,,illumination ,,and ,,its ,,development ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,day ,illustration3 ,there are some who follow the arts from poverty and necessity1 also for gain1 and for love of the art2 but those who pursue them from love of the art and true nobleness of mind are to be commended above all others4--,cennino ,cennini4 ,sidney ,farnsworth #aibj ,,illumination ,,and ,,its ,,development ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,day ,,by ,,sidney ,,farnsworth ,illustrated with ,drawings and ,diagrams by the ,author ,,new ,,york ,illustration ,,george ,h4 ,,doran ,,company ,printed in ,great ,britain ,,preface ,this book is the outcome of a series of articles which appeared in ,drawing and ,design4 ,at the suggestion of the ,editor of this periodical1 the whole of the chapters originally published have been entirely rewritten and considerably enlarged2 at the same time a large amount of quite new matter has been added4 ,the additions that have been made include a chapter on the development of writing in the past1 together with a number of alphabets based on historical examples4 ,i have also added a brief sketch of the history of ,illumination1 as ,i felt that the book would not be complete without some reference to this side of the subject4 ,some attention has been given to the colours and gilding methods of the medival artists1 and it is hoped that the notes given may be of interest to the student4 ,extensions have also been made in connection with the use of colours and materials by the student to-day4 ,chapters on the further development of illumination1 the illumination of the printed book1 and printed book decoration1 are also amongst the additions4 ,the chapters on the application of lettering and decoration from the commercial standpoint have also been developed considerably1 and at the end of the book some notes have been added on books for further study4 ,i have tried to write in as simple a manner as possible1 so that the youngest student should have no difficulty in understanding the instructions that are given4 ,so many books have been written on the subject of ,illumination that it may seem quite superfluous to add yet another to the long list4 ,still1 ,i think that a work treating the matter from the present-day standpoint ought to be of some service to the student who is desirous of practising this art to-day4 ,i have felt for some time past that there was a need for a work that would deal with the various ways in which this art could be applied in a time like the present4 ,i have found that most of the books that have been written on ,illumination treat the subject either from the standpoint of the archologist or merely from that of the amateur4 ,it is simply the result of a sincere desire to supply what ,i feel to be a real need that this book has been written1 and in the hope that it may serve as a handbook and guide for the serious worker4 ,it has not been written with the idea of introducing a quick and easy method of becoming expert in the art of illumination4 ,success1 in this1 as in anything else of importance1 can come only through hard work4 ,i have endeavoured to foster interest and enthusiasm1 so that the student may not look upon the hard work entailed with this subject merely as a certain amount of drudgery to be got through4 ,to one who is keenly interested in any particular study hard work often becomes a pleasure1 and it is only when such is the case that the full benefit is derived from such study4 ,illumination has a value in the present day as well as it had in the past4 ,the developments of this art are seen in many of the common-place things of to-day4 ,in some cases the development has been carried so far as to lose almost its identity with the original craft from which it has sprung1 but the connection is there all the same4 ,the art of the book began with the illuminated manuscript1 the early printed books being based entirely on the manuscripts that preceded them2 and the same thing may be said with regard to the application of decoration to printed lettering generally4 ,the practice of illumination in the present day should result in something more than weak imitations of illuminated borders which were produced in the medival period4 ,illumination ought to be a real living art to-day4 ,there are numerous ways in which it could be used as a craft at the present time1 quite apart from the many ways in which it could be applied commercially4 ,with regard to the study of lettering1 there is a great need for more serious attention to be given to it4 ,we are so surrounded by bad lettering that it is well that an effort should be made to get better results1 and1 as a means to this1 some study of the beautiful forms of lettering used in the past should be of the greatest service4 ,for this reason ,i have tried1 by giving some examples1 to direct the student's attention to at least some of the fine styles of lettering that were employed in centuries gone by4 ,it is a great pity that the splendid book-hands of the past should have fallen into disuse1 to say nothing of the beautiful decoration that accompanied the writing4 ,it would1 undoubtedly1 be a good thing if some further encouragement were given to serious study of the well-formed lettering that was produced during the medival period4 ,i trust that this small work may1 in some slight measure1 be the means of fostering increased interest in lettering and illumination4 ,i am deeply conscious of its many imperfections1 and ,i only hope that1 in spite of its many faults1 it may be of some use to the reader who is interested in this art4 ,if the study of it is the means of creating greater zeal and energy in the production of good work in this direction1 ,i shall feel that my efforts have not altogether been in vain4 ,,sidney ,,farnsworth4 ,,the ,,island1 ,,little ,,waltham1 ,,near ,,chelmsford4 ,,introduction 8,in all great arts1 as in trees1 it is the height that charms us2 we care nothing for the roots or trunks2 yet they could not exist without the aid of these40 ,this quotation from ,cicero may as well be applied to the art of illumination as to anything else4 ,the fact1 however1 that the tree cannot exist without the aid of the trunk and roots1 shows how important these are2 and no one who intends giving serious attention to the tree in its entirety can afford to neglect these4 ,it is only through careful study of the art of illumination that it is possible to understand fully the construction that enters into the growth of this art4 ,when some knowledge has been gained of the manner in which this work has been done in the past1 through practical experience1 it is then that a real appreciation is felt for the choice work of the medival period4 8,perfect illumination10 says ,ruskin1 in one of his ,lectures on ,art1 8is only writing made lovely2444 ,but to make writing itself beautiful--to make the sweep of the pen lovely--is the true art of illumination40 ,certainly it is only when the student is able to produce writing that is attractive in itself1 that it is permissible to add decoration to it4 ,the decoration should be the natural outgrowth from the writing4 ,a page of well-formed lettering makes good pattern1 and is not merely pattern1 as it serves also the purpose for which it was intended1 viz41 to be read4 ,it is when he has gained the mastery of the pen1 in making well-formed letters with good arrangement on the page1 that the student may consider that he has well started on the road to the production of good illumination4 ,for the construction of well-finished lettering it is essential that a mastery of the tool and materials employed should be acquired4 ,it is when the pen becomes almost a part of the writer1 so that he is able to concentrate all his energy on the writing1 giving scarcely any attention to the pen itself1 that he may claim to be proficient in the use of the pen4 ,if there is one thing more than another that one feels when examining some of the best illuminated work of the past1 it is that the writer was a master of the pen as a letter-making tool4 ,he did his work well2 his books were transcribed in a workmanlike manner1 and the decoration which followed seems to come quite naturally from the writing itself4 ,it is for this reason that so much attention has been given to the use of the quill and reed pen in the formation of good writing4 ,students are frequently at a disadvantage from inability to handle the pen properly4 ,to help1 in some measure1 to remedy this1 the student is shown how to make sharply-defined strokes before attempting to form letters4 ,at the same time no particular manner of holding the pen has been insisted upon4 ,in the ,introduction to his 8,essay on the ,sublime and ,beautiful10 ,burke says3 8,i am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation is incomparably the best2 since1 not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths1 it leads to the stock on which they grew2 it tends to set the reader himself in the track of invention1 and to direct him into those paths in which the author has made his own discoveries1 if he should be so happy as to have made any that are valuable40 ,this has been the ideal that the present writer has tried to keep ever before him in writing the instructions that are given in the succeeding pages4 ,his aim has been to direct the student in the right way1 and then to encourage him to study the subject for himself4 ,whether he has been successful in this endeavour must be left for the reader to judge4 ,the study of calligraphy1 in connection with illumination1 ought to be helpful in making the ordinary handwriting more legible4 ,before the age of printing1 the book-hand developed alongside of the ordinary cursive handwriting1 and possibly the fact that the book-hand has been lost may be advanced as a reason why most of the handwriting to-day is so degenerate4 ,a careful study of some of the fine models of book-hands of the past cannot but be beneficial4 ,it will certainly enable the student to appreciate beautiful forms of lettering1 and its influence should soon be apparent in the lettering in general use4 ,this should result in better sign-writing1 better lettering in our magazines and papers1 in short1 better lettering all round4 ,undoubtedly it would be a good thing if the children in our schools could be taught to form some of the fine book-hands of the past with the quill pen4 ,it is certainly1 to a great extent1 due to the lack of a practical knowledge of some of the splendid forms of lettering used in the past1 that the general lettering in use at the present time is so bad4 ,it ought not to be at all impracticable for this suggestion to be carried out4 ,after the student is able to make well-formed letters with the quill and reed pen1 and arrange them well1 the use of decoration and the further development of illumination should follow naturally4 ,there is undoubtedly a place for illumination to-day1 and even in connection with the illuminated manuscript book1 which should certainly possess the first place amongst the work of the modern illuminator4 ,there is not the slightest suggestion there that the illuminated manuscript should usurp the place of the printed book1 but there is no reason why it should not be in use at the same time4 ,one of the great charms that a fine manuscript possesses is its uniqueness1 not being one of many1 as in the case of the printed book4 ,then again1 some things1 as1 for example1 ,poetry and ,romance1 are rendered in a much more sympathetic fashion in the illuminated manuscript than in the printed book4 ,there are many ways in which the art of illumination might be applied to-day1 as well as in the usual illuminated testimonial4 ,several suggestions are given in the following pages for different ways in which it may be employed4 ,in the decoration of the printed book the services of the artist who is well-trained in the use of good lettering and book-decoration should be of value to the printer4 ,although there is no need for the printer to endeavour to imitate the work of the illuminator1 there ought1 certainly1 to be room for a well-developed style of decoration that could be used with a good form of type4 ,a few centuries ago1 before printing was used for the production of books1 illumination as a part of calligraphy was an important craft4 ,books were not only beautifully written but they were also richly decorated with gold and colours4 ,the writing of long manuscripts was very slow work1 compared with the increased speed of production afforded by the printing press2 but1 notwithstanding this1 it appears to have been important that the writing should be rendered more beautiful by the enrichment of decoration4 ,unfortunately1 although methods of book-production are now so speedy1 most of the lettering is of the barest and crudest kind4 ,book-decoration seems to be1 in most cases1 confined to illustration1 and even this does not often form an altogether inseparable part of the book4 ,with regard to the various developments on the purely commercial side1 the study of pen- and brush-formed lettering cannot but be of the greatest service to the commercial artist who requires lettering for posters1 labels1 book-covers1 and the many things that require lettering4 ,in fact1 lettering enters so largely into decorative design that the study of some of the fine forms of lettering is of paramount importance to any artist who desires that the lettering that he uses should be of good construction4 ,so many drawings have been spoiled through the introduction of weak and badly formed lettering that the need for training the student to produce lettering that is well-finished and of good form should be obvious to everyone4 ,without doubt one of the great things in lettering is to allow the tool to have its way4 ,pen-formed lettering should be of a form easily constructed with the pen1 and should not pretend to be a brush-formed lettering1 and vice vers4 ,it is for this reason that in the first chapter so much attention has been given in noting the influence that the tools and materials employed have had on the shaping of the letters4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface #a ,,introduction #e ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,tool ,writing the ,foundation of ,illumination--,early ,influences--,babylonian ,characters--,egyptian ,hieroglyphics--,the reed and quill ,pen--,the use of ,vellum #bc ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,writing ,,in ,,the ,,past ,majuscule ,writing--,square ,capitals--,rustic ,capitals--,uncials--,mixed ,uncial and ,minuscule ,writing--,half-,uncials--,irish ,half-,uncials-- ,english ,half-,uncials--,minuscule ,writing-- ,lombardic ,writing--,visigothic ,writing-- ,merovingian ,writing--,carlovingian ,writing--,later ,styles #cb ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,preparation ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,pen ,cutting the ,pen--,simple ,exercises #db ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,letters ,letters formed with simple ,pen-strokes--,method in working--,how the various ,letters are formed #dh ,,chapter ,v ,,forming ,,words ,,and ,,sentences ,writing a short ,quotation--,spacing ,letters-- ,italics--,pen-formed ,figures #ed ,,chapter ,,vi ,,alphabets ,,for ,,study1 ,,based ,,on ,,historical ,,examples ,uncial ,letters--,half-,uncials--,writing1 from the ,tenth to the ,fifteenth ,century #fj ,,chapter ,,vii ,,roman ,,lettering ,building up ,letters with ,pen-strokes--,roman ,letters made with simple direct ,pen-strokes--,the ,construction of ,roman ,capitals #gj ,,chapter ,,viii ,,some ,,historical ,,examples ,,of ,,roman ,,lettering ,the ,alphabet of the ,trajan ,column--,various ,alphabets from the ,thirteenth to the ,sixteenth ,century #gf ,,chapter ,,ix ,a ,,brief ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,illumination #a4 ,from the ,fourth to the ,eleventh ,century ,classical and ,byzantine ,illumination--,celtic and ,anglo-,celtic--,carlovingian--,the ,winchester ,school #hd ,,chapter ,x ,a ,,brief ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,illumination #b4 ,from the ,twelfth ,century to the ,decline ,illumination in the ,twelfth ,century--,thirteenth ,century--,fourteenth ,century--,fifteenth ,century and later #ic ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,initial ,,letter ,how the ,decoration springs from the ,initial letter-- ,examples from the ,seventh to the ,fifteenth ,century #aja ,,chapter ,,xii ,,simple ,,illumination ,,in ,,black ,,and ,,red ,method of setting out a ,page--,arranging the ,lettering--,initial letters1 and how to construct them--,various arrangements of ,lettering #ajg ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,colours ,,used ,,by ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,illuminator ,early treatises--,theophilus--,the ,book of the ,art of ,cennino ,cennini #aae ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,colours3 ,,their ,,composition ,,and ,,permanence ,the importance of a knowledge of the different ,colours employed--,yellow ,pigments--,red ,pigments--,blue ,pigments--,green ,pigments--,brown ,pigments--,black ,pigments--,white ,pigments #abc ,,chapter ,,xv ,,colours3 ,,their ,,preparation ,,and ,,use ,various forms in which ,colours are prepared--,mixing ,colours--,a method of keeping body colours in a convenient form--,preparing a set of ,colours for ,illuminating #aca ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,gilding ,,methods ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,early gilding methods--,powder gold--,the early use of gold-leaf--,raised gilding #ach ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,gold ,shell-gold--,the use of gold-leaf--,how to handle gold-leaf #adf ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,illumination ,,with ,,gold ,,and ,,colours ,vellum for ,illuminating--,hand-made paper-- ,brushes--,colour-work #aeb ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,further ,,development ,,of ,,illumination ,the development of decoration--,present-day uses of ,illumination--,possible developments #afa ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,illuminated ,,address ,the ,framed ,address--,the ,vellum ,scroll--,the ,book-form #aga ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,various ,,methods ,,of ,,reproduction ,line ,blocks--,half-tones--,the ,three-colour ,process--,lithography #agh ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,christmas ,,cards ,bronze gilding--,setting out to design-- ,suggestions--,hand-written ,cards--,invitation ,cards #ahe ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,lettering ,,for ,,commercial ,,purposes ,various things requiring ,lettering--,lettering for ,maps1 ,plans1 etc4--,lettering for ,poster-work-- ,arrangement of letters--,designing a ,magazine ,cover #aib ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,hand-,,written ,,posters1 ,,etc4 ,a quick method of writing a ,poster--,the reed pen and the brush--,window ,tickets--,showcards #bjc ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,illuminated ,,ms4 ,,book ,the ,arrangement of ,pages--,planning out--,the ,colophon--,the ,primary ,object of the ,book--,the ,decoration #baf ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,a ,,simple ,,method ,,of ,,binding ,,mss4 ,binding in limp ,vellum--,sewing the sections--,the ,decoration of the ,cover #bbe ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,the ,,illumination ,,of ,,the ,,printed ,,book ,the ,combination of ,printing and ,illumination-- ,books suitable for ,illumination--,the ,style of ,decoration suited to this #bcb ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,printed ,,book ,,decoration ,the ,title-page--,the ,initial ,letter--,types to avoid--,tail-pieces1 etc4 #bch ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,concluding ,,remarks #bdh ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,notes ,,on ,,books #bef ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,illuminated ,page ,frontispiece ,babylonian ,characters 7,fig4 #a7 #be ,egyptian ,hieroglyphics 7,fig4 #b7 #bg ,egyptian ,hieratic ,writing #bh ,stylus and ,early ,pens #bi ,cadmus gives the ,greeks an ,alphabet #cb ,the ,development of ,writing 7,fig4 #c7 #cd ,the ,development of ,writing 7,fig4 #d7 #ch ,the ,pen 7,fig4 #e7 #dc ,simple ,pen-,strokes 7,fig4 #f7 #de ,pen-formed ,letters 7,fig4 #g7 #di ,the ,construction of ,letters 7,fig4 #h7 #ea ,forming ,words and ,sentences 7,fig4 #i7 #ee ,word-spacing1 etc4 7,fig4 #aj7 #eg ,alphabets for ,study 7,fig4 #aa7 #fa ,alphabets for ,study 7,fig4 #ab7 #fc ,alphabets for ,study 7,fig4 #ac7 #fd ,alphabets for ,study 7,fig4 #ad7 #ff ,roman ,lettering 7,fig4 #ae7 #ga ,pen-formed ,roman ,lettering 7,fig4 #af7 #gd ,the ,trajan ,column #gf ,the ,trajan ,alphabet 7,fig4 #ag7 #gg ,the ,trajan ,alphabet 7,fig4 #ah7 #gh ,the ,trajan ,alphabet 7,fig4 #ai7 #gi ,roman ,alphabets 7,fig4 #bj7 #hj ,roman ,alphabet1 pen-formed 7,fig4 #ba7 #ha ,roman ,alphabets 7,fig4 #bb7 #hb ,the ,lindisfarne ,gospels #hd ,flemish ,initials #aja ,initial ,letters 7,fig4 #bc7 #ajb ,initial ,letters 7,fig4 #bd7 #aje ,a ,simple ,page in ,black and ,red #ajg ,method of ,setting out ,page 7,fig4 #be7 #ajh ,medival ,alphabets 7,fig4 #bf7 #aaj ,the ,construction of ,initials 7,fig4 #bg7 #aaa ,illumination in ,black and ,red 7,fig4 #bh7 #aac ,the ,preparation of ,colours 7,fig4 #bi7 #acc ,gilding ,materials 7,fig4 #cj7 #adh ,illumination with ,gold and ,colours 7,fig4 #ca7 #aeg ,illuminated ,altar ,tablet #afa ,the ,development of ,illumination 7,fig4 #cb7 #afb ,rough ,sketches of ,illuminated ,pages 7,fig4 #cc7 #aff ,a ,roll of ,honour #afg ,illuminated ,altar ,tablet #afi ,a ,church ,porch ,text #agj ,an ,illuminated ,address #aga ,various ,forms of ,illuminated ,addresses 7,fig4 #cd7 #agb ,designs for ,christmas ,cards #ahe ,a ,christmas ,card #ahg ,styles of ,cards 7,fig4 #ce7 #ahh ,styles of ,cards 7,fig4 #cf7 #ahi ,designs for ,programme and ,progressive ,whist ,card #aij ,booklet ,cover #aib ,an ,attractive ,advertisement #aib ,a ,handbook ,cover #aid ,lettering for ,maps1 etc4 7,fig4 #cg7 #aie ,a ,design for a ,certificate #aif ,an ,alphabet for ,poster ,work 7,fig4 #ch7 #aig ,two ,designs for ,labels #aih ,a ,design for a ,letter ,heading #aii ,a ,design for a ,music ,cover #bjj ,a ,design for a ,bookplate #bja ,an ,attractive ,piece of ,lettering #bjd ,guide for ,hand-written ,posters 7,fig4 #ci7 #bje ,specimen ,poster written with ,pen 7,fig4 #dj7 #bjg ,specimen ,poster written with ,brush 7,fig4 #da7 #bji ,design for a ,menu #baj ,window ,tickets 7,fig4 #db7 #bac ,a ,showcard 7,fig4 #dc7 #bad ,frontispiece of ,blake's 8,songs of ,innocence0 #baf ,arrangement for ,,ms4 ,book 7,fig4 #dd7 #bah ,title-page of ,blake's 8,songs of ,innocence0 #bai ,examples of ,colophons 7,fig4 #de7 #bba ,two pages from 8,songs of ,innocence0 #bbc ,method of ,stitching ,,ms4 ,book 7,fig4 #df7 #bbf ,vellum ,cover 7,fig4 #dg7 #bbh ,cover ready for ,binding 7,fig4 #dh7 #bbi ,completing the ,cover 7,fig4 #di7 #bcj ,the ,illumination of the ,printed ,book 7,fig4 #ej7 #bcc ,styles of ,title ,pages 7,fig4 #ea7 #bci ,types of ,initials to ,avoid 7,fig4 #eb7 #bdb ,decorative ,initials 7,fig4 #ec7 #bdc ,tail-pieces 7,fig4 #ed7 #bde ,,illumination ,,and ,,its ,,development ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,day ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,tool ,calligraphy and ,illumination are inseparably bound up with each other4 ,the art of ,illumination cannot be severed from that of ,writing4 ,one cannot imagine the decoration apart from the writing4 ,undoubtedly this sprang from a desire to beautify the writing4 ,man sought to make his manuscripts beautiful1 and the result was a form of illumination1 at first very primitive1 but gradually developing into the beautiful art that we are so familiar with in the choice manuscripts of the middle ages4 ,when commencing the study of the art of illumination it is extremely important that it should be approached from the proper standpoint4 ,it is to be feared that this has not always been the case4 ,the lure of the bright gold and colours has often led both teacher and taught astray1 and the proper use of the pen in writing has been almost entirely neglected4 ,instead of allowing the tool to have its own way1 it has been forced to form laborious shapes that are not suited to its construction at all4 ,the decoration1 it is to be feared1 has been looked upon as a sort of spice to be added as a finishing touch1 instead of being a vital growth springing naturally from the writing4 ,until it be viewed from this standpoint1 no real progress can be made4 ,if a building is to be soundly constructed1 the first thing to see to is that the foundations are well laid4 ,the same principle applies in this case4 ,the decoration1 if it is to be living and real1 must have a starting-point for growth4 ,the student should see that this is a sure foundation and not a tottering1 shaky structure4 ,well-formed writing should be the first consideration4 ,ordinary hand-writing is a development of the kind of writing used by the old calligraphers4 ,generally speaking1 the connection between the two is not recognised4 ,probably if this were so calligraphy of the present day would be much better than it generally is4 ,the fact that it is generally referred to as 8printing0 shows how the connection has been lost4 ,drawing is thought to be more akin to it than hand-writing4 ,it is no uncommon sight to see a student carefully drawing the shapes of the letters and then filling them in with a fine mapping pen4 ,if the individuality of the pen as a letter-making tool were recognised this kind of thing would not occur4 ,it may be interesting to consider briefly some of the early influences at work in the production of writing4 ,illustration3 ,,babylonian ,,characters4 ,showing the influence of the tool on the shapes of the ,characters4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,in ,fig4 #a some examples of early ,babylonian characters are shown4 ,in these early days the common writing material was clay4 ,the characters used in writing were rough pictures of different objects which were drawn in outline4 ,thus the sign for 8king0 was a rude drawing of a man crowned2 this was scratched on the surface of the soft clay with a pointed tool4 ,one can quite understand how these characters could be constructed with a series of impressions in much less time than it would take to draw them in outline4 ,then again it must have been much easier to draw on the soft clay in this way4 ,a square-pointed stylus was used for this purpose1 and1 with the wedge-shaped impressions thus produced1 the characters could be formed quite easily4 ,not only was the scribe able to write with greater speed1 but the way in which the characters were produced was more methodical4 ,the character for 8king10 when made with the wedge-shaped impressions1 was constructed as shown in 7b74 ,one can easily recognise the same form placed horizontally1 instead of vertically1 as was originally the case4 ,in course of time the characters became somewhat simplified4 ,the next step in the development of the character is shown in 7c74 ,the final form is shown in 7d71 this being very much simplified4 ,in like manner the signs represented in 7e7 and 7h7 were used to denote 8star0 and 8sun0 respectively4 ,the development of these is seen in 7f7 and 7g71 also in 7i7 and 7j74 ,the reason for calling attention to these characters is to show how the shapes are influenced by the tool and the material employed4 ,this is a most important factor in the formation of letters4 ,where soft clay was used as a material1 and the characters were formed by making impressions with a stylus1 one would naturally expect that these signs would take the form of a series of indentations rather than flowing lines as from a brush or pen4 ,in the case of the ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 shown in ,fig4 #b1 a difference is at once noticed4 ,these characters were at first small pictures carved on stone4 ,the hieratic characters were simple interpretations of these formed with a reed pen4 ,it is quite obvious1 to all who care to observe1 how easily these characters could be formed1 especially when they are compared with the earlier signs4 ,in this case the influence is quite different from that of the ,babylonian characters4 ,instead of a series of impressions1 one notices long flowing strokes characteristic of the pen4 ,it is interesting to note how the essential quality of the more elaborate character is obtained with simple pen-strokes4 ,although the hieroglyphic is often quite complex there is still a likeness retained in the hieratic form4 ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,hieroglyphics4 ,showing the development into the ,hieratic or pen-formed ,characters4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,the reed pen used by the ,egyptian scribes was the forerunner of the modern pen4 ,it was formed from the hollow stalk of grasses that grew in marshy districts4 ,sometimes pens were made from hollow canes and bamboos4 ,this kind of pen is still used in the ,east4 ,the material used for writing upon was known as papyrus4 ,this was made from the pith of a species of reed1 the ,cyperus ,papyrus of ,linnus4 ,this was1 in early days1 cultivated in the ,delta of ,egypt4 ,it was used for several different purposes1 one of the most important being for writing-material4 ,this was prepared by cutting it into strips and placing these side by side1 with another set placed across them at right angles4 ,the two layers were stuck together and the whole pressed and dried1 and the surface smoothed to make a sheet of writing-material4 ,it is a most difficult matter to state when the quill pen was first used4 ,probably the earliest allusion to it occurs in the writings of ,st ,isidore1 ,archbishop of ,seville1 who lived in the early part of the seventh century4 ,the following is the quotation in question3 8,instrumenta scrib calamus et penna2 ex his enim verba paginis infiguntur2 sed calamus arboris est1 penna avis1 cujus acumen dividitur in duo40 78,the tools of the writer are a reed and a quill2 for by these words on pages are impressed2 the reed is of wood1 the quill from a bird1 and its point is divided into two407 ,but of course it is extremely probable that quill pens were in use at a much earlier period than this4 ,it is well known that metal pens were used by the ,romans1 as a number of these1 made of bronze1 are in existence at the present time4 ,for general writing purposes tablets coated with wax were used by the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,a stylus with one end pointed and the other flattened was used to write with1 the writing being done with the sharp point and erasures made with the flattened end4 ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,hieratic ,,writing4 ,illustration3 ,ivory ,stilus4 ,silver ,stilus1 bound with gold wire4 ,ancient ,roman ,bronze ,pen4 ,ancient ,reed ,pen4 ,the skins of animals have been used as a writing material since quite an early period1 and the use of vellum was probably an improvement upon this4 ,pliny1 in his 8,natural ,history10 tells the story1 on the authority of ,varro1 of how ,eumenes ,,ii41 ,king of ,pergamus from #aig to #aei ,b4,c41 was desirous of extending the library in his capital1 but the ,ptolemies1 being jealous1 stopped the export of papyrus1 thinking by this means to prevent the royal library from growing4 ,owing to the lack of papyrus1 skins were employed and1 necessity being the mother of invention1 the manufacture of vellum came about4 ,whether any real importance can be attached to this story or not1 it is certain that ,pergamus was a great centre for the manufacture of vellum4 ,in fact1 the word 8parchment0 is derived from charta ,pergamena1 i4e41 8paper from ,pergamum40 ,it is easy to see how this ideal writing-material1 with the quill pen1 must have had a great influence upon the formation of letters4 ,generally speaking1 the writing on parchment or vellum is crisper and more sharply defined than that on the papyrus4 ,there is not the slightest doubt that the influence of the tool and the writing-material had a great deal to do with forming the shapes of the letters4 ,good lettering was seldom or never consciously designed1 but was the result of certain influences at work4 ,in the development of lettering in the past1 the pen1 as a letter-making tool1 has played a most prominent part4 ,a reed or quill pen cut with a broad nib1 so as to give crisp thick and thin strokes1 is an ideal tool for the formation of letters1 but one thing is necessary3 the pen must be allowed to have its own way4 ,the letters should not be designed first and copied with the pen afterwards4 ,if the lettering is to be pen-formed1 let it be formed with the pen2 it should come straight from the pen4 ,the capabilities of the pen as a letter-making tool should be carefully studied4 ,the reed or quill pen should be used1 and one of the best ways to become intimate with the pen is to cut it to shape for oneself4 ,one is thus able to understand the possibilities of this tool as a means for the formation of letters1 in a much more intimate manner than if a ready-made tool is placed in the hand4 ,the first thing to endeavour to grasp is how to cut and use the pen4 ,after this has been mastered1 the next step should be the formation of letters4 ,this is followed by forming letters into words4 ,then comes writing and designing with masses of writing4 ,not until the student is thoroughly familiar with the use of lettering should he attempt to add any decoration to it4 ,a fine piece of writing in black1 or black and red1 on vellum or fine hand-made paper is a piece of decoration by itself1 but a bad piece of lettering cannot be made beautiful1 however much ornament be added afterwards4 ,the first step towards the study of illumination proper comes then1 and attention should be given to the place of the initial letter and the part it has played in the past as a starting-point for the decoration in the ,,mss4 of the medival period4 ,at first a good deal can be done with the use of black and red only1 or black1 red1 and blue4 ,then come simple decoration with gold and colours2 the use of raised burnished gold2 the application of illumination for commercial purposes2 and the illuminated ,,ms4 book4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,writing ,,in ,,the ,,past ,before describing the method of cutting and using the pen1 it may possibly be instructive to survey briefly the development of writing through the centuries4 ,the alphabet1 as we know it1 has been traced right back to that used by the ,phnicians4 ,in fact1 until a comparatively short time ago1 it was thought by some that it could be traced back to the ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 but in the light of recent discoveries this theory is no longer tenable4 ,the origin of our alphabet is therefore still a matter for research1 although there seems to be no doubt concerning its descent from the ,phnician alphabet4 ,the ,roman alphabet seems to be a direct descendant from this1 and it is from the ,roman alphabet that the lettering that is in use to-day has been derived4 ,roman writing was divided into two distinct classes3 the formal book-hand1 and the cursive hand which was the common hand-writing of the people4 ,,majuscule ,,writing ,the book-hand first took the form of majuscules1 which in turn were divided into ,square ,capitals1 ,rustic ,capitals1 and ,uncials4 ,after this came the modified forms of ,uncials caused by the admixture of minuscules4 ,illustration3 ,,cadmus ,,gives ,,the ,,greeks ,,an ,,alphabet4 7,tradition relates that letters were first introduced into ,greece by a ,phnician named ,cadmus47 ,by way of explanation it may be here mentioned that1 in both ,greek and ,latin palography1 capital letters are termed 8majuscules10 while small letters are known as 8minuscules40 ,,square ,,capitals ,probably the earliest ,latin majuscule writing is that known as square capitals4 ,these seem to be modelled on the same type of letter that was used for the fine inscriptions4 ,although the general opinion is that these are the earliest form1 there is very little square capital writing in existence4 ,the earliest specimen known has been attributed to the end of the fourth century1 although it is thought that this form of writing had been in use some centuries before this4 ,it was in use until the fourth or fifth century4 ,there is not the slightest doubt that writing1 when these letters were used1 must have been comparatively slow work4 ,,rustic ,,capitals ,rustic capitals seem to be an attempt to write the letters by means of simple pen-strokes4 ,writing with this type of letter must have been much quicker than when the square capitals were used4 ,this style of writing has been used in the earliest ,latin ,,mss4 now in existence1 but1 although this is the case1 the general opinion seems to be that the square capitals were used first4 ,the title 8,rustic0 is somewhat misleading1 as it might lead one to suppose that these letters are rough in character1 when they are generally written quite as carefully as the square capitals4 ,,uncials ,illustration3 ,roman ,square ,capitals4 ,rustic ,capitals4 ,uncials4 ,half-,uncials4 ,irish ,half-,uncials4 ,english ,half-,uncials4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the next stage is the use of the majuscules known as 8,uncials40 ,these are true pen-formed letters4 ,they seem to be based on the square capitals1 but1 in place of so many angles1 curves are employed1 these being much more adapted to the use of the pen4 ,it is a round hand1 and a very beautiful form of writing4 ,the simplicity of the characters with their flowing curves is such that they may be easily formed with a sharply-cut reed or quill4 ,the letters1 ,a1 ,d1 ,e1 ,h1 ,m1 and ,u1 are the principal letters that show the characteristics of this form of writing4 ,it seems to have been in common use as a book-hand in the fourth century4 ,it is1 however1 thought by some that it is quite possible that it may have been in use as early as the third century1 as in the oldest specimens that are known the lettering appears to be fully developed4 ,one of the special distinctions of this kind of writing is the way some of the vertical strokes rise above1 or fall below1 the line of writing4 ,from the fifth to the eighth centuries it was given the premier place as a literary hand4 ,the early uncials1 as also were the square capitals and rustic capitals1 were written with a pen cut with a slanted point4 ,,mixed ,,uncial ,,and ,,minuscule ,,writing ,it must be remembered that all the time these majuscules1 both capitals and uncials1 represent only one side of the handwriting employed1 viz41 that used for the production of books4 ,the ordinary handwriting of the people1 known as 8cursive0 writing1 was in extensive use at the same time4 ,very often this form of writing got mixed up with the other1 and the result was a mixed style4 ,for example1 in some of the early majuscule ,,mss41 notes have been found written in this style4 ,this gradually came to be used as a book-hand1 until soon very few of the early uncial forms were left4 ,,half-,,uncials ,to this form of writing in its full development the title of 8,half-,uncial0 has been given4 ,it was employed as far back as the fifth century for writing ,,mss4 ,it may have been used because it could be written more quickly than the ordinary uncial2 anyway1 it seems to have been very extensively used as a literary hand4 ,this style is very important1 as it marks the beginning of the change from majuscule to minuscule writing4 ,these characters were generally formed with a straight-cut pen4 ,,irish ,,half-,,uncials ,writing in the ,british ,isles was greatly different from that used on the ,continent4 ,on the ,continent the hand was developed from the ,roman cursive writing1 while in ,england and ,ireland the ,roman ,half-,uncial was the starting-point of development4 ,there is not the slightest doubt but that the rise of ,christianity in the ,british ,isles had a great deal to do with the development of the book-hand4 ,it is a well-known fact that the ,christian missionaries from ,rome brought with them a number of ,,mss4 which may have served as models for the native scribes4 ,these were probably written in ,roman half-uncials1 which would account for the manner in which the ,irish handwriting developed4 ,evidently no ,,mss4 written in pure uncials came to ,ireland2 anyway1 there seems to be no reason to suppose that such was the case1 as no ,,ms4 of this type has been found that may be claimed to be purely ,irish without any shadow of doubt4 ,early ,irish writing is in two forms1 round and pointed4 ,the round hand is distinctly half-uncial4 ,although it is most difficult to state the earliest date of the ,irish ,,mss41 the general opinion is that they date back at least as far as the seventh century4 ,the famous ,book of ,kells is a well-known example of ,irish half-uncials4 ,the pointed writing was developed in the eighth and ninth centuries4 ,this is probably a development of the round hand1 and in course of time became the ,irish national hand4 ,,english ,,half-,,uncials ,in ,england there were two distinct schools of writing1 one of which came from ,ireland and the other brought over by the ,roman missionaries4 ,very little is known of the writing brought over by the foreign missionaries1 as only a small amount is known to be in existence4 ,there is evidence1 however1 that some of the ,roman rustic capitals were made use of4 ,the ,english half-uncials were modelled on the ,irish half-uncials4 ,the writing in the ,durham ,book1 now in the ,british ,museum1 affords a good example of this kind of writing4 ,it is interesting to compare this writing with that of the ,book of ,kells2 there is a great similarity4 ,both are carefully written with the straight-cut pen4 ,the ,english half-uncials also developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a pointed hand4 ,capitals which were used for initials1 etc41 are simply variations of the majuscules4 ,,minuscule ,,writing ,as mentioned before1 the ,roman cursive was the basis of the writing on the ,continent4 ,three great national hands were formed1 viz41 ,lombardic1 ,visigothic1 and ,merovingian4 ,,lombardic ,,writing ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,this was the national handwriting of ,italy2 it was used from the eighth to the eleventh centuries4 ,the term 8,lombardic0 is given as a general term to the writing of ,italy in the early middle ages4 ,in ,fig4 #d some free renderings are given of this hand4 ,the first 7a7 is an example in one of its earliest stages1 written cursively in the early part of the ninth century4 ,the next1 shown in 7b7 is the book-hand a little later4 ,the third example 7c7 is a later development of the eleventh century1 known as 8broken ,lombardic40 ,it may be noted that in all these the slanted-cut pen has been used4 ,,visigothic ,,writing ,the title 8,visigothic0 has been given to the national handwriting of ,spain4 ,derived also from the ,roman cursive1 it developed into a book-hand that was used in the eighth century4 ,it was in use until the twelfth century4 ,the first example 7d7 is a half-cursive book-hand of the seventh or eighth century4 ,the next 7e7 a book-hand of the early tenth century4 ,the last example 7f7 is the last stage1 being of the twelfth century4 ,all these are written with the slanted-cut pen4 ,,merovingian ,,writing ,this is the name given to the writing practised in the ,frankish empire4 ,this form of writing leads on to the great reform in the time of ,charlemagne4 ,starting1 as was the case in the other two schools1 from the ,roman cursive1 it developed into a set book-hand which is noticeable in several ,,mss4 of the seventh and eighth centuries4 ,an early specimen is shown in 7g74 ,several different types of writing were used within the limits of the ,frankish empire1 some of which bear a strong resemblance to the ,lombardic style4 ,in fact1 so similar are they that it is rather difficult to distinguish one from the other4 ,the example 7h7 is one of this type1 being of the late seventh century4 ,as uncial and half-uncial characters were still used for a good number of ,,mss4 it is but natural that these should influence the style of writing4 ,the specimen given in 7i7 is an example showing the influence of the half-uncial1 and is a step towards the full development of the ,caroline minuscule4 ,,carlovingian ,,writing ,the great revival of learning during the reign of ,charlemagne resulted in the development of a new school of writing known as ,caroline1 or ,carlovingian4 ,towards the end of the eighth century the decree calling for the revision of the ,church books naturally became the cause of fresh activity in the writing schools connected with the monasteries4 ,at ,tours the book-hand was developed which is known as the ,caroline ,minuscule4 ,an example is given of this hand4 ,this form of writing spread rapidly all over the ,frankish empire and gradually influenced the book-hands employed in the neighbouring countries4 ,the use of the slanted-cut pen is an important thing in connection with the formation of these minuscules4 ,,later ,,styles ,the tenth century example given is from the ,benedictional of thelwold1 ,bishop of ,winchester from ,a4,d4 #ifc-ihd4 ,this lettering is of the foreign type1 but it has a strongly defined native character all its own1 some of the letters being distinctly ,saxon in type4 ,from the twelfth century onwards a great number of ,,mss4 were produced1 each country having its own particular style and developing on certain definite lines4 ,it is impossible to give specimens of all the different kinds of ,calligraphy4 ,the examples shown must be taken as roughly indicating the general style of the writing4 ,the use of the slanted-cut pen tended towards the compression of the letters1 thus forming a strong contrast to the letters produced in the earlier periods with the straight-cut pen4 ,in the thirteenth century writing became considerably smaller4 ,in the latter part of this century a very large number of ,bibles appear to have been written1 and volumes were smaller1 standing out in strong contrast to the ponderous tomes of the preceding century4 ,in the fourteenth century the writing became considerably stiffer and more angular4 ,this tendency showed itself still more strongly in the fifteenth century4 ,in ,italy this tendency did not make itself felt quite as early as in the writings of ,northern ,europe4 ,although later on they became more or less affected in this way1 there is a decided difference between ,italian writing and the styles employed by the other countries4 ,in the fifteenth century the ,italian scribes appear to have gone back to their early periods for models for book-hands1 and it is this that influenced the early printers of ,italy to use type of this character1 which has its modern representative in the ,roman type of to-day4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,preparation ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,pen ,to obtain a practical knowledge of the use of the pen as a letter-making tool is1 as stated before1 the first important thing for the student to acquire4 ,all the practice he can get in cutting it to shape1 and using it in the manner described here1 will be found to be of the greatest service in helping him to produce good lettering with it later on4 ,for large writing1 the best tool is undoubtedly the reed pen4 ,in fact1 this is probably the best pen for the beginner to experiment with first4 ,it is somewhat difficult to obtain a good reed pen4 ,the ordinary kind that is sold by the artists' colourmen is rather too soft and soon becomes sodden with the ink4 ,crisp writing is then impossible4 ,a pen made from a piece of hollow cane or bamboo seems to answer best of all4 ,a sharp knife is required for cutting1 and a thin piece of metal to form a spring to hold the ink is a great advantage4 ,it should be quite easy to see from ,fig4 #e how the pen should be cut4 ,the great thing to remember is to see that the pen is cut with a nice chisel point1 as this ensures crisp and sharp writing4 ,another important detail is the slit in the nib4 ,this should be just the right length for easy writing4 ,if it is too long it makes the pen too soft1 while1 on the other hand1 if too short it is difficult to write with it4 ,the student will find that experiment alone will teach him what is right in this matter4 ,an hour or two spent experimenting for himself with a reed or quill will teach him far more than pages of instruction4 ,beyond just giving a few hints1 there is no need to devote much space to directions as to how to cut the pen4 ,the few details given are just to act as a guide to the student4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pen ,,fig4 #e4 ,in cutting the nib1 care should be taken that the slit is a clean cut1 also that the points are equally proportioned on each side4 ,the spring is best made from a piece of thin brass1 copper1 or pure tin4 ,if1 ordinary tinned iron is used it is liable to get rusty besides being generally too thick4 ,it will be found that a great deal depends on the position in which this is placed1 with regard to the flow of ink from the pen4 ,when using the reed pen for large writing it will be found necessary to pare the curved inside of the pen quite flat at the point1 to ensure a firm stroke1 as otherwise a hollow stroke will be the result4 ,for smaller writing the best pen is the turkey quill4 ,the goose quill is not quite firm enough1 but a good turkey quill can be cut either for quite tiny writing or large bold writing4 ,it is best to strip the feather part right away1 as there is no advantage in having it on the pen4 ,this can easily be torn off by pulling the end of the feather downwards4 ,for practice any good smooth-surfaced paper may be used4 ,several of the well-known makers of high-class hand-made drawing papers make a special paper for writing and illumination4 ,a good fluid waterproof drawing ink should be used4 ,care should be taken to procure one that will not thicken either in the bottle or in the pen4 ,it is a great fault with some inks that1 although they do not seem to thicken very much in the bottle1 they do so in the pen4 ,when this is the case1 good writing is almost impossible4 ,one cannot produce good writing if one has to stop every little while to wash out one's pen4 ,besides1 when the ink is beginning to thicken1 clear1 sharp writing becomes impossible4 ,fig4 #f gives some simple exercises with the pen4 ,it should be quite easy to understand the formation of the pen-strokes from this diagram4 ,they should be practised over and over again until the strokes can be made very easily4 ,it should be noticed that the pen is kept practically at the same angle all the time4 ,it must be held as easily as possible4 ,there is no need to acquire any special manner of holding it4 ,different people hold the pen in different ways and it is best for the student to find out which way is easiest for him to hold it to produce good writing4 ,if the pen is held in a manner which may be correct according to a copy-book but which feels awkward and cramped for the writer1 the writing produced in this way is bound to show evidences of this4 ,if1 however1 the pen is held freely1 and easily1 it becomes almost a part of the writer himself1 and there is a feeling of freedom about the writing that is entirely absent from that produced by the other method4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the strokes in the diagram were made with a turkey quill pen in exactly the same manner as described here4 ,one of the most important things is to endeavour to keep the pen practically at the same angle all the time4 ,if the pen is allowed to twist about in the hand1 the distinction between the thick and thin strokes will not be sufficiently marked4 ,it should be quite easy for the student to acquire this mastery of the pen without holding it in a vice-like grip4 ,for clear1 sharp writing it is practically essential that there should be no ink on the back of the nib4 ,a small piece of linen1 free from fluff1 should be kept for a pen-wiper1 and the back of the pen should be wiped before commencing to write4 ,the ink should be kept free from pieces of fluff or small hairs1 as if these get into the pen it is impossible to produce good writing4 ,the exercise should be practised first with two ruled lines1 then with one only4 ,it is good training if1 after this1 the student will try his skill in writing without any lines at all4 ,he should not sketch it in lightly first in pencil1 but should start straight away with the pen4 ,the width of the nib should be approximately the same as the thickness of the thick strokes of the writing4 ,when the nib becomes blunt or uneven it should be carefully re-cut4 ,when re-cutting the pen it is advisable not to cut it in too drastic a fashion4 ,cut it gradually1 taking very little off at first and using only a very sharp knife4 ,one of the best knives for this purpose is a surgeon's scalpel1 as1 being made of hard surgical steel1 it does not get blunt so quickly as the ordinary pen-knife4 ,in the next chapter it is intended to begin to practise the formation of letters4 ,before studying it the student should practise cutting the pen and forming the strokes in ,fig4 #f4 ,he should endeavour to make a sharp distinction between the thick and thin strokes1 and also strive after perfect regularity4 ,the more he practises this exercise the better will he be able to form the letters in the succeeding ones4 ,the student is advised thoroughly to master one stage before proceeding with the next4 ,one that has been mastered is of more value than several hurried over in a careless fashion4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,letters ,having become somewhat acquainted with the use of the pen1 the next step to be taken is the formation of letters1 on the same principle as the strokes were made in the last chapter4 ,fig4 #g shows an alphabet of capital letters and also one of small letters4 ,each letter is formed with simple pen-strokes1 and the student should experience no difficulty in forming these after practising the previous exercise4 ,perhaps it would not be amiss to give a few suggestions as to working4 ,in the first place he should set about his task in a workmanlike manner4 ,it is practically useless practising on a few odd scraps of paper1 in a slipshod way1 without making any special preparations4 ,this method of working is responsible for a good deal of slovenly work and cannot be too severely censured4 ,the old proverb1 8,if a thing is worth doing it is worth doing well10 is perfectly true in this case4 ,illustration3 ,,pen-,,formed ,,letters4 ,,fig4 #g4 ,the student should obtain a drawing-board and fasten his paper down carefully before commencing to work4 ,it will be found that a pad made of several sheets of blotting-paper placed under the writing-paper will make the writing easier4 ,this makes a much more sympathetic surface to write upon than the hard drawing-board4 ,then the slope should be considered4 ,it is not advisable to work with the board flat on the table4 ,it should be raised to form a convenient slope4 ,in the old illustrations that we have representing the medival illuminator at work1 he is always depicted as writing at a sloping desk4 ,by far the most suitable for writing is a firm water-colour easel which can be inclined to any angle4 ,if1 however1 this is not to hand1 a drawing can be raised on a table to the required angle by resting one end of the board on a small box4 ,another point is the lighting4 ,it is best to arrange this so that the light comes over the left shoulder1 otherwise the shadow of the hand falls on the work4 ,rule lightly1 with a black-lead pencil1 some lines to work upon4 ,first rule two lines for each row of letters4 ,for the capitals these should be about in4 apart1 and for the lower-case letters #c_/h in4 should be sufficient4 ,the pen should be cut so as to give a fairly bold stroke1 to prevent forming a thin1 weak-looking letter4 ,great care should be taken to ensure that the writing be crisp and sharp4 ,see that the back of the nib is free from ink1 and be careful to keep the pen at practically the same angle4 ,the habit of turning the pen about in the hand while writing is responsible for a lot of clumsy work4 ,the beginner generally fails to turn the ends of his strokes smartly1 thus failing to distinguish between the thick and thin strokes4 ,this is caused by not keeping the pen at the same angle4 ,the least possible pressure should be put on the nib4 ,let the pen have its own way2 do not force it at all4 ,some prefer to dip the pen into the ink1 wiping the back of the nib on a small linen pen-wiper4 ,others use a small brush or quill for dropping the ink into the pen4 ,some dealers put their ink into bottles provided with quill stoppers for this purpose4 ,whichever way be used1 care should be taken not to fill the pen too full1 as if this is done there is every probability that a blot may be caused by ink dropping from it4 ,fig4 #h shows exactly how the various strokes are formed4 ,the different strokes that go to make up the capital ,a are carefully shown in the proper order and exactly how they can be made4 ,most of the letters in the alphabet are also shown with the pen-strokes necessary for their production4 ,they are numbered so that the student should have no difficulty in understanding exactly how to form them1 the first stroke being numbered #a1 the second #b1 and so on4 ,it will be found that the letters that are not shown in this manner are made up of strokes that are shown plainly in some other letter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,after practising the formation of these letters between two lines1 the student should use one line only4 ,in fact1 after he begins to get familiar with this method of forming letters he should discard altogether the use of the second line1 as he should be able to write just as easily on one line only4 ,some students seem to be afraid that they will not be able to keep the writing the same size unless they use two lines4 ,it is strange that in ordinary hand-writing they would never think it necessary to rule two lines to keep their writing the same size4 ,the use of two lines is necessary to the beginner until he has become familiar with the pen1 but there is no necessity to keep using these1 for they only hamper him and give him less freedom in working4 ,one of the difficulties that beginners generally experience1 in attempting to form letters with the pen in this way1 is that they are unable to get good firm curves and strong upright strokes4 ,the cause of this is nothing more or less than simply lack of practice4 ,if the student has any trouble in this way he should practise the earlier exercise again and again4 ,weak-looking curves and tottering strokes will soon become few and far between as he gains confidence in himself4 ,if he gives his whole attention to forming the strokes1 the facility to produce well-formed letters will soon be acquired4 ,another cause of bad writing is often due to the pen4 ,if this is not cut so that it will give crisp strokes good lettering is impossible4 ,the student should not waste time trying to write with a badly-cut pen2 it is much better to re-cut it straight away4 ,after practising forming the letters this size1 he should reduce them4 ,the pen should be cut with a smaller point to suit the size of the letters1 and lines should be ruled closer together4 ,he should endeavour to get the same crispness and sharp distinction between the thick and thin strokes as in the larger writing4 ,he should not rest satisfied until he is able to produce clear sharp writing on single lines4 ,he should strive to keep the strokes of the letters quite upright1 not leaning to the right or to the left4 ,if he has practised the earlier exercise thoroughly he should experience no difficulty in this matter4 ,the next chapter will deal with massing letters together to form words and sentences4 ,it is1 however1 as well to emphasise the fact that the formation of the individual letters should be mastered thoroughly first4 ,,chapter ,v ,,forming ,,words ,,and ,,sentences ,one of the best ways to get familiar with spacing and forming letters into words is to write out a short quotation4 ,in ,fig4 #i one is given for the student to transcribe4 ,a sheet of smooth-surfaced paper should be fastened to a board with drawing-pins1 placing the pad of blotting-paper underneath4 ,the page should then be ruled out with the lines #c_/af inch apart1 with the exception of the first lines1 which are #c_/h inch apart4 ,rule the lines as lightly as possible1 with an ,,hb4 pencil1 so that they are just visible1 and can be removed by the gentlest possible touch of the rubber4 ,it should be noticed that the width of the paragraph is determined by the first word1 8,imagination40 ,the way that the individual letters are carefully packed together1 side by side1 is an important factor4 ,it is hardly worth while cutting a special wide pen for writing the initial ,i4 ,this can be easily formed by making two strokes closely together4 ,this practice should not be adhered to as a general rule for this type of letter1 as some letters present a patched appearance when constructed in this manner4 ,letters should be composed either of simple pen-strokes or else built up4 ,never attempt to worry a letter into existence4 ,later on a method of building up letters will be shown4 ,they are1 however1 a different type from those shown here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,this exercise should first be written between two ruled lines to each row of lettering4 ,then write it out using one line only4 ,then reduce the size1 cutting a pen with a smaller point1 but keeping to the same proportion in spacing4 ,in copying this do not draw the lettering first in pencil1 but go straight ahead with the pen4 ,also do not attempt to copy it in a rigid manner1 endeavouring to get exactly the same number of words on each line as in the copy4 ,pack each letter closely to its fellow1 and do not attempt to spread out any word to make it fit better4 ,the distance between each word should be about the width of a small letter4 ,do not try to squeeze a word or syllable in at the end of a line4 ,it is better to let it project slightly over the line2 see 7a7 ,fig4 #i4 ,if1 when the end of the line is reached1 there is a space left not quite large enough for the next word1 do not attempt to spread out the last word1 but either add a simple pen ornament as in 7b7 or the line may be emphasised by pen-strokes or dots1 as in the copy4 ,still another method is shown in 7c71 where flourishes from the final letter fill the space4 ,these1 however1 should be used sparingly1 as they tend to make the matter less readable4 ,after the student has had a good amount of practice in writing in this manner he will begin to feel his way and be able to mass and arrange the letters and words properly4 ,it is only when he becomes master over the pen1 so that he can write quickly and easily1 that he is able to mass the letters into words with facility4 ,after having written this quotation1 a fresh one may be selected and written out in a similar manner4 ,if this practice is persisted in1 the student will gain valuable experience in the spacing and arrangement of words4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,in ,fig4 #aj several interesting points are noticed4 ,in the first place the necessity for packing the letters should be noted in 7a74 ,if the two renderings of the same word be carefully examined1 it will be seen that the first one has a somewhat broken appearance4 ,this is notwithstanding the fact that each letter is exactly the same distance from the next to it4 ,in the second example there is much more unity1 yet the letters are not really so equally spaced4 ,the way to get over this difficulty is to place each letter as closely as possible to its fellow4 ,the first example looks like ,l ,,etter ,,ing because due consideration has not been given to the fact that however closely ,l and ,e1 and ,r and ,i1 are placed together1 there will always be a fair amount of space1 so that these should be packed1 if possible1 closer together than the rest4 ,as the ,e is a curved letter1 the ,l can easily be formed so that the lower part comes underneath4 ,also the tail of the ,r can project under the ,i4 ,this device should not be carried to excess as shown in 7b74 ,one often sees architectural drawings disfigured by a lot of this kind of thing4 ,the student is advised carefully to guard against this1 or his writing will become freakish4 ,in 7c7 two examples are given which show the advantage of massed writing4 ,in the first example the letters are placed together in a loose manner1 and the two lines are too far apart4 ,the second is much easier to read because the letters are packed closer together1 and also the lines of lettering are nearer4 ,for general purposes massed writing is undoubtedly best1 but for some things1 as1 for example1 in writing poetry1 the lines may be wider apart4 ,the letters1 however1 should be packed together1 and it is not a bad plan to make the stems and tails of the letters just a trifle longer than usual4 ,a curious optical illusion is shown in 7d71 in connection with the letter ,s4 ,the first one is constructed so that each half is approximately the same size1 but it appears to be larger in the top half4 ,it presents the same illusion if the page is held upside down4 ,the second one1 which is drawn with the top half slightly smaller1 appears right4 ,this applies to several other letters in the alphabet1 but in the letter ,s it is most noticeable4 ,the letter ,p is a letter that requires some attention4 ,if a word begins with this letter1 the form with the stem projecting below the line may be used2 but when this occurs in the middle of a word1 it tends to make it less readable4 ,the example given1 at first glance1 looks like ,,heads4 ,a modern fad of using ,v instead of ,u1 and ,i in place of ,j1 should be discouraged4 ,in ,latin1 possibly1 there is something to be said for it1 but in modern ,english it looks foolish and affected1 besides being almost unreadable at times4 ,the student will find the alphabet of italics useful for rapid lettering of plans1 maps1 etc4 ,he should endeavour to preserve the same slope1 not getting some letters falling over and others nearly upright4 ,there is no need to give detailed instructions as to how to form the individual letters1 as1 after having practised the formation of letters in the preceding chapter1 he should experience no difficulty in feeling his way with regard to the forming of the individual strokes that go to make up each letter4 ,the same thing applies to the pen-formed figures that are given here4 ,these are all composed of simple pen-strokes1 and the student should be able to form these quite easily and quickly4 ,constant practice with the reed or quill pen will do more than anything to make him an efficient writer4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,alphabets ,,for ,,study1 ,,based ,,on ,,historical ,,examples ,after the student has1 to some extent1 mastered the pen1 and is able to write fairly easily1 it would be a good plan for him to study some of the best historical examples1 forming the letters in the same simple manner4 ,the examples given here are free renderings of the various alphabets used in the different periods4 ,in the case of any of the letters being missing to form the complete alphabet1 these have been constructed in a similar style4 ,the reason for doing this is so that the student should experience no difficulty in writing when using any one of these alphabets1 as would possibly be the case if an incomplete alphabet were given4 ,these alphabets are merely given for convenience1 the object not being in any way to keep the student from studying the original manuscripts for himself4 ,it was thought1 however1 that it might possibly be helpful if the various letters were given in the form of complete alphabets1 as1 after studying the various forms of lettering in this manner1 the student would be encouraged to study the actual ,,mss4 for himself4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,one of the most beautiful forms of simple pen-formed lettering is given in ,fig4 #aa4 ,the uncial characters shown here 7a7 afford one of the best examples for practice in writing with the reed or quill4 ,these letters are all formed with simple strokes made with the slanted-cut pen4 ,for the purpose of general writing it may be as well to change the form of one or two of the letters1 such as the ,a1 for example1 and possibly the ,d4 ,forming these characters with a well-cut pen is splendid practice for the student4 ,he should endeavour to form the letters with simple direct strokes1 with no touching up afterwards4 ,after having practised the previous exercises well1 he should be able to form these letters quite easily4 ,he should1 as opportunity occurs1 examine carefully some of the fine uncial manuscripts1 or at any rate some good reproductions of them4 ,the alphabet shown next 7b7 is founded on the ,irish half-uncials4 ,the one striking difference between this and the previous alphabet is that this is written with a straight-cut pen instead of a slanted-cut pen4 ,this is plainly noticeable in the round letters such as a1 c1 e1 o1 etc41 the thickness coming in quite a different place4 ,it will be found that writing in this manner with the straight-cut pen is much slower work than writing in the other way4 ,it is1 however1 very good practice for the student4 ,the same remarks that were made about the uncial letters apply also here2 it would be as well to modernise some of the letters1 such as the 8g0 and the 8n10 when writing with this alphabet4 ,in ,fig4 #ab some very beautiful alphabets are shown which are excellent in every way as examples for study4 ,these are all formed with quite simple strokes made with the slanted-cut pen4 ,the one shown in 7c7 is a free rendering of the letters used in the famous 8,benedictional of thelwold40 ,as the 8s0 and the 8t0 given here are liable to be somewhat unreadable1 additional forms of these letters are suggested4 ,the example given in 7d7 is taken from a tenth-century ,psalter1 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,this ,,ms4 is a very beautiful example of the ,english writing of this period4 ,the writing of this century should be very carefully studied4 ,the student should not be content with merely working from the letters given here1 but should study some of the ,,mss4 of this period for himself1 noting carefully the spacing and the arrangement of the lettering4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,the next alphabet 7e7 is taken from an ,italian twelfth-century ,,ms4 ,this is slightly stiffer in character than the preceding one1 and the writing tends to become more compressed4 ,however1 the lettering still retains its round character4 ,it is easy to mass the letters together when using this alphabet4 ,the letters in ,fig4 #ac are still more compressed in character4 ,the alphabet shown in 7f7 is taken from a late twelfth-century ,,ms4 of the ,french ,school4 ,it is a very good form of lettering and will well repay careful study4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,the next one 7g7 is a typical example of the style of lettering largely employed in the thirteenth century4 ,although the letters are shown here as large as in the preceding example1 the lettering generally was much smaller4 ,if the student examines carefully any of the thirteenth century ,,mss4 he will notice this to be the case4 ,he should practise using this alphabet in the same way1 cutting his pen so that he is able to form the small letters quite easily4 ,he will probably experience difficulty in producing writing as small as the medival scribe was able to do1 as this comes only from a great amount of practice1 but he should be able to write quite easily with the lines of lettering not more than #c_/af in4 apart4 ,the alphabet that follows this 7h7 is from a fourteenth century ,,ms4 ,it will be noticed that the letters here are much more angular1 and they conform more to what is popularly known as 8,old ,english40 ,this form of writing can be quite easily formed with the slanted-cut pen4 ,there is no need to employ a fine pen for putting in the thin strokes1 as is so often the case1 as the complete letter may be formed with the same pen if it is cut with a nice chisel point4 ,it is most important that the student should form the whole of the letter with the same pen1 without any touching up afterwards4 ,the practice of forming letters roughly and shaping them up afterwards with a fine pen tends to cultivate most unworkmanlike habits and cannot be too severely censored4 ,also letters formed in this manner are always lacking in character and vitality4 ,if the student has become familiar with cutting and handling the pen he ought to be able to form any of the letters given here without the slightest difficulty4 ,the alphabets of capital letters given in ,fig4 #ad will be useful as initials1 etc41 in connection with the small letters4 ,it is quite obvious that these letters are not formed with simple pen-strokes in the same manner as the small letters are4 ,these are built up with a series of strokes1 the body of the letter being then filled in with either pen or brush4 ,this method of building the letters up with pen-strokes will be described in detail in a later chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,the first alphabet given here 7i71 is based on the capital letters used in the famous ,book of ,kells4 ,these will serve well as initials when using the ,irish half-uncial characters for writing with4 ,a good many of the letters are given in a variety of forms4 ,some of these are shown here and are liable to be somewhat unreadable if used in the present day4 ,for example1 the ,irish ,o is shaped more like ,d1 and may as well be used instead of this letter1 which is not very distinct in character4 ,the letter ,g would be hardly recognisable if used in the ,irish form1 so a simplified letter has been suggested4 ,some slight modifications have also been suggested in the letters ,n and ,p4 ,by raising the cross-bar in ,n it conforms more to the modern shape of this letter4 ,it is necessary to simplify the ,irish ,p1 as this letter resembles the letter ,r more than anything else4 ,the next alphabet1 shown in 7j71 is based on capitals used in the tenth century1 a somewhat stiff and severe type of letter4 ,the last one 7k7 shows the type of capital used in the eleventh century4 ,some further alphabets will be given later on1 when dealing with illumination4 ,the student should not content himself merely with forming the letters given here1 but should study the subject for himself4 ,he should1 if possible1 examine some of the illuminated ,,mss4 exhibited in the various museums in ,london and elsewhere4 ,he is specially recommended to study the ,,mss4 produced between the tenth and thirteenth centuries4 ,if he cannot possibly study the actual ,,mss4 he should experience no difficulty in obtaining reproductions of them4 ,the ,british ,museum publishes an excellent series of collotype plates of a good number of their choicest illuminated ,,mss41 as well as some splendidly reproduced in gold and colours4 ,it will be found that a fair amount of time given to the study of these old ,,mss4 will well repay in the end4 ,the way the letters are massed together should be carefully noted1 as well as the formation of the individual letters4 ,he should note also the freedom displayed1 the letters not being cramped in any way4 ,when studying lettering from photographs1 or photographic reproductions1 the proportional compass is extremely useful for measuring the exact size of the letters4 ,the exact size of the page is nearly always given1 and it is quite a simple matter to adjust the compass so that1 when the measurement is taken with the smaller end1 the exact size of the lettering can be marked off with the opposite end4 ,this instrument is most useful when used in this manner1 as it is difficult to gauge the exact size of the lettering from the measurements of the page4 ,it is also always advisable to know1 if at all possible1 the exact size of the lettering in the original when studying a reproduction of a ,,ms4 ,when examining ,,mss4 in glass cases1 when it is not convenient to have them taken out1 a magnifying lens of about five or six inches focus is very useful for analysing the construction of fine lettering4 ,this depth of focus enables the lens to be used through the glass without the necessity of having the case opened4 ,the student should seize every opportunity that may arise to examine some of the best work of the medival period4 ,for the present he should confine his attention to the lettering4 ,the decoration will be considered later on1 but1 as this springs from the lettering1 it is essential that sufficient attention should be given to the foundation before attempting to build upon it4 ,he should also1 when opportunity arise1 examine some of the best modern work in this direction4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,roman ,,lettering ,the ,roman alphabet is certainly one of the most beautiful of all the alphabets that we possess4 ,it is1 however1 strictly speaking1 not a pen-formed alphabet4 ,the fine forms of the ,roman capitals1 as exemplified in the well-known inscription on the ,trajan ,column1 were most certainly the result of the evolution of chisel forms4 ,the pen-formed letters that came after were evolved from these ,roman capitals4 ,at first the type of letter used was practically the same as the chisel form4 ,writing with this type of letter must have been extremely slow work1 compared with the simpler pen-forms that came into use later4 ,it is impossible to write1 in the true sense of the word1 when using ,roman letters4 ,although in the case of the early square-capital writing these letters were constructed in a fairly simple fashion with a slanted-cut pen1 it is very difficult to write with any speed in this manner and at the same time produce a well-finished letter4 ,for general purposes it is better to form the letters as shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,these are constructed in quite a different way from the types already shown1 the difference being that while they were formed with simple pen-strokes as in ordinary handwriting1 these are built up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,for the purpose of illumination1 ,roman lettering is not by any means ideal4 ,it is much better to select a true pen-formed alphabet2 but for modern usage1 such as the various branches of commercial work1 ,roman lettering is used a great deal4 ,it possesses one very great advantage1 that is1 its legibility4 ,as the man in the street has his daily newspaper printed in a form of ,roman lettering1 he is therefore more familiar with this type than any other4 ,the greater bulk of the commercial art of the present day aims to attract the attention of this individual1 so that it is necessary that it should be just what he can understand4 ,to letter a popular advertisement in a late ,gothic lettering would be foolish in the extreme1 as he would1 in all probability1 experience difficulty in deciphering it4 ,the thing to aim at1 in this case1 is to do it so that he cannot help seeing it4 ,the most important thing1 in the eyes of the advertiser1 is not so much the design of the poster as the goods advertised1 and the lettering calling attention to these must be clear1 distinct1 and prominent4 ,lettering1 therefore1 that is based on the ,roman type is best for this kind of work4 ,illumination1 in general1 appeals to a different type of individual4 ,something is required that is away from the ordinary4 ,also as illumination is so inseparably bound up with writing1 it is almost essential that a true pen-formed lettering should be used4 ,the ,roman capitals1 as shown in ,fig4 #ae1 are based1 to a great extent1 on those used in the ,trajan ,column inscription4 ,it will be found that the more practice that one has in forming letters with simple pen-strokes1 as already shown1 the easier it will be to form the letters by building them up1 as in this case4 ,for general purposes the easiest way to form ,roman letters is with a pen cut with a medium point and a fairly long slit4 ,the outward strokes should be made first1 then the ones that come inside the letter4 ,the serifs are then added1 the outline filled in1 and the letter is complete4 ,the lower-case letters given are a type that may be used in conjunction with the capitals4 ,apart from the utility of this alphabet1 the student will find that forming these letters in this way will be extremely good practice4 ,he should also practise forming them with a brush4 ,for this purpose he should use a small1 but firm1 sable water-colour brush4 ,construct the letters in exactly the same manner as when using the pen4 ,after a good amount of practice in this way he will be surprised at the dexterity he is acquiring with the use of the brush4 ,then1 using a larger brush1 he should endeavour to form large letters in this way4 ,this will be extremely useful for writing large notices and announcements4 ,for work where very accurate lettering is required1 such as high-class commercial art1 title-pages1 etc41 the outlines of the letters should be produced by means of tee-square1 set-square1 and compasses4 ,the serifs also should be carefully drawn4 ,in this case it is not wise to go straight ahead with the pen1 without drawing first carefully in pencil4 ,the letters given in ,fig4 #af are a type of ,roman lettering made with simple direct strokes of the pen4 ,these will no doubt be useful1 as they may be very easily and quickly written4 ,they should be very helpful for writing quickly announcements1 notices1 etc4 ,a few notes may be useful to the student with regard to the characteristics of the various ,roman capitals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,the letter ,a is sometimes pointed at the top1 being generally formed in this manner in inscriptions1 but for pen- and brush-formed lettering it is preferable to finish it in the way shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,it should be noticed that in the letter ,b the top part forms an angle with the upright1 while the bottom part curves into the stem4 ,the same thing applies to ,d1 ,e1 and ,l4 ,the serifs on the lower limbs of ,e and ,l should point outwards1 while the serifs on the other limbs of ,e are quite straight4 ,this also applies to ,f4 ,it is best to make the cross-bar in ,h form angles with the uprights rather than curving into them4 ,the form of the letter ,j may be varied1 the tail may be curved round1 but it is as well to avoid the ugly shape that is in general use4 ,the tail may project below the line considerably1 if it is felt to be necessary1 but care should be taken not to exaggerate this too much4 ,the same thing applies to the tail of the next letter1 ,k4 ,in the letter ,m the two outside strokes occasionally spread outwards1 and in the form used in inscriptions the top serifs are missing4 ,these1 however are generally added to the pen- or brush-formed letter4 ,the same thing applies to the letter ,n4 ,the letter ,o is not quite a circle2 it is sometimes made in the tilted form1 i4e41 as formed with the slanted-cut pen2 when this is the case all the corresponding curved letters should be treated in the same way4 ,the curve of ,p does not always touch the upright stem below4 ,the tail of the ,q may be lengthened occasionally1 as also is the case in the letter ,r4 ,the letter ,s often leans slightly forward1 but this tendency should not be accentuated too much4 ,the top part of this letter should be made slightly smaller than the lower part2 this applies also to all letters similarly divided in the middle4 ,in the letter ,t the top generally forms angles with the centre stem instead of curving into it4 ,for general writing the curved type of ,u should be used in preference to the ,v which is used in ,latin inscriptions4 ,w is formed by crossing two ,v's4 ,the student is strongly advised to study some of the best historical examples of ,roman lettering4 ,some of these are detailed in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,some ,,historical ,,examples ,,of ,,roman ,,lettering ,the examples given in this chapter do not pretend to be1 in any way1 a complete series of alphabets of ,roman lettering4 ,to go into this matter properly would require far more space than is available here4 ,if1 however1 sufficient interest is aroused to encourage the student to study the subject for himself1 it will be worth while dealing briefly with the subject here4 ,one of the most important alphabets is that used in the inscription on the base of the ,trajan ,column 7circa #aad ,a4,d474 ,to help the student to form these letters in their proper proportions1 each letter has been enclosed in a square 7,see ,figs4 #ag-bb74 ,this should be a great help in determining the correct form of the different letters4 ,for example1 take the letter ,o2 this is not quite a circle1 as is shown plainly by placing the letter in a square4 ,in the case of the ,w1 as this is larger than the other letters1 this has been placed in two squares4 ,as the alphabet from this inscription is incomplete1 suitable forms have been suggested for ,h1 ,k1 ,y1 and ,z4 ,also additional letters have been given for ,j1 ,u1 and ,w1 which are necessary in modern usage4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,trajan ,,column4 ,this alphabet is extremely beautiful1 and for important inscriptions it is hardly possible to find a better model4 ,the student is advised to make a careful study of this alphabet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,when using this alphabet for writing an inscription it is not a bad plan to make a small cardboard gauge giving the width of the different letters in proportion to the height decided upon4 ,a small gauge like this is very easily constructed and should be a great help in quickly spacing the letters4 ,for example1 it may be noted that the letters ,c1 ,d1 ,g1 ,h1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,q1 ,u and ,z nearly fill the square1 while ,a1 ,r1 ,t1 ,v come next in size4 ,b1 ,x1 and ,y are slightly narrower1 while the letter ,p is a shade less than these4 ,l and ,s are still slightly less in width1 and ,e and ,f are the most narrow of all the letters1 excepting1 of course1 ,i and ,j4 ,if these various widths are marked on the edge of a small strip of card it ought to be quite an easy matter to space these letters quickly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,the first alphabet shown in ,fig4 #bj 7a7 is a free rendering from a thirteenth-century inscription in the ,church of ,st4 ,ursula1 ,cologne4 ,as the alphabet was incomplete it has been completed1 so that it may be used without any difficulty arising through any of the letters being missing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,the next one is from an inscription of the early part of the fourteenth century 7b74 ,a late fifteenth-century alphabet is given in 7c71 which is taken from an inscription in niello on a silver plaque fitted to a reliquary4 ,this is ,italian and is dated #adif4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,the alphabets of capitals and minuscules shown in ,fig4 #ba are of special interest to the illuminator4 ,these are based on the writing used in a late fifteenth-century illuminated ,,ms4 now in the ,british ,museum1 ,st4 ,augustine's 8,city of ,god0 7,add4 ,,ms4 #aebdf74 ,these letters are formed with quite simple strokes of the pen4 ,in this ,,ms4 the f-shaped minuscule s is used4 ,in the alphabet given here this has been substituted by one more in keeping with the modern type of letter1 and several letters have been added to make the alphabet complete4 ,the student is strongly advised to study the lettering in this ,,ms4 for himself4 ,it makes a very effective script if written fairly small with a crisply-cut pen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,some further alphabets are shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,the lettering from which the alphabet is taken that is shown in 7a7 is from a title-page from 8,utopia et ,mori et ,erasmi ,epigrammata10 dated #aeah4 ,it has woodcut borders and title-pages by ,holbein4 ,this style of letter is used throughout the book for headings1 etc4 ,it is undoubtedly a very fine type of letter and is worthy of careful study4 ,as has been the case in the other alphabets1 this alphabet has been completed by adding letters of approximate form to supply the missing ones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,the next alphabet1 given in 7b71 is taken from an inscription in marble on the monument of the ,marchese ,spinetta ,malaspina 7d4 #aceb71 relating to its re-erection in the ,church of ,san ,giovanni in ,sacco at ,verona in #aecf4 ,the last one shown here1 in 7c71 is from an inscription on the marble monument of ,filippo ,decio 7d4 #aece71 in the ,campo ,santo1 ,pisa1 by ,stagio ,stagi 7d4 #aefc74 ,of course1 numerous other examples might be given1 but sufficient have been shown to enable the student to study the subject further if he so desires4 ,there are numbers of reproductions from old inscriptions and ,,mss4 easily obtainable4 ,in studying these alphabets the student will find that it is not a bad plan1 after forming the letters with a pen as described in the preceding chapter1 to use a brush as also suggested there4 ,he should then endeavour to form them fairly large1 working straight away with the brush4 ,a good brush for this purpose is a sable 8writer10 such as is commonly used by sign-writers4 ,dexterity with this type of brush is to a great extent merely a matter of practice4 ,in fact1 as has been insisted on repeatedly throughout this book1 practice1 and plenty of it1 will do more than anything else towards making the student efficient4 ,when studying this subject further the student should note especially the manner in which the letters are arranged in the various inscriptions1 as a great deal depends upon the arrangement of the letters and words4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,a ,,brief ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,illumination 7#a7 ,from the ,fourth to the ,eleventh ,century ,perhaps it would be as well1 before dealing with the practical side of illumination1 to give a brief sketch of the history of this art in ,europe4 ,it will not be possible to do more than give just a very short outline of the history here4 ,the modern illuminator should1 however1 know something of the history of illumination4 ,it is not intended to deal with any but vellum ,,mss4 ,possibly it may be claimed that some of the ,egyptian ,papyrii are illuminated ,,mss41 but these have little in common with the illuminated work of the ,middle ,ages1 and it is with this that this short review is chiefly concerned4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lindisfarne ,,gospels4 ,by kind permission of the ,british ,museum4 ,,classical ,,and ,,byzantine ,,illumination ,it is known from the ,epigrams of ,martial1 who himself lived in the first century1 that vellum ,,mss4 were illuminated as early as ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,although this was undoubtedly the case1 very few ,,mss4 have survived4 ,it is very difficult to state exactly the date of the earliest of these1 but most authorities are of the opinion that the third or fourth century is the earliest date that any of them can be assigned to4 ,some think that the ,,ms4 of ,virgil in the ,vatican 7,no4 #cbbe7 is the oldest illuminated ,,ms4 ,this ,,ms4 is written on seventy-six leaves of vellum4 ,it has fifty miniatures1 but of this number five are scarcely visible at the present time4 ,these miniatures are framed with gilt or coloured bands1 but the ,,ms4 displays nothing in the way of ornament which is generally associated with illuminated work4 ,another early ,,ms4 is the ,ambrosian ,iliad1 at ,milan1 which some think to be of the third century and others of the fourth or fifth4 ,this is noted for its fine handwriting and also its illustrations4 ,these early ,,mss4 are really illustrated rather than illuminated1 as the term is generally understood4 ,following on after this comes the ,byzantine ,school of illumination4 ,the most important of the early ,,mss4 are the ,dioscorides and the ,genesis of the ,vienna ,library4 ,these two ,,mss4 are both thought to be of the sixth century4 ,the first of these1 called after its principal author the 8,dioscorides10 is a collection of treatises on botany1 hunting1 etc41 by several ,greek physicians4 ,this was written for the ,princess ,juliana ,anicia1 daughter of ,flavius ,anicius ,olybrius1 who was ,emperor of the ,west in #dgb4 ,it is written in uncial characters and contains1 amongst other things1 a portrait of ,juliana4 ,it contains also a number of coloured drawings of plants1 birds1 insects1 etc41 illustrating the text4 ,in the ,vienna ,genesis the text is written in gold and silver on purple vellum4 ,it has forty-eight miniatures which are placed in square frames1 and there is no marginal decoration4 ,gold is occasionally used1 but it is not burnished4 ,there is also a fragment of a ,genesis ,codex in the ,british ,museum 7,cott4 ,otho4 ,b4 ,,vi471 which is supposed to be of the same period4 ,the ,joshua ,rotulus in the ,vatican ,library 7,codex ,vat4 ,palat4 ,gr4 #dca7 is a very important ,,ms4 ,it is thought by some to be a copy of an original ,,ms4 possibly as old as the fifth century4 ,opinions1 however1 differ1 other authorities ascribing it to the fifth or sixth century4 ,another well-known ,,ms4 is the famous ,gospel ,book in the ,laurentian ,library of ,florence1 known as the ,rabula ,,ms4 ,this ,,ms4 is dated #ehf4 ,the first phase of the ,byzantine ,school is ,hellenesque1 and1 no doubt1 it was part of the ,alexandrian ,school1 which was at its height in the sixth century4 ,the later style1 which reached its maturity about the end of the ninth century and began to decline after the twelfth century1 represents what is generally understood as ,byzantine4 ,a ,simeon ,metaphrastes of the eleventh-twelfth century 7,add4 ,,ms4 #aahj7 and a twelfth-century ,gospels 7,harley ,,ms4 #ahaj71 both in the ,british ,museum1 represent the peculiarly dignified ecclesiastical style of this school4 ,the ,byzantine ,school influenced the development of illumination very strongly4 ,especially is this noticeable in ,italy4 ,,celtic ,,and ,,anglo-,,celtic ,,illumination ,in the development of illumination the ,celtic ,school played a most important part4 ,there is a very strong contrast between this and the ,byzantine ,school4 ,the ,byzantine ,,mss4 were illustrated by more or less naturalistic representations1 while in the ,celtic ,,mss4 everything seems to be treated as pure ornament4 ,even when the human figure is introduced it seems to be treated in this way4 ,gold is also absent in purely ,irish ,,mss4 ,the artists do not appear to represent the figure with any degree of realism4 ,the chief characteristics of ,celtic work are intricate spirals and interlaced pattern1 also patterns composed of dots1 and curious elongated creatures entwined together in a most complicated fashion4 ,possibly the earliest date mentioned in connection with ,celtic illumination is that given by ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 who went to ,ireland at the time of the ,anglo-,norman invasion4 ,he was chaplain to ,john1 the son of ,henry ,,ii4 ,he wrote concerning a famous ,,ms4 called the ,book of ,kildare1 a book which at present is not known to be extant4 ,he describes it as having been written at the 8dictation of an angel in ,st4 ,bridget's own time40 ,st4 ,bridget1 of ,kildare1 lived in the latter part of the fifth and the early sixth centuries1 so that1 if this account may be relied upon1 it must have been written at least a century before the celebrated ,book of ,kells4 ,from the details that ,giraldus ,cambrensis gives of the ,book of ,kildare1 he might easily be describing the ,book of ,kells4 ,it was evidently very similar4 ,the ,book of ,kells is now in the ,library of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin4 ,some authorities think this to be as old as the seventh century1 while others assign it to the eighth or ninth century4 ,this is an extremely beautiful ,,ms42 it has been described so many times that there is no need to give a detailed description here4 ,another well-known ,,ms4 is the ,book of ,durrow1 also in ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin4 ,some have thought that this was written by the famous ,columba of ,iona1 as the name 8,columba0 is mentioned in the colophon at the end of the ,,ms41 but whether this ,columba was ,st4 ,columba of ,iona is1 of course1 debatable4 ,certainly a number of authorities are agreed that its claims to be an actual relic of ,st4 ,columba are by no means to be altogether rejected4 ,the ,book of ,durrow1 although very fine1 is not such a good example as the ,book of ,kells4 ,it would be interesting to know if ,st4 ,columba had much to do with the cultivation of this art4 ,the early biographies certainly speak of him as an enthusiastic calligrapher1 and in an ancient 8,life of ,st4 ,columba0 he is spoken of as having written 8three hundred splendid1 lasting books40 ,it was through the efforts of the ,scoto-,irish missionaries from ,iona that the art of illuminating was introduced into the north of ,england4 ,they founded a monastery at ,lindisfarne early in the seventh century4 ,the famous ,durham ,book1 or ,lindisfarne ,gospels1 now in the ,british ,museum1 was written here about the year #gjj 7,nero ,d4 ,,iv474 ,the decoration and writing in this splendid ,,ms4 are essentially ,celtic4 ,it1 however1 differs from the ,book of ,kells by the slight use of gold in the decoration1 also in the four full-page portraits of the ,evangelists1 which show a strong ,italo-,byzantine influence4 ,this ,,ms4 is undoubtedly one of the choicest treasures amongst the illuminated ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum4 ,,carlovingian ,,illumination ,at the end of the eighth century the great revival of the arts which followed the accession of ,charlemagne acted as a great impetus to the art of illumination4 ,this art was developed from the crude ,merovingian style1 and many elaborate volumes were produced4 ,some of the most sumptuous are the ,alcuin ,bibles1 and the ,gospel ,books1 which were written in gold4 ,one of these ,alcuin ,bibles is exhibited in the ,british ,museum 7,add4 ,,mss4 #ajedf71 also one of the ,gospel ,books 7,harley ,,ms4 #bghh74 ,the miniatures and decoration in these ,,mss4 seem to show the influence of the ,roman1 ,byzantine1 and ,celtic ,schools4 ,the best period of ,carlovingian illumination seems to be the eighth century4 ,,the ,,winchester ,,school ,one cannot write even the briefest of sketches concerning the history of illumination without referring to the work produced by the two ,winchester ,scriptoria1 generally referred to under the appellation of 8,opus ,anglicum40 ,the ,anglo-,celtic tradition seems to have been completely lost1 probably due to the ,danish raids in the ninth century4 ,it is said that in the time of ,alfred the ,great1 there was a scriptorium already in existence at ,winchester1 founded by ,st4 ,swithin1 who was made ,bishop of ,winchester in #heb4 ,alfred1 when a boy of five1 went with his father to ,rome1 and there is1 at the very least1 presumptive evidence that1 when returning1 he saw the library of ,charlemagne at ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,when he came to the throne in #hga he founded another monastery near the old one1 attaching a scriptorium4 ,these two scriptoria were1 at a later date1 to become the nursery of ,english illumination4 ,although ,alfred seems to have done so much to foster this art1 there are1 unfortunately1 no specimens which have survived that can be assigned to any earlier date than that of his grandson ,athelstan 7#ibe-dj74 ,a small ,,ms4 known as ,athelstan's ,psalter was principally written on the ,continent in the ninth century1 but many additions were made to it in ,england towards the middle of the tenth century4 ,this ,,ms4 shows that some efforts had been made to replace the lost art of the ,anglo-,celtic ,school1 which had flourished more than #bjj years before by a new style based on ,continental models2 and1 although these miniatures may appear somewhat crude1 they probably represent the best work of the ,english artists at this early period4 ,the first known example of actual ,winchester work is the 8,golden ,charter0 of ,king ,edgar1 in #iff1 now in the ,british ,museum 7,cott4 ,,ms4 ,vesp4 ,a4 ,,viii474 ,this represents an enormous advance on the crude paintings in ,athelstan's ,psalter2 a miniature on a purple ground shows ,king ,edgar1 standing between the ,virgin and ,st4 ,peter1 offering the ,charter to the ,saviour4 ,this page is well designed and a fine decorative border surrounds the miniature4 ,the most famous example1 however1 is the well-known ,benedictional of thelwold1 in the ,library of the ,duke of ,devonshire4 ,if the student wishes for a full and illustrated description of this fine ,,ms4 he is referred to the twenty-fourth volume of the ,archologia4 ,this ,,ms4 was written by ,godeman1 a monk of the old ,minster1 at ,winchester2 it contains twenty large miniatures1 each facing a benediction for the most important days1 with seven others of groups of ,confessors1 ,virgins1 and ,apostles at the beginning1 and at the end the bishop is represented giving a benediction in his cathedral4 ,all these miniatures1 excepting the last1 are surrounded with arches or frames of gold and colours1 and a similar border surrounds the opening words of the benediction4 ,the ,harleian ,psalter 7,harl4 ,,ms4 #bijd71 in the ,british ,museum1 is another ,,ms4 of this school4 ,it would take far too much space to go into details concerning this1 but special mention should be made of the drawing of the ,crucifixion4 ,this is in outline and is slightly tinted and shaded4 ,it is very interesting as showing the stage that figure-drawing had reached at this early period4 ,one very characteristic feature of ,winchester work is the curious 8fluttering0 drapery which is noticeable in practically all the work of this school4 ,,chapter ,x ,a ,,brief ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,illumination 7continued7 7#b7 ,from the ,twelfth ,century to its ,decline ,,illumination ,,in ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century ,a great change is noticeable in the illuminated work of the twelfth century1 one of the most important being the development of initial decoration and the use of raised and burnished gold1 and especially the miniatures1 which were often introduced within the initial letters4 ,the art of illumination gained considerably during this century1 of which the second half is notable for the number of richly-illuminated ,bibles of large size that were produced4 ,in ,england during this century there is a great difference between the work produced and that of the preceding century4 ,probably a number of things may be instanced as having caused this4 ,there is hardly a doubt but that the ,norman ,conquest may have had a great deal to do with the introduction of ,continental ideas4 ,it is also possible that the ,crusades may have been responsible for a better knowledge concerning the ,byzantine and ,eastern ,schools4 ,the framing borders to the miniatures1 etc41 are somewhat different to the loose entwined borders of the ,winchester ,school1 being generally simple rectangular bands1 either displaying a simple pattern or else practically plain and severe4 ,it is in initial-ornament that the greatest development is noticeable4 ,in the latter part of the century some very beautiful initials filled with conventional foliage with human1 animal1 and grotesque forms entwined were produced4 ,both in miniature painting and also in outline drawing a very definite style was formed4 ,the ,psalter of ,westminster ,abbey 7,royal ,,ms4 #b ,a4 ,,xxii47 is a good example of the miniature painting of this period1 while the famous ,guthlac ,roll 7,harley ,roll ,y4 #f7 affords a good example of the outline drawing of this period4 ,,thirteenth-,,century ,,illumination ,in the thirteenth century the style of decoration was more refined4 ,some of the most beautiful work in the whole history of illumination was produced in this century4 ,numerous examples abound1 and these deserve very careful study4 ,the ornamental border1 which had practically disappeared in the twelfth century1 gradually re-developed during this century2 first in the form of a growth from the initial letter1 it developed into a foliated border upon which small animals1 birds1 and quaint little figures were placed4 ,some of the ,french ,,mss4 of this period are particularly beautiful4 ,bibles are numerous1 being often quite small in size4 ,some of these ,,mss4 appear to be as perfect as if they had just been completed1 the gold being still brilliant and the colours still retaining their freshness4 ,all the ,,mss4 of this period seem to follow a general scheme of decoration4 ,for example1 the opening page of ,genesis is one of the most elaborate1 being taken up with a series of miniatures representing the days of ,creation2 the ,jesse tree was also represented at the opening of the ,gospels4 ,in the latter half of this century diaper backgrounds were used a great deal in the miniatures1 and in some cases burnished gold was used with patterns indented upon it4 ,a typical example of a thirteenth-century ,bible is shown in the ,bible of ,robert de ,bello1 who was ,abbot of ,st4 ,augustine's1 ,canterbury1 #abbd-abec4 ,this ,,ms4 is in the ,british ,museum 7,burney ,,ms4 #c74 ,it is written in a minute hand and illuminated with figure initials and partial borders4 ,the initial ,i of ,genesis is quite characteristic of thirteenth-century work4 ,another ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum1 a ,bible ,history1 moralized1 in ,latin 7,add4 ,,ms4 #ahgai71 is a good example of the outline drawing at the end of this century4 ,this is a ,,ms4 of the ,french ,school4 ,another fine ,french ,,ms41 of about #acjj1 also in the ,british ,museum1 is that of the ,somme le ,roi 7,add4 ,,ms4 #bhafb71 which1 with its bright colours and burnished gold1 is a good example of the best ,french work of this period4 ,there are1 of course1 many other ,,mss4 that might be detailed1 these instanced here being merely typical of the general style of work produced in this century4 ,,illumination ,,in ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,century ,the illumination of the fourteenth century was a development of the work of the preceding century4 ,nature was copied more1 and natural foliage treated in a conventional manner was largely used4 ,the oak1 the hawthorn1 the ivy1 and various other natural growths were frequently employed4 ,especially was this the case with the ivy1 which in the ,french ,,mss4 was used a great deal4 ,the use of very large initials was not so usual1 but while the initials decreased in size the technique improved4 ,this tendency towards naturalism developed more and more as the century advanced4 ,these natural forms1 however1 were still considered as decoration and were not mere naturalistic renderings4 ,miniature painting was also developed in this century2 indeed1 the art of illumination is generally considered to have reached its highest point of development in this century4 ,certainly some of the most beautiful and richly-decorated ,,mss4 are of this period4 ,there is a fine example of ,english work of the early fourteenth century in the ,british ,museum in the ,,ms4 known as ,queen ,mary's ,psalter 7,royal ,,ms4 #b ,b4 ,,vii474 ,this ,,ms4 is very interesting1 as it not only has the usual richly-illuminated pages1 but also a large number of lightly tinted outline drawings4 ,a beautiful example of ,french miniature work of the early part of this century is shown in an ,apocalypse1 also in the ,british ,museum 7,royal ,,ms4 #ai ,b4 ,,xv474 ,the miniatures in this ,,ms4 are drawn in outline and slightly tinted1 on grounds of dark blue and red4 ,another fine ,french ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum is an ,epistle in ,french by ,philippe de ,maizires1 ,celestin of ,paris1 to ,richard ,,ii4 of ,england1 advocating peace and friendship between him and ,charles ,,vi4 of ,france1 #acie-acif4 ,this affords a good example both of miniature work and ivy-leaf decoration4 ,some initials that have been cut from a large ,missal 7,add4 ,,mss4 #bigjd1 #bigje7 show the development of rich decoration in ,england towards the end of the fourteenth century4 ,,illumination ,,in ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,and ,,later ,in the early part of the fifteenth century the work of the ,french ,school was undoubtedly superior to that of the ,english4 ,the ivy-leaf decoration of the fourteenth century was developed into an elaborate decorative scheme4 ,the gold and diaper backgrounds began to be dispensed with and natural scenery was substituted4 ,in fact miniature painting became more and more naturalistic in treatment1 and the same tendency is noticeable in the decoration1 which1 although often most elaborate and highly finished1 is not to be compared with the earlier work4 ,in this century1 ,flemish illumination1 which during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was very similar in style to the ,french and ,english ,,mss41 developed into a most distinctive style specially notable for its fine1 delicate drawing4 ,an illuminated ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum1 8,mandeville's ,travels0 7,add4 ,,ms4 #bdahi71 is an example of this style4 ,it contains twenty-seven miniatures1 without text1 illustrating ,sir ,john ,mandeville's travels4 ,these are drawn with a pen on vellum that has been tinted a soft pale green4 ,they have been shaded in black and white with a brush1 and colour is used for flesh tints1 foliage1 etc41 and gold is also used for crowns1 nimbi1 etc4 ,in ,flemish illumination of the latter part of the fifteenth century miniature painting became highly developed1 becoming more realistic4 ,the decoration became debased1 becoming eventually merely a frame of gold or colour upon which were painted realistic representations of flowers1 fruit1 insects1 etc4 ,these were often beautifully painted1 and the miniatures also show great skill from a technical standpoint1 but lacking generally the fine feeling that characterises the work of the earlier periods4 ,this later style is represented by a number of ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum4 ,one only is mentioned here1 although this is but one of many4 ,the 8,hours of the ,virgin0 7,egerton ,,ms4 #aadg74 ,the ,breviary of ,john1 ,duke of ,burgundy 7,harley ,,ms4 #bhig71 and the 8,book of ,hours0 of ,john1 ,duke of ,bedford 7,add4 ,,ms4 #ahhej71 are two famous ,,mss4 of the ,french ,school at this period1 now in the ,british ,museum4 8,the ,missal of ,william ,melrith1 ,alderman of ,london0 7,arundel ,,ms4 #aji71 is an example of ,english illumination of the first half of this century4 ,in ,italy1 as was the case in regard to writing1 the illuminators in the early part of this century seem to have gone back to the period of the eleventh and twelfth centuries for models4 ,a familiar type of decoration is formed of twining vine-tendrils1 generally in white on coloured grounds4 ,another type that was in use a great deal was a delicate style of decoration composed of a conventional treatment of flowers1 foliage1 etc41 studded with a large number of raised gold spots brilliantly burnished1 outlined and rayed4 ,in course of time these styles became much more elaborated with medallions1 vases1 candelabra1 portrait busts1 realistic renderings of gems1 and ,renaissance figures4 ,some examples of late ,italian work in the ,british ,museum are as follows3--,st4 ,augustine's 8,commentary on the ,psalms0 7,add4 ,,ms4 #adgii72 8,luiz1 de ,bello ,macedonico10 etc4 7,harley ,,ms4 #cfid72 8,book of ,hours10 of ,bona ,sforza1 ,duchess of ,milan 7,add4 ,,ms4 #cdbid74 ,when the art of printing from type was first practised1 this did not at once stop the production of illuminated ,,mss4 ,the large number of ,,mss4 that were produced after this date shows quite plainly that1 except in the commoner class of books1 the ,,ms4 book still occupied the most prominent place4 ,professional illuminators were still employed by people in high positions1 and some very costly and elaborate volumes were produced4 ,many of the early printed volumes were printed with spaces left for initials1 miniatures1 etc41 to be filled in by the illuminator4 ,however1 in course of time this art gradually fell into disuse4 ,this brief summary of the history of this art is necessarily incomplete2 it has not been possible to deal thoroughly with this subject here4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that the student will continue the study of the historical side of illumination1 and that this little sketch will serve as an introduction to further study4 ,illustration3 ,early #adth ,century4 ,,flemish ,,initials4 ,illustration3 ,late #acth ,century4 ,,flemish ,,initials4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,initial ,,letter ,if the illuminated ,,mss4 of the ,middle ,ages are carefully studied1 the importance of the initial letter as a starting-point for the growth of the decoration cannot possibly escape one's notice4 ,the rough sketches shown in ,figs4 #bc and #bd trace the development in this direction through the various centuries4 ,these are given simply to indicate the way in which the initial letter was used in the different periods4 ,the student is strongly advised to study the subject for himself4 ,if he cannot examine the details from the actual ,,mss41 there are plenty of excellent reproductions published which will enable him to study them at his leisure4 ,it is1 however1 practically essential that1 even if he cannot spend much time over them1 he should make a point of at least seeing some of the actual work of the medival artists4 ,in the famous ,book of ,kells the initial letter is used to great advantage4 ,it will well repay the student to study carefully some good reproductions of the pages of this wonderful ,,ms4 ,it shows what can be done with fine decoration based on lettering4 ,quite a number of pages are taken up with the words ,liber generationis ,christi1 while one page is entirely devoted to the sacred monogram ,x ,p ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,in ,fig4 #bc an example is shown in 7a7 from the famous ,lindisfarne ,gospels1 now in the ,british ,museum 7,cotton ,,ms41 ,nero ,d4 ,,iv474 ,this beautiful ,,ms4 is written in fine1 half-uncial characters1 the decoration being of the kind known as ,hiberno-,saxon1 or ,anglo-,celtic4 ,a note at the end of this ,,ms4 states that it was written by ,eadfrith1 ,bishop of the ,church of ,lindisfarne4 ,it was finished about the year #gjj4 ,it has a most interesting history1 which is much too detailed to describe here4 ,it should1 however1 be carefully studied from the standpoint now being considered1 viz41 the initial letter4 ,the page represented by this rough sketch is the opening page of the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,of course this very rough suggestion can convey no idea of the beauty of the original1 but it gives one some notion of the way in which the monogram ,x ,p ,i has been used as a basis for the decoration4 ,perhaps it would be as well for the student to study1 for the present1 some of the ,,mss4 of the best periods from this standpoint alone4 ,he should note exactly how the letters are placed and the manner in which they are used4 ,for the time being he should not concern himself so much with the details of the decoration4 ,this may follow later1 after he has become more familiar with the subject4 ,the page shown in 7b7 is from a ,psalter probably written at ,winchester in the latter part of the tenth century 7,harley ,,ms4 #bijd74 ,it is the commencement of ,psalm ci4 ,this is also in the ,british ,museum1 as also are all the examples illustrated here4 ,it is quite different to that of the ,lindisfarne ,gospels1 although possibly some ,celtic influence may be noted4 ,the next one 7c7 is also from a ,psalter 7,arundel ,,ms4 #fj74 ,this is a further development of the same school as the last1 and was probably written at ,new ,minster1 ,winchester1 about #ajfj4 ,it is interesting to observe how the ,d is linked up with the border4 ,the initial ,b1 illustrated by 7d71 is from a twelfth-century ,psalter of ,westminster ,abbey 7,royal ,,ms4 #b ,a4 ,,xxii474 ,very large initials were very common during this period4 ,this letter is filled with foliage1 animals1 etc41 and also shows scenes from the life of ,david4 ,the initial ,b at the commencement of the ,psalms was a favourite subject with the illuminator at this time4 ,he generally introduced the subject of ,david slaying ,goliath also4 ,a common feature of the thirteenth-century illumination was the use of large decorated examples of the initial ,i1 of which an instance is given in 7e74 ,these were filled with miniatures and foliage and were extremely decorative in character4 ,this one is from a ,french ,gospel ,lectionary 7,add4 ,,ms4 #agcda71 and is filled with scenes from the ,life of ,christ4 ,a charming example is shown in 7f71 which is from a ,book of ,hours 7,stowe ,,ms4 #ag74 ,the initial ,d contains a miniature1 as also does the ,a4 ,this is probably either late thirteenth or early fourteenth century4 ,david and ,goliath are also represented4 ,the whole ,,ms4 is delightful in style4 ,fig4 #bd shows some more examples4 ,another page from a ,book of ,hours is given in 7g7 7,egerton ,,ms4 #bgha74 ,this is a fourteenth-century ,,ms4 ,the initials and borders are rather rough in technique1 but they are very interesting from the point of view of design4 ,the large initial ,d has a miniature representing a legendary story of the childhood of ,christ4 ,the initial ,a shown in 7h7 is from a fourteenth century ,missal 7,harley ,,ms4 #bhia74 ,the letter is filled with a most delightful miniature4 ,the next example 7i7 is a very beautiful initial taken from a ,bible executed in ,england during the latter part of the fourteenth century 7,royal ,,ms4 #a ,e4 ,,ix474 ,a number of the initials are filled with foliage1 as in this case1 and others contain miniatures4 ,the backgrounds of these letters are usually of burnished gold with patterns indented upon them4 ,a simple1 but very beautiful1 type is given in 7j74 ,this is taken from an extremely fine ,,ms4 written1 also1 at the end of the fourteenth century 7,royal ,,ms4 #bj ,b4 ,,vi474 ,it is a very interesting ,,ms41 being an ,epistle by ,philippe de ,maizires to ,richard ,,ii4 of ,england1 advocating peace and friendship between him and ,charles ,,vi4 of ,france4 ,this type of initial was fairly common at this period4 ,it is a type of letter that should be very useful for the beginner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,in the fifteenth century the initial letter lost a good deal of its importance4 ,the result of this was that the decoration became debased in character1 until it finally became nothing more or less than a number of naturalistic renderings of flowers and insects1 painted on a gold border and represented as throwing shadows upon it4 ,there is1 however1 a certain amount of sweetness about some of this work1 especially when it is compared with some of the work of the present day4 ,however1 some of the ,,mss4 that were produced in the earlier part of this century are very fine pieces of work4 ,the example illustrated by 7k7 is from a ,psalter of ,henry ,,vi41 about #adbe-adcj 7,cotton ,,ms4 ,domitian ,a4 ,,xvii474 ,the large initial ,d is joined to a miniature4 ,several initials are given in 7l74 ,these are all of the thirteenth century4 ,the ,e is of raised and burnished gold on a blue block1 the centre being red and the whole finished with white lining4 ,the ,n1 ,p1 and ,u are of a type largely used1 being generally red with blue pen-work1 or vice vers4 ,the others are similar to the ,e1 but are shown as an example of how they were joined when coming close together4 ,excellent reproductions of these examples have been published by the ,british ,museum authorities in a series of collotype plates1 the only exception being 7e7 in ,fig4 #bc1 of which an illustration is published in the ,guide to the ,,mss41 ,part ,,iii4 ,the main object of this chapter is to direct the student to the study of the ,,mss4 for himself and especially to show what an important place the initial letter had in the ,,mss4 of the medival period4 ,he is strongly advised to make a point of studying some of the actual ,,mss4 for himself4 ,illustration3 ,a ,simple ,page in ,black ,red4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,simple ,,illumination ,,in ,,black ,,and ,,red ,a good deal of very effective work can be done by using black and red only4 ,the student should be able to do good work in this way before attempting to use gold and colours4 ,a method for setting out the page1 before commencing to write1 is shown plainly in ,fig4 #be4 ,for this purpose a tee-square and set-square are required1 together with a pair of spring dividers and a sharply-pointed ,,hb4 pencil4 ,the approximate size of the page and the distance between the lines of lettering must be decided4 ,then the margins at the top and the two sides must be marked out1 and the upright lines drawn in by means of the set-square4 ,the distance between the lines of lettering is then pricked off down one side with the spring dividers4 ,the lines can then be ruled across against the tee-square4 ,a word of caution is perhaps needed here3 the pencil should be held as shown in the diagram1 and kept at the same angle during the ruling of the line4 ,if this rule is not carefully observed1 it is possible to start with the point of the pencil close up against the edge of the tee-square1 or set-square1 and finish the line with it about one-sixteenth of an inch away from it4 ,if this habit is developed1 the lines of lettering will hardly ever be quite straight and even4 ,another important detail is to see that the tee-square rests tightly against the edge of the board1 and the set-square against the tee-square4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,it will be found that an ,,hb4 pencil is the most satisfactory grade for ruling the lines with1 as if used lightly the lines can be cleaned off quite easily afterwards with a piece of soft rubber4 ,some illuminators recommend an ,h4 or ,,hh4 pencil for this1 but1 although these keep a sharp point longer1 the lines produced are not so easily erased4 ,after ruling the page the next thing to be settled is the size of the initial letter4 ,it should be lightly sketched in with the pencil4 ,it is best to use the writing lines to govern the size of this4 ,for example1 the size of this letter might be four or five lines down4 ,it is very effective to have the first few words in capitals4 ,several different arrangements are shown in ,fig4 #be4 ,the position of these may be roughly planned out in pencil4 ,they may then be written in red straight away1 or may be left until after the black lettering is done4 ,it is best not to finish the initial until after the lettering is done4 ,when the position of the initial and the opening words is determined1 the black lettering should be proceeded with4 ,the student should endeavour to ensure perfect freedom in working1 also to aim at preventing the writing from looking as if a great deal of trouble had been taken to make it fit and space well4 ,for anyone to derive any joy out of it1 there must be a feeling of spontaneity and freedom about it4 ,he should allow his imagination to work when writing4 ,if he studies the words that he is writing he is bound to have suggestions come to his mind4 ,for example1 perhaps one verse seems to stand out very prominently1 and it is felt that it would be better if written entirely in red4 ,or1 again1 another verse seems to start a new line of thought1 and a fresh initial is suggested4 ,after the writing is completed1 attention should be paid to the initial and the decoration4 ,a good method for the beginner is to fix a sheet of tracing-paper over the page2 as the lettering shows plainly through1 there is plenty of opportunity for experimenting with decoration4 ,some good types of letters suitable for initials are shown in ,fig4 #bf4 ,the first alphabet is based largely on a type of letter used in the eleventh century1 while the second one is a free rendering of thirteenth-century letters4 ,these letters are all built up4 ,they may be made with either pen or brush4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,building up these letters with strokes made with the pen or brush is excellent practice for the student4 ,for constructing the letters in the first alphabet the pen will probably be found to be the best tool4 ,these letters are constructed in a similar manner to that described in an earlier chapter on forming ,roman capitals4 ,some suggestive details are shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,the letters in the second alphabet may be formed much more easily with a brush than with a pen4 ,it will be seen in ,fig4 #bg how naturally the letter is filled in with the brush1 the end of the stroke terminating in a small knob4 ,for filling in the letters in this way a brush should be used quite full of colour1 and it should also have2 a good point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,after having a fair amount of practice in forming letters in this way the student will soon be able to produce them quickly and easily4 ,the terminals of these letters may be drawn out if necessary1 or they may be joined up with the border4 ,the student should take note1 from the examples given in the previous chapter1 of the manner in which the initial was used in the past as a starting-point for the decoration4 ,vermilion is a good red for this purpose4 ,there are several varieties sold1 known by various names1 such as scarlet vermilion1 orange vermilion1 vermilion1 and ,chinese vermilion4 ,the kind known simply as vermilion seems to answer best of all4 ,scarlet and orange vermilion are liable to look somewhat weak4 ,this also applies to the ,chinese vermilion we are able to get in this country4 ,some illuminators prefer to add a little crimson to the vermilion4 ,it is important that the red should be painted in solid1 and not be thin and washy in character4 ,this also applies to the black1 which should be a decided black1 not inclining to brown or grey4 ,the red should be kept quite bright and clean1 care being taken not to get it mixed up with dirty colour in any way4 ,a great deal of the effect depends on the strong black and brilliant red4 ,in ,fig4 #bh an initial with a simple border is shown in 7a74 ,the initial letter and the decoration may be done in red1 and also the opening words4 ,very decorative arrangements are possible with simple lettering and a fine initial1 as in 7b74 ,when an initial letter is used in this way1 without any border1 it is best to fit it in with the lettering so that the line of the letter does not project beyond the line of the black lettering4 ,when1 however1 a simple border is added down the side1 it may project1 as shown in 7c74 ,an interesting arrangement is shown in 7d71 where two columns are used4 ,by the judicious use of red1 a fine decorated page is possible if carried out in this style4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,the initial ,o shown here is an example of what can be done with simple pattern work in the way of diapers4 ,in the illuminated manuscripts from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries a great number of these were used4 ,this simple pattern work is very pleasant1 and the student is recommended to study these for himself4 ,he should also study the fine initials with pen-work in red and blue4 ,he can then vary his work by adding blue in addition to red1 using a red initial with blue decoration1 or vice vers4 ,the various forms of simple pattern work1 made with simple pen-strokes1 and shown here1 should also claim his attention4 ,he should endeavour to make borders for himself in this simple way4 ,they may serve as tail-pieces and line finishings1 and the construction of these is all good practice in design4 ,it is excellent practice for the student to write out a number of quotations in this way1 in black and red1 with nicely-drawn initials and borders of simple pattern work4 ,he should endeavour to guard against making them too florid in treatment1 and1 above all1 should be careful not to employ a lot of meaningless flourishes4 ,the work of the medival period affords the best examples for study that he could possibly have4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,colours ,,used ,,by ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,illuminator ,one can hardly study the illuminated work of the ,middle ,ages without being interested in the methods employed by the artists of this period4 ,the ,,mss4 still in existence1 with colours still fresh and bright1 make one curious to know what colours were used to produce this result4 ,our knowledge of the colours used in classical times is derived chiefly from ,pliny's 8,natural ,history0 and the writings of ,vitruvius4 ,theophrastus1 in his work on stones1 also adds some description of pigments4 ,it appears from these writers that the earth colours1 such as the ochres and siennas1 were well known1 as also was the green earth terra verte4 ,blues and greens were obtained from the ores of copper1 one of the most notable being azurite1 a blue carbonate of copper4 ,verdigris was prepared by the action of vinegar on copper4 ,cinnabar1 a native variety of red sulphide of mercury similar to our vermilion1 which is the same thing artificially prepared1 and orpiment1 the native sulphide of arsenic1 were also colours used at this period4 ,a number of white earths were also employed1 chalk being the most important4 ,white lead was used1 being prepared in practically the same way as the best is to-day4 ,lakes were made by dyeing chalk or gypsum4 ,several vegetal dyes were used for this purpose1 such as madder1 weld1 and woad4 ,in addition to these dyes1 lakes were prepared from kermes and the celebrated murex4 ,kermes is a red dye caused by a small insect similar to that of the cochineal insect2 it was used for dyeing and for making pigments1 both in classical and medival times4 ,the murex was a species of shellfish from which was extracted the famous purple dye4 ,this was the dye used for the purple vellum that was used so much in the early period4 ,the blacks used were carbon-blacks1 such as lamp-black1 bone-black1 or the black prepared from grape husks and vine leaves4 ,indigo was undoubtedly in use1 and it is highly probable that the red resin known as dragon's blood was also in use4 ,pliny1 in his 8,natural ,history10 describes the fighting between the elephant and the dragon1 and he states that the name cinnabar should be given to the thick matter which issues from the dragon when crushed beneath the weight of the dying elephant1 mixed with their blood4 ,it is thought that he may be referring to this pigment1 for1 in another chapter1 he refers to ,india sending the corrupt blood of her dragons and elephants4 ,there is one colour1 which was one of the principal pigments of the ,middle ,ages1 of which no mention is made in the classical period1 and that is ultramarine4 ,it is difficult to be certain as to how the different colours were mixed1 but the ink used was prepared from lamp-black mixed with gum and water1 and it is probable that the colours were mixed with either gum1 glue1 or egg4 ,the ,lucca ,,ms4 of the eighth century1 in the cathedral library at ,lucca1 contains1 amongst other things1 a short list of pigments4 ,there is very little difference between the information given here and that given by ,pliny4 ,this ,,ms41 however1 gives the first distinct directions for making artificial vermilion4 ,it is also interesting as giving definite information as to how colours were mixed for working on parchment or vellum1 as the following quotation plainly shows3 8,on wood the colours being mixed with wax1 on skins fish-glue being mixed40 ,in the twelfth-century ,,ms41 the ,mapp ,clavicula1 the greater part of the ,lucca ,,ms4 is repeated4 ,the ,schedula ,diversarum ,artium of ,theophilus is also of about the same date1 and is a very important ,,ms4 ,it is divided into three books1 the first dealing with painting1 the second with the manufacture of glass1 and the third with metal-work4 ,it is evident that ,theophilus1 who was a monk in some ,german monastery1 was a worker in metal4 ,however1 he collected quite a lot of information on various forms of art work4 ,it is1 of course1 in the book on painting that the information with regard to colours is found4 ,in ,chapter ,,xxvii4 he gives instructions for preparing the gum for mixing with colours4 ,this is described as follows3 8,take gum which exudes from the cherry or plum tree1 and1 cutting it up very small1 place it in an earthenware pot1 and pour water upon it abundantly and place it in the sun1 or in winter upon the coals1 until the gum has liquefied2 and mix it together with a smooth piece of wood4 ,then strain it through a cloth1 and grind the colours with it and lay them on40 ,in ,chapter ,,xxxiv41 which is entitled 8,how ,colours are ,tempered for ,books10 he says3 8,make a mixture of the clearest gum and water as above1 and temper all colours except green and ceruse and minium and carmine4 ,salt green is worth nothing for books4 ,you will temper ,spanish green with pure wine1 and if you wish to make shadows1 add a little sap of iris or cabbage or leek4 ,you will temper minium and ceruse and carmine with clear of egg4 ,compose all preparations of colours for a book as above1 if you want them for painting figures4 ,all colours are laid on twice in books1 at first very thinly1 then more thickly2 but once for letters40 ,salt green1 that is mentioned here1 was a mixture of verdigris and subchloride of copper4 ,spanish green was verdigris1 and minium was red lead1 while ceruse was white lead4 ,verdigris is1 of course1 a notoriously fugitive colour1 but while in ordinary water-colour painting it would probably not be safe to use1 it would last fairly well in books4 ,certainly it seems to have done so in the past1 if one may judge from the greens in many of the old ,,mss41 which are still brilliant4 ,other colours described are those known as 8folium0 colours4 ,these seem to have been different vegetal dyes4 ,in ,chapter ,,xl4 he gives a description of how to prepare ink4 ,this is quite different from the ink of the classical period1 which1 as mentioned before1 was made from lampblack and gum-water4 ,the ink described by ,theophilus is more of the nature of our modern writing-ink1 being prepared from the bark of thorn-trees1 amounting really to an infusion of tannin1 with the addition of iron sulphate1 popularly known as green vitriol4 ,there is no mention in this ,,ms4 of the preparation of ultramarine4 ,following this there are the ,,mss4 that have been translated by ,mrs4 ,merrifield1 viz41 ,eraclius1 ,alcherius1 the book of ,peter ,st4 ,andemar1 all included in the ,,mss4 of ,la ,bgue1 the ,sloane ,,ms41 and the ,strassburg ,,ms4 ,the ,,ms4 of ,eraclius is regarded as not being later than the thirteenth century1 the first two books being very early and quoted by ,theophilus4 ,in these ,,mss4 it is plainly stated that the colours were generally mixed with either gum-water or egg4 ,white of egg was often used1 but occasionally the yolk4 ,for example1 it seems to have been used as a medium for vermilion and orpiment4 ,these ,,mss4 contain a lot of information very similar to that in the ,,ms4 of ,theophilus4 ,lakes were1 in the earliest ,,mss41 prepared in a similar way to that used in the classical period1 and are described in this manner in the ,,ms4 of ,eraclius4 ,in the ,,ms4 of ,jehan le ,bgue1 however1 there are several recipes that have been compiled by him from the ,,mss4 of ,alcherius1 of the fourteenth century1 which are practically the same as the modern method4 ,the ,,ms4 of ,le ,bgue is also of interest1 as it contains a recipe for the preparation of real ultramarine4 ,perhaps the most interesting ,,ms4 of all is that known as the ,book of the ,art of ,cennino ,cennini4 ,this is a most delightful treatise on the methods then in use4 ,cennino ,cennini was an ,italian painter and was living in ,padua in #acih4 ,the ,,ms4 in the ,vatican is dated #adcg1 but this is in all probability merely the date attached by the copyist4 ,it is evident that the colours and methods that he mentions were in use during the fourteenth century4 ,as this was a period when some of the finest examples of illumination were produced1 it is interesting to note the various colours used1 so they are given in detail4 ,the reds mentioned by him are sinopia1 cinabrese1 cinnabar1 minium1 amatisto1 dragon's blood1 and lake4 ,sinopia is a similar colour to light red1 either native or prepared by roasting yellow ochre4 ,cinabrese is a mixture of sinopia with chalk4 ,cinnabar1 as mentioned before1 is mercuric sulphide1 which1 when artificially prepared1 is termed vermilion4 ,there is hardly any doubt that the variety ,cennino was familiar with was the artificial kind1 for he remarks that it 8is produced by alchemy1 performed in an alembic40 ,minium is red lead1 while amatisto is probably hmatite4 ,dragon's blood1 as already referred to1 is a resinous colour1 and lakes were prepared from various dyes4 ,the yellow pigments were ochre1 giallorino1 orpiment1 risalgallo1 zafferano1 and arzica4 ,giallorino is supposed to have been a native mineral yellow pigment4 ,it is described by ,cennino as a volcanic product4 ,some1 however1 think this to be similar to the pigment that used to be known as ,naples yellow1 which was a compound of the oxides of lead and antimony4 ,risalgallo realgar1 or red orpiment1 was prepared by gently heating orpiment4 ,zafferano was saffron1 while arzica was a lake prepared from weld1 which is wild mignonette4 ,the greens that he refers to are verde terra1 verde azzurro1 and verderame4 ,verde terra is the natural earth known also as terra verte4 ,in all probability verde azzurro was a native copper carbonate1 similar to green bice4 ,verderame was verdigris4 ,the blues used were azzurro della magna1 azzurro oltre marino1 and indaco baccadeo4 ,azzurro della magna was a copper-blue similar to the azurite of the classical period4 ,azzurro oltre marino was the genuine ultramarine4 ,cennino's description of the preparation of this pigment from the lapis lazuli is very similar to the recipes that are given in other ,,mss4 ,indaco baccadeo was indigo from ,bagdad4 ,the white pigments were bianco sangiovanni and biacca4 ,bianco sangiovanni was whiting or chalk1 while biacca was white lead4 ,the blacks were 8a soft black stone10 black 8made of the young shoots of the vine1 which are to be burnt1 and when burnt1 thrown into water1 and quenched1 and then ground like other black pigments40 ,another black pigment 8is made of the shells of almonds1 or of peach-stones40 ,lampblack was also used4 ,the colours were mixed with gum arabic or egg4 ,cennino also makes mention of the use of the pezzuole colours1 or clothlet tints1 which were used a great deal in the ,middle ,ages4 ,these were pieces of linen stained with transparent pigments4 ,when required for use1 a small piece was cut off and soaked in water to make a tint of the colour1 a little gum being added4 ,cennino also treats of tinting parchment with various colours4 ,this was not done1 as was the custom in the earlier period1 by staining the vellum with a dye1 but by washing a colour over it with a large brush4 ,it may be noted that practically all the permanent colours mentioned in these ,,mss4 are in use to-day4 ,some of the colours used in the ,middle ,ages can hardly be recommended to-day4 ,the copper blues1 for instance1 are not reliable1 as impure air is very liable to change them into copper sulphide4 ,orpiment is an unsafe colour to use1 while kermes will fade in a strong light1 besides being no longer an article of commerce4 ,both dragon's blood and saffron are notoriously fugitive colours4 ,it is hoped that these few brief notes with regard to the colours used by the medival artist may be of interest to the student4 ,if he wishes to study this subject further he is referred to the various works mentioned4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,colours3 ,,their ,,composition ,,and ,,permanence ,one of the characteristics of the medival artist was that he had a good knowledge of the different materials that he employed in his work4 ,one cannot help being struck by this fact when reading some of their writings that have come down to us4 ,they seem to have known all the various properties of the different colours and materials that they used4 ,it is probable that the chief reason for this was that it was absolutely necessary for them to be able to prepare the materials for use1 as it was practically impossible to buy them ready prepared4 ,the artist of to-day can buy so many things ready prepared for him by the artists' colourman that he is very liable to give little or no attention to their composition and quality4 ,it is as well1 however1 that the artist should have some knowledge of the materials that he uses1 so that he may be able to select the best for his purpose4 ,it is important that he should understand something1 at any rate1 about the composition of the various colours that he uses1 and that he should be able to distinguish permanent colours from those notoriously fugitive4 ,of course1 it must not be understood by this that it is necessary for the artist to subject all his colours to chemical analysis2 if he buys his colours from any reliable artists' colourman he can rely on the colours being true to their name4 ,there are1 however1 some students who have not the slightest idea of the character of the different colours that they are in the habit of using4 ,it is a great pity when good work is completely spoiled by being executed with fugitive colours through the ignorance of the artist4 ,good work should be as lasting as it is possible to have it1 and this is not practicable if one is not certain whether the colours are likely to fade or change in any way4 ,the following notes as to the composition and permanence of the different colours may be of service to the student4 ,,yellow ,,pigments ,aureolin1 ,cadmium ,yellows1 ,chrome ,yellows1 ,gamboge1 ,raw ,sienna1 ,yellow ,ochre1 ,naples ,yellow4 ,of these colours1 ,aureolin is the most expensive1 but it is a very beautiful colour1 and has the advantage of being permanent4 ,it is sometimes called ,cobalt ,yellow2 it is prepared from cobalt and potassium nitrites4 ,the ,cadmium ,yellows are sulphides of cadmium1 and are in various shades from pale yellow to orange2 they are also permanent4 ,chrome ,yellows are all chromates of lead1 and they darken very quickly in an impure atmosphere1 especially when used in water-colour painting4 ,these colours are very cheap1 and1 at the same time1 very brilliant1 but they should be avoided in all cases where permanence is desirable4 ,they also produce serious changes when mixed with other colours2 for example1 a green made by mixing chrome yellow with prussian or antwerp blue is notoriously fugitive in character4 ,gamboge is a gum-resin from the ,east ,indian tree ,garcimia ,cambogia4 ,it forms a bright opaque yellow solution with water1 requiring no grinding or mixing in any way1 owing to its natural gum4 ,it is fairly permanent and works well in water-colour1 but is not quite so satisfactory in body-colour painting4 ,raw ,sienna and ,yellow ,ochre are both natural earths containing iron oxide4 ,they are quite permanent4 ,naples ,yellow is generally prepared by mixing ,cadmium ,yellow with ,zinc ,white4 ,,red ,,pigments ,vermilion1 ,rose ,madder1 ,scarlet ,madder1 ,alizarin ,crimson1 ,crimson ,lake1 ,carmine1 ,indian ,red1 ,light ,red1 ,burnt ,sienna4 ,vermilion is one of the most important colours for the illuminator4 ,it is prepared from sulphide of mercury4 ,there are various kinds1 which are termed ,orange ,vermilion1 ,scarlet ,vermilion1 ,vermilion ,extract1 ,vermilion1 etc4 ,probably that known simply as ,vermilion is most useful to the illuminator4 ,most vermilions are manufactured in this country1 but that known as ,chinese ,vermilion is imported from ,china4 ,although vermilion is indispensable to the illuminator1 it cannot be guaranteed as being absolutely permanent4 ,cennino ,cennini1 writing about this pigment1 says3 8,but remember that vermilion is not durable when exposed to the air2 it is more lasting on pictures than on walls1 because1 by long exposure to the air1 it becomes black when applied to walls40 ,it is a fact that vermilion does change in this way1 but it is debatable whether it is affected by the air4 ,it is thought by some that the action of the sun's rays is a more likely cause of change4 ,there are two varieties of mercuric sulphide1 the red and the black2 unfortunately the red is liable to change into the black4 ,no chemical change is necessary for this1 as they are both identical from a chemical standpoint4 ,in the diffused light of a room this colour seems to be quite permanent1 but it is liable to turn black suddenly when exposed to direct sunlight4 ,there is conclusive proof that vermilion1 when not placed so that the rays of the sun come into direct contact1 is quite permanent by the fact that in the illuminated ,,mss4 produced centuries ago the vermilion is still bright4 ,most authorities are of the opinion that genuine ,chinese vermilion is more permanent than the ,english variety4 ,there are two methods employed at the present day in the manufacture of this colour--the wet and the dry process4 ,the dry method is used in ,china and the other in ,europe4 ,the wet method is more economical1 but it is generally admitted that vermilion produced by the dry process is more permanent than the other kind4 ,unfortunately the ,chinese vermilion that is obtainable in this country is often rather poor in quality4 ,rose ,madder and ,scarlet ,madder are lakes prepared from the madder root4 ,these are very beautiful colours and are permanent under ordinary conditions4 ,they should not1 however1 be exposed to direct sunlight4 ,alizarin ,crimson is a permanent crimson with a coal-tar origin4 ,crimson ,lake and ,carmine are lakes prepared from cochineal2 they are quite fugitive and should not be employed for serious work4 ,indian ,red is a variety of iron oxide and is permanent4 ,light ,red and ,burnt ,sienna are prepared by burning ,yellow ,ochre and ,raw ,sienna2 they are both quite permanent4 ,,blue ,,pigments ,cobalt ,blue1 ,cerulean ,blue1 ,ultramarine1 ,ultramarine ,ash1 ,french ,ultramarine1 ,new ,blue1 ,prussian ,blue1 ,antwerp ,blue1 ,cobalt ,violet1 ,purple ,madder4 ,cobalt ,blue is a fine colour prepared from cobalt oxide and alumina4 ,this is quite permanent under ordinary conditions4 ,cerulean ,blue1 made from cobalt and tin oxides1 is also a permanent colour4 ,genuine ,ultramarine is a beautiful permanent colour obtained by grinding the lapis lazuli4 ,cennino ,cennini1 in his treatise1 gives interesting particulars concerning the method then used to prepare this colour4 ,ultramarine ,ash is a second quality of this same blue4 ,unfortunately the great cost of genuine ultramarine debars the majority of artists from using this colour4 ,happily1 under the name of ,french ,ultramarine1 it is now made synthetically4 ,by this means a good permanent colour is produced at a cheap rate4 ,new ,blue is a pale variety of ,french ,ultramarine4 ,prussian ,blue is ferrocyanide of iron4 ,antwerp ,blue is a weaker variety of the same colour containing alumina4 ,these colours are not altogether reliable1 as they are subject to change4 ,cobalt ,violet is a purple colour made from cobalt1 and is quite permanent4 ,purple ,madder is usually prepared from the madder root1 and is permanent under ordinary conditions4 ,sometimes1 however1 it is prepared from ,crimson ,lake1 in which case it is fugitive4 ,,green ,,pigments ,chromium ,oxide1 ,viridian1 ,emerald ,green4 ,chromium ,oxide is1 as its name implies1 an oxide of chromium2 this is an opaque variety4 ,viridian is also an oxide of chromium1 but is transparent4 ,both these are quite permanent4 ,emerald ,green is aceto-arsenite of copper1 and a somewhat dangerous colour to use2 it is darkened by impure air1 but this is not so serious as are its effects upon other colours when mixed with them4 ,if used at all1 it should be used quite by itself1 as if it is mixed with other colours it is sure to have a bad effect on them4 ,it turns some colours black very quickly4 ,,brown ,,pigments ,raw ,umber1 ,burnt ,umber1 ,sepia1 ,vandyke ,brown4 ,raw ,umber is a natural earth1 containing oxide of manganese2 it is quite permanent4 ,burnt ,umber is the same colour burnt1 by which it becomes darker and richer in colour4 ,sepia is generally prepared from the ink of the cuttle-fish1 although occasionally a natural earth is substituted4 ,vandyke ,brown is also a natural earth2 both these colours are permanent4 ,,black ,,pigments ,ivory ,black1 ,lamp ,black1 ,indian ,ink4 ,ivory ,black is made from ivory and bone charred to blackness4 ,lamp ,black is a smoke-black1 being a finely divided soot formed by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons4 ,genuine ,indian ,ink does not come from ,india1 as might be supposed1 but from ,china4 ,there are1 however1 several other varieties in liquid form4 ,it is generally admitted that carbon-black forms the bulk of all these4 ,all these black pigments are quite permanent4 ,,white ,,pigments ,zinc ,white1 ,flake ,white4 ,zinc1 or ,chinese1 ,white is an oxide of zinc4 ,this pigment is quite permanent and should be used always when a lasting white is needed4 ,unfortunately this white does not photograph its true value1 so for process work it is best not to use this4 ,flake ,white is prepared from lead carbonate and hydrate1 and may be used for process work in place of zinc white4 ,it1 however1 should not be used for work that is required to be lasting1 as when used as a water-colour it soon turns black4 ,as1 however1 it has more body than zinc white1 it photographs better4 ,a white is sometimes prepared for process work from barium sulphate4 ,this is permanent1 but does not work quite so well from the brush4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,colours3 ,,their ,,preparation ,,and ,,use ,it is practically needless to say that the colours used for illuminating are water-colours4 ,these are sold by the artists' colourmen1 ready prepared1 in three different forms1 viz41 in cakes1 pans1 and tubes4 ,these consist of powder colour ground with gum arabic1 or senegal 7a brown variety of the same gum71 to which a portion of honey and glycerine is added4 ,the best prepared colours are undoubtedly those sold in the form of cakes1 as they are the purest4 ,the other forms contain a considerable amount of glycerine1 which does not improve the colour1 but enables them to be kept moist for quite a long time--a greater advantage to the artists' colourman than to the artist4 ,tube colours contain more glycerine than those sold in pans4 ,the great advantage1 however1 that tube colours possess is their convenience4 ,a small quantity of clean colour can be squeezed out and the cap replaced on the tube1 thus keeping the rest of the colour free from dust4 ,the admixture of so much glycerine with the colour1 however1 often prevents it from drying quite flat when used as body colour4 ,one word of warning may be useful here3 gum should not be mixed with water-colours4 ,this is often recommended in books on illumination1 but it is not only unnecessary but it entirety spoils the appearance of the colour4 ,there is always quite sufficient gum mixed with the colour1 and there is nothing specially beautiful about the shiny appearance caused by an excess of gum in the colour4 ,without a doubt the best colours for the illuminator to use are powder colours4 ,they are mixed with gum arabic and water4 ,care should be taken to get the right quantity of gum mixed with the colour4 ,if there is not sufficient to bind the colour it will rub off when dry1 while1 on the other hand1 if there is too much1 it will dry patchy1 and if very much in excess it will present a shiny appearance4 ,experience will soon show the exact amount necessary4 ,one very great objection that is often urged against the use of powder colours is their inconvenience1 but if these are prepared in the manner described below they should not be more inconvenient to use than the ordinary ready-prepared water-colours4 ,for illuminating1 where the work is required to be lasting1 none but permanent colours should be used2 but when making designs which are for temporary use only it is foolish to use expensive colours like aureolin and cadmium yellow when the same effect can be obtained with the various shades of chrome yellow1 which is much cheaper1 although notoriously fugitive4 ,it is best to buy the colours ready ground4 ,a china slab or a piece of plate glass may be used to mix the colours on1 or the back of a large white plate might serve in lieu of these4 ,when it is necessary to grind the colour a muller is used for this purpose4 7,see ,fig4 #bi47 ,illustration3 ,slab ,muller4 ,palette ,knife4 ,scraper4 ,saucer1 with ,cover4 ,method of taking ,gum from ,jar4 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,gum arabic is prepared in a very simple manner for mixing with colours4 ,some pieces of this gum are placed in a wide-mouthed jar and covered with cold water4 ,it should be given a stir occasionally1 and the following day it will probably be dissolved4 ,it may be strained through muslin if necessary4 ,a few drops of carbolic acid added to it will prevent this solution from becoming sour4 ,it is as well also to provide a loose-fitting cover for the jar to keep dust from the gum4 ,for mixing the colour a palette-knife is required4 ,a little of the powder colour is placed on the slab and mixed with the palette-knife to a stiff paste with water and a little gum4 ,a glass tube may be used to take the gum from the jar4 ,if this tube is placed in the jar of gum1 and the finger placed over the top of it1 a small quantity of gum can be easily removed and may be dropped on to the slab by removing the finger4 7,see ,fig4 #bi47 ,this is a much better method than dipping the palette-knife into the gum1 as this is very likely to get contaminated with the colour if this is done4 ,it is not advisable to mix the colour too thinly with water before adding the gum1 as one of the effects of the gum is to make the colour flow much easier1 and if there is a fair quantity of colour on the slab it is liable to flow over the edges4 ,after it has been well mixed up with the palette-knife it should be tested to see if it has sufficient gum in it4 ,the student should take a clean brush and paint a small square with the colour on a piece of paper4 ,when this is quite dry it is very easy to tell if it has the proper quantity of gum in it4 ,as mentioned before1 if it has too much the colour will look patchy or shiny4 ,to find out if there is enough gum in it1 take a small piece of rough paper and rub the patch of colour vigorously with it2 if there is insufficient gum to bind the colour it will rub off on to the paper2 if there is too much gum1 more colour should be added2 while1 on the other hand1 if there is not enough a little more should be mixed with it4 ,when painting a fresh square of colour for testing purposes it is essential that the brush should be thoroughly washed before painting the new patch4 ,if this is not done the result will be that the colour will be mixed with that already in the brush1 and the test will not be a true one4 ,another important thing is to see that the colour is well mixed with the gum1 otherwise one is very liable to get one brush full of colour that is nearly all gum and another with insufficient gum in it4 ,when the colour is well mixed up with the right quantity of gum it should be thinned out with water and is then ready for use4 ,it should be placed in little saucers1 which may be obtained from any artists' colourman4 ,a small square of glass may be placed over the saucer to prevent the evaporation of the water from the colour1 as1 if left exposed to the air1 this will soon dry quite hard4 ,if it is desired to keep the colour moist for any considerable time1 a small quantity of glycerine and honey should be added to it4 ,the colour1 however1 does not work so well when used as body-colour if this is done4 ,the following is a good method of keeping body-colour in a convenient form4 ,the colour should be painted on large pieces of glass or slabs of porcelain and allowed to get perfectly dry4 ,it can then be scraped up in the form of a fine powder4 ,an old chisel-knife1 or a broken palette-knife1 makes a good scraper4 ,this powder requires only a little water to be added to it and the colour is ready for use4 ,it dissolves very quickly in water to form an easy-flowing colour1 much superior to colour that has glycerine and honey added to it to keep it moist4 ,especially is this the case when working on vellum4 ,it dries with a dull1 velvet-like surface which shows in strong contrast to brightly burnished gold4 ,if the colour1 when scraped up1 is not very finely divided it should be rubbed up1 in its dry state1 on the slab1 with the palette-knife or muller1 until it is quite fine1 as the finer the powder the more quickly will it dissolve4 ,a complete set of colours for illuminating may be prepared in this way and put into small bottles until required4 ,no gum should be added when using them1 as each small grain of colour has its own portion of gum which binds it to the surface on which it is painted4 ,when it is required to use any of the colours prepared in this way1 a small quantity of the powder should be placed in a small saucer and a little water added4 ,it should then be worked up with the finger-tip until it is fluid enough to work well with the brush4 ,colours prepared in this way work very well also in the pen1 vermilion especially working very well indeed4 ,it is not advisable to use a brush to mix the colour up with1 as this method not only quickly spoils a brush1 but also it does not mix the colour up nearly so well as the finger-tip4 ,if a little colour is left in the saucer after using it1 it can easily be moistened up again with a little water4 ,it is not1 however1 advisable to mix up much more than is required1 as it dries rather hard and requires soaking some little time if a considerable quantity is left to dry4 ,when mixing colours in this way it is as well to label carefully the bottles in which the colour is stored4 ,if this is not done1 one is very liable to mistake a fugitive colour for a permanent one1 and vice vers4 ,cadmium yellow may easily be mistaken for chrome yellow1 and crimson ,lake for permanent crimson4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,gilding ,,methods ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,the most casual observer cannot fail to notice the gilding that is such a prominent feature of the ,,mss4 of the medival period4 ,brightly burnished gold1 which appears as if it had been laid and burnished quite recently1 although centuries have passed since the work was completed1 cannot fail to impress and arouse one's curiosity as to the gilding methods employed when this work was produced4 ,some of the old ,,mss4 that treat of painting and the preparation of colours give also some information concerning the various methods of gilding1 and our knowledge of these methods is chiefly derived from these ,,mss4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,laurie has made careful examination of the different forms of gilding employed in illuminated ,,mss41 and in his book1 8,pigments and ,mediums of the ,old ,masters0 says that gold was used in three distinct forms3 as gold-leaf laid on the surface1 and in the form of gold paint1 prepared by grinding leaf-gold to powder2 the other method seems to have been a paint made of rounded granules of gold4 ,he suggests that this gold was probably obtained from river washings1 and that the only preparation has been to sift out the finer grains4 ,he says1 further1 that when it is examined under the microscope this form of gold paint is easily distinguished from that prepared from leaf-gold1 which presents the appearance of little particles of gold with sharp corners and edges1 while this shows rounded granules4 ,the art of gold-beating is of very great antiquity4 ,pliny1 in his 8,natural ,history10 states that one ounce of gold was made into #gej leaves1 each leaf being four fingers square4 ,this is about three times as thick as the ordinary gold-leaf of the present day4 ,it is very difficult to form any idea as to when and where it originated4 ,some think that it arose amongst ,oriental peoples4 ,it certainly has been practised amongst these since quite remote periods4 ,some of the coffins of the ,egyptian mummies have gilding on them evidently done with gold-leaf in a similar way to modern methods4 ,some of the books of gold-leaf used by the ancient ,egyptians are in existence to-day1 there being one at the ,louvre in ,paris4 ,pliny says1 8,gold-leaf is laid over marble1 etc41 with white of egg1 on wood with glue properly composed2 they call it leucophoron40 ,in another place he states that leucophoron is composed of sinopia 7a red earth colour71 light sil 7yellow ochre71 and melinum 7a white earth74 ,evidently this was mixed with size to form a ground upon which to lay the leaf4 ,the ,lucca ,,ms41 of the eighth century1 gives instructions how to prepare gold for writing by reducing the metal to a fine powder to form a gold paint4 ,the following recipe is from the 8,mapp ,clavicula10 a ,,ms4 of the twelfth century3 8,if you wish to write in gold1 take powder of gold and moisten it with size1 made from the very same parchment on which you have to write2 and with the gold and size near to the fire2 and1 when the writing shall be dry1 burnish with a very smooth stone1 or with the tooth of a wild boar4 ,item1 if then you wish to make a robe or a picture1 you may apply gold to the parchment1 as ,i have above directed1 and shade with ink or with indigo1 and heighten with orpiment40 ,parchment size is prepared by boiling parchment or vellum cuttings with just enough water to cover them for about two hours4 ,the size is then poured off and sets in a firm jelly when quite cold4 ,when required for use a small portion is placed in a jar1 which is put into a basin of hot water1 the size then quickly becoming liquid4 ,in the writings of ,theophilus1 of about the same period1 he gives a good deal of information concerning the medival methods of gilding4 ,in ,chapter ,,xxiv4 he gives directions for hammering out gold-leaf4 ,the next chapter1 which is quoted1 explains how the leaf is laid on4 8,in laying on gold1 take the clear part of the white of egg1 which is beat up without water1 and then with a pencil paint lightly over the place in which the gold is to be placed1 and1 the handle of the same pencil being wetted in your mouth1 touch one corner of the cut leaf1 and so elevating it1 lay it on with the greatest quickness1 and spread it even with a brush4 ,and at that moment you must beware of a current of air and refrain from breathing1 because if you blow you lose the leaf and with difficulty recover it4 ,when this is laid on and dried1 superpose another upon it1 if you wish1 in the same manner1 and a third likewise1 if it is necessary1 that you may be able to polish it more brightly with a tooth or a stone40 ,evidently this was the general method of gilding1 for he states that the leaf can be laid in the same manner on a wall or ceiling4 ,in ,chapter ,,xxx4 he describes the method of grinding gold for books4 ,this is done by first filing the gold very finely and then gradually grinding it until it is an extremely fine powder4 ,in the next chapter1 which is entitled1 8,how ,gold and ,silver are ,laid in ,books10 the method of applying the gold is given4 ,this is as follows3 8,afterwards take pure minium and add to it a third part of cinnabar1 grinding it upon a stone with water4 ,which being carefully ground1 beat up the clear of the white of an egg1 in summer with water1 in winter without water1 and when it is clear1 put the minium into a horn and pour the clear upon it1 and stir it a little with a piece of wood put into it1 and with a pencil fill up all places with it upon which you wish to lay gold4 ,then place a little pot with glue over the fire1 and when it is liquefied1 pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it4 ,when you have poured which into another shell1 in which the purifying is kept1 again pour in warm glue1 and1 holding it in the palm of the left hand1 stir it carefully with the pencil1 and lay it on where you wish thick or thin1 so1 however1 that there be little glue1 because1 should it exceed1 it blackens the gold and does not receive a polish4 ,but after it has dried1 polish it with a tooth or bloodstone carefully filed and polished1 upon a smooth and shining horn tablet4 ,but should it happen1 through negligence of the glue not being well cooked1 that the gold pulverises in rubbing1 or rises on account of too great thickness1 have near some old clear of egg beat up without water1 and directly with a pencil paint slightly and quickly with it over the gold2 when it is dry1 again rub it with the tooth or stone4 ,lay in this manner silver1 brass1 and copper in their place1 and polish them40 ,in this early period this form of gilding was certainly used a good deal1 but soon after this the raised gilding1 which was produced by laying the leaf on a raising made of gesso1 was in general use4 ,a number of different recipes have been found4 ,probably the most important1 however1 are those given by ,cennino ,cennini in the early part of the fifteenth century4 ,chapter ,,clvii4 is entitled1 8,how ,you ,must do ,miniature-,painting and ,put ,gold on ,parchment40 ,it is quoted in full4 8,first1 if you would paint miniatures you must draw with a leaden style figures1 foliage1 letters1 or whatever you please1 on parchment1 that is to say in books2 then with a pen you must make the delicate permanent outline of what you have designed4 ,then you must have a paint that is a sort of gesso1 called asiso1 and it is made in this manner2 namely1 a little gesso sottile and a little biacca1 never more of this than equals a third part of the gesso2 then take a little candy1 less than the biacca2 grind these ingredients very finely with clear water1 collect them together1 and let them dry without sun4 ,when you wish to use some to put on gold1 cut off a piece as large as you have need of1 and temper it with the white of an egg1 well beaten1 as ,i have taught you4 ,temper this mixture with it2 let it dry2 then take your gold1 and either breathing on it or not1 as you please1 you can put it on2 and the gold being laid on1 take the tooth or burnishing-stone and burnish it1 but hold under the parchment a firm tablet of good wood1 very smooth4 ,and you must know that you may write letters with a pen and this asiso1 or lay a ground of it1 or whatever you please--it is most excellent4 ,but before you lay the gold on it1 see whether it is needful to scrape or level it with the point of a knife1 or clean it in any way1 for your brush sometimes puts more on in one place than in another4 ,always beware of this40 ,the next chapter is also quoted1 as it gives another method of laying gold on parchment4 8,if you would like another kind of asiso--but this is not so good1 but may be used for putting on gold grounds1 though not to write with--take gesso sottile1 and a third part biacca1 a fourth part ,armenian bole1 with a little sugar2 grind all these very finely with the white of an egg2 lay on the ground in the usual manner1 and let it dry2 then with the point of a knife scrape and clean the gesso4 ,put the previously mentioned tablet under the parchment1 or a very flat stone1 and burnish it2 and should it by chance not burnish well when you put on the gold1 wet the gesso with clean water with a small minever brush1 and when it is dry burnish it40 ,gesso sottile was plaster of ,paris that had been thoroughly slaked by long soaking in water so that it had lost all its setting properties4 ,as mentioned in a previous chapter1 biacca was white lead4 ,the white of egg is prepared by beating it thoroughly to a thick froth and letting it stand one night to clear itself4 ,armenian bole is a red earth colour which seems to have been used a great deal to give colour to the ground for gilding4 ,in some of the ,,mss4 where the gold has been slightly rubbed off1 the red colour of the raising preparation plainly indicates that is one of the ingredients used4 ,in ,chapter ,,clx4 instructions are given on 8,how to ,grind ,gold and ,silver1 and ,how to ,temper ,them to ,make ,foliage and ,embellishments40 ,evidently in this case the gold was prepared by grinding the leaf-gold--not1 as was the case in the earlier descriptions1 by first filing the metal and gradually reducing it to a fine powder4 ,the powder gold was1 however1 generally used only for painting in fine gold lines and heightening miniatures1 although in the latter part of the fifteenth century matt gold grounds were often used as borders round miniatures1 etc4 ,the raised gilding was1 however1 used more often1 and the various recipes given in the different ,,mss4 are generally very similar to those given by ,cennino4 ,sometimes chalk or pipe-clay is used instead of gesso1 and occasionally parchment size or fish-glue is recommended as a medium for mixing it with4 ,endeavouring to work from these recipes is no easy matter1 and the student is not advised to waste too much time in experimenting in this direction4 ,although there is a certain amount of fascination in trying the various preparations and methods1 there is so much that is important that should claim the attention of the student that it is hardly profitable for him to spend a lot of time trying to work from these old formulas when it might be better employed4 ,one cannot help being interested1 however1 in these old recipes and directions for applying gold to vellum4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,gold ,gilding1 in illuminated work1 is done with either gold-leaf or shell gold4 ,gold-leaf is the metal that has been beaten out into thin sheets1 and shell gold the same ground up and mixed with gum and honey4 ,shell gold is so called on account of the fact that it is sold in small shells ready for use4 ,the student is especially warned against using any of the varieties of gold paint for work that is desired to be permanent4 ,these are mixed up with powdered bronze1 and1 in course of time1 will turn black4 ,shell gold is painted on in the same way that other colours are4 ,a small brush should be used1 so as not to waste any more than is absolutely necessary4 ,it is also essential that quite clean water should be used1 to ensure the gold being as bright as possible1 as if the water is contaminated with colour it will dull the gold when mixed with it4 ,the great disadvantages of shell gold are lack of brilliance and also the expense4 ,it is1 however1 very useful for putting in very fine lines1 which are difficult when using gold-leaf4 ,the use of gold-leaf for gilding purposes has been known since quite an early period4 ,some of the early manuscripts were written with gold and silver letters on purple vellum4 ,silver-leaf is prepared in a similar manner to gold-leaf2 unfortunately1 however1 it quickly turns black when exposed to the air4 ,the best substitute for silver-leaf is undoubtedly platinum1 although it is very expensive4 ,aluminium leaf is sometimes used1 but it is rather too thick for fine work4 ,sometimes aluminium paint is used where silver work is required4 ,this1 however1 has the same objection as shell gold in lacking brilliance4 ,without a doubt the use of leaf1 raised and burnished1 is the ideal method of gilding4 ,if the student examines any of the old ,,mss4 of the best periods he is bound to be struck with the brilliance of the raised gold1 and he will notice how superior are the results to any produced by means of gold paint4 ,gold-leaf gilding1 even if it is unburnished1 is infinitely more brilliant than either gold paint or shell gold4 ,some difficulty may at first be experienced in handling the leaf1 as1 being so thin1 it has an unpleasant habit of blowing about4 ,it is sold in books containing twenty-five leaves4 ,it is best to get that known as 8double fine gold10 specially prepared for illuminating4 ,for large masses of gold1 a thicker leaf may be used1 known as 8quadruple40 ,the student should be careful to use only the best gold-leaf4 ,some of the cheap foreign leaf is very poor in quality4 ,he should be careful also to avoid the leaf known as 8,dutch metal10 which is not gold at all4 ,a gilder's cushion should be obtained with a knife and tip4 7,see ,fig4 #cj47 ,the cushion is generally about nine inches by six in size1 and is made by stretching a piece of soft leather over a piece of board slightly padded4 ,a piece of parchment is fastened on one end1 which acts as a shield to prevent currents of air from blowing the leaf about4 ,the student should be extremely careful to prevent touching the surface of the cushion with his fingers1 as1 if it becomes greasy in the slightest degree1 he will experience trouble through the leaf sticking to it4 ,illustration3 ,guilder's ,cushion ,guilder's ,tiip ,agate ,burnisher ,guilder's ,knife ,camel ,hair ,mop ,,fig4 #cj4 ,the best way for the beginner to learn how to handle the gold-leaf is to get an experienced gilder to show him how to use the cushion4 ,if this is not possible he ought1 by carefully following the directions given here1 to be able to manage the leaf after a little practice4 ,the best way is to take the book of gold-leaf and open it very carefully4 ,it is then turned over so that the leaf rests on the cushion4 ,the back of the book is then gently tapped with the finger-tips2 if it is then carefully lifted up the leaf will be found lying upon the surface of the cushion4 ,if it is not lying quite flat and even1 it may easily be smoothed by blowing gently on the centre of it4 ,it is as well1 however1 not to be too vigorous1 or the result may be to crumple the leaf up worse than before4 ,the student should be careful not to touch the leaf with his fingers1 otherwise it will stick to them and the whole leaf will probably be spoiled4 ,he should also avoid breathing upon the surface of the leaf1 or it will probably roll up in a hopeless tangle1 or else go floating off into the air1 as the slightest puff of wind tends to do this4 ,it is hardly necessary to point out that it is not wise to attempt handling gold-leaf for the first time with the doors and windows open1 as the slightest draught will carry the leaf with it4 ,the gilder's knife must not be sharpened1 as1 if this is done1 the result will be that instead of cutting the leaf it will probably tear it and cut the cushion4 ,one important thing to remember is that the fingers should be kept from touching the blade1 otherwise the leaf will stick to it owing to the slight amount of grease left on it4 ,also if the blade is allowed to get rusty it is liable to tear the leaf instead of cutting it properly4 ,the knife should be kept clean1 and the edge should occasionally be burnished with the back of a pen-knife1 or something similar1 to remove any roughness that may prevent it from giving a clean cut4 ,if it is found that the leaf sticks to the blade of the knife1 it is because there is a slight amount of grease on it2 this may be removed by rubbing the knife on a board with a little powdered bath brick4 ,the leaf is cut by placing the knife carefully down on to the surface of the leaf1 and moving it backwards and forwards with a sawing movement4 ,the knife should be pressed down firmly on the cushion when cutting1 and great care should be taken not to rumple the leaf in so doing4 ,it is as well not to endeavour to be too economical when cutting the leaf up4 ,a piece of leaf should be cut large enough to cover the part that it is required to gild4 ,if the student tries to be too exact in cutting1 he is very liable to cut the piece too small1 and then other pieces have to be cut to patch the parts not covered with the leaf4 ,when this is the case1 apart from the extra time taken up1 it is false economy1 as more leaf is required than if a slightly larger piece was cut at first4 ,after the leaf is cut1 it is conveyed from the cushion to the work by means of the gilder's tip4 7,see ,fig4 #cj47 ,this is a kind of brush made by fixing a thin layer of hair between two pieces of card1 which are pasted or glued together4 ,this tip is used by first rubbing it on the skin or hair1 and then placing it on the piece of leaf1 which will then adhere to it4 ,it can then be carried and placed in position where it is needed4 ,the reason that the gold adheres to the tip is because by rubbing it on the skin or hair the tip becomes slightly greasy and attracts the leaf4 ,if any leaf is left on the cushion after finishing the gilding1 it should be carefully replaced in the book4 ,this may be done by putting the top of the blade of the knife down flat on the cushion and pushing it under the centre of the leaf4 ,by this means the leaf may be lifted and carried to the book4 ,the tip should not be used for this purpose1 or some difficulty may be experienced in inducing the leaf to leave this for the book4 ,when pushing the knife under the leaf1 however1 it should be pressed firmly on the cushion1 otherwise the result will be to crumple the leaf and spoil it4 ,for dusting the loose leaf away after gilding1 a large camel-hair mop similar to that shown in ,fig4 #cj is useful4 ,for burnishing the gold1 an agate burnisher is required4 ,the best shape is shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,for commercial work it is hardly worth while using gold-leaf1 and bronze powder is recommended instead4 ,a method of using this will be explained later when dealing with commercial work4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,illumination ,,with ,,gold ,,and ,,colours ,the best material for the illuminator to work upon is undoubtedly vellum4 ,no paper has ever been made that is equal to it4 ,the chief drawback that this material has is1 of course1 the expense4 ,parchment is cheaper1 but not nearly so nice4 ,in selecting vellum for illuminating1 the ordinary thick kind1 generally known as illuminators' vellum1 is to be avoided4 ,this presents too much the appearance of shiny cardboard1 the surface being much too hard and horny4 ,this kind is prepared calf-skin1 and it is most objectionable to work upon4 ,a very fine vellum1 known as 8,roman ,vellum0--probably prepared lamb-skin--has an ideal writing surface4 ,it is perhaps best to get a slightly heavier vellum if it is intended to cover it with a lot of heavy work4 ,a very curious statement has found its way into a number of books on illumination to the effect that it is impossible to remove pencil-marks from the surface of vellum4 ,it has been stated that all attempts to remove a pencil-mark with rubber or bread result only in producing a greasy smudge4 ,the present writer has worked on a considerable quantity of vellum1 but he has never come across any from which he has experienced any difficulty in removing pencil-marks4 ,of course it is not advisable to use a very soft pencil1 such as a #d or #f;,b1 very freely on a piece of vellum1 especially if it is at all inclined to be greasy4 ,the use of carbon-paper is often recommended for transferring a design to vellum1 but1 generally speaking1 the use of this material is not desirable4 ,it is generally somewhat greasy1 and it certainly is difficult to remove these marks from the surface of the vellum4 ,the best way is to cultivate the habit of working straight away on to the vellum4 ,work that is carried out in this manner is generally characterised as having more vitality and displaying more freedom than when it is traced off from another drawing4 ,some of the fine hand-made papers1 specially prepared for writing and illuminating1 make excellent substitutes for vellum1 although1 of course1 paper is never as durable as vellum4 ,cold tea makes a very good and quite harmless stain with which the paper can be tinted a similar shade to vellum4 ,when tinting the paper with tea1 it is best not to use too strong tea for this purpose1 otherwise the result may not be altogether satisfactory4 ,the paper should be carefully fastened to a board with drawing-pins4 ,a broad1 flat camel-hair brush is useful for washing the tint on1 care being taken to get this quite even4 ,if the paper is needed to be used for a ,,ms4 book1 both sides should be tinted1 but this is hardly necessary if one side only of the paper is to be worked upon4 ,when using paper for large1 important work it is best to stretch it before commencing to work upon it4 ,this is done by damping it freely until it becomes quite limp4 ,the margin is then coated with paste for about half an inch all round4 ,it is then stuck on to the drawing-board by means of this pasted margin while the paper is still wet4 ,care should be taken that the pasted margin dries hard before the rest of the paper begins to dry1 otherwise1 when the paper starts to contract1 it will come away from the board4 ,this is obviated by re-damping the centre of the paper1 so that the margin has a chance of becoming firmly attached to the board before the paper begins to pull4 ,the beginner is not advised to attempt to stretch vellum in this manner4 ,it requires considerable experience to stretch vellum satisfactorily1 and it is quite easy to spoil a large sheet in an unsuccessful attempt at stretching it4 ,the best way is to fasten it to the drawing-board with plenty of drawing-pins4 ,if the sheet of vellum is placed in a damp place for some little time before pinning it on to the drawing-board1 or placed for a short time between damp blotting-paper1 it will1 if stretched tightly on the board with the drawing-pins while it is slightly damp1 be found to be stretched quite well enough for all practical purposes when dry4 ,perhaps it would be as well here to have a word to say about brushes4 ,the best kind for the illuminator are red sables4 ,these are made both in quills and with metal ferrules4 ,some prefer one kind and some the other4 ,two or three of the smaller sizes should be selected1 with a larger one for bolder work4 ,the student will soon find out which size is most convenient for him to use4 ,the present writer uses a ,no4 #a1 metal ferrule1 for most of his work1 using a larger brush for filling in broad masses of colour and larger work4 ,to ensure getting the best service out of brushes they should be taken care of4 ,after using1 they should be carefully washed by shaking vigorously in a jar of clean water4 ,brushes soon spoil if they are put away dirty4 ,the colour gets between the hairs and prevents the brush from coming to a point4 ,if the colour dries in the brush it is very difficult to get it quite clean afterwards4 ,one would think it was hardly necessary to state that brushes should not be placed so that they are resting on their points1 but they are often left in this way by careless people4 ,when a brush has been used for ,indian ink it will be found that washing in ordinary water will be insufficient to clean it4 ,in this case soap and water may be used1 carefully washing the soap out afterwards with clean water4 ,vellum is generally pounced before working upon it4 ,a very good pounce may be prepared by mixing equal parts1 by measure1 of pumice powder and french chalk4 ,when pouncing vellum it should be spread out flat on a board covered with a sheet of clean paper4 ,the pounce is sprinkled over it and rubbed in with the palm of the hand4 ,care should be taken not to pounce too long1 or the vellum will be roughened and spoiled4 ,after the vellum has been well pounced1 the pounce is shaken off and the vellum carefully dusted with a soft handkerchief4 ,if the surface of vellum is examined very carefully it will be noticed that one side is different from the other4 ,the side which was originally the hair side of the skin is rougher than the flesh side4 ,the smoother side is nicer for writing upon1 although1 when using one side of the vellum only1 it is not advisable for the beginner to use the flesh side1 as it is so difficult to make an erasure on this side1 without spoiling the skin4 ,of course1 it is much better to endeavour to avoid making mistakes1 but still it is almost impossible to prevent them occasionally4 ,when it is necessary to make an erasure a very sharp knife should be employed with the least possible pressure4 ,for erasures on the flesh side of the vellum the kind of rubber known as kneaded rubber is very useful4 ,this erases very slowly1 but at the same time very efficiently4 ,when using a knife for erasures on vellum it is essential that it should be extremely sharp and that scarcely any pressure be put on it4 ,it is best1 however1 to avoid the use of the knife on the flesh side of vellum4 ,a simple but effective style of illumination is shown in ,fig4 #ca4 ,this is based1 to a large extent1 on pen-work4 ,the block of the initial ,p may be blue1 with the centre red4 ,the initial itself is of raised gold1 as also are the buds and centres of the small flowers in the surrounding decoration4 ,the fine scroll-work may be in black or brown1 the decoration on the initial being white4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,after the lettering is completed1 the decoration should be drawn in carefully with pencil4 ,the scroll-work may then be drawn in with the pen4 ,the page should then be carefully cleaned with a piece of soft rubber1 removing all pencil-marks that will not be covered with colour4 ,the next step is the gilding4 ,various preparations are sold by different artists' colourmen for this purpose4 ,when buying gold-size1 however1 the student should see that he gets the kind specially prepared for illuminating4 ,there are many varieties on the market1 some of which are useless on vellum4 ,for example1 it would be foolish to try and gild on vellum with oil gold-size or japanners' gold-size4 ,also the different kinds of water gold-size1 used by decorators and picture-frame gilders1 are difficult to use on vellum1 as the gold is laid by flooding the surface of the size with water and then applying the leaf4 ,the result of this is to cockle the vellum in a most unpleasant fashion4 ,most dealers sell raising preparation and water gold-size4 ,the raising preparation is generally sold in two distinct forms by different makers1 one in the form of a thick paint and the other a thick jelly1 which requires heating to liquefy ready for use4 ,the former kind will be found the most satisfactory4 ,a small ichneumon brush may be used for applying the raising preparation4 ,before filling in the parts that it is desired to raise it is not a bad plan to roughen the surface of the vellum slightly in these parts4 ,this will help to prevent the raising from scaling off when it dries4 ,difficulty is often experienced through air-bubbles in the raising preparation4 ,in drying1 of course1 these show as tiny holes4 ,in this case prevention is better than cure4 ,these bubbles are generally introduced into the preparation by means of the brush4 ,the brush being full of air is used to stir the preparation1 and the air leaves the brush in the form of bubbles1 which mix with the raising preparation4 ,the best way to use the raising preparation is to take a small quantity out of the bottle and place it in a small saucer4 ,it should then be carefully worked up with the finger-tip with a little water until it is about the consistency of cream4 ,it is much better to use the finger-tip to mix it up with rather than a brush4 ,using a brush for this purpose is a fruitful source of air-bubbles1 besides spoiling the brush4 ,before using the brush to lay on the preparation with it should be shaken vigorously in water and squeezed out1 thus displacing the air and preventing the formation of bubbles4 ,all the parts that it is desired to gild should be given a fairly substantial coating4 ,it should be almost dropped from the brush4 ,it is not desirable to raise it too high1 or the effect will be somewhat tawdry4 ,the student should use the work of the medival artist as his guide in this direction4 ,when this is all filled in1 the work is placed in a room free from dust for the raising to dry firm and hard4 ,the surface is then scraped carefully with a knife until it is quite smooth1 all little irregularities being removed4 ,it is then given a coat of water gold-size1 and when this appears dry on the surface it is breathed upon until it becomes tacky4 ,the leaf is then cut to size and laid on at once1 pressed down with cotton-wool and left to dry4 ,the superfluous gold is then brushed away with a camel-hair mop4 ,on the following day it may be burnished4 ,if the burnisher does not work freely on the surface1 its action may be facilitated by rubbing the surface of the gold with a soft cloth that has been slightly smeared with beeswax4 ,when using the water gold-size it is most important that this should be kept free from dust1 and especially small hairs and pieces of fluff that often float about in the air4 ,it is impossible to gild successfully if the size is full of these4 ,after painting on the size it should not be allowed to get thoroughly dry before laying the leaf--it should only appear dry on the surface4 ,if it is allowed to get properly dry it will be next to impossible to make it tacky by breathing upon it4 ,it is just possible that after the gilding has been done it will be noticed that the gold-leaf has adhered to the surface of the vellum in parts where it was not intended4 ,brushing the surface with the camel-hair mop is not sufficient to remove this4 ,it1 however1 can generally be cleaned by means of kneaded rubber4 ,there is no need to use any friction2 if it is pressed on the parts and lifted again it will pick up the leaf from the vellum4 ,care should be taken1 however1 to avoid touching the surface of the raised gold1 as it is very liable to spoil the appearance of it4 ,after the gilding is completed1 the colouring should be proceeded with4 ,the large masses of colour are laid in first1 then the white lining on the colour1 and finally the outline4 ,if the surface of the vellum is at all inclined to be greasy it may be advisable to use a little oxgall with the colour4 ,the various other suggestions shown in ,fig4 #ca practically explain themselves2 7b7 and 7c7 are different methods of spacing the decoration4 ,two more initials are shown1 also the construction of the decoration and other suggestive details4 ,illustration3 ,,illuminated ,,altar ,,tablet4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,further ,,development ,,of ,,illumination ,the style of decoration suggested in the previous chapter was based1 to a large extent1 on pen-work4 ,the examples indicated in ,fig4 #cb show a further development1 in which brush-work plays a more prominent part4 ,a suggestion for an illuminated version of the ,twenty-third ,psalm is shown in 7d74 ,the decoration here may appear somewhat stiff1 but it is difficult to show in black and white the effect that colour gives4 ,this simple and somewhat severe type of decoration is1 however1 much easier for the beginner than the freer kind of ornament4 ,it is rather difficult to suggest in writing the exact colouring1 as so much depends on the various shades used to form the general colour scheme4 ,possibly the following notes may be useful to the student as indicating roughly the colours that may be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,the writing is in black with the capital letters in red4 ,the background of the initial and border1 viz41 the parts indicated by horizontal shading1 should be blue4 ,this colour should be neither too dark nor too light1 also it should not tend towards either purple or green4 ,the student should take special note of the blues used by the medival artists4 ,the large initial ,t should be painted in a warm shade of red1 not quite so vivid as vermilion1 nor yet a cool crimson4 ,the centre of this initial and also the centres of the blossoms1 with the background of the small circles formed by the stems1 are of raised burnished gold1 as also are the small buds in the line work4 ,the stems should be painted in a neutral tint and may be heightened up in places with touches of clean bright colour4 ,the leaves may be green shaded with a lighter tint of the same colour4 ,the flowers might be a pale creamy tint with the centres shaded with orange4 ,the scroll-work on the colour may be painted either in white or in a lighter tint of the background colour upon which it is painted4 ,the initial ,t may be treated in this way1 and also shaded with a darker red4 ,in 7e7 an arrangement is shown for a page with the border completely surrounding it4 ,some endeavour should be made to get good pattern with the masses of gold and colour4 ,in the page suggested in 7f7 the decoration is formed down one side1 springing from the initial ,p4 ,the initial ,b that is shown here is in raised gold1 the flowers in the centre also being in gold1 as well as the berries in the pen-work springing from the letter4 ,the background of the letter is blue and red--blue where the shading is indicated by horizontal strokes and red where vertical strokes are used4 ,a study of plant form is very useful to the illuminator4 ,the decoration used by the medival artist was practically all based on natural forms1 and some of the best advice that can be given to the modern illuminator is that he should study nature4 ,in doing this the student should remember that the object is primarily decoration and not representation4 ,he should not degrade this art into a mere realistic rendering of sprays of flowers1 insects1 etc41 but rather aim at producing decoration as the direct result of his study of nature4 ,as an example1 some of the ivy-leaf decoration that was so much used during the fourteenth century is shown here4 ,the importance of study from nature cannot be emphasized too strongly4 ,drawing from plant-form is one of the best exercises the illuminator can have4 ,possibly a few hints on this important study will be of service to the student4 ,in the first place1 when drawing a plant1 or indeed any natural object1 one should be careful to avoid drawing it like drawing a map1 i4e41 without realising that it is form4 ,if this is persisted in1 the result will be that the drawing will be lacking in vitality1 besides being not nearly so intelligible4 ,if the endeavour be made to keep constantly before the mind the fact that it is form that one is drawing1 and everything is carefully reasoned out before attempting to draw it1 the finished drawing will not only have far more life in it1 but it will also be much easier to understand4 ,one should also strive to draw with feeling2 there is a great difference between a living plant and an artificial reproduction of it4 ,the drawings of plants and flowers made by some students remind one of paper flowers and foliage1 as they are drawn in such a hard and severe manner4 ,a natural leaf is a thing of beauty1 there is nothing rigid or stiff about it1 but one that is cut out of paper is dead and unyielding in every respect and is absolutely devoid of all feeling4 ,one should get all the life and feeling possible into one's drawing1 and this comes from plenty of practice in careful and thoughtful drawing from nature4 ,when making plant studies for one's own use in design there is no need to limit oneself by making outline drawings in pen and ink1 as when they are intended to be reproduced by means of line-blocks4 ,the aim of the artist should be to make the drawing as much as possible like the original4 ,it is not advisable to go in for sketchy effects2 everything should be made perfectly intelligible so that it is possible to understand every detail of the drawing4 ,of course1 some parts of the plant should be painted in colours1 so as to form a record of the actual colours1 but for general drawing a soft black-lead pencil1 such as a #c or #d;,b1 is very useful4 ,one should be careful to observe all the details1 such as the way the branches attach themselves to the main stem1 also the manner in which the leaves and flowers arrange themselves4 ,the feeling of unity which runs throughout the whole of the plant should be carefully noted1 how there is a distinct relationship between every leaf and bud with the main stem4 ,there is no need to confine one's nature study to actual plant-drawing4 ,if one's powers of perception are trained to observe1 there is a great deal to be learned from a walk in the country4 ,attention should be given to the pattern that abounds everywhere in nature2 flowery banks and hedgerows are rich in suggestion4 ,the meadow spangled with buttercups and daisies is a delightful example4 ,a field of barley when it is just beginning to change colour offers a wealth of possibilities both in pattern and colour4 ,then take trees1 their different structure and foliage4 ,no two species of trees are exactly alike in the arrangement of foliage1 etc4 ,one should not1 however1 give too much attention to detail to the neglect of considering things as a whole4 ,for example1 a tree as a whole should be noted1 attention being given to the way in which the trunk springs from the ground and the general massing of the branches and foliage4 ,the use of a sketch-book for noting things down is very useful1 but too much reliance should not be placed on this4 ,if one's powers of perception are trained to observe1 the memory will be stored with an abundance of suggestions and ideas from the study of nature that has been going on almost unconsciously day by day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,as well as nature study1 the student should also make careful study of some of the best illuminated work of the medival period1 especially on the lines indicated in the chapter on the ,initial ,letter4 ,the use of a note-book will prove to be very serviceable for this purpose4 ,quick sketches of the arrangement of the pages1 as suggested in ,fig4 #cc1 should help the student very much in arranging the decoration of the page4 ,of course1 the drawing of details is also useful1 as by carefully copying some of the initials and decoration he is able to gain some experience of the medival artists' methods of working4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,roll ,,of ,,honour4 ,by kind permission of ,miss ,harrison1 of ,little ,waltham ,hall4 ,possibly it may be as well to say a few words about miniature painting in connection with illumination4 ,as has often been explained1 the term 8miniature0 when used with reference to illuminated ,,mss4 must not be confounded with the modern idea of miniature painting1 i4e41 painting on a small scale in a minute fashion1 as the word 8miniature0 is derived from the ,latin word minium1 the red pigment used in the decoration of ,,mss41 therefore the original meaning is writing or painting with minium4 ,there is also no reason at all why miniatures1 when painted on vellum and used in conjunction with illumination1 should be stippled and worked up in the minute fashion that is usual with the ordinary miniatures on ivory4 ,it is not advisable to paint these in a similar way to the ordinary water-colour painting4 ,it is very difficult to paint on vellum in this way4 ,undoubtedly the best way is to paint fairly direct1 using body colour4 ,the miniatures should be nicely finished without any excessive laboured finish produced by stippling or other similar methods4 ,a miniature should always be treated as part of the decoration1 and not as a picture added to it4 ,if the student examines carefully the best work of the medival period he will notice that it is practically impossible to separate the miniature from the rest of the decoration4 ,a strong feeling of unity runs throughout the whole4 ,the greater part of modern work1 however1 differs in this respect4 ,the miniature is often quite good1 so also is the decoration1 but they are independent of each other4 ,it would be quite possible to replace the miniature by another totally different4 ,the ideal that he should endeavour to attain to is to make the miniature with the rest of the decoration form one harmonious whole4 ,although the miniature should be essentially decorative1 there is no need to make it too rigid and conventional4 ,a fair amount of sketching from nature will go a good way towards preventing this4 ,it is not a bad plan for the student to practise making small quick sketches in oils from nature1 treating the subject broadly and going for colour4 ,this will help him very much in painting his miniatures in a direct fashion1 and1 if this is combined with plenty of careful drawing1 it should enable him to develop his style of decoration considerably4 ,with regard to the decoration as a whole1 it has often been said that it is impossible to teach one how to design1 but that it is possible to direct one in the right way2 and there is no better method than that suggested above1 viz41 a study of nature combined with good examples of work that has been done in the past4 ,illustration3 ,,illuminated ,,altar ,,tablet4 ,when designing1 it is a great mistake to strive after originality4 ,the way to be original is to be natural and do the work in the best way that one is able4 ,if the artist does this he is certain to be original1 as he cannot help himself4 ,if he strives after originality the work produced will be of an unhealthy type1 and will show signs of affectation which will be anything but pleasant4 ,imitating someone else is equally foolish1 as an imitation can never be equal to the real thing4 ,art is worth nothing unless it springs spontaneously from the joy of working1 without any concentration on its sthetic aspects4 ,therefore the thing for the modern illuminator to do is not to imitate either ancient or modern artists1 but simply seek to do his best1 giving the best workmanship that he is capable of4 ,there are untold possibilities in the future for the development of schools of illumination as great as any of those that have existed in the past4 ,there are quite a number of different ways in which illumination might be used in the present day4 ,perhaps it might be useful to suggest a few of these4 ,the ,illuminated ,address and the ,illuminated ,,ms4 ,book are so important that separate chapters have been devoted to these4 ,one of the most important things that illumination can be used for is for the service of the ,church4 ,altar tablets offer plenty of scope for the modern illuminator4 ,they should1 of course1 be on vellum and be framed quite simply4 ,service ,books1 such as the ,communion ,service1 also provide another application for illumination4 ,books should be written in sections4 7,see ,chapter #be on the ,illuminated ,,ms4 ,book47 ,a ,service ,book may either be fairly elaborate or may be written simply in black and red4 ,it is as well to use red for the ,rubrics1 so as to make a distinction between these and the rest of the text4 ,the ,marriage ,service is another thing that may well be written out in good script and illuminated4 ,this should have the size of the pages on the small side1 as in this case it would be for the use of a private person and not for the clergy4 ,texts for churches1 the ,creed1 ,commandments1 etc41 are also subjects suitable for illumination4 ,these should be bold and distinct4 ,permanent ,notices in churches and other buildings would be much more attractive if1 instead of the usual printed form being used1 they were executed with beautiful lettering1 preferably with a reed pen1 and possibly illuminated4 ,these should1 however1 not be overburdened with decoration1 as it is necessary that they should be as distinct as possible4 ,black and burnished gold makes a very effective combination4 ,another use to which illumination might be utilised is ,family ,trees and ,pedigrees4 ,these are likely to give plenty of opportunities for the illuminator1 as good decoration may easily be formed with coats of arms and other symbols4 ,many other things will probably suggest themselves to the artist as subjects suitable for illumination4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,church ,,porch ,,text4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,illuminated ,,address ,the illuminated address is the form which most modern illumination takes4 ,the greater number of these cannot1 even by the widest stretch of imagination1 be called works of art4 ,not only are they generally executed with vivid and crude colour schemes1 but also the style of decoration is usually extremely bad4 ,some of the letters are painfully contorted4 ,others are represented as if they were solid blocks throwing shadows1 and are drawn in false perspective4 ,meaningless flourishes abound4 ,occasionally a little bit of decoration1 that has been copied from some medival work1 is introduced4 ,this1 however1 is mixed up with a lot of straggling ornament which it is impossible to conceive as having been produced by any artist of the ,middle ,ages4 ,one can quite understand how this is so when one considers how so much of the work is done4 ,illuminated addresses are often executed by people who have had practically no training at all4 ,one can scarcely complain if they are in bad taste when such is the case4 ,if one has had a good grounding by studying the work of the ancient illuminators it is practically impossible to produce this type of work4 ,therefore1 before attempting to work in a modern style1 the student should make a careful study of the work of the medival period4 ,when one receives an enquiry regarding an illuminated address1 a definite understanding is necessary as to the form which the address is to take4 ,those generally employed are the ,framed ,address1 the ,book form1 and the ,vellum ,scroll4 7,see ,fig4 #cd1 a1 b1 c47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,one should be able and willing to give advice and help in the matter of wording4 ,it is advisable to guard against the usual foolish and somewhat bombastic manner of wording testimonials4 ,the first or third person is generally employed1 but it would be much better if it took the form of an ordinary letter expressing appreciation and good wishes4 ,whichever form is employed1 care should be taken that these are not confused in any way4 ,it is a good plan to make1 first of all1 a careful copy of the wording1 and get it checked with the original before commencing to work4 ,this will prevent mistakes being made4 ,then the artist should find out if any coats of arms1 etc41 are needed to be introduced into the decoration4 ,the approximate size is then decided1 and the whole is roughed out in pencil on detail paper to find the exact spacing of the lettering and decoration4 ,the form that the address should take depends on the matter to be introduced4 ,if1 for example1 #ejj names are required to be appended1 a framed testimonial is clearly out of the question4 ,for the same reason one in the form of a scroll is useless4 ,the only practical method is to do it in book form4 ,when executing an address in this manner1 the best way is to write it in sections composed of two folded sheets4 ,after the work is completed1 the whole is carefully bound by an experienced binder4 ,another method is to write it in a blank album1 but1 if this is done1 care should be taken that the paper is of good quality and suitable for writing and illuminating4 ,the paper of which these albums are generally made is unfortunately rather poor in quality4 ,if the scroll form is employed1 it is best that large masses of raised gold should not be used in the decoration1 owing to the likelihood of this cracking when the vellum is rolled4 ,when completed1 the scroll is generally enclosed in a cylindrical case or a metal casket4 ,of course1 the latter1 if made by a good craftsman1 is much to be preferred4 ,for a framed testimonial the best kind of frame is undoubtedly a black one1 as this serves well to show up the brilliance of the gold and colours4 ,it is also a good plan to frame it with a cut mount1 so that the vellum does not touch the glass4 ,a word of warning is possibly needed here4 ,when having illuminated work on vellum framed1 it is most important that the frame-maker should not be allowed to mount it4 ,if he does this he is almost certain to spoil the work1 as1 when the back of the vellum is damped1 the moisture soaks through and softens the raising preparation1 thus spoiling the raised gold work2 also the chances are that the vellum will be spoiled at the same time4 ,it is very annoying1 after spending a considerable time on the work1 to find it completely ruined by an unsuccessful attempt to mount it4 ,if a list of names is wanted at the end of an address it should be ascertained if signatures are needed or a carefully-written list of names4 ,if signatures are required1 it is best to get these before completing the decoration4 ,lines should be ruled faintly with a sharply-pointed ,h4,b4 pencil to act as a guide for the various writers4 ,the signatures should all be written under the artist's personal supervision4 ,it is a great mistake to allow the work to leave one's hands before it is properly finished4 ,if it is carried here and there by various people it is very liable to become soiled1 to say nothing of mistakes made and signatures written in ink of various shades4 ,a good fluid ,indian ink1 the same as that which the lettering is written with1 should be provided4 ,a number of pens of different styles should be to hand1 with paper for the subscribers to try the pens on before signing the actual address4 ,signatures certainly have a more sentimental value than a mere list of names4 ,a neatly-written list of names1 however1 looks much better and is more in keeping with the decoration4 ,it is best to place the names in alphabetical order4 ,if the names are to be put in by the artist1 he should first of all1 as mentioned before in the case of the wording1 make a copy of these and get it carefully checked before writing them in4 ,it is very usual to include coats-of-arms in the decoration4 ,when this is done1 great care should be taken that these are blazoned in the correct colours1 and also that they are properly drawn4 ,a good handbook on ,heraldry should be consulted4 ,the illuminator should have1 at any rate1 an elementary knowledge of this subject1 as he is so often called upon to make use of it4 ,after he has carefully ascertained by means of the rough drawing the measurements and spacing1 he should start work straight away on the vellum4 ,it is not necessary to go into details as to how to set about this4 ,explanations have already been given1 in a previous chapter1 concerning how to set out an illuminated page4 ,in the case of a beginner who has not sufficient confidence in himself to work direct on the vellum1 the first drawing may be made on a sheet of tracing paper4 ,if this is pinned over a piece of white paper it is quite easy to work upon4 ,when the drawing is completed1 the tracing paper should be reversed1 and the whole of the decoration should be traced on the back of it with a finely-pointed ,h4,b4 pencil4 ,this is referring to the decoration only4 ,the lettering should in any case be written straightway on to the vellum1 after the necessary measurements and calculations have been made4 ,after the whole of the decoration has been traced through the tracing paper should be carefully placed in position on the vellum4 ,it should be fastened with drawing-pins down one side4 ,the traced decoration can then be easily transferred to the vellum by rubbing the back of the tracing paper with a burnisher or paper-knife4 ,care should be taken that the paper does not shift about during this process4 ,it should be held firmly1 lifting it up occasionally to see if a clear impression is being made4 ,it is just possible that the illuminator may be asked to submit a rough sketch4 ,he should bear in mind that the object of this is to give some idea of the finished work4 ,this should be executed in a bold fashion on cartridge paper with a soft pencil4 ,a few words may be written in the script that he intends to use1 and it is as well to finish a small portion of the decoration in colours4 ,this should enable his client to understand something of what the finished work will be4 ,a simple but very effective form of address is that having a coat-of-arms at the top1 with the matter in plain lettering with a fine initial1 as indicated in 7d74 ,a still simpler form might consist of a nice piece of lettering with a plain initial either in raised gold or vermilion1 omitting the coat-of-arms at the top4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,various ,,methods ,,of ,,reproduction ,it is essential that the artist who does work for reproduction should have some knowledge of the different methods employed4 ,a lack of knowledge in this respect is responsible for a large number of drawings made which are quite unsuitable for the purpose4 ,it is not necessary that the student should be able to reproduce his own work by the various methods used1 but he should be familiar1 in a slight degree1 with the processes used4 ,for black-and-white work1 the two processes largely used by publishers in magazines1 etc41 are known as ,line ,process and ,half-,tone4 ,the former is used for the reproduction of pen-drawings1 and the latter for tone drawings4 ,the line process is the most useful for the class of work that the illuminator is likely to do4 ,in this case the method of procedure is briefly as follows3 ,the drawing is made with good black ink on white paper4 ,it is then photographed4 ,a piece of polished zinc is given a thin film of fish-glue in which some bichromate of potash has been dissolved4 ,the effect of the bichromate is to make the fish-glue insoluble when it has been exposed to the light4 ,the zinc plate is dried rapidly in a subdued light1 and is then exposed behind the negative4 ,the light1 penetrating through the clear parts of the negative1 renders these insoluble4 ,the zinc is then given a thin coating of soft1 greasy ink with a roller4 ,it is then placed in a dish of water to develop4 ,the effect of the water is to dissolve the fish-glue that has been protected1 and is therefore still soluble4 ,this leaves the design on the surface of the zinc in ink4 ,while the ink is still tacky1 it is dusted over with resin4 ,this is fused over a stove1 and the background of the zinc is etched away in an acid bath1 leaving the design standing in relief4 ,this is1 briefly1 an outline of the process of making a line block4 ,of course1 it must be understood that many details are omitted in this description4 ,these1 however1 although most important to the block-maker1 are not necessarily essential to the artist4 ,the chief thing that he should be careful to ensure is that his drawings should be executed with an absolutely black line on white paper4 ,by this means he will have done his part to help the block-maker to obtain a clear negative1 which is unquestionably vital to the production of a successful process block4 ,drawings executed with a weak1 washy kind of ink on yellow-toned paper do not give the block-maker a chance4 ,the thing1 then1 for the artist to remember is to see that his drawing consists of firm black lines on a white surface1 with no half-tones1 unless these are produced by means of lines4 ,for drawings executed in tone1 the other method1 known as the half-tone process1 is used4 ,in this case the drawing is photographed with a glass screen in front of the negative4 ,this screen is ruled with fine lines in such a manner that the tints of the original are broken up into dots4 ,the print is obtained on the metal1 and the block is made in a somewhat similar manner to that of a line block4 ,in etching1 the metal is bitten away round the edges of the various dots more or less1 according to the strength of these4 ,this gives a similar effect of light and shade to the original4 ,an examination1 with a magnifying-glass1 of any reproduction of a photograph or tone-drawing in any of the magazines of the present day will show this quite plainly4 ,when working for this process1 drawings should be rather more vigorous than are required in the finished production4 ,the reason for this is that the photograph generally softens down everything1 so it is as well to forestall this by making the original stronger4 ,it is also important that the half-tones in the drawing should not tend towards being a bluish grey1 as blue does not photograph well4 ,the result of a reproduction from a drawing of this kind would be that the half-tones would be much weaker than in the original4 ,in colour reproduction1 a method largely used is that known as the three-colour process4 ,this is a development of the half-tone process4 ,in this case1 however1 the drawing is photographed three times in succession on different plates4 ,in each case a colour filter is placed in front of the lens1 which allows only the red1 yellow1 or blue rays to pass through4 ,by this means the three negatives obtained are records of the red1 yellow1 and blue used in the drawing4 ,three blocks are made1 and are printed in red1 yellow1 and blue ink respectively1 superimposed over each other4 ,this1 if carefully done1 gives a fairly faithful reproduction of the original4 ,sometimes an extra block is used1 and in the case of the reproduction of illuminated work1 a special block is used to print the gold4 ,it can easily be understood why this is necessary1 as1 when printed from the three blocks only1 this comes out as a colour in the printing4 ,when working for this form of reproduction there is no need to limit oneself in the number of colours used4 ,work that has been executed with about twenty different colours can be reproduced as easily as that in which only four or five colours are used4 ,as in half-tone1 the work should be stronger and more vigorous than is needed in the finished reproduction4 ,the colours also should be bright and clear1 and the modelling should be strongly accentuated1 as this process has a tendency towards flattening everything4 ,if the original appears flat and washed-out in treatment1 it will certainly look much worse when reproduced4 ,another process1 largely used for commercial work1 is lithography4 ,this is quite different from any of the previously mentioned processes4 ,in all these the blocks are in relief1 and are printed in a typographic press4 ,for the general form of lithography1 a species of limestone is used4 ,this process depends on the absorption of grease by this stone1 and on the mutual antipathy of grease and water4 ,the design is drawn on the surface of the stone with a greasy ink4 ,the grease is absorbed by the stone4 ,the stone is then damped all over2 the greasy ink of the design repels the water1 but where there is no design the surface of the stone becomes wet4 ,an ink-roller is then passed over the stone while it is still damp4 ,as this printing ink is of a greasy nature1 it will leave the roller only for the lines of the design1 which remain quite dry4 ,the moist surface of the stone repels the ink4 ,after the stone has been inked up1 a print is obtained in a lithographic press4 ,for general work the surface of the stone is highly polished1 but for the reproduction of chalk drawings and for shading purposes it is given a grain4 ,zinc and aluminium plates are often used as substitutes for stone4 ,these1 although not as good as stone1 have the advantages of being cheaper and more portable4 ,colour printing by this process is known as chromo-lithography4 ,a separate stone is used to print each colour4 ,a careful tracing is first made of the outline of the drawing1 and this is transferred to the surface of the stone4 ,this forms the key-stone from which the other colour stones are prepared4 ,when it is desired to print gold1 the stone is rolled up with a very sticky kind of ink4 ,a print is obtained in this medium1 and while this is still tacky it is dusted over with powdered bronze1 which adheres to the print and gives the effect of gilding to some extent4 ,for very special work real gold is occasionally employed instead of bronze powder4 ,it can easily be understood that the larger number of colours used1 the more costly this process is4 ,students often wonder why designs are sometimes not accepted by firms who use this process4 ,very often one of the most important reasons is that too many colours are employed4 ,if a design is shown that can be produced with a striking effect with two or three printings only1 it will certainly be considered before one requiring ten or twelve4 ,lithography is used for the greater bulk of commercial work1 such as posters1 labels1 ,christmas cards1 etc4 ,the great thing to remember when doing work for reproduction by chromo-lithography is to get a good effect with as few colours as possible4 ,there is no need in this case to make the drawing more vigorous than is required1 as the lithographer will endeavour to get exactly the same effect as in the original4 ,the student who is ignorant as to the different methods of reproduction employed should at any rate1 after paying a little attention to the descriptions given1 avoid making designs that are almost impossible to reproduce satisfactorily4 ,the object of this chapter is not to teach the student how to reproduce his drawings by means of the processes described4 ,the only reasons for dealing with the subject are to enable him to produce workable designs1 and at the same time to give him an added interest in his work by an elementary knowledge of the methods of reproduction4 ,illustration3 ,,designs ,,for ,,christmas ,,cards4 ,by kind permission of ,messrs4 ,raphael ,tuck ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,christmas ,,cards ,in the application of illumination for purposes of reproduction1 designing for ,christmas cards occupies a prominent place4 ,although these are not all necessarily of the illuminated type1 a great number are of this kind4 ,all varieties have lettering as an important part of the design4 ,there is plenty of scope for the illuminator in this direction4 ,if he can produce effective designs that can be easily printed1 and are likely to be saleable when reproduced1 publishers of ,christmas cards will always be pleased to see his work4 ,when designing1 there is no necessity for using permanent colours1 as the original is seldom kept after it has been printed4 ,the same thing applies to the use of gold-leaf for gilding4 ,this can be done with bronze powder4 ,gold paint can be readily made by mixing the powdered bronze to a stiff paste with gum-water1 then thinning it out with water so that it flows freely from the brush4 ,care should be taken to get the right amount of gum in it1 as if there is too much it will present a shiny appearance and will turn black quickly4 ,if1 on the other hand1 there is not enough to bind the particles of bronze together1 it will rub off when touched4 ,the best way is to test before proceeding with the work1 by painting on a small piece of paper and noting the effect when dry4 ,when it is desired to produce raised gold1 this also can be done with bronze powder4 ,for this purpose some raising preparation1 of the kind sold in the form of a thick paint1 should be used4 ,a little should be placed in a small saucer1 and a drop of honey added to it with some water4 ,it should then be carefully rubbed up with the finger until it is about the same consistency as cream4 ,care should be taken not to add too much honey1 otherwise the raising will not dry at all1 but will remain a sticky mass4 ,the parts that are intended to be raised should be filled in with this1 in the same manner as described for leaf-gilding in a previous chapter4 ,after this has become dry on the surface1 it should be breathed upon until it becomes tacky4 ,the bronze powder is then dusted over it with a small piece of cotton-wool4 ,after leaving for a little while1 the superfluous bronze is dusted off with a clean piece of cotton-wool4 ,any parts where the bronze powder has not attached itself can generally be covered by again breathing upon the surface and applying the bronze4 ,no attempt should be made to burnish gilding done in this way4 ,christmas cards are nearly always produced by means of chromo-lithography1 as described in the previous chapter4 ,occasionally they are produced by means of line and three-colour blocks1 but1 generally speaking1 chromo-lithography is the process employed4 ,illustration3 ,cover4 ,first page4 ,a ,,christmas ,,card4 ,by kind permission of ,messrs4 ,raphael ,tuck ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,when about to make a design1 the student should endeavour to visualise the completed design before commencing work4 ,if he cultivates this habit he will find it much better than worrying a design into existence--a method very often employed4 ,it is a good plan1 when setting out to design1 to ask oneself a series of questions3 8,how is it to be reproduced80 8,what style of design is needed80 8,what is the general taste of the buyers of this kind of thing80 etc4 ,if one asks oneself a number of similar questions to these1 it should1 at any rate1 be the means of ensuring that the design is suited to its purpose4 ,a very common fault in designing ,christmas cards is making them too heavy in treatment4 ,it is essential that the finish should be light and dainty4 ,designs may be either for the complete card or merely for the outside cover4 ,several suggestions are shown in ,fig4 #ce4 ,of course1 it will be understood that these are only rough sketches4 ,they do not pretend to be designs4 ,the one represented by 7a7 is for the general type of illuminated design4 ,this is for the outside cover only3 a short greeting with an illuminated initial and decoration4 ,when selecting words for this purpose1 one should be careful to choose something not too trite4 ,on the other hand1 it is as well to avoid using some copyright quotation4 ,the designer must be up-to-date3 he must not expect to sell his designs if he gets his ideas from ,christmas cards that were published twenty years ago4 ,there are no special sizes to work to1 as cards of all shapes and sizes are produced4 ,it is best1 however1 not to get them too large4 ,the style of card indicated in 7b7 is a very usual kind4 ,the centre is left blank for a small picture1 or a monogram1 to be inserted4 ,if the artist is able to paint little landscapes or girls' heads1 he could insert them himself as shown in 7c74 ,he should1 however1 avoid getting these heavy or crude in colour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,the designer will always find that he is much more likely to sell his designs if they represent new ideas4 ,the publisher is always on the look-out for something new4 ,for example1 the idea might be a small booklet containing a brief anthology on 8,happiness10 or some other like subject4 ,if a small booklet is designed1 it is as well to remember that all the pages should not be fully illuminated4 ,the cover and the opening page might be illuminated in gold and colours1 while the rest might be in black and red only4 ,if the booklet was executed with all its pages fully illuminated it would probably be rejected on the score of expense of reproduction4 ,it is little things like this which1 if taken into consideration1 would prevent a good number of the disappointing refusals that are so often received4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,a very attractive form of card is shown in 7d74 ,this has a cover design1 a greeting with a space for name1 and a quotation4 ,when a card of this type is designed it should be arranged as shown in ,fig4 #cf4 ,by this means the card1 when opened out1 has the design all on the same side of the paper1 and is much more convenient4 ,some may be made upright and others oblong in shape1 as in ,fig4 #cf4 ,the prices paid for ,christmas card designs may be anything from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #c #cs4 ,of course1 higher prices than these are often paid for good work1 when there is a demand for the work of the designer4 ,a good average price for a design1 however1 is #a #as4 ,it is a mistake to mark designs at a low figure1 with the idea that the publisher will be more likely to take them4 ,this is quite a wrong impression1 as1 if the publisher wants the designs1 he will not be slow to make an offer if the price is too high2 while1 on the other hand1 if they are not suitable for his purpose1 he would not take them as a gift4 ,when sending designs1 it is as well not to write long letters of explanation4 ,letters should be as brief and pointed as possible4 ,apart from designing for publishers1 the illuminator ought to be able to produce a series of hand-written ,christmas cards4 ,there ought to be a demand for cards well written in fine script on nice hand-made paper4 ,a little simple decoration might be added in colour1 and the modern illuminator ought to be able to produce these quite quickly1 and therefore cheaply4 ,illustration3 ,designs for ,programme and ,progressive ,whist ,card4 ,invitation cards for select parties are amongst numerous other things that suggest themselves for production in this manner4 ,of course1 for large gatherings1 where a good number of invitations are sent out1 writing them by hand is out of the question4 ,but when this is the case1 one copy could be nicely written in black and a zinc line block made from this4 ,the edition could then be printed off4 ,an invitation card written in well-formed lettering would make a pleasant change from the usual type of card4 ,possibly a number of other opportunities will suggest themselves where fine pen-formed lettering might be substituted in place of the ordinary style of thing4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,lettering ,,for ,,commercial ,,purposes ,illustration3 ,,an ,,attractive ,,advertisement4 ,by kind permission of ,messrs4 ,benn ,bros1 ,ltd4 ,the ability to produce good lettering is of the utmost importance to the artist employed in commercial work4 ,the list of things that require lettering seems almost endless4 ,to mention just a few1 there are posters1 catalogue covers1 showcards1 labels1 boxes1 packages1 displayed advertisements1 calendars1 title-pages1 book covers1 magazine covers1 letter headings1 maps1 diagrams1 etc4 ,this list might be extended considerably and yet not include all the many things for which lettering is absolutely necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,design ,,for ,,booklet ,,cover4 ,by kind permission of the ,house of ,vanheems and ,messrs4 ,clarke ,sherwell1 ,ltd4 ,in fact1 when one begins to consider the number of things that require lettering of some description1 one begins to realise how essential it is that the artist should be able to produce good and well-spaced lettering4 ,as mentioned before in an earlier chapter1 there is nothing like having plenty of practice with the reed and quill pen to help the student towards ability to mass and arrange lettering in the best possible way4 ,the difference between the lettering done by one who has had plenty of practice with the reed or quill1 and one who has had no experience in this direction1 is most noticeable4 ,the one is able to design with words1 while the other is concerned only with the shapes of the letters4 ,to be able to produce well-arranged lettering it is necessary to be able to design with words1 and familiarity with the reed or quill gives this facility better than any other training4 ,no matter how the letters are formed afterwards1 the experience gained in massing letters together in this way to form words will be found to be of great service4 ,the arrangement of letters to form words is of the utmost importance2 in fact it might be said to be as essential a factor as the formation of the individual letters4 ,a well-arranged inscription often adds greatly to the finish of a drawing1 and with the latter it often happens that it is incomplete without a heading or title of some description4 ,but this1 if badly done1 may completely spoil the appearance of the drawing4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,handbook ,,cover4 ,maps and diagrams require a simple form of lettering that is distinct and at the same time can be written in a fairly quick manner4 ,the style of ,roman lettering1 formed with simple pen-strokes1 shown in a previous chapter1 might be used for this purpose2 or the simple pen-formed italics might be used4 ,for writing these a sharply-cut quill pen is required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,in ,fig4 #cg an alphabet is shown which is formed with all strokes of equal thickness4 ,this is a very useful kind of lettering for illustrations1 maps1 and diagrams4 ,it has one distinct advantage3 that is1 it can be written with the same pen that the drawing is made with4 ,if this style of lettering is used1 however1 it is as well to make sure that all the strokes are of equal thickness4 ,it should not look like quill-pen writing badly done4 ,this type of lettering may be upright or slanting4 ,until the student is quite familiar with this lettering two lines may be used4 ,the writing should be done very carefully and the words should be well spaced4 ,this kind of lettering should be used only for names on maps1 notes on diagrams1 or references under illustrations4 ,when a title is needed for an illustration1 or a heading is required1 carefully-drawn ,roman lettering should be used4 ,each letter should be exact in finish1 and at the same time there should be good arrangement4 ,for poster work it is essential that the lettering should be bold and decisive4 ,for hand-written posters1 that need to be produced quickly1 the ,roman alphabet1 formed with simple pen-strokes1 given in a previous chapter1 will be found useful4 ,a large reed pen should be used for this purpose4 ,by using red and black inks very effective hand-written notices may be produced4 ,if the poster is to be displayed out-of-doors1 waterproof inks only should be used for writing it with4 ,however1 this will be dealt with in the next chapter4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,design ,,for ,a ,,certificate4 ,,by ,,sidney ,,farnsworth4 ,by kind permission of the ,national ,institute for the ,blind1 and the ,byron ,studios4 ,for lettering on a poster that is to be reproduced1 a good strong ,roman type of lettering is the best4 ,the type shown in ,fig4 #ch is a very suitable kind4 ,it must be strong1 bold1 and well displayed4 ,the principal words must show up strongly defined4 ,for this1 and1 indeed1 all kinds of commercial design1 the lettering must be firm and exact to a nicety4 ,the looseness that is suited to illumination will not do for this kind of work4 ,the little accidental turns and twists1 which are one of the charms of illuminated work1 would be entirely out of place in commercial work1 which must be firm and strong in every detail4 ,penscript is not used to any large extent4 ,the greater part of the lettering used in commercial design is carefully drawn in an extremely accurate manner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,when lettering a poster1 some endeavour should be made to get a certain amount of display in the lettering4 ,for example1 if the object is to advertise 8,brown's ,tea10 or 8,smith's ,cocoa10 great prominence must be given to these words4 ,the lettering should be so arranged that it is practically impossible to avoid seeing the name of the commodity that is being advertised4 ,illustration3 ,two ,designs for ,labels4 ,another important thing when lettering advertisements is to see that each letter is quite distinct4 ,for example1 ,c must not be mistaken for a ,g1 and vice vers4 ,for good arrangement in lettering the mistake should not be made of taking type as a model1 as1 owing to each type letter being in the form of a block1 it is impossible to space it with the same facility that is possible with writing4 ,note the examples given in ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,a ,design for a ,letter ,heading4 ,one or two further hints may be useful4 ,it is never advisable to put two upright strokes too closely together4 ,also in the case of round letters1 such as ,o1 ,c1 ,g1 etc41 these should project slightly over the line1 otherwise they will appear smaller than the other letters4 ,this should1 however1 be very slight1 as it is easy to overdo this kind of thing4 ,when lettering a diagram1 if possible keep all the lettering the same way1 so that there is no need to turn the page round to read it4 ,this is1 of course1 not always possible1 but if it is at all practicable it is quite the best thing to do4 ,it is never wise to jumble a number of different styles of lettering together in one inscription1 as is sometimes done4 ,the practice of this kind of thing tends to make the lettering less readable1 besides making it look somewhat freakish4 ,sometimes the use of two styles of lettering together1 such as an upright form of ,roman lettering and an italic1 helps to emphasize certain words2 but when a variety of different forms is used the only result is to make the lettering look confused4 ,for the greater part of commercial work a form of ,roman lettering is used4 ,the student who intends to practise this kind of work should study some of the best modern work4 ,he will have no difficulty in getting plenty of examples4 ,when designing a cover for a magazine1 one of the first things to be taken into consideration is how to make it stand out in a striking manner so that it will be noticed on the bookstall4 ,illustration3 ,a ,design for a ,music-cover4 ,designs for magazine covers may be roughly divided into two classes1 viz41 those which occupy the whole of the cover1 and those where the design is in the form of a heading4 ,in any case1 however1 it is best that the title should be prominently arranged at the top of the cover1 so that it can readily be seen when the magazine is placed on the bookstall1 and is generally in that position partly covered through other magazines and books overlapping it4 ,the great thing to remember is that the object of each design for a magazine cover should be to make it stand out distinct from all the other magazines on the stall1 so that it can be recognised in an instant4 ,illustration3 ,a ,design for a ,bookplate4 ,one important piece of advice in this kind of work is to avoid making the lettering look freakish by forming some of the letters quite tiny and others excessively large in the same word4 ,this is one of the most prominent signs of the amateur4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,hand-,,written ,,posters1 ,,etc4 ,it is very useful at times to be able to produce quickly a hand-written poster4 ,it is not always desirable to have printed ones1 especially when one or two copies are all that are required1 and a hand-written poster can be very effective even if it is produced hurriedly4 ,it is1 however1 very essential that these should be written as quickly as possible1 as the price that the writer would have to charge for a poster that he had spent a whole day in writing would make it quite prohibitive4 ,therefore speed of production is an important factor that must be considered in connection with the hand-written poster4 ,it is well to remember that a poster must attract attention4 ,unless there is something arresting about it1 comparatively few people will stop and read it1 however well it may be written4 ,of course all posters do not depend upon the lettering alone to attract1 but in any case the lettering should be distinct and prominent4 ,however1 the type of poster described here is composed of lettering alone1 and so depends entirely on the display of this to catch the eye4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,attractive ,,piece ,,of ,,lettering4 ,by kind permission of ,messrs4 ,marshall ,snelgrove1 ,ltd4 ,a poster that is written comparatively badly may attract attention much more than one that is written well but without any display1 because the badly-written poster may have something striking about it that compels attention4 ,the thing to aim at is to make the poster prominent without annoying people by offending their artistic susceptibilities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,the following is a good method of quickly writing a poster4 ,a sheet of paper is ruled1 in the manner shown in ,fig4 #ci1 with a soft black-lead pencil4 ,the lines should be ruled lightly and fairly closely together4 ,if the poster is to be written on thin paper1 it is not a bad plan to rule these lines boldly in ink on another sheet1 so that if this is placed under the paper upon which the poster is to be written these lines will show through quite plainly enough to act as a guide to the writer4 ,it is a good practice to have a number of sheets of various sizes ruled out1 so that when a poster is required of a given size one of these can be utilised and the poster written quickly4 ,the lettering may be roughly sketched in either with a soft black-lead pencil or a piece of charcoal4 ,it may then be written straight away with the pen or brush4 ,when the lettering is quite dry the pencil-marks may be cleaned off with bread or soft rubber1 or if charcoal has been used this may be dusted off quite easily2 the poster is then complete4 ,as is plainly obvious1 the poster shown in ,fig4 #dj is produced by means of the pen4 ,the best type of pen for poster-writing is undoubtedly the reed pen1 especially if the writing is needed to be fairly large4 ,when this form of pen is used it is advisable to cut it with a fairly long slit2 this will ensure the pen working much easier4 ,when writing with black and red inks1 one pen should be kept for black and the other for red4 ,if this is not done1 the pen should be carefully washed after it has been used for black ink before using red ink1 otherwise the black left in the pen will mix with the red and make the colour dirty4 ,undoubtedly the best way is1 as already mentioned1 to use a separate pen for each colour4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,as most posters have to be exposed to the weather it is well to use only fixed inks4 ,fixed inks are generally prepared by being mixed with shellac which is dissolved in a solution of borax4 ,ordinary water-colours may1 however1 be made waterproof quite easily by the following method4 ,a saturated solution is made of some bichromate of potash1 and a few drops of this solution are added to the colour just before using it4 ,as this chemical makes a bright orange solution it will alter some colours slightly1 but for blacks and reds it will not be noticeable4 ,this chemical has the property of making glue1 size1 or gum insoluble when it is mixed with them1 after exposure to the light1 and1 as water-colours are mixed with gum1 it has the same effect in this case4 ,if1 therefore1 the poster be exposed to the light of the sun for a short period after it has been written1 the colour quickly becomes insoluble and therefore waterproof4 ,the best way is to mix as much colour as will be required in a small saucer1 adding the bichromate solution4 ,it is quite easy to understand that if any of this colour dries in the saucer it will have to be thrown away1 as the light quickly affects it when dry and it will be quite useless owing to its insolubility4 ,possibly it will be noticed that a yellow stain will show on the back of the poster when the bichromate has penetrated4 ,as1 however1 in this case one side only of the paper is used1 this will not matter in the least4 ,larger posters may be written with the brush 7see ,fig4 #da71 or partly with the pen and partly with the brush4 ,a brush that is very suitable for quick writing is a ,japanese brush like the one illustrated in ,fig4 #da4 ,this can be used almost in the same manner as the pen1 and it is possible to write very quickly with it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,illustration3 ,,design ,,for ,a ,,menu4 ,by kind permission of ,messrs4 ,marshall ,snelgrove1 ,ltd4 ,for very careful writing the best brush is the kind known as a sable writer4 ,this is a sable brush with rather long hair4 ,practice is necessary before the student becomes expert in the use of it1 but it will be found that the long sweeping curves of the round letters1 as also the straight strokes of the other letters1 may be formed much more easily with this type of brush than with the ordinary kind used for painting4 ,writers are generally in quills1 so perhaps a word may be useful here with regard to the method of fixing a quill brush on a handle4 ,it is not wise to take the quill as it comes from the shop and push it on to a stick4 ,the quill is very liable to split if pushed on too tightly1 while1 on the other hand1 if it is not fixed securely it will drop off1 probably whilst doing some important work1 and will almost certainly spoil it if it falls off when well charged with colour4 ,the proper way to fix a quill brush is1 first of all1 to soak the brush well until the quill becomes quite soft4 ,the stick is then carefully tapered with a sharp knife until it exactly fits the quill4 ,then1 while the quill is still soft1 it is carefully fitted on to the stick4 ,the result of this method is that when the quill gets dry and hard it will be found to be fitted quite tightly on to the stick1 and will certainly not fall off2 while1 at the same time1 there is no danger of splitting the quill4 ,when writing posters in black and red1 the red should be used to give emphasis to words that are important4 ,for example1 in the specimen shown1 the word 8,,concert0 may be in red2 also the place1 date1 and time may well be written in this colour to make them more conspicuous4 ,a simple border may be added composed of some slight decoration formed with direct brush strokes if so desired4 ,this may be either in one or two colours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,large notices that are required to be lasting may be written on canvas1 using oil-colours4 ,some examples of window-tickets are shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,these may be written with the quill pen4 ,the use of black and red is very effective for these1 but any colours may be used4 ,it might be a good idea to write a quantity of tickets according to a special colour scheme for a particular window display4 ,this1 however1 could best be done by working in conjunction with the one who is responsible for dressing the window4 ,some tickets might be written in white on a dark background4 ,it will be found that1 for use in the pen1 colours that have been mixed with gum and water without any addition of honey or glycerine will flow much better than ordinary water-colours4 ,when these are used they tend to clog the pen4 ,there is no necessity in this case to fix the colours as they will not be exposed to the weather1 so therefore will not need to be waterproof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,if the student has become familiar with the use of the quill pen he should be able to write these fairly quickly and therefore cheaply4 ,the use of simple decoration formed with the same pen that the lettering has been done with may be employed1 but this should not be overdone4 ,in ,fig4 #dc an example is given of a show-card that has been written with the pen in a simple1 straightforward fashion4 ,a simple border has been added which may be quickly and easily formed with the pen or brush4 ,for writing small show-cards the quill pen may be used1 but for larger ones the reed pen will be more serviceable4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,illuminated ,,ms4 ,,book ,in the ,middle ,ages the illuminated ,,ms4 book occupied a very prominent position4 ,the printing-press was not then in existence1 so the manuscript book was without a rival4 ,to-day the printing-press is to the forefront and the manuscript book is practically unheard of4 ,there is1 nevertheless1 no reason why the art of illumination should not be practised in the same manner as was formerly the case4 ,it is true that beautiful books are produced by the printer1 but there ought also to be a demand for books beautiful1 written and illuminated by artists of the present day4 ,an illuminated manuscript has many advantages over the printed book1 one of which is the fact that it is unique instead of being one of many4 ,there is no need to enumerate the many other advantages that the manuscript book possesses4 ,the best material upon which to write a manuscript book is undoubtedly vellum1 although fine hand-made paper may be substituted if it is not desirable to go to the expense of procuring vellum for this purpose4 ,a paper that is soft and flexible should be selected in preference to one that is hard and stiff4 ,anything approaching cardboard should be avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,frontispiece ,,of ,,illuminated ,,ms4 ,,of ,,blake',s 8,,songs ,,of ,,innocence40 ,,by ,,sidney ,,farnsworth4 ,the first thing to decide in writing a manuscript book is the size of the page4 ,after this is settled1 the size of the lettering should be taken into consideration4 ,if the manuscript is to be on vellum this should be bought ready cut to the size required4 ,it is much cheaper to buy vellum in this way than to buy the skin and cut it for oneself4 ,the reason for this is because the manufacturer can cut up a more or less imperfect skin into small pieces1 but when a whole skin is required this must be perfect in every respect4 ,the best vellum for manuscript books is the kind known as ,roman vellum1 a very soft and flexible kind of vellum4 ,for title-pages1 and any other pages which are likely to be covered with elaborate work1 a slightly heavier vellum may be advisable4 ,for general purposes a good size for the page is #aj in4 by #g in41 i4e41 the vellum sheets should be cut #aj in4 by #ae in4 ,it is as well to leave a slight margin for drawing-pins in addition to this4 ,one of these sheets should be ruled out1 as shown in 7a71 ,fig4 #dd1 with a sharply-pointed ,h4,b4 pencil4 ,the lines should be ruled very lightly so that they may be erased with the slightest possible touch of the rubber4 ,after one sheet has been carefully ruled out in this manner1 the others can be marked out in a similar fashion by pricking through4 ,manuscript books are generally written in eight-page sections1 formed by folding one sheet within the other1 as in 7b74 ,the proportion of the margins may vary according to circumstances1 but it is best to make them fairly wide4 ,the inside margin is made smaller than the outside one1 because the two inner margins come together1 thus forming a wide margin between the two pages of lettering4 ,it should1 however1 be made wider than half the size of the outside margin1 to allow for the folding of the leaves when the book is bound4 ,a good arrangement for the commencement of a ,,ms4 book is shown in ,fig4 #dd 7b71 7c71 or 7d74 ,the title is written on page #a4 ,pages #b and #c are blanks4 ,the frontispiece and title-page occupy pages #d and #e4 ,page #f is another blank1 and the manuscript starts on page #g4 ,the title may be written simply in red1 or red and black4 ,this should not be written quite in the centre of the page1 a larger space should be left at the bottom1 as if this is equal with the top it will look as if a larger space had been left at the top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,for the frontispiece a miniature may be used1 illustrating some passage in the book2 or a coat-of-arms or some symbol may be worked in surrounded by decoration4 ,the title-page should have the title and the author's name1 but the artist should not put his name here4 ,when he has finished the ,,ms4 he may write at the end a colophon1 stating his name1 and when and where the book was written4 ,it is best when writing out the manuscript to leave the title-page and frontispiece until the rest of the matter has been written4 ,illustration3 ,,title-,,page ,,of ,,illuminated ,,ms4 ,,of ,,blake',s 8,,songs ,,of ,,innocence40 ,,by ,,sidney ,,farnsworth4 ,no elaborate planning of pages is necessary4 ,a good number of pages should be ruled out with lines ready for writing1 and the manuscript should be written straight away with the quill pen4 ,spaces are left for initial letters1 miniatures1 etc41 as the writer feels they are fitting and necessary4 ,the student should be very careful to write out the pages in the proper order1 as it is very easy to make mistakes by writing on the wrong pages4 ,for example1 if he is not careful he is very liable1 after having written the second page of a section1 to go on writing on page #g1 instead of page #c1 which is on another sheet of vellum folded inside the first4 ,a good method for avoiding this is to number the pages lightly in pencil with large figures at the head of each page4 ,when writing out the words1 the vellum should be fastened to the drawing-board with drawing-pins1 a pad formed with several sheets of blotting-paper being placed under the vellum to ensure easy writing4 ,if possible1 place the copy just above the writing level1 where it can easily be seen4 ,if it is necessary to find out how many pages the manuscript is likely to run into1 a rough calculation can easily be made by ruling out a sheet of paper and lightly pencilling in a page of the writing4 ,it will then be an easy matter to count up the number of words to form an estimate of the number of pages required4 ,the student should always1 before commencing to write1 read through the matter and decide what initials he will have1 also whether he will have any miniatures1 etc4 ,in fact1 he ought to be able1 before he commences work1 to visualise the whole of the manuscript completed4 ,if his mental image of the finished book is a grand one he will be inspired to do his utmost to make the actual one as much like the one in his imagination as possible4 ,after the writing has been done1 the initial letters1 borders1 etc41 may be drawn lightly with pencil4 ,after this1 the next stage is the gilding4 ,before this is done1 however1 the vellum should be carefully fastened tightly to the drawing-board with a large number of drawing-pins to prevent it from cockling4 ,when the gold has been laid and burnished1 the colouring is proceeded with1 and the page is finished4 ,the colophon is written at the end1 a blank page being left between it and the last page of writing4 ,this should be in quite simple lettering without any ostentatious show of decoration4 ,the wording may be as follows3 8,this book1 written out by me ---- in ----1 for ----1 was finished on the ---- day of ----1 ,anno ,domini1 #ai--40 ,of course1 there is no need to word the colophon always in this manner4 ,this is merely a form suggested4 ,in the case of a book where several have taken part in the work1 mention should be made of this4 ,it is not a bad plan also to include the name of the binder1 in the event of the book being bound by a good craftsman4 ,some examples of colophons are shown in ,fig4 #de4 ,it is a mistake to make all the pages elaborate in style2 in fact it is best to make the majority of them quite simple in treatment1 with here and there one that is more ornate in character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,the writing is the principal thing in the book1 therefore nothing must be added that will in any way detract from this4 ,if the addition of decoration has this effect it would be much better to leave the writing quite plain4 ,it is impossible to lay down any rules to govern the use of decoration in the manuscript book4 ,it is largely a matter of feeling one's way4 ,if the decoration is well-considered and suited to the words it will help1 rather than detract from1 the lettering4 ,it should be remembered that the primary object of a book is to be read4 ,if the book fails in this respect it will also most certainly fail from the standpoint of beauty4 ,one of the first essentials of anything that lays claim to beauty is that it shall serve its purpose4 ,therefore care should be taken that nothing be done that will1 in any way1 tend to make the book less readable4 ,the decoration should be strongly influenced by the subject-matter of the book4 ,some illuminators appear to have one idea only with regard to illumination4 ,no matter what the words are1 the same kind of decoration is used4 ,they seem to make no distinction whether the subject is a medival romance or something quite modern4 ,this is a great mistake1 and shows a lack of thought and imagination on the part of the artist4 ,the ideas expressed in the words should also be felt in the decoration2 in fact1 the book when completed should form one harmonious whole4 ,when miniatures are introduced these also should harmonise with the decoration4 ,it is not advisable to make these resemble small water-colour paintings that have no connection with the rest of the ornament4 ,on the other hand1 these should not be drawn in too conventional a manner4 ,they should be essentially decorative in treatment1 and careful study from nature should prevent the student from making these too hard and rigid in character4 ,complete unity should run throughout all the work4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,pages ,,from ,,the ,,illuminated ,,ms4 ,,of ,,blake',s 8,,songs ,,of ,,innocence40 ,,by ,,sidney ,,farnsworth4 ,even in the writing itself it is possible to express something4 ,for example1 some prose looks best if written with a fairly heavy massed writing1 whilst other of a lighter character seems to be best if written with the lettering less heavy and more loosely arranged4 ,poetry generally seems to require to be written with a lighter type of letter and with the lines of lettering wider apart4 ,it is1 however1 not wise to lay down hard and fast rules with regard to this3 one should be able to feel what is the best thing to do4 ,when writing the ,,ms41 and1 indeed1 right through every stage1 absolute quiet is necessary to concentrate one's mind on the work4 ,one should endeavour to give it one's undivided attention4 ,a test as to whether an artist has succeeded is to observe1 when the book is shown to anyone1 whether the words are noticed at all1 or if the decoration only is admired without any apprehension as to what the words are about4 ,if the latter is the case1 then1 to some extent1 the artist has failed4 ,a manuscript that has been illuminated in the right spirit should enable the reader to understand and appreciate the words better4 ,after the ,,ms4 is completed it should be carefully bound by an experienced binder4 ,it is as well to choose a good craftsman for this purpose1 and one who has had some experience in binding manuscripts containing raised gold1 as it is very easy for a binder to spoil the manuscript if he is not accustomed to handling work of this kind4 ,to make the whole thing a success it is necessary that the binder should be an artist as well as the illuminator4 ,a simple method of binding ,,mss4 in limp vellum1 without special appliances1 is described in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,a ,,simple ,,method ,,of ,,binding ,,mss4 ,the method of binding described in this chapter is not intended to take the place of proper binding in leather4 ,however1 it is sometimes useful to be able to put the ,,ms4 in a cover when it is not desirable or convenient to go to the expense of having the book bound in the usual way4 ,binding with stiff boards is an art that requires considerable experience as well as skilled training1 but there is no reason why ,,mss4 should not be bound in limp vellum in the manner described here4 ,no special appliances are needed for this method1 and the writer should be able to complete his ,,mss4 by binding them without any difficulty if the directions given here are carefully followed4 ,two additional sections of plain paper or vellum should be made1 to serve as end-papers1 one at each end of the book4 ,if the ,,ms4 is on vellum1 the end-papers should be of the same material1 but if on paper the end-papers should be made of paper of the same kind as that used for the rest of the book4 ,four strips of binder's vellum should then be cut1 these being about #c_/h in4 wide and four inches long4 ,the sections should be knocked up quite squarely1 and should be marked on the back with a soft black-lead pencil in the manner shown in ,fig4 #df1 using a square to get the lines accurate4 ,the sections should all be marked quite distinctly so that each section shows the divisions quite plainly4 ,this gives the position of the four strips of vellum and the kettle-stitches at each end4 ,the mark for the kettle-stitch should be about in4 from each end1 although sometimes at the bottom a little more than this is allowed4 ,the position of the vellum strips should be in the same proportion as given in ,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,when ready to sew the sections1 take the four vellum strips and fold each one about #a in4 or #a in4 at right angles from each end1 according to the thickness of the book4 ,then take a drawing-board and place on the edge of it the first section face downwards1 with the four strips placed in position with their shorter ends underneath4 ,get a needle1 threaded with good silk or unbleached thread1 and insert it at the top kettle-stitch mark from the outside1 bringing it out again at the first mark for the vellum strip4 ,bring the thread round the strip and re-insert the needle on the other side1 bringing it out again and round the next strip1 and so on until it comes out at the bottom kettle-stitch4 ,when this is done it should have the effect1 shown in ,fig4 #df1 of a continuous thread passing in and out and round the vellum strips4 ,now take the next section and place it in position and sew in the same manner1 continuing with the same thread but in the reverse manner4 ,upon coming to the loose end1 where the needle was first inserted1 this should be tied up with it4 ,then add another section1 going backwards and forwards1 adding section by section until the whole is completed4 ,each kettle-stitch is linked up as shown in ,fig4 #df1 and it is a good plan also to link up the threads that cross over the vellum strips in the same manner4 ,to keep the sections in position while stitching1 a small paper-weight is useful4 ,the thread should be drawn fairly tightly1 a fresh needleful of thread being tied on to the end of the other when it is exhausted1 and when the stitching is completed the end should be carefully tied up with the last kettle-stitch4 ,the back may then be covered with thin glue and lined with a piece of thin leather or tough paper1 and the ,,ms4 is then ready for covering4 7,see ,fig4 #di47 ,a piece of binding vellum is cut for the cover and marked with a folder on the underside1 as shown in ,fig4 #dg4 ,the two lines marked down the centre represent the thickness of the sections4 ,the two spaces on either side1 exclusive of margins1 should be slightly larger than the size of the sides of the book4 ,the wide margin that extends all the way round may be approximately #a in41 while the additional narrow margin on two sides may be in4 in width4 ,the corners should be cut along the dotted lines with a sharp knife4 ,illustration3 ,vellum ,cover ,,fig4 #dg4 ,the cover is then folded up in the manner shown in ,fig4 #dh4 ,it is as well to stick the edges down with a little stiff quick-drying paste4 ,the two narrow margins should be marked with the folder and folded over to form two flaps on the fore-edge of the book4 ,all these folds should be made very carefully so as to ensure them being quite even4 ,some people find it best to make a cover of stiff paper first1 and1 when this fits correctly1 they make the vellum cover exactly the same size4 ,it is possible by this method to avoid spoiling the vellum through cutting it so that it does not fit4 ,illustration3 ,cover ready for binding the ,,ms4 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,the next thing to do is to mark the places on the inside of the cover for the vellum strips to be laced through4 ,these should be made about in4 from the creases of the back4 ,another mark should be made about #c_/h in4 away from the first mark4 ,if the book is now placed in the cover it will be quite an easy matter to mark exactly where the vellum strips intersect these lines1 and slits may be cut with a sharp knife in the cover in the places marked with dotted lines in ,fig4 #dh4 ,the vellum strips may now be laced through these slits and the ends stuck down with strong paste4 ,some pieces of good silk ribbon may be attached to the top and bottom strips and laced through the cover1 leaving the ends to tie1 or the book may be left without these4 ,the two outside end-papers may then be pasted down on to the inside of the vellum cover4 ,this will cover up the ends of the vellum strips4 ,it is1 however1 essential that for all this a quick-drying paste should be used and not one that is very liquid1 as this would quickly strike through and cockle the vellum4 ,the end-papers should be pasted down very neatly and then the book should be placed under pressure until it is quite dry4 ,one or two heavy books make a very good press for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,ms4 ready for insertion in ,cover4 ,finished ,volume4 ,,fig4 #di4 ,when the book is quite dry the decoration of the cover may be proceeded with4 ,the title may be written on it with quite plain lettering or it may be decorated in a more elaborate fashion4 ,it is better not to use raised gold1 as it is very liable to get damaged on the cover of the book4 ,however1 some very good effects can be obtained with flat gilding4 ,the vellum strips that are laced through the cover offer scope for decoration4 ,if it is desirable to write the title on the back of the book it is better to do this before the book is bound1 as it is rather a difficult matter to write here when the book has been bound4 ,if it is desired to do so1 the cover may be made of thin card or stout paper in this way and then have a cover of vellum folded over it4 ,if this is done1 the vellum strips will1 of course1 be covered up on the outside1 as well as the inside1 of the cover4 ,generally the books most suitable for this style of binding are small ones1 although larger ,,mss4 are sometimes bound in this way4 ,the same remarks that were made with regard to the style of decoration in the ,,ms4 itself apply equally here4 ,the subject of the book must decide1 to a large extent1 what style of ornament is to be used4 ,for example1 a volume of modern poetry will require quite different treatment to that of a medival romance4 ,it ought to be possible for the illuminator to make some very charming little volumes in this manner4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,the ,,illumination ,,of ,,the ,,printed ,,book ,as already mentioned in an earlier chapter1 some of the early printed books were enriched with fine illuminated initials1 borders1 etc4 ,these books were printed with spaces left for the artist to insert these1 and this seems to have often been the custom during the early days of printing4 ,there ought to be a demand for books produced in this manner in the present day1 and the modern illuminator should be able to do good work in this way4 ,when it is intended to apply illumination to the printed book1 it is well that the book selected should be worthy of being illuminated1 both with regard to subject-matter and also the way in which it is printed4 ,it should be beautifully printed on good paper4 ,some choice editions have been printed on vellum1 but these are few and far between4 ,however1 if possible1 the book selected should be printed on good hand-made paper4 ,the illuminator should carefully avoid so-called 8art0 papers1 which have a clay surface and are by no means durable1 besides being far from ideal for working upon4 ,the book should be printed from good type1 with nice wide margins so as to leave plenty of scope for decoration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,illuminating a book after it has been bound is a rather difficult matter1 so it is better to procure the sheets1 if possible1 before they have been bound4 ,it is much more convenient to work upon them when they are unbound1 as each page in turn can be fastened to the drawing-board in the usual way4 ,a good edition of any book can generally be obtained from the publishers in sheets if application is made4 ,in the case where it is possible only to work on the book after it has been bound1 it is best to tie the pages back with a piece of narrow tape in the manner shown in ,fig4 #ej4 ,a piece of stout cardboard is placed at the back of the book1 and the book is tied to this by means of the tapes4 ,this not only prevents the pages from turning over1 but also precludes the possibility of the book accidentally closing4 ,one thing is extremely important in connection with the illumination of the printed book1 and that is that the decoration should be in keeping with the modern type used in printing4 ,the book should not look as if the text ought to be written in ,gothic script4 ,the illuminator must endeavour to preserve a feeling of unity about the book4 ,if the book is illuminated like a thirteenth-century missal1 the ordinary ,roman type will look out of place4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that ,gothic initials should not be used1 as they would be entirely out of keeping with the type4 ,a good form of ,roman capital may be used instead4 ,if illustrations in the form of full-page plates form part of the book they may be mounted on good stout hand-made paper and have the titles nicely written underneath4 ,for writing the titles under illustrations a simple form of ,roman script should be used1 so as to be as much in keeping with the type as possible4 ,it is not advisable to add any decoration to the page on which the illustration is mounted4 ,the inscription alone is sufficient and should be nicely written in well-formed writing4 ,for the title-page of the book this may either be substituted by one entirely done by hand1 or the printed one may be slightly decorated4 ,it is best not to make this too elaborate1 especially if the printed one is used4 ,in fact it may be best to leave it practically plain1 but this is a point that must be decided by one's own good taste4 ,the opening page may be made important by using a fine initial letter4 ,by the use of body colours it is possible to paint this in on top of the printed letter4 ,the first word1 which is generally printed in capitals1 may also be painted in the same way1 either in gold or colours4 ,the decoration should be suited to the subject-matter of the book and should not be carried to excess4 ,it is much better for the decoration to be somewhat too simple in character than for it to look too ornate and crowded4 ,the decoration should be kept quite free in character and every endeavour should be made to prevent it from getting hard and severe4 ,all the poetry and sweetness possible should be put into it4 ,every page should not be covered with decoration2 this should not be attempted4 ,all the variety possible should be got by making some pages quite simple in treatment1 others may be more elaborate1 while some may be left quite plain4 ,too many heavy borders should not be introduced4 ,the use of illuminated tail-pieces affords a good opportunity for the illuminator to add to the interest of the page1 and there is generally plenty of scope for these at the end of chapters1 etc4 ,generally speaking1 the printed book should not be used for illuminating when it is possible to write out the words1 as a manuscript book is certainly preferable to a printed one4 ,but in cases where a book is too long to be written out1 the application of illumination to typography is certainly a great advantage if judiciously used4 ,at the end of the book the illuminator may add his colophon1 stating that the illumination in the book was executed by himself1 and giving the date of its completion and other interesting details4 ,a complete edition of the works of a favourite poet is a good example for illumination in this manner4 ,it would take far too much time1 as well as being too costly1 for the modern illuminator to write out a large volume of poetry1 but it might be nicely printed and illuminated in this way4 ,by these means a beautiful book might be produced that ought to appeal to the lover of choice books4 ,doubtless there will be many books that will suggest themselves for treatment in this manner1 although it is to be feared that a great many of the books written in the present day are hardly suitable for illumination4 ,no one would dream of illuminating a treatise on surgery to-day1 and yet even this was done in the ,middle ,ages4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum an illuminated ,,ms4 of a ,french treatise on surgery of the thirteenth century which is quite charming in style4 ,this kind of thing is1 however1 quite impossible to-day4 ,still1 there is quite a large number of books that are suitable in every way for illumination4 ,service books for use in churches may well be made subjects for decoration in the form suggested here4 ,these alone ought to offer plenty of scope for the modern illuminator4 ,a service book beautifully printed on fine hand-made paper and illuminated should form an ideal gift for a church4 ,a well-printed edition of a favourite author1 illuminated with fine initials and borders1 might occasionally be substituted for the usual illuminated address4 ,this would probably be appreciated very much more than the ordinary type of testimonial which is generally given4 ,in this case an inscription may be written at the commencement of the book giving particulars concerning the presentation4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,printed ,,book ,,decoration ,there ought to be plenty of scope for the modern illuminator in printed book decoration4 ,his training in writing and illumination ought to be of the greatest service to him when he is called upon to produce decoration for the purpose of printing with type4 ,without a doubt1 the ideal form of printed decoration is that produced by means of wood-blocks that have been engraved by the artist4 ,if he is able to engrave blocks from his own designs it will be possible for him to get much more human interest in his work4 ,as a direct method of artistic expression wood-engraving has merits far above that of the mechanical methods of reproduction4 ,wood-engraving is1 however1 so important as to require a separate treatise1 it being quite impossible to deal with it here4 ,by far the greater part of printed book decoration is produced from line process blocks1 and it is with this form of reproduction that it is intended to deal in this chapter4 ,one of the most important parts of the book1 from the point of view of decoration1 is undoubtedly the title-page4 ,in ,fig4 #ea some of the forms that this may take have been suggested4 ,in making a design for reproduction by this process it is not advisable to make the drawing much larger than it is required to be when reproduced4 ,the decoration loses much of its individual charm when it is reduced too much4 ,a successful reproduction should represent the original drawing of the artist as nearly as possible1 and if it is reduced a great deal there will probably be a considerable difference between the reproduction and the original4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,in designing a title-page a great deal depends on the style of book it is intended for4 ,a book on architecture or engineering would require quite different treatment from a volume of poetry4 ,a very simple form of title-page is suggested in ,fig4 #ea 7a74 ,this consists of nicely-arranged lettering with a printer's device or some symbolical ornament4 ,if desired1 the larger lettering may be drawn and the rest printed from good type well arranged4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that the lettering should be in keeping with that used in the other part of the book4 ,a title-page with the lettering printed from type and suitable decoration added is a very satisfactory form4 ,the next one1 shown in 7b71 is one where the lettering is enclosed within a border4 ,this may be either quite simple or elaborate1 as desired4 ,the style indicated in 7c7 is one in which the lettering is incorporated with the design4 ,this is a form often employed for an elaborately decorated edition1 such as a volume of poems4 ,the next one 7d7 is the pictorial type3 nicely-arranged lettering with a picture in the centre4 ,this may be either in line or colour1 but generally it is in line1 treated rather boldly4 ,a woodcut illustration with red and black lettering makes a very effective title-page4 ,the last suggestion1 given in 7e71 is for the double form of title-page4 ,a good number of richly decorated volumes are of this form4 ,another type that is often used is where the lettering is placed on a tablet1 scroll1 cartouche1 or other ornamental device2 or the page may be a combination of lettering1 border1 and illustration4 ,instead of a border that is rigidly defined it may have a border that is quite loose in character4 ,possibly several other variations will suggest themselves to the artist4 ,another important part of book decoration is the initial letter4 ,as mentioned in the previous chapter on the illumination of the printed book1 these should be of the ,roman type4 ,gothic initials should never be employed with modern type4 ,above all1 the initial letter should always be distinct4 ,a puzzle is all right in its place1 but this is not the place for it4 ,in ,fig4 #eb some examples are given of bad forms for the student to avoid4 ,it would have been easy to have filled quite a large number of pages with letters of this character4 ,the letter ,a shown here is a type of initial that was very familiar in books about fifty years ago4 ,occasionally one sees it now1 but not often4 ,most of these bad forms arise from a misconception as to the nature of the letter4 ,a letter is simply a sign intended to convey a meaning to the reader2 there is no reason why it should pretend to be something else4 ,the sign may certainly be a thing of beauty1 but surely making it look as if it is formed with branches like a rustic bridge is not making it beautiful4 ,another bad type of letter is shown in the initial ,b4 ,this form of letter is largely used by sign-writers even in the present day4 ,in this case the letter is apparently conceived as a solid block1 which is drawn in false perspective so that it may throw a meaningless shadow4 ,illustration3 ,types of ,initials to avoid4 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,sometimes the surface of the letter is broken up1 as in the letter ,c4 ,in the case of a stencilled letter1 breaking the surface of the letter is1 of course1 unavoidable 7although even in this case it would not be broken up like this example71 but for a printed letter1 where there is no necessity1 it is extremely foolish4 ,the other ,c is another example sometimes seen1 formed with a coil of rope4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,the other shapes are all equally bad1 and no one with a training in really good forms of lettering could possibly originate them4 ,they all practically err in the same direction1 i4e41 in pretending to be something that they are not4 ,it is curious that this tendency should so develop4 ,another bad form of initial1 not illustrated here1 is that formed by contorting figures into shapes to represent various letters4 ,all this sort of thing cannot be too severely censured4 ,it is far better to have initials quite simple in character rather than forms like these1 which are absolutely debased in style4 ,a fine form of ,roman capital with little or no ornament added is much to be preferred4 ,in ,fig4 #ec some elaborate examples are given showing how it is possible to produce striking initials without resorting to any of the devices illustrated in ,fig4 #eb4 ,the ,a and the ,t are examples of initials filled with decoration based on plant-form4 ,this makes a very good style of letter4 ,one of the ,o's has a decorative landscape placed in the centre4 ,of course1 only the round letters can be treated in this fashion4 ,the other letter ,o has a fanciful style of decoration very suitable for the commencement of a fairy tale4 ,in fact this initial was designed for that purpose1 the story commencing in the usual way1 8,once upon a time40 ,in ,fig4 #ed some suggestions are given for tail-pieces which are used to fill up when a chapter ends half-way down the page4 ,these may be of various shapes1 such as triangular1 rectangular1 lozenge-shaped1 or irregular4 ,they may consist merely of decoration or they may embody the words1 8,the ,end10 8,finis10 8,conclusion10 or 8,here ends the story of----40 ,a small decorative scene may be employed as suggested here4 ,another way often used1 and also indicated here1 is for the lettering to be separate1 with a band of ornament beneath it4 ,borders for illustrations should be in keeping with the style of the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,chapter headings may be either well-arranged lettering enclosed within a border1 or the lettering may be placed on a scroll1 cartouche1 etc4 ,another form may be that in which a picture is incorporated with the decoration4 ,generally1 chapter-headings are used more in magazines than in books4 ,if one is designed for a special page in a magazine it should be definitely for that particular page4 ,when making a design that is to be reproduced in two colours1 in which both colours are distinct--i4e41 they do not overlap--the drawing should be made all in black4 ,a sheet of tracing-paper is then pasted on the top edge at the back and folded over on the face of the drawing4 ,the parts that are intended to be printed in the second colour should then be painted in with vermilion on the tracing-paper4 ,this indicates to the block-maker the parts to cut out when making the blocks4 ,the reason for doing this is because it is much easier to make the line-blocks from the drawing if it is all in black4 ,of course1 this only applies when the two colours are quite distinct4 ,when they overlap1 the best way is to make two separate drawings in black4 ,this can be done quite well by making a pencil drawing first1 then painting in one colour in black on this drawing2 the second colour is then painted on a piece of tracing-paper which is placed over this drawing for the time being4 ,a small cross should be placed at each corner of the drawing and traced through on to the second one to act as register marks for the block-maker4 ,generally speaking1 all designs for book-decoration should be in line4 ,the great disadvantage of the half-tone process is that the blocks cannot be printed well on a paper that has the slightest tendency towards being rough on the surface4 ,the best results are undoubtedly produced when they are printed on art paper4 ,art paper is1 however1 far from durable1 and should not be used for books that are required to be lasting4 ,apart from this1 the half-tone process is not nearly so satisfactory as the line process4 ,a good line block will give a fairly faithful reproduction of the original drawing without losing detail4 ,this cannot be altogether claimed for the half-tone process4 ,three-colour process blocks1 being a development of this1 are open to the same objections4 ,when the student has seen some of his work reproduced by these processes he will be able to appreciate the difference4 ,if colour is required in the decoration1 a much more satisfactory form of colour reproduction is that produced from several line blocks1 but1 of course1 if this process is used there must be no attempt at wash effects4 ,this chapter is intended to be merely suggestive of the developments in printed book-decoration that ought to be quite possible for the modern illuminator4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,concluding ,,remarks ,it may be as well again to emphasise the fact that it is imperative1 if one desires to succeed in the art of illumination1 that it should be taken up in a serious manner and not merely as a pleasant pastime4 ,it is an art which is worthy of the best that time and careful study can give to it1 and it may serve as useful a purpose in the present day as it has done in the past4 ,there is no royal road to success3 this can only come through steadily plodding along the lines suggested4 ,the methods of study that have been outlined in the previous chapters are the result of what the writer has learned in the hard but excellent school of experience4 ,good1 well-formed writing comes first and foremost1 making use of the reed and quill pen in the formation of letters4 ,the method of practice1 commencing with simple pen-strokes1 that is given in the early part of this book1 ought to enable the student to produce good lettering if he works with the exercises in the manner suggested4 ,after he has become familiar with the use of the pen in this way he will be able to study the various forms of lettering that were used in the past in a much more intelligent fashion than would be the case if he had no knowledge concerning the manner in which the letters were formed4 ,he should continue this study on the lines suggested in ,chapter #f1 and should not be content with the examples given here but should study the original manuscripts for himself4 ,careful attention should be given to the way in which the lettering is arranged and the manner in which the letters and words are massed together4 ,the student cannot have too much practice with the reed and quill pen4 ,the many good historical forms of ,roman lettering should not be neglected4 ,roman lettering is1 without doubt1 the most useful form of lettering for general inscriptions1 and it is necessary that the modern illuminator should be familiar with the beautiful forms of this style of lettering4 ,he should note the general arrangement of these letters when used in inscriptions1 etc4 ,he will experience no difficulty in getting photographs of some of the important ,latin inscriptions that were executed with letters of this style4 ,he should endeavour to form these letters in a direct manner with the pen and brush1 and1 if he has worked consistently with the quill and reed pen in the manner described1 he will find that he will soon acquire dexterity in forming these letters4 ,the practice that he gets through forming these letters with the brush will be most helpful to him when the time comes for him to make use of the brush for painting in decoration4 ,it is hoped that the very brief sketch that is given of the history of illumination may arouse some interest1 so that the student will study this subject for himself1 going into detail that is quite impossible here4 ,even if the whole of this volume had been devoted to the history of this art it would have been impossible in this limited space to deal with it in an efficient manner4 ,the object of this short survey has been merely to act as an introduction to the study of this important subject4 ,making use of a simple colour scheme such as red and black1 as is suggested in ,chapter #ab41 is likely to act as an excellent training in taste4 ,if the student starts straight away with a full array of colours1 the chances are that the result may be anything but pleasant and agreeable4 ,if he is able to produce good pattern with black and red1 he will probably be able to do good work with gold and colours4 ,however1 if he cannot make good pattern with these1 he will find it difficult to do it more successfully with less limited means4 ,the student will never regret the time spent in the study of the best work of the ,middle ,ages4 ,by this means he is brought face to face with examples of the work of artists who were masters in this particular craft4 ,the study of the best work that the medival artists have produced1 combined with plenty of study from nature1 is1 without doubt1 the finest training that the modern illuminator could possibly have4 ,one would hesitate to recommend the one without the other1 as the general tendency of the illuminator who neglects nature study1 going to ancient examples only1 is to produce weak imitations of medival work4 ,if this is the case1 there can be no opportunity for real living art4 ,on the other hand1 if the study of the best work of the medival period is neglected1 he loses the benefit that may be gained by a close study of the methods of working employed by the artists of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the same problems that confront him were before the medival artist1 and1 although there is no necessity for him to produce imitation thirteenth-and fourteenth-century illumination1 he is able to build on the foundation that these artists have laid and help to carry forward the traditions of the craft in the best way that he is able4 ,that there are abundant ways in the present day in which the modern illuminator may make use of his craft has been amply exemplified in the preceding pages4 ,the work of the craftsman1 of course1 stands first and foremost1 but it must be remembered that the machine has come to stay1 and the artist must endeavour to realise something of the great possibilities that there are in this direction4 ,although the product of the machine can never equal that of handcraft1 there is no reason why1 if there is intelligent co-operation between the artist and the manufacturer1 the greater part of the work produced should not be infinitely superior in character than is so often the case4 ,there are numerous ways in which the machine is employed in which it would be quite impossible adequately to deal with the matter from a craftsman's standpoint4 ,to mention just one branch alone3 ,christmas cards and calendars4 ,it would be quite impossible to do all these by hand1 and yet it is certainly desirable that they should be done in the best possible taste and in as efficient a manner as possible4 ,it is here that the opportunity for the properly trained artist arises1 and1 if he gives of his best workmanship1 the finished production should be all the better through his influence4 ,this is surely a sufficient excuse for dealing with the various developments of illumination commercially4 ,book decoration1 both in connection with ,,ms4 book and the printed book1 is1 however1 the thing most in keeping with the true spirit of illumination4 ,illumination seems to be bound up with book production1 and1 if the modern collector could only see that a fine illuminated manuscript was a work of art as desirable as a picture for a permanent possession1 there ought to be a fair demand for the work of the modern illuminator4 ,the illuminated ,,ms4 book is1 without doubt1 the ideal work for the illuminator1 and it seems a pity that there should not be a greater demand than there is at the present time4 ,certainly an illuminated manuscript book1 specially written1 would be much better for a presentation than the average illuminated testimonial1 and it would probably meet with far more appreciation4 ,no one would be so foolish as to wish to do away with the printed book1 as this has now become a necessity1 but surely the manuscript book should not be altogether a thing of the past6 ,some people are of the opinion that it is a waste of time producing illuminated manuscripts in the present day4 ,still1 is time ever wasted in producing beautiful workmanship8 ,surely not4 ,the time spent in the production of any real work of art is never wasted4 ,poetry1 when mixed up with commercial matter and obviously printed by commercial methods1 loses considerably because the surroundings are uncongenial4 ,however1 the illuminated manuscript enhances it by presenting it in an artistic form4 ,probably nothing offers a better opportunity for the illuminator1 as a subject for an illuminated volume1 than poetry4 ,the illuminated rendering seems to give it an extra quality4 ,the antiquity of the illuminated book1 and the fact that it was a means of presenting the romances of the ,middle ,ages1 makes it the natural vehicle for the poetic message4 ,its value for liturgical purposes is also of importance1 and certainly it has been more generally used for this purpose than any other in the past4 ,probably the reason why it is so suited to this is owing to the conservative nature of liturgy demanding antique associations4 ,no doubt1 like most other hand methods of production1 the demand for this must necessarily be limited1 as the modern craze for cheapness renders the price impossible to any large extent4 ,therefore it can never be expected to enter into competition with the printed book4 ,also printing has now become a separate art--at least1 the style of lettering and decoration owes little or nothing to the illuminated manuscript as was the case with the earliest ,european printed books4 ,the art of printing has1 however1 developed considerably since those times1 and1 the character now being totally different1 consequently there is no reason why the printed book should be an imitation of the manuscript4 ,illumination and printing should both develop along their special lines1 the developments of both depending on the exigencies of the materials employed4 ,thus1 in relation to the printed book1 the printing process should be developed to get the best results possible4 ,probably the ideal printed book would have the decoration printed from wood-blocks engraved by the artist himself4 ,if the decoration and illustrations take the form of reproductions of drawings there can never be the same life and vitality as when the whole is the direct creation of the artist4 ,of course1 this is mentioned merely as an ideal of what the printed book should be4 ,in practice1 however1 one is not always able to work up to this standard4 ,reproduction by means of line blocks is probably one of the best forms of process work that can be employed in book decoration4 ,any peculiar qualities that the form of press or machine used is able to give should be used to advantage4 ,the printer should seize every opportunity which occurs that may help to render his work more effective4 ,although it is not desirable that the printer should imitate the work of the illuminator1 there is certainly no reason why they should not work together as suggested in ,chapter ,,xxvii1 the illuminator adding illuminated initials1 borders1 and other decoration so that the completed volume represents the work of the printer and the illuminator4 ,this was often done in the early days of printing1 and there is surely the possibility of good work being done in this way at the present time4 ,there certainly ought to be plenty of opportunities for the illuminator even in the present day4 ,it is1 however1 of the utmost importance that he should be able to produce high-class workmanship4 ,weak1 amateurish efforts have no commercial value4 ,to attain perfection patient and sincere effort is required4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,notes ,,on ,,books ,in this the closing chapter of this book it may be as well to suggest a few books that might be useful for further study4 ,it is not intended1 by any means1 to give anything like a complete bibliography on this subject1 but merely to refer to a few of the books that the writer has found to be of service to him4 ,some of the books mentioned may possibly be out of print1 but copies may be seen in most of the larger public libraries4 ,the following books treat the subject of illumination broadly from the historical standpoint3 ,english ,illuminated ,,mss41 by ,sir ,e4 ,m4 ,thompson1 ,illuminated ,,mss4 in ,classical and ,medival ,times1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,middleton1 and ,illuminated ,manuscripts1 by ,j4 ,a4 ,herbert4 ,another most useful book for the student is the ,historical ,introduction to the ,collection of ,illuminated ,letters and ,borders in the ,national ,art ,library1 by ,john ,w4 ,bradley4 ,reproductions of some of the illuminated ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum have been published by the ,museum authorities4 ,illuminated ,manuscripts in the ,british ,museum1 by ,g4 ,f4 ,warner1 contains a series of plates beautifully reproduced in gold and colours4 ,these give as nearly as possible in a reproduction some idea of what the originals are like4 ,three sets of fifty collotype plates1 ,reproductions of ,illuminated ,manuscripts1 are also published of the illuminated ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum4 ,a ,guide to the ,manuscripts in the ,british ,museum also contains a number of half-tone reproductions1 and ,the ,catalogue of ,illuminated ,manuscripts1 ,part #b1 ,miniatures1 ,leaves1 and ,cuttings1 published by the authorities of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 has a good number of illustrations4 ,the series of excellent photographic facsimiles published by the ,palographical ,society are also most useful for reference4 ,for students who wish to give special attention to the work of any particular schools of illumination1 such as the ,byzantine1 ,celtic1 or ,winchester ,schools1 the following books are recommended3 ,,byzantine ,,school4--,for a general history of ,byzantine art1 ,byzantine ,art1 by ,o4 ,m4 ,dalton1 and ,manuel d',art ,byzantine1 by ,ch4 ,diehl4 ,both of these writers deal with illuminated manuscripts as well as other branches of ,byzantine art4 ,for a work dealing exclusively with ,byzantine ,,mss4 the ,histoire de l',art ,byzantin considere 444 dans le ,miniatures1 by ,m4 ,kondakoff1 may be recommended4 ,,celtic ,,school4--,early ,christian ,art in ,ireland1 by ,margaret ,m4 ,stokes1 is a very useful book4 ,other helpful books are ,the ,fine ,arts and ,civilization of ,ancient ,ireland1 by ,henry ,o',niell1 and ,celtic ,art in ,pagan and ,christian ,times1 by ,j4 ,romilly ,allen4 ,an ,enquiry into the ,art of the ,illuminated ,manuscripts of the ,middle ,ages4 ,i4 ,celtic ,illuminated ,manuscripts1 by ,johann ,adolf ,bruun1 deals with the ,celtic ,,mss4 in a fairly comprehensive manner4 ,this book is illustrated with reproductions from some of the manuscripts referred to4 ,facsimiles of the ,miniatures and ,ornaments of ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish ,manuscripts1 by ,j4 ,o4 ,westwood1 contains a number of chromo-lithographic reproductions of these manuscripts4 ,the ,book of ,kells1 recently published by the publishers of ,the ,studio1 contains a large number of the pages and initials from this well-known manuscript which have been reproduced by means of the three-colour process4 ,the ,introduction to this volume has been written by ,sir ,edward ,sullivan4 ,,winchester ,,school4--,an account of one of the most important manuscripts of this school1 viz41 the famous ,benedictional of thelwold1 is given in ,vol4 ,i4 of the ,bibliographical ,decameron1 by ,dr4 ,dibdin2 also ,dr4 ,waagen gives a description of it in ,vol4 ,,iii4 of ,treasures of ,art in ,great ,britain4 ,in ,vol4 ,,xxiv4 of the ,archlogia1 pages #a-aag1 there is also ,a ,dissertation on ,st4 thelwold's ,benedictional1 by ,john ,gage ,rokewood4 ,this is illustrated with thirty-two plates of reproductions of the pages of this manuscript4 ,the same writer gives1 in pages #aah-acf1 ,a ,description of a ,benedictional or ,pontifical1 called ,benedictionarius ,roberti ,archiepiscopi4 ,thus two of the most famous of all the ,winchester ,,mss4 are here described in a most careful and painstaking fashion4 ,lettering1 especially in its application to illumination1 is dealt with very thoroughly in ,writing and ,illuminating and ,lettering1 by ,edward ,johnston4 ,this book is well illustrated with diagrams1 and the instructions given on how to cut and use the reed and quill pen are very clear4 ,it is a very useful book for the student4 ,other books on the subject of lettering that will be found to be of service are ,lettering in ,ornament1 and ,alphabets1 ,old and ,new1 by ,lewis ,f4 ,day1 also ,alphabets1 by ,edward ,f4 ,strange4 ,for those who wish to study lettering from the standpoint of palography1 ,greek and ,latin ,palography1 by ,sir ,edward ,maunde ,thompson1 is a good introductory work on this subject4 ,the following books may be of interest to the student who is desirous of further information concerning the colours and methods of working employed by the medival artist3 ,mrs4 ,merrifield's ,ancient ,practice of ,painting1 the ,schedula ,diversarum ,artium of ,theophilus1 and ,the ,book of the ,art of ,cennino ,cennini4 ,mrs4 ,merrifield's book contains a number of translations of the early manuscripts that describe the technical methods employed by the medival artists4 ,the treatise of ,theophilus has been translated into ,english by ,r4 ,hendrie1 and the best translation of ,cennini's book is that by ,mrs4 ,herringham4 ,materials of the ,painter's ,craft1 and ,processes1 ,pigments1 and ,vehicles1 by ,dr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,laurie1 are books that deal with this subject in a very interesting and helpful manner4 ,as the study of ,heraldry is very important to the illuminator1 the following books are mentioned3 ,complete ,guide to ,heraldry1 by ,a4 ,c4 ,fox-,davies1 ,english ,heraldry1 by ,charles ,boutell1 and ,heraldry1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john ,hope4 ,the ,stall ,plates of the ,garter1 #acdh-adhe1 also by ,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john ,hope4 ,didron's ,iconography of ,christian ,art1 and ,emblems of the ,saints1 by ,f4 ,c4 ,husenbeth1 are books that are most useful to the illuminator when doing work that is ecclesiastical in character4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the list of books that is detailed here is necessarily incomplete1 but the student will find that by studying these he will be referred to others1 and so will be able to continue the study4 ,illustration ,,index ,address1 illuminated1 #aga-g ,advertisement1 design for1 #aib ,advertisements1 lettering for1 #gb1 #aib1 #aif-i ,air bubbles in raising preparation1 #aeh ,alcuin ,bibles1 #hi ,alfred the ,great1 #ij ,alizarin crimson1 #abg ,alphabet1 its development1 #cb the ,roman1 #cb1 #gj-hc from the ,book of ,kells1 #ff ,alphabets for study1 #fj-i ,altar tablets1 #afi ,aluminium leaf1 #adg paint1 #adg ,ambrosian ,iliad1 #he ,anglo-,celtic illumination1 #hg1 #ajb ,armenian ,bole1 #adc-d ,arsenic1 sulphide of1 #aae ,art paper1 #bcb ,arzica1 #abj1 #aba ,athelstan's ,psalter1 #ij thelwold1 ,benedictional of1 #ia ,aureolin1 #abd ,azurite1 #aae ,azzuro della magna1 #aba oltre marino1 #aba ,babylonian characters1 #be ,backgrounds1 diaper1 #ie ,barium sulphate1 #acj ,beauty1 #bbb ,bedford ,book of ,hours1 #ih ,benedictional of thelwold1 #ia ,biacca1 #aba1 #adb ,bianco ,sangiovanni1 #aba ,bible of ,robert de ,bello1 #ie ,bible ,history1 moralised1 #ie ,bichromate of potash1 #bjh ,binding ,,mss41 a simple method of1 #bbe-bca ,black pigments1 #abi ,blocks1 line1 #agh-i half-tone1 #ahj three-colour1 #ahj-a ,blood1 dragon's1 #aaf1 #abj ,blue pigments1 #abg ,body-colours1 #ace ,bole1 ,armenian1 #adc1 #add ,book1 the illuminated ,,ms41 #baf-bd printed1 illumination of1 #bcb-cg printed1 decoration of1 #bch-dg ,book-hands1 the study of1 #fj-i ,bookplate1 #bja ,borders1 #bde ,bridget1 ,st41 #hg ,british ,museum publications1 #ajf ,bronze gilding1 #ahe-f powder1 #adf ,brown pigments1 #abi ,brushes1 #aed1 #aee ,brush-formed lettering1 #gc1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #bjh-ab ,bubbles in raising preparation1 #aeh ,building up letters1 #ga1 #aji-aa ,burnisher1 agate1 #adh1 #aea ,burnt sienna1 #abg ,burnt umber1 #abi ,byzantine illumination1 #he-f ,cadmium yellows1 #abd ,calligraphy1 its development1 #bc ,cambrensis1 ,giraldus1 #hg ,camel-hair mop1 #adh1 #aea ,capitals1 square1 #cc rustic1 #cc ,capital letters1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #aaj ,carbolic acid1 #acc ,carlovingian illumination1 #hi writing1 #dj ,carmine1 #abg ,celtic and ,anglo-,celtic illumination1 #hg1 #ajb ,cennino ,cennini1 #abj1 #adb ,cerulean ,blue1 #abg ,ceruse1 #aah ,chalk1 #aae1 #aba ,chapter headings1 #bde ,charlemagne1 #ci1 #hi ,charta ,pergamena1 #cj ,charter1 ,golden1 #ia ,china slab1 #acb ,chinese vermilion1 #abf ,christmas cards1 #ahe-aia ,chrome yellows1 #abd1 #abe ,chromium oxide1 #abh ,chromo-lithography1 #ahb ,cinabrese1 #abj ,cinnabar1 #aaf1 #abj ,classical illumination1 #hd ,clay as writing material1 #bd ,clothlet tints1 #abb ,cobalt blue1 #abg ,cobalt violet1 #abh ,cobalt yellow1 #abd ,cochineal1 #abg ,cold tea for tinting paper1 #aec ,colophon1 the1 #bba ,colours used by the medival illuminator1 #aae-abb their composition and permanence1 #abc-cj cake1 #aca tube1 #aca powder1 #acb body1 #ace their preparation and use1 #aca-g ,columba1 ,st41 #hh ,commercial design1 lettering for1 #aib-bjb ,compass1 proportional1 #fh ,concluding remarks1 #bdh-ee ,copper blues and greens1 #aae1 #aah1 #aba1 #abb ,crimson1 alizarin1 #abg lake1 #abg ,cursive writing1 #cb ,cutting the pen1 #db1 #dc ,cyperus papyrus1 #bh ,decoration1 #aef1 #afa-f1 #bbb1 #bcd of printed book1 #bch-dg ,designs in two colours1 #bdf ,designing1 #ahg ,designing a magazine cover1 #bjj-b ,diagrams1 lettering for1 #aie ,diaper backgrounds1 #ie ,dioscorides1 ,the1 #he ,dividers1 spring1 #ajg ,dragon's blood1 #aaf1 #abj ,durham ,book1 #cg1 #hh1 #ajb ,durrow1 ,book of1 #hh ,dutch metal1 #adg ,earth colours1 #aae ,edgar1 ,golden ,charter of1 #ia ,egg1 white of1 #aah-i used for gilding1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adc yolk1 #aai ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 #bg writing materials1 #bg1 #bh ,eighth-century writing1 #ch1 #ci ,emerald green1 #abh ,eraclius1 #aai ,erasures1 #aeb-c ,eumenes ,,ii41 king of ,pergamus1 #cj ,exercises in the use of the pen1 #de ,family trees1 #agj ,fifteenth-century illumination1 and later1 #ig-ajj writing1 #da1 #gi1 #hj ,fifth-century writing1 #cc-e ,figures1 pen-formed1 #eg ,fish-glue for mixing with colours1 #aag ,fixed inks1 #bjf1 #bjh ,flake white1 #acj ,forming words and sentences1 #ed-i ,fourteenth-century illumination1 #if writing1 #fe ,fourth-century writing1 #cc ,framing illuminated work1 #agd ,gamboge1 #abe ,garcinia ,cambogia1 #abe ,genesis of ,vienna ,library1 #he-f ,codex in ,british ,museum1 #hf ,gesso ,sottile1 #adb-d ,giallorino1 #abj-a ,gilding methods of the ,middle ,ages1 #ach-ade raised1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeg-fj bronze1 #ahe-f ,gilder's cushion1 #adg-h knife1 #adh-ej tip1 #adh1 #aej-a ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 #hg ,glycerine in colours1 #aca ,gold1 the use of1 #acf-ea leaf1 #aci1 #adf-g handling it1 #adh-i shell1 #adf paint1 #adf1 #ahe grinding1 #ada1 #add ,gold size and raising preparation1 #aeh-i ,gold-beating1 its antiquity1 #aci ,golden ,charter of ,king ,edgar1 #ia ,gospels1 ,the ,lindisfarne1 #cg1 #hh1 #ajb ,green pigments1 #abh ,gum1 for mixing colours1 #acc ,half-tone blocks1 #ahj ,half-uncials1 #cf ,irish1 #cf ,english1 #cg ,handwriting1 ordinary1 #bd ,harleian ,psalter1 #ia ,heraldry1 #age ,hiberno-,saxon illumination1 #ajb ,hieroglyphic and hieratic characters1 #bg ,holding the pen1 #dd-f ,honey1 mixed with colours1 #aca in raising preparation1 #ahf ,i1 ,,the ,,letter1 #ei ,ichneumon brush1 #aeh ,iliad1 ,ambrosian1 #he ,illumination1 the study of1 #bc1 #aff1 #bdh-ea classical and ,byzantine1 #hd-f ,celtic and ,anglo-,celtic1 #hg-i1 #ajb ,carlovingian1 #hi ,winchester1 #hi-ib twelfth-century1 #ic-d thirteenth-century1 #id-f fourteenth-century1 #if-g fifteenth-century1 #ig-i ,italian1 #ii in black and red1 #ajg-ad with gold and colours1 #aeb-fj the further development of1 #afa-gj ,illuminated ,,ms4 book1 #baf-bd ,illustrations1 lettering under1 #bcd ,indaco baccadeo1 #aba ,indian ink1 #abi ,indigo1 #aaf1 #aba ,influence of the tool1 #bc-ca ,initial letter1 #aja-f ,ink1 #dd classical1 #aag medival1 #aai ,invitation cards1 #aij ,isidore1 ,st41 #bh ,ivory black1 #abi ,j1 ,,the ,,letter1 #ei ,japanese brush1 #bjh-i ,jehan le ,bgue1 ,,ms4 of1 #aai ,joshua ,rotulus1 #hf ,kells1 ,book of1 #hh1 #aja ,kermes1 #aaf ,kildare1 ,book of1 #hg ,kneaded rubber1 #afj ,knife for cutting the pen1 #df ,labels1 designs for1 #aih ,lakes1 #aaf1 #aai ,lampblack1 #abi ,lapis ,lazuli1 #abg ,laurie1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,p41 #ach ,lead1 white1 #aba1 #acj ,leaf1 gold1 #aci1 #adf-g ,lens1 magnifying1 #fh ,letter1 the initial1 #aja-f ,letters1 pen-formed1 #dh-ec brush-formed1 #gc1 #aaj-a1 #bjh-i building up1 #gc1 #aaj-a capital1 #fe-g1 #aaj ,lettering1 ,roman1 #gj-hc for advertisements1 #gb1 #aib1 #aif-i for commercial design1 #aib-bjb ,leucophoron1 #aci ,lighting of work1 #ej ,lindisfarne ,gospels1 #cg1 #hh1 #ajb ,line blocks1 #agh-i ,lithography1 #aha-b ,liturgical purposes1 the value of illumination for1 #afi-gj1 #bec ,lombardic writing1 #ch-i ,lucca ,,ms41 #aag1 #aci ,machine1 the1 #bea ,madder1 purple1 #abh rose1 #abg scarlet1 #abg ,magazine covers1 designing1 #bjj-b ,magnifying lens1 #fh ,majuscule writing1 #cb ,manuscript books1 illuminated1 #baf-bd ,mapp ,clavicula1 #aag1 #adj ,maps and diagrams1 lettering for1 #aie ,marriage ,service1 #agj ,mary's ,psalter1 #if ,mastery of the tool1 #db ,menu1 design for1 #baj-aa ,merovingian writing1 #ci-dj ,merrifield1 ,mrs41 #aai ,metaphrastes1 ,simeon1 #hf ,method of setting out page1 #ajg-h ,miniature painting1 #ia1 #ajj1 #afg-h1 #bbb ,minium1 #aah ,minuscule writing1 #ch ,mixed uncials1 #ce ,muller for grinding colours1 #acc ,murex1 #aaf ,ninth-century writing1 #cg ,naples yellow1 #abe ,natural ,history1 ,pliny's1 #aae-f ,nature study1 #afc-f ,new blue1 #abh ,note-heading1 #aii ,notices1 #agj ,ochre1 yellow1 #abe 8,old ,english10 #fe ,opus ,anglicum1 #ij ,originality1 #afh-i ,orpiment1 #aae1 #aai1 #abb ,oxgall1 #afj ,p1 ,,the ,,letter1 #ec ,pad for writing upon1 #dh ,page1 method of setting out1 #ajg-h ,palography1 #cc ,palette knife1 #acc-d ,paper1 #dd1 #aec art1 #bcb stretching1 #aed ,papyrus1 #bh ,parchment1 derivation of the word1 #cj tinting1 #abb size1 #adj ,pattern1 simple1 #aac-d ,pedigrees1 #agj ,pen1 holding the1 #dd-f cutting the1 #db-c exercises in the use of the1 #de the reed1 #bg-h1 #db the quill1 first mention of1 #bh -strokes1 #de -formed letters1 #dh-ec figures1 #eg -wiper1 #df ,pencils1 #ajg1 #aeb-c ,pezzuole colours1 #abb ,philippo de ,maizires1 ,epistle of1 #aje ,phnician alphabet1 #cb ,pigments1 blue1 #abg brown1 #abi black1 #abi green1 #abh red1 #abe white1 #abi yellow1 #abd ,planning out ,,ms4 book1 #bag-bj ,plant drawing1 #afc-e ,plaster of ,paris1 #add ,platinum leaf1 #adg ,pliny1 #aae-f ,plum-tree gum1 #aag-h ,poetry1 illumination of1 #bbc1 #bec ,posters1 lettering for1 #aig hand-written1 #bjc-ac ,potash1 bichromate of1 #bjh ,pounce for vellum1 #aee ,powder colours1 #acb ,practise in writing1 #eb ,preparing colours1 #aca-g ,printed book1 the ideal1 #bed the illumination of1 #bcb-g the decoration of1 #bch-dg ,printing and illumination1 #bed ,process blocks1 #agh-ha work1 white for1 #acj ,proportional compass1 #fh ,psalter1 ,athelstan's1 #ij ,queen ,mary's1 #if of ,westminster ,abbey1 #id ,harleian1 #ia ,pumice powder1 #aee ,queen ,mary's ,psalter1 #if ,quill pen1 the earliest allusion to it1 #bh cutting it1 #db-c ,rabula ,,ms41 #hf ,raised gilding1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeg-fj ,raising preparation1 #aeh-i ,raw sienna1 #abe umber1 #abi ,red and black1 the use of1 #ajg-ad1 #bej ,red pigments1 #abe ,reed pens1 #bg-h1 #db ,reproduction1 the various methods of1 #agh-hd ,risalgallo ,realgar1 #aba ,roman bronze pens1 #bh lettering1 #gj-hc made with simple pen-strokes1 #gc-d ,rose madder1 #abg ,rubber1 kneaded1 #afj ,rustic capitals1 #cc ,s1 ,,the ,,letter1 #eg-h ,sable writer1 #hc1 #bab ,saffron1 #aba-b ,st4 ,bridget1 #hg ,columba1 #hh ,isidore1 #bh ,swithin1 #ij ,salt green1 #aah ,sap of ,iris1 #aah ,saucers for colour1 #ace ,scarlet madder1 #abg ,schedula ,diversarum ,artium1 #aag ,scraper1 #acc1 #ace ,scriptoria1 the two ,winchester1 #ij ,sections for ,,ms4 books1 #bag ,sepia1 #abi ,service books1 #afi ,service1 ,marriage1 #agj ,set square1 #ajg-h ,setting out page1 #ajg-h ,seventh-century writing1 #cf ,sewing sections1 #bbf-g ,show-cards1 #bad-e ,sienna1 burnt1 #abg raw1 #abe ,silver leaf1 #adg ,simeon ,metaphrastes1 #hf ,sinopia1 #abj ,sixteenth-century writing1 #hc ,size and raising preparation1 #aeh-i parchment1 #adj ,sketch book1 the use of a1 #aff ,skins of animals as writing material1 #bh ,slope for writing1 #di ,somme le ,roi1 #ie ,spacing words and letters1 #eg ,spanish green1 #aah ,spring dividers1 #ajg for pen1 #dc ,square capitals1 #cc ,stretching paper1 #aed vellum1 #aed ,stylus1 the use of the1 #be-f ,success in illumination1 #bdh ,tablets1 writing1 #bh ,tail-pieces1 illuminated1 #bce printed1 #bdd-e ,tea1 for tinting paper1 #aec ,tee square1 #ajg-h ,tenth-century writing1 #ch1 #fb ,texts for churches1 #agj ,theophilus1 #aag ,theophrastus1 #aae ,thirteenth-century illumination1 #id writing1 #da1 #fd ,three-colour blocks1 #ahj-a ,tinting parchment1 #abb ,title-page1 #bcd1 #bch-dj ,tool1 the influence of the1 #bc-ca the mastery of the1 #db ,trajan column1 #gf ,tube colours1 #aca ,turkey quill1 #dd ,twelfth-century illumination1 #ic-d writing1 #da1 #fc ,u1 ,,the ,,letter1 #ei ,ultramarine1 #aba1 #abg-h ash1 #abh ,french1 #abh ,umber1 burnt1 #abi raw1 #abi ,uncials1 #cd mixed1 #ce half-1 #cf ,irish1 #cf ,english1 #cg ,v1 ,,the ,,letter1 #ei ,vandyke brown1 #abi ,vellum1 #aeb-f1 #baf-g limp1 binding ,,mss4 with1 #bbe-ca reputed origin of1 #bh ,verde azzuro1 #aba ,verde terra1 #aae ,verderame1 #aba ,verdigris1 #aah1 #aba ,vermilion1 #aag1 #aai1 #abe-g ,vienna ,genesis1 #he-f ,violet1 cobalt1 #abh ,virgil ,,ms4 in the ,vatican1 #he ,viridian1 #abh ,visigothic writing1 #ci ,vitruvius1 #aae ,wedge-shaped ,characters1 #be ,westminster ,abbey1 ,psalter of1 #id ,white of egg1 #aah-i used for gilding1 #aci-da1 #adc ,white lead1 #aba1 #acj ,white pigments1 #abi-cj ,winchester ,school of ,illumination1 #ij ,window tickets1 #bac ,wood-engraving1 #bch ,words1 forming1 #ed-i ,workmanship1 good1 #bee ,writer1 sable1 #hc1 #bab ,writing1 beautiful1 the foundation of true illumination1 #bc-d1 #bdh expression in the1 #bbc majuscule1 #cb cursive1 #cb minuscule1 #ch ,lombardic1 #ch-i ,visigothic1 #ci ,merovingian1 #ci-dj ,carlovingian1 #dj fourth-century1 #cc fifth-century1 #cc-e seventh-century1 #cf eighth and ninth-century1 #ch-i tenth-century1 #ch1 #fb twelfth-century1 #da1 #fc thirteenth-century1 #da1 #fd fourteenth-century1 #fe fifteenth-century1 #da1 #gi-hj sixteenth-century1 #hc ,yellow pigments1 #abd ,yolk of egg1 #aai ,zafferano1 #aba ,zinc white1 #abi-cj ,,printed ,,by ,,the ,,anchor ,,press1 ,,ltd41 ,,tiptree1 ,,essex1 ,,england4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,all 8facing0 references in the ,list of ,illustrations1 and all 8,facing page0 information in the captions of illustrations have been deleted4 ,the illustrations in this e,book have been placed between paragraphs near their original locations4 8,an ,illuminated ,address01 listed in the ,list of ,illustrations1 was not found in this book4