 were a prerogative of the gods4 ,if proof were still wanting that1 in ancient ,egypt1 it was the heart which was deemed the epitome of life1 and that the heart had this pre-eminence because of its being the fountain of blood--which is life--that proof would be found in 8,the ,tale of the ,two ,brothers02 a story that was prepared in its present form by a tutor of the ,pharaoh of the exodus1 while the latter was yet heir presumptive to the throne4 ,this story has been the subject of special study by ,de ,roug1 ,chabas1 ,maspero1 ,brugsch1 ,birch1 ,goodwin1 and ,le ,page ,renouf4 ,it is from the latter's translation1 that ,i draw my facts for this reference4#bjd ,anpu and ,bata were brothers4 ,bata's experience with the wife of ,anpu was like that of ,joseph in the house of ,potiphar4 ,he was true1 like ,joseph4 ,like ,joseph1 he was falsely accused1 his life was sought1 and his innocence was vindicated4 ,then1 for his better protection1 ,bata took his heart out from his body1 and put that in a safe place1 while he made his home near it4 ,to his brother he had said3 8,i shall take my heart1 and place it in the top of the flower of the cedar1 and when the cedar is cut down it will fall to the ground4 ,thou shalt come to seek it4 ,if thou art seven years in search of it1 let not thy heart be depressed1 and when thou hast found it thou shalt place it in a cup of cold water4 ,oh1 then ,i shall live 7once more740 ,after a time the cedar1 through the treachery of ,bata's false wife1 was cut down4 ,as it fell1 with the heart of ,bata1 the latter dropped dead4 ,for more than three years ,anpu sought his brother's heart2 then he found it4 8,he brought a vessel of cold water1 dropped the heart into it1 and sat down according to his daily wont4 ,but when the night was come1 the heart absorbed the water4 ,bata whose body seems to have been preserved--like a mummy--all this time trembled in all his limbs1 and continued looking at his elder brother1 but his heart was faint4 ,then ,anpu took the vessel of cold water which his brother's heart was in4 ,and when the latter ,bata had drunk it up1 his heart rose in its place2 and he became as he had been before4 ,each embraced the other1 and each one of them held conversation with his companion40 ,the revivified ,bata was transformed into a sacred bull1 an ,apis4 ,that bull1 by the treachery1 again1 of ,bata's wife1 was killed4 8,and as they were killing him1 and he was in the hands of his attendants1 he shook his neck1 and two drops of blood fell upon the two door-posts of ,his ,majesty in whose keeping was the sacred bull2 one was on the one side of the great staircase of ,his ,majesty1 the other upon the other side2 and they grew up into two mighty persea trees1 each of which stood alone40 ,thus the blood was both life and life-giving1 and the heart was as the very soul of its possessor1 in the estimation of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,in primitive ,america also1 as in ancient ,egypt1 the blood and the heart1 were held pre-eminently sacred4 ,among the ,dakotas1 in ,north ,america1 the heart of the deer and of other animals killed in hunting1 was offered to the spirits4#bje ,in ,central ,america and in ,south ,america1 it was the blood and the heart of the human victims offered in sacrifice1 which were counted the peculiar portion of the gods4#bjf ,in description of a human sacrifice among the ,nahuas of ,central ,america1#bjg a ,mexican historian says3 8,the high priest then approached1 and with a heavy knife of obsidian cut open the miserable man's breast4 ,then1 with a dexterity acquired by long practice1 the sacrificer tore forth the yet palpitating heart1 which he first offered to the sun1 and then threw at the feet of the idol4 ,taking it up1 he again offered it to the god1 and afterwards burned it2 preserving the ashes with great care and veneration4 ,sometimes the heart was placed in the mouth of the idol with a golden spoon4 ,it was customary also to anoint the lips of the image1 and the cornices of the door with the victim's blood40#bjh ,of the method among the ,maya nations1#bji south of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 a ,spanish historian#baj says3 8,the bleeding and quivering heart was held up to the sun1 and then thrown into a bowl prepared for its reception4 ,an assistant priest sucked the blood from the gash in the chest1 through a hollow cane2 the end of which he elevated towards the sun1 and then discharged its contents into a plume-bordered cup held by the captor of the prisoner just slain4 ,this cup was carried around to all the idols in the temples and chapels1 before whom another blood-filled tube was held up1 as if to give them a taste of the contents4 ,this ceremony performed1 the cup was left at the palace40 ,yet another record stands3 8,the guardian of the temple 444 opened the left breast of the victim1 tore out the heart1 and handed it to the high priest1 who placed it in a small embroidered purse which he carried4 ,the four assisting priests received the blood of the victim in four jicaras or bowls1 made from the shell of a certain fruit2 and descending1 one after the other1 to the court yard1 they sprinkled the blood with their right hand in the direction of the cardinal points of the compass4 ,if any blood remained over1 they returned it to the high priest1 who placed it1 with the purse containing the heart1 in the body of the victim1 through the wound that had been made2 and the body was interred in the temple40#baa ,commenting on these customs in ,central ,america1 ,rville--the representative comparative-religionist of ,france--says3 8,here you will recognize that idea1 so widely spread in the two ,americas1 and indeed almost everywhere amongst uncivilized peoples nor is it limited to the uncivilized1 that the heart is the epitome1 so to speak1 of the individual--his soul in some sense--so that to appropriate his heart is to appropriate his whole being40#bab ,what else than this gave rise to the thought of preserving the heart of a hero1 or of a loved one1 as a symbol of the living presence of the dead8 ,it was by his heart1 that ,king ,robert ,bruce was to lead his army to the ,holy ,land2 and how many times1 in history1 have men bequeathed their hearts to those dear to them1 as the poet ,shelley's heart was preserved by his friends1 and by them given to ,mrs4 ,shelley4 ,in the ,greek and ,roman sacrifices1 it was the blood of the victim1 which1 as the life of the victim1 was poured out unto the gods1 as unto the ,author of life4#bac ,moreover1 there is reason for supposing that the heart was always given the chief place1 as representing the very life itself1 in the examination and in the tasting of the 8entrails0 71 splangkhna7 in connection with the sacrifices of those classic peoples4#bad ,an indication of this truth is found in a statement by ,cicero1 concerning the sacrifices at the time of the inauguration of ,csar3 8,when he ,csar was sacrificing on that day in which he first sat in the golden chair1 and made procession in the purple garment1 there was no heart among the entrails of the sacrificial ox4 7,do you think1 therefore1 that any animal which has blood can exist without a heart87 ,yet he ,csar was not terrified by the phenomenal nature of the event1 although ,spurinna declared1 that it was to be feared that both mind literally #8counsel' and life were about to fail him ,csar2 for both of these mind and life do issue from the heart40#bae ,similarly it has been1 and to the present day it is1 with primitive peoples everywhere4 ,blood libations were made a prominent feature in the offerings in ancient ,phoenicia1#baf as in ,egypt4 ,in ,india1 the ,brahmans have a saying1 in illustration of the claim that ,vishnu and ,siva are of one and the same nature3 8,the heart of ,vishnu is ,siv1 and the heart of ,siv is ,vishnu2 and those who think they differ1 err40#bag ,the ,hindoo legends represent the victim's heart as being torn out and given to the one whom in life he has wronged4#bah ,in ,china1 at the great ,temple of ,heaven1 in ,peking1 where the emperors of ,china are supposed to have conducted worship without material change in its main features for now nearly three thousand years1#bai the blood of the animal sacrifice is buried in the earth#bbj while the body of the sacrificial victim is offered as a whole burnt offering4#bba ,the blood is the life2 the heart as the fountain of blood is the fountain of life2 both blood and heart are sacred to the ,author of life4 ,the possession1 or the gift1 of the heart or of the blood1 is the possession1 or the gift1 of the very nature of its primal owner4 ,that has been the world's thought in all the ages4 #b4 ,,vivifying ,,power ,,of ,,blood4 ,the belief seems to have been universal1 not only that the blood is the life of the organism in which it originally flows1 but that in its transfer from one organism to another the blood retains its life1 and so carries with it a vivifying power4 ,there are traces of this belief in the earliest legends of the ,old ,world1 and of the ,new2 in classic story2 and in medical practices as well1 all the world over1 from time immemorial until the present day4 ,for example1 in an inscription from the ,egyptian monuments1 the original of which dates back to the early days of ,moses1 there is a reference to a then ancient legend of the rebellion of mankind against the gods2 of an edict of destruction against the human race2 and of a divine interposition for the rescue of the doomed peoples4#bbb ,in that legend1 a prominent part is given to human blood1 mingled with the juice of mandrakes#bbc--;instead of wine--prepared as a drink of the gods1 and afterwards poured out again to overflow and to revivify all the earth4 ,and the ancient text which records this legend1 affirms that it was in conjunction with these events1 that there was the beginning of sacrifices in the world4 ,an early ,american legend has points of remarkable correspondence with this one from ancient ,egypt4 ,it relates1 as does that1 to a pre-historic destruction of the race1 and to its re-creation1 or its re-vivifying1 by means of transferred blood4 ,every ,mexican province told this story in its own way1 says a historian2 but the main features of it are alike in all its versions4 ,when there were no more men remaining on the earth1 some of the gods desired the re-creation of mankind2 and they asked help from the supreme deities accordingly4 ,they were then told1 that if they were to obtain the bones1 or the ashes of the former race1 they could revivify those remains by their own blood4 ,thereupon ,xolotl1 one of the gods1 descended to the place of the dead1 and obtained a bone 7whether a rib1 or not1 does not appear74 ,upon that vestige of humanity1 the gods dropped blood drawn from their own bodies2 and the result was a new vivifying of mankind4#bbd ,an ancient ,chaldean legend1 as recorded by ,berosus1 ascribes a new creation of mankind to the mixture by the gods of the dust of the earth with the blood that flowed from the severed head of the god ,belus4 8,on this account it is that men are rational1 and partake of divine knowledge10 says ,berosus4#bbe ,the blood of the god gives them the life and the nature of a god4 ,yet1 again1 the early ,phnician1 and the early ,greek1 theogonies1 as recorded by ,sanchoniathon#bbf and by ,hesiod1#bbg ascribe the vivifying of mankind to the outpoured blood of the gods4 ,it was from the blood of ,ouranos1 or of ,saturn1 dripping into the sea and mingling with its foam1 that ,venus was formed1 to become the mother of her heroic posterity4 8,the ,orphics1 which have borrowed so largely from the ,east10 says ,lenormant1#bbh 8said that the immaterial part of man1 his soul his life1 sprang from the blood of ,dionysus ,zagreus1 whom 444 ,titans had torn to pieces1 partly devouring his members40 ,homer explicitly recognizes this universal belief in the power of blood to convey life1 and to be a means of revivifying the dead4 ,when ,circ sent ,odysseus1 8,to consult ,the ,theban seer1 ,tiresias1 in the abode ,of ,pluto and the dreaded ,proserpine40 she directed him1 in preparation1 to 8,pour to all the dead ,libations1--milk and honey first1 and next ,rich wine1 and lastly water20 and after that to slay the sacrificial sheep4 ,but ,circ's caution was3 8,draw then the sword upon thy thigh1 and sit1 ,and suffer none of all those airy forms ,to touch the blood1 until thou first bespeak ,tiresias4 ,he will come1 and speedily1-- ,the leader of the people1--and will tell ,what voyage thou must make40 ,odysseus did as he was directed4 ,the bloodless shades flocked about him1 as he sat there guarding the life-renewing blood2 but even those dearest to him1 he forbade to touch that consecrated draught4 8,and then the soul of ,anticleia came1-- ,my own dead mother1 daughter of the king ,autolycus1 large minded4 ,her ,i left ,alive1 what time ,i sailed for ,troy1 and now ,i wept to see her there1 and pitied her1 ,and yet forbade her1 though with grief1 to come ,near to the blood till ,i should first accost ,tiresias4 ,he too came1 the ,theban seer1 ,tiresias1 bearing in his hand a wand ,of gold2 he knew me and bespake me thus3-- #8,why1 ,o unhappy mortal1 hast thou left ,the light of day to come among the dead1 ,and to this joyless land8 ,go from the trench ,and turn thy sword away1 that ,i may drink ,the blood1 and speak the word of prophecy4' ,he spake2 withdrawing from the trench1 ,i thrust ,into its sheath my silver-studded sword1 ,and1 after drinking of the dark red blood1 ,the blameless prophet turned to me and said--0#bbi ,then1 came the prophecy1 from the blood-revivified seer4 ,the wide-spread popular superstition of the vampire and of the ghoul1 seems to be an outgrowth of this universal belief1 that transfused blood is re-vivification4 ,the bloodless shades1 leaving their graves at night1 seek renewed life1 by drawing out the blood of those who sleep2 taking of the life of the living1 to supply temporary life to the dead4 ,this idea was prevalent in ancient ,babylon and ,assyria4#bcj ,it has shown itself in the ,old ,world and in the ,new1#bca in all the ages2 and even within a little more than a century1 it has caused an epidemic of fear in ,hungary1 8resulting in a general disinterment1 and the burning or staking of the suspected bodies40#bcb ,an added force is given to all these illustrations of the universal belief that transferred blood has a vivifying power1 by the conclusions of modern medical science1 concerning the possible benefits of blood-transfusion4#bcc ,on this point1 one of the foremost living authorities in this department of practice1 ,dr4 ,roussel1 of ,geneva1 says3 8,the great vitality of the blood of a vigorous and healthy man has the power of improving the quality of the patient's blood1 and can restore activity to the centres of nervous force1 and the organs of digestion4 ,it would seem that health itself can be transfused with the blood of a healthy man02#bcd death itself being purged out of the veins by inflowing life4 ,and in view of the possibilities of new life to a dying one1 through new blood from one full of life1 this writer insists1 that 8every adult and healthy man and woman should be ready to offer an arm1 as the natural and mysteriously inexhaustible source of the wonder-working elixir40#bce ,blood-giving can be life-giving4 ,the measure of one's love may1 indeed1 in such a case1 be tested by the measure of his yielded blood4#bcf ,roussel says1 that blood transfusion was practised by the ,egyptians1 the ,hebrews1 and the ,syrians1 in ancient times2#bcg and he cites the legend1 that before ,naaman came to ,elisha to be healed of his leprosy1#bch his physicians1 in their effort at his cure1 took the blood from his veins1 and replaced it with other blood4 ,whatever basis of truth there may be in this legend1 it clearly gained its currency through the prevailing conviction that new blood is new life4 ,there certainly is ample evidence that baths of human blood were anciently prescribed as a cure for the death-representing leprosy2 as if in recognition of this root idea of the re-vivifying power of transferred blood4 ,pliny1 writing eighteen centuries ago1 concerning leprosy1 or elephantiasis1 says#bci3 8,this was the peculiar disease of ,egypt2 and when it fell upon princes1 woe to the people2 for1 in the bathing chambers1 tubs were prepared1 with human blood1 for the cure of it40 ,nor was this mode of life-seeking confined to the ,egyptians4 ,it is said that the ,emperor ,constantine was restrained from it1 only in consequence of a vision from heaven4#bdj ,in the early ,english romance of ,amys and ,amylion1 one of these knightly brothers-in-arms consents1 with his wife's full approbation1 to yield the lives of his two infant children1 in order to supply their blood for a bath1 for the curing of his brother friend's leprosy4#bda ,in this instance1 the leprosy is cured1 and the children's lives are miraculously restored to them2 as if in proof of the divine approbation of the loving sacrifice4 ,it is shown1 indeed1 that this belief in the life-bringing power of baths of blood1 to the death-smitten lepers1 was continued into the ,middle ,ages2 and that it finally 8received a check from an opinion gradually gaining ground1 that only the blood of those would be efficacious1 who offered themselves freely and voluntarily for a beloved sufferer40#bdb ,there is something very suggestive in this thought of the truest potency of transferred life through transferred blood6 ,it is this thought which finds expression and illustration in ,longfellow's ,golden ,legend4 ,in the castle of ,vautsberg on the ,rhine1 ,prince ,henry is sick with a strange and hopeless malady4 ,lucifer appears to him in the garb of a traveling physician1 and tells him of the only possible cure for his disease1 as prescribed in a venerable tome3 8#8,the only remedy that remains ,is the blood that flows from a maiden's veins1 ,who of her own free will shall die1 ,and give her life as the price of yours6' ,that is the strangest of all cures1 ,and one1 ,i think1 you will never try2 ,the prescription you may well put by1 ,as something impossible to find ,before the world itself shall end60 ,elsie1 the lovely daughter of a peasant in the ,odenwald learns of the ,prince's need1 and declares she will give her blood for his cure4 ,in her chamber by night1 her self-surrendering prayer goes up3 8#8,if my feeble prayer can reach thee1 ,o my ,saviour1 ,i beseech thee1 ,even as thou hast died for me1 ,more sincerely ,let me follow where thou leadest1 ,let me1 bleeding as thou bleedest1 ,die1 if dying ,i may give ,life to one who asks to live1 ,and more nearly1 ,dying thus1 resemble thee6'0 ,her father1 ,gottlieb1 consents to her life-surrender1 saying to the ,prince3 8#8,as ,abraham offered1 long ago1 ,his son unto the ,lord1 and even ,the ,everlasting ,father in heaven ,gave his1 as a lamb unto the slaughter1 ,so do ,i offer up my daughter4'0 ,and ,elsie adds3 8#8,my life is little1 ,only a cup of water1 ,but pure and limpid4 ,take it1 ,o ,prince6 ,let it refresh you1 ,let it restore you4 ,it is given willingly ,it is given freely2 ,may ,god bless the gift6'0 ,the proffered sacrifice is interfered with before its consummation2 but its purposed method shows the estimate which was put1 from of old1 on voluntarily yielded life for life4 ,there is said to be an ,eastern legend somewhat like the story of ,amys and ,amylion2 with a touch of the ancient ,egyptian and ,mexican legends already cited4 8,the ,arabian chronicler speaks of a king1 who1 having lost a faithful servant by his transformation into stone1 is told that he can call his friend back to life1 if he is willing to behead his two children1 and to sprinkle the ossified figure with their blood4 ,he makes up his mind to the sacrifice2 but as he approaches the children with his drawn sword1 the will is accepted by heaven for the deed1 and he suddenly sees the stone restored to animation40#bdc ,this story1 in substance1 7only with the slaying and the resuscitating of the children1 as in the ,english romance17 appears in ,grimm's folk-lore tales1 under the title of 8,faithful ,john02#bdd but whether its origin was in the ,east or in the ,north1 or in both quarters1 is not apparent4 ,its reappearance ,east1 ,north1 and ,west1 is all the more noteworthy4 ,in the romances of ,king ,arthur and his knights1 there is a story of a maiden daughter of ,king ,pellinore1 a sister of ,sir ,percivale1 who befriends the noble ,sir ,galahad1 and then accompanies him and his companions on their way to the castle of ,carteloise1 and beyond1 in their search for the ,holy ,grail4 8,and again they went on to another castle1 from which came a band of knights1 who told them of the custom of the place1 that every maiden who passed by must yield a dish full of her blood4 #8,that shall she not do1' said ,galahad1 #8while ,i live'2 and fierce was the struggle that followed2 and the sword of ,galahad1 which was the sword of ,king ,david1 smote them down on every side1 until those who remained alive craved peace1 and bade ,galahad and his fellows come into the castle for the night2 #8and on the morn1' they said1 #8we dare say ye will be of one accord with us1 when ye know the reason for our custom8' ,so awhile they rested1 and the knights told them that in the castle there lay a lady sick to death1 who might never gain back her life1 until she should be anointed with the blood of a pure maiden who was a king's daughter4 ,then said ,percivale's sister1 #8,i will yield it1 and so shall ,i get health to my soul1 and there shall be no battle on the morn4' ,and even so was it done2 but the blood which she gave was so much that she might not live2 and as her strength passed away1 she said to ,percivale1 #8,i die1 brother1 for the healing of this lady4' 444 ,thus was the lady of the castle healed2 and the gentle maiden1 ,percivale's sister1 444 died40#bde ,in the old ,scandinavian legends1 there are indications of the traditional belief in the power of transferred life through a bath of blood4 ,siegfried1 or ,sigurd1 a descendant of ,odin1 slew ,fafner1 a dragon-shaped guardian of ill-gotten treasure4 ,in the hot blood of that dragon1 he bathed himself1 and so took on1 as it were1 an outer covering of new life1 rendering himself sword-proof1 save at a single point where a leaf of the linden-tree fell between his shoulders1 and shielded the flesh from the life-imparting blood4#bdf ,on this incident it is1 that the main tragedy in the ,nibelungen ,lied pivots2 where ,siegfried's wife1 ,kriemhild1 tells the treacherous ,hagan of her husband's one vulnerable point3 8,said she1 ,my husband's daring1 and thereto stout of limb2 ,of old1 when on the mountain he slew the dragon grim1 ,in its blood he bathed him1 and thence no more can feel1 ,in his charmed person1 the deadly dint of steel4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8,as from the dragon's death-wounds gushed out the crimson gore1 ,with the smoking torrent1 the warrior washed him o'er4 ,a leaf then 'twixt his shoulders fell from the linden bough2 ,there1 only1 steel can harm him2 for that ,i tremble now40#bdg ,even among the blood-reverencing ,brahmans of ,india1 there are traces of this idea1 that life is to be guarded by the outpoured blood of others4 ,in the famous old work1 8,kalila wa-,dimna10 there is the story of a king1 named ,beladh1 who had a vision in the night1 which so troubled him that he sought counsel of the ,brahmans4 ,their advice was1 that he should sacrifice his favorite wife1 his best loved son1 his nephew1 and his dearest friend1 in conjunction with other valued offerings to the gods4 8,it will be necessary for you1 ,o ,king10 they said1 8when you have put to death the persons we have named to you1 to fill a cauldron with their blood1 and sit upon it2 and when you get up from the cauldron1 we1 the ,brahmans1 assembled from the four quarters of the kingdom1 will walk around you1 and pronounce our incantations over you1 and we will spit upon you1 and wipe off from you the blood1 and will wash you in water and sweet-oil1 and then you may return to the palace1 trusting in the protection of heaven against the danger which threatens you40#bdh ,here1 the king's offering to the gods1 was to be of that which was dearest to him2 and the bath of blood was to prove to him a cover of life4 ,king ,beladh wisely said1 that if that were the price of his safety he was ready to die4 ,he would not prolong his life at such a cost4 ,but the story shows the primitive estimate of the life-giving power of blood1 among the ,hindoos4 ,in ,china1 also1 blood has its place as a life-giving agency4 ,a ,chinese woman1 on the ,kit-ie ,river1 tells a missionary1 of her occasional seasons of frenzy1 under the control of spirits1 and of her ministry of blood1 at such seasons1 for the cure of disease4 8,every year when there is to be a pestilence1 or when cholera is to prevail1 she goes into this frenzy1 and cuts her tongue with a knife1 letting some drops of her blood fall into a hogshead of water4 ,this homopathically-treated water1 the people drink as a specific against contagion40 ,its sacred blood is counted a shield of life4 8,with the rest of the blood1 she writes charms1 which the people paste as words of life upon their door-posts1 or wear upon their persons1 as preventives of evil40#bdi ,receiving new blood as a means of receiving new life1 seems to have been sought interchangeably1 in olden time1 in various diseases1 by blood lavations1 by blood drinking1 and by blood transfusion4 ,it is recorded that1 in #adhc1 ,king ,louis ,,xi41 of ,france1 struggled for life by drinking the blood of young children1 as a means of his revivifying4 8,every day he grew worse10 it is said2 8and the medicines profited him nothing1 though of a strange character2 for he vehemently hoped to recover by the human blood which he took and swallowed from certain children40#bej ,again there is a disputed claim1 that1 in #adib1 a ,jewish physician endeavored to save the life of ,pope ,innocent ,,viii41 by giving him in transfusion the blood of three young men successively4 ,the ,pope was not recovered1 but the three young men lost their lives in the experiment4#bea ,yet blood transfusion as a means of new life to the dying was not always a failure1 even in former centuries2 for the record stands1 that 8at ,frankfort1 on the ,oder1 the surgeons ,balthazar1 ,kaufman1 and ,purmann1 healed a leper1 in #afhc1 by passing the blood of a lamb into his veins40#beb ,even to-day1 in ,south ,africa1 8when the ,zulu ,king is sick1 his immediate personal attendants1 or valets1 are obliged to allow themselves to be wounded2 that a portion of their blood may be introduced into the king's circulation1 and a portion of his into theirs40#bec ,in this plan1 the idea seems to be1 that health may have power over disease1 and that death may be swallowed up in life1 by equalizing the blood of the one who is in danger1 and of the many who are in strength and safety4 ,moreover among the ,kafirs those who are still in health are sometimes 8washed in blood to protect them against wounds02#bed as if an outer covering of life could be put on1 for the protection of their life within4 ,transfused human blood is also said to be a common prescription of the medicine-men of ,tasmania1 for the cure of disease4#bee ,and so it would appear1 that1 whatever may be its basis in physiological science1 the opinion has prevailed1 widely and always1 that there is a vivifying power in transferred blood2 and that blood not only represents but carries life4 #c4 ,a ,,new ,,nature ,,through ,,new ,,blood4 ,it was a primeval idea1 of universal sway1 that the taking in of another's blood was the acquiring of another's life1 with all that was best in that other's nature4 ,it was not merely that the taking away of blood was the taking away of life2 but that the taking in of blood was the taking in of life1 and of all that that life represented4 ,here1 again1 the heart1 as the fountain of blood1 and so1 as the centre and source of life1 was preeminently the agency of transfer1 in the acquiring of a new nature4 ,herodotus tells us of this idea in the far ,east1 twenty-four centuries ago4 ,when a ,scythian1 he said1 killed his first man in open warfare1 he drank in his blood1 as a means of absorbing his fairly acquired life2 and the heads of as many as he slew1 the ,scythian carried in triumph to the king2#bef as the ,american ,indian bears away the scalps of his slain1 to-day4 ,modern historians1 indeed1 show us other resemblances than this1 between the aboriginal ,american and the ancient ,scythian4 ,the ,jesuit founder of the ,huron ,mission to the ,american ,indians1 8its truest hero1 and its greatest martyr10 was ,jean de ,brbeuf4 ,after a heroic life among a savage people1 he was subjected to frightful torture1 and to the crudest death4 ,his character had won the admiration of those who felt that duty to their gods demanded his martyrdom2 and his bearing under torture exalted him in their esteem1 as heroic beyond compare4 8,he came of a noble race10 says ,parkman1#beg--8the same race1 it is said1 from which sprang the ,english ,earls of ,arundel2 but never had the mailed barons of his line confronted a fate so appalling1 with so prodigious a constancy4 ,to the last he refused to flinch1 and #8his death was an astonishment to his murderers4'0 8,we saw no part of his body10 wrote an eye witness1#beh 8from head to foot1 which was not burned while he was yet living1 even to his eyes1 in the sockets of which these wretches had placed live coals40 ,such manhood as he displayed under these tortures1 the ,indians could appreciate4 ,such courage and constancy as his1 they longed to possess for themselves4 ,when1 therefore1 they perceived that the brave and faithful man of ,god was finally sinking into death1 they sprang toward him1 scalped him1 8laid open his breast1 and came in a crowd to drink the blood of so valiant an enemy2 thinking to imbibe with it some portion of his courage4 ,a chief then tore out his heart1 and devoured it40 ,not unlike this has been a common practice among the ,american ,indians1 in the treatment of prisoners of war4 8,if the victim had shown courage10 again says ,parkman1 concerning the ,hurons1 8the heart was first roasted1 cut into small pieces1 and given to the young men and boys1 who devoured it1 to increase their own courage40#bei ,so1 similarly1 with the ,iroquois4#bfj ,and ,burton says of the ,dakotas3#bfa 8,they are not cannibals1 except when a warrior1 after slaying a foe1 eats1 porcupine-like1 the heart or liver1 with the idea of increasing his own courage40 ,schomburgk1 writing concerning the natives of ,british ,guiana1 says3 8,in order to increase their courage1 and so their contempt of death1 the ,caribs were wont to cut out the heart of a slain enemy1 dry it on the fire1 powder it1 and mix the powder in their drink40#bfb ,the native ,australians find1 it is said1 an inducement to bloodshed1 in their belief--like that of the ancient ,scythians--that the life1 or the spirit1 of the first man whom one slays1 enters into the life of the slayer1 and remains as his helpful possession thereafter4#bfc ,the ,ashantee fetishmen1 of ,west ,africa1 apparently acting on a kindred thought1 make a mixture of the hearts of enemies1 mingled with blood and consecrated herbs1 for the vivifying of the conquerors4 8,all who have never before killed an enemy eat of the preparation2 it being believed that if they did not1 their energy would be secretly wasted by the haunting spirits of their deceased foes40#bfd ,the underlying motive of the bloody 8head-hunting0 in ,borneo1 is the ,dayak belief1 that the spirits of those whose heads are taken are to be subject to him1 who does the decapitating4 ,the heads are primarily simply the proof--like the ,indian's scalps--that their owner has so many lives absorbed in his own4#bfe ,a keen observer of ,fellheen life in ,palestine has reported3#bff 8,there is an ugly expression used among the fellheen of ,south ,palestine1 in speaking of an enemy slain in war--#8,dhabbahhtho bisnny' 7#8,i slew him with my teeth'7#bfg2 and it is said that there have been instances of killing in battle in this fashion by biting at the throat4 ,in the ,nablous district 7,samaria71 where the people are much more ferocious1 the expression is1 #8,i have drunk his blood'2 but that is understood figuratively40 ,an ancient ,greek version of the story of ,jason1 telling of that hero's treatment of the body of ,apsyrtos--whom he had slain--says3 8,thrice he tasted the blood1 thrice he spat it out between his teeth20 and a modern collator informs us1 that the scholiast here finds 8the description of an archaic custom1 popular among murderers40#bfh ,this certainly corresponds with the ,semitic phrases lingering among the ,fellheen of ,palestine4 ,in the old ,german epic1 the ,nibelungen ,lied1 it is told of the brave ,burgundians1 when they were fighting desperately in the burning hall of the ,huns1 that they were given new courage for the hopeless conflict1 by drinking the blood of their fallen comrades2 which 8quenched their thirst1 and made them fierce40#bfi ,with their added life1 from the added blood of heroes1 they battled as never before4 8,it strung again their sinews1 and failing strength renewed4 ,this1 in her lover's person1 many a fair lady rued40#bgj ,is there not1 indeed1 a trace of the primitive custom--thus recognized in all quarters of the globe--of absorbing the life of a slain one by drinking in his blood1 in our common phrase1 8blood-thirstiness10 as descriptive of a life-seeker8 ,that phrase certainly gains added force and appropriateness1 in the light of this universal idea4 ,it is evident that the wide-spread popular belief in nature-absorption through blood-appropriation1 has included the idea of a tribal absorption of new life in vicarious blood4 ,alcedo1 a ,spanish-,american writer1 has illustrated this in his description of the native ,araucanians of ,south ,america4 ,when they have triumphed in war1 they select a representative prisoner for official and vicarious execution4 ,after due preparation1 they 8give him a handful of small sticks and a sharp stake1 with which they oblige him to dig a hole in the ground2 and in this they order him to cast the sticks one by one1 repeating the names of the principal warriors of his country1 while at the same time the surrounding soldiers load these abhorred names with the bitterest execrations4 ,he is then ordered to cover the hole1 as if to bury therein the reputation and valor of their enemies1 whom he has named4 ,after this ceremony1 the toqui1 or one of his bravest companions to whom he relinquishes the honor of the execution1 dashes out the brains of the prisoner with a club4 ,the heart is immediately taken out1 and presented palpitating to the general1 who sucks a little of the blood1 and passes it to his officers1 who repeat in succession the same ceremony40#bga ,and in this way the life of the conquered tribe passes1 symbolically1 into the tribal life of the conquerors4 ,burckhardt was so surprised at a trace of this idea in ,nubia1 that he could hardly credit the information concerning it2 8although several persons asserted it to be a fact10 he says2 8and he heard no one contradict it40#bgb ,as he learned it3 8,among the ,hallenga1 who draw their origin from ,abyssinia1 a horrible custom is said to attend the revenge of blood4 ,when the slayer has been seized by the relatives of the deceased1 a family feast is proclaimed1 at which the murderer is brought into the midst of them1 bound upon an angareyg2 and while his throat is slowly cut with a razor1 the blood is caught in a bowl1 and handed round amongst the guests2 every one of whom is bound to drink of it1 at the moment the victim breathes his last40 ,the forfeited life of the murderer here seems to be surrendered to1 and formally appropriated by1 the family1 or clan1 which he had1 to the same extent1 depleted of character and life4 ,a practice not unlike this is reported of the ,australians1 in their avenging the blood of a murdered person4 ,they devour their victims2 who are selected from the tribe of the murderer1 although they may be personally1 innocent of the murder4 ,the tribe depleted by the murder1 replaces its loss by blood--which is life--from the tribe of the murderer4 ,indeed1 8when any one of a tribe in ,new ,south ,wales dies a natural death1 it is usual to avenge or to cancel the loss of the deceased by taking blood from one or other of his friends40#bgc ,in this way1 the very life and being of those whose blood is taken1 go to restore to the bereaved ones the loss that death has brought to them4 ,strange as this idea may seem to us1 its root-thought1 as a fact1 is still an open question in the realm of physiological science4 ,the claim is positive1 in medical works1 that insanity has been cured by the transfusion of a sane man's blood2#bgd that a normal mind has been restored1 through a normal life gained in new blood4 ,moreover1 the question1 how far the nature1 or the characteristics1 of an organism1 are affected1 in blood transfusion1 by the nature1 or the characteristics1 of the donor of the transfused blood1 is by no means a settled one among scientists4 ,referring to a series of questions in this line1 propounded by ,robert ,boyle1 more than two centuries ago1 ,roussel has said1 within the past decade3 8,no one has been able to give any positive answers to them1 based upon well-conducted operations02 and1 8they still await solution in #ahgg1 as in #affg40bge #d4 ,,life ,,from ,,any ,,blood1 ,,and ,,by ,a ,,touch4 ,because blood is life1 all blood1 and any blood1 has been looked upon as a vehicle of transferred life4 ,and because blood is life1 and the heart is a fountain of blood1 and so is a fountain of life1--a touch of blood1 or1 again1 the minutest portion of a vital and vivifying heart1 has been counted capable of transferring life1 with all that life includes and carries2 just as the merest cutting of a vine1 or the tiniest seed of the mightiest tree1 will suffice as the germ of that vine or that tree1 in a new planting4 ,the blood1 or the heart1 of the lower animals1 has been deemed the vehicle of life and strength1 in its transference2 and a touch from either has been counted potent in re-vivifying and in improving the receiving organism4 ,thus1 for example1 ,stanley1 in the interior of ,africa1 having received 8a fine1 fat ox as a peace-offering10 from 8the great magic doctor of ,vinyata10 when making a covenant of blood with him1#bgf was requested to return the heart of the ox to the donor2 and he acceded to this request4 ,after this1 ,stanley's party was several times assailed by the ,wanyaturu1 from the neighborhood of ,vinyata4 ,thereupon his ally ,mgongo ,tembo explained1 says ,stanley3 8,that we ought not to have bestowed the heart of the presented ox upon the magic doctor of ,vinyata2 as by the loss of that diffuser of blood1 the ,wanyaturu believed we had left our own bodies weakened1 and would be an easy prey to them40#bgg ,another modern traveler in ,equatorial ,africa finds fresh bullock's blood counted a means of manhood4 ,while the young ,masi man is passing his novitiate into warrior life1 he seeks new strength by taking in new blood4 ,having employed medical means to rid his system of the remains of all other diet1 says ,thompson1 the novice went to a lonely place with a single attendant2 they taking with them a living bullock4 ,there 8they killed the bullock1 either with a blow from a rungu1 or by stabbing it in the back of the neck4 ,they then opened a vein and drank the blood fresh from the animal40 ,after this1 the young man gorged himself with the bullock's flesh4#bgh ,and whenever the ,masi warriors 8go off on war-raids they also contrive to eat a bullock after this fashion1 by way of getting up their courage40#bgi ,again1 it is said1 that ,arab women in ,north ,africa give their male children a piece of the lion's heart to eat1 to make them courageous4#bhj ,and an ,english traveler in ,south ,africa#bha describing the death of a lion shot by his party1 says3 8,scarcely was the breath out of his body than the ,caffres rushed up1 and each took a mouthful of the blood that was trickling from the numerous wounds2 as they believe that it is a specific which imparts strength and courage to those who partake of it40 ,that the transference of life1 with all that life carries1 can be made by the simplest blood-anointing1 as surely as by blood absorption1 is strikingly illustrated by a custom still observed among the ,hill ,tribes of ,india4 ,the ,bheels1 are a brave and warlike race of mountaineers1 of ,hindostan4 ,they claim to have been1 formerly1 the rulers of all their region2 but1 whether by defeat in war1 or by voluntary concession1 to have yielded their power to other peoples--whom they now authorize to rule in their old domain4 8,the extraordinary custom1 common to almost all the countries of ,india that have been mentioned10 says ,sir ,j4 ,malcolm1#bhb 8of the tika1 or mark that is put upon the forehead of the ,rajput prince1 or chief1 when he succeeds to power1 being moistened with blood taken from the toe or thumb of a ,bhill1 may be received as one among many proofs of their having been formerly in possession of the principalities1 where this usage prevails4 444 ,the right of giving the blood for this ceremony1 is claimed by particular families2 and the belief1 that the individual1 from whose veins it is supplied1 never lives beyond a twelvemonth1 in no degree operates to repress the zeal of the ,bhills to perpetuate an usage1 which the ,rajput princes are1 without exception1 desirous should cease40 ,the ,bheels claim that the right to rule is vested in their race2 but they transfer that right to the ,rajpoot by a transfer of blood--which is a transfer of life and of nature4 ,thus the ,bheels continue to rule--in the person of those who have been vivified by their blood4 ,so1 again1 among the ancient ,caribs1 of ,south ,america1 8#8as soon as a male child was brought into the world1 he was sprinkled with some drops of his father's blood'2 the father #8fondly believing1 that the same degree of courage which he had himself displayed1 was by these means transmitted to his son4'0#bhc ,here it is evident1 that the voluntary transfusion of blood is deemed more potent to the strengthening of personal character1 than is the transmission of blood by natural descent4 ,in ,south ,africa1 among the ,amampondo1 one of the ,kaffir tribes1 it is customary for the chief1 on his accession to authority1 8to be washed in the blood of a near relative1 generally a brother1 who is put to death on the occasion1 and his skull used as a receptacle for his blood40#bhd ,in order to give more life and more character than the ordinary possession to the newly elevated chieftain1 the family blood is withdrawn from the veins of one having less need of it1 that it may be absorbed by him who can use it more imposingly4 ,in the ,yoruba country1 in ,central ,africa1 8when a beast is sacrificed for a sick man1 the blood is sprinkled on the wall1 and smeared on the patient's forehead1 with the idea1 it is said1 of thus transferring to him the divinely accepted victim's life40 ,life is life1 and whether that life be in the blood of one organism or of another1 of man or of an inferior animal1 its transference carries with it all that life includes4 ,that seems to be the thought in ,yoruba2 and1 as all life is of supernatural origin and preservation1 its transference can be by a touch as easily as by any other method4#bhe #e4 ,,inspiration ,,through ,,blood4 ,because blood1 as life1 belongs to1 and1 in a peculiar sense1 represents1 the ,author of life1 blood has been counted a means of inspiration4 ,the blood of the gods1 in myth and legend1 and again the blood of divinely accepted sacrifices1 human and animal1 in ancient and modern religious rituals1 has been relied on as the agency whereby the ,author of life speaks in and through the possessor of that blood4 ,the inspiring power of blood1 is a thought that runs all through the early ,norseland legends4 ,thus1 ,kvaser1 according to the ,scandinavian mythology1 was a being created by the gods with preternatural intelligence4 ,kvaser traversed the world1 teaching men wisdom2 but he was treacherously murdered by the dwarfs ,fjalar and ,gala4 ,the dwarfs let ,kvaser's blood run into two cups and a kettle4 8,the name of the kettle is ,odrrer1 and the names of the cups are ,son and ,bodn4 ,by mixing up his blood with honey1 they composed a drink of such surpassing excellence1 that whoever partakes of it acquires the gift of song40#bhf ,and that was the origin of poetry in the world2 although there have been a good many imitations of the real article since that day4 ,so1 again1 in the ,elder ,edda1 the hero ,sigurd killed ,fafner1 at the instigation of ,fafner's brother ,regin4 ,regin cut out the heart of his brother1 and gave it to ,sigurd to roast1 while he drank the blood of the murdered one4 ,touching the bleeding heart with his fingers1 and then putting his fingers into his mouth1 ,sigurd found that he was now able to understand the voice of birds2 and thenceforward he was a hero inspired4#bhg ,afterwards he gave his bride1 ,gudrun1 8to eat of the remnant of ,fafnir's heart2 so she grew wise and great-hearted40#bhh ,down to the present time1 there are those in the far ,east1 and in the far ,west1 who seek inspiration by blood-drinking4 ,all along the ,north ,pacific coast1 the shamanism of the native tribes shows itself in a craving for blood as a means and as an accompaniment of preternatural frenzy4 ,the chief sorcerer1 or medicine-man1 has his seasons of demoniacal possession1 when he can communicate with the powers of the air4 ,at such times he is accustomed to spring upon the members of his tribe1 and bite out from their necks or bodies the bleeding flesh1 as a help to inspiration and debauch4 ,none would venture to resist these blood-thirsty assaults2 but the scars which result are always borne with pride4#bhi ,another phase of this universal idea is reported by a recent traveler in the ,himalayan districts of ,india2 where1 as he thinks1 the forms of religion ante-date in their origin those of ,hindooism1 or of ,brahmanism1 and 8have descended from very early ages40 ,when a favor is sought from a local divinity1 8it is the chela or primitive seer who gasps out the commands of the deoty the #8deity'1 as he the chela shivers under the divine afflatus1 and under the vigorous application of the soongul1 or iron scourge40 ,but before the chela can have 8the divine afflatus0 he must drink-in living blood4 ,thus1 this traveler witnessed an appeal to the snake-god1 ,kailung ,nag1 for fine weather for the sowing of the crops4 ,the sacrificial sheep was procured by the people2 the ceremonies of wild worship1 including music1 dancing1 incense-burning1 and bodily flagellations1 proceeded4 8,at length1 all being ready1 the head of the victim was struck off with an axe4 ,the body was then lifted up by several men1 and the chela1 seizing upon it like a tiger1 drank the blood as it spurted from the neck4 ,when all the blood had been sucked from the carcass1 it was thrown down upon the ground1 amid yells and shouts of #8,kailung ,maharaj ki jai6' #8,victory to the great king ,kailung'4 ,the dancing was then renewed1 and became more violent1 until after many contortions1 the chela now blood-filled gasped out that the deota accepted the sacrifice1 and that the season would be favorable4 ,this was received with renewed shouts1 and the chela sank down upon the ground in a state of exhaustion40#bij ,in the folk-lore of ,scotland1 as representing the primitive traditions of ,western ,europe1 there are illustrations of the idea that the blood of the gods was communicated to earthly organisms4 ,thus1 a scientific antiquarian of ,scotland records in this line3 8,there was a popular saying that the robin0--the robin red-breast--8had a drop of ,god's blood in its veins1 and that therefore to kill or hurt it was a sin1 and that some evil would befall any one who did so2 and1 conversely1 any kindness done to poor robin would be repaid in some fashion4 ,boys did not dare to harry a robin's nest40 ,on the other hand1 the yellow-hammer and the swallow were said1 each 8to have a drop of the ,devil's blood in its veins02 so the one of these birds--the yellow-hammer--was 8remorselessly harried02 and the other--the swallow--8was feared1 and therefore let alone40#bia ,a similar legendary fear of the swallow1 and the guarding of his nest1 accordingly1 exists in ,germany and in ,china4#bib ,another indication of the belief1 that human blood has a vital connection with its divine source1 and is under the peculiar oversight of its divine ,author1 is found in the wide-spread opinion that the blood of a murdered man will bear witness against the murderer1 by flowing afresh at his touch2 the living blood crying out from the dead body1 by divine consent1 in testimony of crime against the ,author of life4 ,ancient ,european literature teems with incidents in the line of this 8ordeal of touch40 ,thus it was1 according to the ,nibelungen ,lied1 that ,kriemhild fastened upon ,hagan the guilt of murdering her husband ,siegfried2 when ,hagan and his associates were gathered for the burial of the hero4 8,firmly they made denial2 ,kriemhild at once replied1 #8,whoe'er in this is guiltless1 let him this proof abide4 ,in sight of all the people let him approach the bier1 ,and so to each beholder shall the plain truth appear4' ,it is a mighty marvel1 which oft e'en now we spy1 ,that1 when the blood-stain'd murderer comes to the murder'd nigh1 ,the wounds break out a-bleeding2 then too the same befell1 ,and thus could each beholder the guilt of ,hagan tell4 ,the wounds at once burst streaming1 fast as they did before2 ,those who then sorrowed deeply1 now yet lamented more40#bic ,under ,christian ,,ii41 of ,denmark1 the 8,nero of the ,north10 early in the sixteenth century1 there was a notable illustration of this confidence in the power of blood to speak for itself4 ,a number of gentlemen being together in a tavern1 one evening1 they fell to quarreling1 and 8one of them was stabbed with a poniard4 ,now the murderer was unknown1 by reason of the number present2 although the person stabbed accused a pursuivant of the king's who was one of the company4 ,the king1 to find out the homicide1 caused them all to come together in the stove the tavern1 and1 standing round the corpse1 he commanded that they should1 one after another1 lay their right hand on the slain gentleman's naked breast1 swearing that they had not killed him4 ,the gentlemen did so1 and no sign appeared against them4 ,the pursuivant only remained1 who1 condemned before in his own conscience1 went first of all and kissed the dead man's feet4 ,but1 as soon as he had laid his hand upon his breast1 the blood gushed forth in abundance1 both out of his wound and his nostrils2 so that1 urged by this evident accusation1 he confessed the murder1 and was by the king's own sentence1 immediately beheaded40#bid ,a striking example of the high repute in which this ordeal of touch was formerly held1 and of the underlying idea on which its estimate was based1 is reported from the ,state ,trials of ,scotland4 ,it was during the trial of ,philip ,standsfield1 in #afhh1 for the murder of his father1 ,sir ,james4 ,the testimony was explicit1 that when this son touched the body1 the blood flowed afresh1 and the son started back in terror1 crying out1 8,lord1 have mercy upon me60 wiping off the blood1 from his hand1 on his clothes4 ,sir ,george ,m',kenzie1 acting for the ,state1 at the inquest1 said concerning this testimony and its teachings3 8,but they1 fully persuaded that ,sir ,james was murdered by his own son1 sent out with him some surgeons and friends1 who having raised the body1 did see it bleed miraculously upon his touching it4 ,in which1 ,god ,almighty himself was pleased to bear a share in the testimonies which we produce3 that ,divine ,power which makes the blood circulate during life1 has oft times1 in all nations1 opened a passage to it after death upon such occasions1 but most in this case40#bie ,mr4 ,henry ,c4 ,lea1 in his erudite work on ,superstition and ,force1 has multiplied illustrations of the ordeal of touch1 or of 8bier-right10 all along the later centuries4#bif ,he recalls that 8,shakspeare introduces it1 in ,king ,richard ,,iii41 where ,gloster interrupts the funeral of ,henry ,,vi41 and ,lady ,anne exclaims3 #8,o gentlemen see1 see6 dead ,henry's wounds ,open their congealed mouths1 and bleed afresh4'0 ,he refers to the fact that it was an old-time ,jewish custom to ask pardon of a corpse for any offences committed against the living man1 laying hold of the great toe of the corpse while thus asking2 and if the asker had really inflicted any grievous injury on the deceased1 the body was supposed to signify that fact by a copious hemorrhage from the nose4#big 8,this1 it will be observed10 he adds1 8is almost identical with the well-known story which relates that1 when ,richard ,cur-de-,lion hastened to the funeral of his father1 ,henry ,,ii41 and met the procession at ,fontevraud1 the blood poured from the nostrils of the dead king1 whose end he had hastened by his disobedience and rebellion40 ,mr4 ,lea shows that in some instances the bones of a murdered man are said to have given out fresh blood when handled by a murderer as long as twenty years1 or even fifty1 after the murder2 and he gives ample evidence that a belief in this power of blood to speak for itself against the violator of ,god's law1 still exists among the ,english-speaking people1 and that it has manifested itself as a means of justice-seeking1 in the ,united ,states1 within a few years past4 #f4 ,,inter-,,communion ,,through ,,blood4 ,beyond the idea of inspiration through an interflow of ,god-representing blood1 there has been in primitive man's mind 7however it came there7 the thought of a possible inter-communion with ,god through an inter-union with ,god by blood4 ,god is life4 ,all life is from ,god1 and belongs to ,god4 ,blood is life4 ,blood1 therefore1 as life1 may be a means of man's inter-union with ,god4 ,as the closest and most sacred of covenants between man and man2 as1 indeed1 an absolute merging of two human natures into one1--is a possibility through an inter-flowing of a common blood2 so the closest and most sacred of covenants between man and ,god2 so the inter-union of the human nature with the divine1--has been looked upon as a possibility1 through the proffer and acceptance of a common life in a common blood-flow4 ,whatever has been man's view of sin and its punishment1 and of his separation from ,god because of unforgiven sin 7,i speak now of man as he is found1 without the specific teachings of the ,bible on this subject71 he has counted blood--his own blood1 in actuality or by substitute--a means of inter-union with ,god1 or with the gods4 ,blood is not death1 but life4 ,the shedding of blood1 ,godward1 is not the taking of life1 but the giving of life4 ,the outflowing of blood toward ,god is an act of gratitude or of affection1 a proof of loving confidence1 a means of inter-union4 ,this seems to have been the universal primitive conception of the race4 ,and an evidence of man's trust in the accomplished fact of his inter-union with ,god1 or with the gods1 by blood1 has been the also universal practice of man's inter-communion with ,god1 or with the gods1 by his sharing1 in food-partaking1 of the body of the sacrificial offering1 whose blood is the means of the divine-human inter-union4 ,perhaps the most ancient existing form of religious worship1 as also the simplest and most primitive form1 is to be found in ,china1 in the state religion1 represented by the ,emperor's worship at the ,temple of ,heaven1 in ,peking4 ,and in that worship1 the idea of the worshiper's inter-communion with ,god1 through the body and blood of the sacrificial offering1 is disclosed1 even if not always recognized1 by all the representative ,western authorities on the religions of ,china4 8,the ,chinese idea of a sacrifice to the supreme spirit of ,heaven and of ,earth is that of a banquet4 ,there is no trace of any other idea10 says ,dr4 ,edkins4#bih ,dr4 ,legge1#bii citing this statement1 expands its significance by saying3 8,the notion of the whole service at the ,temple of ,heaven might be that of a banquet2 but a sacrifice and a banquet are incompatible ideas40#cjj ,he then shows that the ,chinese character ts1 signifying 8sacrifice10 8covers a much wider space of meaning than our term sacrifice as he seems to view our use of that term40 ,morrison gives as one of the meanings of ts1 8,that which is the medium between1 or brings together1 men and ,gods02 and ,hs ,shan 8says1 that ts is made up of two ideograms2--one the primitive for spiritual beings1 and the other representing a right hand and a piece of flesh40 ,legge adds3 8,the most general idea symbolized by it is--an offering whereby communication and communion with spiritual beings ,god1 or the gods is effected40#cja ,dr4 ,s4 ,wells ,williams says1 that 8no religious system has been found among the ,chinese which taught the doctrine of the atonement by the shedding of blood02 and this he counts 8an argument in favor of their the ,chinese antiquity02 adding that 8the state religion 444 has maintained its main features during the past three thousand years40#cjb ,williams here1 evidently1 refers to an expiatory atonement for sin2 and ,legge has a similar view of the facts4#cjc ,the idea of an approach to ,god through blood--blood as a means of favor1 even if not blood as a canceling of guilt--is obvious1 in the outpouring of blood by the ,emperor when he approaches ,god for his worship in the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,the symbolic sacrifice in that worship1 which precedes the communion1 is of a whole 8burnt offering1 of a bullock1 entire and without blemish02#cjd and the blood of that offering is reverently poured out into the earth1#cje to be buried there1 according to the thought of man and the teachings of ,god in all the ages4 ,it is even claimed that as early as #bfig ,b4 ,c41 it was the blood of the first-born which must be poured out toward ,god--as a means of favor--in the ,emperor's approach for communion with ,god2 8a first-born male10 being offered up 8as a whole burnt sacrifice10 in this worship4#cjf ,surely1 in this surrender of the first-born1 there must have been some idea of an affectionate offering1 in the gift of that which was dearest1 even if there was no idea of substitution by way of expiation2 something in addition to the simple idea of 8a banquet02 something which was an essential preliminary to the banquet4 ,access to ,god being attained by the ,emperor1 the ,emperor enjoys communion with ,god in the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,it is after the outpouring of blood1 and the offering of the holocaust1 that--in a lull of the orchestral music1 in the great annual sacrifice--8a single voice is heard1 on the upper terrace of the altar1 chanting the words1 #8,give the cup of blessing1 and the meat of blessing4' ,in response1 the officer in charge of the cushion advances and kneels1 spreading the cushion4 ,other officers present the cup of blessing and the meat of blessing which have already been presented ,godward to the ,emperor1 who partakes of the wine and returns them4 ,the ,emperor then again prostrates himself1 and knocks his forehead three times against the ground1 and then nine times more1 to represent his thankful reception of the wine and meat in communion40#cjg ,the evidence is abundant1 that the main idea of this primitive and supreme service in the religions of ,china1 is the inter-communion of the ,emperor with ,god4 ,and there is no lack of proof that in ,china1 as elsewhere all the world over1 blood--as life--is the means of covenanting in an indissoluble inter-union2 of which inter-union1 inter-communion is a result and a proof4 ,in ,china1 as also in ,india1#cjh when the sacrifice of human beings was abolished1 it was followed by the sacrifice of the horse4 ,and the horse-sacrifice is still practised in some parts of the ,chinese ,empire1 on important occasions4 ,a white horse is brought to the brink of a stream1 or a lake1 and there sacrificed1 by decapitating it1 8burying its head below low-water mark1 but reserving its carcase for food40#cji ,in a description of this sacrifice1 in honor of a certain goddess1 as witnessed by ,archdeacon ,gray1#caj it is said3 8,its blood was received in a large earthenware jar1 and a portion carried to the temple of the aforesaid goddess2 when all the villagers rushed tumultuously to secure a sprinkling of blood on the charms which they had already purchased4 ,the rest of the blood was mingled with sand10 and taken with various accessories1 in a boat4 8,this boat headed a long procession of richly carved and gilded boats1 in which were priests1 both ,buddhist and ,taouists1 and village warriors discharging matchlocks to terrify the water-devils2 while the men in the first boat sprinkle the waters1 as they advance1 with blood-stained sand40 ,so1 again1 it is the blood of a cock1--not the body but the blood1--which is made the propitiatory offering to the goddess known as 8,loong-moo1 or the ,dragon's ,mother10 on the river junks of ,china4 ,the blood is sprinkled on the deck1 near a temporary altar1 where libations of wine have already been poured out by master of this junk1 who is the sacrificer4 ,afterwards1 bits of silver paper are 8sprinkled with the blood1 and then fastened to the door-posts and lintels of the cabin02#caa as if in token of the blood-covenant between those who are within those doors and the goddess whose substitute blood is there affixed4 ,and this precedes the feast of inter-communion4#cab ,nor are indications wanting1 that the idea of inter-union with the gods by blood was originally linked with1 if it were not primarily based upon1 the rite of blood-covenanting between two human friends4 ,thus1 ,archdeacon ,gray unconsciously discloses traces of this rite1 in his description of the exorcising of demons from the body of a child1 by a ,taouist priest1 in ,canton4#cac ,certain preliminary ceremonies were concluded2 which were supposed to drive out the demons4 8,the priest then proceeded to uncover his own arm1 and made an incision with a lancet in the fleshy part4 ,the blood which flowed from the wound1 was allowed to mingle with a small quantity of water in a cup4 ,the seal of the temple1 the impression of which was the name of the idol1 was then dipped into the blood1 and stamped upon the wrists1 neck1 back and forehead#cad of the poor heathen child40 ,by this means1 that child was symbolically sealed in covenant relations with the god of that temple1 by the substitute blood of that god's representative priest4 ,thus1 also1 ,dr4 ,legge1 referring to old-time covenantings in ,china1 says3#cae 8,many covenants were made among the feudal princes1--made over the blood of a victim1 with which each covenanting party smeared the corners of his mouth which is one form of tasting2#caf while an appeal was addressed to the invisible powers to inflict vengeance on all who should violate the conditions agreed upon the ordinary imprecatory prayers in the rite of blood-covenanting40 ,a symbolic inter-union of blood is a basis of inter-communion between two human beings1 as also between the human and the divine beings even in ,china--where1 perhaps1 that idea would be least likely to be looked for4 ,it is a common opinion1 that in no part of the world is there a more general prejudice against blood-shedding1 or the taking of animal life1 than in ,india4 ,and it certainly is a fact1 that the great religious systems1 of ,brahmanism and of ,booddhism1 which have controlled the moral sense of the peoples of ,india for a score or two of centuries1 have exerted themselves1 in the main1 to the inculcation of these views as to the sacredness of blood and of life--or of blood which is life4 ,hence1 we would naturally look1 in ,india1 only for traces1 or vestiges1 of the primitive1 world-wide idea of inter-communion with ,god1 or with the gods1 through a divine-human inter-union by blood4 ,nor are such traces and vestiges lacking in the religious customs of ,india4 ,in ,india1 as in ,china1 human sacrifices1 especially the sacrifice of the first-born son1 were formerly made freely1 as a means of bringing the offerer into closer relations with the gods1 through the outpoured blood4#cag ,it was the blood1 as the life1 which was believed to be the common possession of gods1 men1 and beasts2 hence the final substitution1 in ,india1 of beasts for men1 in the blood-covenanting with the gods4 ,on this point1 the evidence seems clear4 ,the ,vedas1 or sacred books of the ,brahmans1 teach1 indeed1 that the gods themselves were mere mortals1 until by repeated offerings of blood in sacrifice1 to the ,supreme ,being1 they won immortality from him2 which is only another way of making the claim1 put forward by the immortalized-mortal1 in the ,book of the ,dead1 of ancient ,egypt1 that the mortal became one with the gods through an interflow of a common life in the common blood of the two4 ,mortals gave the blood of their first-born sons in sacrifice to the ,supreme ,being4 ,then the ,supreme ,being gave the blood of his first-born male in sacrifice4 ,thus1 the nature of the favored mortals and the nature of the ,supreme ,being became one and the same4 ,dr4 ,monier ,williams cites freely from the ,vedas in the direction of this great truth2 although he does not note its bearing on the blood-covenant rite4 ,thus1 in 8the following free translation of a passage of the ,satapatha-brhmana3 #8,the gods lived constantly in dread of ,death-- ,the mighty ,ender--so1 with toilsome rites ,they worshiped1 and repeated sacrifices1 ,till they became immortal4'0 8,and again in the ,taittirya-brhmana3 #8,by means of the sacrifice the gods obtained heaven4'0 ,in the ,tndya-brhmanas3 8,the lord of creatures offered himself a sacrifice for the gods40 8,and again1 in the ,satapatha-brhmana3 #8,he who1 knowing this1 sacrifices with the ,purusha-medha1 or sacrifice of the primeval male1 becomes everything4'0#cah ,that it was the blood1 which was the chief element in the covenanting-sacrifice1 is evident from all the facts in the case4 ,thus1 in the ,aitareya-brhmana1 it is said3 8,the gods killed a man for their victim of sacrifice4 ,but from him thus killed1 the part which was fit for a sacrifice went out and entered a horse4 ,thence1 the horse became an animal fit for being sacrificed4 ,the gods then killed the horse1 but the part of it fit for being sacrificed went out of it and entered an ox4 ,the gods then killed the ox1 but the part of it fit for being sacrificed went out of it and entered a sheep4 ,thence it entered a goat4 ,the sacrificial part remained for the longest time in the goat2 thence it the goat became preeminently fit for being sacrificed60 ,indian history shows that this has been the progress of reform1 from the days of human sacrifice downward4 8,it is remarkable that in ,vedic times1 even a cow 444 was sometimes killed2 and goats1 as is well known1 are still sacrificed to the goddess ,kl40#cai ,kal1 also called ,doorg1 is the blood-craving goddess4 ,the blood of one human victim1 it is said1 8gives her a gleam of pleasure that endures a thousand years2 and the sacrifice of three men together1 would prolong her ecstacy for a thousand centuries40#cbj ,bishop ,heber indicates the 8sacrificial part0 of the goat as he saw it offered at a temple of ,kl in ,umeer4 ,he was being shown by his guide through that city1 on his first visit there1 and the guide proposed a look at the temple4 8,he turned short1 and led us some little distance up the citadel1 then through a dark1 low arch into a small court1 where1 to my surprise1 the first object which met my eyes was a pool of blood on the pavement1 by which a naked man stood with a bloody sword in his hand4444 ,the guide 444 cautioned me against treading in the blood1 and told me that a goat was sacrificed here every morning4 ,in fact a second glance showed me the headless body of the poor animal lying before the steps of a small shrine1 apparently of ,kali4 ,the ,brahman was officiating and tinkling his bell4444 ,the guide told us1 on our way back1 that the tradition was1 that1 in ancient times a man was sacrificed here every day2 that the custom had been laid aside till ,jye ,singh the builder of ,umeer had a frightful dream1 in which the destroying power appeared to him1 and asked why her image was suffered to be dry ,it is blood1 not flesh1 that moistens4 ,the ,rajah1 afraid to disobey1 and reluctant to fulfil the requisition to its ancient extent of horror1 took counsel and substituted a goat in which as well as in man there is blood--which is life--which is the chief thing in a sacrifice ,godward for the human victim2 with which the #8,dark goddess of the azure flood1 ,whose robes are wet with infant tears1 ,skull-chaplet wearer1 whom the blood ,of man delights three thousand years1' was graciously pleased to be contented40#cba 8,i had always heard1 and fully believed till ,i came to ,india10 says ,bishop ,heber1 8that it was a grievous crime1 in the opinion of the ,brahmans1 to eat the flesh or shed the blood of any living creature whatever4 ,i have now myself seen ,brahmans of the highest caste cut off the heads of goats1 as a sacrifice to ,doorga2 and ,i know from the testimony of ,brahmans1 as well as from other sources1 that not only hecatombs of animals are often offered in this manner1 as a most meritorious act 7a ,rajah1 about twenty-five years back say about ,a4 ,d4 #ahjj1 offered sixty thousand in one fortnight72 but that any persons1 ,brahmans not excepted1 eat readily in inter-communion of the flesh which has been offered up to one of their divinities40#cbb ,clearly1 the idea of inter-communion with the gods1 on the basis of the inter-flow of blood1 exists in many ,brahmanic practices of to-day4 ,it still finds its expression in the occasional 8,sacrifice of the ,yajna1 at which a ram is immolated40 ,it is claimed by the ,brahmans that 8this sacrifice is the most exalted and the most meritorious of all that human beings can devise4 ,it is the most grateful to the gods4 ,it calls down all sorts of temporal blessings1 and blots out all the sins that can have been accumulated for four generations40 ,the ram chosen for this sacrifice must be 8entirely white1 and without blemish3 of about three years old40 ,only ,brahmans who are free from physical infirmities and from ceremonial defects can have a part in its offering1 8at which no man of any other caste can be present40 ,because of the ,brahmanic horror of the shedding of blood1 the victim is smothered1 or 8strangled02 after which it is cut in pieces1 and burned as an oblation4 8,a part1 however1 is preserved for him who presides at the sacrifice1 and part for him who is at the expense of it4 ,these share their portions with the ,brahmans who are present2 amongst whom a scuffle ensues1 each striving for a small bit of the flesh4 ,such morsels as they can catch they tear with their hands1 and devour as a sacred viand the meat of inter-communion with the gods4 ,this practice is the more remarkable1 as being the only occasion in their the ,brahmans' lives when they can venture to touch animal food40 8,this most renowned sacrifice 444 is one of the six privileges of the ,brahmans02 and it would seem that its offering may now be directed to any one of the divinities1 at the preference of the offerer4 ,formerly there was also the 8,great ,sacrifice of the ,yajna10 which is no longer in use4 8,at this sacrifice10 in its day1 8every species of victim was immolated2 and it is beyond doubt that human beings even were offered up2 but the horse and the elephant were the most common40#cbc ,so1 there has never been an entire absence from the ,brahmanic practices of an inter-communion with the gods through an inter-union by blood4 ,even more remarkable than this canonical sacrifice of the ,yajna1 with its accompanying inter-communion1 are some of the occult sacrifices to the gods of the ,hindoo ,pantheon1 in which all the ordinary barriers of caste are disregarded1 in the un-canonical but greatly prized services of inter-communion with the gods on the basis of an inter-flow of blood4 ,the offerings of blood-flowing sacrifices1 including even the cow1 are made before the image of ,vishnoo2 or1 more probably of ,krishna as one of the forms of ,vishnoo4 ,the spirituous liquors of the country are also presented as drink-offerings4 ,then follows the inter-communion4 8,he who administers at the offering to the god tastes each species of meat and of liquor2 after which he gives permission to the worshipers to consume the rest4 ,then may be seen men and women rushing forward1 tearing and devouring4 ,one seizes a morsel1 and while he gnaws it1 another snatches it out of his hands1 and thus it passes on from mouth to mouth till it disappears1 while fresh morsels1 in succession1 are making the same disgusting round4 ,the meat being greedily eaten up1 the strong liquors and the opium which have all been offered to the gods are sent round4 ,all drink out of the same cup1 one draining what another leaves1 in spite of their natural abhorrence of such a practice4444 ,all castes are confounded1 and the ,brahman is not above the ,pariah4444 ,brahmans1 ,sudras1 ,pariahs1 men and women1 swill the arrack which was the offering to the ,saktis1 regardless of the same glass being used by them all1 which in ordinary cases would excite abhorrence4 ,here it is a virtuous act to participate in the same morsel1 and to receive from each other's mouths the half-gnawn flesh40#cbd ,the fact that this service is of so disgusting a character1 does not lessen its importance as an illustration of a primitive custom degraded by successive generations of defiling influences4 ,it still stands as one of the proofs of the universal custom of an attempted inter-communion with the gods through an inter-union by blood4 ,indeed1 there are many traces1 in ,india1 of the survival of this primitive idea4 ,referring to the worship of ,krishna1 under the form of ,jagan-natha 7or ,juggernaut1 as the name is popularly rendered7 a recent writer on ,india says3 8,before this monstrous shrine1 all distinctions of caste are forgotten1 and even a ,christian may sit down and eat with a ,brahman4 ,in his work on ,orissa1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter1 says1 that at the #8,sacrament of the ,holy ,food' he has seen a ,puri priest receive his food from a ,christian's hand4444 ,this rite is evidently also a survival of ,buddhism ,it goes a long way back of that4 ,it is remarkable that at the shrine of ,vyankoba1 an obscure form of ,siva1 at ,pandharpur1 in the ,southern ,maratha country1 caste is also in abeyance1 all men being deemed equal in its presence4 ,food is daily sent as a gift from the god to persons in all parts of the surrounding country1 and the proudest ,brahman gladly will accept and partake of it from the hands of the ,sudra1 or ,mahar1 who is usually its bearer4 ,there are two great annual festivals in honor of ,jagan-natha4444 ,they are held everywhere2 but at ,puri they are attended by pilgrims from every part of ,india1 as many as #bjj1jjj often being present4 ,all the ground is holy within twenty miles of the pagoda1 and the establishment of priests amounts to #cjjj4 ,the #8,sacrament of the ,holy ,food' is celebrated three times a day40#cbe ,thus it is evident that the idea of inter-communion with the gods has not been lost sight of in ,india1 even through the influence of ,brahmanism and ,booddhism against the idea of divine-human inter-union by blood--which is life4 ,indeed1 this idea so pervades the religious thought of the ,hindoos1 that the commands are specific in their sacred books1 that a portion of all food must be offered to the spirits1 before any of it is partaken of by the eater4 8,it is emphatically declared that he who partakes of food before it has been offered in sacrifice as above described1 eats but to his own damnation20#cbf unless he discerns there the principle of divine-human inter-communion1 he eats to his own spiritual destruction4#cbg ,and just here it is well to notice an incidental item of evidence that in ,india1 as in the other lands of the ,east1 the sacrifices to the gods were in some way linked with the primitive rite of human covenanting by blood4 ,an ,oriental scholar has called attention to the origin of the nose-ring1 so commonly worn in ,india1 as described in the ,hindoo ,pga-,vatham4#cbh ,the story runs1 that at the incarnation of ,vishnoo as ,krishna1 the holy child's life was sought1 and his mother exchanged her infant for the child of another woman1 in order to his protection4 ,in doing so1 she 8bored a hole in the nose of her infant1 and put a ring into it as an impediment and a sign4 ,the blood which came from the wound was as a sacrifice to prevent him from falling into the hand of his enemies40 ,and1 to this day1 the nose-ring has two names1 indicative of its two-fold purpose4 8,the first name is nate-kaddan1 which signifies #8the obligation or debt a person is under by a vow'2 the second name is mooka-taddi1 literally #8nose-impediment or hindrance1' that is1 to sickness or death40 ,the child's blood is given in covenant obligation to the gods1 and the nose-ring is the token of the covenant-obligation1 and a pledge of protected life4 ,when a ,hindoo youth who has worn a nose-ring would remove it1 on the occasion of his marriage1 he must do so with formal ceremonies at the temple1 and by the use of a liquid 8which represents blood10 composed of saffron1#cbi of lime1 and of water4 ,a young tree must also be planted in connection with this ceremony1 as in the ceremony of blood-covenanting in some portions of the ,east4#ccj ,these symbolisms can hardly fail to be recognized as based on the universal primitive rite of blood-covenanting4#cca ,the very earliest records of ,babylon and ,assyria1 indicate the outreaching of man for an inter-union with ,god1 or with the gods1 by substitute blood1 and the confident inter-communion of man with ,god1 or with the gods1 on the strength of this inter-union by blood4 ,there is an ,akkadian poem which clearly 8goes back to pre-,semitic times10 with its later ,assyrian translation1 concerning the sacrifice to the gods1 of a first-born son4#ccb ,it says distinctly3 8,his offspring for his life he gave40 ,here is obviously the idea of vicarious substitution1 of life for life1 of the blood of the son for the blood of the father1 but this substitution does not necessarily involve the idea of an expiatory offering for sin2 even though it does include the idea of propitiation4 ,abraham's surrender of his first-born son to ,god was in proof of his loving trust1 not of his sense of a penalty due for sin4 ,jephthah's surrender of his daughter was on a vow of devotedness1 not as an exhibit of remorse1 or of penitence1 for unexpiated guilt4 ,in each instance1 the outpouring of substitute blood was in evidence of a desire to be in new covenant oneness with ,god4 ,thus ,queen ,manenko and ,dr4 ,livingstone made a covenant of blood vicariously1 by the substitution of her husband on the one part1 and of an attendant of ,livingstone1 on the other part4#ccc ,so1 also the ,akkadian king may have sought a covenant union with his god--from whom sin had separated him--by the substitute blood of his first-born and best loved son4 ,certain it is1 that the early kings of ,babylon and ,assyria were accustomed to make their grateful offerings to the gods1 and to share those offerings with the gods1 by way of inter-communion with the gods1 apart from any sense of sin and of its merited punishment which they may have felt4#ccd ,indeed1 it is claimed1 with a show of reason1 that the very word 7surqinu7 which was used for 8altar0 in the ,assyrian1 was primarily the word for 8table02 that1 in fact1 what was later known as the 8altar0 to the gods1 was originally the table of communion between the gods and their worshipers4#cce ,there seems to be a reference to this idea in the interchanged use of the words 8altar0 and 8table0 by the ,prophet ,malachi3 8,and ye say1 ,wherein have ye despised thy name8 ,ye offer polluted bread upon mine altar8 ,and ye say1 ,wherein have ye polluted thee8 ,in that ye say1 ,the table of the ,lord is contemptible40#ccf ,so again1 in ,isaiah #fe 3 #aa3 8,but ye that forsake the ,lord1 that forget my holy mountain1 that prepare a table for ,fortune1 and that fill up mingled wine unto ,destiny2 ,i will destine you to the sword1 and ye shall all bow down to the slaughter40 ,see1 in this connection1 the ,assyrian inscription of ,esarhaddon1 the son of ,sennacherib1#ccg in description of his great palace at ,nineveh3 8,i filled with beauties the great palace of my empire1 and ,i called it #8,the ,palace which ,rivals the ,world4' ,ashur1 ,ishtar of ,nineveh1 and the gods of ,assyria1 all of them1 ,i feasted within it4 ,victims precious and beautiful ,i sacrificed before them1 and ,i caused them to receive my gifts4 ,i did for those gods whatever they wished40#cch ,it is even claimed by ,assyrian scholars1 that in this inter-communion with the gods1 worshipers might partake of the flesh of animals which was forbidden to them at all other times#cci--;as among the ,brahmans of ,india1 to-day4 ,in farther illustration of the truth1 that inter-communion with the gods was shown in partaking of sacred food with the gods1 ,h4 ,fox ,talbot1 the ,assyriologist1 says of the ancient ,assyrian inscription3 8,there is a fine inscription1 not yet fully translated1 describing the soul in heaven1 clothed in a white radiant garment1 seated in the company of the blessed1 and fed by the gods themselves1 with celestial food40#cdj ,among the ,parsees1 or the ,zoroastrians1 who intervene1 as it were1 between the primitive peoples of ,assyria and ,india1 and the later inhabitants of the ,persian empire1 there prevailed the same idea of divine-human inter-union through blood1 and of divine-human inter-communion through sharing the flesh of the proffered and accepted sacrifice1 at the altar1 or at the table1 of the gods1 ,ormuzd and ,ahriman4 ,the horse was a favorite substitute victim of sacrifice1 among the ,parsees2 as also among the ,hindoos and the ,chinese4 ,its blood was the means of divine-human inter-union4 8,the flesh of the victim was eaten by the priest and the worshipers2 the #8soul' the life1 the blood1 of it only was enjoyed by ,ormazd40#cda ,the communion-drink1 in the ,parsee sacrament1 as still observed1 is the juice of the haoma1 or hom4 8,small bread or wafers called ,darun1 of the size of a dollar1 and covered with a piece of meat1 incense1 and ,haoma1 or ,hom10 the juice of the plant known in ,india as ,soma1 are used in this sacrament4 8,the ,darun and the ,hom having been presented to the gods are afterwards eaten by the priests10 as in communion4#cdb ,this is sometimes called the 8,sacrament of the ,haoma40#cdc ,in ancient ,egypt1 it seems to have been much as in ,china1 and ,india1 and ,assyria4 ,substitute blood was a basis of inter-union between man and the gods2 and a divine-human inter-communion was secured as a proof and as a result of that inter-union4 ,that it was human blood which was1 of old in ,egypt1 poured out as a means of this inter-union 7in some cases at least7 seems clear4 ,it is declared by ,manetho1 and ,diodorus1 and ,athenus1 and ,plutarch1 and ,porphyry4#cdd ,it is recognized as proven1 by ,kenrick#cde and ,ebers#cdf and other ,egyptian scholars4 ,wilkinson1 it is true1 was unwilling to accept its reality1 because1 in his opinion1 8it is quite incompatible with the character of a nation whose artists thought acts of clemency towards a foe worthy of record1 and whose laws were distinguished by that humanity which punished with death the murder even of a slave02#cdg and he prefers to rest on 8the improbability of such a custom among a civilized people40 ,yet1 a single item of proof from the monuments would seem sufficient to settle this question1 if it were still deemed a question4 ,the ideogram which was employed on the seal of the priests1 authorizing the slaying of an animal in sacrifice1 8bore the figure of a man on his knees1 with his hands tied behind him1 and a sword pointed at his throat40#cdh ,herodotus1#cdi describing the magnificent festival of ,isis1 at ,busiris1 says that a bull was sacrificed on that occasion2 and we know that in every such sacrifice the blood of the victim was poured out as an oblation1 at the altar4#cej ,when the duly prepared offering was consumed upon the altar1 those portions of the victim which had been reserved were eaten by the priest and others4#cea ,herodotus says1 moreover1 that some of the ,greeks who were present at this festival1 were in the habit of causing their own blood to flow during the consuming of the sacrifice1 as if in proof of their desire for inter-union with the goddess1 as precedent to their inter-communion with her4 ,he says3 8,but as many of the ,karians as are dwelling in ,egypt1 do yet more than these native ,egyptians1 inasmuch as they cut their foreheads with swords2#ceb and so they are shown to be foreigners and not ,egyptians40#cec ,it would even seem that in ,egypt1 as in other parts of the primitive world1 the prohibition of the eating of many sacred animals applied to the eating of them when not offered in sacrifice4 ,because those animals became1 as it were1 on the altar1 or on the table1 of the gods1 a portion of the gods themselves1 they must not be eaten except by those who discerned in them the body of the gods1 and who were entitled to share them in inter-communion with the gods4#ced ,the monumental representations of the other world show the gods sharing food and drink with the souls of the deceased4#cee ,and the idea of a divine-human inter-communion through the partaking by gods and men of the food provided for1 or accepted by1 the former1 runs all through the ,egyptian record4 ,a remarkable illustration of this idea is found in an extended inscription from the tomb of ,setee ,i41 whose daughter is supposed to have been the finder of the infant ,moses4 ,in this inscription1 which is sometimes called the ,book of ,hades1 or more properly the ,book of ,amenti1 the ,sun-god ,r is represented as passing through ,amenti--or the under world--on his nocturnal circuit1 and speaking words of approval to his disembodied worshipers there4#cef 8,these are they who worshiped ,r on the earth1 444 who offered their oblations4444 ,they are now masters of their refreshments2 they take their meat2 they seize their offerings in the porch of him1 whose being is mysterious4444 ,r says to them1 ,your offerings are yours2 take your refreshment40 ,again and again the declaration is made of 8the elect10 of those who are greeted by ,r in ,amenti3 8,their food is 7composed7 of ,r's bread2 their drink is of his liquor tesher a common word for 8red10 often standing for 8blood0#ceg04 ,and yet again3 8,their food is to hear the word of this god40#ceh 8,their food is that of the veridical the truth-speaking ones4 ,offerings are now made to them on earth2 because the true word is in them40#cei ,thus there was inter-communion between man and the gods in ancient ,egypt1 on the basis of a blood-made inter-union between man and the gods2 as there was also in primitive ,assyria and ,babylon1 in primitive ,india1 and in primitive ,china4 ,turning now from the far ,east to the far ,west1 we find that ,central ,american and ,south ,american history and legends tend to illustrate the same primitive belief1 that inter-communion with the gods was to be secured by the hearty surrender of self--as evidenced by the tender of personal1 or of substitute blood4 ,a ,guatemalan legend has its suggestion of that outreaching of man for fire from heaven1 which is illustrated in the primitive and the classic myths of the ages4#cfj ,the men of ,guatemala were without the heaven-born fire1 and they turned1 in their longing1 to the ,quich god1 ,tohil1 seeking it from him1 on such terms as he might prescribe4 8,the condition finally named by the god was1 that they consent to #8unite themselves to me1 under their armpit1 and under their girdle1 and that they embrace me1 ,tohil'2 a condition not very clearly expressed says a historian1 but which1 as is shown by what follows1 was an agreement to worship the ,quich god1 and sacrifice to him their blood1 and1 if required1 their children4 ,they accepted the condition1 and received the fire40#cfa ,in the light of the prevailing customs of the world1 concerning this rite of blood-covenanting1 the requirements of the ,quich god were clearly based on the symbolism of that rite2 as the historian did not perceive1 from his unfamiliarity with the rite4 ,if men would be in favor with that god1 and would receive his choicest gifts1 they must unite themselves to him2 must enter into oneness of nature with him1 by giving of their blood1 from 8under their armpit1 and under their girdle02 from the source of life1 and at the issue of life2 for themselves and for their seed2 and they must lovingly embrace their covenant-god1 accordingly4 ,and in the counsel given to those new worshipers1 it was said3 8,make first your thanksgiving2 prepare the holes in your ears2 blood was drawn from the ears1 as well as from other parts of the body1 in ,central ,american worship2 indeed one of their festivals was #8the feast of piercing the ears1' suggesting a similar religious custom in ,india2#cfb pierce your elbows2 and offer sacrifice4 ,this will be your act of gratitude before ,god40#cfc ,among all these aboriginal races of ,central ,america1 not only was the flesh of the sacrificial offerings eaten as in communion with the gods2 but the blood of the offerings1 and also the blood of the offerers themselves1 was sometimes sprinkled upon1 or commingled with1 those articles of food1 which were made a means of spiritual inter-communion with their deities4 ,cakes of maize sprinkled with their own blood1 drawn from 8under the girdle10 during their religious worship1 were 8distributed and eaten as blessed bread40#cfd ,moreover1 an image of their god1 made with certain seeds from the first fruits of their temple gardens1 with a certain gum1 and with the blood of human sacrifices1 was partaken of by them reverently1 under the name1 8,food of our soul40#cfe ,at the conclusion of one of the great feasts of the year at ,cuzco1 in ,peru1 the worshipers 8received the loaves of maize and the sacrificial blood1 which they ate as a symbol of brotherhood with the ,ynca0#cff--who claimed to be of divine blood and of divine power4 ,herrera describes one of these ceremonies of inter-communion with the gods1 by means of a blood-moistened representation of a god4 8,an idol made of all the varieties of the seeds and grain of the country1 was made1 and moistened with the blood of children and virgins4 ,this idol was broken into small bits1 and given by way of communion to men and women to eat2 who1 to prepare for that festival1 bathed1 and dressed their heads1 and scarce slept all the night4 ,they prayed1 and as soon as it was day they were all in the temple to receive that communion1 with such singular silence and devotion1 that though there was an infinite multitude1 there seemed to be nobody4 ,if any of the idol was left1 the priests ate it40#cfg ,so marked1 indeed1 was the sacramental character of these ,peruvian communion feasts1 that a ,spanish ,jesuit missionary to that country1 three centuries ago1 was disposed to see in them an invention of ,satan1 rather than a survival of a world-wide primitive custom4 ,he said3 8,that which is most admirable in the hatred and presumption of ,sathan is1 that he not only counterfeited in idolatry and sacrifices1 but also in certain ceremonies1 our sacraments1 which ,jesus ,christ our ,lord instituted1 and the ,holy ,church uses2 having1 especially1 pretended to imitate1 in some sort1 the sacrament of the communion1 which is the most high and divine of all others40#cfh ,yet again1 a prisoner of war would be selected to represent one of the gods1 and so to be partaken of1 in inter-communion through his blood4 ,he would receive the name of the god2 and for a longer or a shorter time1--8sometimes a year1 sometimes six months1 and sometimes less10--he would be ministered to1 and would receive honors and reverence as a god4 ,then he would be offered in sacrifice4 ,his heart would be presented to the god4 ,his blood would be employed reverently--as was the case with all sacrifices--in token of covenanting4 ,his flesh would be eaten by the worshipers of the god whom he represented4#cfi ,this 8rite of dressing and worshiping the sacrifices like the deities themselves1 is related as being performed at the festivals of many gods and goddesses40#cgj ,a remarkable illustration of the unity of the race1 and of the universal sweep of these customs in conjunction with the symbolism of the blood-covenant1 is found in the similarity of this last named ,central ,american practice1 with a practice charged upon the ,jews by ,apion1 as replied to by ,josephus4 ,the charge is1 that 8,antiochus found1 upon entering the temple at ,jerusalem1 a man lying upon a bed1 with a table before him1 set out with all the delicacies that either sea or land could afford40 ,this captive's story was3 8,i am a ,greek1 and wandering up and down in quest of the means of subsistence1 was taken up by some foreigners1 brought to this place1 and shut up4444 ,they gave me to understand1 that the ,jews had a custom among them1 once a year1 upon a certain day prefixed1 to seize upon a ,grecian stranger1 and when they had kept him fattening one whole year1 to take him into a wood1 and offer him up for a sacrifice according to their own form1 taking a taste of his blood1 with a horrid oath to live and die sworn enemies to the ,greeks40#cga ,baseless as was this charge against the ,jews1 its very framing indicates the existence in the ,east1--possibly among the ,phnicians1--in days prior to the ,christian era1 as well as in pre-historic times in the ,west1 of the custom of seeking inter-communion with ,god1 or with the gods1 by the tasting of the blood of a substitute human victim1 offered in sacrifice to ,god1 or to the gods4 ,at the two extremes of the world1 to-day1 among the primitive ,bedween of the ,desert of ,arabia1 and among the primitive ,indians of the prairies of ,north ,america1 there lingers a trace of this world-wide idea1 that the body of an offering covenanted to ,god by its blood1 can be a means of inter-communion with ,god in its eating4 ,both the ,bedween and the ,indians connect in their minds the fact of sacrificing and of feasting2 and they speak of the two things interchangeably4 ,an ,arab1 when he makes a feast1 speaks of sacrificing the animal which is the main feature of that feast4 ,i saw an ,arab wedding at ,castle ,nakhl1 on the ,arabian ,desert4 ,the bridegroom sacrificed a young dromedary in honor of the occasion1 and to furnish1 as it were1 the sacramental feast4 ,the blood of the victim was poured out unto the ,lord1 by being buried in the earth--as the ,chinese bury the blood of their sacrifices in the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,portions of the dromedary were eaten by all the guests1 and a portion was sent to the stranger encamping near them4 ,and that is the common method of ,arab sacrificing and feasting4 ,there is much of similarity in the ways of the ,arabs and of the ,indians4 ,the ,indian feasts are largely feasts of inter-communion with the gods4 ,whether it were the human victim1 of former times1 whose blood was drunk and whose heart was eaten1 as preliminary to the feasting on his entire remains2#cgb or1 whether it be the preserved hearts and tongues of the buffaloes1 which now form the basis of some of the sacred feasts of the ,indians2#cgc--the idea of divine-human inter-communion was and is inseparable from the idea of the feast4 ,the first portion of the feast is always proffered to the spirits1 in order to make it1 in a peculiar sense1 a sacred feast4 ,then1 each person having a part in the feast is expected to eat the full share assigned to him2#cgd unless indeed he be permitted to carry a remainder of it away 8as sacred food0 for the benefit of the others4#cge ,and so the common root-idea shows itself1 in lesser or in larger degree1 all the world over1 and in all the ages4 ,it is practically universal4 ,one of the many proofs that the idea of a blood-covenanting sacrifice is that of a loving inter-communion between man and ,god1 or the gods1 is the fact that the animals offered in sacrifice are always those animals which are suitable for eating1 whether their eating is allowed at other times than when sacrificed1 or not4 8,animals offered in sacrifice at the ,temple of ,heaven1 in ,china10 says ,dr4 ,edkins1 8must be those in use for human food4 ,there is no trace in ,china of any distinction between clean and unclean animals1 as furnishing a principle in selecting them for sacrifice4 ,that which is good for food is good for sacrifice1 is the principle guiding in their selection40#cgf ,the same principle has been already noted as prevailing in the sacrifices of ,india1 ,assyria1 and ,egypt2 although in these last named countries many animals which are 8good for food0 are not 8in use for human food0 except as they are served up at the table of the gods4#cgg ,in the primitive ,new ,world it was the same as in the primitive ,old ,world4 ,referring to the sacrifices in ancient ,peru1 ,rville says1 8,it should be noted that they only sacrificed edible animals1 which as he would understand it is a clear proof that the intention was to feed the gods02#cgh and it certainly seems a clear proof that the intention was to feed the worshipers who shared the sacred food4 ,that this sharing of the proffered and accepted sacrifice1 in divine-human inter-communion1 was counted a sharing of the divine nature1 by the communicant1 seems evident1 as widely as the world-wide custom extended4 ,the inter-union was wrought by intermingled blood2 the inter-communion gave a common progress to the common nature4 ,the blood gave common life2 the flesh gave common nourishment4 8,almost everywhere10 says ,rville1#cgi 8but especially among the ,aztecs1 we find the notion1 that the victim devoted to a deity1 and therefore destined to pass into his substance1 and to become by assimilation an integral part of him1 is already co-substantial with him1 has already become part of him2 so that the worshiper in his turn1 by himself assimilating a part of the victim's flesh1 unites himself in substance with the divine being4 ,and now observe continues this student in the science of comparative religion that in all religions the longing1 whether grossly or spiritually apprehended1 to enter into the closest possible union with the adored being1 is fundamental4 ,this longing is inseparable from the religious sentiment itself1 and becomes imperious wherever that sentiment is warm2 and this consideration is enough to convince us that it is in harmony with the most exalted tendencies of our nature1 but may likewise1 in times of ignorance1 give rise to the most deplorable aberrations40 ,this observation is the more noteworthy1 in that it is made by so pronounced a rationalist as ,rville4 ,it would even seem to be indicated1 by all the trend of historic facts1 that cannibalism--gross1 repulsive1 inhuman cannibalism--had its basis in man's perversion of this outreaching of his nature 7whether that outreaching were first directed by revelation1 or by divinely given innate promptings7 after inter-union and inter-communion with ,god2 after life in ,god's life1 and after growth through the partaking of ,god's food1 or of that food which represents ,god4 ,the studies of many observers in widely different fields have led both the rationalistic and the faith-filled student to conclude1 that in their sphere of observation it was a religious sentiment1 and not a mere animal craving1--either through a scarcity of food1 or from a spirit of malignity1--that was at the bottom of cannibalistic practices there2 even if that field were an exception to the world's fields generally4 ,and now we have a glimpse of the nature and workings of that religious sentiment which prompted cannibalism wherever it has been practised4 ,man longed for oneness of life with ,god4 ,oneness of life could come only through oneness of blood4 ,to secure such oneness of life1 man would give of his own blood1 or of that substitute blood which could best represent himself4 ,counting himself in oneness of life with ,god1 through the covenant of blood1 man has sought for nourishment and growth through partaking of that food which in a sense was life1 and which in a larger sense gave life1 because it was the food of ,god1 and because it was the food which stood for ,god4 ,in misdirected pursuance of this thought1 men have given the blood of a consecrated human victim to bring themselves into union with ,god2 and then they have eaten of the flesh of that victim which had supplied the blood which made them one with ,god4 ,this seems to be the basis of fact in the premises2 whatever may be the understood philosophy of the facts4 ,why men reasoned thus1 may indeed be in question4 ,that they reasoned thus1 seems evident4 ,certain it is1 that where cannibalism has been studied in modern times1 it has commonly been found to have had originally1 a religious basis2 and the inference is a fair one1 that it must have been the same wherever cannibalism existed in earlier times4 ,even in some regions where cannibalism has long since been prohibited1 there are traditions and traces of its former existence as a purely religious rite4 ,thus1 in ,india1 little images of flour paste or clay1 are now made for decapitation1 or other mutilation1 in the temples1#chj in avowed imitation of human beings1 who were once offered and eaten there4 ,referring to the frequency of human sacrifices in ,india1 in earlier and in later times1 and to these emblematic substitutes for them1 now employed1 the ,abb ,dubois says3#cha 8,in the kingdom of ,tanjore there is a village called ,tirushankatam ,kudi1 where a solemn festival is celebrated every year1 at which great multitudes of people assemble1 each votary bringing with him one of those little images of dough1 into the temple1 dedicated to ,vishnu1 and there cutting off the head in honor of that god4 ,this ceremony1 which is annually performed with great solemnity1 was instituted in commemoration of a famous event which happened in that village4 8,two virtuous persons lived there1 ,sirutenden and his wife ,vanagata-ananga1 whose faith and piety ,vishnu was desirous to prove4 ,he appeared to them1 and demanded no other service of them but that of sacrificing1 with their own hands1 their only and much beloved son ,siralen1 and serving up his flesh for a repast4 ,the parents with heroic courage1 surmounting the sentiments and chidings of nature1 obeyed without hesitation1 and submitted to the pleasure of the god4 ,so illustrious an act of devotion is held worthy of this annual commemoration1 at which the sacrifice is emblematically renewed4 ,the same barbarous custom is preserved in many parts of ,india2 and the ardor with which the people engage in it leaves room to suspect that they still regret the times when they would have been at liberty to offer up to their sanguinary gods1 the reality1 instead of the symbol40 ,such a legend as this1 taken in conjunction with the custom which perpetuates it1 and with all the known history of human sacrifices1 in ,india and elsewhere1 furnishes evidence that cannibalism as a religious rite was known to the ancestors of the present dwellers in ,india4 ,and as it is in the far ,east1 so it is in the far ,west2 and so1 also1 in mid-ocean4 ,thus1 for example1 in the latter field1 among the degraded ,feejee ,islanders1 where one would be least likely to look for the sway of a religious sentiment in the more barbarous customs of that barbarous people1 this truth has been recognized by ,christian missionaries1 who would view the relics of heathenism with no undue favor4 ,the ,rev4 ,messrs4 ,williams and ,calvert1--the one after thirteen years1 and the other after seventeen years of missionary service there1--said on this subject3 8,cannibalism is a part of the ,fijian religion1 and the gods are described as delighting in human flesh40 ,and again3 8,human flesh is still the most valued offering to the gods1 and their #8drink offerings of blood' are still the most acceptable offerings to the gods in some parts of ,fiji40#chb ,it was the same among the several tribes of the ,north ,american ,indians1 according to the most trustworthy testimony4 ,a ,dutch clergyman1 ,dominie ,megapolensis1 writing two centuries ago from near the present site of ,albany1 8bears the strongest testimony to the ferocity with which his friends1 the ,mohawks treated their prisoners1 444 and is very explicit as to cannibalism4 #8,the common people1' he says #8eat the arms1 buttocks1 and trunk2 but the chiefs eat the head and the heart4' ,this feast was of a religious character40#chc ,parkman says1 of the 8hideous scene of feasting which followed the torture of a prisoner10 8it was1 among the ,hurons1 partly an act of vengeance1 and partly a religious rite40#chd ,he cites evidence1 also1 that there was cannibalism among the ,miamis1 where 8the act had somewhat of a religious character and1 was attended with ceremonial observances40#che ,of the religious basis of cannibalism among the primitive peoples of ,central and ,south ,america1 students seem agreed4 ,dorman who has carefully collated important facts on this subject from varied sources1 and has considered them in their scientific bearings1 is explicit in his conclusions at this point4 ,reviewing all the ,american field1 he says3 8,i have dwelt longer upon the painful subject of cannibalism than might seem desirable1 in order to show its religious character and prevalence everywhere4 ,instead of being confined to savage peoples1 as is generally supposed1 it prevailed to a greater extent and with more horrible rites among the most civilized4 ,its religious inception was the cause of this40#chf ,again1 he says1 of the peoples of ,mexico and of the countries south of it3 8,all the ,nahua nations practised this religious cannibalism4 ,that cannibalism as a source of food1 unconnected with religious rites1 was ever practised1 there is little evidence4 ,sahagun and ,las ,casas regard the cannibalism of the ,nahuas as an abhorrent feature of their religion1 and not as an unnatural appetite40#chg ,rville1 treating of the native religions of ,mexico and ,peru comes to a similar conclusion with ,dorman2 and he argues that the state of things which was there was the same the world over1 so far as it related to cannibalism4 8,cannibalism10 he says1#chh 8which is now restricted to a few of the savage tribes who have remained closest to the animal life1 was once universal to our race4 ,for no one would ever have conceived the idea of offering to the gods a kind of food which excited nothing but disgust and horror40 ,in this suggestion1 ,rville indicates his conviction that the primal idea of an altar was a table of blood-bought communion4 8,human sacrifices0 however1 he goes on to say1 8prevailed in many places when cannibalism had completely disappeared from the habits and tastes of the population4 ,thus the ,semites of ,western ,asia1 and the ivate ,hindus1 the ,celts1 and some of the populations of ,greece and ,italy1 long after they had renounced cannibalism1 still continued to sacrifice human beings to their deities40 ,and he might have added1 that some savage peoples continued cannibalism when the religious idea of its beginning had been almost swept away entirely by the brutalism of its inhuman nature and tendencies4 ,referring to the date of the conquest of ,mexico1 he says3 8,cannibalism1 in ordinary life1 was no longer practised4 ,the city of ,mexico underwent all the horrors of famine during the siege conducted by ,fernando ,cortes4 ,when the ,spaniards finally entered the city1 they found the streets strewn with corpses1 which is a sufficient proof that human flesh was not eaten even in dire extremities4 ,and1 nevertheless1 the ,aztecs not only pushed human sacrifices to a frantic extreme1 but they were ritual cannibals1 that is to say1 there were certain occasions on which they ate the flesh of the human victims they had immolated40#chi ,and as it was in ,india and in ,america and in the ,islands of the ,sea2 so it seems to have been wherever the primitive idea of cannibalism as a prevalent custom has been intelligently sought out4#cij #g4 ,,symbolic ,,substitutes ,,for ,,blood4 ,as the primitive and more natural method of commingling bloods1 in the blood-covenant1 by sucking each other's veins1 or by an inter-transference of blood from the mutually opened veins1 was in many regions superseded by the symbolic laving1 or sprinkling1 or anointing1 with blood2 and as the blood of the lower animals was often substituted1 vicariously1 for human blood2--so the blood and wine which were commingled for mutual drinking in the covenant-rite1 or which were together poured out in libation1 when the covenant was between man and the ,deity1 came1 it would appear1 to be represented1 in many cases1 by the wine alone4 ,first1 we find men pledging each other in a sacred covenant1 in the inter-drinking of each other's blood mingled with wine4 ,they called their covenant-draught1 8assiratum10 or 8vinum assiratum02 8wine1 covenant-filled40 ,by and by1 apparently1 they came to count simple wine--8the blood of grapes0#cia--;as the representative of blood and wine1 in many forms of covenanting4 ,this mutual drinking1 as a covenant-pledge1 has been continued as an element in the marriage ceremony1 the world over1 down to the present time4 ,it would even seem that the gradual changes in the methods of this symbolic rite could be tracked1 through its various forms in this ceremony1 in different portions of the world4 ,among the wide-spreading ',anazeh ,bedween1 the pouring out of a blood libation is still the mode of completing the marriage-covenant4 8,when the marriage day is fixed10 says ,burckhardt1#cib 8the bridegroom comes with a lamb in his arms to the tent of the father of his bride1 and then1 before witnesses1 he cuts its throat4 ,as soon as the blood falls upon the earth1 the marriage ceremony is regarded as complete40 ,among the ,bedween of ,sinai1 as ,palmer tells us1#cic the bride is sprinkled with the blood of the lamb1 before she is surrendered to the bridegroom4 ,lane's mention of the prominence of outpoured blood at the weddings of the ,copts in ,cairo1 has already been cited4#cid ,among the ,arabs1 since the days of ,muhammad1 wine has been generally abjured1 and coffee now commonly takes its place as a drink1 in all ordinary conferences for covenanting4 ,in ,borneo1 among the ,dayaks1 the bride and the bridegroom sit side by side1 facing the rising sun4 ,their parents then besprinkle them with the blood of some animal1 and also with water4 8,each being next presented with a cup of arrack1 they mutually pour half into each other's cup1 take a draught1 and exchange vessels40#cie ,in ,burmah1 among the ,karens1 water is poured upon the bride as she enters the bridegroom's house4 ,when she is received by the bridegroom1 8each one then gives the other to drink1 and each says to the other1 #8,be faithful to thy covenant4' ,this is the proper marriage ceremony1 and the parties are now married40#cif ,the blood of an ox1 or a cow1 is caused to flow at the door of the bride's house1 as a part of the marriage ceremony1 in ,namaqua ,land4#cig ,a similar custom prevails among the ,kafirs of ,natal2 and an observer has said of this blood-flowing1 in the covenanting rite3 8,this appears to be the fixing point of the ceremony02 this is 8the real matrimonial tie40#cih ,again it is the sharing from the same dish in drinking1 as well as in eating1 that the bride and the bridegroom covenant in marriage1 in the ,feejee ,islands4#cii ,the liquor that is made the common draught1 as a substitute for the primitive blood-potion1 is commonly the spirituous drink of the region2 whether that drink be wine1 or arrack1 or whiskey1 or beer4 ,the symbolism is the same in every case4 ,in the ,sanskrit1 the word asrij signifies both 8blood10 and 8saffron40#djj ,in the ,hindoo wedding ceremony1 in ,malabar1 8a dish of a liquid like blood1 made of saffron and lime10 is held over the heads of the bride and groom4 ,when the ceremony is concluded1 the newly married couple sprinkle the spectators with this blood-like mixture2#dja which seems1 indeed1 not only here but in many other cases1 in ,india1 to have become a substitute for the covenanting blood4 ,reference has already been made to its use in connection with the covenant of the nose-ring2 and the saffron colored cord of the wedding necklace1 among the ,brahmans1 has also been mentioned4#djb ,a still more remarkable illustration of this saffron mixture in lieu of blood1 in formal covenanting1 in ,india1 is found in its use in the rite of 8adoption40 ,in ,india1 as elsewhere throughout the ,east1 the desire of every parent to have a son is very strong4 ,a son is longed for1 to inherit the parental name and possessions1 to perform the funeral rites and the annual ceremonies in honor of his parents2 and1 indeed1 8it is said in the ,dattaka-,mimansa1 #8,heaven awaits not one who is destitute of a son4'0 ,when1 therefore1 parents have not a son of their own1 they often formally adopt one2 and1 in this ceremony1 saffron-water seems to take the place of blood1 in the sacred and indissoluble covenant of transfer4#djc ,so prominent indeed is this element of the saffron-water drinking--as the substitute for blood-drinking--in the covenant of adoption1 that the adopted children of parents are commonly spoken of as their 8water-of-saffron children40 8,is it good to adopt the child1 and give it saffron-water80 is a question that 8occurs eight times in the book of fate called ,sag-thevan-ssteram40 ,formal sacrifices precede the ceremony of adoption1 and mutual feasting follows it4 ,the natural mother of the child1 in his transfer to his new parents by adoption1 hands with him a dish of consecrated saffron-water2 and both the child and the blood-symbol are received by the adopting father1 with his declaration that the son is now to enter into all that belongs to that father4 8,then he and his wife1 pouring a little saffron water into the hollow of their hands1 and dropping a little into that of the adoptive child1 pronounce aloud before the assembly3 #8,we have acquired this child to our stem1 and we incorporate him into it4' ,upon which they drink the saffron-water1 and rising up1 make a profound obeisance to the assembly2 to which the officiating ,brahmans reply by the word1 #8,asirvadam4'0#djd ,it seems to me in every way probable1 that in primitive times the blood of the child adopted1 and of the parents adopting him1 was partaken of by the three parties 7as now throughout the ,east1 in the case of the blood-covenanting of friends71 in order that the child and his new parents might be literally of one blood4 ,but1 with the prejudice which grew up against blood-drinking1 in ,india1 the saffron-water came to be used as a substitute for blood2 even as the blood of the grape came to be used instead of human blood1 in many other portions of the world4 ,in ,china1 an important rite in the marriage ceremony is the drinking of 8the wedding wine10 from 8two singularly shaped goblets1 sometimes connected together by a red silk1 or red cotton1 cord1 several feet long40 ,after their worship of their ancestral tablets1 the bride and the bridegroom stand face to face4 8,one of the female assistants takes the two goblets 444 from the table1 and having partially filled them with a mixture of wine and honey1 she pours some of their contents from one goblet into the other1 back and forth several times4 ,she then holds one to the mouth of the groom1 and the other to the mouth of the bride2 who continue to face each other1 and who then sip a little of the wine4 ,she then changes the goblets1 and the bride sips out of the one just used by the groom1 and the groom sips out of the one just used by the bride1 the goblets oftentimes remaining tied together by the red cord4 ,sometimes she uses one goblet interchanging its use between the two parties in giving the wine40#dje ,the ,rev4 ,chester ,holcombe1 who has been a missionary in ,china for a dozen years or more1 writes me explicitly3 8,i have been told that in ancient times blood was actually used instead of the wine now used as a substitute10 in this wedding-cup of covenanting4 ,again1 ,professor ,douglas says1#djf that for a thousand years or so1 it has been claimed that1 at the birth of each two persons who are to be married1 the red cord invisibly binds their feet together2 which is only another way of saying that their lives are divinely inter-linked1 as by the covenant of blood4 ,in ,central ,america1 among the ,chibchas1 it was a primitive custom for the bridegroom to present himself by night1 after preliminary bargainings1 at the door of his intended father-in-law's home1 and there let his presence be known4 ,then the bride would come out to him1 bringing a large gourd of chica1 a fermented drink made from the juice of ,indian corn2 8and coming close to him1 she first tasted it herself1 and then gave it to him4 ,he drank as much as he could2 and thus the marriage was concluded40#djg ,among the ,bheels of ,india1 the drinking of the covenant is between the representatives of the bridegroom1 and the parents of the bride1 at the time of the betrothal2 but this is quite consistent with the fact that the bride herself is not supposed to have a primary part in the covenant4#djh ,it is much the same also among the ,laplanders4#dji ,among the ,georgians and ,circassians1#daj and also among the ,russians1#daa the officiating priest1 at a marriage ceremony1 drinks from a glass of wine1 and then the bride and the groom drink three times1 each1 from the same glass4 ,the ,galatians wedded1 with a poculum conjugii1 8a wedding cup40#dab ,in ,greece1 the marriage ceremony concludes by the bride and the groom 8drinking wine out of one cup40#dac ,in ,switzerland1 formerly1 the clergymen 8took two glasses of wine1 mixed their contents1 and gave one glass to the bride1 and the other to the bridegroom40#dad ,among ,european ,jews in olden time1 the officiating rabbi1 having blessed a glass of wine1 tasted it himself1 and then gave it first to the one and then to the other of the parties covenanting in marriage4#dae ,this custom of covenanting in the wine-cup1 at a wedding1 is said to have come into ,england from the ancient ,goths4#daf ,its symbolical significance and its exceptional importance1 seems to have been generally recognized4 ,ben ,jonson calls the wedding-wine a 8knitting cup0#dag--;an inter-binding cup4 ,and a later poet asks1 forcefully3 8,what priest can join two lovers' hands1 ,but wine must seal the marriage bands80#dah ,in ,ireland1 as in ,lapland and in ,india1 it was at the betrothal1 instead of at the wedding1 that the covenanting-cup--or the 8agreement bottle0 as it was called--was shared2 and not unnaturally strong usquebaugh1 or 8water of life10 was there substituted for wine--as the representative of life-blood4#dai ,in ,scotland1 as in ,arabia and in ,borneo1 the use of blood in conjunction with the use of a wedding-cup has continued down to recent times4 ,the 8agreement bottle10 or 8the bottling10 as it was sometimes called1 preceded the wedding ceremony proper4 ,at the wedding1 the blood of a cock was shed at the covenanting feast4 ,a reference to this is found in 8,the ,wowing the ,wooing or the ,vowing8 of ,jok and ,jynny10 among the most ancient remains of ,scottish minstrelsy3 8,jok tuk ,jynny be the hand1 ,and cryd ane feist1 and slew ane cok1 ,and maid a brydell up alland2 ,now haif ,i gottin your ,jynny1 quoth ,jok40#dbj ,among the ancient ,romans1 as also among the ,greeks1 the outpouring of sacrificial blood1 and the mutual drinking of wine1 were closely linked1 in the marriage ceremony4 ,when the substitute victim was ready for slaying1 8the soothsayer drank wine out of an earthen1 or wooden1 chalice1 called in ,latin1 simpulum1 or simpuvium4 ,it was in fashion much like our ewers1 when we pour water into the basin4 ,this chalice was afterward carried about to all the people1 that they also might libare1 that is1 lightly taste thereof2 which rite hath been called libation40 ,the remainder of the wine from the chalice was poured on to the victim1 which was then slain2 its blood being carefully preserved4 ,and these ceremonies preceded the marriage feast4#dba ,the wedding wine-drinking is now1 however1 all that remains of them4 ,indeed1 it would seem that the common custom of 8drinking healths10 or of persons 8pledging0 each other in a glass of wine1 is but a degenerate modification1 or a latest vestige1 of the primitive rite of covenanting in a sacred friendship1 by means of commingled bloods shared in a wine-cup4 ,certainly this custom prevailed among the old ,norsemen1 and among the ancient ,romans and ,greeks4 ,that it originally included an idea of a possible covenant with ,deity1 and of a spiritual fellowship1 is indicated in the fact that 8the old ,northmen drank the #8minni' the loving friendship of ,thor1 ,odin1 and ,freya2 and of kings1 likewise1 at their funerals40 ,so again there were 8such formulas as #8,god's minnie6' and #8,a bowl to ,god in heaven6'0#dbb ,the earlier method of this ceremony of pledging each other in wine1 was by all the participants drinking1 in turn1 out of a common bowl2 as ,catiline and his fellow-conspirators drank their blood and wine in mutual covenant2 and as the ,romans drank at a wedding service4 ,in the ,norseland1 to-day1 this custom is continued by the use of a drinking-bowl1 marked by pegs for the individual potation2 each man as he receives it1 on its round1 being expected to 8drink his peg40 ,and even among the ,english and the ,americans1 as well as among the ,germans1 the touching of two glasses together1 in this health-pledging1 is a common custom2 as if in symbolism of a community in the contents of the two cups4 ,as often1 then1 as we drink each other's healths1 or as we respond to any call for a common toast-drinking1 we do show a vestige of the primeval and the ever sacred mutual covenanting in blood4 #h4 ,,blood-,,covenant ,,involvings4 ,and now that we have before us this extended array of related facts1 concerning the sacred uses and the popular estimates of blood1 in all the ages1 it will be well for us to consider what we have learned1 in the line of blood-rights and of blood-customs1 and in the direction of their religious involvings4 ,especially is it important for us to see1 where and how all this bears on the primitive and the still extant ceremony of covenanting by blood1 with which we started in this investigation4 ,from the beginning1 and everywhere1 blood seems to have been looked upon as preeminently the representative of life2 as1 indeed1 in a peculiar sense1 life itself4 ,the transference of blood from one organism to another1 has been counted the transference of life1 with all that life includes4 ,the inter-commingling of blood by its inter-transference1 has been understood as equivalent to an inter-commingling of natures4 ,two natures thus inter-commingled1 by the inter-commingling of blood1 have been considered as forming1 thenceforward1 one blood1 one life1 one nature1 one soul--in two organisms4 ,the inter-commingling of natures1 by the inter-commingling of blood1 has been deemed possible between man and a lower organism2 and between man and a higher organism1--even between man and ,deity1 actually or by symbol2--as well as between man and his immediate fellow4 ,the mode of inter-transference of blood1 with all that this carries1 has been deemed practicable1 alike by way of the lips1 and by way of the opened and inter-flowing veins4 ,it has been also represented1 by blood-bathing1 by blood-anointing1 and by blood-sprinkling2 or1 again1 by the inter-drinking of wine--which was formerly commingled with blood itself in the drinking4 ,and the yielding of one's life by the yielding of one's blood has often been represented by the yielding of the blood of a chosen and a suitable substitute4 ,similarly the blood1 or the nature1 of divinities1 has been represented1 vicariously1 in divine covenanting1 by the blood of a devoted and an accepted substitute4 ,inter-communion between the parties in a blood-covenant1 has been a recognized privilege1 in conjunction with any and every observance of the rite of blood-covenanting4 ,and the body of the divinely accepted offering1 the blood of which is a means of divine-human inter-union1 has been counted a very part of the divinity2 and to partake of that body as food has been deemed equivalent to being nourished by the very divinity himself4 ,blood1 as life1 has been looked upon as belonging1 in the highest sense1 to the ,author of all life4 ,the taking of life has been seen to be the prerogative of its ,author2 and only he who is duly empowered1 for a season and for a reason1 by that ,author1 for blood-taking in any case1 has been supposed to have the right to the temporary exercise of that prerogative4 ,even then1 the blood1 as the life1 must be employed under the immediate direction and oversight of its ,author4 ,the heart of any living organism1 as the blood-source and the blood-fountain1 has been recognized as the representative of its owner's highest personality2 and as the diffuser of the issues of his life and nature4 ,a covenant of blood1 a covenant made by the inter-commingling of blood1 has been recognized as the closest1 the holiest1 and the most indissoluble1 compact conceivable4 ,such a covenant clearly involves an absolute surrender of one's separate self1 and an irrevocable merging of one's individual nature into the dual1 or the multiplied1 personality included in the compact4 ,man's highest and noblest outreachings of soul have1 therefore1 been for such a union with the divine nature1 as is typified in this human covenant of blood4 ,how it came to pass1 that men everywhere were so generally agreed on the main symbols of their religious yearnings and their religious hopes1 in this realm of their aspirations1 is a question which obviously admits of two possible answers4 ,a common revelation from ,god1 may have been given to primitive man2 and all these varying yet related indications of religious strivings and aim1 may be but the perverted remains of the lessons of that misused1 or slighted1 revelation4 ,on the other hand1 ,god may originally have implanted the germs of a common religious thought in the mind of man1 and then have adapted his successive revelations to the outworking of those germs4 ,which ever view of the probable origin of these common symbolisms1 all the world over1 be adopted by any ,christian student1 the importance of the symbolisms themselves1 in their relation to the truths of revelation1 is manifestly the same4 ,on this point1 ,kurtz has said1 forcefully3 8,a comparison of the religious symbols of the ,old ,testament with those of ancient heathendom1 shows that the ground and the starting point of those forms of religion which found their appropriate expressions in symbols1 was the same in all cases2 while the history of civilization proves that on this point1 priority cannot be claimed by the ,israelites4 ,but when instituting such an inquiry1 we shall also find that the symbols which were transferred from the religions of nature to that of the spirit1 first passed through the fire of divine purification1 from which they issued as the distinctive theology of the ,jews2 the dross of a pantheistic deification of nature having been consumed40#dbc ,and as to even the grosser errors1 and the more pitiable perversions of the right1 in the use of these world-wide religious symbolisms1 ,kurtz says1 again3 8,every error1 however dangerous1 is based on some truth misunderstood1 and 444 every aberration1 however grievous1 has started from a desire after real good1 which had not attained its goal1 because the latter was sought neither in the right way1 nor by right means40#dbd ,to recognize these truths concerning the outside religions of the world1 gives us an added fitness for the comparison of the symbolisms we have just been considering1 with the teachings of the sacred pages of revelation1 on the specific truths involved4 ,proofs of the existence of this rite of blood-covenanting1 have been found among primitive peoples of all quarters of the globe2 and its antiquity is carried back to a date long prior to the days of ,abraham4 ,all this1 outside of any indications of the rite in the text of ,bible itself4 ,and now we are in a position to turn intelligently to that text for fuller light on the subject4 ,,footnotes3 #aij ,egypt's ,place1 ,v4 #ahh4 #aia ,this is illustrated by ,ebers1 in his romance of 8,uarda20 where the surgeon1 ,nebsecht1 finds such difficulty in obtaining a human heart1 in order to its anatomical study4 ,see1 also1 ,birch's statement1 in ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #ace1 and ,pierret's ,dict4 d',arch4 gypt41 s4 v4 8,cur40 #aib ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #dgb1 note #f4 #aic ,ibid41 ,,iii41 #dff1 note #c4 #aid ,in the ,book of the ,dead1 ,chapter xxxvi4 tells 8,how a ,person has his ,heart made 7or given7 to him in the ,hades40 ,and in preparing the mummy1 a scarabus1--a symbol of the creative or life-giving god--was put in the place of the heart4 7,see ,rubric1 chapter xxx41 ,book of the ,dead2 ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #cdf1 #dhf2 also1 note in ,uarda1 ,i41 #cje f474 #aie ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #ad4 #aif ,ibid41 ,v41 #bhc4 #aig ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,ii41 #bg1 note4 #aih ,prov4 #d 3 #bc4 #aii ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,ii41 #bg1 #ca2 ,,iii41 #dji4 #bjj ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #cb1 ,plate ,no4 #cjj4 #bja ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #bg note #a4 #bjb ,comp4 ,ibid41 ,,iii41 #dji1 #daf f4 #bjc ,see ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #bed4 #bjd ,rec4 of ,past1 ,,ii41 #acg-aeb4 #bje ,see ,lynd's ,hist4 of ,dakotas1 p4 #gc4 #bjf ,see citations from various original sources1 in ,bancroft's ,native ,races of ,pacific ,coast1 ,,ii41 #cjf-caj1 #gjg-gji4 #bjg ,the ,nahuas were 8skilled ones10 or 8experts10 who had emigrated ,northward from the ,maya land 7,rville's ,native ,religions1 p4 #bj74 #bjh ,clavigero's ,anc4 ,hist4 of ,mex41 ,,ii41 #de-di1 cited in ,bancroft's ,native ,races1 ,,ii41 #cjg4 #bji ,the proper centre of the ,maya nations lay in ,yucatan 7,rville's ,native ,religions of ,mexico and ,peru1 p4 #ah74 #baj ,gomara1 cited in ,bancroft's ,native ,races1 ,,ii41 #caj f4 #baa ,herrera1 cited in ,bancroft's ,native ,races1 ,,ii41 #gjf f4 #bab ,native ,religions of ,mexico and ,peru 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhd71 p4 #dc f4 ,see1 also1 pp4 #de1 #df1 #hb1 #ii4 #bac ,see ,pindar's ,olympian ,odes1 ,ode #a1 line #adf2 ,sophocles' ,trachini1 line #gff2 ,virgil's neid1 ,bk4 ,,xi41 line #ha f4 #bad ,homer's ,odyssey1 ,bk4 ,,iii41 lines #aa1 #ab1 #dfa-dfc2 ,iliad1 ,bk4 ,,ii41 lines #dbg1 #dbh4 #bae ,cicero's ,de ,divinatione1 ,bk4 ,i41 chap4 #eb1 #aai4 #baf ,see ,sanchoniathon's references to blood libations1 in ,cory's ,ancient ,fragments1 pp4 #g1 #aa1 #af4 #bag ,see 8,the ,hindu ,pantheon10 in ,birdwood's ,indian ,arts1 p4 #if4 #bah ,frere's ,old ,deccan ,days1 p4 #bff4 #bai ,williams's ,middle ,kingdom1 ,i41 #aid4 #bbj ,edkins's ,religion in ,china1 p4 #bb4 #bba ,williams's ,mid4 ,king41 ,i41 #gf-gh4 #bbb ,the inscription was first found1 in #ahge1 in the tomb of ,setee ,i41 the father of ,rameses ,,ii41 the ,pharaoh of the oppression4 ,a translation of it appeared in the ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,vol4 #d1 ,part ,i4 ,again it has been found1 in the tomb of ,rameses ,,iii4 ,its earliest and its latest translations were made by ,m4 douard ,naville1 the eminent ,swiss ,egyptologist4 ,meantime1 ,brugsch1 ,de ,bergmann1 ,lauth1 ,lefbure1 and others1 have aided in its elucidation 7,see ,proceed4 of ,soc4 of ,bib4 ,arch41 for ,march #c1 #ahhe74 ,is there not a reference to this legend in the ,book of the ,dead1 chapter xviii41 sixth section8 #bbc ,mandrakes1 or 8love-apples10 among the ancient ,egyptians1 as also among the ,orientals generally1 from the days of ,jacob 7,gen4 #cj 3 #ad-ag7 until to-day1 carried the idea of promoting a loving union2 and the ,egyptian name for mandrakes--tetmut--combined the root-word tet already referred to as meaning 8arm10 or 8bracelet10 and mut--with the signification of 8attesting10 or 8confirming40 ,thus the blood and the mandrake juice would be a true assiratum4 7,see ,pierret's ,vocabulaire ,hiroglyphique1 p4 #gbc47 8,belief in this plant the mandrake is as old as history40 7,napier's ,folk-,lore1 p4 #ij47 ,see1 also1 ,lang's ,custom and ,myth1 pp4 #adc-aee4 #bbd ,mendieta's ,hist4 ,eccl4 ,ind41 #gg ff42 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #ch2 also ,brinton's ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #beh4 #bbe ,see ,cory's ,anc4 ,frag41 p4 #ei f4 #bbf ,ibid41 p4 #ae4 #bbg ,comp4 ,fabri's ,evagatorium1 ,,iii41 #bah4 #bbh ,beginnings of ,history1 p4 #eb1 note4 #bbi ,bryant's ,odyssey1 ,bks4 x4 and xi4 #bcj ,see ,sayce's ,anc4 ,emp4 of ,east1 p4 #adf4 #bca ,among the ancient ,peruvians1 there was said to be a class of devil-worshipers1 known as canchus1 or rumapmicuc1 the members of which sucked the blood from sleeping youth1 to their own nourishing and to the speedy dying away of the persons thus depleted4 7,see ,arriaga's ,extirpacion de la ,idolatria del ,piru1 p4 #ba f42 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #dh474 ,see1 also1 ,ralston's ,russian ,folk ,tales1 pp4 #caa-cbh4 #bcb ,farrer's ,primitive ,manners and ,customs1 p4 #bc f4 #bcc ,the primitive belief seems to have had a sound basis in scientific fact4 #bcd ,transfusion of ,human ,blood1 pp4 #b-d4 #bce ,ibid41 p4 #e4 #bcf ,see pages #he-hh1 supra4 #bcg ,transf4 of ,blood1 p4 #e4 #bch #b ,kings #e 3 #a-ad4 #bci ,hist4 ,nat4 xxvi41 #e4 #bdj ,see ,notes and ,queries1 for ,feb4 #bh1 #aheg2 with citation from ,soane's ,new ,curiosities of ,literature1 ,i41 #gb4 #bda ,ibid42 also ,mills's ,history of ,chivalry1 chap4 ,,iv41 note4 #bdb ,see citation from ,soane1 in ,notes and ,queries1 supra4 #bdc ,citation from 8,saturday ,review10 for ,feb4 #ad1 #aheg1 in ,notes and ,queries1 supra4 #bdd ,see ,grimm's ,household ,tales1 ,i41 #bc-cj4 #bde ,cox and ,jones's ,popular ,romances of the ,middle ,ages1 pp4 #he-hg4 #bdf ,cox and ,jones's ,romances of the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #bib4 #bdg ,lettsom's ,nibel4 ,lied1 p4 #aeh4 #bdh ,kalila wa-,dimna1 p4 #cae-cai4 #bdi ,fielde's ,pagoda ,shadows1 p4 #hh4 #bej ,croniques de ,france1 #aeaf1 feuillet c c i j1 cited from ,soane1 in ,notes and ,queries1 supra4 #bea ,roussel's ,trans4 of ,blood1 p4 #f4 ,a different version of this story is given in ,bruys's ,histoire des ,papes1 ,,iv41 #bgh2 but the other version is supported by two independent sources1 in ,infessur ,diarium1 and ,burchardi ,diarium4 ,see ,notes and ,queries1 #eth ,series1 ,,iii41 #dif1 and ,,iv41 #ch2 also ,hare's ,walks in ,rome1 p4 #eij4 #beb ,dict4 ,md4 et ,chirurg4 ,prat41 ,art4 8,transfusion40 #bec ,shooter's ,kafirs of ,natal1 p4 #aag4 #bed ,ibid41 p4 #baf4 #bee ,bonwick's ,daily ,life and ,origin of ,tasmanians1 p4 #hi2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,iii41 #dc4 #bef ,hist41 ,,iv41 #fd4 #beg ,jesuits in ,no4 ,am4 in #agth ,cent41 p4 #chi f4 #beh ,ragueneau2 cited by ,parkman4 #bei ,jesuits in ,no4 ,am41 ,introduction1 p4 xxxix4 #bfj ,ibid41 p4 #bej4 #bfa ,city of the ,saints1 p4 #aag4 ,see also ,appendix4 #bfb ,reisen in ,brit4 ,guian41 ,,ii41 #dcj2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,vi41 #cf4 #bfc ,trans4 of ,ethn4 ,soc4 new series1 ,,iii41 #bdj1 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,iii41 #cf4 #bfd ,beecham's ,ashantee and the ,gold ,coast1 p4 #baa2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,iv41 #cc4 #bfe ,see ,tylor's ,primitive ,culture1 ,i41 #dei2 also ,bock's ,head ,hunters of ,borneo1 passim4 #bff ,mrs4 ,finn's 8,fellaheen of ,palestine0 in ,surv4 of ,west4 ,pal4 8,special ,papers10 p4 #cfj4 #bfg ,this is ,mrs4 ,finn's rendering of it2 but it should be 8,i sacrificed him with my teeth40 ,the ,arabic word is obviously dhabaha 771 identical with the ,hebrew zabhakh 77 8to sacrifice40 #bfh ,lang's ,custom and ,myth1 p4 #ie f42 also ,grimm's ,household ,tales1 p4 lxviii4 #bfi ,cox and ,jones's ,pop4 ,rom4 of ,mid4 ,ages1 p4 #caj4 #bgj ,lettsom's ,nibel4 ,lied1 p4 #cgc4 #bga ,thompson's ,alcedo's ,geog4 and ,hist4 ,dict4 of ,america1 ,i41 #djh2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,vi41 #ai4 #bgb ,travels in ,nubia1 p4 #cef4 #bgc ,trans4 of ,ethn4 ,soc4 ,,ii41 #bdf1 and ,angas's ,austr4 and ,new ,zeal4 ,i41 #gc1 #bbg1 #dfb1 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,iii41 #bf4 #bgd ,see ,dict4 ,md4 et ,chir4 ,prat4 ,art4 8,transfusion02 also ,roussel's ,transf4 of ,blood1 pp4 #gh-hh4 #bge ,transf4 of ,blood1 p4 #ai4 #bgf ,see page #bj1 supra4 #bgg ,thro4 ,dark ,cont41 ,i41 #abc-aca4 #bgh ,thompson's ,thro4 ,masi ,land1 p4 #dcj4 #bgi ,ibid41 p4 #deb4 #bhj ,shooter's ,kafirs of ,natal1 notes1 p4 #cii4 #bha ,h4 ,a4 ,l41 in ,sport in ,many ,lands4 #bhb ,see ,trans4 ,royal ,asiat4 ,soc41 ,i41 #fi2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,v41 #bf f4 #bhc ,edwards's ,hist4 of ,brit4 ,west ,ind41 ,i41 #dg2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,vi41 #cf4 #bhd ,shooter's ,kafirs of ,natal1 p4 #baf4 #bhe ,see ,tylor's ,prim4 ,cult41 ,,ii41 #chb1 referring to ,bastian's ,psychologie4 #bhf ,see ,anderson's ,norse ,mythol41 p4 #bdg4 #bhg ,ibid41 p4 #chj2 ,lettsom's ,nibel4 ,lied1 ,preface1 p4 ix42 ,cox and ,jones's ,pop4 ,rom4 of ,mid4 ,ages1 p4 #bed f4 #bhh ,pop4 ,rom4 of ,mid4 ,ages1 p4 #bfj2 also ,nib4 ,lied1 p4 x4 #bhi ,see ,bancroft's ,native ,races1 ,,iii41 #aej2 ,brinton's ,myths of ,new ,world1 p4 #bgd f42 ,jackson's ,alaska1 p4 #ajc f4 #bij ,charles ,f4 ,oldham's 8,native ,faiths in the ,himalayah10 in ,the ,contemporary ,review for ,april1 #ahhe4 #bia ,napier's ,folk-,lore of the ,west of ,scotland1 p4 #aaa f4 #bib ,farrer's ,prim4 ,man4 and ,cust41 p4 #bgf f4 #bic ,lettsom's ,nibel4 ,lied1 p4 #ahc2 also ,cox and ,jones's ,pop4 ,rom4 of ,mid4 ,ages1 p4 #dg f4 #bid ,benson's ,remarkable ,trials1 p4 #id1 note4 #bie ,cobbett's ,state ,trials1 ,,xi41 #acga2 cited in ,anecdotes of ,omens and ,superstitions1 p4 #dg f4 #bif ,superstition and ,force1 pp4 #cae-cbc4 #big ,cited from ,gamal4 ben ,pedahzur's ,book of ,jewish ,ceremonies1 p4 #aa4 #bih ,religion in ,china1 pp4 #bc1 #cb4 #bii ,the ,religions of ,china1 p4 #ee4 #cjj ,dr4 ,legge here seems to use the word 8sacrifice0 in the light of a single meaning which attaches to it4 ,there is surely no incompatibility in the terms 8banquet0 and 8sacrifice10 as we find their two-fold idea in the banquet-sacrifice of the ,mosaic peace-offering 7see ,lev4 #g 3 #aa-ae74 #cja ,the ,relig4 of ,china1 ,notes to ,lect4 ,i41 p4 #ff4 #cjb ,the ,mid4 ,king41 ,,ii41 #aid4 ,see also ,martin's ,the ,chinese1 p4 #beh4 #cjc ,the ,relig4 of ,china1 p4 #ec f4 ,gray thinks differently 7,china1 ,i41 #hg47 #cjd ,the ,mid4 ,king41 ,i41 #gf-gh2 ,the ,chinese1 p4 #ii2 ,relig4 in ,china1 p4 #ba2 ,the ,relig4 of ,china1 p4 #be2 ,confucianism and ,taouism1 p4 #hg4 #cje ,relig4 in ,china1 p4 #bb4 ,the same is true in sacrifices to ,confucius 7,gray's ,china1 ,i41 #hg74 #cjf ,chow le1 cited by ,douglas in ,confuc4 and ,taou41 p4 #hb f4 #cjg ,edkins's ,relig4 in ,china1 p4 #bg4 #cjh ,see page #aef f41 infra4 #cji 8,the flesh of the horse is eaten both by the ,chinese and the ,mongolians40 7,gray's ,china1 ,,ii41 #agd47 #caj ,see ,c4 ,f4 ,gordon ,cumming's article 8,a ,visit to the ,temple of ,heaven at ,peking10 in ,lond4 ,quart4 ,rev41 for ,july1 #ahhe4 #caa ,see ,exod4 #ab 3 #g-aj4 #cab ,gray's ,china1 ,,ii41 #bga f4 #cac ,gray's ,china1 ,i41 #ajb4 #cad ,see ,rev4 #g 3 #c2 #i 3 #d2 #ac 3 #af2 #ad 3 #a2 #bj 3 #d2 #bb 3 #d4 #cae ,the ,relig4 of ,china1 p4 #bhi4 #caf ,see ,the ,rite in ,burmah1 in ,appendix4 #cag ,see ,dubois's ,des4 ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,people of ,india1 ,part ,,iii41 chap4 #g2 also ,monier ,williams's ,hinduism1 p4 #cf f4 #cah ,monier ,williams's ,hinduism1 p4 #ce f4 #cai ,ibid41 p4 #cg f4 #cbj ,dubois's ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 in ,india1 ,part ,,iii41 chap4 vii4 #cba ,heber's ,travels in ,india1 ,,ii41 #ac f4 #cbb ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #bhe4 #cbc ,dubois's ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,india1 ,part ,,ii41 chap4 xxxi4 #cbd ,dubois's ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,india1 ,part ,,ii41 chap4 xi4 #cbe 8,the ,hindu ,pantheon10 in ,birdwood's ,indian ,arts1 p4 #gf f4 #cbf ,ibid41 p4 #db4 #cbg #a ,cor4 #aa 3 #bi4 #cbh ,see ,roberts's ,oriental ,illus4 of ,scriptures1 pp4 #dhd-dhi4 #cbi ,see page #gg1 supra4 #ccj ,see page #ec1 supra4 #cca ,see also page #aid ff41 infra4 #ccb ,see ,sayce's paper1 in ,trans4 ,soc4 ,bib4 ,arch41 ,vol4 ,i41 ,part #a1 pp4 #be-ca4 #ccc ,see page #ac f41 supra4 #ccd 8,whether he has overcome his enemies or the wild beasts1 he pours out a libation from the sacred cup10 says ,layard 7,nineveh and its ,remains1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 chap4 #g7 concerning the old-time ,king of ,nineveh4 #cce ,see ,h4 ,fox ,talbot's paper1 in ,trans4 ,soc4 ,bib4 ,arch41 ,vol4 ,,iv41 ,part #a1 p4 #eh f4 #ccf ,mal4 #a 3 #f1 #g4 ,see also ,isa4 #fe 3 #aa4 #ccg #b ,kings #ai 3 #cg2 ,ezra #d 3 #b2 ,isa4 #cg 3 #ch4 ,see also #a ,cor4 #aj 3 #ba4 #cch ,rec4 of ,past1 ,,iii41 #abb f4 #cci ,sayce's ,anc4 ,emp4 of ,east1 p4 #bja2 also1 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith's ,old ,test4 in ,jew4 ,ch41 notes on ,lect4 xii4 #cdj ,rec4 of ,past1 ,,iii41 #ace4 #cda ,sayce's ,anc4 ,emp4 of ,east1 p4 #bff4 #cdb ,schaff-,herzog's ,encyc4 of ,relig4 ,knowl41 art4 8,parseeism40 #cdc ,anc4 ,emp4 of ,east1 p4 #bff4 #cdd ,see ,wilkinson's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #cj1 #djj4 #cde ,kenrick's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,i41 #cfi ff4 #cdf ,ebers's gypt4 u4 d4 ,bch4 ,mose's1 p4 #bde f4 #cdg ,wilkinson's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #djb4 #cdh ,cited from ,castor1 in ,plutarch1 in ,wilkinson's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #djg4 ,see also ,ebers's gypt4 u4 d4 ,bch4 ,mose's1 p4 #bdf4 #cdi ,hist41 ,,ii41 #ei4 #cej ,wilkinson's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #dji4 ,see also page #ajb1 supra4 #cea ,wilkinson's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #aji2 #daj2 ,kenrick's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,i41 #cgc4 ,see ,herodotus1 ,hist41 ,,ii41 #dg4 #ceb ,hist41 ,,ii41 #fa4 #cec ,see references to this custom at page #he ff41 supra4 #ced ,see ,wilkinson's ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #djd-djf4 #cee ,renouf's ,the ,relig4 of ,anc4 ,egypt1 pp4 #ach-adg4 #cef ,see ,rec4 of ,past1 ,x41 #gi-acd4 #ceg ,see page #ajb f41 supra4 #ceh 8,man doth not live by bread only1 but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of the ,lord doth man live40 7,deut4 #h 3 #c4 ,see1 also1 ,matt4 #d 3 #d2 ,job #bc 3 #ab2 ,john #d 3 #cd47 #cei ,see ,john #h 3 #ca1 #cb2 #af 3 #ac2 #ag 3 #ai4 #cfj ,see ,rville's ,native ,relig4 of ,mex4 and ,peru1 pp4 #fc1 #afc2 ,cory's ,anc4 ,frag41 p4 #e2 ,dubois's ,des4 ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,india1 ,part ,,ii41 chap4 #ca2 ,tylor's ,prim4 ,cult41 ,,ii41 #bgh ff42 ,dorman's ,orig4 of ,prim4 ,supers41 p4 #aej2 ,andersson's ,lake ,ngami1 p4 #bbj4 #cfa ,bancroft's ,native ,races1 ,v41 #edg f4 #cfb ,monier ,williams's ,hinduism1 p4 #fj4 #cfc ,bancroft's ,native ,races1 ,v41 #edh4 #cfd ,bancroft's ,native ,races1 ,,ii41 #gaj4 #cfe ,mendieta's ,hist4 ,eccles4 ,ind41 p4 #ajh f42 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #bj4 #cff ,acosta's ,hist4 ,nat4 ,mor4 ,ind41 ,bk4 ,v41 chap4 #bg1 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #bf4 #cfg ,herrera's ,gen4 ,hist4 of ,america1 ,,ii41 #cgi2 cited in ,dorman's ,orig4 of ,prim4 ,supers41 p4 #aeb f4 #cfh ,acosta's ,hist4 ,nat4 ,mor4 ,ind41 ,bk4 ,v41 chap4 #bc2 cited in ,prescott's ,conquest of ,peru1 ,i41 #ajh1 note4 #cfi ,herrera's ,gen4 ,hist41 ,,iii41 #bjg f42 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #bj4 #cgj ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #bj4 ,see also ,southey's ,hist4 of ,brazil1 ,,ii41 #cgj4 #cga ,contra ,apionem1 ,,ii41 #g4 #cgb ,see pages #aje f41 #acb1 supra4 #cgc ,see ,clark's ,indian ,sign ,language1 s4 v41 8,feast40 #cgd 8,should he fail to eat his portion1 the host would be outraged1 the community shocked1 and the spirits roused to vengeance4 ,disaster would befall the nation--death1 perhaps1 the individual40 8,a feaster unable to do his full part1 might1 if he could1 hire another to aid him2 otherwise he must remain in his place till the work was done40 7,parkman's ,jesuits in ,no4 ,am41 p4 xxxviii47 #cge 8,at some feasts guests are permitted to take home some small portions for their children as sacred food1 especially good for them because it came from a feast40 7,clark's ,ind4 ,sign ,lang41 p4 #afh47 #cgf ,edkins's ,relig4 in ,china1 p4 #bb1 note4 #cgg ,see pages #aei1 #afh1 #agb1 supra4 #cgh ,rville's ,native ,relig4 of ,mex4 and ,peru1 p4 #ahc4 #cgi ,ibid41 p4 #gf4 #chj ,see page #agf f41 supra4 #cha ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,india1 ,part ,,iii41 chap4 #g4 #chb ,see ,william and ,calvert's ,fiji and the ,fijians1 pp4 #ce f41 #afa-aff1 #aha f4 #chc ,cited in ,parkman's ,jesuits in ,no4 ,am41 p4 #bbh1 note4 #chd ,ibid41 p4 xxxix4 #che ,ibid41 p4 xl41 note4 #chf ,origin of ,prim4 ,supers41 p4 #aea f4 #chg ,origin of ,prim4 ,supers41 p4 #aej4 #chh ,native ,relig4 of ,mex4 and ,peru1 p4 #ge f4 #chi ,native ,relig4 of ,mex4 and ,peru1 p4 #gf4 #cij ,see references to cannibalism as a religious rite among the ,khonds of ,orissa1 the people of ,sumatra1 etc41 in ,adams's ,curiosities of ,superstition4 #cia ,gen4 #di 3 #aa2 ,deut4 #cb 3 #ad2 ,ecclesiasticus #ci 3 #bf2 #ej 3 #ae2 #a ,macc4 #f 3 #cd4 #cib ,in ,beduinen und ,wahaby1 p4 #hf f4 #cic ,desert of the ,exodus1 ,i41 #ij4 #cid ,see page #gb1 supra4 #cie ,wood's ,wedding ,day1 p4 #add4 #cif ,mason1 in ,journ4 of ,asiat4 ,soc4 of ,bengal1 ,vol4 ,,xxxv41 ,part ,,ii41 p4 #ag2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,v41 #i4 #cig ,andersson's ,lake ,ngami1 p4 #bbj f4 #cih ,shooter's ,kafirs of ,natal1 p4 #gg4 #cii ,williams and ,calvert's ,fiji and the ,fijians1 p4 #acd4 #djj ,see ,monier ,williams's ,sanskrit ,dictionary1 s4 v4 #dja ,see ,pike's ,sub-,tropical ,rambles1 p4 #aih4 #djb ,see pages #gg1 #afe1 supra4 #djc ,this ,oriental custom gives an added meaning to the suggestion1 that ,christ was sent to bring us to his ,father1 8that we might receive the adoption of sons0 7,gal4 #d 3 #e74 #djd ,the citations above made are from ,roberts's ,oriental ,illustrations of the ,scriptures1 p4 #egd1 and from ,dubois's ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,india1 ,part ,,ii41 chap4 #bb2 the latter being from the ,directory or ,ritual of the ,purohitas4 #dje ,doolittle's ,social ,life of the ,chinese1 ,i41 #he-hg4 #djf ,china1 p4 #gb f4 #djg ,piedrahita's ,hist4 ,new ,granada1 ,bk4 ,i41 chap4 #f2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,,ii41 #cd4 #djh ,malcolm1 in ,trans4 ,royal ,asiat4 ,soc41 ,i41 #hc2 cited in ,spencer's ,des4 ,soc41 ,v41 #h4 #dji ,wood's ,wedding ,day1 p4 #adb4 #daj ,ibid41 p4 #ff f4 #daa ,ibid41 p4 #abd f4 #dab ,rous and ,bogan's ,archologi ,attic1 p4 #afg4 #dac ,wood's ,wedding ,day1 pp4 #cf1 #ci4 #dad ,wood's ,wedding ,day1 p4 #aea4 #dae ,ibid41 pp4 #bb1 #bc4 #daf ,ibid41 p4 #bdg4 #dag ,ibid41 p4 #bdg4 #dah ,ibid41 p4 #bdh4 #dai ,ibid41 p4 #agc4 #dbj ,ross's ,the ,book of ,scottish ,poems1 ,i41 #bah4 #dba ,godwyn's ,rom4 ,histori1 p4 #ff f4 #dbb ,tylor's ,prim4 ,cult41 ,i41 #he-ig4 #dbc ,kurtz's ,history of the ,old ,covenant1 ,i41 #bce4 #dbd ,ibid41 ,i41 #bfh4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,indications ,,of ,,the ,,rite ,,in ,,the ,,bible4 ,,iii4 ,,indications ,,of ,,the ,,rite ,,in ,,the ,,bible4 #a4 ,,limitations ,,of ,,inquiry4 ,and now1 before entering upon an examination of the ,bible text1 in the light of these disclosures of primitive and universal customs1 it may be well for me to say1 that ,i purpose no attempt to include or to explain all the philosophy of sacrifice1 and of the involved atonement4 ,all my thought is1 to ascertain what new meaning1 if any1 is found in the ,bible teachings concerning the uses and the symbolism of blood1 through our better understanding of the prevailing idea1 among the peoples of the ancient world1 that blood represents life2 that the giving of blood represents the giving of life2 that the receiving of blood represents the receiving of life2 that the inter-commingling of blood represents the inter-commingling of natures2 and that a divine-human inter-union through blood is the basis of a divine-human inter-communion1 in the sharing of the flesh of the sacrificial offering as sacred food4 ,whatever other ,bible teachings there are1 beyond these1 as to the meanings of sacrifice1 or as to the nature of the atonement1 it is not my purpose1 in this investigation1 to consider4 ,in the days of ,moses1 when the ,pentateuch is supposed to have been prepared1 there were--as we have already found--certain well-defined views1 the world over1 concerning the sacredness of blood1 and concerning the methods1 the involvings1 and the symbolisms1 of the covenant of blood4 ,this being so1 we are not to look to the ,bible record1 as it stands1 for the original institution of every rite and ceremony connected with blood-shedding1 blood-guarding1 and blood-using2 but we may fairly look at every ,bible reference to blood1 in the light of the primitive customs known to have prevailed in the days of the ,bible writing4 #b4 ,,primitive ,,teachings ,,of ,,blood4 ,the earliest implied reference to blood in the ,bible text1 is the record of ,abel's sacrifice4 8,and ,abel was a keeper of sheep1 but ,cain was a tiller of the ground4 ,and in process of time it came to pass that ,cain brought of the fruit of the ground an offering unto the ,lord4 ,and ,abel1 he also brought of the firstlings of his flock and of the fat thereof4 ,and the ,lord had respect unto ,abel and to his offering3 but unto ,cain and to his offering he had not respect40#dbe ,an inspired comment on this incident is3 8,by faith ,abel offered unto ,god a more excellent sacrifice than ,cain1 through which he had witness borne to him that he was righteous1 ,god bearing witness in respect of or1 over his gifts3 and through it he ,abel being dead yet speaketh40#dbf ,now1 on the face of it1 in the light of all that we know of primitive customs in this matter of the blood-covenant1 and apart from any added teachings in the ,bible concerning the nature and meanings of different sacrifices1 this narrative shows ,abel1 lovingly and trustfully reaching out toward ,god with substitute blood1 in order to be in covenant oneness with ,god2 while ,cain merely proffers a gift from his earthly possessions4 ,abel so trusts ,god1 that he gives himself to him4 ,cain defers to ,god sufficiently to make a present to him4 ,the one shows unbounded faith2 the other shows a measure of affectionate reverence4 ,it is the same practical difference as that which distinguished ,ruth from ,orpah1 when the testing time of their love for their mother-in-law1 ,naomi1 had come to them alike4 8,and ,orpah kissed her mother-in-law2 but ,ruth clave unto her40#dbg ,no wonder that ,god counted ,abel's unstinted proffer of himself1 in faith1 an acceptable sacrifice1 and received it1 as in inter-communion on the basis of inter-union2 while ,cain's paltry gift1 without any proffer of himself1 won no approval from the ,lord4 ,then there followed the unhallowed shedding of ,abel's blood by ,cain1 and the crying out1 as it were1 of the spilled life of ,abel unto its ,divine ,author4#dbh 8,the voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from the ground10 said the ,lord1 to the guilty spiller of blood4 8,and now cursed art thou from the ground1 which hath opened her mouth to receive thy brother's blood from thy hand40 ,here1 as elsewhere1 the blood is preeminently the life2 and even when poured out on the earth1 the blood does not lose its vitality4 ,it still has its intelligent relations to its ,author and ,guardian2#dbi as the world has been accustomed to count a possibility1 down to modern times4#dcj ,after the destruction of mankind by the deluge1 when ,god would begin anew1 as it were1 by the revivifying of the world1 through the vestige of blood--of life--preserved in the ark1#dca he laid new emphasis on the sacredness of blood1 as the representative of that life which is the essence of ,god himself4 ,noah's first act1 on coming out from the ark1 was to proffer himself and all living flesh1 in a fresh blood-covenant with the ,lord4 8,and ,noah builded an altar unto the ,lord2 and took of every clean beast1 and of every clean fowl1 and offered burnt offerings on the altar40#dcb ,from all that we know of the method of the burnt-offering1 either from the ,bible-text or from outside sources1 it has1 from the beginning1 included the preliminary offering of the blood--as the life--to ,deity1 by its outpouring1 around1 or upon1 the altar1 with or without the accompaniment of libations of wine2 or1 again1 by its sprinkling upon the altar4#dcc ,it was then1 when the spirit of ,noah1 in this covenant-seeking by blood1 was recognized approvingly by the ,lord1 that the ,lord smelled the sweet savor of the proffered offering1--8the savor of satisfaction1 or delectation10#dcd to him1 was in it1--and he established a new covenant with ,noah1 giving commandment anew concerning the never-failing sacredness of blood3 8,every moving thing that liveth shall be food for you2 as freely as the green herb1 have ,i given you all flesh4 ,but flesh with the life thereof1 which is the blood thereof flesh with the blood in it1 shall ye not eat4 ,and surely your blood1 the blood of your lives1 will ,i require2 at the hand of every beast will ,i require it3 and at the hand of man1 even at the hand of every man's brother1 will ,i require the life of man4 ,whoso sheddeth man's blood1 by man shall his blood be shed3 for in the image of ,god made he man40#dce ,here1 the blood of even those animals whose flesh might be eaten by man1 is forbidden for food3 because it is life itself1 and therefore sacred to the ,author of life4#dcf ,and the blood of man must not be shed by man1--except where man is made ,god's minister of justice1--because man is formed in the image of ,god1 and only ,god has a right to take away--directly or by his minister--the life1 from one bearing ,god's likeness4 ,and this injunction1 together with this covenant1 preceded the ceremonial law of ,moses2 and it survived that law1 as well4 ,when the question came up in the apostolic conference at ,jerusalem1 on the occasion of the visit of ,paul and ,barnabas1 concerning the duty of ,gentile ,christians to the ,mosaic ceremonial law1 the decision was explicit1 that while nothing which was of that ritual alone should be imposed as obligatory on the new believers1 those essential elements of religious observance which were prior to ,moses1 and which were not done away with in ,christ1 should be emphasized in all the extending domain of ,christianity4 ,spirituality in worship1 personal purity1 and the holding sacred to ,god1 all blood--or life--as the gift of ,god1 and as the means of communion with ,god1 must never be ignored in the realm of ,christian duty4 8,write unto them1 that they abstain from the pollutions of idols1 and from fornication1 and from what is strangled1 and from blood10#dcg said the ,apostle ,james1 in announcing the decision of this conference2 and the circular letter to the ,gentile churches was framed accordingly4 ,nor does this commandment seem ever to have been abrogated1 in letter or in spirit4 ,however poorly observed by ,christians1 it stands to-day as it stood in the days of ,paul1 and in the days of ,noah1 a perpetual obligation1 with all its manifold teachings of the blessed benefits of the covenant of blood4#dch #c4 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,in ,,circumcision4 ,again the ,lord made a new beginning for the race1 in his start with ,abraham1 as the father of a chosen and peculiar people in the world4 ,and again the covenant of blood1 or the covenant of strong-friendship as it is still called in the ,east1 was the prominent feature in this beginning4 ,the ,apostle ,james says1 that 8,abraham 444 was called the friend of ,god40#dci ,god himself1 speaking through ,isaiah1 refers to ,abraham1 as 8,abraham my friend02#ddj and ,jehoshaphat1 in his extremity1 calling upon ,god for help1 speaks of 8,abraham1 thy friend40#dda ,and this application of the term 8friend0 to any human being1 in his relations to ,god1 is absolutely unique in the case of ,abraham1 in all the ,old ,testament record4 ,abraham1 and only ,abraham1 was called 8the friend of ,god40#ddb ,yet the immediate narrative of ,abraham's relations to ,god1 makes no specific mention of this unique term 8friend10 as being then applied to ,abraham4 ,it is only as we recognize the primitive rite of blood-friendship in the incidents of that narrative1 that we perceive clearly why and how ,god's covenant with ,abraham was preeminently a covenant of friendship4 8,i will make#ddc my covenant between me and thee1 and will multiply thee exceedingly10 said the ,lord to ,abraham4#ddd ,and again1 8,i will establish my covenant between me and thee and thy seed after thee throughout their generations for an everlasting covenant1 to be a ,god unto thee2 and to thy seed after thee4444 ,and as for thee1 thou shalt keep my covenant1 thou1 and thy seed after thee throughout their generations40#dde ,and then there came the explanation1 how ,abraham was to enter into the covenant of blood-friendship with the ,lord2 so that he might be called 8the friend of ,god40 8,this is my covenant1 which ye shall keep1 between me and you1 and thy seed after thee2 every male among you shall be circumcised4 ,and ye shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin2 and it shall be a token of a covenant betwixt me and you40#ddf ,the blood-covenant of friendship shall be consummated by your giving to me of your personal blood at the very source of paternity--8under your girdle02#ddg thereby pledging yourself to me1 and pledging1 also1 to me1 those who shall come after you in the line of natural descent4 8,and my covenant this covenant of blood-friendship shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant40#ddh ,so1 8in the selfsame day was ,abraham circumcised10 and thenceforward he bore in his flesh the evidence that he had entered into the blood-covenant of friendship with the ,lord4#ddi ,to this day1 indeed1 ,abraham is designated in all the ,east1 as distinctively1 8,khaleel-,allah10 8the ,friend of ,god10 or 8,ibrheem el-,khaleel10 8,abraham the ,friend0#dej--the one ,friend1 of ,god4 ,when a ,jewish child is circumcised1 it is commonly said of him1 that he is caused 8to enter into the covenant of ,abraham02 and1 his god-father1 or sponsor1 is called ,baal-bereeth1#dea 8,master of the covenant40#deb ,moreover1 even down to modern times1 the rite of circumcision has included a recognition1 however unconscious1 of the primitive blood-friendship rite1 by the custom of the ecclesiastical operator1 as ,god's representative1 receiving into his mouth1 and thereby being made a partaker of1 the blood mingled with wine1 according to the method described among the ,orientals1 in the rite of blood-friendship1 from the earliest days of history4#dec ,it is a peculiarity of the primitive compact of blood-friendship1 that he who would enter into it must be ready to make a complete surrender of himself1 in loving trust1 to him with whom he covenants4 ,he must1 in fact1 so love and trust1 as to be willing to merge his separate individuality1 in the dual personality of which he becomes an integral part4 ,only he who believes in another unreservedly and fearlessly1 can take such a step intelligently4 ,the record concerning ,abraham stands3 8,he believed in the ,lord2 and ,he counted it to him for righteousness40#ded ,the ,hebrew word1 hemeen 77 here translated 8believed in10 carries the idea of an unqualified committal of self to another4 ,it is from the root aman 77 with the two-fold idea of 8to be faithful0 and 8to trust40#dee ,its correspondent in the ,arabic1 7amana1 7 carries the same double idea1 of a confident and an entire committal of self to another1 in trust and in trustworthiness4#def ,lane's definition#deg of the substantive from this root is3 8,the becoming true to the trust1 with respect to which ,god has confided in one1 by a firm believing of the heart40#deh ,abraham so trusted the ,lord1 that he was ready to commit himself to the ,lord1 as in the rite of blood-friendship4 ,therefore the ,lord counted ,abraham's spirit of loving and longing trust1 as the equivalent of a spiritual likeness with himself2 and the ,lord received ,abraham1 by his circumcision1 into the covenant of blood-friendship4#dei ,or1 as the ,apostle ,james states it3 8,abraham believed in ,god1 and it was reckoned unto him for righteousness2 and he was called the friend of ,god40#dfj ,here is the doctrine of 8imputation10 with real life in it2 in lieu of a hard commercial transaction1 as some have viewed it4 ,the recognition of the covenant of blood in the rite of circumcision1 throws light on an obscure passage in the life of ,moses1 as recorded in ,exodus #d 3 #bj-bf4 ,moses1 himself a child of the covenant1 had neglected the circumcision of his own first-born2 and so he had been unfaithful to the covenant of ,abraham4 ,while on his way from the ,wilderness of ,sinai to ,egypt1 with a message from ,god to ,pharaoh1 concerning the un-covenanted first-born of the ,egyptians1#dfa ,moses was met by a startling providence1 and came face to face with death--possibly with a bloody death of some sort4 8,the ,lord met him1 and sought to kill him10 it is said4 ,it seems to have been perceived1 both by ,moses and his wife1 that they were being cut off from a farther share in ,god's covenant-plans for the descendants of ,abraham1 because of their failure to conform to their obligations in the covenant of ,abraham4 8,then ,zipporah took a flint1 and cut off the foreskin of her son1 and cast it at made it touch his ,moses' feet2 and she said1 ,surely a bridegroom of blood one newly bound through blood1 art thou to me4 ,so ,he the ,lord let him ,moses alone ,he spared him1 as one newly true to the covenant of ,abraham1 and newly safe within its bounds4 ,then she ,zipporah said again1 ,a bridegroom of blood art thou1 because of the circumcision20 or1 as the margin renders it3 8,a bridegroom of blood art thou in regard of the circumcision40#dfb ,the ,hebrew word1 khathan 771 here translated 8bridegroom10 has1 as its root idea1 the binding through severing1 the covenanting by blood2#dfc an idea that is in the marriage-rite1 as the ,orientals view it1#dfd and that is in the rite of circumcision1 also4 ,indeed1 in the ,arabic1 the corresponding term 7khatan1 71 is applied interchangeably to one who is a relation by the way of one's wife1 and to one who is circumcised4#dfe ,hence1 the words of ,zipporah would imply that1 by this rite of circumcision1 she and her child were brought into blood-covenant relations with the descendants of ,abraham1 and her husband also was now saved to that covenant2 whereas before they were in danger of being covenanted with a bloody death4 ,it is this idea which seems to be in the ,targum of ,onkelos1 where it renders ,zipporah's first word3 8,by the blood of this circumcision1 a khathna a blood-won relation is given to us20 and her second speech3 8,if the blood of this circumcision had not been given to us2 then we had had a khathna a blood-won relation of slaughter of death40 ,it is as though ,zipporah had said3 8,we are now newly covenanted to each other1 and to ,god1 by blood2 whereas1 but for this1 we should have been covenanted to slaughter or death by blood40 #d4 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,tested4 ,after the formal covenant of blood had been made between ,abraham and ,jehovah1 there was a specific testing of ,abraham's fidelity to that covenant1 as if in evidence of the fact that it was no empty ceremony on his part1 whereby he pledged his blood1--his very life1 in its successive generations1--to ,jehovah1 in the rite of circumcision4 ,the declaration of his 8faith10 and the promise of his faithfulness1 were to be justified1 in their manifest sincerity1 by his explicit 8works0 in their direction4 ,all the world over1 men who were in the covenant of blood-friendship were ready1--or were supposed to be ready1--to give not only their lives for each other1 but even to give1 for each other1 that which was dearer to them than life itself4 ,and1 all the world over1 men who pledged their devotedness to their gods were ready to surrender to their gods that which they held as dearest and most precious--even to the extent of their life1 and of that which was dearer than life4 ,would ,abraham do as much for his ,divine ,friend1 as men would do for their human friends8 ,would ,abraham surrender to his ,god all that the worshipers of other gods were willing to surrender in proof of their devotedness8 ,these were questions yet to be answered before the world4 8,and it came to pass after these things1 that ,god did prove ,abraham did put him to the test1 or the proof1 of his friendship1 and said unto him1 ,abraham2 and he said1 ,here am ,i4 ,and he said1 ,take now thy son1 thine only son1 whom thou lovest1 even ,isaac1 and get thee unto the land of ,moriah2 and offer him there for a burnt-offering upon one of the mountains which ,i will tell thee of40#dff ,and ,abraham rose up instantly to respond to the call of his ,divine ,friend4 ,just here it is important to consider two or three points at which the ,western mind has commonly failed to recognize the ,oriental thought1 in connection with such a transaction as this4 ,an ,oriental father prizes an only son's life far more than he prizes his own4 ,he recognizes it1 to be sure1 as at his own disposal2 but he would rather surrender any other possession than that4 ,for an ,oriental to die without a son1 is a terrible thought4#dfg ,his life is a failure4 ,his future is blank4 ,but with a son to take his place1 an ,oriental is1 in a sense1 ready to die4 ,when therefore an ,oriental has one son1 if the choice must be between the cutting short of the father's life1 or of the son's1 the former would be the lesser surrender2 the latter would be far greater4 ,preeminently did this truth have force in the case of ,abraham1 whose pilgrim-life had been wholly with reference to the future2 and whose earthly-joy and earthly-hopes centered in ,isaac1 the son of his old age4 ,for ,abraham to have surrendered his own toil-worn life1 now that a son of promise was born to him1 would have been a minor matter1 at the call of ,god4 ,but for ,abraham to surrender that son1 and so to become again a childless1 hopeless old man1 was a very different matter4 ,only a faith that would neither question nor reason1 only a love that would neither fail nor waver1 could meet an issue like that4 ,the surrender of an only son by an ,oriental1 was not1 therefore1 as it is often deemed in the ,western mind1 a father's selfish yielding of a lesser substitute for himself2#dfh but it was the giving of the one thing which he had power to surrender1 which was more precious to him than himself4 ,the difference here is as great as that between the enforced sending1 by an able-bodied citizen1 of a 8substitute0 defender of the sender's country in a war-time draft1 and the willing sending to the front1 by an aged father1 of his loved and only son1 at the first signal of his country's danger4 ,the one case has in it more than a suggestion of cowardly shirking2 the other shows only a loyal and self-forgetful love of country4 ,again1 we are liable to think of the surrender of a life1 as the dooming to death2 and of a sacrificial outpouring of blood1 as necessarily an expiatory offering4 ,in the case of the only son sent into battle by his patriotic father1 death may be an incident to the transaction2 but the gift of the son is the gift of his life1 whether he shall live or die4 ,and although the war itself be caused by sin1 and be a result1 and so a punishment1 of sin1 the son is sent into it1 not in order that he may bear punishment1 but that he may avert its disastrous consequences1 even at the cost of his life--with the necessity of his death4 ,this idea of the surrender of an only son1 not in expiation of guilt1 but in proof of unselfish and limitless affection1 runs down through the ages1 apart from any apparent trace of connection with the tradition of ,abraham and ,isaac4 ,it is seen3--in ,india1 in the story of the sacrifice of ,siralen1 the only son of ,sirutunden and ,vanagata-ananga1 as a simple proof of their loving devotedness to ,vishnoo2#dfi in ,arabia1 in the story of the proffered slaying of the two only children of a king1 in order to restore to life by their blood1 his dearly loved friend and servant1 who had been turned to stone2#dgj in the ,norseland1 in the similar story of the king and his friend and servant 8,faithful ,john20#dga in ,great ,britain1 in the story of ,amys and ,amylion1 the one of these friends sacrificing his two only children for the purpose of curing the other friend of the leprosy2#dgb and so in many another guise4#dgc ,whatever other value attaches to these legends1 they show most clearly1 that the conception of such a surrender as that to which ,abraham was called in the sacrifice of ,isaac1 was not a mere outgrowth of the customs of human sacrifices to malignant divinities1 in ,phoenicia and ,moab and the adjoining countries1 in the days of ,abraham and earlier4#dgd ,there was a sentiment involved1 which is everywhere recognized as the noblest and purest of which humanity is capable4 ,if1 indeed1 there were any reluctance to accept this simple explanation of an obvious view of the test of friendship to which ,god subjected ,abraham1 because of its possible bearing on the recognized symbolism of the transaction1 then it would be sufficient to remember1 that one view of such a transaction is not necessarily its only view4 ,whatever other view be taken of the fact and the symbolism of ,god's call on ,abraham1 to surrender to him his only son1 it is obvious that1 as a fact1 ,god did test1 or prove1 ,abraham his friend1 by asking of him the very evidence of his loving and unselfish devotedness to him1 which has been1 everywhere and always1 reckoned the highest and surest evidence possible of the truest and holiest friendship4 ,and this may well be looked at1 also1 as a symbol of ,god's purpose of surrendering his only ,son1 in proof of his fidelity to his blood-covenant of friendship with ,abraham and ,abraham's true seed forever4 8,greater love in friendship hath no man than this1 that a man lay down his life for his friends20#dge and no man1 as the ,oriental mind views it1 can so utterly lay down his life1 as when he lays down the larger life of his only son4 ,abraham showed himself capable of even such friendship as this1 in his blood-covenant with ,jehovah2 and when he had manifested his spirit of devotedness1 he was told to stay his hand and spare his son3 the will was accepted for the deed4 8,yea1 he that had gladly received the promises1 was offering up his only begotten son2 even he of whom it was said1 ,in ,isaac shall thy seed be called3 accounting that ,god is able to raise up even from the dead2 from whence he did also in a parable receive him back40#dgf ,then it was1 that 8the ,angel of the ,lord called unto ,abraham a second time out of heaven and said1 ,by myself have ,i sworn by my life1 saith the ,lord1 because thou hast done this thing1 and hast not withheld thy son1 thine only son3 that in blessing ,i will bless thee1 and in multiplying ,i will multiply thy seed as the stars of the heaven1 and as the sand which is upon the seashore2 and thy seed shall possess the gate of his enemies2 and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed3 because thou hast even to this extent obeyed my voice40#dgg ,the blood-covenant of friendship between ,jehovah and ,abraham had more meaning in it than ever1 through its testing and its triumph1 in this transaction4 ,and it is on this record1 and apparently in this view of the record1 that the ,apostle ,james says3 8,was not ,abraham our father justified by works1 in that he offered up ,isaac his son upon the altar8 ,thou seest that faith wrought with his works1 and by works was faith made perfect consummated2 and the ,scripture was fulfilled which saith1 ,and ,abraham believed ,god1 and it was reckoned unto him for righteousness2 and he was called the friend of ,god40#dgh #e4 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,and ,,its ,,tokens ,,in ,,the ,,passover4 ,there came1 again1 a time when the ,lord would give fresh evidence of his fidelity to his covenant of blood-friendship with ,abraham4 ,again1 a new start was to be made in the history of redemption4 ,the seed of ,abraham was in ,egypt1 and the ,lord would bring thence that seed1 for its promised inheritance in ,canaan4 ,the ,egyptians refused to let ,israel go1 at the call of the ,lord4 ,the ,lord sent a series of strokes1 or 8plagues0 upon the ,egyptians1 to enforce their obedience to his summons4 ,and first1 he turned the waters of ,egypt into blood2 so that there was nothing for the ,egyptians to drink save that which1 as the representative of life1 was sacred to their gods1 and must not be tasted4#dgi ,so on1 from 8plague0 to 8plague0--from stroke to stroke2 until the ,lord's sentence went forth against all the uncovenanted first-born of ,egypt4 ,then it was1 that the ,lord gave another illustration of the binding force of the unfailing covenant of blood4 ,in the original covenant of blood-friendship1 between ,abraham and the ,lord1 it was ,abraham who gave of his blood in token of the covenant4 ,now1 the ,lord was to give of his blood1 by substitution1 in re-affirmation of that covenant1 with the seed of ,abraham his friend4 ,so the ,lord commanded the choice of a lamb1 8without blemish1 a male of the first year02#dhj typical in its qualities1 and representative in its selection4 ,the blood of that lamb was to be put 8on the two side posts and on the lintel0 of every house of a descendant of ,abraham2 above and along side of every passer through the doorway4#dha 8,and the blood shall be to you for a token upon the houses where ye are10 said the ,lord to this people3 8and when ,i see the blood the token of my blood-covenant with ,abraham1 ,i will pass over you1 and there shall no plague be upon you to destroy you1 when ,i smite the land of ,egypt40#dhb ,the flesh of the chosen lamb was to be eaten by the ,israelites1 reverently1 as an indication of that inter-communion which the blood-friendship rite secures2 and in accordance with a common custom of the primitive blood-covenant rite1 everywhere4 ,to this day1 as ,i can testify from personal observation1 the ,samaritans on ,mount ,gerizim 7where alone in all the world the passover-blood is now shed1 year by year71 bring to mind the blood-covenant aspects of this rite1 by their uses of that sacred blood4 ,the spurting life-blood of the consecrated lambs is caught in basins1 as it flows from their cut throats2 and not only are all the tents promptly marked with the blood as a covenant-token1 but every child of the covenant receives also a blood-mark1 on his forehead1 between his eyes1#dhc in evidence of his relation to ,god in the covenant of blood-friendship4 ,it will be remembered that in the primitive rite of blood-friendship a blood-stained record of the covenant is preserved in a small leathern case1 to be worn as an amulet upon the arm1 or about the neck1 by him who has won a friend forever in this sacred rite4#dhd ,it would even seem that this was the custom in ancient ,egypt1 where the red amulet1 which represented the blood of ,isis1 was worn by those who claimed a blood-friendship with the gods4#dhe ,it is a noteworthy fact1 that it was in conjunction with the institution of this passover rite of the ,lord's blood-friendship with ,israel1 as a permanent ceremonial1 that the ,lord declared of this rite and its token3 8,it shall be for a sign upon thine hand1 and for frontlets between thine eyes40#dhf ,and it is on the strength of this injunction1 that the ,jews have1 to this day1 been accustomed to wear upon their foreheads1 and again upon their arm--as a crown and as an armlet--a small leathern case1 as a sacred amulet1 or as a 8phylactery02 containing a record of the passover-covenant between the ,lord and the seed of ,abraham his friend4 ,not the law itself1 but the substance of the covenant between the ,lawgiver and his people1 was the text of this amulet record4 ,it included ,exodus #ac 3 #c-aj1 #aa-af1 with its reference to ,god's deliverance of his people from bondage1 to the institution of the passover feast1 and to the consecration of the redeemed first-born2 also ,deuteronomy #f 3 #d-i1 #ac-bb1 with its injunction to entire and unswerving fidelity1 in the covenant thus memorialized4 ,the incalculable importance of the symbolism of the phylacteries1 in the estimation of the ,lord's people1 has been recognized1 as a fact1 by both ,jewish and ,christian scholars1 even after their primary meaning has been lost sight of--through a strange dropping out of sight of the primitive rite of blood-covenanting1 so familiar in the land of ,egypt and in the earlier and later homes of the ,hebrews4 ,the ,rabbis even held that ,god himself1 as the other party in this blood-covenant1 wore the phylacteries1 as its token and memorial4#dhg ,among other passages in support of this1 they cited ,isaiah #di 3 #af3 8,behold ,i have graven thee upon the palms of my hands02 and ,isaiah #fb 3 #h3 8,the ,lord hath sworn by his right hand1 and by the arm of his strength40 ,farrar1 referring to this claim of the ,rabbis1 says1 8it may have had some mystic meaning02#dhh and certainly the claim corresponds singularly with the thought and with the customs of the rite of blood-covenanting4 ,to this day many of the ,syrian ,arabs swear1 as a final and a most sacred oath1 by their own blood--as their own life2#dhi and in making the covenant of blood-friendship they draw the blood from the upper arm1 because1 as they explain it1 the arm is their strength4#dij ,the cry of the ,egyptian soul to his god1 in his resting on the covenant of blood1 was1 8,give me your arm2 ,i am made as ye40#dia ,it is not strange1 therefore1 that those who had the combined traditions of ,egypt and of ,syria1 should see a suggestion of the covenant of blood-friendship in the inspired assurance3 8,the ,lord hath sworn by his right hand1 and by the arm of his strength40 ,it is by no means improbable1 indeed1 that the universal custom of lifting up the arm to ,god in a solemn oath#dib was a suggestion of swearing by one's blood1 by proffering it in its strength1 as in the inviolable covenant of sacred friendship with ,god4 ,so1 again1 in the 8striking hands0 as a form of sacred covenanting#dic2 the clasping of hands1 in blood4 ,the ,egyptian amulet of blood-friendship was red1 as representing the blood of the gods4 ,the ,egyptian word for 8red10 sometimes stood for 8blood40#did ,the sacred directions in the ,book of the ,dead were written in red2#die hence1 follows our word 8rubrics40 ,the ,rabbis say1 that when persecution forbade the wearing of the phylacteries with safety1 a red thread might be substituted for this token of the covenant with the ,lord4#dif ,it was a red thread which ,joshua gave to ,rahab as a token of her covenant relations with the people of the ,lord4#dig ,the red thread1 in ,china1 to-day1 as has been already shown1 binds the double cup1 from which the bride and bridegroom drink their covenant draught of 8wedding wine02 as if in symbolism of the covenant of blood4#dih ,and it is a red thread which in ,india1 to-day1 is used to bind a sacred amulet around the arm or the neck4#dii ,among the ,american ,indians1 8scarlet1 or red10 is the color which stands for sacrifices1 or for sacrificial blood1 in all their picture painting2 and the shrine1 or tunkan1 which continues to have its devotees1 8is painted red1 as a sign of active or living worship40#ejj ,the same is true of the shrines in ,india2#eja the color red shows that worship is still living there2 red continues to stand for blood4 ,the two covenant tokens of blood-friendship with ,god--circumcision and the phylacteries--are1 by the ,rabbis1 closely linked in their relative importance4 8,not every ,israelite is a ,jew10 they say1 8except he has two witnesses--the sign of circumcision and phylacteries02#ejb the sign given to ,abraham1 and the sign given to ,moses4 ,in the narration of ,king ,saul's death1 as given in #b ,samuel #a 3 #a-af1 the young ,amalekite1 who reports ,saul's death to ,david1 says3 8,i took the crown that was upon his head1 and the bracelet that was on his arm the emblems of his royalty1 and have brought them hither unto my lord40 ,the ,rabbis1 in their paraphrasing of this passage1#ejc claim that it was the phylactery1 8the frontlet0 7totephta7 rather than a 8bracelet10 which was on the arm of ,king ,saul2 as if the king of the covenant-people of ,jehovah would not fail to be without the token of ,jehovah's covenant with that people4 ,so firmly fixed was the idea of the appropriateness and the binding force of these tokens of the covenant1 that their use1 in one form or another1 was continued by ,christians1 until the custom was denounced by representative theologians and by a ,church ,council4 ,in the ,catacombs of ,rome1 there have been found 8small caskets of gold1 or other metal1 for containing a portion of the ,gospels1 generally part of the first chapter of ,john with its covenant promises to all who believe on the true ,paschal ,lamb1 which were worn on the neck10 as in imitation of the ,jewish phylacteries4 ,these covenant tokens were condemned by ,irenus1 ,augustine1 ,chrysostom1 and by the ,council of ,laodicea1 as a relic of heathenism4#ejd #f4 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,at ,,sinai4 ,when rescued ,israel had reached ,mount ,sinai1 and a new era for the descendants of ,abraham was entered upon1 by the issue of the divinely given charter of a separate nationality1 the covenant of blood-friendship between the ,lord and the seed of the ,lord's friend1 was once more recognized and celebrated4 8,and ,moses came and told the people all the words of the ,lord1 and all the judgments3 and all the people answered with one voice1 and said1 ,all the words which the ,lord hath spoken will we do4 ,and ,moses wrote all the words of the ,lord1 and rose up early in the morning or1 #8prepared for a new start' as that phrase means1#eje and builded an altar under the mount1 and twelve pillars1 according to the twelve tribes of ,israel4 ,and he sent young men of the children of ,israel1 which offered burnt offerings1 and sacrificed peace offerings of oxen unto the ,lord20 not sin-offerings are named1 but burnt-offerings1 of consecration1 and peace-offerings1 of communion4 ,and now observe the celebration of the symbolic rite of the blood-covenant between the ,lord and the ,lord's people1 with the substitute blood accepted on both sides1 and with the covenant record agreed upon4 8,and ,moses took half of the blood1 and put it in basins2 and half of the blood he sprinkled on the altar4 ,and he took the book the record of the covenant1 and read in the audience of the people3 and they said1 ,all that the ,lord hath spoken will we do1 and be obedient4 ,and ,moses took the blood1 and sprinkled it on the people half of it he sprinkled on the ,lord's altar1 and half of it he sprinkled on the ,lord's people4 ,the writer of ,hebrews#ejf says that ,moses sprinkled blood on the book1 also2 thus blood-staining the record of the covenant1 according to the custom in the ,east1 to-day1 and ,moses said1 ,behold the blood of the covenant1 which the ,lord hath made with you concerning all these words or1 as the margin renders it1 #8upon all these conditions1' in the written compact4 ,then went up ,moses1 and ,aaron1 ,nadab1 and ,abihu1 and seventy of the elders of ,israel4444 ,and they beheld ,god1 and did eat and drink02#ejg as in the social inter-communion1 which commonly accompanies the rite of blood-friendship4 ,when ,abraham was brought into the covenant of blood-friendship with ,jehovah1 it was his own blood which ,abraham devoted to ,jehovah4 ,when ,jehovah recognized anew this covenant of blood-friendship in behalf of the seed of his friend1 ,jehovah provided the substitute blood1 for its symbolizing in the passover4 ,when united ,israel was to be inducted into the privileges of this covenant of blood-friendship at ,mount ,sinai1 half of the blood came from the one party1 and half of the blood came from the other party1 to the sacred compact2 both portions being supplied from a common and a mutually accepted symbolic substitute4 #g4 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,in ,,the ,,mosaic ,,ritual4 ,with the establishment of the ,mosaic law1 there was an added emphasis laid on the sacredness of blood1 which had been insisted on in the ,noachic covenant2 and many new illustrations were divinely given of the possibilities of an ultimate union with ,god through inter-flowing blood1 and of present communion with ,god through the sharing of the substitute flesh of a sacrificial victim4 8,ye shall eat no manner of blood1 whether it be of fowl or beast1 in any of your dwellings4 ,whosoever it be that eateth any blood1 that soul shall be cut off from his people40#ejh 8,whatsoever man there be of the house of ,israel1 or of the strangers that sojourn among them1 that eateth any manner of blood2 ,i will set my face against that soul that eateth blood1 and will cut him off from among his people4 ,for the life the soul of the flesh is in the blood3 and ,i have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your souls3 for it is the blood that maketh atonement by reason of the life by reason of its being the life4 ,therefore ,i said unto the children of ,israel1 ,no soul of you shall eat blood1 neither shall any stranger that is among you eat blood40#eji 8,for as to the life of all flesh1 the blood thereof is all one with the life thereof2 therefore ,i said unto the children of ,israel1 ,ye shall eat the blood of no manner of flesh3 for the life of all flesh is the blood thereof3 whosoever eateth it shall be cut off40#eaj ,because of sin1 death has passed upon man4 ,man can have new life only from the ,author of life4 ,a transfusion of life is1 as it were1 a transfusion of blood2 for1 8of all flesh1 the blood thereof is all one with the life thereof40 ,if1 indeed1 the death-possessed man could enter into a blood-covenant with the ,author of life1--could share the life of him who is ,life1--then the dead might have new life in a new nature2 and the far separated sinner might be brought into oneness with ,god2 finding atonement in the cleansing flow of the new blood thus applied4 ,so it pleased ,god to appoint substitute blood upon the altar of witness between the sinner and ,himself1 as a symbol of that atonement whereby the sinner might1 through faith1 become a partaker of the divine nature4 8,the wages of sin is death2 but the free gift of ,god is eternal life0#eaa--;in that foreshadowed divine blood1 which the blood of beasts1 offered on the altar1 can1 for a time1 typify4 ,blood--even the blood of beasts--thus made sacred1 as a holy symbol1 must never be counted as a common thing2 but it must be held1 ever reverently1 as a token of that life which is the sinner's need2 and which is ,god's grandest gift and ,god's highest prerogative4 ,in the line of this teaching1 the command went forth3 8,what man soever there be of the house of ,israel1 that killeth an ox1 or lamb1 or goat in the camp1 or that killeth it without the camp1 and hath not brought it unto the door of the tent of meeting1 to offer it with its blood as an oblation unto the ,lord before the tabernacle of the ,lord3 blood shall be imputed unto that man2 he hath shed blood improperly2 and that man shall be cut off from among his people3 to the end that the children of ,israel may bring their sacrifices1 which they sacrifice in the open field1 even that they may bring them unto the ,lord1 unto the door of the tent of meeting1 unto the priest1 and sacrifice them for sacrifices of peace-offering unto the ,lord4 ,and the priest shall sprinkle the blood upon the altar of the ,lord at the door of the tent of meeting2 and burn the fat for a sweet savour unto the ,lord40#eab ,the children of ,israel were1 at all times and everywhere1 to reach out after communion and union with ,god1 through the surrender of their personal selves in the surrender of their substitute blood--with its divinely appointed symbolism of communion and union with ,god 8in the blood of the eternal covenant0 of divine friendship4#eac ,and again3 8,whatsoever man there be of the children of ,israel1 or of the strangers that sojourn among them1 which taketh in hunting any beast or fowl that may be eaten2 he shall pour out the blood thereof1 and cover it with the dust40#ead ,if he be at a distance from the tabernacle1 so that he cannot bring the blood for an oblation at the altar1 he must1 at all events1 reverently pour out the blood as unto ,god1 and cover it as he would a human body in a grave4 ,and to this day this custom prevails widely throughout the ,east2 not among ,jews alone1 but among ,christians and ,muhammadans1 as also among those of other religions4#eae ,under the ,mosaic ritual1 the forms and the symbolisms of sacrifice were various4 ,but through them all1 where blood was an element1--in the sin-offering1 in the trespass-offering1 in the burnt-offering1 in the peace-offering1--blood always represented life1 never death4 ,death was essential to its securing2 but1 when secured1 blood was life4 ,death1 as the inevitable wages of sin1 had already passed unto all men2 and 8death reigned from ,adam to ,moses02 but1 with the full disclosure of the law1 in ,moses1 which made sin apparent1 there came1 also1 a disclosure of an atonement for sin1 and of a cure for its consequences4 ,death was already here2 now came the assurance of an attainable life4 ,the sinner1 in the very article of death1 was shown that he might turn1 in self-surrender and in loving trust1 with a proffer of his own life1 by substitute blood1 to ,god2 and that he might reach out hopefully after inter-union with ,god1 by the sharing of the divine-nature in the unfailing covenant of divine-human blood-friendship4 ,thus 8not as the trespass with its mere justice of punishment2 but so also and #8much more1' of grace alone1 is the free gift of life to the justly dead40#eaf ,all the detailed requirements of the ,mosaic ritual1 and all the specific teachings of the ,rabbis1 as well1 go to show the preeminence of the blood in the sacrificial offerings2 go to show1 that it is the life 7which the blood is71 and not the death 7which is merely necessary to the securing of the blood71 of the victim1 that is the means of atonement2 that gives the hope of a sinner's new inter-union with ,god4 ,in a commentary on a ,talmudic tract1 on ,the ,day of ,atonement1 ,rabbi ,obadiah of ,barttenora1 notes the fact1#eag that in the choice by lot1 of the priests who were to have a part in the daily sacrifice1 the priest first selected 8obtained the right of priority1 and sprinkled the blood upon the altar1 after he had received it in the vessel for the purpose2 for he who sprinkled the blood is the one who had received the blood4 ,the next priest to him killed the sacrifice1 and this notwithstanding the fact that the slaying preceded the receiving of the blood2 because the office of sprinkling was higher than that of slaying2 for the slaying was lawful if done by a stranger2 which was not the case with the sprinkling40 ,the death of the victim was a minor matter3 it was the victim's life1--its blood which was its life1--that had chief value and sacredness4 ,on this same point ,dr4 ,edersheim says3#eah 8,the ,talmud declares the offering of birds1 so as to secure the blood so as to secure that which was preeminently precious to have been the most difficult part of a priest's work4 ,for the death of the victim of the sacrifice was only a means towards an end2 that end being the shedding and sprinkling of the blood1 by which the atonement was really made4 ,the ,rabbis mention a variety of rules observed by the priest who caught up the blood--all designed to make the best provision for its proper sprinkling4 ,thus1 the priest was to catch up the blood in a silver vessel pointed at the bottom1 so that it could not be put down2 and to keep it constantly stirred1 to preserve the fluidity of the blood4 ,in the sacrifice of the red heifer1 however1 the priest caught the blood directly in his left hand1 and sprinkled it with his right towards the ,holy ,place3 while in that of the leper1 one of the two priests received the blood in the vessel2 the other received it in his hand1 from which he anointed the purified leper40 ,recognizing the truth that in the sacrifices of the ,mosaic ritual1 8consecration by blood is consecration in a living union with ,jehovah10 ,professor ,w4 ,robertson ,smith observes1#eai that1 8in the ordinary atoning sacrifices1 the blood is not applied to the people it is merely poured out ,godward1 as if in sign of life surrender2 but in the higher forms1 as in the sacrifice for the whole congregation 7,lev4 #d 3 #ac seq471 the priest at least dips his hand in it1 and so puts the bond of blood between himself1 as the people's representative1 and the altar1 as the point of contact with ,god40#ebj ,and so1 on the basis of the root-idea of the primitive rite of the covenant of blood1 an inter-union is symbolized between the returning sinner and his ,god4 ,the aim of all the ,mosaic sacrifices was1 a restored communion with ,god2 and the hope which runs through them all is of a divine-human inter-union through blood4 8,the one purpose which is given after every sacrifice in the first chapters of ,leviticus10#eba says ,stanley1#ebb 8is1 that it #8shall make a sweet savour unto the ,lord'40 ,and ,edersheim says1#ebc of all the various sacrifices of the ritual3 8,these1 were1 then1 either sacrifices of communion with ,god1 or else were intended to restore that communion when it had been disturbed or dimmed through sin and trespass3 sacrifices in communion1 or sacrifices for communion1 with ,god4 ,to the former class belong the burnt and the peace-offerings2 to the latter1 the sin and the trespass offerings40#ebd ,the sin-offering1 of that ritual1 was1 in a sense1 the basis of the whole system of sacrifices4 ,the chief feature of that offering1 was the out-flowing of its blood ,godward4 ,the offering itself was a substitute-offering1 for an individual or for the entire people4 ,its blood was sprinkled upon the horns of the altar of burnt-offering1 or poured out at the base of that altar1#ebe--the altar of personal consecration2 or1 it was sprinkled within the ,holy ,place toward the ,most ,holy ,place1#ebf--the symbolic dwelling-place of ,jehovah3 and again it was made to touch the horns of the altar of incense1 which sent up its sweet savor to ,god3 in every case1 it was the outreaching of the sinner toward inter-union with ,god1 in a covenant of blood4 ,the whole burnt-offering1 of the ,mosaic ritual1 symbolised the entire surrender to ,god1 of the individual or of the congregation1 in covenant faithfulness2 the giving of one's self in unreserved trust to ,him with whom the offerer desired to be in loving oneness4 ,it was an indication of a readiness to enter fully into that inter-union1 which the blood-covenant brought about between two who had been separated1 but who were henceforth to be as one4 ,this offering also must be made with blood2 for it is blood--which is the life--that gives the possibility of inter-union4 ,all the outpoured blood of this offering1 however1 went directly to the altar upon which the offering itself was laid2#ebg not toward the ,most ,holy ,place1 of the ,lord's symbolic presence4 ,this offering was not1 indeed1 understood as in itself compassing inter-union2 it indicated rather a desire and a readiness for inter-union--anew or renewed3 so1 both the substitute-body and the substitute-blood were offered at the altar of typical surrender and consecration4 ,when other sacrifices were brought1 the burnt-offering followed the sin-offering1 but preceded the peace-offering2#ebh again1 it might be offered by itself4 ,he who was of the blood-covenant stock of ,abraham1 thereby sought restoration to the full privileges of that covenant1 to which he had not been wholly true2 and even he who was not of that stock might in this way show his desire to share in its privileges2 8for the burnt offering was the only sacrifice which non-,israelites were permitted to bring0#ebi to the altar of ,jehovah4 ,following the communion-seeking1 or the union-seeking1 sin-offering 7with its connected1 or related1 trespass-offering1 or guilt-offering71 and the self-surrendering burnt-offering1 there came the joyous communion-symbolizing peace-offering1 with its type of completed union1#ecj in the sharing1 by the sinner and his ,god1 of the flesh of the sacrificial victim at a common feast4 ,and this banquet-sacrifice#eca corresponds with the feast of inter-communion which commonly follows the primitive rite of blood-covenanting1 and which marks the completion of the inter-union thereby sought after4 ,all the other sacrifices of the ,mosaic ritual follow in the line of these three classes4 ,even those which are in themselves offered without blood1 presuppose the individual's share in the blood-covenant1 by the rite of circumcision1 and through the high priest's sin-offering for the entire congregation4 8,the ,rabbis attach ten comparative degrees of sanctity to sacrifices2 and it is interesting to mark1 that of these the first belonged to the blood of the sin-offering2 the second to the burnt-offering2 the third to the sin-offering itself2 and the fourth to the trespass-offering40#ecb ,the blood which is to secure the covenant-union--anew or renewed--is of preeminent importance4 ,then comes the symbol of self-surrendering devotedness4 ,first1 the possibility of inter-union2 next1 the expression of readiness and desire for it4 ,after this1 the other sacrifices range themselves according to their signification1 until the culmination of the series is reached in the joyous inter-communion feast of the peace-offering4 ,but1 with all the suggestions of the rite of blood-covenanting1 in the sacrifices of the ,mosaic ritual1 there were limitations in the correspondences of that rite in those sacrifices1 which mark the incompleteness of their symbolism1 and which point to better things to come4 ,in the primitive blood-covenant rite itself1 both parties receive1 and partake of1 the blood which becomes common to the two4 ,in all the outside religions of the world1 where men reach out after a divine-human inter-union through substitute-blood1 the offerer drinks of the sacrificial blood1 or of something which stands for it2 and so he is supposed to share the nature of the ,god with whom he thus covenants and inter-unites4 ,in the ,mosaic ritual1 however1 all drink-offerings of blood were forbidden to him who would enter into covenant with ,god2 he might not taste of the blood4 ,he might1 it is true1 look forward1 by faith1 to an ultimate sharing of the divine nature2 and in anticipation of that inter-union1 he could enjoy a symbolic inter-communion with ,god1 by partaking of the peace-offerings at the table of his ,lord2 but as yet the sacrificial offering which could supply to his death-smitten nature the vivifying blood of an everlasting covenant1 was not disclosed to him4#ecc ,even the substitute blood which he presented at the altar1 as he came with his outreaching after a blood-covenant union with the ,lord1 did not secure to him direct personal access to the symbolic earthly dwelling-place of the ,lord4 ,that blood could be poured out at the base of the altar of consecration1 or it could be sprinkled upon its horns4 ,that blood could1 on occasions be sprinkled before the veil of the ,most ,holy ,place2 or could touch the horns of the altar of sweet incense4 ,but that blood could never pass that veil which guarded the place of the ,lord's symbolic presence1 save once in a year when the high-priest1 all by himself1 and that not without a show of his own unfitness for the mission1 went in thither1 to sprinkle the substitute blood before the mercy-seat2 8the ,holy ,ghost this signifying1 that the way into the ,holy ,place hath not yet been manifest#ecd02 that the substitute 8blood of bulls and of goats0#ece cannot be a means of man's inter-union with ,god4 ,lest1 indeed1 the ,israelite should believe that a blood-covenant union was really secured with ,god1 rather than typified1 through these prescribed symbolic sacrifices and their sharing1 he was repeatedly warned against that fatal error1 and was taught that his true covenanting must be by a faith-filled recognition of the symbolism of these substitute agencies2 and by the implicit surrender of himself1 in loving trust1 to ,him who had ordained them as symbols4 ,thus in the ,psalms3 8,hear1 ,o my people1 and ,i will speak2 ,o ,israel1 and ,i will testify unto thee3 ,i am ,god1 even thy ,god4 ,i will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices2 ,and thy burnt-offerings are continually before me4444 ,will ,i eat the flesh of bulls1 ,or drink the blood of goats8 ,offer unto ,god the sacrifice of thanksgiving2 ,and pay thy vows unto the ,most ,high3 ,and call upon me in the day of trouble2 ,i will deliver thee1 and thou shalt glorify me4 8,but unto the wicked1 ,god saith3 ,what hast thou to do to declare my statutes1 ,and that thou hast taken my covenant in thy mouth8 ,seeing thou hatest instruction1 ,and castest my words behind thee40#ecf ,again1 in the prophecy of ,isaiah3 8,to what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me8 ,saith the ,lord3 ,i am full of the burnt offerings of rams1 and the fat of fed beasts2 ,and ,i delight not in the blood of bullocks1 or of lambs1 or of he-goats4 ,when ye come to appear before me1 ,who hath required this at your hand1 to tread my courts8 ,bring no more vain oblations2 ,incense is an abomination unto me4444 ,wash you1 make you clean2 ,put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes2 ,cease to do evil3 ,learn to do well2 ,seek judgment1 relieve the oppressed2 ,judge the fatherless1 plead for the widow40#ecg ,and with this very warning against a false reliance on the symbols themselves1 the same prophet gives assurance of better things in store for all those who are in true blood-covenant with ,god2 even though they be not of the peculiar people of ,abraham's natural descent4 ,foretelling the future1 when the types of the sacrifice shall be realized1 he says3 8,and in this mountain shall the ,lord of ,hosts make unto all peoples ,a feast of fat things1 ,a feast of wine on the lees2 ,of fat things full of marrow1 ,of wines on the lees well refined40#ech ,the feast of inter-communion shall be sure1 when the blood-covenant of inter-union is complete4 ,again1 by ,jeremiah3 8,thus saith the ,lord of ,hosts1 the ,god of ,israel3 ,add your burnt-offerings unto your sacrifices1 and eat ye flesh4 ,but remember that that is not the completion of a covenant with me4 ,for ,i spake not unto your fathers1 nor commanded them1 ,in the day that ,i brought them out of the land of ,egypt1 ,concerning burnt offerings or sacrifices4 ,as if burnt offerings and sacrifices were the all important thing2 ,but this thing ,i commanded them1 saying1 ,hearken unto my voice1 ,and ,i will be your ,god1 ,and ye shall be my people2 ,and walk ye in all the way that ,i command you1 ,that it may be well with you40#eci ,once more1 by ,hosea3 8,o ,ephraim1 what shall ,i do unto thee8 ,o ,judah1 what shall ,i do unto thee8 ,for your goodness is as a morning cloud1 ,and as the dew that goeth early away4444 ,for ,i desire mercy and not sacrifice2 ,and the knowledge of ,god more than burnt-offerings4 ,but they like ,adam have transgressed the covenant3 or1 as the ,revisers' 8margin0 would render it1 8,but they are as men that have transgressed a covenant03 ,there have they dealt treacherously against me0#edj ,therein have they proved unfaithful to the requirements of the blood-covenant on which they assumed to be resting1 in their sacrifices4 ,and so1 all the way along through the prophets1 in repeated emphasis of the incompleteness of the blood-covenanting symbols in the ritual sacrifices4 ,concerning the very rite of circumcision1 which was the token of ,abraham's covenant of blood-friendship with the ,lord1 the ,israelites were taught that its spiritual value was not in the formal surrender of a bit of flesh1 and a few drops of blood1 in ceremonial devotedness to ,god1 but in its symbolism of the implicit surrender of the whole life and being1 in hearty covenant with ,god4 8,behold1 unto the ,lord thy ,god belongeth the heaven1 and the heaven of heavens1 the earth with all that therein is4 ,only the ,lord had a delight in thy fathers to love them1 and he chose their seed after them1 even you above all peoples as at this day4 ,circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart1 and be no more stiff-necked40#eda 8,and it shall come to pass1 when all these things are come upon thee1 the blessings and the curse which ,i have set before thee1 and thou shalt call them to mind among all the nations1 whither the ,lord thy ,god hath driven thee1 and shalt return unto the ,lord thy ,god1 and shalt obey his voice according to all that ,i command thee this day1 thou and thy children1 with all thine heart1 and with all thy soul2 that then the ,lord thy ,god will turn thy captivity1 and have compassion upon thee1 and will return and gather thee from all the peoples1 whither the ,lord thy ,god hath scattered thee4444 ,and the ,lord thy ,god will circumcise thine heart1 and the heart of thy seed1 to love the ,lord thy ,god with all thine heart1 and with all thy soul1 that thou mayest live40#edb ,and when this has come to pass1 the true seed of ,abraham1#edc circumcised in heart1#edd shall be in the covenant of blood-friendship with ,god4 ,so1 also1 with the phylacteries1 as the record of the blood-covenant of the passover1 they had a value only as they represented a heart-remembrance of that covenant1 by their wearers4 ,says ,solomon1 in the guise of ,wisdom4 8,my son1 forget not my law2 ,but let thine heart keep my commandments4444 ,let not mercy and truth forsake thee3 ,bind them about thy neck2 ,write them upon the table of thy heart2 ,so shalt thou find favor and good understanding ,in the sight of ,god and man40#ede 8,keep my commandments and live2 ,and my law as the apple of thine eye4 ,bind them upon thy fingers2 ,write them upon the table of thine heart40#edf ,and the prophet ,jeremiah foretells the recognition of this truth in the coming day of better things3 8,behold the days come1 saith the ,lord1 ,that ,i will make a new covenant ,with the house of ,israel and with the house of ,judah3 ,not according to the covenant that ,i made with their fathers ,in the day that ,i took them by the hand1 ,to bring them out of the land of ,egypt2 ,that covenant was the blood-covenant of the passover2 of which the phylacteries were a token4 ,which my covenant they brake1 ,although ,i was an husband unto them a lord over them saith the ,lord2 ,but this shall be the covenant that ,i will make with the house of ,israel1 ,after those days1 saith the ,lord2 ,i will put my law in their inward parts1 ,and in their heart will ,i write it3 ,instead of its being written as now1 outside of them1 on their hand and on their forehead4 ,and ,i will be their ,god1 ,and they shall be my people4444 ,for ,i will forgive their iniquity1 ,and their sin will ,i remember no more40#edg ,the blood-covenant symbols of the ,mosaic law1 all pointed to the possibility of a union of man's spiritual nature with ,god2 but they did not in themselves either assure or indicate that union as already accomplished2 nor did they point the way to it1 as yet made clear4 ,they were only 8a shadow of the things to come40#edh ,another gleam of the primitive truth1 that blood is life and not death1 and that the transference of blood is the transference of life1 is found in the various ,mosaic references to the goel 771 the person who is authorized to obtain blood for blood as an act of justice1 in the ,east4 ,and another proof of the prevailing error in the ,western mind1 through confounding blood with death1 and justice with punishment1 is the common rendering of the term goel1 as 8avenger10#edi or 8revenger10#eej in our ,english ,bible1 wherever that term applies to the balancing of a blood account2 although the same ,hebrew word is in other connections commonly translated 8redeemer10#eea or 8ransomer40#eeb ,lexicographers are confused over the original import of the word goel2#eec all the more1 because of this confusion in their minds over the import of blood1 in its relation to death and to justice4 ,but it is agreed on all hands1 that1 as a term1 the word was1 in the ,east1 applied to that kinsman whose duty it was to secure justice to the injured1 and to restore1 as it were1 a normal balance to the disturbed family relations4 ,oehler well defines the goel1 as 8that particular relative whose special duty it was to restore the violated family integrity1 who had to redeem not only landed property that had been alienated from the family 7,lev4 #be 3 #be ff471 or a member of the family that who had fallen into slavery 7,lev4 #be 3 #dg ff471 but also the blood that had been taken away from the family by murder40#eed ,hence1 in the event of a depletion of the family by the loss of blood--the loss of a life--the goel had a responsibility of securing to the family an equivalent of that loss1 by other blood1 or by an agreed payment for its value4 ,his mission was not vengeance1 but equity4 ,he was not an avenger1 but a redeemer1 a restorer1 a balancer4 ,and in that light1 and in that light alone1 are all the ,oriental customs in connection with blood-cancelling seen to be consistent4 ,all through the ,east1 there are regularly fixed tariffs for blood-cancelling2 as if in recognition of the relative loss to a family1 of one or another of its supporting members4#eee ,this idea1 of the differences in ransoming-value between different members of the family1 is recognized1 in the ,mosaic standards of ritual-ransom2#eef although the accepting of a ransom for the blood of a blood-spiller was specifically forbidden in the ,mosaic law4#eeg ,this prohibition1 in itself1 however1 seems to be a limitation of the privileges of the goel1 as before understood in the ,east4 ,the ,qurn1 on the other hand1 formally authorizes the settlement of manslaughter damages by proper payments4#eeh ,throughout ,arabia1 and ,syria1 and in various parts of ,africa1#eei the first question to be considered in any case of unlawful blood-shedding is1 whether the loss life shall be restored--or balanced--by blood1 or by some equivalent of blood4 ,von ,wrede1 says of the custom of the ,arabs1 in concluding a peace1 after tribal hostilities3 8,if one party has more slain than the other1 the shaykh on whose side the advantage lies1 says to the other shaykh3 #8,choose between blood and milk' between life1 and the means of sustaining life2 which is as much as to say1 that he may either avenge the fallen take life for life2 or accept blood-money40#efj ,mrs4 ,finn says1 similarly1 of the close of a combat in ,palestine3 8,a computation is generally made of the losses on either side by death1 wounds1 etc41 and the balance is paid to the victors40#efa ,burton describes similarly the custom in ,arabia4#efb ,it is the same in individual cases1 as in tribal conflicts4 ,an accepted payment for blood fully restores the balance between the aggrieved parties and the slayer4 ,as ,pierotti says3 8,this charm will teach the ,arab to grasp readily the hands of the slayer of his father or his son1 saying1 #8,such an one has killed my father1 but he has paid me the price of his blood4'0#efc ,this in itself shows1 that it is not revenge1 but restitution1 that is sought after by the goel2 that he is not the blood-avenger1 but the blood-balancer4 ,it is true that1 still1 in some instances1 all money payment for blood is refused2 but the avowed motive in such a case is the holding of life as above price--the very idea which the ,mosaic law emphasized4 ,thus ,burton tells of the excited ,bedween mother who dashes the proffered blood-money to the ground1 swearing 8by ,allah1 that she will not eat her son's blood40#efd ,and even where the blood of the slayer is insisted on1 there are often found indications that the purpose of this choice rests on the primitive belief that the lost life is made good to the depleted family by the newly received blood4#efe ,thus1 in the region of ,abyssinia1 the blood of the slayer is drunk by the relatives of the one first slain2#eff and1 in ,palestine1 when the goel has shed the blood of an unlawful slayer1 those who were the losers of blood by that slayer dip their handkerchiefs in his blood1 and so obtain their portion of his life4#efg ,in short1 apart from the specific guards thrown around the mission of the goel1 in the interests of justice1 by the requirements of the ,mosaic law1 it is evident1 that the primal idea of the goel's mission was to restore life for life1 or to secure the adjusted equivalent of a lost life2 not to wreak vengeance1 nor yet to mete out punishment4 ,the calling of the goel1 in our ,english ,bible1 a 8revenger0 of blood1 is a result of the wide-spread and deep-rooted error concerning the primitive and ,oriental idea of blood and its value2 and that unfortunate translation tends to the perpetuation of this error4 #h4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,rite ,,illustrated4 ,because the primitive rite of blood-covenanting was well known in the ,lands of the ,bible1 at the time of the writing of the ,bible1 for that very reason1 we are not to look to the ,bible for a specific explanation of the rite itself1 even where there are incidental references in the ,bible to the rite and its observances2 but1 on the other hand1 we are to find an explanation of the biblical illustrations of the primitive rite1 in the understanding of that rite which we gain from outside sources4 ,in this way1 we are enabled to see in the ,bible much that otherwise would be lost sight of4 ,the word for 8covenant10 in the ,hebrew1 bereeth 771 is commonly so employed1 in the sacred text1 as to have the apparent meaning of a thing 8cut10 as apart from1 or as in addition to1 its primary meaning of a thing 8eaten40#efh ,this fact has been a source of confusion to lexicographers4#efi ,but1 when we consider that the primitive rite of blood-covenanting was by cutting into the flesh in order to the tasting of the blood1 and that a feast was always an accompaniment of the rite1 if1 indeed1 it were not an integral portion of it1 the two-fold meaning of 8cutting0 and 8eating0 attaches obviously to the term 8covenant02 as the terms 8carving10 and 8giving to eat10 are often used interchangeably1 with reference to dining2 or as we speak of a 8cut of beef0 as the portion for a table4 ,the earliest ,bible reference to a specific covenant between individuals1 is in the mention1 at ,genesis #ad 3 #ac1 of ,mamre1 ,eshcol1 and ,aner1 the ,amorites1 who were in covenant with--literally1 were 8masters of the covenant of0--8,abram the ,hebrew40 ,after this1 comes the record of a covenant between ,abraham and ,abimelech1 at the wells of ,beer-sheba4 ,abimelech sought that covenant2 he sought it because of his faith in ,abraham's ,god4 8,god is with thee in all that thou doest10 he said3 8,now1 therefore1 swear unto me here by ,god1 that thou wilt not deal falsely with me1 nor with my son1 nor with my son's son3 but according to the kindness that ,i have done unto thee1 thou shalt do unto me1 and to the land wherein thou hast sojourned4 ,and ,abraham said1 ,i will swear40#egj ,then came the giving of gifts by ,abraham1 according to the practice which seems universal in connection with this rite1 in our own day4#ega 8,and ,abraham took sheep and oxen1 and gave them unto ,abimelech40 ,and they two 8made a covenant10--or1 as the ,hebrew is1 8they two cut a covenant40 ,this covenant1 thus cut between ,abraham and ,abimelech--patriarchs and sovereigns as they were--was for themselves and for their posterity4 ,as to the manner of its making1 we have a right to infer1 from all that we know of the manner of such covenant-making among the people of their part of the world1 in the earliest days of recorded history4 ,herodotus1 who goes back more than two-thirds of the way to ,abraham1 says1 that when the ,arabians would covenant together1 a third man1 standing between the two1 cuts1 with a sharp stone1 the inside of the hands of both1 and lets the blood therefrom drop on seven stones which are between the two parties4#egb ,phicol1 the captain of ,abimelech's host1 was present1 as a third man1 when the covenant was cut between ,abimelech and ,abraham2 at ,beer-sheba--the ,well of the ,seven1 or the ,well of the ,oath4#egc ,instead of seven stones as a 8heap of witness0#egd between the two in this covenanting1 8seven ewe lambs0 were set apart by ,abraham1 that they might 8be a witness0#ege--;a symbolic witness to this transaction4 ,in the primitive rite of blood-covenanting1 as it is practised in some parts of the ,east1 to the present time1 in addition to other symbolic witnesses of the rite1 a tree is planted by the covenanting parties1 8which remains and grows as a witness of their contract40#egf ,so it was1 in the days of ,abraham4 8,and ,abraham planted a tamarisk tree in ,beer-sheba1 and called there on the name of the ,everlasting ,god4 ,and ,abraham sojourned was a sojourner in the land of the ,philistines many days0#egg--while that tree1 doubtless1 remained and grew as a witness of his blood-covenant compact with ,abimelech the ruler of the ,philistines4#egh ,abimelech was1 as it were1 the first-fruits of the 8nations0#egi who were to have a blessing through the covenanted friend of ,god4 ,it is a noteworthy fact1 that when ,herodotus describes the ,scythians' mode of drinking each other's mingled blood1 in their covenanting1 he tells of their 8cutting covenant0 by 8striking the body0 of the covenanting party4 ,in this case1 he employs the words tamnomenon 77 8cutting10 and tupsantes 77 8striking10 which are the correspondents1 on the one hand of the ,hebrew karath 77 8to cut10 and on the other hand of the ,latin ferire1 8to strike20 as applied to covenant making4#ehj ,and this would seem to make a tri-lingual 8,rosetta ,stone0 of this statement by ,herodotus1 as showing that the ,hebrew 8cutting0 of the covenant1 and the ,latin 8striking0 of the covenant1 is the ,greek1 the ,arabian1 the ,scythian1 and the universal primitive1 method of covenanting1 by cutting into1 or by striking1 the flesh of a person covenanting2 in order that another may become a possessor of his blood1 and a partaker of his life4 ,yet later1 at the same ,well of the ,seven1 another ,abimelech came down from ,gerar1 with 8,ahuzzath his friend1 and ,phicol the captain of his host10 and1 prompted by faith1 sought a renewal of the covenant with the house of ,abraham4#eha ,it is not specifically declared that ,abimelech and ,isaac cut a covenant together2 but it is said that 8they did eat and drink0 in token of their covenant relations1 and that they 8sware one to another40#ehb ,apparently they either cut a new covenant1 or they confirmed one which their fathers had cut4 ,when ,jacob and ,laban covenanted together1 in 8the mountain the hill-country of ,gilead10 before their final separation1 they had their stone-heap of witness between them2 such as ,herodotus says the ,arabs were accustomed to anoint with their own blood1 in their covenanting by blood1 in his day2#ehc for ,jacob1 perhaps1 had more tolerance than ,abraham1 for perverted religious symbols4#ehd 8,and now let us cut a covenant1 ,i and thou10 said ,laban2 8and let it be for a witness between me and thee4 ,and ,jacob took a stone1 and set it up for a pillar a pillar instead of a tree4 ,and ,jacob said unto his brethren1 ,gather stones2 and they took stones1 and made an heap3 and they did eat there on the heap the ,revisers have translated this1 by the heap4#ehe ,and ,laban called it ,jegar-sahadutha3 but ,jacob called it ,gilead4 ,and ,laban said1 ,this heap is witness between me and thee this day4444 ,god is witness betwixt me and thee4444 ,the ,god of ,abraham and the ,god of ,nahor1 the ,god of their father1 judge betwixt us4 ,and ,jacob sware by the ,fear of his father ,isaac4 ,and ,jacob offered a sacrifice in the mountain1 and called his brethren to eat bread3 and they did eat bread40#ehf ,here again1 the cutting of the covenant1 and the sharing of a feast in connection with the rite1--the 8cutting0 and the 8eating0--are in accordance with all that we know of the primitive rite1 of blood-covenanting in the ,east1 in earlier and in later times4 ,yet more explicit is the description of the blood-covenanting which brought into loving unity1 ,david and ,jonathan4 ,it was when the faith-filled heroism of the stripling shepherd-boy was thrilling all ,israel with grateful admiration1 that ,david was brought into the royal presence of ,saul1 and of ,saul's more than royal hero-son1 ,jonathan1 to receive the thanks of the king for the rescue of the tarnished honor of the ,israelitish host4 ,modestly1 ,david gave answer to the question of the king4 8,and it came to pass1 when he had made an end of speaking unto ,saul1 that the soul of ,jonathan was knit with the soul of ,david1 and ,jonathan loved him as his own soul40 8,then ,jonathan and ,david cut a covenant1 because he ,jonathan loved him ,david as his own soul as his own life1 his own blood40#ehg ,then followed that gift of raiment and of arms which was a frequent accompaniment of blood-covenanting4#ehh 8,and ,jonathan stripped himself of the robe that was upon him1 and gave it to ,david1 and his apparel1 even to his sword1 and to his bow1 and to his girdle40#ehi ,from that hour the hearts of ,david and ,jonathan were as one4 ,jonathan could turn away from father and mother1 and could repress all personal ambition1 and all purely selfish longings1 in proof of his loving fidelity to him who was dear to him as his own blood4#eij ,his love for ,david was 8wonderful1 passing the love of women40#eia ,nor was this loving compact between ,jonathan and ,david for themselves alone4 ,it was for their posterity as well4#eib 8,the ,lord be with thee1 as he hath been with my father10 said ,jonathan4 8,and thou shalt not only while yet ,i live shew me the kindness of the ,lord1 that ,i die not3 but also thou shalt not cut off thy kindness from my house for ever3 no1 not even when the ,lord hath cut off the enemies of ,david every one from the face of the earth4 ,so ,jonathan cut a covenant with the house of ,david1 saying as in the imprecations of a blood-covenant1 ,and the ,lord shall require it fidelity to this covenant at the hand of ,david's enemies4 ,and ,jonathan caused ,david to swear again1 for the love he had to him3 for he loved him as he loved his own soul his own life1 his own blood40#eic ,and years afterward1 when the ,lord had given ,david rest from all his enemies around about him1 the memory of that blood-covenant pledge came back to him2 8and ,david said1 ,is there yet any that is left of the house of ,saul1 that ,i may shew him kindness for ,jonathan's sake80#eid ,the seating of lame ,mephibosheth at ,david's royal table1#eie was an illustration of the unfailing obligation of the primitive covenant of blood2 which had bound together ,david and ,jonathan1 for themselves and for theirs forever4 #i4 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,in ,,the ,,gospels4 ,and now from ,david1 to ,david's greater ,son2 from type to anti-type2 from symbol and prophecy1 to reality and fruition4 ,death had passed upon all men4 ,yet in the hearts of the death-smitten there was still a longing for life4 ,sin-leprous souls yearned for that in-flow of new being1 which could come only through inter-union with the divine nature1 in oneness of life with the ,author and ,source of all life4 ,revelation and prophecy had assured the possibility and the hope of such inter-union4 ,rite and ceremony and symbol1 the wide-world over1 signified man's desire1 and man's expectation1 of covenanted access to ,god1 through personal surrender1 and through life-giving1 life-representing blood4 ,but1 where men yielded up unauthorized offerings1 even of their own blood1 or of the very lives of their first-born1 they confessed themselves unsatisfied with their attitude ,god-ward2 and1 where men followed a divinely prescribed ritual1 they were taught by that very ritual itself1 that the outpoured blood and the partaken flesh of the sacrifices were1 at the best1 but mere shadows of good things to come4#eif ,the whole creation was groaning and travailing in pain together1 until the birth of the world's promised redemption4#eig ,the symbolic covenant of blood-friendship was between ,god and ,abraham's seed2 and in that seed were all the nations of the earth to have a blessing4 ,god had called on ,abraham to surrender to him his only son1 in proof of his unfailing love2 and1 when ,abraham had stood that test of his faith1 ,god had spared to him the proffered offering4 ,it now remained for ,god to transcend ,abraham's proof of friendship1 and to spare not his own and only ,son1#eih but to make him a sacrificial offering1 by means of which the covenant of blood-friendship1 between ,god and the true seed of ,abraham1 might become a reality instead of a symbol4 ,abraham had given to ,god of his own blood1 by the rite of circumcision1 in token of his desire for inter-union with ,god4 ,god was now to give of his blood1 in the blood of his ,son1 for the re-vivifying of the sons of ,abraham in 8the blood of the eternal covenant40#eii ,then1 in the fullness of time1 there came down into this world ,he who from the beginning was one with ,god1 and who now became one with man4 ,becoming a sharer of the nature of those who were subject to death1 and who longed for life1 ,jesus ,christ was here among men as the fulfillment of type and prophecy2 to meet and to satisfy the holiest and the uttermost yearnings of the human soul after eternal life1 in communion and union with ,god4 8,and the ,word became flesh1 and dwelt among us1 444 full of grace and truth40 8,in him was life life that death could not destroy2 life that could destroy death1 and the life which was in him was the light the guide and the hope of men40 8,he came unto his own1 and they that were called his own received him not4 ,but as many as received him whether1 before1 they had been called his own1 or not to them gave he the right to become children of ,god by becoming partakers of his life1 even to them that believe on his name3 which were through faith begotten1 not of bloods not by ordinary generation1 nor of the will of the flesh1 nor of the will of man1 but of ,god40#fjj ,having in his own blood1 the life of ,god and the life of man1 ,jesus ,christ could make men sharers of the divine nature1 by making them sharers of his own nature2 and this was the truth of truths which he declared to those whom he instructed4 ,in the primitive rite of blood-covenanting1 men drank of each other's blood1 in order that they might have a common life2 and they ate together of a mutually prepared feast1 in order that they might evidence and nourish that common life4 ,in the outreaching of men ,godward1 for the privileges of a divine-human inter-union1 they poured out the substitute blood of a chosen victim in sacrifice1 and they partook of the flesh of that sacrificial victim1 in symbolism of sharing the life and the nourishment of ,deity4 ,this symbolism was made a reality in ,jesus ,christ4 ,he was the ,seed of ,abraham2 the fulfillment of the promise1 8,in ,isaac shall thy ,seed be called40#fja ,he was the true ,paschal ,lamb2 the 8,lamb without blemish and without spot02#fjb 8the ,lamb that hath been slain from the foundation of the world40#fjc ,the blood which he yielded1 was ,life itself4 ,the body which he laid on the altar was the ,peace ,offering of ,completion4#fjd 8,wherefore1 when he cometh into the world1 he saith3 ,sacrifice and offering thou wouldest not1 ,but a body didst thou prepare for me2 ,in whole burnt offerings and sacrifices for sin thou hadst no pleasure3 ,then said ,i1 ,lo1 ,i am come 7,in the roll of the book it is written of me7 ,to do thy will1 ,o ,god4 ,saying above1 ,he here says1 ,sacrifices and offerings and whole burnt offerings and sacrifices for sin thou wouldest not1 neither hadst pleasure therein as if in themselves sufficient 7the which are offered according to the ,law72 then also hath he said1 ,lo ,i am come to do thy will4 ,he taketh away the first the symbolic1 that he may establish the second the real40#fje ,he was here1 in the body of his blood and flesh1 for the yielding of his blood and the sharing of his flesh1 in order to make partakers of his nature1 whosoever would seek a divine-human inter-union and a divine-human inter-communion1 through the sacrifice made by him1 8once for all40 8,jesus therefore said unto them1 ,verily1 verily1 ,i say unto you1 ,except ye eat the flesh of the ,son of man and drink his blood1 ye have not life in yourselves4 ,he that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal life2 and ,i will raise him up at the last day4 ,for my flesh is meat indeed is true meat1 and my blood my life is drink indeed is true drink4 ,he that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood abideth in me1 and ,i in him ,herein is communion through union4 ,as the living ,father sent me1 and ,i live because of the ,father2 so he that eateth me1 he also shall live because of me4 ,this is the bread which came down out of heaven3 not as the fathers did eat1 and died3 he that eateth this bread shall live forever40#fjf 8,these things said he in the synagogue1 as he taught in ,capernaum0--toward the close of the second year of his public ministry4 ,the fact that he did speak thus1 so long before he had instituted the ,memorial ,supper1 has been a puzzle to many commentators who were unfamiliar with the primitive rite of blood-covenanting1 and with the world-wide series of substitute sacrifices and substitute forms of communion1 which had grown out of the suggestions1 and out of the perversions1 of the root symbolisms of that rite4 ,but1 in the light of all these customs1 the words of ,jesus have a clearer meaning4 ,it was as though he had said3 8,men everywhere long for life4 ,they seek a share in the life of ,god4 ,they give of their own blood1 or of substitute blood1 and they taste of substitute blood1 or they receive its touch1 in evidence of their desire for oneness of nature with ,god4 ,they crave communion with ,god1 and they eat of the flesh of their sacrifices accordingly4 ,all that they thus reach out after1 ,i supply4 ,in me is life4 ,if they will become partakers of my life1 of my nature1 they shall be sharers of the life of ,god40 ,then1 he added1 in assurance of the fact1 that it was a profound spiritual truth which he was enunciating3 8,it is the spirit that quickeneth2 the flesh profiteth nothing3 the words that ,i have spoken unto you are spirit1 and are life40#fjg ,the divine-human inter-union and the divine-human inter-communion are spiritual1 and they are spiritually wrought2 or they are nothing4 ,the words of ,jesus on this subject1 were not understood by those who heard him4 8,the ,jews therefore strove one with another1 saying1 ,how can this man give us his flesh to eat80#fjh ,but this was not because the ,jews had never heard of eating the flesh of a sacrificial victim1 and of drinking blood in a sacred covenant3 it was1 rather1 because they did not realize that ,jesus was to be the crowning sacrifice for the human race2 nor did they comprehend his right and power to make those who were one with him through faith1 thereby one with ,god in spiritual nature4 8,many10 even 8of his disciples1 when they heard0 these words of his1 8said1 ,this is a hard saying2 who can hear it80#fji ,nor are questioners at this point1 lacking among his disciples to-day4 ,before ,jesus ,christ was formally made an offering in sacrifice1 as a means of man's inter-union and inter-communion with ,god1 there were two illustrations of his mission1 in the giving of his blood for the bringing of man into right relations with ,god4 ,these were1 his circumcision1 and his agony in ,gethsemane4 ,by his circumcision1 ,jesus brought his humanity into the blood-covenant which was between ,god and the seed of ,god's friend1 ,abraham1 of whose nature1 according to the flesh1 ,jesus had become a partaker2#faj ,jesus thereby pledged his own blood in fidelity to that covenant2 so that all who should thereafter become his by their faith1 might1 through him1 be heirs of faithful ,abraham4#faa ,the sweet singer of the ,christian ,year1#fab seems to find this thought1 in this incident in the life of the ,holy ,child3 8,like sacrificial wine ,poured on a victim's head1 ,are those few precious drops of thine1 ,now first to offering led4 8,they are the pledge and seal ,of ,christ's unswerving faith1 ,given to his ,sire1 our souls to heal1 ,although it cost his death4 8,they1 to his ,church of old1 ,to each true ,jewish heart1 ,in gospel graces manifold1 ,communion blest impart40 ,in ,gethsemane1 the sins and the needs of humanity so pressed upon the burdened soul of ,jesus1 that his very life was forced out1 as it were1 from his aching1 breaking heart1 in his boundless sympathy with his loved ones1 and in his infinite longings for their union with ,god1 through their union with himself1 in the covenant of blood he was consummating in their behalf4#fac 8,and being in an agony1 he prayed more earnestly3 and his sweat became as it were great drops of blood falling down to the ground40#fad ,because of his ,god-ward purpose of bringing men into a loving covenant with ,god1 ,jesus gave of his blood in the covenant-rite of circumcision4 ,because of his man-ward sympathy with the needs and the trials of those whom he had come to save1 and because of the crushing burden of their death-bringing sins1 ,jesus gave of his blood in an agony of intercessory suffering4 ,therefore it is1 that the ,litany cry of the ages goes up to him in fulness of meaning3 8,by the mystery of thy holy incarnation2 by thy holy nativity and circumcision2 444 by thine agony and bloody sweat1 444 ,good ,lord1 deliver us40 ,in process of time1 the hour drew nigh that the true covenant of blood between ,god and man should be consummated finally1 in its perfectness4 ,the period chosen was the passover-feast--the feast observed by the ,jews in commemoration of that blood-covenanting occasion in ,egypt1 when ,god evidenced anew his fidelity to his promises to the seed of ,abraham1 his blood-covenanted friend4 8,now before the feast of the passover1 ,jesus knowing that his hour was come that he should depart out of this world to the ,father1 having loved his own which were in the world1 he loved them unto the end40#fae 8,and when the hour was come1 he sat down1 and the apostles with him4 ,and he said unto them1 ,with desire ,i have desired to eat this passover with you before ,i suffer40#faf ,whether he actually partook of the passover meal at that time1 or not is a point still in dispute2#fag but as to that which follows1 there is no question4 8,as they were eating1 ,jesus took bread1 and blessed1 and brake it2 and he gave to the disciples1 and said1 ,take1 eat2 this is my body40#fah 8,this do in remembrance of me4 ,and the cup in like manner after supper20#fai 8and when he had given thanks1 he gave it to them10#fbj 8saying1 ,drink ye all of it2 for this is my blood of the covenant10#fba or1 as another ,evangelist records1 8this cup is the new covenant in my blood10#fbb 8which is shed for many unto remission of sins0#fbc unto the putting away of sins4 8,this do1 as oft as ye drink it1 in remembrance of me40#fbd 8,and they all drank of it40#fbe ,here was the covenant of blood2 here was the communion feast1 in partaking of the flesh of the fitting and accepted sacrifice2--toward which all rite and symbol1 and all heart yearning and inspired prophecy1 had pointed1 in all the ages4 ,here was the realization of promise and hope and longing1 in man's possibility of inter-union with ,god through a common life--which is oneness of blood2 and in man's inter-communion with ,god1 through participation in the blessings of a common table4 ,he who could speak for ,god1 here proffered of his own blood1 to make those whom he loved1 of the same nature with himself1 and so of the same nature with his ,god2 to bring them into blood-friendship with their ,god2 and he proffered of his own body1 to supply them with soul nourishment1 in that ,bread which came down from ,god4 ,then it was1 while they were there together in that upper room1 for the consummating of that blood-covenant of friendship1 that ,jesus said to his disciples3 8,greater love hath no man than this1 that a man lay down his life for his friends4 ,ye are my friends1 if ye do the things which ,i command you4 ,no longer do ,i call you servants2 for the servant knoweth not what his lord doeth3 but ,i have called you friends friends in the covenant of blood-friendship now2 for all things that ,i heard from my ,father1 ,i have made known unto you40#fbf ,a common life1 through oneness of blood1 secures an absolute unreserve of intimacy2 so that neither friend has aught to conceal from his other self4 8,abide in me1 and ,i in you2 444 for apart from me ye can do nothing10 was the injunction of ,jesus to his blood-covenant friends1 at this hour of his covenant pledging4 8,if ye abide in me1 and my words abide in you1 ask whatsoever ye will1 and it shall be done unto you40#fbg ,then it was1 also1 that the prayer of ,jesus for his new blood-covenant friends went up3 8,father1 the hour is come2 glorify thy ,son1 that the ,son may glorify thee3 even as thou gavest him authority over all flesh1 that whatsoever whomsoever thou hast given him1 to them he should give eternal life in an eternal covenant of blood4 ,and this is life eternal1 that they should know thee the only true ,god1 and him whom thou didst send as the means of life1 even ,jesus ,christ4444 ,holy ,father1 keep them in thy name which thou hast given me1 that they may be one1 even as we are4444 ,neither for these here present only do ,i pray1 but for them also that believe on me through their word2 that they may all be one2 even as thou1 ,father1 art in me1 and ,i in thee1 that they also may be in us3 that the world may believe that thou didst send me4 ,and the glory which thou hast given me ,i have given unto them2 that they may be one1 even as we are one2 ,i in them1 and thou in me1 that they may be perfected into one2 that the world may know that thou didst send me1 and lovedst them1 even as thou lovedst me40#fbh ,here was declared the scope of this blood-covenant1 and here was unfolded its doctrine4 ,it was not an utterly new symbolism that ,jesus was introducing into the religious thought of the world3 it was rather a new meaning that he was introducing into1 or that he was disclosing in1 an already widely recognized symbolism4 ,the world was familiar with the shadow of truth2 ,jesus now made clear to the world1 the truth's substance4 ,man's longing to be a partaker of the divine nature1 had manifested itself1 through all the ages and everywhere4 ,jesus now showed how that longing of death-smitten man could be realized4 8,the appearing of our ,saviour ,jesus ,christ 444 abolished death1 and brought life and immortality to light through the gospel0#fbi of his blood-covenant4 ,but a covenant of blood1 a covenant to give one's blood1 one's life1 for the saving of another1 cannot be consummated without the death of the covenanter4 8,for where such a covenant is1 there must of necessity be be brought the death of him that made it4 ,for such a covenant is of force becomes a reality where there hath been death or1 over the dead3 for doth it such a covenant ever avail can it be efficient while he that made it liveth80#fcj ,jesus had said1 8,greater love hath no man than this1 that a man lay down his life for his friends40#fca ,of his readiness to show this measure of love for those who were as the sheep of his fold1 he had declared3 8,i came that they may have life1 and may have it abundantly4444 ,i lay down my life for the sheep4444 ,therefore doth my ,father love me1 because ,i lay down my life1 that ,i may take it again4 ,no one taketh it away from me1 but ,i lay it down of myself40#fcb ,and again3 8,i am the living bread which came down out of heaven3 if any man eat of this bread1 he shall live for ever3 yea1 and the bread which ,i will give is my flesh1 for the life of the world40#fcc 8,for my flesh is meat indeed1 and my blood is drink indeed40#fcd ,such a covenant as this1 could be of force only through the death of him who pledges it4 ,the promise of the covenanting-cup1 at the covenanting-feast1 was made good on ,calvary4#fce ,the pierced hands and feet of the ,divine ,friend yielded their life-giving streams4 ,then1 with the final cry1 8,it is finished10 the very heart of the self-surrendered sacrificial victim was broken1#fcf and the life of the ,son of ,god and of the ,seed of ,abraham1 was poured out unto death1#fcg in order that all who would1 might become sharers in its re-vivifying and saving power4 ,he who was without sin1 had received the wages of sin2 because1 that1 only through dying was it possible for him to supply that life which would redeem from the penalty of sin those who had earned death1 as sin's wages4#fch ,he who1 in himself1 had life1 had laid down his life1 so that those who were without life might become its partakers1 through faith1 in the bonds and blessings of an everlasting covenant4 ,so1 the long symbolized covenant of blood was made a reality4 8,and the witness is this1 that ,god gave unto us eternal life1 and this life is in his ,son4 ,he that hath the ,son hath the life2 he that hath not the ,son of ,god hath not the life40#fci #aj4 ,,the ,,blood ,,covenant ,,applied4 ,under the symbolic sacrifices of the ,old ,covenant1 it was the blood which made atonement for the soul4 ,it was not the death of the victim1 nor yet its broken body1 but it was the blood1 the life1 the soul1 that was made the means of a soul's ransom1 of its rescue1 of its redemption4 8,the life the soul of the flesh is in the blood10 said the ,lord3 8and ,i have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement to be a cover1 to be a propitiation for your souls for your lives3 for it is the blood that maketh atonement by reason of its being the life the soul40#fdj 8,for as to the life the soul of all flesh1 the blood thereof is all one with the life the soul thereof40#fda ,and so1 all through the record of the ,old ,covenant4 ,it is the same in the ,new ,covenant1 as it was in the ,old4 ,atonement1 salvation1 rescue1 redemption1 is by the blood1 the life1 of ,christ2 not by his death as such2 not by his broken body in itself2 but by that blood which was given at the inevitable cost of his broken body and of his death4 ,the figure of leprosy and its attempted cure by blood1 may tend to make this truth the clearer4 ,in the leper1 the very blood itself--the life--was death smitten4 ,the only hope of a cure was by purging out the old blood1 by means of an inflowing current of new blood1 which was new life4#fdb ,to give this blood1 the giver himself must die2 but it was his blood1 his life1 not his death1 which was to be the means of cure4 ,so1 also1 with the sin-leprous nature4 ,his old life must be purged out1 by the incoming of a new life2 of such a life as only the ,son of ,god can supply4 ,in order to supply that blood1 its ,giver must himself die1 and so be a sharer of the punishment of sin1 although he was himself without sin4 ,thus was the new life made a possibility to all1 by faith4 ,so it is1 that 8we have redemption rescue from death through by means of his blood02#fdc and that 8the blood of ,jesus 444 cleanseth us by its purging inflow from all sin40#fdd ,so it is1 that he 8loosed us freed us from our sins by his cleansing1 his re-vivifying blood40#fde ,so it is1 that 8if any man is in ,christ is one in nature with ,christ1 through sharing1 by faith1 the blood of ,christ1 he is a new creature ,of course he is3 the old things are passed away2 behold they are become new40#fdf ,so it is1 also1 that it can be said of those whose old lives were purged away by the inflowing redeeming life of ,christ3 8,ye died1 and your life is hid with ,christ in ,god40#fdg ,and 8this is the true ,god and eternal life40#fdh 8,these things have ,i written unto you10 says the best loved of the disciples of ,jesus1 8that ye may know that ye have eternal life2 even unto you that believe on the name of the ,son of ,god02#fdi 8that ye may believe that ,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god2 and that1 believing1 ye may have life in his name40#fej ,for 8,god commendeth his own love toward us1 in that1 while we were yet sinners1 ,christ died for us while we were separated from ,god by sin1 ,god yielded his only ,son1 to give his blood1 at the cost of his death1 as a means of our inter-union with ,god4 ,much more then1 being now justified by or1 in his blood being brought into inter-union with ,god by that blood1 shall we be saved from the wrath of ,god against sin through him in whom we have life4 ,for if1 while we were enemies1 we were reconciled to ,god restored to union with ,god through the blood-giving death of his ,son1 much more1 being thus reconciled1 shall we be saved by or1 in his life40#fea ,all who will1 may1 now1 8be partakers of the divine nature10#feb through becoming one with ,christ1 by sharing his blood1 and by being nourished with his body4 ,entering into the divine-human covenant of blood-friendship1 which ,christ's death has made possible1 the believer can be so incorporated with ,christ1 by faith1 as to identify himself with the experience and the hopes of the world's ,redeemer2 and even to say1 in all confidence3 8,i have been crucified with ,christ2 yet ,i live2 and yet no longer ,i1 but ,christ liveth in me2 and that life which ,i now live in the flesh1 ,i live in faith1 the faith which is in which centres in the ,son of ,god1 who loved me and gave himself up for me40#fec 8,for as the ,father hath life in himself1 even so gave he to the ,son also to have life in himself40#fed ,and 8it was the good pleasure of the ,father that in him the ,son should all the fulness dwell2 and through him to reconcile all things unto himself1 having made peace having completed union through the blood of his cross0#fee--;in the bonds of an everlasting covenant--between those who before were separated by sin4 8,remember1 that aforetime ye1 the ,gentiles in the flesh1 who are called ,uncircumcision by that people which is called ,circumcision1 in the flesh1 made by hands1--that ye were at that time separate from ,christ1 alienated from the commonwealth of ,israel1 and strangers from the covenants of the promise1 having no hope and without ,god in the world4 ,but now in ,christ ,jesus ye that once were far off are made nigh in the blood of ,christ4 ,for he is our peace1 who made both ,jew and ,gentile one1 and broke down the middle wall of partition1 having abolished in his flesh the enmity1 even the law of commandments contained in ordinances2 that he might create in himself of the twain one new man1 so making peace2 and might reconcile them both in one body unto ,god through the cross1 having slain the enmity thereby3 and he came and preached peace to you that were far off1 and peace to them that were nigh3 for through them we both have our access in one ,spirit unto the ,father40#fef 8,for in him ,christ dwelleth all the fulness of the ,godhead bodily1 and in him ye are made full1 who is the head of all principality and power3 in whom ye were also circumcised with a circumcision not made with hands1 in the putting off of the body of the flesh1 in the circumcision of ,christ40#feg 8,for ye all are one man in ,christ ,jesus4 ,and if ye are ,christ's1 then are ye ,abraham's seed1 heirs according to promise0#feh--;inheritors of the blood-covenant promises of ,god to ,abraham his friend4 ,no longer is there a barrier between the yearning1 loving1 trusting heart1 and the mercy-seat of reconciliation in the very presence of ,god4 ,we who share the body and the blood of ,christ1 by faith1 are one with him in all the privileges of his ,sonship4 8,for by one offering he hath perfected hath completed in their right to be sharers with him for ever1 them that are sanctified that are devoted1 that are consecrated1 to him4 ,and the ,holy ,ghost also beareth witness to us3 for after he hath said1 ,this is the covenant that ,i will make with them ,after those days1 saith the ,lord2 ,i will put my laws on their heart1 ,and upon their mind also will ,i write them2 then saith he1 ,and their sins and their iniquities will ,i remember no more4 ,now where remission of these of sins and iniquities is1 there is no more offering no more need of offering for sin4 ,having1 therefore1 brethren1 boldness the right of boldness to enter into the ,holy ,place the ,holy of ,holies by the blood of ,jesus1 by the way which he dedicated for us1 a new and living way1 through the veil1 that is to say his flesh2 and having a ,great ,priest over the house of ,god2 let us draw near with a true heart in fulness of faith1 having our hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience1 and our body washed1 with pure water there being no longer need of blood-sprinkling or blood-laving1 to those who are sharers of the divine nature--the divine blood40#fei ,no more an altar of sacrifice1 but a table of communion1#ffj is where we share the presence of ,him in whom we have life1 by the blood of the everlasting covenant4 ,to question the sufficiency of the 8one sacrifice0 which ,christ made1 8once for all10#ffa of his body and his blood1 as a means of the believer's inter-union with ,god1 is to count the blood of the covenant an unholy1 or a common1 thing1 and is to do despite unto the ,spirit of grace4#ffb 8,wherefore1 my beloved1 flee from idolatry4 ,i speak as to wise men2 judge ye what ,i say4 ,the cup of blessing which we bless1 is it not a communion of the blood of ,christ8 ,the bread which we break1 is it not a communion of the body of ,christ8#ffc ,seeing that we believers together in ,christ1 who are many1 are one bread1 one body3 for we all partake of the one bread40#ffd 8,now the ,god of peace1 who brought again from the dead the great ,shepherd of the sheep with or1 by2 or1 by means of the blood of the eternal covenant1 even our ,lord ,jesus1 make you perfect complete to do his will1 working in us that which is well pleasing in his sight1 through ,jesus ,christ2 to whom be the glory for ever and ever4 ,amen40#ffe ,,footnotes3 #dbe ,gen4 #d 3 #b-e4 #dbf ,heb4 #aa 3 #d4 #dbg ,ruth #a 3 #ad4 #dbh ,gen4 #d 3 #aj1 #aa4 #dbi 8,for it must be observed1 that by the outpouring of the blood1 the life which was in it was not destroyed1 though it was separated from the organism which before it had quickened3 ,gen4 #d 3 #aj2 comp4 ,heb4 #ab 3 #bd 7 72 ,apoc4 #f 3 #aj0 7,westcott's ,epistles of ,st4 ,john1 p4 #cd74 #dcj ,see pages #adc-adg1 supra4 #dca ,see pages #aaj-aac1 supra4 #dcb ,gen4 #h 3 #bj4 #dcc ,exod4 #bd 3 #e1 #f2 #bi 3 #ae-be2 ,lev4 #a 3 #a-f1 #aj-ab1 #ad1 #ae2 #h 3 #ah1 #ai1 etc4 ,see also pages #ajb1 #ajf-aji1 supra4 #dcd ,see ,speaker's ,commentary1 in loco4 #dce ,gen4 #i 3 #c-f4 #dcf 8,a man might not use another's life for the support of his physical life0 7,westcott's ,epistles of ,st4 ,john1 p4 #cd74 #dcg ,see ,acts #ae 3 #b-bi2 also #ba 3 #ah-be4 #dch ,those1 indeed1 who would put the dictum of the ,church of ,rome above the explicit commands of the ,bible1 can claim that that ,church has affirmed the mere temporary nature of this obligation1 which the ,bible makes perpetual4 ,but apart from this1 there seems to be no show of justification for the abrogation1 or the suspension1 of the command4 #dci ,james #b 3 #bc4 #ddj ,isaiah #da 3 #h4 #dda #b ,chron4 #bj 3 #g4 #ddb ,the only instance in which it might seem that there was an exception to this statement1 is ,exodus #cc 3 #aa1 where it is said1 8,the ,lord spake unto ,moses face to face1 as a man speaketh unto his friend40 ,but here the ,hebrew word is re'a 77 with the idea of 8a companion10 or 8a neighbor02 while the word applied to ,abraham is ohebh 771 8a loving one40 #ddc ,see ,appendix1 infra1 p4 #cbb4 #ddd ,gen4 #ag 3 #b4 #dde ,gen4 #ag 3 #g-i4 #ddf ,gen4 #ag 3 #aj1 #aa4 #ddg ,see page #agd f41 supra4 #ddh ,gen4 #ag 3 #ac4 #ddi ,bearing in the flesh the marks of one's devotedness to a divinity1 is a widely observed custom in the ,east4 ,burton tells of the habit1 in ,mekkeh1 of cutting three parallel gashes down the fleshy cheek of every male child2 and of the claim by some that these gashes 8were signs that the scarred one was the servant of ,allah's house0 7,pilgrimage to ,mecca and ,medinah1 third ed41 p4 #def74 ,in ,india1 there are various methods of receiving such flesh-marks of devotedness4 8,one of the most common consists in stamping upon the shoulders1 chest1 and other parts of the body1 with a red-hot iron1 certain marks1 to represent the armor or livery of their gods2 the impressions of which are never effaced1 but are accounted sacred1 and are ostentatiously displayed as marks of distinctions0 7,dubois's ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 in ,india1 ,part ,,iii41 chap4 #c74 8,from henceforth let no man trouble me10 says ,paul3 8for ,i bear branded on my body the marks of ,jesus0 7,gal4 #f 3 #ag74 #dej ,see ,price's ,hist4 of ,arabia1 p4 #ef4 #dea ,it is certainly noteworthy1 that the ,canaanitish god 8,baal-bereeth0 7see ,judges #h 3 #cc2 #i 3 #d7 seems to have had its centre of worship at1 or near1 ,shechem2 and there was where the ,canaanites were induced to seek1 by circumcision1 a part with the house of ,jacob in the blood-covenant of ,abraham 7see ,gen4 #cd 3 #a-ca74 #deb ,see ,godwyn's ,moses and ,aaron1 p4 #baf f4 #dec ,buxtorf1 who is a recognized authority1 in the knowledge of ,rabbinical literature and of ,jewish customs1 says1 on this point3 8,cum deinde compater infantulum in sinu habet jacentem1 tum ,mohel sive circumcisor eum fasciis evolvit1 pudendum ejus apprehendit1 ejusque anteriorem partem per cuticulam prputii comprehendit1 granulumque pudendi ejus retrorsum premit2 quo facto cuticulam prputii fricat1 ut illa per id emortua infantulus csuram tanto minus sentiscat4 ,deinde cultellum circumcisorium pueri astantis manu capit1 claraque voce1 ,benedictus 7inquit7 esto tu ,deus1 ,domine noster1 ,rex mundi1 qui nos mandatis tuis sanctificasti1 nobisque pactum circumcisionis dedisti4 ,interim dum ille loquitur sic1 particulam prputii anteriorem usque eo abscindit1 ut capitellum pudendi nudum conspici queat1 illamque festinanter in patellam arena ista plenam conjicit2 puero quoque isti1 quo acceperat1 cultellum reddit circumcisorium2 ab alio vero poculum vino rubro 7ceu dictum fuit7 impletum1 capit2 haurit ex eo quantum ore continere potest1 quod mox super infantulum expuit1 eoque sanguinem ejus abluit3 in faciem quoque infantuli vini aliquid expuit1 si eum viribus defici conspexerit4 ,mox pudendum puelli ore comprehendit1 et sanguinis ex eodem quantumcunque potest1 exugit1 ut sanguis idem tanto citius se sistat2 sanguinem exuctum in alterum poculorum vino rubro refertorum1 vel in patellam arena abundantem1 expuit40 7,synagoga ,judaica1 ,cap4 ,,ii47 #ded ,gen4 #ae 3 #f2 ,rom4 #d 3 #c2 ,gal4 #c 3 #f2 ,james #b 3 #bc4 #dee ,see ,fuerst's ,heb4 ,chald4 ,lex41 s4 v4 #def ,see ,freytag's ,lex4 ,arab4 ,lat41 s4 v4 #deg ,see ,lane's ,arab4-,eng4 ,lex41 s4 v4 #deh ,in the ,chinese language1 likewise1 8the word for faithfulness means both to be trustworthy1 and also to trust to1 and refers chiefly to friendship40 7,edkins's ,relig4 in ,china1 p4 #aah47 #dei ,the ,rabbis give a preeminent place to circumcision as the rite by which ,abraham became the ,friend of ,god4 ,they say 7see citations from the ,talmud1 in ,nethivoth ,olam1 p4 #cfg73 8,abraham was not called perfect before he was circumcised2 and because of the merit of circumcision was the covenant made with him concerning the inheritance of the ,land4 ,it circumcision also saves from the punishment of hell2 for our sages have said1 that ,abraham sits at the gates of hell and suffers no one to enter in there who is circumcised40 #dfj ,james #b 3 #bc4 #dfa ,exod4 #d 3 #ba-bc4 #dfb ,exod4 #d 3 #be1 #bf4 #dfc ,see ,fuerst's ,heb4 ,chald4 ,lex41 s4 v4 #dfd ,see ,deut4 #bb 3 #ac-ba4 ,to this day1 in the ,east1 an exhibit of blood-stains1 as the indubitable proof of a consummated covenant of marriage1 is common4 ,see ,niebuhr's ,beschreibung von ,arabien1 pp4 #ce-ci2 ,burckhardt's ,arabic ,proverbs1 p4 #adj2 ,lane's ,mod4 ,egypt41 ,i41 #bba1 note4 #dfe ,see ,lane1 and ,freytag1 s4 vv41 ,khatan1 ,khatana4 #dff ,gen4 #bb 3 #a1 #b4 #dfg 8,heaven awaits not one who is destitute of a son10 say the ,brahmans 7,see page #aid1 supra74 ,see1 also1 e4 g41 ,thomson's ,land and ,book1 ,i41 #agg2 ,roberts's ,orient4 ,ill41 p4 #ec f41 ,ginsburg's 8,illustrations10 in ,bible ,educator1 ,i41 #cj2 ,lane's ,mod4 ,egypt41 ,i41 #fh4 ,livingstone's ,trav4 and ,res4 in ,so4 ,af41 p4 #adj2 ,pierotti's ,cust4 and ,trad4 of ,pal41 pp4 #agg f41 #aij f4 #dfh ,see illustrations of this error in ,tylor's ,prim4 ,cult41 ,,ii41 #djc4 #dfi ,see page #ahe f41 supra4 #dgj ,see page #aai f41 supra4 #dga ,see page #abj1 supra4 #dgb ,see page #aag1 supra4 #dgc ,see page #aah f41 #abj f41 supra4 #dgd ,see discussions of this point1 by ,hengstenberg1 ,kurtz1 ,oehler1 ,ewald1 ,kuenen1 ,lange1 ,keil and ,delitzsch1 ,stanley1 ,mozeley1 etc4 #dge ,john #ae 3 #ac4 #dgf ,heb4 #aa 3 #ag-ai4 #dgg ,gen4 #bb 3 #ae-ah4 #dgh ,james #b 3 #ba-bc4 #dgi ,see ,exod4 #d 3 #i2 #g 3 #ag-ba4 #dhj ,see ,exod4 #ab 3 #a-f4 #dha ,see a reference to a similar custom in ,china1 at page #aec1 supra4 #dhb ,exod4 #ab 3 #g-ac4 #dhc ,see1 again1 at pages #aed1 supra4 #dhd ,see page #g f41 supra4 #dhe ,see page #ha f41 supra4 ,it is1 indeed1 by no means improbable1 that the ,hebrew word ttaphth 771 translated 8frontlets10 as applied to the phylacteries was an ,egyptian word4 ,its etymology has been a puzzle to the critics4 #dhf ,see ,exod4 #ac 3 #aa-af4 #dhg ,see references to ,zohar1 ,pt4 ,,ii41 ,fol4 #b1 by ,farrar1 in ,smith-,hackett's ,bible ,dictionary1 ,art4 8,frontlets40 #dhh ,smith-,hackett's ,bib4 ,dict41 ,art4 8,frontlets40 #dhi ,on this point ,i have the emphatic testimony of intelligent native ,syrians4 8,as ,i live1 saith the ,lord0--or more literally1 8,i1 living1 saith the ,lord40 8,for when ,god made promise to ,abraham1 since he could swear by no greater1 he sware by himself0--by his life4 7,comp4 ,isa4 #di3 #ah2 ,jer4 #bb 3 #bd2 ,ezek4 #e 3 #aa2 ,heb4 #f 3 #ac47 #dij ,this also ,i am assured of1 by native ,syrians4 ,one who had resided in both ,syria and ,upper ,egypt told me1 that in ,syria1 in the rite of blood-friendship1 the blood is taken from the arm as the symbol of strength2 while in portions of ,africa where the legs are counted stronger than the arms1 through the training of the people as runners rather than as burden-bearers1 the leg supplies the blood for this rite 7,see reference to ,stanley and ,mirambo's celebration of this rite at pages #ah-bj1 supra74 #dia ,see page #gi1 supra4 #dib ,see e4 g4 ,gen4 #ad 3 #bb2 ,dan4 #ab 3 #g4 8,it is an interesting fact1 that many of the images of the gods of the heathen have the right hand lifted up40 7,roberts's ,orient4 ,ill4 of ,scrip41 p4 #bj47 #dic ,see ,prov4 #f 3 #a2 #aa 3 #ae 7margin72 #bb 3 #bd-bf4 #did ,see page #dg1 supra4 #die ,see ,lepsius's exemplar of the ,todtenbuch2 also ,birch1 in ,bunsen's ,egypt's ,place1 ,v41 #abe4 #dif ,see ,farrar's article on 8,frontlets10 in ,smith-,hackett's ,bib4 ,dic4 #dig ,joshua #b 3 #ah-bj4 #dih ,see pages #ic f41 supra4 #dii ,see ,roberts's ,orient4 ,ill4 of ,scrip41 p4 #bj4 #ejj ,lynd's ,hist4 of ,dakotas1 p4 #ha4 #eja ,bayard ,taylor's ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan1 p4 #eb4 #ejb ,see ,home and ,syn4 of ,mod4 ,jew1 p4 #e4 #ejc ,see ,targum1 in ,buxtorf's ,biblia ,rabbinica1 in loco4 #ejd ,see ,jones's ,credulities ,past and ,present1 p4 #ahh4 #eje ,see ,kadesh ,barnea1 p4 #chb1 note4 #ejf ,heb4 #i 3 #ai4 #ejg ,see ,exod4 #bd 3 #a-aa4 #ejh ,lev4 #g 3 #bf4 #eji ,lev4 #ag 3 #aj-ab4 #eaj ,lev4 #ag 3 #ad4 #eaa ,rom4 #f 3 #bc4 #eab ,lev4 #ag 3 #c-f4 #eac ,comp4 ,heb4 #ac 3 #bj4 #ead ,lev4 #ag 3 #ac4 #eae ,a traveler in ,mauritius1 describing a ,hindoo sacrifice there1 of a he-goat1 in fulfilment of a vow1 says3 8,it was killed on soft ground1 where the blood would sink into the earth1 and leave no trace0 7,pike's ,sub-,tropical ,rambles1 p4 #bbc74 ,see also page #aji1 supra4 #eaf ,rom4 #e 3 #ab-ba4 #eag ,see ,quarterly ,statement1 of ,pales4 ,expl4 ,fund1 for ,july #ahhe1 pp4 #aig-bjg4 #eah ,the ,temple1 ,its ,ministry and ,services1 p4 #hh1 f4 #eai ,the ,old ,test4 in the ,jewish ,church1 ,notes on ,lect4 ,,xii4 #ebj ,see pages #aa1 #ab1 supra4 #eba ,lev4 #a 3 #ac1 #ag2 #b 3 #b1 #ab2 #c 3 #h1 #bf4 #ebb ,christian ,institutions1 ,chap4 #d4 #ebc ,the ,temple1 ,its ,min4 and ,serv41 p4 #hb4 #ebd ,the ,temple1 ,its ,min4 and ,serv41 p4 #hb4 #ebe ,lev4 #d 3 #g1 #ah1 #be1 #cj1 #cd4 #ebf ,lev4 #d 3 #f1 #g1 #ag2 #af 3 #ad1 #ae4 #ebg ,lev4 #a 3 #e1 #aa1 #ae4 #ebh ,lev4 #h 3 #ad-bb2 #i 3 #h-bb2 #ad 3 #ai1 #bj2 #af 3 #c-be4 #ebi ,edersheim's ,the ,temple1 ,its ,min4 and ,serv41 p4 #ajj4 #ecj 8,from its derivation it might also be rendered1 the offering of completion0 7,edersheim's ,the ,temple1 ,its ,min4 and ,serv41 p4 #ajf74 #eca ,see page #adi1 supra4 #ecb ,edersheim's ,the ,temple1 ,its ,min4 and ,serv41 p4 #hf4 #ecc ,psa4 #af 3 #d1 #e4 #ecd ,heb4 #i 3 #h4 #ece ,heb4 #aj 3 #d4 #ecf ,psa4 #ej 3 #g-ag4 #ecg ,isaiah #a 3 #aa-ag4 #ech ,isa4 #be 3 #f4 #eci ,jer4 #g 3 #ba-bc4 #edj ,hosea #f 3 #d-g4 #eda ,deut4 #aj 3 #ad-af4 #edb ,deut4 #cj 3 #a-f4 #edc ,gal4 #c 3 #g-i2 ,rom4 #d 3 #aa1 #ab4 #edd ,rom4 #b 3 #bf-bi2 ,phil4 #c 3 #c4 #ede ,prov4 #c 3 #a-d4 #edf ,prov4 #g 3 #b1 #c4 #edg ,jer4 #ca 3 #ca-cd4 #edh ,col4 #b 3 #ag4 #edi ,num4 #ce 3 #ab2 ,deut4 #ai 3 #f1 #ab2 ,josh4 #bj 3 #c1 #e1 #i4 #eej ,num4 #ce 3 #ai1 #ba1 #bd1 #be1 #bg2 #b ,sam4 #ad 3 #aa4 #eea ,job #ai 3 #be2 ,psa4 #ai 3 #ad2 #gh 3 #ce2 ,prov4 #bc 3 #aa2 ,isa4 #da 3 #ad2 #dc 3 #ad2 #dd 3 #f1 #bd2 #dg 3 #d2 #dh 3 #ag2 #di 3 #g1 #bf2 #ed 3 #e1 #h2 #ei 3 #bj2 #fj 3 #af2 #fc 3 #af2 ,jer4 #ej 3 #cd4 #eeb ,comp4 ,isa4 #ea 3 #aj2 ,jer4 #ca 3 #aa4 #eec 8,a term of which the original import is uncertain4 ,the very obscurity of its etymology testifies to the antiquity of the office which it denotes40 7,speaker's ,com4 at ,num4 #ce 3 #ab47 #eed ,cited from ,herzog's ,b4 ,cycl41 in ,keil and ,delitzsch's ,bib4 ,com4 on the ,pent41 at ,num4 #ce 3 #i-cd4 #eee ,see ,niebuhr's ,beschreibung von ,arabien1 p4 #cb f42 ,burckhardt's ,beduinen und ,wahaby1 pp4 #aai-abg2 ,lane's ,thousand and ,one ,nights1 ,i41 #dca1 note2 ,pierotti's ,customs and ,traditions of ,palestine1 pp4 #bbj-bbg2 ,mrs4 ,finn's 8,the ,fellaheen of ,palestine10 in ,surv4 of ,west ,pal41 8,special ,papers10 pp4 #cdb-cdf4 #eef ,comp4 ,exod4 #ba 3 #ah-bg2 #bb 3 #ad-ag2 ,lev4 #bg 3 #a-h4 #eeg ,num4 #cf 3 #cj-cd4 #eeh ,sooras1 #b and #ag4 #eei ,livingstone and ,stanley on several occasions1 made payments1 or had them made1 to avoid a conflict on a question of blood4 ,see1 e4 g4 ,trav4 and ,res4 in ,so4 ,africa1 pp4 #cij1 #cfh-cgj1 #dhb f41 ,the ,congo1 ,i41 #ebj-ebg4 #efj ,reise in ,hadhramaut1 p4 #aii4 #efa ,surv4 of ,west4 ,pal41 8,special ,papers10 p4 #cdb4 #efb ,a ,pilgrimage to ,mec4 and ,med41 #ceg4 #efc ,cust4 and ,trad4 of ,pal41 p4 #bba4 #efd ,a ,pilgrimage1 p4 #cfg4 #efe ,see pages #abf-acc1 supra4 #eff ,see page #acb f41 supra4 #efg ,pierotti's ,cust4 and ,trad4 of ,pal41 p4 #baf4 #efh ,comp4 ,gen4 #ae 3 #ah2 ,jer4 #cd 3 #ah2 #b ,sam4 #ab 3 #ag4 #efi ,see ,gesenius1 ,fuerst1 ,cocceius1 s4 v4 #egj ,gen4 #ba 3 #bb-bd4 #ega ,see pages #ad1 #af1 #bj1 #bb1 #be1 #bg1 etc41 supra4 #egb ,see page #dg1 supra4 #egc ,gen4 #ba 3 #ca4 #egd ,comp4 ,gen4 #ca 3 #dd-dg4 #ege ,gen4 #ba 3 #cj4 #egf ,see page #ec1 supra4 #egg ,gen4 #ba 3 #cc4 #egh ,see references to the blood-stained covenant-tree1 in ,appendix1 infra4 #egi ,gen4 #bb 3 #ah4 #ehj ,see page #fa f41 supra4 #eha ,gen4 #bf 3 #be-bi4 #ehb ,gen4 #bf 3 #cj1 #ca4 #ehc ,see page #fb1 supra4 #ehd ,comp4 ,gen4 #ab 3 #f-h2 #bh 3 #ah-bb2 #ca 3 #ai-cf4 #ehe ,mr4 ,forbes tells of a custom1 in ,sumatra1 of taking a binding oath1 above the grave of the original patriarch of the ,passumah4 ,an animal is sacrificed1 cut into small pieces1 and cooked in a pot4 8,then he who is to take the oath1 holding his hand1 or a long kriss of the finest sort1 over the grave-stone1 and over the cooked animal1 says3 #8,if such and such be not the case1 may ,i be afflicted with the worst evils4' ,the whole of the company then partake of the food0 7,a ,naturalist's ,wanderings1 p4 #aih f474 ,this seems to be a vestige of the primitive custom of eating on the witness-heap of an oath4 #ehf ,gen4 #ca 3 #dd-ed4 #ehg #a ,sam4 #ah 3 #a-c4 #ehh ,see pages #ad1 #bd1 #bh1 #ce f41 #fb1 supra4 #ehi #a ,sam4 #ah 3 #d2 #bj 3 #a-ac4 #eij #a ,sam4 #ai 3 #a-g4 #eia #b ,sam4 #a 3 #bf4 #eib ,see pages #aj1 #ec1 supra4 #eic #a ,sam4 #bj 3 #ac-ag4 #eid #b ,sam4 #g 3 #a2 #i 3 #a4 #eie #b ,sam4 #i 3 #b-ac4 #eif ,heb4 #aj 3 #a-d4 #eig ,rom4 #h 3 #bb4 #eih ,rom4 #h 3 #cb4 #eii ,heb4 #ac 3 #bj4 #fjj ,comp4 ,john #a 3 #a-ad2 ,heb4 #a 3 #a-c2 #b 3 #ad-af4 #fja ,gen4 #ba 3 #ab2 ,heb4 #aa 3 #ah4 #fjb #a ,pet4 #a 3 #bj4 #fjc ,rev4 #ac 3 #h4 #fjd ,see page #bej1 supra1 note 7footnote #ecj74 #fje ,heb4 #aj 3 #e-i4 #fjf ,john #f 3 #ec-eh4 #fjg ,john #f 3 #fc4 #fjh ,john #f 3 #fj4 #fji ,john #f 3 #fj4 #faj ,heb4 #a 3 #ad-af4 #faa ,gal4 #c 3 #f-i1 #af1 #bi4 #fab ,keble4 #fac 8,in the garden of ,gethsemane1 ,christ endured mental agony so intense that1 had it not been limited by divine interposition1 it would probably have destroyed his life without the aid of any other sufferings2 but having been thus mitigated1 its effects were confined to violent palpitation of the heart accompanied with bloody sweat4444 ,dr4 ,millingen's explanation of bloody sweat 444 is judicious4 #8,it is probable1' says he1 #8that this strange disorder arises from a violent commotion of the nervous system1 turning the streams of blood out of their natural course1 and forcing the red particles into the cutaneous excretories4'0 7,stroud's ,physical ,cause of the ,death of ,christ1 pp4 #gd1 #chj74 #fad ,luke #bb 3 #dd4 #fae ,john #ac 3 #a4 #faf ,luke #bb 3 #ad1 #ae4 #fag ,as to the points in this dispute1 see ,andrews's ,life of our ,lord1 pp4 #dbe-dfj1 and ,farrar's ,life of ,christ1 ,excursus ,x41 ,appendix4 #fah ,matt4 #bf 3 #bf4 #fai ,luke #bb 3 #ai1 #bj4 #fbj ,mark #ad 3 #bc4 #fba ,matt4 #bf 3 #bg1 #bh4 #fbb ,luke #bb 3 #bj4 #fbc ,matt4 #bf 3 #bh4 #fbd #a ,cor4 #aa 3 #be4 #fbe ,mark #ad 3 #bc4 #fbf ,john #ae 3 #ac-ae4 #fbg ,john #ae 3 #d-g4 #fbh ,john #ag 3 #a-bd4 #fbi #b ,tim4 #a 3 #aj4 #fcj ,heb4 #i 3 #af1 #ag4 #fca ,john #ae 3 #ac4 #fcb ,john #aj 3 #aj1 #ah4 #fcc ,john #f 3 #ea4 #fcd ,john #f 3 #ee4 #fce ,see ,matt4 #bg 3 #cc-ed2 ,mark #ae 3 #bb-ci2 ,luke #bc 3 #cc-dg2 ,john #ai 3 #ag-cg4 #fcf 8,he was ultimately #8slain1' not by the effects of the anguish of his corporeal frame1 but by the effects of the mightier anguish of his mind2 the fleshy walls of his heart--like the veil1 as it were1 in the temple of his human body--becoming rent and riven1 as1 for us1 #8he poured out his soul unto death4'0 7,sir ,james ,y4 ,simpson1 cited in ,appendix to ,stroud's ,physical ,cause of ,death of ,christ47 #fcg ,isa4 #ec 3 #ab4 #fch ,comp4 ,rom4 #f 3 #bc2 #a ,pet4 #c 3 #ah2 ,isa4 #ec 3 #d-f4 #fci #a ,john #e 3 #aa1 #ab4 #fdj ,lev4 #ag 3 #aa4 #fda ,lev4 #ag 3 #ad4 #fdb ,see pages #aaf-abe4 #fdc ,eph4 #a 3 #g4 #fdd #a ,john #a 3 #g4 #fde ,rev4 #a 3 #e4 #fdf #b ,cor4 #e 3 #ag4 #fdg ,col4 #c 3 #c4 #fdh #a ,john #e 3 #bj4 #fdi #a ,john #e 3 #ac4 #fej ,john #bj 3 #ca4 #fea ,rom4 #e 3 #h-ab4 #feb #b ,pet4 #a 3 #d4 #fec ,gal4 #b 3 #bj4 #fed ,john #e 3 #bf4 #fee ,col4 #a 3 #ai1 #bj4 #fef ,eph4 #b 3 #aa-af4 #feg ,col4 #b 3 #i-aa4 #feh ,gal4 #c 3 #bh1 #bi4 #fei ,heb4 #aj 3 #ad-bb4 #ffj ,see page #afg ff41 supra4 #ffa ,comp4 ,heb4 #i 3 #bd-bh2 #aj 3 #aj4 #ffb ,heb4 #aj 3 #bh1 #bi4 #ffc ,the ,covenant of ,bread and the ,covenant of ,blood are two distinct covenants1 in ,oriental practice as well as in biblical teaching2 although this difference has been strangely overlooked by biblical students in the realm of ,orientalisms4 ,the ,covenant of ,bread is temporary2 the ,covenant of ,blood is permanent4 ,the one secures a truce2 the other secures a vital union4 ,symbolically1 the one gives nourishment2 the other gives life4 ,the ,covenant of ,bread is an exhibit and a pledge of hospitality1 and it brings one into family or tribal relations with those proffering it4 ,the ,covenant of ,blood is immediately personal and individual4 ,there seems to be an unconscious trace of this distinction in the refusal of the ,romish ,church to include the laity in the symbolizing of the ,covenant of ,blood1 at the ,lord's table4 #ffd #a ,cor4 #aj 3 #ad-ag4 #ffe ,heb4 #ac 3 #bj1 #ba4 ,,appendix4 ,,appendix4 ,,importance ,,of ,,this ,,rite ,,strangely ,,undervalued4 ,it seems strange that a primitive rite like the blood-covenant1 with its world-wide sweep1 and its manifold applications to the history of sacrifice1 should have received so little attention from students of the latter theme4 ,nor has it been entirely ignored by them2 although its illustrations have1 in this connection1 been drawn almost entirely from the field of the classic writers1 where its religious aspects have a minor prominence2 and1 as a result1 the suggestion of any real importance in the religious symbolism of this rite has been1 generally1 brushed aside without its receiving due consideration4 ,thus1 in ,the ,speaker's ,commentary1--which is one of the more recent1 and more valuable1 scholarly and sensible compends of sound and thorough biblical criticism1--there are references to the rite of human blood-covenanting in its possible bearing on the blood-covenanting of ,god with ,israel before ,mount ,sinai1#fff after this sort3 8,the instances from classical antiquity1 adduced1 as parallels to this sacrifice of ,moses1 by ,bhr1 ,knobel1 and ,kalisch1 in which animals were slaughtered on the making of covenants1 are either1 those in which the animal was slain to signify the punishment due to the party that might break the covenant 7,hom4 ,il41 ,,iii41 #bih2 ,,xix41 #beb2 ,liv4 ,hist41 ,i41 #bd2 ,,xxi41 #de72 those in which confederates dipped their hands1 or their weapons1 in the same blood 7sch4 ,sept4 c4 ,theb41 #dc2 ,xenoph4 ,anab41 ,,ii41 #b1 #i72 or those in which the contracting parties tasted each other's blood 7,herodot4 ,hist4 ,i41 #gd2 ,,iv41 #gd2 ,tac4 ,annal41 ,,xii41 #dg74 ,all these usages are based upon ideas which are but very superficially related to the subject2 they have indeed no true connection whatever with the idea of sacrifice as the seal of a covenant between ,god and man40#ffg ,when the entire history of man's outreaching after an inter-union of natures with his fellow-man and with his ,god1 is fairly studied1 in the light thrown on it by the teachings of the divine-human ,being1 who gave of his own blood for the consummation of the longed-for divine-human inter-union1 it will be more clearly seen1 whether it were the relation of the primitive rite itself to the idea of sacrifice1 or the study of that relation1 which was 8very superficial10 as a cause of its popular overlooking4 ,the closest and most sacred form of covenant ever known in the primitive world1 was that whereby two persons covenanted to become one1 through being partakers of the same blood4 ,at ,sinai1 when ,jehovah would covenant with ,israel1 a common supply of substitute blood--proffered by ,israel and accepted by ,jehovah--was taken2 and one-half of it was cast upon the altar1 ,godward1 while the other half of it was cast ,israelward1 upon the people4#ffh ,the declaration of ,moses to ,israel1 then1 was3 8,behold the blood of the covenant1 which the ,lord hath made with you20 or1 as that declaration is repeated1 in ,hebrews3 8,this is the blood of the covenant which ,god covenanted to you-ward40#ffi ,and from that time forward1 the most sacred possession of ,israel1--above which hovered the visible sign of the presence of ,jehovah1--was the casket which contained the record of that blood-made covenant2 and it was toward the mercy-seat cover of that ,covenant ,casket1 that ,house of the ,covenant1 that the symbolic blood of atonement through new life was sprinkled1 in the supreme renewals of that covenant by ,israel's representative year by year4 ,even the ,speaker's ,commentary says1 of this mutual blood-sharing by ,israel and ,jehovah at ,sinai3 8,the blood thus divided between the two parties to the covenant signified the sacramental union between the ,lord and his people40#fgj ,of the blood which was to be poured out on ,calvary1 ,jesus said3 8,this is my blood of the new covenant1 which is shed for many40#fga ,and of the sacramental union which could be secured1 between his trustful disciples and himself1 by tasting his blood1 and by being nourished on his flesh1 he said3 8,except ye eat the flesh of the ,son of man and drink his blood1 ye have not life in yourselves4 ,he that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal life40#fgb ,it really looks as if there were more than a superficial relation between the fact of an absolute inter-union of two natures through an inter-flow of a common life1 in the rite of blood-covenanting1 and the sacramental union between the ,lord and his people1 which was typified in the blood-covenant at ,sinai1 and which was consummated in the blood-covenant at ,calvary4 ,herbert ,spencer1 indeed1 seems to have a clearer conception than the ,speaker's ,commentary1 of the relation of human blood-covenanting1 to the inter-union of those in the flesh1 with spiritual beings4 ,he perceives that the primitive offerings of blood over the dead1 from the living person1 are1 in some cases1 8explicable as arising from the practice of establishing a sacred bond between living persons by partaking of each other's blood3 the derived conception being1 that those who give some of their blood to the ghost of a man just dead and lingering near and of course1 the principle is the same when the offering of blood is to the gods1 thereby effect with it a union1 which on the one side implies submission1 and on the other side friendliness40#fgc ,this admission by ,mr4 ,spencer covers the essential point in the argument of this entire volume4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,blood1 ,,in ,,the ,,heart1 ,,in ,,the ,,liver4 ,among all primitive peoples1 the blood has been deemed the representative of life4 ,the giving of blood has been counted the giving of life4 ,the receiving of blood has been counted the receiving of life4 ,the sharing of blood has been counted the sharing of life4 ,hence1 the blood has always been counted the chief thing in any sacrificial victim proffered to the gods2 and whatever was sought through sacrifice1 was to be obtained by means of the blood of the offering4 ,even though no specific reference to the blood be found in the preserved descriptions of one of the earlier sacrifices1--as1 for example1 the ,akkadian sacrifice of the first-born 7page #aff1 supra71 the very fact that the offering made was of a life1 and that blood was recognized as life1 is in itself the proof that it was the blood which gave the offering its value4 ,sir ,gardiner ,wilkinson1 who was thoroughly familiar with both ,egyptian and biblical antiquities1 was impressed by the 8striking resemblance0 of many of the religious rites of the ,jews to those of ,egypt1 8particularly the manner in which the sacrifices were performed20#fgd and he points out the ,egyptian method of so slaying the sacrificial ox1 that its blood should be fully discharged from the body2 a point which was deemed of such importance in the ,jewish ritual4#fge ,of the illustration of this ceremony given by ,wilkinson from an ancient ,egyptian painting1#fgf the ,speaker's ,commentary says3 8,there is no reason to doubt that this picture accurately represents the mode pursued in the court of the ,jewish ,tabernacle40#fgg ,almost as universal as the recognition of the life in the blood1 has been the identification of the heart as the blood-centre and the blood-fountain1 and so as the epitome of the life itself4 ,says ,pierret1#fgh the ,french ,egyptologist1 concerning the preeminence given to the heart1 by the ancient ,egyptians3 8,the heart was embalmed separately in a vase placed under the guardianship of the genius ,duaoumautew rather1 ,tuau-mut-ef1 or1 ,reverencer of his ,mother4 #8,my heart was my mother4' ,see page #ii1 supra without doubt because this organ1 indispensable to the resurrection1 could not be replaced in the body of a man1 until it had been weighed in the scale of the balance of the ,osirian judgment 7,todtenbuch1 cxxv472 where representing the acts of the dead1 it ought to make equilibrium with the statue of the goddess ,truth ,maat4 7,see the framed papyri in the funereal hall of the ,museum of the ,louvre47 ,indeed the favorable sentence is thus formulated3 #8,it is permitted that his heart be in its place4' ,it is said to ,setee ,i41 in the temple of ,abydos3 #8,i bring thee thy heart to thy breast2 ,i put it in its place4' ,the heart1 principle of existence and of regeneration1 was symbolized by the scarabus3 it is for this reason that the texts relative to the heart were inscribed upon the funereal scarabuses1 which at a certain epoch were introduced into the body of the mummy itself1 to replace the absent organ40 ,the idea that the heart is in itself life1 and that it can even live apart from the body1 is found all the world over4 ,references to it in ancient ,egypt1 in ,india1 and in primitive ,america1 have already been pointed out 7pages #ajj-aaj1 supra74 ,it shows itself1 likewise1 in the folk-lore of the ,arctic regions1 and of ,south ,africa1 as well as of the ,norseland4 ,in a ,samoyed tale1 8seven brothers are in the habit of taking out their hearts and sleeping without them4 ,a captive damsel1 whose mother they have killed1 receives the extracted hearts1 and hangs them on the tent-pole1 where they remain till the following morning4 ,one night her brother contrives to get the hearts into his possession4 ,next morning1 he takes them into the tent1 where he finds the brothers at the point of death4 ,in vain do they beg for their hearts1 which he flings on the floor4 #8,and as he flings down the hearts1 the brothers die4'0#fgi ,according to a ,hottentot story1 8the heart of a girl1 whom a lion has killed and eaten1 is extracted from the lion1 and placed in a calabash filled with milk the #8heart' and #8milk'2 or blood and bread1 life and its nourishment 7,see pages #aj-ab1 #bfa f41 supra74 #8,the calabash increased in size2 and1 in proportion to this1 the girl grew again inside of it4'0#fhj 8,in a ,norse story1 a giant's heart lies in an egg1 inside a duck1 which swims in a well1 in a church1 on an island20#fha and this story is found in variations in other lands4#fhb ,so1 again1 in a 8,russian story1 a prince is grievously tormented by a witch who has got hold of his heart1 and keeps it perpetually seething in a magic cauldron40#fhc ,this same idea is found in the nomenclature of the ,bible1 and in the every day speech of the civilized world of the present age4 ,in more than nine hundred instances1 in our common ,english ,bible1 the ,hebrew or the ,greek word for 8heart10 as a physical organ1 is applied to man's personality2 as if it were1 in a sense1 synonymous with his life1 his self1 his soul1 his nature4 ,in every phase of man's character1 of man's needs1 or of man's experiences1 8heart0 is employed by us as significant of his innermost and realest self4 ,he is 8hard-hearted10 8tender-hearted10 8warm-hearted10 8cold-hearted10 8hearty10 or 8heartless40 ,his words and his conduct are 8heart-touching10 8heart-cheering10 8heart-searching10 8heart-piercing10 8heart-thrilling10 8heart-soothing10 or 8heart-rending20 and they are a cause1 in others1 of 8heart-burning10 8heart-aching10 8heart-easing10 or 8heart-expanding40 ,at times1 his 8heart is set upon0 an object of longing1 or again 8his heart is in his mouth0 because of his excited anxiety4 ,it may be1 that he shows that 8his heart is in the right place10 or that 8his heart is at rest0 at all times4 ,the truest union of two young lives1 is where 8the heart goes with the hand0 in the marriage covenant4 ,and so1 all the world over1 from the beginning1 primitive man1 in the lowest state of savagery and in the highest stage of civilization1 has been accustomed to recognize the truth1 and to employ the symbolisms of speech1 which are in accordance with the latest advances of physiological and psychological science1 and with the highest spiritual conceptions of biblical truth1 in our nineteenth ,christian century1 concerning the mental1 the moral1 and the religious needs and possibilities of the human race4 ,man as he is needs a 8new heart10 a new nature1 a new life2 and that need can be supplied by the ,author of life1 through that regeneration which is indicated1 and which1 in a sense1 is realized in new blood which is pure at the start1 and which purifies by its purging inflow4 ,the recognition of this truth1 and the outreaching of man in its direction1 are at the basis of all forms of sacrifice in all the ages4 ,and this wonderful attainment of primitive man everywhere1 we are asked to accept as man's mere natural inheritance from the sensory quiverings of his ancestral tadpole6 8,the knowledge of the ancients on the subject of blood as the synonym of life may1 indeed1 have been based on the mere observation that an animal loses its life when it loses its blood10 says the ,speaker's ,commentary4 ,but it does seem a little strange1 that none of the ancients ever observed that man is very liable to lose his life when he loses his brains1 and that few animals are actively efficient for practical service without a head2 whereas both men and the lower animals do lose blood freely without death resulting4 ,it is true that in many parts of the world the liver was made prominent as seemingly a synonym of life2 but this was obviously because of the popular belief that the liver was itself a mass of coagulated blood4 ,the idea seems to have been that as the heart was the blood-fountain1 the liver was the blood-cistern2 and that1 as the source of life 7or of blood1 which life is17 was at the heart2 so1 the great receptacle of life1 or of blood1 was the liver4 ,thus1 in the classic myth of ,prometheus1 the avenging eagle of ,jupiter is not permitted to gnaw upon the life-giving heart itself of the tortured victim1 but upon the compacted body of life in the captive's liver2 the fountain of life is not to be destroyed1 but the cistern of life is to be emptied daily of all that it had received from the out-flowing heart during the preceding night4 ,and in the symbolism of these two organs1 the ancients seem to have been agreed1 that 8,the heart is the seat of the soul thumos 77 the nobler passions2 the liver is the seat of desire20#fhd or1 as again it is phrased1 8,the seat of the soul is unquestionably the heart1 even as the liver is the seat of emotion40#fhe ,burton has called attention to the fact that among the ,arabs1 8the liver and the spleen are both supposed to be #8congealed blood1'0 and that the ,bedween of the ,hejaz justify their eating of locusts1 which belong to an 8unclean0 class of animals1 and of liver which represents forbidden blood1 by this couplet3 8,we are allowed two carrions1 and two bloods1 ,the fish and locust1 the liver and the spleen40#fhf ,he has also noted that the ,american ,indian partakes of the liver1 as well as of the heart of a fallen enemy1 in order to the assimilating of the enemy's life2#fhg and he finds many correspondences between the desert dwellers of ,america and of ,arabia4 8,the ,american #8brave1'0 he says1 8stamps a red hand upon his mouth to show that he has drunk the blood of a foe4 ,of the ,utaybah #8,harami1' it is similarly related1 that after mortal combat1 he tastes the dead man's gore40#fhh ,even in modern ,english1 the word 8liver0 has been thought by many to represent 8life0 or 8blood40 ,thus1 in one of our dictionaries we are told that the word is derived from the ,anglo-,saxon and the ,scandinavian verb 8to live10 8because the liver is of so great importance to life1 or animal vitality40#fhi ,in another1 its derivation is ascribed to lopper1 and lapper1 8to coagulate10 8from its resemblance to a mass of clotted blood40#fij ,among the aborigines of ,america the prominence given to the blood and to the heart was as great1 and as distinctly marked1 as among the peoples of ancient ,egypt1 or any other portion of the far ,east4 ,this truth has been brought out most fully by the valuable personal researches of ,mr4 ,frank ,h4 ,cushing1 of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 into the mythology and sociology of the ,zuis of ,new ,mexico4 ,from his reports it would appear that1 according to the priests of that people1 8all true fetiches or1 material symbols of spiritual existences are either actual petrifactions of the animals they represent1 or were such originally0--according as the present form of the fetish is natural1 or is mechanically fashioned4 ,these rude stone images of the animals of prey1 8which are of course mere concretions or strangely eroded rock forms10 are supposed to be the shriveled and distorted remains of beings which were long ago turned to stone4 ,within these fetishes the heart of the original animal still exists2 78his heart still lives1 even though his person be changed to stone027 and it needs for its sustenance the blood1 or the 8life fluid10 of the game which was1 from the beginning1 the ordinary prey of that animal4 ,hence each fetish is pleased to hear the prayers and to give success to the hunting of its present possessor1 in order to the obtaining of the life fluid which is essential to its nourishing4 ,these prey fetishes of the ,zuis belong to the ,prey-,god ,brotherhood1 and when not in use they are guarded by the 8,keeper of the ,medicine of the ,deer40 ,before they are employed in a hunt1 there is an assembly for their worship2 and1 after ceremonial prayer to them for their assistance1 they are taken out for service by members of the ,brotherhood to which they belong4 8,the fetich is then placed in a little crescent-shaped bag of buckskin which the hunter wears suspended over the left breast 7or1 heart7 by a buckskin thong1 which is tied above the right shoulder40 ,when the trail of the animal hunted is discovered by the hunter1 he finds a place where the animal has lain down1 and there he makes an oblation by depositing his offering 8in exactly the spot over which the heart of the animal is supposed to have rested40 ,then he brings out his fetish and with certain ceremonies and invocations he puts it on the track of the prey4 8,as soon as the animal is dead1 he the hunter lays open its viscera1 cuts through the diaphragm1 and makes an incision in the aorta1 or in the sac which incloses the heart4 ,he then takes out of its bag the prey fetich1 breathes on it1 and addresses it thus3 444 #8,si6 ,my father1 this day of the blood literally of the #8life fluid' of a game-being1 thou shalt drink1 7shalt water thyself74 ,with it thou shalt enlarge 7add unto7 thy heart4' ,he then dips the fetich into the blood which the sac still contains1 continuing meanwhile the prayer1 as follows3 444 #8,likewise1 ,i1 a 8done0 being a living human being1 with the blood the 8life-fluid10 which is the flesh of a raw being 7game animal71 shall enlarge 7add unto7 my heart4' ,which prayer finished1 he scoops up1 with his hand1 some of the blood and sips it2 then tearing forth the liver1 ravenously devours a part of it as the blood-flesh1 or1 the blood which is the flesh1 and exclaims1 #8-lah-kw6' 7,thanks740 ,after all this1 he deposits a portion of the clot of blood from within the heart1 commingled with various articles1 in a grave digged on the spot where the animal has died2 repeating1 as he does this1 a prayer which seems to show his belief that the slain animal still lives in this buried heart-blood4 ,again1 when the game is at the hunter's home1 the women 8lay on either side of its body1 next to the heart1 an ear of corn 7significant of renewed life71 and say prayers0 over it4 ,finally 8the fetich is returned to the ,keeper of the ,deer ,medicine1 with thanksgiving and a prayer1 not unlike that uttered on taking it forth40#fia ,in these ceremonies1 it is evident that the ,zuis1 like the ,orientals1 recognize the blood as the life1 the heart as the epitome of life1 the liver as a congealed mass of blood1 and the transference of blood as the transference of life4 ,moreover1 there is here a trace of that idea of the revivifying1 by blood-bathing1 of a being that had turned into stone2 which is found in the legends of ,arabia1 and of the ,norseland 7,see page #aai f41 supra74 ,is there not1 indeed1 a reference to this world-wide figure of the living stone1 in the ,apostle's suggestion1 that those who were counted as worthless stones by an ignorant world are vivified by the renewing blood of ,christ1 and so are shown to be a holy people8 8,as new born babes renewed by the blood of ,christ1 long for the spiritual milk the means of sacred nourishment which is without guile1 that ye may grow thereby unto salvation2 if ye have tasted that the ,lord is gracious if1 indeed1 ye have been made alive by the touch of his blood3 unto whom coming1 unto ,him who is a ,living ,stone rejected indeed of men1 but with ,god who knows the possibilities of that ,stone1 precious1--ye also1 as living stones as new blood-vivified petrifactions1 are built up a spiritual house1 to be a holy priesthood1 to offer up holy sacrifices1 acceptable to ,god through ,jesus ,christ40#fib ,there is another gleam of this idea of the stones vivified by blood1 in a custom reported from among the ,indians of ,british ,columbia1 in a private letter written by a careful observer of ,indian habits and ceremonies4 ,when the ,indian girls arrived at the years of womanhood they were accustomed1 there as in many other parts of the world1 to pass through a formal initiation into a new stage of existence4 ,going apart by themselves1 at some distance from their settlements1 they would lacerate their bodies1 in order that blood might flow freely2 and1 laying a series of stones in a row1 they would walk over them1 allowing their blood to fall upon them4 ,the young woman who could cover the largest number of stones with her blood1 had the fairest prospect in life1 in the line of a woman's peculiar mission4 ,this certainly would be a not unnatural thought as an outgrowth of the belief that stones anointed with freely surrendered blood1 can be made to have life in themselves4 ,it is much the same in war as in the hunt1 among the ,zuis4 8,as with the hunter1 so with the warrior2 the fetich is fed on the life-blood of the slain40#fic ,and here1 again1 is a link of connection between cannibalism and religious worship4 ,another illustration of the preeminence given to the heart1 as the epitome of the very being itself1 is the fact that the animals pictured on the pottery of these people1 and of neighboring peoples1 commonly had the rude conventional figure of a heart represented in its place on each animal2 as if to show that the animal was living1 and that it had a living soul4#fid ,at the other side of the world1 as it were1 in ,borneo1 there is given similar preeminence1 as among the ,zuis1 to the blood as the life1 to the liver as a representative of blood1 and to the heart as the epitome of the life4 8,the principal sacrifice of the ,sakarang ,dayaks10 says ,mr4 ,st4 ,john1 8is killing a pig and examining its heart1 which is supposed to foretell events with the utmost certainty40 ,this custom seems to have grown out of the idea that the heart of any ,god devoted organism1 as the embodiment of its life is closely linked with the ,author of all life2 who is the ,disposer of all events4 ,a human heart is naturally deemed preferable to a pig's2 but the latter is the common substitute for the former4 ,yet1 8not many years ago10 one of the ,sakarang chiefs put to death a lad 8of his own race10 remarking1 as he did so3 8,it has been our custom heretofore to examine the heart of a pig1 but now we will examine a human one40#fie ,the ,kayans1 again1 examine 8the heart and liver10 as preliminary to covenant-making4#fif ,among the ,dayaks1 the blood of a fowl sacrificed by one who is supposed to be in favor with the gods1 has peculiar potency when sprinkled upon 8the lintels of the doors40#fig ,and a house will be deserted by its ,dayak inhabitants1 8if a drop of blood be seen sprinkled on the floor1 unless they can prove whence it came40#fih ,an incidental connection of this recognition of the blood as the life1 with the primitive rite of blood covenanting1 is seen in one form of the marriage rite among the ,dayaks4#fii--;,in the rite of blood-covenanting itself1 as consummated between ,mr4 ,st4 ,john and ,sigauding1 a cigarette stained with the blood of the covenanting parties was smoked by them mutually 7,see page #ea1 supra74 ,in the marriage covenant1 a cigar and betel leaf prepared with the areca nut are put first into the mouth of the bride by the bridegroom1 and then into the mouth of the bridegroom by the bride2 while two fowls are waved over their heads by a priest1 and then killed2 their blood being 8caught in two cups0 for examination1 instead of for drinking4#gjj ,so1 whether it be the heart as the primal fountain of blood1 or the liver as the great receptacle of blood1 or the blood itself in its supposed outflowing from the heart through the liver1 that is made prominent in the rites and teachings of primitive peoples1 the root-idea is still the same1--that 8as to the life of all flesh1 the blood thereof is all one with the life thereof20#gja and that as a man is in his blood1 so he is in his nature2 that his 8good blood0 or 8his bad blood10 his 8hot blood0 or his 8cold blood10 will be evidenced in his daily walk2 for that which shows out in his outer life is 8in the blood0 which is his inner life2 and that in order to a change of his nature there must in some way be a change of his blood4 ,hence1 the universal outreaching of the race after new blood which is new life4 ,hence1 the provisions of ,god for new life through that blood which is the ,life4 ,,transmigration ,,of ,,souls4 ,a belief in the transmigration of souls1 from man to the lower animals1 and vice vers1 has been found among various peoples1 in all the historic ages4 ,the origin of this belief has been a puzzling question to rationalistic myth-students4 ,starting out1 as do most of these students1 with the rigid theory that man worked himself slowly upward from the lowest savagery1 without any external revelation1 they are confronted with primitive customs on every side which go to show a popular belief in soul-transmigration1 and which they must try to account for within the limits of their unproven theory4 ,the result is1 that they first presuppose some conception in the primitive man's mind of spiritual things1 and then they conveniently refer all confusing facts to that presupposed conception4 8,animism0 is one of the pet names for this resolvent of grave difficulties4 ,and when 8,animism0 is supplemented by 8,fetishism10 8,zoolatry10 and 8,totemism10 the requisite number of changes is secured for the meeting of any number of perplexing facts in the religious belief of primitive man everywhere4 ,as a matter of simple fact1 man's conception of spiritual existences is not accounted for by the 8scientists40 ,and the claim that such a conception was innate in primitive man1 or that it was a natural growth in man's unaided progress1 is at the best but an unproved theory4 ,in the early part of this century1 there were thousands of deaf-mutes in the ,united ,states1 who had never been educated by the system which is now so effective for that class in the community4 ,this gave a rare opportunity of learning the normal spiritual attainments of unsophisticated man2 of man uninfluenced by external revelation or traditions4 ,nor was this opportunity unimproved for a good purpose4 ,when the ,rev4 ,thomas ,h4 ,gallaudet 7himself a philosophical scientist7 introduced the system of deaf-mute instruction into this country1 he made a careful examination into the intelligence of all the deaf mutes brought under his care1 on this point of spiritual conceptions4 ,his declaration was1 that he never found a person who1 prior to specific instruction1 had any conception of the nature or the existence of ,god4 ,a single illustration of ,mr4 ,gallaudet's experiences in this line will suffice for the entire series of them4 ,a young girl of sixteen years of age1 or so1 who proved to be of far more than ordinary intelligence and mental capacity1 had been brought up in a ,new ,england ,christian home4 ,she had been accustomed to bow her head when grace was said at the daily meals1 to kneel in family prayer1 and to attend church regularly1 from early childhood2 yet she had no idea of ,god1 no thought of spiritual existences of any sort whatsoever1 until she was instructed in those things1 in the line of her new education4#gjb ,a writer on this subject1 who differed with ,mr4 ,gallaudet in his conclusions from these facts1 added3 8,this testimony is confirmed by that of all the teachers of the deaf and dumb1 and the fact must be admitted40#gjc ,until some human being can be found with a conception of spiritual existences1 without his having received instruction on that point from those who went before him1 the claim--in the face of such facts as these--that primitive man ever obtained his spiritual knowledge or his spiritual conceptions from within himself alone1 or without an external revelation to him1 is an unscientific assumption1 in the investigation of the origin of religions in the world4 ,but1 with man's conception of spiritual things1 already existing#gjd 7however he came by it71 and with the existing belief that the blood is the life1 or the soul1 or the nature1 of an organism1 the idea of the transmigration of souls as identical with the transference of blood1 is a very natural corollary4 ,the blood being the life1 or the soul1 of man and of beast1 if the blood of man passes into the body of a beast1 or the blood of a beast passes into the body of a man1 why should it not be inferred that the soul of the man1 or of the beast1 transmigrated accordingly8 ,if the ,hindoo1 believing that the blood of man is the soul of man1 sees the blood of a man drunk up by a tiger1 is it strange that he should look upon that tiger as having within him the soul of the ,hindoo1 which has been thus appropriated8 ,if the ,south ,african supposes that1 by his drinking the blood or eating the heart of a lion1 he appropriates the lion's courage1#gje is it to be wondered at that when he sees a lion licking the blood and eating the heart of a ,south ,african1 he should infer that the lion is thereby the possessor of whatever was distinctive in the ,zulu1 or the ,hottentot1 personality8 ,indeed1 as has been already stated1 in the body of this work1 there is still a question among physiologists1 how far the transference of blood from one organism to another carries a transmigration of soul 7of the psyche1 not of the pneuma74#gjf ,however this may be1 the popular belief in such transmigration is fully accounted for1 by the recognized conviction that the blood is the soul4 ,in this view of the case1 there is an added force in the ,mosaic prohibition--repeated as it is in the ,apostolic ,encyclical--of the eating1 or drinking1 of the blood of the lower animals2 with the possibility of thereby being made a partaker of the lower animal nature4 ,and what fresh potency is given to ,elijah's prophecy against ,ahab and ,jezebel1 by this conception of the transference of nature by the transference of blood6 8,thus saith the ,lord to ,ahab ,hast thou killed ,hast thou taken the blood of ,naboth81 and also taken possession of ,naboth's vineyard8444 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,in the place where dogs licked the blood of ,naboth1 shall dogs lick thy blood1 even thine4444 ,and of ,jezebel also spake the ,lord1 saying1 ,the dogs shall eat ,jezebel by the ramparts of ,jezreel40 ,the blood1 the life1 the soul of royalty1 shall become a portion of the very life of the prowling scavenger dogs of the royal city4 ,and it came to pass accordingly1 to both ,ahab and ,jezebel4#gjg ,,the ,,blood-,,rite ,,in ,,burmah4 ,mention is made1 in the text of this volume1#gjh of the fact that the primitive rite of blood-covenanting is in practice all along the ,chinese border of the ,burman ,empire4 ,in illustration of this truth1 the following description of the rite and its linkings1 is given by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,m4 ,luther1 of ,philadelphia1 formerly a missionary among the ,karens1 in ,burmah4 ,this interesting sketch was received1 in its present form1 at too late a date for insertion in its place in the text2 hence its appearance here4 8,the blood-covenant is well known1 and commonly practised among the ,karens of ,burmah4 ,there are three methods of making brotherhood1 or truce1 between members of one tribe and those of another4 8,the first is the common method of eating together4 ,this1 however1 is of but little binding force1 being a mere agreement to refrain from hostilities for a limited time1 and the truce thus made is liable to be broken at the briefest notice4 8,the second method is that of planting a tree4 ,the parties to this covenant select a young and vigorous sapling1 plant it with certain ceremonies1 and covenant with each other to keep peace so long as the tree lives4 ,a covenant thus made is regarded as of greater force than that effected or sealed by the first method4 8,the third method is that of the blood-covenant1 properly so-called4 ,in this covenant the chief stands as the representative of the tribe1 if it be a tribal agreement2 or1 the father as the representative of the family1 if it be a more limited covenant4 ,the ceremonies are public and solemn4 ,the most important act is1 of course1 the mingling of the blood4 ,blood is drawn from the thigh of each of the covenanting parties1 and mingled together4 ,then each dips his finger into the blood and applies it to his lips4 ,in some cases1 it is said that the blood is actually drunk2 but the more common method is that of touching the lips with the blood-stained finger4#gji 8,this covenant is of the utmost force4 ,it covers not merely an agreement of peace1 or truce1 but also a promise of mutual assistance in peace and in war4 ,it also conveys to the covenanting parties mutual tribal rites4 ,if they are chiefs1 the covenant embraces their entire tribes4 ,if one is a private individual1 his immediate family and direct descendants are included in the agreement4 8,i never heard of the blood-covenant being broken4 ,i do not remember to have inquired particularly on this point1 because the way in which the blood-covenant was spoken of1 always implied that its rupture was an unheard-of thing4 ,it is regarded as a perfectly valid excuse for any amount of reckless devotion1 or of unreasoning sacrifice on behalf of another1 for a ,karen to say3 #8,thui p'aw th'coh li2' literally1 #8,the blood1--we have drunk it together4' ,an appeal for help on the basis of the blood-covenant is never disregarded4 8,a few of our missionaries have entered into the blood-covenant with ,karen tribes2 though most have been deterred1 either from never having visited the #8debatable land' where the strong arm of ,british rule does not reach1 or else1 as in most instances1 from a repugnance to the act by which the covenant is sealed4 ,in one instance1 at least1 where a missionary did enter into covenant with one of these tribes1 the agreement has been interpreted as covering not only his children1 but one who was so happy as to marry his daughter4 ,in an enforced absence of fifteen years from the scene of his early missionary labors nothing has been at once so touching and so painful to the writer1 as the frequent messages and letters asking #8,when will you come back to your people8' ,yet1 mine is only the inherited right above mentioned4 8,the blood-covenant gives even a foreigner every right which he would have1 if born a member of the tribe4 ,as an instance1 the writer once shot a hawk in a ,karen village1 just as it was swooping down upon a chicken4 ,he was surprised to find1 an half-hour afterward1 that his personal attendant1 a straightforward ,mountain ,karen1 had gone through the village and #8collected' a fat hen from each house4 ,when remonstrated with1 the mountaineer replied1 #8,why1 ,teacher1 it is your right1--that is our custom1--you are one of us4 ,these people wouldn't understand it if ,i did not ask for a chicken from each house1 when you killed the hawk4' 8,in the wilder ,karen regions1 it is almost impossible to travel unless one is in blood-covenant with the chiefs1 while on the other hand one is perfectly safe1 if in that covenant4 ,the disregard of this fact has cost valuable lives4 ,when a stranger enters ,karen territory1 the chiefs order the paths closed4 ,this is done by tying the long elephant grass across the paths4 ,on reaching such a signal1 the usual inquiry in the traveling party is1 #8,who is in blood-covenant with this tribe8' ,if one is found1 even among the lowest servants1 his covenant covers the party1 on the way1 as far as to the principal village or hill fortress4 ,the party goes into camp1 and sends this man on as an ambassador4 ,usually1 guides are sent back to conduct the party at once to the chief's house4 ,if no one is in covenant with the tribe1 and the wisp of grass is broken and the party passes on1 the lives of the trespassers are forfeited4 ,a sudden attack in some defile1 or a night surprise1 scatters the party and drives the survivors back the way they came4 ,it is said by the ,karens that ,mr4 ,cooper1 the famous ,english explorer of ,china and ,thibet1 was killed #8because he had broken the grass4' ,a day's delay for the blood-covenant would have saved his life1 and given him time to complete his most important labors4 ,the men who killed him would have been his devoted body-guard1 ready and willing to give their lives in defence of his4 ,if the ,karen account of his death is true1 it is most unfortunate that he entered the ,karen country from ,china 7where the blood-covenant does not now prevail71 and so was ignorant of the fact that by so slight a concession to ,karen custom he could obtain a guarantee of safe conduct for at least a thousand miles40 ,another account of the blood-covenant rite in ,burmah is kindly furnished to me1 by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,m4 ,h4 ,bixby1 of ,providence1 ,rhode ,island2 who was also for some years a missionary among the ,karens4 ,he says3 8,in my first journey over the mountains of ,burmah1 into ,shanland1 toward ,western ,china1 ,i passed through several tribes of wild ,karens among whom the practice of #8covenanting by blood' prevailed4 8#8,if you mean what you say1' said the old chief of the ,gecho tribe to me1 referring to my professions of friendship1 #8,you will drink truth with me4' #8,well1 what is drinking truth8' ,i said4 ,in reply1 he said3 #8,this is our custom4 ,each chief pierces his arm--draws blood--mingles it in a vessel with whisky1 and drinks of it2 both promising to be true and faithful to each other1 down to the seventh generation4' 8,after the chiefs had drunk of the mingled blood and whisky1 each one of their followers drunk of it also1 and were thereby included in the covenant of friendship4 8,a company of ,shans laid a plot to kill me and my company in ,shanland1 for the purpose of plunder4 ,they entered into covenant with each other by drinking the blood of their leader mingled with whisky1 or a kind of beer made from rice4 8,those wild mountain tribes have strange traditions which indicate that they once had the ,old ,testament ,scriptures1 although now they have no written language4 ,some of the ,karen tribes have a written language1 given them by the missionaries4 8,the covenant1 also1 exists in modified forms1 in which the blood is omitted40 ,,blood-,,stained ,,tree ,,of ,,the ,,covenant4 ,in various parts of the ,east1 a tree is given prominence in the rite of blood-covenanting4 ,in ,burmah1 as above shown1 one mode of covenanting is by the mutual planting of a tree4#gaj ,in ,timor1 a newly planted fig-tree is made to bear a portion of the blood of the covenant1 and to remain as a witness to the sacred rite itself4#gaa ,in one portion of ,central ,africa1 a forked palm branch is held by the two parties1 at their entering into blood-friendship2#gab and1 in another region1 the ashes of a burned tree and the blood of the covenanting brothers are brought into combination1 in the use of a knotted palm branch which the brothers together hold4#gac ,and1 again1 in ,canaan1 in the days of ,abraham1 the planting of a tree was an element in covenant making2 as shown in the narrative of the covenant which ,abraham cut with ,abimelech1 at ,beer-sheba4#gad ,it may1 indeed1 be fair to suppose that the trees at ,hebron1 which marked the dwelling-place of ,abraham were covenant-trees1 witnessing the covenant between ,abraham and the three ,amorite chiefs2 and that therefore they have prominence in the sacred story4 8,now he ,abram dwelt by or1 in3 ,hebrew1 belonay 77 the four oaks or1 terebinths1 of ,mamre1 the ,amorite1 brother of ,eshcol1 and brother of ,aner2 and these three it was who were confederate literally1 were masters of the covenant with the fourth one ,abram40#gae ,this rendering certainly gives a reason for the prominent mention of the trees at ,hebron1 in conjunction with ,abram's covenant with ,amorite chieftains2 and it accords with ,oriental customs of former days1 and until to-day4 ,so1 also1 it would seem that the tree which witnessed#gaf the confirmation1 or the recognition1 of the covenant between another ,abimelech1 and the men of ,shechem and the men of ,beth-millo1 by the pillar 7the symbol of ,baal-bereeth7#gag in ,shechem1#gah was a covenant-tree1 after the ,oriental custom in sacred covenanting4 ,there is apparently a trace of the blood-covenanting and tree-planting rite of primitive times1 in the blood-stained 8,fiery ,cross0 of the ,scottish ,highlands1 with its correspondent ,arabian symbol of tribal covenant-duties in the hour of battle4 ,von ,wrede1 describing his travels in the south-eastern part of ,arabia1 tells of the use of this symbol as he saw it employed1 as preliminary to a tribal warfare4 ,a war-council had decided on conflict4 ,then1 8the fire which had burned in the midst of the circle was newly kindled with a great heap of wood1 and the up-leaping flames were greeted with loud rejoicing4 ,the green branch of a nbk tree sometimes called the #8lote-tree1' and again known as the #8dm1' although it is not the dm palm#gai was then brought1 and also a sheep1 whose feet were at once tied by the oldest shaykh4 ,after these preparations1 the latter seized the branch1 spoke a prayer over it1 and committed it to the flames4 ,as soon as every trace of green had disappeared1 he snatched it from the fire1 again said a short prayer1 and cut with his jembeeyeh his short sword the throat of the sheep1 with whose blood the yet burning branch was quenched4 ,he then tore a number of little twigs from the burnt branch1 and gave them to as many ,bedween1 who hastened off with them in various directions4 ,the black bloody branch was then planted in the earth4444 ,the little twigs1 which the shaykh cut off and gave to the ,bedween1 serve as alarm signals1 with which the messengers hasten from valley to valley1 calling the sons of the tribe to the impending war by this blood-stained symbol of the sacred covenant which binds them in brotherhood4 ,none dare remain behind1 without loss of honor1 when the chosen covenant sign appears at his encampment1 and the voice of its bearer calls to the war4444 ,at the conclusion of the war thus inaugurated1 the shaykhs of the propitiated tribe return the branches to the fire1 and let them burn to ashes40#gbj ,how strikingly this parallels the use and the symbolism of the ,fiery ,cross1 in the ,scottish ,highlands1 as portrayed in ,the ,lady of the ,lake4 ,sir ,roderick ,dhu would summon ,clan ,alpine against the ,king4 8,a heap of withered boughs was piled1 ,of juniper and rowan wild1 ,mingled with shivers from the oak1 ,rent by the lightning's recent stroke4 ,brian the ,hermit by it stood1 ,barefooted1 in his frock and coat4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ',twas all prepared2--and from the rock ,a goat1 the patriarch of the flock1 ,before the kindling fire was laid1 ,and pierced by ,roderick's ready blade4 ,patient the sickening victim eyed ,the life-blood ebb in crimson tide ,down his clogged beard and shaggy limb1 ,till darkness glazed his eyeballs dim4 ,the grisly priest1 with murmuring prayer1 ,a slender crosslet framed with care1 ,a cubit's length in measure due2 ,the shaft and limbs were rods of yew1 ,whose parents in ,inch-,cailliach wave ,their shadows o'er ,clan ,alpine's grave40 ,lifting up this fragment of the tree from the grave of the patriarch of the ,clan1#gba the old priest sounded anathemas against those who should be untrue to their covenant obligations as clansmen1 when they recognized this symbol of their common brotherhood4 8,burst with loud roar their answer hoarse1 #8,woe to the traitor1 woe6' ,ben-an's gray scalps the accents knew1 ,the joyous wolf from covert drew1 ,the exulting eagle screamed afar1-- ,they knew the voice of ,alpine's war4 8,the shout was hushed on lake and fell1 ,the monk resumed his muttered spell3 ,dismal and low its accents came1 ,the while he scathed the cross with flame4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the crosslet's points of sparkling wood ,he quenched among the bubbling blood1 ,and1 as again the sign he reared1 ,hollow and hoarse his voice was heard3 #8,when flits this cross from man to man1 ,vich-,alpine's summons to his clan1 ,burst be the ear that fails to heed6 ,palsied the foot that shuns to speed6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,then ,roderick with impatient look ,from ,brian's hand the symbol took3 #8,speed1 ,malise1 speed6' he said1 and gave ,the crosslet to his henchman brave4 #8,the muster-place be ,lanrick mead-- ,instant the time--,speed1 ,malise1 speed6'0#gbb 8,at sight of the ,fiery ,cross10 says ,scott1 8every man1 from sixteen years old to sixty1 capable of bearing arms1 was obliged instantly to repair1 in his best arms and accoutrements1 to the place of rendezvous4444 ,during the civil war of #agde-f1 the ,fiery ,cross often made its circuit2 and upon one occasion it passed through the whole district of ,breadalbane1 a tract of thirty-two miles1 in three hours40#gbc ,,blood-,,drinking4 ,another item of evidence that the blood-covenant in its primitive form was a well-known rite in primitive ,europe1 is a citation by ,athenus from ,poseidonios to this effect3 8,concerning the ,germans1 ,poseidonios says1 that they1 embracing each other in their banquets1 open the veins upon their foreheads1#gbd and mixing the flowing blood with their drink1 they present it to each other2 esteeming it the farthest attainment of friendship1 to taste each other's blood40#gbe ,as ,poseidonios was earlier than our ,christian era1 this testimony shows that the custom with our ancestors was in no sense an outgrowth1 nor yet a perversion1 of ,christian practices4 ,in ,moore's ,lalla ,rookh1 the young maiden1 ,zelica1 being induced by ,mokanna1 the ,veiled ,prophet of ,khorassan1 to accompany him to the charnel-house1 pledged herself to him1 body and soul1 in a draught of blood4 8,there in that awful place1 when each had quaffed ,and pledged in silence such a fearful draught1 ,such--oh6 the look and taste of that red bowl ,will haunt her till she dies--he bound her soul ,by a dark oath1 in hell's own language fram'd40 ,it was after this1 that he reminded her of the binding force of this blood-covenant3 8,that cup--thou shudderest1 ,lady--was it sweet8 ,that cup we pledg'd1 the charnel's choicest wine1 ,hath bound thee--aye--body and soul all mine40 ,and her bitter memory of that covenant-scene1 in the presence of the 8bloodless ghosts10 was3 8,the dead stood round us1 while ,i spoke that vow1 ,their blue lips echo'd it4 ,i hear them now6 ,their eyes glared on me1 while ,i pledged that bowl1 ',twas burning blood--,i feel it in my soul60 ,although this is ,western poetry1 it had a basis of careful ,oriental study in its preparation2 and the blood-draught of the covenant is known to ,persian story and tradition4 ,one of the indications of the world-wide belief in the custom of covenanting1 and again of life seeking1 by blood-drinking1 is the fact that both ,jews and ,christians have often been falsely charged with drinking the blood of little children1 at their religious feasts4 ,this was one of the frequent accusations against the early ,christians 7,see ,justin ,martyr's ,apol41 ,i41 #bf2 ,tertullian's ,apol41 ,,viii41 ,,ix47 ,and it has been repeated against the ,jews1 from the days of ,apion down to the present decade4 ,such a baseless charge could not have gained credence1 but for the traditional understanding that men were wont to pledge each other to a close covenant by mutual blood-drinking4 ,,covenant-,,cutting4 ,it is worthy of note that when the ,lord enters into covenant with ,abraham by means of a prescribed sacrifice 7,gen4 #ae 3 #g-ah71 it is said that the ,lord 8cut a covenant with ,abram02 but when the ,lord calls on ,abraham to cut a covenant of blood-friendship1 by the rite of circumcision 7,gen4 #ag 3 #a-ab71 the ,lord says1 for himself1 8,i will make or ,i will fix my covenant between me and thee40 ,in the one case1 the ,hebrew word is karath 77 8to cut02 in the other1 it is nathan 77 8to give10 or 8to fix40 ,this change goes to show that the idea of cutting a covenant includes the act of a cutting--of a cutting of one's person or the cutting of the substitute victim--as an integral part of the covenant itself2 that a covenant may be made1 or fixed1 without a cutting1 but that the term 8cutting0 involves the act of cutting4 ,thus1 again1 in ,jeremiah #cd 3 #ah1 there is a two-fold reference to covenant-cutting2 where the ,lord reproaches his people for their faithlessness to their covenant4 8,and ,i will give to destruction the men that have transgressed my covenant1 which have not performed the words of the covenant which they made literally1 #8cut' before me in my sight when they cut the calf in twain1 and passed between the parts thereof40 ,in this instance1 there is in the ,hebrew1 a pun1 as it were1 to give added force to the accusation and reproach4 ,the same word 'abhar 77 means both 8to transgress0 and 8to pass over0 or1 8between01 so that1 freely rendered1 the charge here made1 is1 that they went through the covenant when they had gone through the calf2 which is another way of saying that they cut their duty when they claimed to cut a covenant4 ,the correspondence of cutting the victim of sacrifice1 and of cutting into the flesh of the covenanting parties1 in the ceremony of making blood-brotherhood1 or blood-friendship1 is well-illustrated in the interchanging of these methods in the primitive customs of ,borneo4#gbf ,the pig is the more commonly prized victim of sacrifice in ,borneo4 ,it seems1 indeed1 to be there valued only next after a human victim4 ,in some cases1 blood-brotherhood is made1 in ,borneo1 by 8imbibing each other's blood40 ,in other cases1 8a pig is brought and placed between the two friends who are to be joined in brotherhood4 ,a chief addresses an invocation to the gods1 and marks with a lighted brand#gbg the pig's shoulder4 ,the beast is then killed1 and after an exchange of jackets1#gbh a sword is thrust into the wound1 and the two friends are marked with the blood of the pig40 ,on one occasion1 when two hostile tribes came together to make a formal covenant of brotherhood1 8the ceremony of killing a pig for each tribe0 was the central feature of the compact2 as in the case of two ,kayans becoming one by interchanging their own blood1 actually or by a substitute pig4 ,and it is said of the tribal act of cutting the covenant by cutting the pig1 that 8it is thought more fortunate if the animal be severed in two by one stroke of the parang 7half sword1 half chopper740 ,in another instance1 where two tribes entered into a covenant1 8a pig was placed between the representatives of the two tribes2 who1 after calling down the vengeance of the spirits on those who broke the treaty1 plunged their spears into the animal #8cutting a covenant' in that way1 and then exchanged weapons4#gbi ,drawing their krises1 they each bit the blade of the other as if #8drinking the covenant'1#gcj and so completed the affair40 ,so1 again1 8if two men who have been at deadly feud1 meet in a house where the obligations of hospitality restrain them1 they refuse to cast their eyes upon each other till a fowl has been killed1 and the blood sprinkled over them40 ,in every case1 it is the blood that seals the mutual covenant1 and the 8cutting of the covenant0 is that cutting which secures the covenanting1 or the inter-uniting1 blood4 ,the cutting may be in the flesh of the covenanting parties2 or1 again it may be in the flesh of the substitute victim which is sacrificed4 ,,blood-,,bathing4 ,in the ,midrash ,rabboth 7,shemoth1 ,beth1 #ib1 col4 #b47 there is this comment by the ,rabbis1 on ,exodus #b 3 #bc3 8#8,and the king of ,egypt died4' ,he was smitten with leprosy4444 #8,and the children of ,israel sighed4' ,wherefore did they sigh8 ,because the magicians of ,egypt said3 #8,there is no healing for thee save by the slaying of the little children of the ,israelites4 ,slay them in the morning1 and slay them in the evening2 and bathe in their blood twice a day4' ,as soon as the children of ,israel heard the cruel decree1 they poured forth great sighings and wailings40 ,that comment gives a new point1 in the rabbinical mind1 to the first plague1 whereby the waters of the ,nile1 in which royalty bathed 7,exod4 #b 3 #e71 were turned into blood1 because of the bondage of the children of ,israel4 ,a survival of the blood-baths of ancient ,egypt1 as a means of re-vivifying the death-smitten1 would seem to exist in the medical practices of the ,bechuana tribes of ,africa2 as so many of the customs of ancient ,egypt still survive among the ,african races 7,see page #ae1 supra74 ,thus1 ,moffat reports 7,missionary ,labours1 p4 #bgg7 a method employed by native physicians1 of killing a goat 8over the sick person1 allowing the blood to run down the body40 ,,blood-,,ransoming4 ,among other ,bible indications that the custom of balancing1 or canceling1 a blood account by a payment in money1 was well known in ancient ,palestine1 appears the record of ,david's conference with the ,gibeonites1 concerning their claim for blood against the house of ,saul1 in #b ,samuel #ba 3 #a-i4 ,when it was found that the famine in ,israel was because of ,saul's having taken blood--or life--unjustly from the ,gibeonites1 ,david essayed to balance that unsettled account4 8,and the ,gibeonites said unto him1 ,it is no matter of silver or gold between us and ,saul1 or his house2 neither is it for us to put any man to death in ,israel20 which was equivalent to saying3 8,money for blood we will not take4 ,blood for blood we have no power to obtain40 ,then said ,david1 8,what ye shall say1 that will ,i do for you40 ,at this1 the ,gibeonites demanded1 and obtained1 the lives of the seven sons of ,saul4 ,the blood account must be balanced4 ,in this case1 as by the ,mosaic law1 it could only be by life for life4 ,in some parts of ,arabia1 if a ,muhammadan slays a person of another religion1 the relatives of the latter are not allowed to insist on blood for blood1 but must accept an equivalent in money4 ,the claim for the spilled blood is recognized1 but a ,muhammadan's blood is too precious for its payment4 7,see ,wellsted's ,travels in ,arabia1 ,i41 #ai47 ,it is much the same in the far ,west as in the far ,east1 as to this canceling of a blood-debt by blood or by other gifts4 ,parkman 7,jesuits in ,no4 ,am41 pp4 lxi4-lxiii42 #ced-cfj7 says of the custom among the ,hurons and the ,iroquois1 that in case of bloodshed the chief effort of all concerned was to effect a settlement by contributions to the amount of the regular tariff rates of a human life4 ,another indication that the mission of the goel was to cancel the loss of a life rather than to avenge it1 is found in the primitive customs of the ,new ,world4 8,even in so rude a tribe as the ,brazilian ,topanazes10 the ,farrer 7citing ,eschwege1 in ,prim4 ,man4 and ,cust41 p4 #afd71 8a murderer of a fellow tribesman would be conducted by his relations to those of the deceased1 to be by them forthwith strangled and buried with his forfeited blood in him1 in satisfaction of their rights2 the two families eating together for several days after the event as though for the purpose of or1 as in evidence of reconciliation10--not of satisfied revenge4 ,yet more convincing than all1 in the line of such proofs that it is restitution1 and not vengeance1 that is sought by the pursuit of blood in the mission of the goel1 is the fact that in various countries1 when a man has died a natural death1 it is the custom to seek blood1 or life1 from those immediately about him2 as if to restore1 or to equalize1 the family loss4 ,thus1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 8when any one of the tribe dies a natural death1 it is usual to avenge not to avenge1 but to meet the loss of the deceased by taking blood from one or other of his friends10 and it is said that death sometimes results from this endeavor 7,angas's ,sav4 ,life1 ,,ii41 #bbg74 ,in this fact1 there is added light on the almost universal custom of blood-giving to1 or over1 the dead4 7,see1 e4 g4 ,ellis's ,land of ,fetish1 pp4 #ei1 #fd2 ,stanley's ,the ,congo1 ,,ii41 #ahj-ahb2 ,angas's ,sav4 ,life1 ,i41 #ih1 #cca2 ,,ii41 #hd1 #hi f42 ,ellis's ,polyn4 ,res41 ,i41 #ebg-ebi2 ,dodge's ,our ,wild ,indians1 p4 #agb f42 ,first ,an4 ,rep4 of ,bureau of ,ethn41 pp4 #aji1 #aab1 #aei f41 #afd1 #ahc1 #aij47 ,,the ,,covenant-,,reminder4 ,it has already been shown1 that the blood-stained record of the covenant of blood1 shielded in a leathern case1 is proudly worn as an armlet or as a necklace1 by the ,oriental who has been fortunate enough to become a sharer in such a covenant2 and that there is reason for believing that there are traces of this custom1 in the necklaces1 the armlets1 the rings1 and the frontlets1 which have been worn as the tokens of a sacred covenant1 in well-nigh all lands1 from the earliest days of ,chaldea and ,egypt down to the present time4 ,there is a confirmation of this idea in the primitive customs of the ,north ,american ,indians1 which ought not to be overlooked4 ,the distinctive method by which these ,indians were accustomed to confirm and signalize a formal covenant1 or a treaty1 was the exchange of belts of wampum2 and that these wampum belts were not merely conventional gifts1 but were actual records1 tokens1 and reminders1 of the covenant itself1 there is abundant evidence4 ,in a careful paper on the 8,art in ,shell of the ,ancient ,americans10 in one of the reports of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 the writer#gca says3 8,one of the most remarkable customs practiced by the ,americans is found in the mnemonic use of wampum4444 ,it does not seem probable 444 that a custom so unique and so widespread could have grown up within the historic period1 nor is it probable that a practice foreign to the genius of tradition-loving races could have become so well established and so dear to their hearts in a few generations4444 ,the mnemonic use of wampum is one1 which1 ,i imagine1 might readily develop from the practice of gift giving and the exchange of tokens of friendship1 such mementoes being preserved for future reference as reminders of promises of assistance or protection4444 ,the wampum records of the ,iroquois and the same is found to be true in many other tribes were generally in the form of belts as an encircling and binding token of a covenant1 the beads being strung or woven into patterns formed by the use of different colors40 ,illustrations1 by the score1 of this mnemonic use of the covenant-confirming belts1 or 8necklaces10#gcb as they are sometimes called1 are given1 or are referred to1 in this interesting article4 ,in the narrative of a council held by the 8,five ,nations10 at ,onondaga1 nearly two hundred years ago1 a ,seneca sachem is said to have presented a proposed treaty between the ,wagunhas and the ,senecas1 with the words3 8,we come to join the two bodies into one02 and he evidenced his good faith in this endeavor1 by the presentation of the mnemonic belts of wampum4 8,the belts were accepted by the ,five ,nations1 and their acceptance was a ratification of the treaty40#gcc ,lafitau1 writing of the ,canadian ,indians1 in the early years of the eighteenth century1 says3 8,they do not believe that any transaction can be concluded without these belts20 and he mentions1 that according to ,indian custom these belts were to be exchanged in covenant making2 8that is to say1 for one belt received one must give another belt40#gcd ,and a historian of the ,moravian ,missions says3 8,everything of moment transacted at solemn councils1 either between the ,indians themselves1 or with ,europeans1 is ratified and made valid by strings and belts of wampum40#gce 8,the strings10 according to ,lafitau1 8are used for affairs of little consequence1 or as a preparation for other more considerable presents02 but the binding 8belts0 were as the bond of the covenant itself4 ,these covenant belts often bore1 interwoven with different colored wampum beads1 symbolic figures1 such as two hands clasped in friendship1 or two figures with hands joined4 ,as the belts commonly signalized tribal covenants1 they were not worn by a single individual2 but were sacredly guarded in some tribal depository2 yet their form and their designation indicate the origin of their idea4 ,there is still preserved1 in the ,historical ,society of ,pennsylvania1 the wampum belt which is supposed to have sealed the treaty of peace and friendship between ,william ,penn and the ,indians4 ,it contains two figures1 wrought in dark colored beads1 representing 8an ,indian grasping with the hand of friendship the hand of a man evidently intended to be represented in the ,european costume1 wearing a hat40#gcf ,still more explicit in its symbolism1 is the royal belt of the primitive kings of ,tahiti4 ,throughout ,polynesia1 red feathers1 which had been inclosed in a hollow image of a god1 were considered not only as emblematic of the deities1 but as actually representing them in their personality 7,ellis's ,polyn4 ,res41 ,i41 #gi1 #baa1 #cad1 #caf2 ,,ii41 #bjd2 ,tour thro' ,hawaii1 p4 #aba74 8,the inauguration ceremony of the ,tahitian king1 answering to coronation among other nations1 consisted in girding the king with the maro ura1 or sacred girdle of red feathers2 which not only raised him to the highest earthly station1 but identified him with their gods as by oneness of blood4 ,the maro1 or girdle1 was made with the beaten fibres of the ava2 with these a number of ura1 red feathers1 taken from the images of their deities where they had1 seemingly1 represented the blood1 or the life1 of the image1 were interwoven2 444 the feathers as the blood being supposed to retain all the dreadful attributes of vengeance which the idols possessed1 and with which it was designed to endow the king40 ,in lieu of the king's own blood1 in this symbolic ceremony of inter-union1 a human victim was sacrificed1 for the 8fastening on of the sacred maro40 8,sometimes a human victim was offered for every fresh piece added to the girdle blood for blood1 between the king and the god2 444 and the girdle was considered as consecrated by the blood of those victims40 ,the chief priest of the god ,oro formally invested the king with this 8sacred girdle1 which1 the blood-representing feathers from the idol being interwoven in it1 was supposed to impart to the king a power equal to that possessed by ,oro40 ,after this1 the king was supposed to be a sharer of the divine nature of ,oro1 with whom he had entered into a covenant of blood-union 7,ellis's ,polyn4 ,res41 ,,ii41 #ced-cfj74 ,thus it seems that a band1 as a bond1 of a sacred covenant is treasured reverently in the ,new ,world2 as a similar token1 of one kind1 or another1 was treasured1 for the same reason1 in the ,old ,world4 ,yet1 in the face of such facts as these1 one of the notable rationalistic theological writers on ,old ,testament manners and customs1 in the latest edition of the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 coolly ascribes the idea of the ,jewish phylacteries to the superstitious idea of a pagan 8amulet40 ,he might indeed1 with good reason1 have ascribed the idea of the pagan amulet itself to a perversion of that common primitive idea of the binding bond of a sacred covenant1 which shows itself in the blood-friendship record of ,syria1 in the red covenant-cord of ,china and ,india1 in the divine-human covenant token of ancient ,egypt1 in the red-feather belt of divine-royal union1 in the ,pacific ,islands1 in the wampum belt of ,america1 and in the evolved wedding-covenant ring1 or amulet1 of a large portion of the civilized world4 ,but that would hardly have been in accordance with the fashionable method of the modern rationalistic theologian2 which is1 to fix on some later heathenish perversion of a primitive sacred rite1 and then to ascribe the origin of all the normal uses of that primitive rite1 to its own later perversions4 ,yet another indication that the binding circlet of the covenant-token stands1 among primitive peoples1 as also among cultivated ones1 as the representative1 or proof1 of this very covenant itself1 is found in a method of divorce prevailing among the ,balau ,dayaks1 of ,borneo4 ,it has already been shown 7page #gc1 supra7 that a ring of blood is a binding symbol in the marriage covenant in some parts of ,borneo4 ,it seems1 also1 that when a divorce has been agreed on by a ,balau couple1 8it is necessary for the offended husband to send a ring to his wife1 before the marriage can be considered as finally dissolved2 without which1 should they marry again1 they would be liable to be punished for infidelity40#gcg ,this practice seems to have grown out of the old custom already referred to 7page #gc f471 of the bride giving to the bridegroom a blood-representing ring in the marriage cup4 ,until that symbolic ring is returned to her by the bridegroom1 it remains as the proof of her covenant with him4 ,this connection of the encircling ring with the heart's blood1 is of very ancient origin1 and of general1 if not of universal1 application4 ,wilkinson 7,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #dbj7 cites ,macrobius as saying1 that 8those ,egyptian priests who were called prophets1 when engaged in the temple near the altars of the gods1 moistened anointed the ring-finger of the left hand 7which was that next to the smallest7 with various sweet ointments1 in the belief that a certain nerve communicated with it from the heart40 ,he also says1 that among the ,egyptian women1 many finger rings were worn1 and that 8the left was considered the hand peculiarly privileged to wear these ornaments2 and it is remarkable that its third finger next to the little finger was considered by them1 as by us1 par excellence the ring finger2 though there is no evidence to his knowledge of its having been so honored at the marriage ceremony40 ,birch adds 7,ibid41 ,,ii41 #cdj71 that 8it is very difficult to distinguish between the ring worn for mere ornament1 and the signet standing for the wearer's very life employed to seal and to sign epistles and other things40 ,the evidence is1 in fact1 ample1 that the ring1 in ancient ,egypt1 as elsewhere1 was not a mere ornament1 nor yet a superstitious amulet1 but represented one's heart1 or one's life1 as a symbol and pledge of personal fidelity4 ,in ,south ,australia1 the rite of circumcision is one of the steps by which a lad enters into the sphere of manhood4 ,this involves his covenanting with his new god-father1 and with his new fellows in the sphere of his entering4 ,in this ceremony1 the very ring of flesh itself is placed 8on the third finger of the boy's left hand0 7,angas's ,sav4 ,life1 ,i41 #ii74 ,what stronger proof than this could be given1 that the finger-ring is a vestige of the primitive blood-covenant token8 ,an instance of the use of a large ring1 or bracelet1 encircling the two hands of persons joining in the marriage covenant1 is reported to me from the ,north of ,ireland1 in the present century4 ,it was in the county ,donegal4 ,the ,roman ,catholic priest was a ,french exile4 ,in marrying the people of the poorer class1 who could not afford to purchase a ring1 he 8would take the large ring from his old-fashioned double-cased watch1 and hold it on the hands1 or the thumbs1 of the contracting parties1 while he blessed their union40 ,yet another illustration of the universal symbolism of the ring1 as a token of sacred covenant1 is its common use as a pledge of friendship1 even unto death4 ,the ring given by ,queen ,elizabeth to the unfortunate ,earl of ,essex1 is an instance in point4 ,had that covenant-token reached her1 her covenant promises would have been redeemed4 ,there is an old ,scottish ballad1 8,hynd ,horn10--perhaps having a common origin with the ,bohemian lay on which ,scott based ,the ,noble ,moringer1#gch--which brings out the idea of a covenant-ring having the power to indicate to its wearer the fidelity of its giver2 corresponding with the popular belief to that effect1 suggested by ,bacon4#gci ,hynd ,horn has won the heart of the king's daughter1 and the king sends him over the sea1 as a means of breaking up the match4 ,as he sets out ,hynd ,horn carries with him a symbol of his lady-love's troth4 8,o his love gave him a gay gold ring1 ,with a hey lillelu1 and a how lo lan2 ,with three shining diamonds set therein1 ,and the birk and the broom blooms bonnie4 8,as long as these diamonds keep their hue1 ,with a hey lillelu1 and a how lo lan1 ,ye'll know that ,i'm a lover true1 ,and the birk and the broom blooms bonnie4 8,but when your ring turns pale and wan1 ,with a hey lillelu1 and a how lo lan1 ,then ,i'm in love with another man1 ,and the birk and the broom blooms bonnie40#gdj ,seven years went by1 and then the ring-gems grew 8pale and wan40 ,hynd ,horn hastened back1 entered the wedding-hall disguised as a beggar1 sent the covenant-ring to the bride in a glass of wine2 and the sequel was the same as in ,the ,noble ,moringer4 ,at a ,brahman wedding1 in ,india1 described by ,miss ,h4 ,g4 ,brittan 7in 8,the ,missionary ,link10 for ,october1 #ahfd2 cited in ,women of the ,orient1 pp4 #agf-agi7 a silver dish1 filled with water1 7probably with water colored with saffron1 or with turmeric1 according to the common custom in ,india17 8also containing a very handsome ruby ring1 and a thin iron bracelet10 was set before the father of the bride1 during the marriage ceremony4 ,at the covenanting of the young couple1 8the ring was given to the groom2 the bracelet to the bride2 then some of the blood-colored8 water was sprinkled on them 7,see page #aid1 supra71 and some flowers were thrown at them40 ,here seem to be combined1 the symbolisms of the ring1 the bracelet1 and the blood1 in a sacred covenanting4 ,,hints ,,of ,,blood-,,union4 ,from the very fact that so little attention has been given to the primitive rite of blood-covenanting1 in the studies of modern scholars1 there is reason for supposing that the rite itself has very often been unnoticed by travelers and missionaries in regions where it was practiced almost under their eyes4 ,indeed1 there is proof of this to be obtained1 by comparing the facts recorded in this volume with the writings of visitors to the lands here reported from4 ,hence1 it is fair to infer1 that more or less of the brotherhoods or friendships noted among primitive peoples1 without any description of the methods of their consummating1 are either directly based on the rite of blood-covenanting1 or are outgrowths and variations of that rite2 as1 for example1 in ,borneo1 blood-tasting is sometimes deemed essential to the rite1 and again it is omitted4 ,it may be well1 therefore1 to look at some of the hints of blood-union among primitive peoples1 in relationships and in customs where not all the facts and processes involved1 are known to us4 ,peculiarly is it true1 that wherever we find the idea of an absolute merging of two natures into one1 or of an inter-union or an inter-changing of two personalities in loving relation1 there is reason for suspecting a connection with the primitive rite of inter-union through a common blood flow4 ,and there are illustrations of this idea in the ,old ,world and in the ,new1 all along the ages4 ,it has already been mentioned 7page #aji1 supra7 that1 in ,india1 the possibility of an inter-union of two natures1 and of their inter-merging into one1 is recognized in the statement that 8the heart of ,vishnu is ,siv1 and the heart of ,siv is ,vishnu02 and it is a well-known philosophical fact that man must have an actual basis of human experience for the symbolic language with which he illustrates the nature and characteristics of ,deity4 ,in the most ancient portion of the ancient ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1#gda there is a description of the inter-union of ,osiris and ,r1 not unlike that above quoted concerning ,siv and ,vishnoo4 ,it says1 that 8,osiris came to ,tattu 7,mendes7 and found the soul of ,r there2 each embraced the other1 and become as one soul in two souls0#gdb--;as one life in two lives2 or1 as it would be phrased concerning two human beings united in blood-friendship1 8one soul in two bodies02 a common life in two personalities4 ,again it is said in an ,egyptian sacred text1 8,r is the soul of ,osiris1 and ,osiris is the soul of ,r40#gdc ,an exchange of names1 as if in exchange of personalities1 in connection with a covenant of friendship1 is a custom in widely diverse countries2 and this custom seems to have grown out of the idea of an inter-union of natures by an inter-union of blood2 even if it be not actually an accompaniment of that rite in every instance4 ,it is common in the ,society ,islands1#gdd as an element in the adoption of a 8tayo10 or a personal friend and companion 7,see page #ef1 supra74 ,it is to be found in various ,south ,sea islands1 and on the ,american continent4 ,among the ,araucanians1 of ,south ,america1 the custom of making brothers1 or brother-friends1 is called ,lacu4 ,it includes the killing of a lamb and dividing it--8cutting0 it--between the two covenanting parties2 and each party must eat his half of the lamb--either by himself or by such assistance as he chooses to call in4 ,none of it must be left uneaten4 ,gifts also pass between the parties2 and the two friends exchange names4 8,the giving the exchanging of a name with this people establishes between the namesakes a species of relationship which is considered almost as sacred as that of blood1 and obliges them to render to each other certain services1 and that consideration which naturally belongs to relatives40#gde ,it is related of ,tolo1 a chief of the ,shastika ,indians1 on the ,pacific coast1 that when he made a treaty with ,col4 ,mc,kee1 an ,american soldier1 in #aheb1 for the cession of certain tribal rights1 he was anxious for some ceremony of brotherhood1 that should give binding sacredness to the mutual covenant4 ,after some parleying1 he proposed the formal exchange of names1 and this was agreed to4 ,thenceforward he desired to be known as 8,mc,kee40 ,the ,american colonel was now 8,tolo40 ,but after a while the ,indian found that1 as in too many other instances1 the terms of the treaty were not adhered to by the authorities making it4 ,then he discarded his new name1 8,mc,kee10 and refused to resume his former name1 8,tolo40 ,he would not answer to either1 and to the day of his death he insisted that his name1 his identity1 was 8lost40#gdf--,there is a profound sentiment underneath such a course1 and such a custom1 as that4 ,so fully is the identity of one's name and one's life recognized by primitive peoples1 that to call on the name of a dead person is generally supposed to summon the spirit of that person to the caller's service4 ,hence1 among the ,american ,indians1 if one calls the dead by name1 he must answer to the dead man's goel4 ,he must surrender his own blood1 or pay blood-money1 in restitution of the life--of the dead--taken by him4 7,first ,an4 ,rep4 of ,bureau of ,ethnol41 p4 #bjj47 ,even ,herbert ,spencer sees the correspondence of the blood-covenant and the exchange of names4 ,he says3 8,by absorbing each other's blood1 men are supposed to establish actual community of nature4 ,similarly with the ceremony of exchanging names4444 ,this1 which is a widely-diffused practice1 arises from the belief that the name is vitally connected with its owner4444 ,to exchange names1 therefore1 is to establish some participation in one another's being40#gdg ,hence1 as we may suppose1 came the well-nigh universal ,oriental practice of inter-weaving the name of one's ,deity with one's name1 as a symbolic evidence of one's covenant-union with the ,deity4 ,the blood-covenant1 or the blood-union1 idea is at the bottom of this4 ,another custom1 having a peculiar bearing upon this thought of a new name1 or a new identity1 through new blood1 is the rite of initiation into manhood1 by the native ,australians4 ,during childhood the ,australian boys are under the care of their mothers1 and they bear names which designate the place and circumstances of their birth4 ,but when the time comes for them to put away childish things1#gdh they are subjected to a series of severe and painful tests1 to prove their powers of physical and mental endurance1 preparatory to their reception of a new name1 as indicative of a new life4 ,a rite resembling circumcision is one step in their progress4 ,during these ceremonies1 there is selected for each lad a sponsor 7or godfather7 who is a representative of that higher life into which the lad seeks an entrance4 ,one of the latest steps in the long series of ceremonies1 is the choosing and conferring1 by the sponsor1 of the lad's new name1 which he is to retain thenceforward during his life4 ,with a stone-knife1 the sponsor opens a vein in his own arm1 and causes the lad to drink his warm-flowing blood4 ,after this1 the lad drops forward on his hands and knees1 and the sponsor's blood is permitted to form a pool on his back1 and to coagulate there4 ,then the sponsor cuts1 with his stone-knife1 broad gashes in the lad's back1 and pulls open the gaping wounds with the fingers4 ,the scars of these gashes remain as permanent signs of the covenant ceremony4#gdi ,and encircling tokens of the covenant#gej are bound around the neck1 each arm1 and the waist1 of the young man2 who is now reckoned a new creature#gea in the life represented by that godfather1 who has given him his new name1 and has imparted to him of his blood4#geb ,that the transfusion of blood in this ceremony is the making of a covenant between the youth and his sponsor1 and not the giving him blood in vivification1 is indicated in another form of the same rite of manhood-initiation1 as practised in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,there1 the youth is seated upon the shoulders of his sponsor2 while one of his teeth is knocked out4 ,the blood that flows from the boy's lacerated gum in this ceremony is not wiped away1 but is suffered to run down upon his breast1 and thence upon the head of his sponsor1 whose name he takes4 ,this blood1 which secures1 by its absorption1 a common life between the two1 who have now a common name1 is permitted to dry upon the head of the man and upon the breast of the boy1 and to remain there untouched for several days4 ,in this ,new ,south ,wales ceremonial1 there is another feature1 which seems to suggest that remarkable connection of life with a stone1 which has been already referred to 7page #cjg1 supra72 and yet again to suggest the giving of a new name as the token of a new life4 ,a white stone1 or a quartz crystal1 called mundie1 is given to each novitiate in manhood1 at the time he receives his new name4 ,this stone is counted a gift from deity1 and is held peculiarly sacred4 ,a test of the young man's moral stamina is made by the old men's trying1 by all sorts of persuasion1 to induce him to surrender this possession1 when first he has received it4 ,this accompaniment of a new name 8is worn concealed in the hair1 tied up in a packet1 and is never shown to the women1 who are forbidden to look at it under pain of death40 ,the youths receiving and retaining these white stones1 with their new names1 are termed 8,kebarrah1 from keba1 a rock1 or stone40 7,angas's ,savage ,life1 ,,ii41 #bba47 ,that the idea of a sacred covenant1 a covenant of brotherhood and friendship1 is underneath these ceremonies1 is indicated by the fact1 that when the rites of ,kebarrah are celebrated1 even 8hostile tribes meet in peace2 all animosity between them being laid aside during the performance of these ceremonies40 8,to him that overcometh1 saith the ,spirit1 444 ,i will give him a white stone1 and upon the stone a new name written1 which no one knoweth but he that receiveth it0 7,rev4 #b 3 #ag74 ,the ,rabbis recommend the giving secretly of a new name1 as a means of new life1 to him who is in danger of dying4 7,see ,seph4 ,hakhkhay41 p4 #cg f4 and note47 ,again1 in a form of marriage ceremony in ,tahiti1 there is a hint of this universal idea of inter-union by blood4 ,an observer of this ceremony1 in describing it says3 8,the female relatives cut their faces and brows#gec with the instrument set with shark's teeth1#ged received the flowing blood on a piece of native cloth1 and deposited the cloth1 sprinkled with the mingled blood of the mothers of the married pair1 at the feet of the bride4 ,by the latter parts of the ceremony1 any inferiority of rank that might have existed was removed1 and they were now considered as equal4 ,the two families1 also1 to which they respectively belonged1 were ever afterwards regarded as one through this new blood-union40#gee ,had these mothers mingled and interchanged their own blood before the births of their children1 the children--as children of a common blood--would have been debarred from marriage2 but now that the two children were covenanting to be one1 their mothers might interchange their blood1 that the young couple might have an absolute equality of family nature4 ,there are frequent references by travelers to the rite of brotherhood1 or of close friendship1 in one part of the world or another1 with or without a description of its methods4 ,thus of one of the tribes in ,central ,africa it is said3 8,the ,wanyamuezi have a way of making brotherhood1 similar to that which has already been described1 except that instead of drinking each other's blood1 the newly made brothers mix it their blood with butter on a leaf1 and exchange leaves4 ,the butter is then rubbed into the incisions1 so that it acts as a healing ointment at the same time that blood is exchanged4#gef ,the ceremony is concluded by tearing the leaves to pieces and showering the fragments on the heads of the brothers40#geg ,the ,australians1 again1 are said to have 8the custom of making #8,kotaiga1' or brotherhood1 with strangers4 ,when ,europeans visit their districts1 and behave as they ought to do1 the natives generally unite themselves in bonds of fellowship with the strangers2 each selecting one of them as his ,kotaiga4 ,the new relations are then considered as having mutual responsibilities1 each being bound to forward the welfare of the other40#geh ,once more1 in ,feejee1 two warriors sometimes bind themselves to each other by a formal ceremony1 and although its details are not described1 a missionary writer says of it3 8,the manner in which they do this is singular1 and wears the appearance of a marriage contract2 and the two men entering into it are spoken of as man and wife1 to indicate the closeness of their military union4 ,by this mutual bond1 the two men pledge themselves to oneness of purpose and effort1 to stand by each other in every danger1 defending each other to the death1 and if needful to die together40#gei ,with the ,american ,indians1 there are various traces of the blood-brotherhood idea4 ,says ,captain ,clark1 in his work on the ,indian ,sign ,language3 8,among many tribes there are brothers by adoption1 and the tie seems to be held about as sacredly as though created by nature40#gfj ,stephen ,powell1 writing of the ,pacific ,coast ,indians1 gives this tie of brotherhood-adoption yet more prominence1 than does ,clark4 ,he says3 8,there is an interesting institution found among the ,wyandots1 as among some other of our ,north ,american tribes1 namely1 that of fellowship4 ,two young men agree to be perpetual friends to each other1 or more than brothers4 ,each reveals to the other the secrets of his life1 and counsels with him on matters of importance1 and defends him from wrong and violence1 and at his death is chief mourner40#gfa ,this certainly suggests the relation of blood-brotherhood2 whether blood be intermingled in the consummation of the rite1 or not4 ,colonel ,dodge tells of a ceremony of ,indian-brotherhood1 which includes a bloody rite1 worthy of notice in this connection4 ,he says3 8,a strong flavor of religious superstition attaches to a scalp1 and many solemn contracts and binding obligations can only be made over or by means of a scalp20 for is it not the representative of a life8 ,in illustration of this1 he gives an incident which followed an ,indian battle1 in which the ,pawnees had borne a part with the whites against the ,northern ,cheyennes4 ,colonel ,dodge was sitting in his tent1 when 8the acting head-chief of the ,pawnees stalked in gravely1 and without a word40 ,the ,colonel continues3 8,we had long been friends1 and had on several occasions been in tight places together4 ,he sat down on the side of my bed1 looked at me kindly1 but solemnly1 and began in a low tone to mutter in his own language1 half chant1 half recitative4 ,knowing that he was making #8medicine' that he was engaged in a religious exercise of some kind1 ,i looked on without comment4 ,after some moments1 he stood erect1 and stretched out his hand to me4 ,i gave him my hand4 ,he pulled me into a standing position1 embraced me1 passed his hands lightly over my head1 face1 arms1 body1 and legs to my feet1 muttering all the while2 embraced me again1 then turned his back upon me1 and with his face toward heaven1 appeared to make adoration4 ,he then turned to embrace and manipulate me again4 ,after some five minutes of this performance1 he drew from his wallet a package1 and unrolling it1 disclosed a freshly taken and therefore still bloody scalp of an ,indian4 ,touching me with this blood-vehicle in various places and ways1 he finally drew out his knife1 and #8cutting the covenant' in this way1 he divided the scalp carefully along the part the seam of the hair1 and handing me one half1 embraced me again1 kissing me on the forehead4 #8,now1' said he in ,english1 #8you are my brother4' ,he subsequently informed me that this ceremony could not have been performed without this scalp40#gfb ,here seems to be an illustration of cutting the covenant of blood-brotherhood1 by sharing the life of a substitute human victim4 ,it is much the same in the wild ,west as in the primitive ,east4 ,so simple a matter as the clasping of hands in token of covenant fidelity1 is explicable1 in its universality1 only as a vestige of the primitive custom of joining pierced hands in the covenant of blood-friendship4 ,hand-clasping is not1 by any means1 a universal1 nor is it even the commonest1 mode of friendly and fraternal salutation among primitive peoples4 ,prostrations1 embracings1 kissings1 nose-rubbings1 slappings of one's own body1 jumpings up and down1 the snappings of one's fingers1 the blowing of one's breath1 and even the rolling upon one's back1 are all among the many methods of primitive man's salutations and obeisances 7,see1 e4 g41 ,spencer's ,principles of ,sociology1 ,,ii41 #af-ai74 ,but1 even where hand clasping is unknown in salutation1 it is recognized as a symbol of the closest friendship4 ,thus1 for example1 among tribes of ,north ,american ,indians where nose-rubbing is the mode of salutation1 there is1 in their widely diffused sign language1 the sign of clasped1 or inter-locked1 hands1 as indicative of friendship and union4 7,first ,an4 ,rep4 of ,bureau of ,ethnol41 pp4 #che f41 #eba1 #ecd f47 ,so again1 similarly1 in ,australia 7,ibid41 citation from ,smith's ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ,,ii41 #cjh74 ,in the ,society ,islands1 the clasping of hands marks the marriage union1 and marks a loving union between two brothers in arms2 although it has no place in ordinary greetings 7,ellis's ,polyn4 ,res41 ,,ii41 #aa1 #dib1 #efi74 ,and so1 again1 in other primitive lands4 ,there seems1 indeed1 to be a gleam of this thought in ,job #ag 3 #c3 8,give now a pledge1 be surety for me with thyself2 ,who is there that will strike hands with me80 ,the ,hebrew word taq'a#gfc 77 here translated 8strike10 has also the meaning 8to pierce0 7,judg4 #d 3 #ba7 and 8to blow through10 or 8to drive through0 7,num4 #aj 3 #c72 and ,job's question might be freely rendered2 ,who is there that will pierce or that will clasp pierced hands with me1 in blood-friendship8 ,thus1 suretyship grew out of blood-covenanting4 ,again1 in ,zechariah #ac 3 #f1 where the prophet foretells the moral reformation of ,judah1 there is a seeming reference to the pierced hands of blood-friendship4 ,when one is suspected of being a professional prophet1 by certain marks of cuttings between his hands1 he declares that these are marks of his blood-covenant with his friends4 8,and one shall say unto him1 ,what are these wounds these cuttings between thine hands8 ,then he shall answer1 ,they are these cuttings with which ,i was wounded or stricken1 or pierced in the house of my friends in the covenant of friendship40 ,if1 indeed1 the translation of the ,revisers1 8between thine arms10 were justified1 the cuttings would still seem to be the cuttings of the blood-covenant 7,see pages #ac1 #de1 supra74 ,it is a noteworthy fact1 that among the ,jews in ,tunis1 near the old ,phnician settlement of ,carthage1 the sign of a bleeding hand is still an honored and a sacred symbol1 as if in recognition of the covenant-bond of their brotherhood and friendship4 8,what struck me most in all the houses10 says a traveler 7,chevalier de ,hesse-,wartegg7 among these ,jews1 8was the impression of an open bleeding hand1 on every wall of each floor4 ,however white the walls1 this repulsive yet suggestive sign was to be seen everywhere40 ,how many times1 in the ,new ,testament epistles1 does the idea show itself1 of an inter-union of lives1 between ,christ and his disciples1 and between these disciples and each other4 8,we1 who are many1 are one body in ,christ1 and severally members one of another0 7,rom4 #ab 3 #e74 8,we are members of his body0 7,eph4 #e 3 #cj74 8,we are members one of another0 7,eph4 #d 3 #be74 8,know ye not that your bodies are members of ,christ80 7#a ,cor4 #f 3 #ae74 8,ye are the body of ,christ1 and severally are members thereof0 7#a ,cor4 #ab 3 #bg74 ,it is in this truth of truths1 concerning the possibility of an inter-union of the human life with the divine1 through a common inter-bloodflow1 that there is found a satisfying of the noblest heart yearnings of primitive man everywhere1 and of the uttermost spiritual longings of the most advanced ,christian believer1 in the highest grade of intellectual and moral enlightenment4 ,no attainment of evolution1 or of development1 has brought man's latest soul-cry beyond the intimations of his earliest soul-outreaching4 8,take1 dearest ,lord1 this crushed and bleeding heart1 ,and lay it in thine hand1 thy piercd hand2 ,that thine atoning blood may mix with mine1 ,till ,i and my ,beloved are all one40 ,,footnotes3 #fff ,see pages #bch-bdj1 supra4 #ffg ,speaker's ,comm41 at ,exod4 #bd 3 #h4 #ffh ,exod4 #bd 3 #c-h4 #ffi ,heb4 #i 3 #bj4 #fgj ,speaker's ,com41 at ,exod4 #bd 3 #h4 #fga ,mark #ad 3 #bd4 #fgb ,john #f 3 #ec1 #ed4 #fgc ,principles of ,sociology1 ,,ii41 #cfd4 #fgd ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,iii41 #daa4 #fge ,see pages #bde f41 supra4 #fgf ,anc4 ,egypt41 ,,ii41 #cb4 #fgg ,note on ,lev4 chap4 #ag4 #fgh ,dictionnaire d',archologie gyptienne1 s4 v4 8,cur40 #fgi ,in substance from ,castren's ,ethnologische ,vorlesungen ber die ,altaischen ,vlker1 p4 #agd1 as cited in ,ralston's ,russian ,folk ,tales1 p4 #abb4 #fhj ,from ,bleek's ,reynard the ,fox in ,south ,africa1 p4 #ee2 as cited ,ibid41 p4 #abc1 note4 #fha ,from ,asbjornsen and ,moe1 ,no4 #cf1 ,dasent1 ,no4 #i1 p4 #ga1 as cited ,ibid41 p4 #abj4 #fhb ,see references to ,khler's ,orient und ,occident1 ,,ii41 #ii-ajc1 ,ibid41 p4 #abc1 note4 #fhc ,from ,khudyakof1 ,no4 #aaj1 as cited ,ibid41 p4 #abd4 #fhd ,timus of ,locri1 cited in ,liddell and ,scott's ,greek ,eng4 ,lex41 s4 v41 8,hepar40 ,see also page #ajh f41 supra4 #fhe ,pollux's ,onomasticon1 ,,ii41 #d1 #bbf4 #fhf ,pilgrim4 to ,mec4 and ,med41 p4 #cgf4 #fhg ,see page #abh1 supra4 #fhh ,pilgrim4 to ,mec4 and ,med41 p4 #cgh4 ,see also page #abi f41 supra4 #fhi ,richardson's ,eng4 ,dict41 s4 v41 8,liver40 #fij ,annandale's ,ogilvie's ,imperial ,dict41 s4 v41 8,liver40 #fia ,see ,cushing's paper on 8,zui ,fetiches10 in ,second ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 pp4 #c-dc4 #fib #a ,peter #b 3 #b-e4 #fic ,cushing's 8,zui ,fetiches10 p4 #dc4 #fid ,see 8,illustrated ,catalogue of ,collections from ,indians of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona10 #ahgi1 in ,second ,annual ,report of ,bureau of ,ethnology1 ,figures #cfa-chg2 #dba-dcj4 #fie ,st4 ,john's ,life in ,far ,east1 ,i41 #gd f4 #fif ,ibid41 ,i41 #aae f4 #fig ,st4 ,john's ,life in ,far ,east1 ,i41 #afj4 #fih ,ibid41 ,i41 #ahg4 #fii ,this is a different form from that reported at page #aib f41 supra4 #gjj ,st4 ,john's ,life in ,far ,east1 ,i41 #fa4 #gja ,lev4 #ag 3 #ad4 #gjb ,as to this specific instance1 ,i can bear personal testimony1 from my frequent communications on the subject1 with the person whose experience is here recited4 #gjc ,am4 ,annals of ,deaf and ,dumb1 ,vol4 ,,vi41 p4 #acd4 #gjd ,paul's claim1 in ,romans #a 3 #ah-bc1 is not that man knows ,god intuitively2 but that1 having the knowledge of ,god1 which he does have by tradition1 man ought not to liken ,god to 8four-footed beasts and creeping things40 #gje ,see page #acf1 supra4 #gjf ,see page #acc f41 supra4 #gjg #a ,kings #ba 3 #ag-bc2 #bb 3 #ce-ch2 #b ,kings #i 3 #cj-cg4 #gjh ,at page #dd1 supra4 #gji ,see page #aed1 supra4 #gaj ,see page #cac1 supra4 #gaa ,see page #ec1 supra4 #gab ,see page #ce1 supra4 #gac ,see page #cg1 supra4 #gad ,gen4 #ba 3 #cc4 #gae ,see ,gen4 #ac 3 #ah2 #ad 3 #ac2 #ah 3 #a4 #gaf ,the covenant was 8with0 ,hebrew1 'im1 not 8with0 as an instrument1 but 8with0 as in the presence of1 as accompanied by the tree at ,shechem4 #gag ,see page #bah1 supra1 note4 #gah ,judges #i 3 #a-f4 #gai ,robinson's ,biblical ,researches1 ,,ii41 #baj f41 note4 #gbj ,von ,wrede's ,reise in ,hadhramaut1 p4 #aig f4 #gba ,see reference 7in footnote #ehe at page #bfh f4 supra7 to the custom in ,sumatra1 of taking an oath over the 8grave of the original patriarch of the ,passumah40 #gbb ,lady of the ,lake1 ,canto ,,iii4 #gbc ,ibid41 note4 #gbd ,see pages #ac1 #hf f41 supra4 #gbe ,athenus's ,deipnosophist1 ,,ii41 #bd 7#de74 #gbf ,st4 ,john's ,life in ,far ,east1 ,comp4 ,i41 #ch1 #df1 #ef1 #gd-gf1 #aae1 #aag1 #ahe4 #gbg ,a trace of the burnt branch of the covenant-tree4 #gbh ,see page #bgj1 supra4 #gbi ,see page #bgj1 supra4 #gcj ,see pages #i1 #aed1 supra4 #gca ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 in ,second ,annual ,report of ,bureau of ,ethnol41 pp4 #bdj-bed4 #gcb ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 in ,second ,annual ,report of ,bureau of ,ethnol41 p4 #bdc4 #gcc ,events in ,indian ,history1 p4 #adc3 cited ,ibid41 p4 #bdb f4 #gcd ,moeurs des ,sauvages ,ameriq41 tom4 ,,ii41 pp4 #ejb-ejg2 cited ,ibid41 p4 #bdc ff4 #gce ,loskiel's ,missions of the ,united ,brethren1 ,trans4 by ,la ,trobe1 ,bk4 ,i41 p4 #bf2 cited in ,ibid41 p4 #bde f4 #gcf ,ibid41 p4 #bec f4 #gcg ,st4 ,john's ,life in the ,far ,east1 ,i41 #fg4 #gch ,see page #gc1 supra4 #gci ,see page #ge1 supra4 #gdj ,allingham's ,ballad ,book1 p4 #f f4 #gda ,todtenbuch1 xvii41 #db1 #dc4 #gdb ,renouf's ,the ,relig4 of ,anc4 ,egypt1 p4 #ajg4 #gdc ,renouf's ,the ,relig4 of ,anc4 ,egypt1 p4 #ajg4 #gdd ,miss4 ,voyage to ,so4 ,pacif4 ,ocean1 p4 #fe4 #gde ,see ,e4 ,r4 ,smith's ,the ,araucanians1 p4 #bfb4 #gdf ,power's 8,tribes of ,california10 in ,contrib4 to ,no4 ,am4 ,ethnol41 ,,iii41 #bdg4 #gdg ,principles of ,sociology1 ,,ii41 #ba4 #gdh #a ,cor4 #ac 3 #aa4 #gdi ,see note at page #bah1 supra4 #gej ,see pages #fe-gg1 supra4 #gea #b ,cor4 #e 3 #ag2 ,eph4 #d 3 #bd2 ,col4 #c 3 #i1 #aj4 #geb ,angas's ,savage ,life1 ,i41 #aad-aaf4 #gec ,see references to drawing blood from the forehead1 at page #hf ff41 supra4 #ged ,see pages #he-hh1 supra4 #gee ,ellis's ,polynesian ,researches1 ,,ii41 #efi f4 #gef ,see ,prov4 #bg 3 #i4 #geg ,cited from ,capt4 ,grant's description2 in ,wood's ,unciv4 ,races1 ,i41 #ddj4 #geh ,ibid41 ,,ii41 #ha4 #gei ,williams and ,calvert's ,fiji and ,fijians1 p4 #ce4 #gfj ,indian ,sign ,language1 s4 v4 8,brother40 #gfa ,contributions to ,no4 ,am4 ,ethnology1 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #fh4 #gfb ,dodge's ,our ,wild ,indians1 page #ead f4 #gfc ,is there any correspondence between this word1 taq'a1 and the ,hindoo word tika 7the blood-mark on the ,rajput chief71 referred to at page #acg1 supra8 ,,indexes4 ,,topical ,,index4 ,abel1 his blood-giving1 #baj ff4 ,abimelech1 his covenant3 with ,abraham1 #bfe2 with ,isaac1 #bfg f4 ,abraham3 ,the friend of ,god1 #bae-bba2 his blood-giving1 #bag-bba2 his faith-testing1 #bbd-bcj2 his covenant with ,abimelech1 #bfe f4 ,adoption1 blood used in1 #aie f4 ,ahab's fate1 significance of1 #cab4 ,altar1 a table of communion1 #afg1 #bib f4 ,amulet3 house of the1 #g1 #fe1 #bih2 of the covenant1 #ha f41 #hc1 #bcb-bch4 ,see ,phylactery3 ,token of covenant4 ,anointing with blood3 in ,central ,america1 #ij f42 in ,arabia1 #abj2 in the ,arthurian romance1 #abj f42 among the ,bheels1 #acf f42 among the ,caribs1 #acg f42 among the ,central ,africans1 #ach2 among the ,chinese1 #aed2 among the ,north ,american ,indians1 #cjf f42 among the ,australians1 #ccf f4 ,antiquity of the blood-covenant1 #f1 #eh ff41 #gg ff41 #bjf1 #cbj4 ,ark1 the1 covering record of blood covenant1 #bih4 ,see ,amulet1 house of the4 ,assiratum1 its meaning1 #fc ff4 ,avenger of blood4 ,see ,goel4 ,baal-bereeth3 god-father in circumcision1 #bah2 god of the covenant1 #bah1 #cag4 ,banquet1 connection of1 with sacrifice3 in ,china1 #adh ff42 in ,india1 #aei ff42 in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 #afg2 among the ,bedween1 #agi f42 among ,american ,indians1 #agi f4 ,bedween ,brotherhoods1 #i f4 ,see also ,blood-covenant4 ,belt3 royal1 of ,tahiti1 #cbh2 wampum of ,american ,indian1 a covenant record1 #cbf ff4 ,blood3 thicker than milk1 #aj2 not eaten4 ,see ,prohibition of blood4 ,vivifying power of1 #aaj ff42 belongs to ,god1 #bjd2 symbolism of1 in universal speech1 #cji f42 life-giving1 in3 ,mexican legend1 #aaa f42 ,egyptian legend1 #aaa f42 ,chaldean legend1 #aab2 ,phnician legend1 #aab2 ,greek legend1 #aab2 modern science1 #aae f42 sacredness of1 in3 ,egypt1 #ii ff42 ,america1 #aje ff42 ,india1 #aji1 #aeh ff42 ,china1 #aji4 ,see ,offerings of blood4 ,blood-baths3 in ,egypt1 #aaf f41 #cbd2 in medival ,europe1 #aag ff42 in ,scandinavia1 #aba f42 in ,india1 #abb f42 in ,bechuana-land1 #cbd4 ,blood-covenant3 defined1 #d f42 a primitive rite1 #d1 #f1 #h2 its sacredness1 #f f42 influence of1 #ae2 refused1 #ba2 recognized1 #bf f42 in ,syria1 #e ff42 in ,africa1 #ab-ch2 in ,europe1 #ci-dc2 in ,china1 #dc f42 in ,burmah1 #dd1 #cac f42 in ,madagascar1 #dd f41 #dd-di2 in ,borneo1 #di-eb2 in ,timor1 #ec f42 in ,yucatan1 #ed f42 in ,brazil1 #ee2 in ,scythia1 #eh f41 #fa f42 in ,south ,america1 #ccd2 in ,egypt1 #gg-hd2 traces of1 in ,china1 #aec2 full symbolism of1 #bjb f42 ,noah's1 #bac2 at ,sinai1 #bch-bdj1 #bih2 importance commonly undervalued1 #big2 a safeguard in ,burmah1 #cae4 ,blood-lickers1 #aa1 #ei4 ,see ,drinking of ,blood4 ,blood-money3 in the ,east1 #bfj ff42 refused by ,gibeonites1 #cbd f42 accepted3 by ,arabs1 #cbe2 by ,north ,american ,indians1 #cbe4 ,see ,goel4 ,blood-sucking1 #h1 #cj1 #dc1 #ib1 #aad f4 ,see ,drinking of blood4 ,blood-transference4 ,see ,blood-covenant2 ,transfusion of blood4 ,book of the ,dead1 #gh-hc4 ,bracelet1 as symbol1 #fe-gf4 ,bread3 of ,r1 #agc2 covenant of1 #bic1 #cac4 ,breaking the grass1 #cae4 ,brbeuf1 heart of1 #abg4 ,brotherhoods1 blood4 ,see ,blood-covenant4 ,bruce1 heart of1 #ajg f4 ,burial in brotherhood1 #da4 ,cain1 his blood withholding1 #baj ff4 ,cameron1 ,commander1 making blood-friendship1 #ae ff4 ,cannibalism3 religious origin of1 #ahc f41 #ahd2 in ,india1 #ahe f42 in ,feejee1 #ahg2 in ,north ,america1 #ahg f41 #cjh2 in ,central and ,south ,america1 #ahj f42 in ,europe1 #ahi f4 ,caste-distinctions lost in communion1 #afa ff4 ,cataline's blood-covenant1 #fj f4 7,see stamp on outside cover7 ,christ1 his blood1 fulfillment of human desire1 #bga-bhf4 ,christians1 charges of cannabalism against1 #cba4 ,circumcision1 a mode of blood-covenanting1 #bae-bbc1 #bcg2 its modern methods1 #bah f4 ,clasped hands3 a relic of the covenant1 #cbh1 #cdj4 ,see ,hands4 ,classics1 references to blood-covenant in1 #eh-fe1 #bfg1 #big1 #cab4 ,communion3 through blood1 #adg ff42 in ,china1 #adh ff42 in ,assyria1 #afh f42 divine-human1 in ,egypt1 #agb4 ,see ,altar2 ,banquet2 ,union4 ,in ,christ1 foretold1 #bge-bgh2 instituted1 #bhj-bhd2 realized1 #bhe f4 ,covenant1 between those of different religions1 #g4 ,see ,blood-covenant4 ,covenant of ,bread1 its symbolism1 #bic1 #cac4 ,cry of blood from the ground1 #bab4 ,cutting covenant3 meaning of term1 #bfg f41 #cbb2 between ,jacob and ,laban1 #bfi2 in one's own body1 #cbb2 in substitute victim1 #cbb2 both methods in ,borneo4 ,cuttings in flesh1 #bah2 in friendship1 in ,zechariah1 #cda4 ,david and ,jonathan1 covenanting1 #bfi ff4 ,dead1 blood-covenant with1 #bii4 ,discerning the communion-body1 #agb4 ,drinking of blood3 in ,north ,america1 #abg2 in ,syria1 #f2 in ,central ,africa1 #ac1 #bh ff42 in ,europe1 #da1 #fj f42 in ,madagascar1 #dd1 #dh2 in ,borneo1 #di f41 #eb2 in ,timor1 #ec2 in ,scythia1 #ei1 #fb1 #abf2 in ,egypt1 #hc2 in ,india1 #ib f42 in ,china1 #abc f42 in ,france1 #abd2 in ,italy1 #abd f42 in language of ,fellaheen1 #acj2 among the ,germans1 #cbj2 in ,persia1 #cba2 in ,australia1 #ccf2 charge of1 against ,jews1 #agi1 #cba2 charge of1 against ,christians1 #cba4 ,drinking the covenant3 #i1 #ag f41 #fj1 #aia f42 in ,borneo1 #ajb2 in ,feejee1 #aic2 in ,china1 #aif2 in ,central ,america1 #aig2 in ,europe1 #aih ff4 ,eating together1 in covenant1 #bfh f4 ,exchange3 of gifts1 #ad1 #af1 #bj f41 #bb1 #be f41 #bg f41 #cb2 of garments1 #ad1 #bgj2 of arms1 #bgj4 ,evolution1 or deterioration1 #d4 ,feathers1 red1 their significance1 #cbh f4 ,see ,red1 as a symbol4 ,feeding on the god3 #agf f4 ,see ,communion2 ,union4 ,fiery cross3 its significance in ,arabia1 #cag f42 in ,scotland1 #cai ff4 ,fire1 a gift of the gods1 #agd4 ,firstborn1 blood of the1 #aef4 ---- sacrifice of3 in ,china1 #aej f42 in pre-,semitic times1 #aff4 ,food restrictions removed in communion3 in ,india1 #afa ff42 in ,assyria1 #afh4 ,friend1 closer than brother1 #g f41 #aj4 ,friendship1 blood4 ,see ,blood-covenant4 ,girdle4 ,see ,belts4 ,ghouls seeking life in blood1 #aad f4 ,giving blood3 in proof of love1 #he-ib2 in worship1 #hi-ic1 #if4 ,goel1 pursuer1 not avenger1 of blood1 #bei-bfc2 in ,brazil1 #cbe2 in ,australia1 #cbe f4 ,golden legend1 ,blood transference in1 #aah ff4 ,hand1 bleeding1 in ,tunis1 #cdb4 ,hands3 joined in blood1 #ab1 #da f41 #bce f42 clasped1 token of1 #cbh1 #cdj ff4 ,healths1 drinking of1 relic of blood-drinking1 #bja f4 ,heart3 sacredness of1 in ,egypt1 #ii ff41 #cjj ff42 as life1 outside of the body1 #ajc ff41 #cja f42 sacredness of1 in ,greece and ,rome1 #ajh f42 epitome of man1 #ajg2 the symbol of personality1 #bjd2 new1 is new life1 #cjc2 the seat of the soul1 #cjd2 living1 in petrifactions1 #cje2 source of life1 #ii ff42 of strength1 #ace2 of manhood1 #ace2 of courage1 #acf4 ,heart-eating3 among ,american ,indians1 #abh2 in ,british ,guiana1 #abh2 in ,australia1 #abi2 in ,africa1 #abi2 in ,borneo1 #abi4 ,heathen communions and the ,christian sacrament1 #agg4 ,human sacrifices4 ,see ,sacrifices1 human4 ,idols1 anointed with blood1 #agf f41 #cjf f4 ,illustrations of blood-covenant1 in ,bible1 #bfd-bga4 ,imprecatory oaths1 #f1 #i1 #af1 #bj1 #ca1 #de ff41 #ea1 #ec1 #fj f41 #fb4 ,imputation1 doctrine of1 #bba4 ,incest1 in marriage of blood-friends1 #aj1 #ee f4 ,influence of blood-covenant1 #ae1 #dh4 ,inspiration through blood3 in ,homer1 #aac ff42 in ,norseland legends1 #aai f42 on ,pacific coast1 #adj f42 in ,india1 #ada f4 ,isaac3 his blood proffered1 #bbe-bcj2 his covenant with ,abimelech1 #bfg f4 ,isis1 blood of1 #ha f41 #bcc4 ,jacob1 his covenant with ,laban1 #bfh f4 ,jagan-natha1 communion of1 #afc f4 ,jews1 charged with human sacrifices1 #agh f41 #cba4 ,jezebel's fate1 significance of1 #cab f4 ,jonathan and ,david1 covenanting1 #bfi ff4 ,kali1 human sacrifices to1 #aeh f4 ,khatan1 one bound through bleeding1 #bbb f4 ,krishna1 communion of1 #afc f4 ,leprosy3 blood baths1 for cure of1 in ,syria1 #aaf2 in ,egypt1 #aag1 #cbd2 in medival ,europe1 #aag4 ,life3 blood is1 #ch1 #eg1 #gi ff41 #hh f41 #ii1 #baa-bae1 #bda-bfc1 #bii ff41 #cjf4 ---- from divine blood3 in ,egypt1 #aaa f42 in ,mexico1 #aaa f42 in ,chaldea1 #aab2 in ,phnicia1 #aab2 in ,greece1 #aab4 ,life-transference in blood-transference1 #abf ff4 ,see ,soul transference2 ,transfusion of blood4 ,liver3 a symbol of life1 #cjc f42 proposed derivations of the word1 #cjd f42 symbolism of3 as a blood-cistern1 #cjc f42 as seat of emotion1 #cjd2 as congealed blood1 #cjd f42 eaten1 like the heart1 #cjf4 ,livingstone1 ,dr41 making blood-friendship1 #ac ff4 ,mandrakes1 symbolism of1 #aaa4 ,marriage1 blood-drinking in1 #aia ff41 #ccb4 ,see ,symbolic substitutes for blood2 ,wedding1 ceremonies of4 ,marriage-covenant1 blood in1 #aib f4 ,milk-brothers1 #aa f4 ,moses3 his child's circumcision1 #bba ff42 his blood-covenant at ,sinai1 #bch ff4 ,name3 a lost1 #ccd2 the new1 #ccg f42 restitution for calling1 of the dead1 #cce4 ---- represents the life1 #ccd f42 in the ,society ,islands1 #ccd2 among ,indians1 #ccd f42 among ,australians1 #cce f4 ,names1 exchange of1 #ccd ff4 ,nature1 transference of1 by blood transference3 #abf ff42 among the ,caribs1 #acg f42 among the ,kaffirs1 #ach2 among the ,yarubas1 #ach f4 ,necklace1 symbolism of1 #gf f4 ,new covenant1 ,christ's body and blood in1 #bii4 ,noah's blood-giving1 #bab ff4 ,norseland legends1 #da ff41 #hh f4 ,odin and ,lk1 in covenant1 #ci ff4 ,offerings of blood3 in ,egypt1 #ajb f42 in ,america1 #ajf f42 in ,greece and ,rome1 #ajh f42 in ,phnicia1 #aji3 in ,india1 #aji2 in ,china1 #aji2 in ,arabia1 #ahj4 ,one soul in two bodies1 #ch1 #hj1 #ib f41 #ccd4 ,ordeal of touch3 in the ,nibelungen ,lied1 #adc f42 in ,denmark1 #add f42 in ,scotland1 #ade2 in ,england1 #adf f42 in ,america1 #adg4 ,otaheite4 ,see ,tahiti1 under ,union4 ,passover1 substitute blood of1 #bca f4 ,phnicia1 blood-giving in1 #hi f4 ,phylacteries1 the token of blood-covenant1 #bcc-bcf2 and amulet1 #cbi4 ,preserving blood1 as life1 #hh f41 #ccg f4 ,see ,life1 blood is4 ,prohibition of blood-drinking3 #bad f42 in the ,mosaic law1 #bdj f42 reason for1 #cab4 ,prophecy1 ,blood as a means of1 #aac ff4 ,quich god1 ,tohil1 his terms of covenant1 #agd4 ,r1 communion with1 in ,amenti1 #agb1 #ccc f4 ,ransoming by blood1 #cbd ff4 ,see ,goel4 ,record of the divine blood-covenant1 #bih2 of the covenant3 among ,american ,indians1 #cbf ff4 ,red1 as a symbol of blood3 in ,egypt1 #ajb f41 #agc2 in ,china1 #aif2 the colour1 its symbolism1 #bcf f4 ,see also1 ,feathers1 red4 ,revenger of blood4 ,see ,goel4 ,ring3 symbolism of1 #fe-gf1 #ccj ff42 in ,dayak divorce1 #ccj2 of flesh1 #cca4 ,rosetta-stone of the covenant1 #bfg4 ,russia3 customs in1 #gc2 blood giving in1 #if4 ,sacrament1 ,christian3 its relation to heathen communions1 #agg2 foreshadowed in the ,old ,testament1 #bgd f42 instituted by ,jesus1 #bha ff42 not a sacrifice1 #bib2 a two-fold covenant1 #bic4 ---- of the ,holy ,food1 #afd4 ,sacredness of blood3 in ,egypt1 #ii ff42 in ,america1 #aje ff42 in ,india1 #aee4 ,see ,offerings of blood4 ,sacrifice3 as communion1 in ,china1 #adi ff42 not necessarily expiatory1 #aff2 of ,isaac1 #bbd-bcj4 ,sacrifices2 ,egyptian and ,jewish1 their resemblance1 #cjj4 ---- human3 among the ,nahuas1 #aje f42 among the ,mayas1 #ajf f42 in ,india1 #aeg ff41 #bbg2 in ,assyria1 #aff f42 of children3 in ,guatemala1 #agd2 in ,arabia1 #bbg2 in the ,norseland1 #bbg2 in ,great ,britain1 #bbg f4 ---- human and animal1 succession of3 in ,china1 #aeb2 in ,india1 #aee f42 in the ,brahmanical books1 #aeg f4 8,sacrificial part10 blood the1 #aeg f4 ,saffron1 symbolism of1 #gg1 #afe4 ---- water3 in wedding1 #ccb2 a substitute for blood1 #aie f4 ,saul1 his phylacteries1 #bcg f4 ,scarabus1 a symbol of heart1 #ajj1 #cjj4 ,signing with blood1 #ic ff4 ,smoking1 in inter-union1 #ea1 #cji4 ,society ,islands1 brotherhoods in1 #ef f4 ,soul-transference by blood-transference1 #cab f4 ,see ,life-transference2 ,transfusion of blood4 ,spiritual conceptions not innate1 #caa4 ,stanley1 ,henry ,m41 making blood-friendship1 #ah-ch4 ,stone1 white1 and new name1 #ccg4 ,stones1 living1 #aai f41 #cjg f4 ,striking3 a covenant1 #ei1 #fb2 hands1 in covenant1 #bcf1 #cda f4 ,substitute-blood offered3 in ,borneo1 #eb1 #gc2 in ,egypt1 #gb2 in ,china1 #adh2 in ,south ,america1 #agg2 in ,bible times1 #baa1 #bac2 at ,sinai1 #bci-beh4 ,see ,symbolic substitutes4 ,sucking-brothers1 #aa f4 ,symbolic substitutes for blood1 #aia ff42 the assiratum1 #fc ff42 arrack1 #aib2 coffee1 #aib2 any ordinary spirituous liquor1 #aic2 saffron1 #aid1 #ccb2 wine and honey1 #aif2 chica1 #aig2 wine1 #aih ff42 whisky1 #caf4 ,symbols1 scriptural and ethnic1 their relationship1 #bjf4 ,table-,altar3 in ,assyria1 #afg2 in the ,old ,testament1 #afg f42 in the ,new ,testament1 #bib f4 ,thumbs bound1 in covenant1 #ei1 #ga1 #cca4 ,token of passover covenant1 #bcb4 ,see ,phylacteries1 the token of blood-covenant4 ,touch1 life by1 of blood1 #acd ff4 ,transfusion of blood3 #ch f42 modern scientific1 #aae f42 among ,egyptians1 #aaf f42 among ,hebrews1 #aaf2 among ,syrians1 #aaf2 in ,tasmania1 #abf2 a cure for insanity1 #acc f4 ,transmigration of souls1 origin of belief in1 #caj4 ,tree3 branch of1 in the covenant1 #ce ff42 of the covenant1 #ec2 the fiery cross in ,scotland1 #cag ff42 the war-signal in ,arabia1 #cah4 ,see ,tree-planting4 ,tree-planting in blood-covenant3 in ,borneo1 #ec2 in ,india1 #afe2 in ,burmah1 #cac2 in ,israel1 #caf2 traces of1 #caf f4 ,trial by blood3 in the ,nibelungen ,lied1 #adc f42 in ,denmark1 #add f42 in ,scotland1 #ade2 in ,england1 #adf f42 in ,america1 #adg4 ,turkey1 blood-giving in1 #he4 ,types1 insufficiency of1 #beb-beh4 ,uarda1 citation from1 #hd4 ,union1 7divine7 through blood3 in ,egypt1 #ccc f42 in the ,norseland1 #dj f4 ---- 7divine-human7 through blood3 in ,phnicia1 #hi2 in ,armenia1 #ij2 in ,india1 #ib1 #aef ff42 in ,central ,america1 #ij f41 #age f42 in ,russia1 #ie2 in ,china1 #adh f42 in ,assyria1 #afg f42 in ,persia1 #afi f42 in ,egypt1 #agj f42 in ,guatemala1 #agd2 in the ,mosaic ritual1 #bdb-bdh2 ,abel's outreaching for it1 #baj ff42 ,noah's outreaching for it1 #bac ff42 ,abraham's outreaching for it1 #bag-bba2 universal longing for it1 #bgb2 realised1 through ,christ1 #bgc-bic1 #cdb4 ---- 7human7 through blood3 in ,syria1 #e-ab2 in ,africa1 #ab-ch2 in the ,norseland1 #da ff42 in ,madagascar1 #dd-di2 in ,borneo1 #di-eb1 #gc2 in ,timor1 #eb-ed2 in ,yucatan1 #ed f42 in ,brazil1 #ee2 in ,north ,america1 #ee f41 #cci f42 in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 #ef f42 in ,scythia1 #ei f41 #fa f42 in ,armenia1 #ei f42 in ,arabia1 #fb f42 in ,egypt1 #gb1 #gg-hd2 in ,india1 #aef2 in ,tahiti1 #cch2 in ,central ,africa1 #cch2 in ,burmah1 #cad f4 ---- 7,satanic-human7 through blood3 among witches1 #ic ff42 among wonder-workers1 #ie4 ,unity of the human race1 #eg1 #if1 #agh f4 ,vampires3 seeking life in blood1 #aad f42 in the ,old ,world and the ,new1 #aae4 ,vicarious blood-absorption3 #aca f42 among the ,araucanians1 #aca2 among the ,abyssinians1 #acb2 among the ,australians1 #acc4 ,victim1 representing a deity1 #agg f41 #ahc f4 ,vivifying power of blood4 ,see ,blood1 life-giving4 ,wampum-belts1 a covenant record1 #cbf4 ,water-of-saffron children1 #aie4 ,wedding1 ceremonies of1 #fi-gd4 ,wine1 symbolism of1 #fc ff41 #gc4 ,witchcraft1 blood in1 #ic ff4 ,witness-heap1 #fb1 #bff4 ,xolotl1 rescues a lost race1 #aab4 ,yajna1 great sacrifice of1 #afa ff4 ,zipporah1 her act of blood-giving1 #bbb f4 ,zoroastrians1 their communion1 #afi f4 ,,scriptural ,,index4 ,,genesis4 ,,text ,,page #d 3 #b-e #baa #d 3 #aj1 #aa #bab #h 3 #bj #bac #i 3 #c-f #bad #ab 3 #f-h #bfh #ac 3 #ah #cag #ad 3 #ac #bfd1 #cag #ad 3 #bb #bce #ae 3 #f #bbj #ae 3 #g-ah #cbb #ae 3 #ah #bfd #ag 3 #a-ab #cbb #ag 3 #b1 #g-i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac #bag #ah 3 #a #cag #ba 3 #ab #bge #ba 3 #bb-bd #bfe #ba 3 #cj1 #ca1 #cc #bff #ba 3 #cc #cag #bb 3 #a1 #b #bbe #bb 3 #ae1 #ah #bcj #bb 3 #ah #bfg #bf 3 #be-bi #bfh #bf 3 #cj1 #ca #bfh #bh 3 #ah-bb #bfh #cj 3 #ad-ag #aaa #ca 3 #ai-cf #bfh #ca 3 #dd-dg #bff #ca 3 #dd-ed #bfi #cd 3 #a-ca #bah #da 3 #da1 #db #gj #di 3 #aa #aia ,,exodus4 #b 3 #e #cbd #d 3 #i #bca #d 3 #bj-bf #bba1 #bbb #g 3 #ag-ba #bca #ab 3 #a-f #bca #ab 3 #g-aj #aec #ab 3 #g-ac #bcb #ac 3 #c-aj1 #aa-af #bcc #ba 3 #ah-bg #bfa #bb 3 #ad-ag #bfa #bd 3 #a-aa #bdj #bd 3 #c-h #bih #bd 3 #h #bii #bd 3 #e1 #f #bac #bi 3 #ae-be #bac #cc 3 #aa #baf ,,leviticus4 #a 3 #a-f #bac #a 3 #e1 #aa1 #ae #bdi #a 3 #aj-ab #bac #a 3 #ac1 #ag #bdg #a 3 #ad1 #ae #bac #b 3 #b1 #ab #bdg #c 3 #h1 #bf #bdg #d 3 #f1 #g1 #ag1 #ah1 #be1 #cj1 #cd #bdh #d 3 #ac1 #ad #bdg #g 3 #bf #bda #h 3 #ad-bb #bdi #h 3 #ah1 #ai #bac #i 3 #h-bb #bdi #ad 3 #ai1 #bj #bdi #af 3 #c-be #bdi #af 3 #ad1 #ae #bdh #ag 3 #c-f #bdc #ag 3 #aj-ab #bda #ag 3 #aa-ad #bhg #ag 3 #ac #bdc #ag 3 #ad #bda1 #cji #be 3 #be ff4 #bfj #be 3 #dg ff4 #bfj #bg 3 #a-h #bfa ,,numbers4 #ce 3 #ab #bei #ce 3 #ai1 #ba1 #bd1 #be1 #bg #bei #ce 3 #i-cd #bfj #cf 3 #cj-cd #bfa ,,deuteronomy4 #f 3 #d-i1 #ac-bb #bcd #h 3 #c #agc #aj 3 #ad-af #bef #ab 3 #bc #fd #ai 3 #f1 #ab #bei #bb 3 #ac-ba #bbc #bg 3 #i-bf #dg #bh 3 #a-fh #dg #cj 3 #a-f #beg #cb 3 #ad #aia ,,joshua4 #b 3 #ah-bj #bcf #bj 3 #c1 #e1 #i #bei ,,judges4 #h 3 #cc #bah #i 3 #d #bah #i 3 #a-f #cag ,,ruth4 #a 3 #ad #baa #a ,,samuel4 #ah 3 #a-c #bgj #ah 3 #d #bgj #ai 3 #a-g #bgj #bj 3 #a-ac #bgj #bj 3 #ac-ag #bga #b ,,samuel4 #a 3 #a-af #bcg #a 3 #aj #ge #a 3 #bf #bgj #g 3 #a #bga #i 3 #a-ac #bga #ab 3 #ag #bfd #ad 3 #aa #bei #ba 3 #a-i #cbd #a ,,kings4 #ah 3 #bf-bh #ij #ba 3 #ag-bc #cac #bb 3 #ce-ch #cac #b ,,kings4 #e 3 #a-ad #aaf #i 3 #cj-cg #cac #ai 3 #cg #afh #b ,,chronicles4 #bj 3 #g #baf ,,ezra4 #d 3 #b #afh ,,esther4 #c 3 #aj-ab #gj #h 3 #b #gj ,,job4 #c 3 #b-i #df #ai 3 #be #bei #bc 3 #ab #agc ,,psalms4 #af 3 #d #fc #af 3 #d1 #e #beb #ai 3 #ad #bei #ej 3 #g-ag #bec #ef 3 #h #ha #gh 3 #ce #bei ,,proverbs4 #c 3 #a-d #beg #d 3 #ah #gh #d 3 #bc #aja #f 3 #a #bcf #g 3 #b1 #c #beg #aa 3 #ae margin #bcf #ah 3 #bd #g #bb 3 #bd-bf #bcf #bc 3 #aa #bei #bg 3 #i #cch ,,ecclesiastes4 #d 3 #i1 #aj #h ,,isaiah4 #a 3 #aa-ag #bed #be 3 #f #bed #cg 3 #ch #afh #da 3 #h #baf #da 3 #ad #bei #dc 3 #ad #bei #dd 3 #f1 #bd #bei #dg 3 #d #bei #dh 3 #ag #bei #di 3 #g1 #bf #bei #di 3 #af #bcd #di 3 #ah #bce #ea 3 #aj #bei #ec 3 #d-f1 #ab #bhf #ed 3 #e1 #h #bei #ei 3 #bj #bei #fj 3 #af #bei #fb 3 #h #bcd #fc 3 #af #bei #fe 3 #aa #afg ,,jeremiah4 #g 3 #ba-bc #bee #bb 3 #bd #bce #ca 3 #aa #bei #ca 3 #ca-cd #beh #cd 3 #ah #bfd1 #cbb #ej 3 #cd #bei ,,ezekiel4 #e 3 #aa #bce ,,daniel4 #ab 3 #g #bce ,,hosea4 #f 3 #d-g #bee ,,malachi4 #a 3 #f1 #g #afg ,,ecclesiasticus4 #ci 3 #bf #aia #ej 3 #ae #aia #a ,,maccabees4 #f 3 #cd #aia ,,matthew4 #d 3 #d #agc #f 3 #ca1 #cb #dg #ac 3 #ab #dg #be 3 #bi #dg #bf 3 #bf-bh #bha #bg 3 #cc-ed #bhe ,,mark4 #ad 3 #bc #bha #ad 3 #bd #bii #ae 3 #bb-ci #bhe ,,luke4 #ae 3 #bb #gj #bb 3 #dd #bhj #bb 3 #ad1 #ae1 #ai1 #bj #bha #bc 3 #cc-dg #bhe ,,john4 #a 3 #a-ad #bgd #d 3 #cd #agc #e 3 #bf #bij #f 3 #ea1 #ee #bhe #f 3 #ec1 #ed #bii #f 3 #ec-eh #bgf #f 3 #fj1 #fc #bgg #f 3 #fj #bgh #h 3 #ca1 #cb #agc #aj 3 #aj1 #ah #bhe #ac 3 #a #bhj #ae 3 #d-g #bhc #ae 3 #ac #g1 #bbi1 #bhe #ae 3 #ac-ae #bhb #af 3 #ac #agc #ag 3 #a-bd #bhd #ag 3 #ai #agc #ai 3 #ag-cg #bhe #bj 3 #ca #bhh ,,acts4 #ae 3 #b-bi #bae #ba 3 #ah-be #bae ,,romans4 #a 3 #ah-bc #caa #b 3 #bf-bi #beg #d 3 #c #bbj #d 3 #aa1 #ab #beg #e 3 #h-ab #bhi #e 3 #ab-ba #bde #f 3 #d-f #db #f 3 #bc #bdb1 #bhf #h 3 #bb #bgb #h 3 #cb #bgc #ab 3 #e #cdb #a ,,corinthians4 #f 3 #ae #cdb #aj 3 #ad-ag #bic #aj 3 #ba #afh #aa 3 #bi #afd #aa 3 #be #bha #ab 3 #bg #cdb #ac 3 #aa #ccf #b ,,corinthians4 #e 3 #ag #bhh1 #ccf ,,galatians4 #b 3 #bj #bhi #c 3 #f #bbj #c 3 #f-i1 #af1 #bi #bgh #c 3 #g-i #beg #c 3 #bh1 #bi #bia #d 3 #e #aie #f 3 #ag #bah ,,ephesians4 #a 3 #g #bhh #b 3 #aa-af #bij #d 3 #bd #ccf #e 3 #cj #cdb ,,philippians4 #c 3 #c #beg ,,colossians4 #a 3 #ai1 #bj #bij #b 3 #i-aa #bia #b 3 #ab #db #b 3 #ag #beh #c 3 #c #bhh #c 3 #i1 #aj #ccf #b ,,timothy4 #a 3 #aj #bhd ,,hebrews4 #a 3 #a-c #bgd #a 3 #ad-af #bgh #b 3 #ad-af #bgd #f 3 #ac #bce #i 3 #h #beb #i 3 #af1 #ag #bhd #i 3 #ai #bci #i 3 #bj #bih #i 3 #bd-bh #bib #aj 3 #a-d #bgb #aj 3 #d #beb #aj 3 #e-i #bge #aj 3 #aj1 #ad-bb1 #bh1 #bi #bib #aa 3 #d #baa #aa 3 #ag-ai #bbi #aa 3 #ah #bge #ab 3 #bd #bab #ac 3 #bj #bdc1 #bgc #ac 3 #bj1 #ba #bic ,,james4 #b 3 #ba-bc #bcj #b 3 #bc #baf1 #bbj1 #bba #a ,,peter4 #a 3 #bj #bge #b 3 #b-e #cjg #b 3 #ag #de #c 3 #ah #bhf #b ,,peter4 #a 3 #d #bhi #a ,,john4 #a 3 #g #bhh #e 3 #aa1 #ab #bhf #e 3 #ac1 #bj #bhh ,,revelation4 #a 3 #e #bhh #f 3 #aj #bab #g 3 #c #aed #i 3 #d #aed #ac 3 #h #bge #ac 3 #af #aed #ad 3 #a #aed #bj 3 #d #aed #bb 3 #d #aed ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author4 ,,kadesh-,,barnea2 ,,its ,,importance ,,and ,,probable ,,site1 ,,with ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,hunt ,,for ,,it2 ,,including ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,route ,,of ,,the ,,exodus1 ,,and ,,the ,,southern ,,boundary ,,of ,,the ,,holy ,,land4 ,one volume1 #hvo41 #dgh pages1 with two maps and four full page illustrations1 #e4jj4 ,,critical ,,notices4 ,,from ,the ,athenum 7,,london74 8,this book contains a great deal of new information on the topography of the ,holy ,land1 derived from the latest hieroglyphic documents1 as well as from the accounts of recent travelers4444 ,the wilderness of ,shur 7a word meaning a wall7 was beyond the ,great ,wall of ,egypt1 and was also1 according to the happy conjecture of our author1 the wilderness of ,etham4 ,this is an important identification1 which will be a new starting-point for the history of the exodus40 ,,from ,the ,academy 7,,london74 8,this is a truly noteworthy book1 and will at once command the attention of all biblical scholars40 ,,from ,,the ,london ,quarterly ,review4 8,this is one of the noblest historical monographs that we have1 and in some respects surpasses all other books of the kind4444 ,the reader will find this work of our ,american divine deeply engrossing2 combining1 in fact1 many kinds of interest not often meeting in one volume4 ,we have a fine historical insight running through all the ages2 a keen appreciation of the difficulties of the exodus1 an intelligent attempt to settle them2 an intense enthusiasm for the biblical history as such1 and the dramatic skill of a modern traveler4444 ,it is a book which our young ,hebraists and students of the ,old ,testament should read over and over again40 ,,from ,,professor ,a4 ,h4 ,,sayce1 ,,of ,,oxford ,,university4 8,it is one of the most #8thorough' books ,i have ever come across4 ,among other points proved by you1 your identification of the desert of ,shur is perhaps the neatest and most important40 ,,from ,,professor ,,dr4 ,,franz ,,delitzsch1 ,,of ,,leipzig ,,university4 8,as an apple of ,tantalus1 your splendid work concerning ,kadesh-,barnea sways above me4 ,i am not yet filled with it2 444 but it is unbearable that ,i should longer refrain from thanking you4444 ,it is a great service that you1 following the lead of the sainted ,palmer1 have made n ,kudes the object of your investigation4444 ,my commentary on ,genesis is out of print4444 ,would that ,i could yet once more work over this commentary4444 ,then ,i would have an opportunity to show my thankful appreciation of your work40 ,,from ,,dr4 ,,hermann ,,guthe 7,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,palestine ,,society7 ,,in ,,the ,theologische ,literatur-,zeitung1 ,,of ,,leipzig4 8,trumbull appears to me to be specially felicitous in his determination of the three roads leading out from ,egypt to the ,east1 which are of great importance for the general history of the further ,east4444 ,the happy result of his journey is very gratifying1 and we have to thank his diligent studies for a valuable contribution to biblical geography40 ,,from ,,professor ,c4 ,a4 ,,briggs 7,,of ,,union ,,theological ,,seminary7 ,,in ,the ,presbyterian ,review4 8,this is the most important work upon the geography of the ,holy ,land produced in ,america since the ,biblical ,researches of ,edward ,robinson4444 ,dr4 ,trumbull 444 has established the site of ,kadesh-,barnea so thoroughly1 and so fortified his conclusions on every hand1 that we believe no one will hereafter think of questioning them4444 ,the book is written in an interesting and fervent style4 ,the author grapples with his reader4 ,his enthusiasm is contagious4 ,the critic has to take care and stand firm lest he be swept off his feet4 ,we thank ,dr4 ,trumbull for his labor of love and enthusiasm4 ,he has done honor to ,american pluck and indefatigable research4 ,we are proud of the book and the man40 ,for sale by all booksellers1 or sent post-paid upon receipt of price1 by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons1 ,nos4 #gdc and #gde ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,footnotes have been renumbered and repositioned4 ,where the author has cross-referenced a footnote1 the footnote number in this text has been added to the original reference4 ,two page numbers in the ,contents1 and one in the ,index1 have been amended4 ,hieroglyphs and one ,syriac word in the original book are represented by ,illustration4 ,quotations from other sources1 and transliterated materials1 have been transcribed as they appear in the original book4 ,spelling1 grammar1 and variation in hyphenation and word usage have been retained4 ,punctuation has been changed occasionally where a clear predominance of usage could be ascertained4 ,typographical changes have been made as follows3 p4 #ca3 the slighest breach changed to the slightest breach p4 #eg3 ,miss4 ,vogage to ,so4 ,pacif4 ,ocean changed to ,miss4 ,voyage to ,so4 ,pacif4 ,ocean 7footnote #ie7 p4 #gg3 ,dubois ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,india changed to ,dubois's ,des4 of ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,india 7footnote #aea7 p4 #ij3 ,montolinia's ,hist4 ,ind4 de ,nueva ,espaa changed to ,motolinia's ,hist4 ,ind4 de ,nueva ,espaa 7footnote #aha7 p4 #aaa3 ,m4 ,edouard ,naville1 the eminent ,swiss ,egyptologist changed to ,m4 douard ,naville1 the eminent ,swiss ,egyptologist 7footnote #bbb7 p4 #abe3 ,bruy's ,histoire des ,papes changed to ,bruys's ,histoire des ,papes 7footnote #bea7 p4 #aef3 ,taittirya-brahmana changed to ,taittirya-brhmana p4 #agd3 ,anderson's ,lake ,ngami changed to ,andersson's ,lake ,ngami 7footnote #cfj7 p4 #ahe3 the ,abbe ,dubois changed to the ,abb ,dubois p4 #ahi3 ,native ,relig4 in ,mex4 and ,peru changed to ,native ,relig4 of ,mex4 and ,peru 7footnote #chh7 p4 #bce and #bcf3 ,robert's ,orient4 ,ill4 of ,scrip4 changed to ,roberts's ,orient4 ,ill4 of ,scrip4 7footnotes #dib and #dii7 p4 #bjj3 ,godwyn's ,rom4 ,historiae changed to ,godwyn's ,rom4 ,histori 7footnote #dba7 p4 #bcd3 in the covenant thus memoralized changed to in the covenant thus memorialized p4 #cjj3 ,dictionnaire d',archologie gyptienne1 s4 v4 8,coeur40 changed to ,dictionnaire d',archologie gyptienne1 s4 v4 8,cur40 7footnote #fgh7 p4 #cab3 and also taken possesion changed to and also taken possession p4 #cag3 ,mamre1 the ,amorite1 brother of ,eschol changed to ,mamre1 the ,amorite1 brother of ,eshcol p4 #ccb3 colored with saffron1 or with tumeric changed to colored with saffron1 or with turmeric p4 #cdf3 ,goel1 pursuer1 not avenger1 of blood1 #bei-efc2 changed to ,goel1 pursuer1 not avenger1 of blood1 #bei-bfc2 p4 #cdg3 ,otaheite1 ,see ,tahiti4 changed to ,otaheite4 ,see ,tahiti1 under ,union4 p4 #cdg3 ,see ,covenant1 token of the4 changed to ,see ,phylacteries1 the token of blood-covenant4 p4 #cdh3 in the ,mosaic ritual1 #bdb-b #h2 changed to in the ,mosaic ritual1 #bdb-bdh2 ,these were not changed3 p4 #bfa3 whether the loss life shall be restored might read whether the lost life shall be restored p4 #cbe3 8,even in so rude a tribe as the ,brazilian ,topanazes10 the ,farrer might read 8,even in so rude a tribe as the ,brazilian ,topanazes10 says ,farrer