,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,bold font is shown delimited by the #8' character4 ,super- and subscripted characters are shown as '#b' and '#b' respectively4 ,this text includes the rendering of ancient ,greek inscriptions1 using the alphabets in a number of different regions1 not all of which exist in the unicode character set4 ,it is not possible to render these inscriptions in text without a wholesale loss of information about the variant forms4 ,each inscription1 therefore1 is simply rendered using modern ,greek characters1 including several archaic characters 7koppa and digamma 7 which are supported in unicode fonts4 ,these inscriptions are better viewed1 obviously1 in the ,,html or epub versions ,minor errors and inconsistency in punctuation and formatting have been silently corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any other textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ,footnotes appeared in the printed text numbered sequentially on each page4 ,they have been renumbered to be unique across the text1 and gathered at the end of each chapter4 ,the occasional references to them by the original number have been changed4 at3 https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/ebooks_/#dh aee ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,history ,,of ,,ancient ,,pottery ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,i ,illustration3 ,,kylix ,,by ,,duris4 ,,the ,,labours ,,of ,,theseus4 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,,history ,,of ,,ancient ,,pottery ,,greek1 ,,etruscan1 ,,and ,,roman ,,by ,h4 ,b4 ,,walters1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,based ,,on ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,samuel ,,birch ,,in ,,two ,,volumes ,,volume ,i ,,with #cjj ,,illustrations ,,including #h ,,coloured ,,plates ,,illustration ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street1 ,w4 #aije ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,printed ,,by ,,hazell1 ,,watson ,,and ,,viney1 ,,ld41 ,,london ,,and ,,aylesbury4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface ,in #aheg ,dr4 ,samuel ,birch issued his well-known work on ancient pottery1 at that time almost the first attempt at dealing with the whole subject in a comprehensive manner4 ,sixteen years later1 in #ahgc1 he brought out a second edition1 in some respects condensed1 in others enlarged and brought up to date4 ,but it is curious to reflect that the succeeding sixteen years should not only have doubled or even trebled the material available for a study of this subject1 but should even have revolutionised that study4 ,the year #ahhi also saw the completion of the excavations of the ,acropolis at ,athens1 which did much to settle the question of the chronology of ,attic vases4 ,yet another sixteen years1 and if the increase in actual bulk of material is relatively not so great1 yet the advance in the study of pottery1 especially that of the primitive periods1 has been astounding2 and while in #aheg1 and even in #ahgc1 it was impossible to do much more than collect and co-ordinate material1 in #aije ,greek ceramics have become one of the most advanced and firmly based branches of classical archaeology4 ,it therefore implies no slur on the reputation of ,samuel ,birch's work that it has become out of date4 ,up till now it has remained the only comprehensive treatise1 and therefore the standard work1 on the subject2 but of late years there has been a crying need1 especially in ,england1 of a book which should place before students a condensed and up-to-date account of ,greek vases and of the present state of knowledge of the subject4 ,the present volumes1 while following in the main the plan adopted by ,dr4 ,birch1 necessarily deviate therefrom in some important particulars4 ,it has been decided to omit entirely the section relating to ,oriental pottery1 partly from considerations of space1 partly from the impossibility of doing justice to the subject except in a separate treatise2 for the same reason the pottery of the ,celts and of ,northern ,europe has been ignored4 ,part ,i4 of the present work1 dealing chiefly with the technical aspect of the subject1 remains in its main outlines much as it was thirty years ago2 but the other sections have been entirely re-written4 ,for the historical account of vase-painting in ,birch's second edition one chapter of forty pages sufficed2 it now extends to six chapters1 or one quarter of the work4 ,the subjects on the vases1 again1 occupy four chapters instead of two2 and modern researches have made it possible to treat the subjects of ,etruscan and ,roman pottery with almost the same scientific knowledge as that of ,greece4 ,a certain amount of repetition in the various sections will1 it is hoped1 be pardoned on the ground that it was desirable to make each section as far as possible complete in itself2 and another detail which may provoke unfavourable criticism is the old difficulty of the spelling of ,greek names and words4 ,in regard to the latter the author admits that consistency has not been attained1 but his aim has been rather to avoid unnecessary ,latinising on the one hand and pedantry on the other4 ,finally1 the author desires to express his warmest acknowledgments to all who have been of assistance to him in his work1 by their writings or otherwise1 especially to a friend1 desiring to be nameless1 who has kindly read through the proofs and made many useful suggestions2 to the invaluable works of many foreign scholars1 more particularly those of ,m4 ,pottier1 ,m4 ,salomon ,reinach1 and ,m4 ,dchelette1 he owes a debt which even a constant acknowledgment in the text hardly repays4 ,thanks are also due to the ,trustees of the ,british ,museum for kind permission to reproduce their blocks for ,figs4 #ge1 #aji1 #aah1 #abe1 #abh1 #aca1 #ach1 #ahe1 #aia1 and #aig1 to ,m4 ,dchelette for permission to reproduce from his work the vases given in ,figs4 #bbd1 #bbf1 and to the ,committee of the ,british ,school at ,athens for similar facilities in regard to ,plate ,,xiv4 7pottery from ,crete74 ,lastly1 but by no means least1 the author desires to express to ,mr4 ,hallam ,murray his deep sense of obligation for the warm interest he has shown in the work throughout and for the pains he has taken to ensure the success of its outward appearance4 ,h4 ,b4 ,w4 ,,london1 ,january #aije4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,,of ,,volume ,i ,,page ,,preface v ,,contents ,,of ,,volume ,i ix ,,list ,,of ,,plates ,,in ,,volume ,i xiii ,,list ,,of ,,text-,,illustrations ,,in ,,volume ,i xv ,,bibliography ,,of ,,ancient ,,pottery xix ,,note ,,on ,,abbreviations ,,used ,,in ,,this ,,work xxxvi ,,part ,i ,,greek ,,pottery ,,in ,,general ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,importance of study of ancient monuments--,value of pottery as evidence of early civilisation--,invention of the art--,use of brick in ,babylonia--,the potter's wheel--,enamel and glazes--,earliest ,greek pottery--,use of study of vases--,ethnological1 historical1 mythological1 and artistic aspects--,earliest writings on the subject--,the 8,etruscan0 theory--,history of the study of ,greek vases--,artistic1 epexegetic1 and historical methods--,the vase-collections of ,europe and their history--,list of existing collections #a-cj ,,chapter ,,ii ,,sites ,,and ,,circumstances ,,of ,,discovery ,,of ,,greek ,,vases ,historical and geographical limits of subject--,description of ,greek tombs--,tombs in ,cyprus1 ,cyrenaica1 ,sicily1 ,italy--,condition of vases when found--,subsequent restorations--,imitations and forgeries--,prices of vases--,sites on which painted vases have been found3 ,athens1 ,corinth1 ,boeotia1 ,greek islands1 ,crimea1 ,asia ,minor1 ,cyprus1 ,north ,africa1 ,italy1 ,etruria--,vulci discoveries--,southern ,italy1 ,sicily #ca-hh ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,clay ,technical terms--,sun-dried clay and unburnt bricks--,use of these in ,greece--,methods of manufacture--,roof-tiles and architectural decorations in terracotta--,antefixal ornaments--,sicilian and ,italian systems--,inscribed tiles--,sarcophagi--,braziers--,moulds-- ,greek lamps--,sculpture in terracotta--,origin of art--,large statues in terracotta--,statuettes--,processes of manufacture--,moulding--,colouring--,vas es with plastic decoration--,reliefs--,toys--,types and uses of statuettes--,porcelain and enamelled wares--,hellenistic and ,roman enamelled fabrics #hi-acj ,,chapter ,,iv ,,uses ,,and ,,shapes ,,of ,,greek ,,vases ,mention of painted vases in literature--,civil and domestic use of pottery--,measures of capacity--,use in daily life--,decorative use--,religious and votive uses--,use in funeral ceremonies--,shapes and their names--,ancient and modern classifications--,vases for storage--,pithos--,wine- amphora--,amphora--,stamnos--,hydria--,v ases for mixing--,krater--,deinos or ,lebes--,cooking-vessels--,vases for pouring wine--,oinocho and variants--,ladles--,drinking- cups--,names recorded by ,athenaeus--,kotyle--,skyphos--,kantharo s--,kylix--,phiale-- ,rhyton--,dishes--,oil- vases--,lekythos--,alabastron--,pyxis--, askos--,moulded vases #aca-bja ,,chapter ,v ,,technical ,,processes ,nature of clay--,places whence obtained--,hand-made vases--,invention of potter's wheel--,methods of modelling--,moulded vases and relief- decoration--,baking--,potteries and furnaces--,painted vases and their classification--,black varnish--,methods of painting--,instruments and colours employed--,status of potters in antiquity #bjb-bcc ,,part ,,ii ,,history ,,of ,,greek ,,vase-,,painting ,,chapter ,,vi ,,primitive ,,fabrics ,introductory--,cypriote ,bronze-,age pottery--,classification--,mycenaean pottery in ,cyprus--,graeco- ,phoenician fabrics--,shapes and decoration--,hellenic and later vases--,primitive pottery in ,greece--,troy--,thera and ,cyclades--,crete--,recent discoveries--,mycenaean pottery--,classification and distribution--,centres of fabric--,ethnography and chronology #bcd-bgf ,,chapter ,,vii ,,rise ,,of ,,vase-,,painting ,,in ,,greece ,geometrical decoration--,its origin--,distribution of pottery--,shapes and ornamentation of vases--,subjects--,dipylon vases--,boeotian ,geometrical wares--,chronology--,proto-,attic fabrics--,phaleron ware--,later ,boeotian vases--,melian amphorae--,corinth and its pottery--8,proto-,corinthian0 vases--,vases with imbrications and floral decoration--,incised lines and ground-ornaments--,introduction of figure- subjects--,chalcidian vases--8,tyrrhenian ,amphorae0 #bgg-cbg ,,chapter ,,viii ,,vase-,,painting ,,in ,,ionia ,general characteristics--,classification--,mycen aean influence--,rhodian pottery--8,fikellura0 ware--,asia ,minor fabrics--,cyrenaic vases--,naukratis and its pottery--,daphnae ware--,caeretan hydriae--,other ,ionic fabrics--8,pontic0 vases--,early painting in ,ionia--,clazomenae sarcophagi #cbh-cfg ,,chapter ,,ix ,,athenian ,,black-,,figured ,,vases ,definition of 8black-figured0--,the ,franois vase--,technical and stylistic details--,shapes--,decorative patterns--,subjects and types--,artists' signatures--,exekias and ,amasis--,minor ,artists--,nikosthenes--,andokides--8,af fected0 vases--,panathenaic amphorae--,vases from the ,kabeirion--,opaque painting on black ground--,vase-painting and literary tradition--,early ,greek painting and its subsequent development #cfh-cii ,,chapter ,x ,,red-,,figured ,,vases ,origin of red-figure style--,date of introduction---names and historical personages--,technical characteristics--,draughts manship--,shapes--,ornamentation--,subje cts and types--,subdivisions of style--,severe period and artists--,strong period--,euphronios--,duris1 ,hieron1 and ,brygos--,fine period--,influence of ,polygnotos--,later fine period--,boeotian local fabric #djj-dec ,,chapter ,,xi ,,white-,,ground ,,and ,,later ,,fabrics ,origin and character of white-ground painting--,outline drawing and polychromy--,funeral lekythi--,subjects and types--,decadence of ,greek vase-painting--,rise of new centres--,kertch1 ,cyrenaica1 and ,southern ,italy--,characteristics of the latter fabrics--,shapes--,draughtsmanship--,inf luence of ,tragedy and ,comedy--,subjects--,paestum fabric--,lucanian1 ,campanian1 and ,apulian fabrics--,gnathia vases--,vases modelled in form of figures--,imitations of metal--,vases with reliefs--8,megarian0 bowls--,bolsena ware and ,calene phialae #ded-ejd ,,list ,,of ,,plates ,,in ,,volume ,i 7,except where otherwise noted the objects are in the ,british ,museum7 ,,plate ,i4 ,kylix signed by ,duris3 ,labours of ,theseus 7colours7 ,frontispiece ,,to ,,face ,,page ,,ii4 ,archaic terracotta antefixes #ih ,,iii4 ,restoration of temple at ,civita ,lavinia #ajj ,,iv4 ,greek lamps and 8brazier-handles0 #ajf ,v4 ,moulds for terracotta figures #aad ,,vi4 ,terracotta vases from ,southern ,italy #aah ,,vii4 8,melian0 reliefs #abj ,,viii4 ,archaic terracotta figures #abb ,,ix4 ,terracotta figures of fine style #abd ,x4 ,porcelain and enamelled wares #abh ,,xi4 ,cypriote ,bronze-,age pottery #bdb ,,xii4 ,mycenaean vases found in ,cyprus #bdf ,,xiii4 ,cypriote 8,graeco-,phoenician0 pottery #beb ,,xiv4 ,example of ,kamaraes ware from ,palaiokastro1 ,crete 7from ,brit4 ,school ,annual7 #bff ,,xv4 ,mycenaean vases 7colours7 #bgb ,,xvi4 ,subjects from the ,aristonos krater in the ,vatican 7from ,wiener ,vorl47 #bif ,,xvii4 ,phaleron1 ,boeotian1 and ,photo-,corinthian vases #cjj ,,xviii4 ,melian amphora in ,athens 7from ,conze7 #cjb ,,xix4 ,proto-,corinthian and ,early ,corinthian vases #cjh ,,xx4 ,corinthian pyxis and ,rhodian oinocho 7colours7 #cab ,,xxi4 ,later ,corinthian vases with figure subjects #caf ,,xxii4 ,chalcidian vase in ,bibl4 ,nat41 ,paris3 ,herakles and ,geryon2 chariot #cbj ,,xxiii4 8,tyrrhenian0 ,amphora3 ,the death of ,polyxena #cbd ,,xxiv4 ,rhodian and ,naucratite wares #ccf ,,xxv4 ,situla from ,daphnae2 later ,ionic vase in ,south ,kensington #ceb ,,xxvi4 ,caeretan hydria 7colours7 #ced ,,xxvii4 ,painted sarcophagus from ,clazomenae #cfd ,,xxviii4 ,the ,franois vase in ,florence1 general view 7from ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 ,gr4 ,vasenm47 #cgj ,,xxix4 ,attic black-figured amphorae #chj ,,xxx4 ,vases by ,nikosthenes #chd ,,xxxi4 ,obverse of vase by ,andokides3 ,warriors playing draughts 7,b4,f47 #chf ,,xxxii4 ,reverse of vase by ,andokides3 ,herakles and the ,nemean lion 7,r4,f47 #chf ,,xxxiii4 ,panathenaic amphora1 earlier style #chh ,,xxxiv4 ,panathenaic amphora1 later style #cij ,,xxxv4 ,vases with opaque figures on black ground 7,brit4 ,mus4 and ,louvre7 #cid ,,xxxvi4 ,red-figured 8,nolan0 amphorae and lekythos #dab ,,xxxvii4 ,cups of ,epictetan style #dbb ,,xxxviii4 ,kylix at ,munich signed by ,euphronios3 ,herakles and ,geryon 7from ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold7 #dcb ,,xxxix4 ,kylikes by ,duris at ,berlin and in the style of ,brygos at ,corneto 7from ,baumeister7 #dcf ,,xl4 ,vases signed by ,sotades 7,brit4 ,mus4 and ,boston7 #ddd ,,xli4 ,hydria signed by ,meidias #ddf ,,xlii4 ,vases of 8late fine0 style 7colours7 #ddh ,,xliii4 ,polychrome white-ground vases 7colours7 #def ,,xliv4 ,campanian and ,apulian vases #dhd ,,xlv4 ,apulian sepulchral vase 7colours7 #dhf ,,xlvi4 ,vases modelled in various forms #dib ,,xlvii4 ,archaic vase in ,athens with reliefs 7from 7 #dif ,,xlviii4 ,vases of black ware with reliefs 7,hellenistic period7 #ejj ,,list ,,of ,,text-,,illustrations ,,in ,,volume ,i ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,coffin containing vases1 from ,stackelberg ,athens #cd #b4 ,bronze-,age tombs in ,cyprus ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ce #c4 ,tomb at ,gela 7,sicily7 with ,ashmol4 ,vases vases #cg #d4 ,campana tomb at ,veii ,campana #ci #e4 ,map of ,greece #dg #f4 ,map of ,asia ,minor and the ,archipelago #fc #g4 ,map of ,cyprus #ff #h4 ,map of ,italy #gj #i4 ,diagram of roof-tiling1 ,durm ,heraion1 ,olympia #ic #aj4 ,antefix from ,marathon ,brit4 ,mus4 #ii #aa4 ,inscribed tiles from ,acarnania ,brit4 ,mus4 and ,corfu #ajb #ab4 ,ostrakon of ,megakles ,benndorf #ajc #ac4 ,ostrakon of ,xanthippos ,jahrbuch #ajc #ad4 ,hemikotylion from ,kythera ,brit4 ,mus4 #ace #ae4 ,child playing with jug ,brit4 ,mus4 #acg #af4 ,dedication to ,apollo ,brit4 ,mus4 7,naukratis7 #aci #ag4 ,youth with votive tablet ,benndorf #adj #ah4 ,vases used in sacrifice ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold #ada #ai4 ,funeral lekythos with vases ,brit4 ,mus4 inside tomb #adc #bj4 ,vases placed on tomb 7,lucanian ,brit4 ,mus4 hydria7 #add #ba4 ,pithos from ,knossos #aeb #bb4 ,greek wine-jars ,brit4 ,mus4 #aed #bc4 ,amphora-stamps from ,rhodes ,dumont4 #aef #bd4 ,amphora-stamps from ,thasos ,dumont4 #aeh #be4 8,tyrrhenian0 amphora #afj #bf4 ,panathenaic amphora #afj #bg4 ,panel-amphora #afa #bh4 ,red-bodied amphora #afa #bi4 8,nolan0 amphora #afb #cj4 ,apulian amphora #afb #ca4 8,pelike0 #afc #cb4 ,stamnos #afd #cc4 8,lekane0 #afd #cd4 ,hydria #aff #ce4 ,kalpis #aff #cf4 ,krater with column-handles #afi #cg4 ,volute-handled krater #agj #ch4 ,calyx-krater #agj #ci4 ,bell-krater #agj #dj4 ,lucanian krater #agb #da4 ,psykter #agc #db4 ,deinos or lebes #agc #dc4 ,oinocho 7#gth century7 #agg #dd4 ,oinocho 7#eth century7 #agg #de4 ,prochos #agh #df4 ,olpe #agh #dg4 ,epichysis #agi #dh4 ,kyathos #agi #di4 ,kotyle #ahd #ej4 ,kantharos #ahh #ea4 ,kylix 7earlier form7 #aij #eb4 ,kylix 7later form7 #aia #ec4 ,phiale #aia #ed4 ,rhyton #aic #ee4 ,pinax #aid #ef4 ,lekythos #aif #eg4 ,lekythos 7later form7 #aif #eh4 ,alabastron #aig #ei4 ,aryballos #aig #fj4 ,pyxis #aih #fa4 ,epinetron or ,onos #aii #fb4 ,askos #bjj #fc4 ,apulian askos #bjj #fd4 ,guttus #bjj #fe4 ,potter's wheel1 from ,ant4 ,denkm4 ,corinthian pinakes #bjg #ff4 ,potter's wheel 7vase of about ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ejj ,b4,c47 #bjh #fg4 ,boy polishing vase2 interior ,blmner of pottery #bac #fh4 ,seilenos as potter #baf #fi4 ,interior of furnace ,ant4 ,denkm4 7,corinthian pinax7 #bag #gj4 ,interior of pottery ,ath4 ,mitth4 #bah #ga4 ,red-figured fragment1 incomplete #bbb #gb4 ,studio of vase-painter ,blmner #bbc #gc4 ,vase-painter varnishing cup ,jahrbuch #bbg #gd4 ,vase-painter using feather- ,jahrbuch brush #bbh #ge4 ,cypriote jug with concentric ,brit4 ,mus4 circles #bea #gf4 ,cypriote vase from ,ormidhia ,baumeister #bed #gg4 8,owl-vase0 from ,troy ,schliemann #beh #gh4 ,deep cup from ,troy ,schliemann #bei #gi4 ,vase in form of pig from ,troy ,schliemann #bei #hj4 ,double-necked vase from ,troy ,schliemann #bei #ha4 ,vases from ,thera ,baumeister #bfa #hb4 ,mycenaean vases with marine ,brit4 ,mus4 subjects #bgc #hc4 ,ornamentation on ,geometrical ,perrot vases #bhc #hd4 ,geometrical vase with panels ,brit4 ,mus4 #bhd #he4 ,boeotian ,geometrical vases ,jahrbuch #bhh #hf4 ,coffer from ,thebes 7,boeotian ,jahrbuch ,geometrical7 #bhi #hg4 ,burgon lebes ,brit4 ,mus4 #bif #hh4 ,warrior vase from ,mycenae ,schliemann #big #hi4 ,proto-,attic vase from ,vourva ,ath4 ,mitth4 #bii #ij4 ,the ,dodwell pyxis 7cover7 ,baumeister #caf #ia4 ,vases of ,samian or 8,fikellura0 ,brit4 ,mus4 style #ccg #ib4 ,the ,arkesilaos cup 7,bibl4 ,baumeister ,nat47 #cdb #ic4 ,cyrenaic cup with ,kyrene ,brit4 ,mus4 #cdd #id4 ,naukratis fragment with 8mixed ,brit4 ,mus4 technique0 #cdf #ie4 8,egyptian situla0 from ,daphnae ,brit4 ,mus4 #cea #if4 ,kylix by ,exekias ,wiener ,vorl4 #cha #ig4 ,vase by ,amasis3 ,perseus ,brit4 ,mus4 slaying ,medusa #chb #ih4 ,vase from ,temple of ,kabeiri ,brit4 ,mus4 #cib #ii4 ,diagram of rendering of eye on ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat4 ,attic vase #djh #ajj4 ,palmettes under handles 7early ,jahrbuch ,r4,f47 #dad #aja4 ,palmettes under handles 7later ,riegl ,r4,f47 #dae #ajb4 ,development of maeander and ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat4 cross pattern #daf #ajc4 ,krater of ,polygnotan style3 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 ,slaying of ,niobids 7,louvre7 #ddb #ajd4 ,boeotian kylix ,brit4 ,mus4 #deb #aje4 ,burlesque scene3 ,herakles and ,jahrbuch ,auge #dgd #ajf4 ,apulian sepulchral vase ,brit4 ,mus4 #dgg #ajg4 ,vase by ,assteas in ,madrid ,baumeister #dhj #ajh4 ,lucanian krater3 ,departure of ,brit4 ,mus4 warrior #dhb #aji4 ,hydria with opaque painting on ,brit4 ,mus4 black ground #dhi #aaj4 ,phiale with ,latin inscription ,brit4 ,mus4 #dij ,,bibliography ,,of ,,ancient ,,pottery ,,part ,i ,,periodicals ,,dealing ,,with ,,the ,,subject ,american ,journal of ,archaeology4 ,baltimore and ,boston1 #ahhe1 etc4 ,in progress4 7,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch47 ,annali dell' ,instituto di corrispondenza archeologica4 ,rome1 #ahbi-he4 7,ann4 dell' ,inst47 ,plates of vases re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in ,rpertoire des ,vases1 vol4 i4 7#ahii74 ,annual of the ,british ,school at ,athens4 ,london1 #ahid1 etc4 ,in progress4 7,brit4 ,school ,annual47 ,antike ,denkmler1 herausgegeben vom kaiserl4 deutschen ,institut4 ,berlin1 #ahhg1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,a supplementary atlas to the ,jahrbuch4 7,ant4 ,denkm47 ,archaeologia1 or miscellaneous tracts relating to antiquity4 ,london1 #aggj1 etc4 ,issued by the ,society of ,antiquaries4 ,in progress4 ,archaeological ,journal1 issued by the ,royal ,archaeological ,institute4 ,london1 #ahde1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,numerous articles on ,roman pottery1 etc4 in ,britain4 7,arch4 ,journ47 ,archaeologische ,zeitung4 ,berlin1 #ahdc-he4 ,vols4 vii4-xxv4 have the secondary title ,denkmler1 ,forschungen und ,berichte4 7,arch4 ,zeit47 ,plates of vases re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in ,rpertoire1 vol4 i4 7#ahii74 ,archaeologischer ,anzeiger4 ,berlin1 #ahhf1 etc4 ,in progress2 a supplement bound up with the ,jahrbuch 7new acquisitions of museums1 reports of meetings1 etc474 7,arch4 ,anzeiger47 ,archaeologische-epigraphische ,mittheilungen aus ,oesterreich-,ungarn4 ,vienna1 #ahgg-ig4 ,now superseded by ,jahreshefte4 7,arch4-epigr4 ,mitth4 aus ,oesterr47 ,athenische ,mittheilungen4 ,athens1 #ahgf1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,organ of the ,german ,archaeological ,institute at ,athens4 7,ath4 ,mitth47 ,berichte der schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften4 ,leipzig1 #ahdf1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,important articles by ,o4 ,jahn1 #ahec-fg4 7,ber4 d4 schs4 ,gesellsch47 ,bonner ,jahrbcher4 ,jahrbcher des ,vereins von ,alterthumsfreunden im ,rheinlande4 ,bonn1 #ahdb1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,important for notices of pottery1 etc41 found in ,germany1 and for recent articles by ,dragendorff and others on ,roman pottery 7,arretine and provincial wares1 vols4 xcvi41 ci41 cii41 ciii474 7,bonner ,jahrb47 ,bulletin de ,correspondance ,hellnique4 ,athens and ,paris1 #ahgg1 etc4 ,in progress4 7,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell47 ,bullettino archeologico ,napolitano4 ,naples1 #ahdb-fb4 ,ser4 i4 #ahdb-dh4 ,new ser4 #ahec-fb4 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach1 #ahii4 7,bull4 ,arch4 ,nap47 ,bullettino dell' ,instituto di corrispondenza archeologica4 ,rome1 #ahbi-he4 ,chiefly records of discoveries in ,italy and elsewhere4 7,bull4 dell' ,inst47 ,classical ,review4 ,london1 #ahhg1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,reviews of archaeological books and records of discoveries4 ,comptes-,rendus de la ,commission impriale archologique4 ,petersburg1 #ahei-hh4 ,edited by ,l4 ,stephani4 ,with folio atlas1 re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in ,rpertoire1 vol4 i4 7#ahii74 7,stephani1 ,comptes-,rendus47 4 ,athens1 #ahhc1 etc4 7new series74 ,in progress4 ,plates of vases1 #ahhc-id1 re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in ,rpertoire1 vol4 i4 7#ahii74 74 47 ,gazette archologique4 ,paris1 #ahge-hi4 7,gaz4 ,arch47 ,hermes4 ,zeitschrift fr classische ,philologie4 ,berlin1 #ahff1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen archaeologischen ,instituts4 ,berlin1 #ahhf1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,with ,arch4 ,anzeiger 7q4v47 as supplement and ,antike ,denkmler 7q4v47 as atlas4 7,jahrbuch47 ,jahreshefte des oesterreichischen archaeologischen ,institutes4 ,vienna1 #ahih1 etc4 ,in progress4 7,jahreshefte47 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies4 ,london1 #ahhj1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,with atlas in #dto of plates to vols4 i4-viii41 and supplementary papers 7,no4 #d on ,phylakopi74 7,j4,h4,s47 ,journal of the ,british ,archaeological ,association4 ,london1 #ahde1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,a few articles on ,roman pottery in ,britain4 7,journ4 ,brit4 ,arch4 ,assoc47 ,monumenti antichi1 pubblicati per cura della ,r4 ,accad4 dei ,lincei4 ,milan1 #ahij1 etc4 ,in progress4 7,mon4 antichi47 ,monumenti inediti dell' ,instituto di corrispondenza archeologica4 ,rome1 #ahbi-he 7with supplementary volume1 #ahia74 ,re-edited 7the plates of vases7 by ,s4 ,reinach in ,rpertoire1 vol4 i4 7#ahii74 7,mon4 dell' ,inst47 ,monuments ,grecs1 publis par l',association pour l'encouragement des tudes grecques4 ,paris1 #ahgb-ih4 7,mon4 ,grecs47 ,monuments ,piot4 ,fondation ,eugne ,piot4 ,monuments et mmoires publis par l',acadmie des ,inscriptions4 ,paris1 #ahid1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,museo italiano di antichit classica4 #c vols4 ,florence1 #ahhe-ij4 ,plates of vases re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in ,rpertoire1 vol4 i4 7#ahii74 7,ath4 ,mitth47 ,notizie degli ,scavi di ,antichit1 communicate alla ,r4 ,accademia dei ,lincei4 ,rome and ,milan1 #ahgf1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,important as a record of recent discoveries in ,italy and ,sicily4 7,notizie degli ,scavi47 ,philologus4 ,zeitschrift fr das klassische ,alterthum4 ,gttingen1 #ahdf1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,with occasional supplementary volumes4 ,revue archologique4 ,paris1 #ahdd1 etc4 ,in progress 7four series1 each numbered separately74 7,rev4 ,arch47 ,rmische ,mittheilungen4 ,rome1 #ahhf1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,organ of ,german ,institute at ,rome4 7,rm4 ,mitth47 ,,part ,,ii ,,works ,,on ,,greek ,,vases ,,adamek 7,l474 ,unsignierte ,vasen des ,amasis4 ,prague1 #ahie 7,prager ,studien1 ,heft v474 ,,amelung 7,w474 ,personnificierung des ,lebens in der ,natur in den ,vasenbildern der hellenistischen ,zeit4 ,munich1 #ahhh4 ,see also ,florence4 ,,anderson 7,w4 ,f4 ,c474 ,see ,engelmann and ,schreiber4 ,antiquits du ,bosphore cimmrien4 #c vols4 ,petersburg1 #ahed1 fol4 ,vases1 etc41 found in the ,crimea4 7,re-edited in #hvo by ,s4 ,reinach1 #ahib47 ,,arndt 7,p474 ,studien zur ,vasenkunde4 ,leipzig1 #ahhg4 ,adopts ,brunn's theory of the late ,italian origin of black-figured vases4 ,athens 7,national ,museum74 ,catalogue des ,vases peints1 by ,m4 ,,collignon and ,l4 ,,couve4 ,paris1 #aijb4 ,with atlas of photographic plates4 ,the fragments from the ,acropolis form the subject of a separate catalogue 7in preparation74 ,aus der ,anomia4 ,collected articles1 some relating to vases4 ,berlin1 #ahij4 ,,baumeister 7,a474 ,denkmler des klassischen ,alterthums4 #c vols4 ,munich1 #ahhd-hh4 ,excellent illustrations of numerous vases accompanying the articles1 which are arranged alphabetically in dictionary-form4 ,the article ,vasenkunde1 by ,von ,rohden1 is useful1 but now somewhat out of date4 7,baumeister47 ,,beger 7,l474 ,thesaurus ,brandenburgicus selectus4 #c vols4 ,kln1 #afif1 fol4 ,publishes vases belonging to the ,elector of ,brandenburg 7see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #af74 ,,benndorf 7,o474 ,griechische und sicilische ,vasenbilder4 ,berlin1 #ahfi-hc1 fol4 ,chiefly funerary vases and later fabrics4 7,benndorf1 ,gr4 u4 ,sic4 ,vasenb47 ,see also ,wiener ,vorlegebltter4 ,berlin4 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung im ,antiquarium1 by ,a4 ,,furtwaengler4 ,berlin1 #ahhe4 #b vols4 ,with plates of shapes4 ,,bloch 7,l474 ,die zuschauenden ,gtter in den rothfig4 ,vasengemlden4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,,bl,,mner 7,h474 ,technologie und ,terminologie der ,gewerbe und ,knste4 #d vols4 ,leipzig1 #ahge-hf4 7,vol4 ii4 ,arbeit in ,thon1 for pottery and terracottas2 vol4 iii4 for building construction47 ,out of date in some particulars1 but still exceedingly useful1 and fairly well illustrated4 7,blmner1 ,technologie47 ,,boeckh 7,a47 and others4 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,graecarum4 #d vols4 ,berlin1 #ahbh-gg1 fol4 ,vol4 iv4 contains many vase-inscriptions4 7,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g47 ,b,,hlau 7,j474 ,aus ionischen und italischen ,nekropolen4 ,leipzig1 #ahih1 #dto4 ,indispensable for the study of ,ionic vase-fabrics4 7,bhlau1 ,aus ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop47 ,bologna 7,museo ,civico74 ,catalogo dei vasi1 by ,g4 ,,pellegrini4 ,bologna1 #aijj4 7,plates and cuts47 ,,bolte 7,j474 ,de monumentis ad ,odysseam pertinentibus capita selecta4 ,berlin1 #ahhb1 #hvo4 ,bonn4 ,das akademische ,kunstmuseum zu ,bonn1 by ,r4 ,,kekul4 ,bonn1 #ahgb4 ,bonner ,studien4 ,aufstze aus der ,alterthumswissenschaft ,r4 ,kekul gewidmet4 ,berlin1 #ahij4 ,collected papers1 including several on ,greek vases4 ,boston4 ,catalogue of ,greek1 ,etruscan1 and ,roman vases in the ,museum of ,fine ,arts4 ,boston1 #ahic4 ,by ,e4 ,,robinson4 ,now withdrawn1 owing to re-numbering and extensive subsequent accessions1 for which see ,boston ,museum ,reports 7below74 ,boston ,museum ,reports1 #ahie1 etc4 ,in progress from #ahif4 ,issued annually1 with full details of new acquisitions1 describing many unique specimens4 7,boston ,mus4 ,report47 ,b,,ttiger 7,c4 ,a474 ,griechische ,vasengemlde4 ,weimar and ,magdeburg1 #agig-ahjj4 ---- ,kleine ,schriften4 #c vols4 ,dresden1 #ahcg-ci4 ,bourguignon ,collection4 ,sale ,catalogue1 #ah ,march #aija4 ,paris1 #aija4 7,best vases not included47 ,,branteghem 7,a4 ,,van74 ,see ,froehner4 ,british ,museum4 ,catalogue of the ,greek and ,etruscan ,vases4 ,vol4 i41 by ,c4 ,smith1 in preparation4 ,vol4 ii41 ,black-figured vases1 by ,h4 ,b4 ,walters 7#ahic74 ,vol4 iii41 ,red-figured vases1 by ,c4 ,smith 7#ahif74 ,vol4 iv41 ,vases of the later period1 by ,h4 ,b4 ,walters 7#ahif74 7,referred to as ,b4 ,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 or ,b4,m4 with number of vase47 ---- ,designs on ,greek ,vases1 by ,a4 ,s4 ,murray and ,c4 ,smith4 #ahid1 fol4 7,plates of interiors of ,r4,f4 kylikes47 ---- ,white ,athenian ,vases1 by ,a4 ,s4 ,murray and ,a4 ,h4 ,smith4 #ahif1 fol4 ---- ,terracotta ,sarcophagi1 by ,a4 ,s4 ,murray4 #ahih1 fol4 7,the sarcophagi from ,clazomenae1 ,kameiros1 and ,cervetri2 see ,chapters ,,viii4 and ,,xviii47 ---- ,excavations in ,cyprus 7,enkomi1 ,curium1 ,amathus74 #aijj4 ,by ,a4 ,s4 ,murray1 ,h4 ,b4 ,walters1 and ,a4 ,h4 ,smith4 ,,br,,ndsted 7,p4 ,o474 ,a brief description of #cb ancient ,greek painted vases1 lately found at ,vulci by ,m4 ,campanari4 ,london1 #ahcb1 #hvo4 ,,brongniart 7,a474 ,trait des ,arts ,cramiques1 ou des ,poteries consideres dans leur ,histoire1 leur ,pratique1 et leur ,thorie4 #crd edn41 #ahgg4 #b vols41 with ,atlas4 7,brongniart1 ,trait47 ,see also ,svres4 ,,brunn 7,h474 ,geschichte der griechischen ,knstler4 #b vols4 ,stuttgart1 #ahei4 ,the second volume has some account of the vase-painters then known4 ---- ,probleme in der ,geschichte der ,vasenmalerei4 ,munich1 #ahga1 #dto4 ,theory of ,italian origin of ,b4,f4 vases4 ---- ,neue ,probleme in der ,geschichte der ,vasenmalerei4 ,munich1 #ahhf4 ---- ,griechische ,kunstgeschichte4 #b vols4 7incomplete74 ,munich1 #ahic-ig4 ,deals with some of the earlier fabrics4 ---- ,kleine ,schriften4 ,vol4 i4 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 ,in progress4 ,see also ,lau4 ,,bulle 7,h474 ,die ,silene in der archaischen ,kunst4 ,munich1 #ahic4 ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club4 ,catalogue of objects of ,greek ,ceramic ,art 7exhibited in #ahhh71 by ,w4 ,froehner4 7,mostly vases from ,branteghem ,collection47 ---- ,catalogue of ,exhibition of ,ancient ,greek ,art1 #aijc1 by ,e4 ,strong and others4 ,a revised dition de luxe 7#aijd7 with plates4 ,cambridge 7,fitzwilliam ,museum74 ,a ,catalogue of the ,greek vases in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,,gardner4 ,cambridge1 #ahig4 ,with plates4 ,,canessa 7,c4 and ,e474 ,collection d',antiquits1 l',htel ,drouot1 #aa ,may #aijc1 #dto4 ,paris1 #aijc4 ,a sale catalogue of an anonymous collection containing several interesting vases4 ,,canino 7,prince ,lucien ,bonaparte of74 ,musum trusque de ,l4 ,bonaparte1 prince de ,canino4 ,fouilles de #ahbh #ahbi4 ,vases peints avec inscriptions4 ,viterbo1 #ahbi1 #dto4 ,with atlas of plates1 of which only one part was published4 ---- ,catalogo di scelte ,antichit ,etrusche trovate negli ,scavi del ,pr4 di ,canino1 #ahbh-bi4 ,viterbo1 #ahbi1 #dto4 ,,caylus 7,a4 ,c4 ,p4 de74 ,recueil d'antiquits gyptiennes1 trusques1 grecques et romaines4 #g vols4 ,paris1 #ageb-fg1 #dto4 7,vases given in vols4 i4 and ii47 ,,cesnola 7,l4 ,p4 di74 ,cyprus3 its ancient cities1 tombs1 and temples4 7,with a chapter on the pottery1 by ,a4 ,s4 ,murray47 ,london1 #ahgg1 #hvo4 ,,christie 7,j474 ,disquisitions upon the ,painted ,vases1 and their connection with the ,eleusinian ,mysteries4 ,london1 #ahbe1 #dto4 7,see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ba47 ,,collignon 7,m474 ,see ,athens1 ,rayet4 ,commentationes philologae in honorem ,t4 ,mommseni4 ,berlin1 #ahgg1 #dto4 ,several useful papers on vases4 ,,conze 7,a474 ,melische ,thongefsse4 ,leipzig1 #ahfb4 ,folio plates4 ---- ,zur ,geschichte der ,anfnge griechischer ,kunst4 ,vienna1 #ahgj1 #hvo4 ,see also ,wiener ,vorlegebltter4 ,,corey 7,a4 ,d474 ,de ,amazonum antiquissimis figuris4 ,berlin1 #ahia1 #hvo4 ,,couve 7,l474 ,see ,athens4 ,,daremberg 7,c47 and ,,saglio 7,e471 and subsequently ,e4 ,,pottier4 ,dictionnaire des antiquits grecques et romaines4 ,paris1 #ahgc1 etc4 ,in progress 7to ,m in #aijd74 7,daremberg and ,saglio47 ,special reference should be made to the articles ,figlinum1 ,forma1 ,lucerna1 and those on vase-shapes4 ,the bibliographies are very exhaustive4 ,,dennis 7,g474 ,the ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahgh 7#bnd edn471 #hvo4 ,introductory matter on vases antiquated2 useful as record of discoveries1 etc4 7,dennis1 ,etruria47 ,,des ,,vergers 7,n474 trurie et les trusques4 #b vols4 and atlas4 ,paris1 #ahfb-fd4 ,some fine vases published4 ,,disney 7,j474 ,museum ,disneianum1 being a description of a collection of various ancient fictile vases in the possession of ,j4 ,d4 7now at ,cambridge74 ,london1 #ahdf1 #dto4 ,,dubois-,,maisonneuve 7,a474 ,introduction l'tude des vases antiques d'argile peints4 ,paris1 #ahag1 fol4 7,dubois-,maisonneuve1 ,introd47 ,,dumont 7,a474 ,inscriptions cramiques de ,grce4 ,paris1 #ahgb1 #hvo4 7,inscriptions on handles of wine-amphorae47 ---- ,vases peints de la ,grce propre4 ,paris1 #ahgc4 7,reprinted from the ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts47 ---- ,les ,cramiques de la ,grce propre2 histoire de la peinture des vases grecs depuis les origines jusqu'au ,v4 sicle avant ,jsus-,christ4 ,illustrations by ,j4 ,chaplain4 ,revised by ,e4 ,pottier4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahhh-ij4 ,vol4 i41 on earlier vase fabrics 7now becoming out of date72 plates mostly of later vases4 ,vol4 ii41 miscellaneous papers 7vases1 terracottas1 etc474 7,dumont-,pottier47 ,,endt 7,j474 ,beitrge zur ionischen ,vasenmalerei4 ,prague1 #ahii1 #hvo4 7,endt1 ,ion4 ,vasenm47 ,,engelmann 7,r474 ,bilder-,atlas zum ,homer4 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 ,translated by ,w4 ,f4 ,c4 ,anderson3 ,pictorial ,atlas to ,homer's ,iliad and ,odyssey1 ,london1 #ahib4 7,engelmann-,anderson47 ---- ,archaeologische ,studien zu den ,tragikern4 ,berlin1 #aijj4 ,eranos ,vindobonensis 7collected papers74 ,vienna1 #ahic1 #hvo4 ,,fea 7,c474 ,storia dei vasi fittili dipinti che si trovano nell' antica ,etruria4 ,rome1 #ahcb4 7,dealing with 8,etruscan0 theory47 ,festschrift fr ,johannes ,overbeck 7collected papers74 ,leipzig1 #ahic1 #dto4 ,festschrift fr ,otto ,benndorf zu seinem #fj4 ,geburtstage gewidmet 7collected papers74 ,vienna1 #ahih1 #dto4 ,,fiorelli 7,g474 ,notizia dei vasi dipinti rinvenuti a ,cuma nel #ahef4 ,naples1 #aheg4 ,plates reproduced in ,bull4 ,arch4 ,nap4 7q4v474 ,,flasch 7,a474 ,angebliche ,argonautenbilder4 ,munich1 #ahgj4 ---- ,die ,polychromie der griechischen ,vasenbilder4 ,wrzburg1 #ahge4 ,florence4 ,fhrer durch die ,antiken in ,florenz1 by ,w4 ,,amelung4 ,munich1 #ahig4 ,f,,rster 7,p4 ,r474 ,hochzeit des ,zeus und der ,hera1 ,relief der ,schaubert'schen ,sammlung in 4444 ,breslau4 ,breslau1 #ahfg1 #dto4 ---- ,der ,raub und die ,rckkehr der ,persephone4 ,stuttgart1 #ahgc4 ,,froehner 7,w474 ,choix de vases grecs indits de la collection du ,prince ,napolon4 ,paris1 #ahfg1 fol4 ---- ,deux peintures de vases grecs de la ncropole de ,kameiros4 ,paris1 #ahga1 fol4 ---- ,muses de ,france4 ,recueil de monuments antiques4 ,paris1 #ahgc1 fol4 ---- ,collection de ,m4 ,albert ,b7arre74 ,paris1 #ahgh1 #dto4 7,sale catalogue47 ---- ,collection ,eugne ,piot1 ,antiquits4 ,paris1 #ahij4 7,sale catalogue47 ---- ,collection van ,branteghem4 ,brussels1 #ahib1 fol41 with plates4 7,sale catalogue47 ---- ,collection d'antiquits du ,comte ,michael ,tyszkiewicz4 ,paris1 #ahih4 7,sale catalogue47 ,and see ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club1 ,marseilles ,mus4 ,,furtwaengler 7,a474 ,eros in der ,vasenmalerei4 ,munich1 #ahge1 #hvo4 ---- ,collection ,sabouroff4 #b vols4 7the first giving vases74 ,berlin1 #ahhc-hg1 #dto4 7,also a ,german edition2 the vases now in ,berlin47 ---- ,orpheus1 ,attische ,vase aus ,gela 7in #ejtes ,winckelmannsfestprogr41 #ahij74 ---- ,neuere ,flschungen von ,antiken4 ,munich1 #ahii1 #dto4 ---- and ,,loeschcke 7,g474 ,mykenische ,thongefsse4 ,berlin1 #ahgi1 obl4 fol4 ---- ---- ,mykenische ,vasen3 ,vorhellenische ,thongefsse aus dem ,gebiete des ,mittelmeeres4 ,berlin1 #ahhf1 #dto1 with atlas in fol4 ---- and ,,reichhold 7,c474 ,die griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,auswahl hervorragender ,vasenbilder4 ,munich1 #aijj1 etc4 ,text by ,a4 ,f4 and ,c4 ,r42 plates 7separate7 by ,c4 ,r4 ,and see ,berlin1 ,genick4 ,,gardner 7,e4 ,a474 ,see ,cambridge1 ,naukratis4 ,,gardner 7,p474 ,see ,oxford4 ,,gargiulo 7,r474 ,cenni sulla maniera di rinvenire i vasi fittili ,italo-,greci4 ,naples1 #ahca2 #bnd edn41 #ahdc4 ---- ,raccolta de ,monumenti pi interessanti del ,real ,mus4 ,borb4 ,naples1 #ahbe-c-4 #b vols4 of plates4 ,,genick 7,a47 and ,,furtwaengler 7,a474 ,griechische ,keramik4 #dto4 ,tafeln ausgewhlt und aufgenommen von ,a4 ,g41 mit ,einleitung und ,beschreibung von ,a4 ,f4 #bnd edn4 ,berlin1 #ahhc1 #dto4 ,,gerhard 7,e474 ,antike ,bildwerke4 ,munich1 #ahbh-dd4 ,text in #hvo and plates in fol4 ---- ,berlins antike ,bildwerke4 ,berlin1 #ahcf1 #hvo4 ---- ,griechische und etruskische ,trinkschalen des knigl4 ,museums zu ,berlin4 ,berlin1 #ahdj1 fol4 ---- ,auserlesene griechische ,vasenbilder4 #d vols4 ,berlin1 #ahdj-eh4 7,gerhard1 ,a4 ,v47 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 vol4 ii4 7#aijj74 ---- ,etruskische und campanische ,vasenbilder des knigl4 ,museums zu ,berlin4 ,berlin1 #ahdc1 fol4 ---- ,apulische ,vasenbilder des knigl4 ,museums zu ,berlin4 ,berlin1 #ahde1 fol4 ---- ,trinkschalen und ,gefsse des knigl4 ,museums zu ,berlin und anderer ,sammlungen4 ,berlin1 #ahdh-ej1 fol4 ---- ,gesammelte akademische ,abhandlungen und kleine ,schriften4 #b vols4 in #hvo and atlas in #dto4 ,berlin1 #ahff-fh4 7,chiefly papers on mythology1 illustrated by vases47 ,,girard 7,p474 ,la ,peinture antique4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,vases as illustrative of ,greek painting4 ,,gori 7,a4 ,f474 ,museum ,etruscum4 #c vols4 ,florence1 #agcg-dc1 fol4 ,,gsell 7,s474 ,fouilles dans la ncropole de ,vulci1 excutes et publies aux frais de ,prince ,torlonia4 ,paris1 #ahia1 #dto4 ,,hancarville 7,p4 ,f4 ,,hugues1 pseud4 ,d'74 ,antiquits trusques1 grecques1 et romaines1 tires du cabinet de ,m4 ,hamilton4 #d vols4 folio1 #agff-fg4 ,,harrison 7,,jane ,e474 ,myths of the ,odyssey in art and literature4 ,london1 #ahhb1 #hvo4 ---- ,mythology and ,monuments of ,ancient ,athens 7with translation from ,pausanias1 by ,m4 de ,g4 ,verrall74 ,london1 #ahij4 ,introduction important for vases relating to ,attic cults4 ---- ,prolegomena to ,greek ,religion4 ,cambridge1 #aijc4 ,numerous vases interpreted with reference to mythology and religion4 ---- and ,,maccoll 7,d4 ,s474 ,greek ,vase-paintings4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,harrow ,school ,museum4 ,catalogue of the classical antiquities from the collection of the late ,sir ,g4 ,wilkinson1 by ,,cecil ,,torr4 ,harrow1 #ahhg1 #hvo4 ,,hartwig 7,p474 ,die griechischen ,meisterschalen des strengen rothfigurigen ,stils4 ,stuttgart1 #ahic1 #dto1 with atlas in fol4 ,invaluable for a study of cups of ,r4,f4 period4 ,,helbig 7,w474 ,das homerische ,epos1 aus den ,denkmlern erlautert4 #bnd edn4 ,leipzig1 #ahhd1 #hvo4 7,vases used to illustrate civilisation of ,homeric poems47 ---- ,les vases du ,dipylon et les naucraries4 ,paris1 #ahih1 #dto4 ---- ,eine ,heerschau des ,peisistratos oder ,hippias auf einer schwarzfigurigen ,schale4 ,munich1 #ahih1 #hvo4 ---- ,les ,athniens4 ,paris1 #aijb1 #dto4 ,and see ,rome4 ,,hermann 7,p474 ,das ,grberfeld von ,marion auf ,cypern4 ,berlin1 #ahhh1 #dto4 ,an account of the finds by ,o4 ,richter and others at ,poli1 ,cyprus4 7#dhtes ,winckelmannsfestprogr47 ,,heydemann 7,h474 ,iliupersis auf einer ,trinkschale des ,brygos4 ,berlin1 #ahff1 fol4 ---- ,humoristische ,vasenbilder aus ,unteritalien4 ,berlin1 #ahgj4 7#cjtes ,winckelmannsfestprogr47 ---- ,griechische ,vasenbilder4 ,berlin1 #ahgj1 fol4 7,chiefly vases at ,athens47 ---- ,nereiden mit den ,waffen des ,achill4 ,halle1 #ahgi1 fol4 ---- ,satyr und ,bakchennamen4 ,halle1 #ahhj4 7#etes hallische ,festprogr474 ,numerous other monographs1 chiefly ,hallische or ,winckelmannsfestprogramme4 ,and see ,naples4 ,,hirschfeld 7,g474 ,athena und ,marsyas4 ,berlin1 #ahgb4 ,,hoppin 7,j4 ,c474 ,euthymides2 a study in ,attic vase-painting4 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 ,,huddilston 7,j4 ,h474 ,greek ,tragedy in the light of vase-paintings4 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahib4 ---- ,lessons from ,greek ,pottery4 ,london and ,new ,york1 #aijb4 ,with bibliography4 ,,inghirami 7,f474 ,monimenti etruschi o di etrusco nome4 ,ser4 #e4 ,vasi fittili4 ,fiesole1 #ahbd1 #dto4 ---- ,galeria ,omerica4 #c vols4 ,fiesole1 #ahca-cf4 ---- ,etrusco ,museo ,chiusino4 #b vols4 ,fiesole1 #ahcb-cd1 #dto4 ---- ,pitture di vasi fittili4 #d vols4 ,fiesole1 #ahcc-cg4 ---- ,pitture di vase etruschi4 #d vols4 ,florence1 #aheb-ef4 7,a second edition of the preceding work47 ,,jahn 7,o474 ,telephos und ,troilos4 ,kiel1 #ahda1 #hvo4 ---- ,ueber ,darstellungen griechischer ,dichter auf ,vasenbildern4 ,leipzig1 #ahfa4 7,from ,abhandl4 des schs4 ,gesellsch4 viii47 ---- ,archaeologische ,aufstze4 ,greifswald1 #ahde1 #hvo4 ---- ,archaeologische ,beitrge4,berlin1 #ahdg1 #hvo4 ---- ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung ,knigs ,ludwigs in der ,pinakothek zu ,mnchen4 ,munich1 #ahed1 #hvo4 7,vasens4 zu ,mnchen47 ,the ,einleitung 7,introduction7 gives a rsum of the whole subject4 ---- ,ueber bemalte ,vasen mit ,goldschmuck4 ,leipzig1 #ahfe1 #dto4 ---- ,die ,entfhrung der ,europa auf antiken ,kunstwerken4 ,vienna1 #ahgj1 #dto4 ,,jatta 7,g474 ,catalogo del ,museo ,jatta 7at ,ruvo74 ,naples1 #ahfi1 #hvo4 ,karlsruhe4 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung der grossherzoglichen vereinigte ,sammlungen zu ,karlsruhe1 by ,h4 ,,winnefeld4 #ahhg1 #hvo4 ,,karo 7,g474 ,de arte vascularia antiquissima quaestiones4 ,bonn1 #ahif1 #hvo4 ,,kekul 7,r4 ,,von1 now ,,kekule ,,von ,,stradonitz74 ,see ,bonn4 ,,kirchhoff 7,a474 ,studien zur ,geschichte des griechischen ,alphabets4 #dth edn4 ,gtersloh1 #ahhg4 ,,klein 7,w474 ,euphronios2 eine ,studie zur ,geschichte der griechischen ,malerei4 #bnd edn4 ,vienna1 #ahhf1 #hvo4 ---- ,die griechischen ,vasen mit ,meistersignaturen4 #bnd edn4 ,vienna1 #ahhg1 #hvo4 ---- ,die griechischen ,vasen mit ,lieblingsinschriften4 #bnd edn4 ,vienna1 #ahih4 ,,knapp 7,p474 ,nike in der ,vasenmalerei4 ,tbingen1 #ahgf1 #hvo4 ,kopenhagen4 ,de malede ,vaser i ,antikkabinettet i ,kjbenhavn4 ,kopenhagen1 #ahfb4 ,catalogue of the vases1 by ,s4 ,birket ,smith4 7,referred to as ,kopenhagen1 with number of vase47 ,,kramer 7,g474 ,ueber den ,styl und die ,herkunft der bemalten griechischen ,thongefsse4 ,berlin1 #ahcg4 ,,krause 7,j4 ,h474 ,angeiologie4 ,halle1 #ahed1 #hvo4 7,study of vase-shapes and their names47 ,,kretschmer 7,p474 ,die griechischen ,vaseninschriften ihrer ,sprache nach untersucht4 ,gtersloh1 #ahid4 ,,la ,,borde 7,a4 ,,de74 ,collection des vases grecs de ,m4 le ,comte de ,lambert4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahac-bh1 fol4 ,the vases are now at ,vienna4 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in ,rpertoire1 vol4 ii4 7#aijj74 ,,la ,,chausse 7,m4 ,a4 de ,caussius74 ,romanum ,museum4 ,rome1 #afij2 #crd edn41 #agdf4 ,,lanzi 7,l474 ,dei vasi antichi dipinti volgarmente chiamati ,etruschi4 ,florence1 #ahjf4 ,,lau 7,,th471 ,,brunn 7,h471 and ,,krell 7,p474 ,die griechischen ,vasen1 ihre ,formen und ,decorationssystem4 ,plates and text4 ,from originals at ,munich4 ,leipzig1 #ahgg4 7,brunn-,lau1 ,gr4 ,vasen47 ,,lenormant 7,c47 and ,,de ,,witte 7,j474 lite des monuments cramographiques4 #d vols4 ,paris1 #ahcg-fa1 #dto4 7l4 ,cr47 ,,letronne 7,j4 ,a474 ,observations sur les noms de vases grecs4 ,paris1 #ahcc4 ,london4 ,see ,british ,museum4 ,,longp,,rier 7,h4 ,a4 ,,pr,,vost ,,de74 ,muse ,napolon ,,iii4 ,choix de monuments antiques 444 ,texte explicatif par ,a4 de ,l4 ,paris1 unfinished1 #ahfh-gd1 #dto4 ,louvre4 ,see ,paris4 ,l,,tzow 7,c4 ,,von74 ,zur ,geschichte des ,ornaments an den bemalten griechischen ,thongefssen4 ,munich1 #aheh4 ,,luynes 7,h4 ,d',a4 ,,de74 ,description de quelques vases peints1 trusques1 italiotes1 siciliens et grecs4 ,paris1 #ahdj1 fol4 ,the vases are now in the ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 ii1 7#aijj74 ,,maccoll 7,d4 ,s474 ,see ,harrison4 ,,macpherson 7,d474 ,antiquities of ,kertch1 and researches in the ,cimmerian ,bosphorus1 etc4 ,london1 #aheg1 #dto4 7,discoveries in the ,crimea47 ,madrid 7,museo arquelogico nacional74 ,catalogo del ,museo1 by ,a4 ,g4 ,gutierrez and ,j4 de ,d4 de la ,rada y ,delgado4 ,part i4 ,madrid1 #ahhc1 #hvo4 ,marseilles4 ,catalogue des antiquits grecques et romaines du ,muse1 by ,w4 ,,froehner4 #ahig4 ,,martha 7,j474 ,l',art trusque4 ,paris1 #ahhi1 #dto4 ,,masner 7,k474 ,see ,vienna4 ,,mayer 7,m474 ,die ,giganten und ,titanen in der antiken ,sage und ,kunst4 ,berlin1 #ahhf4 ,mlanges ,perrot4 ,paris1 #aijb1 #dto4 7,collected papers in honour of ,perrot47 7,recueil de mmoires concernant l'archologie classique1 la littrature1 et l'histoire anciennes1 dedi ,georges ,perrot47 ,,micali 7,g474 ,storia degli antichi popoli ,italiani4 #c tom4 ,firenze1 #ahcb1 #hvo4 ,with atlas entitled ,monumenti per servire alla storia1 etc4 ,fol4 ------ ,monumenti inediti a illustrazione della storia degli antichi popoli italiani4 ,florence1 #ahdd1 #hvo1 plates in fol4 ,vases found in ,etruria4 7,micali1 ,mon4 ,ined47 ,,milchhoefer 7,a474 ,die ,anfnge der ,kunst in ,griechenland4 ,leipzig1 #ahhc1 #hvo4 ,,milliet 7,p474 tudes sur les premires priodes de la cramique grecque4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,,millin 7,a4 ,l474 ,peintures des vases antiques4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahjh-aj1 fol4 ,the ,introduction of ,dubois-,maisonneuve 7q4v47 was published uniform with this4 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in #dto1 ,paris1 #ahia4 7,millin-,reinach47 ,,millingen 7,f474 ,ancient ,unedited ,monuments of ,grecian ,art4 #b vols4 in one4 ,london1 #ahbb-bf4 7,millingen1 ,anc4 ,uned4 ,monum47 ------ ,peintures antiques de vases grecs1 tires de diverses collections4 ,rome1 #ahac1 fol4 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in #dto1 ,paris1 #ahia4 7,millingen-,reinach47 ------ ,peintures antiques de vases grecs de la collection de ,sir ,j4 ,coghill4 ,rome1 #ahag1 fol4 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach in ,rpertoire1 ii4 7#aijj74 ,,morgenthau 7,j4 ,c474 ,ueber den ,zusammenhang der ,bilder auf griechischen ,vasen4 ,i4 ,die schwarzfigurigen ,vasen4 ,leipzig1 #ahhf4 #hvo4 ,,moses 7,h474 ,a collection of antique vases1 etc41 from various museums and collections4 ,london1 #ahad4 ------ ,vases from the collection of ,sir ,henry ,englefield4 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,,mueller 7,e474 ,drei griechische ,vasenbilder4 ,zurich1 #ahhg4 #dto4 ,m,,ller 7,k4 ,o474 ,denkmler der ,alten ,kunst4 #ahcb-fi1 obl4 fol4 #b vols4 7#bnd re-edited by ,f4 ,wiestler74 ---- ---- ,theil ii4 #crd edn41 #ahgg4 ,text #dto2 plates1 #ahha1 obl4 fol4 ,munich4 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung ,knig ,ludwigs in der ,pinakothek1 by ,o4 ,,jahn4 ,munich1 #ahee4 ,with admirable introduction4 ,see also the guide 7,fhrer7 published in #ahie4 ,a new catalogue by ,furtwaengler said to be in progress4 ,,murray 7,a4 ,s474 ,handbook of ,greek ,archaeology4 ,london1 #ahib4 7,chaps4 i4 and ii4 deal with vases47 ,and see ,british ,museum4 ,museo ,borbonico4 ,naples1 #ahbd-eg4 #af vols41 #dto4 ,illustrations of the collections in the ,naples ,museum 7,real ,museo ,borbonico74 ,see also ,gargiulo4 ,museo ,gregoriano4 ,museo ,etrusci 444 in ,aedibus ,vaticanis 444 ,monumenta4 #b vols4 7vases in #bnd74 ,rome1 #ahdb1 fol4 7,mus4 ,greg47 ,,myres1 ,j4 ,l4 ,see ,nicosia4 ,naples4 ,die ,vasensammlungen des ,museo ,nazionale zu ,neapel1 by ,h4 ,,heydemann4 ,berlin1 #ahgb4 ,see also ,gargiulo1 ,museo ,borbonico4 ,naukratis1 ,i4 and ,,ii4 ,third and ,sixth ,memoirs of the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund1 by ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner1 etc4 ,london1 #ahhf-hh4 ,plates of pottery found at ,naukratis1 discussed in text by ,c4 ,smith and ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner4 ,nicosia 7,cyprus ,museum74 ,a ,catalogue of the ,cyprus ,museum1 by ,j4 ,l4 ,,myres and ,m4 ,,ohnefalsch-,,richter4 ,oxford1 #ahii4 ,,ohnefalsch-,,richter 7,m474 ,kypros1 the ,bible1 and ,homer4 #b vols41 text and plates4 ,berlin1 #ahic4 ,also a ,german edition4 ,useful for collected examples of ,cypriote pottery and terracottas4 ,see also ,nicosia4 ,,overbeck 7,j474 ,die ,bildwerke zum thebischen und troischen ,heldenkreis4 #b vols41 text and atlas4 ,brunswick and ,stuttgart1 #ahec-eg4 ,lists of vases illustrating ,theban and ,trojan legends4 7,overbeck1 ,her4 ,bildw47 ---- ,griechische ,kunstmythologie4 ,vols4 ii4-iv4 only published 7,zeus1 ,hera1 ,poseidon1 ,demeter1 ,apollo1 and myths connected with them74 ,leipzig1 #ahga-hi4 ,with atlas in fol4 7,overbeck1 ,kunstmythol47 ,oxford 7,ashmolean ,museum74 ,catalogue of the ,greek ,vases in the ,ashmolean ,museum1 by ,p4 ,gardner4 ,oxford1 #ahic4 ,with coloured plates4 ,,panofka 7,t474 ,vasi di premio illustrati4 ,florence1 #ahbf4 ---- ,muse ,blacas4 ,paris1 #ahbi1 fol4 ,vases mostly in ,b4,m4 ---- ,recherches sur les vritables noms des vases grecs4 ,paris1 #ahbi4 ---- ,antiques du cabinet du comte ,pourtals-,gorgier4 ,paris1 #ahcd1 #dto4 7,panofka1 ,cab4 ,pourtals47 ---- ,bilder antiken ,lebens4 ,berlin1 #ahdc1 #dto4 ---- ,griechinnen und ,griechen nach ,antiken skizzirt4 ,berlin1 #ahdd1 #dto4 ---- ,der ,vasenbilder ,panphaios4 ,berlin1 #ahdh4 ---- ,von den ,namen der ,vasenbildner in ,beziehung zu ihren bildlichen ,darstellungen4 ,berlin1 #ahdi1 #dto4 ---- ,die griechischen ,eigennamen mit in ,zusammenhang mit dem ,bilderschmuck auf bemalten ,gefssen4 ,berlin1 #ahej4 7,and many other pamphlets with publication of vases1 chiefly from the mythological point of view1 but now out of date47 ,paris 7,louvre74 ,catalogue des vases antiques de terre cuite1 by ,e4 ,,pottier4 ,paris1 #ahif1 etc4 ,in progress 7two volumes issued1 dealing with earlier fabrics74 ,with accompanying atlas of photographic plates 7#b vols41 down to ,euphronios74 ,paris 7,bibliothque ,nationale74 ,catalogue des vases dans le ,cabinet des ,mdailles1 by ,a4 ,,de ,,ridder4 ,paris1 #aija-jb4 #b vols4 ,with plates4 ,,passeri 7,j4 ,b474 ,picturae ,etruscorum in ,vasculis4 #c vols4 ,rome1 #agfg-ge1 fol4 ,,patroni 7,g474 ,ceramica antica nell' ,italia meridionale4 ,naples1 #ahig4 ,a useful study of ,greek and local fabrics of ,southern ,italy4 ,,pellegrini 7,g474 ,see ,bologna4 ,,perrot 7,g47 and ,,chipiez 7,c474 ,histoire de l'art dans l'antiquit4 7,text by ,perrot1 plates by ,chipiez47 ,in progress3 #h vols1 published in #ahhb-aijd4 ,vol4 iii41 ,cypriote pottery2 vol4 vi41 ,mycenaean2 vol4 vii41 ,dipylon4 7,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art47 ,petersburg4 ,vasensammlung der kaiserlichen ,ermitage1 by ,l4 ,,stephani4 ,petersburg1 #ahfi4 #b vols4 ,,pollak 7,l474 ,zwei ,vasen aus der ,werkstatt ,hierons4 ,leipzig1 #aijj4 ,,pottier 7,e474 tude sur les lcythes blancs attiques reprsentations funraires4 ,paris1 #ahhc1 #hvo4 7,bibliothque des coles franaises1 ,no4 #cj47 ---- ,la peinture industrielle chez les ,grecs4 ,paris1 #ahih1 #hvo4 ---- and ,,reinach 7,s474 ,la ,ncropole de ,myrina4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,see also ,daremberg1 ,dumont1 ,paris4 ,,raoul-,,rochette4 ,monumens indits d'antiquit figure4 ,paris1 #ahcc1 fol4 ---- ,peintures antiques indites4 ,paris1 #ahcf1 #dto4 ,,ravestein 7,e4 ,,de ,m4 ,,de74 ,muse de ,ravestein2 ,catalogue descriptif4 #b vols4 ,lige1 #ahga-gb1 #hvo4 ,,rayet 7,o47 and ,,collignon 7,m474 ,histoire de la cramique grecque4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 7,more or less popular1 and becoming out of date2 well illustrated47 7,rayet and ,collignon47 ,,reinach 7,s474 ,chroniques d',orient4 ,paris1 #ahia-if4 #b vols4 ,reprinted from the ,revue ,archol4 7#ahhc-ie74 ,notes of discoveries1 etc4 ---- ,rpertoire des ,vases ,peints4 ,paris1 #ahii-aijj4 #b vols4 ,an invaluable re-editing1 with outline reductions of the plates1 of many publications of vases1 with bibliographical notes and explanations appended4 ,see ,laborde1 de ,luynes1 ,tischbein1 etc41 and list of periodicals4 7,referred to as ,reinach1 with number of volume and page4 ,in ,chapters ,,xii4-,,xv4 the references are all to this publication in preference to the original works47 ,see also ,millin1 ,millingen1 ,ant4 du ,bosph4 ,cimm41 and ,pottier4 ,,reisch 7,e474 ,see ,rome4 ,,ridder 7,a4 ,,de74 ,see ,paris4 ,,riegl 7,a474 ,stilfragen4 ,grundlegungen zu einer ,geschichte der ,ornamentik4 ,berlin1 #ahic1 #hvo4 ,a valuable study of early vegetable ornament on vases4 ,,robert 7,c474 ,thanatos4 ,berlin1 #ahgi1 #dto4 7#cites ,winckelmannsfestprogr47 ---- ,bild und ,lied4 ,berlin1 #ahha1 #hvo4 ,on the relation of vase-paintings to the ,homeric poems4 ---- ,archaeologische ,mrchen aus alter und neuer ,zeit4 ,berlin1 #ahhf1 #hvo4 ,papers on various subjects1 more or less controversial4 ---- ,homerische ,becher4 7#ejtes ,winckelmannsfestprogr47 ,berlin1 #ahij4 ,,robert 7,c74 ,scenen der ,ilias und ,aithiopis auf einer ,vase der ,sammlung des ,grafen ,m4 ,tyszkiewicz4 ,halle1 #ahia1 fol4 7#aetes ,hall4 ,winckelmannsprogr47 ---- ,die ,nekyiades ,polygnot4 ,halle1 #ahib4 7#aftes ,hallisches ,festprog42 a restoration of the painting on the basis of vases47 ---- ,die ,iliupersis des ,polygnot4 ,halle1 #ahic4 7#agtes ,hallisches ,festprogr42 dealing similarly with that painting47 ---- ,die ,marathonschlacht in der ,poikile und weiteres ber ,polygnot4 7#ahtes ,hallisches ,festprogr47 ,halle1 #ahie4 ,,roberts 7,e4 ,s474 ,an ,introduction to ,greek ,epigraphy4 ,part i4 ,the archaic inscriptions and the ,greek alphabet4 ,cambridge1 #ahhg1 #hvo4 ,,robinson 7,e474 ,see ,boston4 ,,roehl 7,h474 ,inscriptiones ,graecae antiquissimae praeter ,atticas in ,attica repertas4 ,berlin1 #ahhb1 fol4 7,roehl1 ,i4,g4,a47 ,,rohden 7,h4 ,,von74 ,see ,baumeister4 ,rome 7,vatican1 ,museo ,gregoriano74 ,fhrer durch die ffentlichen ,sammlungen in ,rom1 by ,w4 ,,helbig and ,e4 ,,reisch4 #bnd edn41 #ahii4 #b vols4 ,in vol4 ii4 is given a full description of the best vases 7about #bej7 in this collection2 they are quoted as ,helbig #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41 according to the numbers of the book4 ,see also ,museo ,gregoriano4 ,,roscher 7,w4 ,h474 ,ausfhrliches ,lexikon der griechischen und rmischen ,mythologie4 ,leipzig1 #ahhd1 etc4 ,in progress 7down to ,p in #aijd74 ,many vases published in the later parts4 ,,ross 7,l474 ,reisen auf die griechischen ,inseln des gischen ,meeres4 ,halle1 #ahdj-eb1 #d vols41 #hvo4 ---- ,archaeologische ,aufstze4 #b vols4 ,leipzig1 #ahee-fa4 ,with plates in fol4 ,,roulez 7,j474 ,choix de vases peints du ,muse d'antiquits de ,leyde4 ,gand1 #ahed4 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 vol4 ii41 #aijj4 ,ruvo 7,museo ,jatta74 ,see ,jatta4 ,,salzmann 7,a74 ,ncropole de ,camiros4 ,paris1 #ahff-ge1 fol4 ,plates only4 ,,schliemann 7,h474 ,see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bfi4 ,,schneider 7,a474 ,der troische ,sagenkreis in der lteren griechischen ,kunst4 ,leipzig1 #ahhf4 ,,schneider 7,f4 ,j474 ,die zwlf ,kmpfe des ,herakles in der lteren griechischen ,kunst4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,,schneider 7,r474 ,die ,geburt der ,athena4 ,vienna1 #ahhj1 #hvo4 ,,sch,,ne 7,r474 ,le antichit del ,museo ,bocchi di ,adria4 ,rome1 #ahgh1 #dto4 ,,schreiber 7,,th47 and ,,anderson 7,w4 ,c4 ,f474 ,atlas of ,classical ,antiquities4 ,london1 #ahie1 obl4 #hvo4 7,schreiber-,anderson47 ,,schulz 7,h4 ,w474 ,die ,amazonenvase von ,ruvo1 erklrt und in ,kunsthistorischer ,beziehung betrachtet4 ,leipzig1 #ahea1 fol4 ,see ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 vol4 ii4 ,svres ,museum4 ,description mthodique du ,muse ,cramique de ,svres1 by ,a4 ,,brongniart and ,d4 ,,riocreux4 ,paris1 #ahde4 #b vols41 with atlas of plates4 ,,sittl 7,k474 ,die ,phineusschale und hnliche ,vasen mit bemalten ,flachreliefs4 ,wrzburg1 #ahib4 ,,smith 7,a4 ,h474 ,see ,british ,museum4 ,,smith 7,,cecil74 ,catalogue of the ,forman ,collection of ,antiquities 7illustrated74 ,london1 #ahii4 ,and see ,british ,museum4 ,,smith 7,s4 ,b474 ,see ,kopenhagen4 ,,stackelberg 7,o4 ,m4 ,,von74 ,die ,grber der ,hellenen4 ,berlin1 #ahcf1 fol4 ,,stephani 7,l474 ,see ,petersburg and ,compte-,rendu4 ,strena ,helbigiana4 7,collected papers in honour of ,w4 ,helbig47 ,leipzig1 #aijj1 #hvo4 ,,studniczka 7,f474 ,kyrene1 eine altgriechische ,gttin4 ,leipzig1 #ahij4 ,tanis ,,ii4 ,fourth ,memoir of the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund 7,tell-,nebesheh and ,defenneh74 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,f4 ,,petrie and ,f4 ,l4 ,,griffith1 with notes on the ,daphnae pottery by ,a4 ,s4 ,murray4 ,,thiersch 7,f474 ,ueber die hellenischen bemalten ,vasen1 mit besonderer ,rcksicht auf die ,sammlung des ,knigs ,ludwigs von ,bayern4 ,munich1 #ahdi4 ,from ,abhandl4 d4 k4 bayer4 ,akad41 ,philosoph4-philol4 ,classe1 vol iv4 ,,thiersch 7,h474 ,tyrrhenische ,amphoren4 ,eine ,studie zur ,geschichte der altattischen ,vasenmalerei4 ,leipzig1 #ahii4 ,,tischbein 7,w474 ,collection of engravings from ancient vases 7the second ,hamilton ,collection2 see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ag74 #d vols4 ,naples1 #agia-ie1 fol4 ,re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 vol4 ii41 #aijj4 ,about #ajj plates were engraved for a fifth volume1 never published4 ,,treu 7,w474 ,griechische ,thongefsse in ,statuetten- und ,bstenformen4 ,berlin1 #ahge1 #dto4 7#cetes ,winckelmannsfestprogr47 ,,tyszkiewicz 7,,count ,m474 ,see ,froehner4 ,,urlichs 7,c4 ,l4 ,,von74 ,der ,vasenmaler ,brygos und die ruland'sche ,mnzsammlung4 ,wrzburg1 #ahge1 fol4 ---- ,beitrge zur ,kunstgeschichte4 ,leipzig1 #ahhd1 #hvo4 ,see also ,wrzburg4 ,,ussing 7,j474 ,de nominibus vasorum graecorum disputatio4 ,copenhagen1 #ahdd4 ,vienna4 ,die ,sammlung antiker ,vasen und ,terracotten im k4 k4 ,oesterreichischen ,museum fr ,kunst und ,industrie1 by ,k4 ,,masner4 ,vienna1 #ahib4 ,with plates4 ,,vogel 7,k4 ,j474 ,scenen euripideischer ,tragdien in griechischen ,vasengemlden4 ,leipzig1 #ahhf4 ,vorlegebltter fr archologische bungen4 ,vienna1 #ahfi-ia1 fol4 ,plates without text4 ,series i4-viii4 #ahfi-ge1 ed4 ,a4 ,conze 7chiefly ,r4,f4 kylikes1 by ,euphronios1 ,hieron1 ,duris74 ,series ,a-,e1 #ahgi-hf1 ed4 ,o4 ,benndorf 7chiefly ,r4,f4 kylikes74 ,third series1 #ahhh-ia 7#c vols471 ed4 ,benndorf and others 7chiefly signed ,b4,f4 vases74 7,wiener ,vorl47 ,,wallis 7,h474 ,pictures from ,greek ,vases4 ,the ,white ,athenian lekythi4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,,walters 7,h4 ,b474 ,see ,british ,museum4 ,,watzinger 7,c74 ,de vasculis pictis tarentinis capita selecta4 ,darmstadt1 #ahii1 #hvo4 ,,welcker 7,f4 ,g474 ,alte ,denkmler4 #e vols1 and atlas4 ,gttingen1 #ahdi-fd4 ,,wernicke 7,k474 ,die griechischen ,vasen mit ,lieblingsnamen4 ,berlin1 #ahij4 ---- and ,,graef 7,b474 ,denkmler der antiken ,kunst4 ,leipzig1 #ahii1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,a new edition of ,mller and ,wieseler's well-known work4 ,text and atlas4 ,,westropp 7,h4 ,m474 ,epochs of painted vases1 an introduction to their study4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,,wilisch 7,e4 ,g474 ,die altkorinthische ,thonindustrie4 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,,winkler 7,a474 ,de inferorum in vasis ,italiae inferioris repraesentationibus4 ,breslau1 #ahhh1 #hvo4 ,,winnefeld 7,h474 ,see ,karlsruhe4 ,,winter 7,f474 ,die jngeren attischen ,vasen und ihr ,verhaltniss zur grossen ,kunst4 ,berlin1 #ahhe4 ,,witte 7,j4 ,j4 ,a4 ,m4 ,,de1 ,,baron74 ,description des antiquits et objects d'art qui composent le cabinet de feu ,m4 ,e4 ,durand4 ,paris1 #ahcf1 #hvo4 ---- ,description d'une collection de vases peints et bronzes antiques provenant des fouilles de l'trurie4 ,paris1 #ahcg1 #hvo4 ,another edition1 #aheg4 ---- ,noms des fabricants et dessinateurs de vases peints4 ,paris1 #ahdh1 #hvo4 ---- tudes sur les vases peints4 ,paris1 #ahfe1 #hvo4 7,extract from the ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts47 ---- ,description des collections d'antiquits conserves l',htel ,lambert 7the ,czartoryski collection74 ,paris1 #ahhf1 #dto4 7,coll4 l',htel ,lambert47 ,see also ,lenormant4 ,wrzburg4 ,verzeichniss der ,antikensammlung der ,universitt ,wrzburg1 by ,c4 ,l4 ,,von ,,urlichs4 #ahfe-gb1 #hvo4 ,,zannoni 7,a474 ,gli ,scavi della ,certosa di ,bologna4 #b vols41 text and plates4 ,bologna1 #ahgf1 fol4 7,an account of excavations at ,bologna2 many illustrations of tombs and ,greek vases47 ,,part ,,iii ,,terracottas ,athens4 ,see ,martha4 ,berlin ,museum4 ,ausgewhlte griechische ,terrakotten im ,antiquarium des knigliches ,museum zu ,berlin1 herausgegeben von der ,generalverwaltung4 ,berlin1 #aijc4 ,see also ,panofka4 ,,bl,,mner 7,h474 ,technologie und ,terminologie4 ,see above1 p4xxi4 ,vol4 ii4 deals with method of working in clay 7,thonplastik1 p4 #aac ff474 ,,borrmann 7,r474 ,die ,keramik in der ,baukunst4 ,durm's ,handbuch der ,architektur1 part i4 vol4 #d4 ,stuttgart1 #ahig4 ,on the use of terracotta in classical architecture4 ,see also ,drpfeld4 ,british ,museum4 ,terracotta ,sarcophagi1 by ,a4 ,s4 ,murray4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,see above1 p4 xxii4 ---- ,catalogue of the ,terracottas in the ,british ,museum1 by ,h4 ,b4 ,walters4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,see also ,combe4 ,,campana 7,g4 ,p474 ,antiche opere in plastica4 ,rome1 #ahdb-eb1 fol4 ,text incomplete2 plates of architectural terracottas of the ,roman period4 ,,combe 7,,taylor74 ,a description of the collection of ancient ,terracottas in the ,british ,museum4 ,london1 #ahaj4 ,describes the ,towneley figures and mural reliefs4 ,,daremberg 7,c471 ,,saglio 7,e471 and ,,pottier 7,e474 ,dictionnaire des ,antiquits4 ,see above1 p4 xxiii4 ,the article ,figlinum in vol4 ii4 will be found useful4 ,d,,rpfeld 7,w471 ,,graeber 7,f471 ,,borrmann 7,r471 and ,,siebold 7,k474 ber die ,verwendung von ,terrakotten am ,geison und ,dache in griechischen ,bauwerke1 7#dates ,winckelmannsfestprogr47 ,berlin1 #ahha4 7,on terracotta in architecture47 ,,furtwaengler 7,a474 ,collection ,sabouroff4 ,see above1 p4 xxiv4 ,vol4 ii4 contains plates of ,tanagra figures1 with useful text to each4 ,,heuzey 7,l474 ,les ,figurines antiques de terre cuite du ,muse du ,louvre4 ,paris1 #ahhc1 #dto4 ,plates1 with brief text4 ---- ,catalogue des figurines antiques de terre cuite du ,muse du ,louvre4 ,vol4 i4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,deals with archaic terracottas 7,rhodes and ,cyprus74 ,no more published4 ,,huish 7,m4 ,b474 ,greek ,terracotta ,statuettes1 their origin1 evolution1 and uses4 ,london1 #aijj4 7,the plates include some doubtful specimens47 ,,hutton 7,,miss ,c4,a474 ,greek ,terracotta ,statuettes4 7,portfolio monograph1 ,no4 #di47 ,london1 #ahii4 ,an excellent rsum of the subject1 with good illustrations4 ,,kekul 7,r41 now ,,kekule ,,von ,,stradonitz74 ,griechische ,thonfiguren aus ,tanagra4 ,stuttgart1 #ahgh1 fol4 ---- ,die antiken ,terracotten1 im ,auftrag des archologischen ,institutes des deutschen ,reichs1 herausgegeben von ,r4 ,k4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhj1 etc41 fol4 ,in progress4 ,vol4 i4 ,terracotten von ,pompeii1 by ,a4 ,,von ,,rohden4 #ahhj4 ,chiefly architectural4 ,vol4 ii4 ,terracotten von ,sicilien1 by ,r4 ,,kekul4 #ahhd4 ,vol4 iii4 ,typen der griechischen ,terrakotten1 by ,f4 ,,winter4 #aijc4 ,in two parts4 ,a ,corpus of all known types of terracotta statuettes1 with numerous illustrations and other useful information4 ,,martha 7,j474 ,catalogue des ,figurines en terre cuite du ,muse de la ,socit ,archologique d',athnes4 ,paris1 #ahhj1 #hvo4 7,bibliothque des coles franaises1 ,fasc4 #af47 ,,minervini 7,g474 ,terre cotte del ,museo ,campano4 ,vol4 i4 ,naples1 #ahhj4 ,illustrations of architectural terracottas4 ,,panofka 7,t474 ,terracotten des kniglichen ,museums zu ,berlin4 ,berlin1 #ahdb1 #dto4 ,,paris 7,p474 late1 la ville1 le ,temple d',athna ,cranaia4 ,paris1 #ahib4 7,bibliothque des coles franaises1 ,fasc4 #fj47 ,contains some useful information on the subject4 ,,pottier 7,e474 ,les ,statuettes de ,terre ,cuite dans l',antiquit4 ,paris1 #ahij4 7,bibliothque des ,merveilles47 ,,pottier 7,e47 and ,,reinach 7,s474 ,la ,ncropole de ,myrina4 #b vols41 text and plates4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,,rohden 7,h4 ,,von74 ,see ,kekul4 ,,sch,,ne 7,r474 ,griechische ,reliefs aus athenischen ,sammlungen1 herausgegeben von ,r4 ,s4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb1 fol4 ,illustration and discussion of the 8,melian0 reliefs 7see pls4 #cj-cd74 ,,winter 7,f474 ,see ,kekul4 ,,part ,,iv ,,roman ,,pottery ,,artis 7,e4 ,t474 ,the ,durobrivae of ,antoninus identified and illustrated4 ,london1 #ahbh1 fol4 ,plates only2 for accompanying text 7by ,c4 ,roach-,smith7 see ,journ4 of ,brit4 ,arch4 ,assoc4 i4 p4 #a ff4 ,deals with pottery and kilns of ,castor and neighbourhood4 ,,blanchet 7,a474 ,mlanges d',archologie gallo-romaine1 ii4 ,paris1 #aijb1 #hvo4 7,lists of potteries in ,gaul on p4 #ij ff47 ,,bl,,mner 7,h474 ,technologie und ,terminologie1 etc4 ,see above1 p4 xxi4 ,,brongniart 7,a474 ,trait de la ,cramique4 ,see above1 p4 xxii4 ,,buckman 7,j47 and ,,newmarch 7,c4 ,h474 ,illustrations of the remains of ,roman ,art in ,cirencester1 the ancient ,corinium4 ,london and ,cirencester1 #ahej1 #dto4 7,now somewhat out of date47 ,,caumont 7,a4 ,,de74 ,cours d'antiquits monumentales2 histoire de l'art dans l',ouest de la ,france4 #f vols4 ,paris and ,caen1 #ahcj-da1 #hvo1 with atlas in oblong #dto4 ,,choisy 7,a474 ,l',art de ,btir chez les ,romains4 ,paris1 #ahgc1 #dto4 7,for the use of bricks and tiles47 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum4 ,berlin1 #ahfc1 etc41 fol4 ,in progress4 ,the portions of the published volumes giving the inscriptions on vases1 tiles1 and lamps1 under the heading ,instrumentum ,domesticum1 are invaluable1 especially vol4 xv4 7by ,h4 ,dressel7 relating to ,rome4 7,c4,i4,l47 ,d,,chelette 7,j474 ,les ,vases cramiques orns de la ,gaule romaine 7,narbonnaise1 ,aquitaine1 et ,lyonnaise74 #b vols4 ,paris1 #aijd1 #dto4 ,an invaluable survey of the pottery of ,central and ,southern ,gaul1 with much new material4 7,dchelette47 ,,fabroni 7,a474 ,storia degli antichi vasi fittili aretini4 ,arezzo1 #ahda1 #hvo4 7,on the ,arretine wares47 ,guildhall ,museum4 ,see ,london4 ,h,,lder 7,o474 ,formen der rmische ,thongefsse1 diesseits und jenseits der ,alpen4 ,stuttgart1 #ahig1 #hvo4 ,,koenen 7,k474 ,gefsskunde der vorrmischen1 rmischen1 und frankischen ,zeit in den ,rheinlanden4 ,bonn1 #ahie1 #hvo4 ,london 7,guildhall ,museum74 ,catalogue of the ,collection of ,london ,antiquities in the ,guildhall ,museum4 ,london1 #aijc1 #hvo4 ---- 7,museum of ,practical ,geology74 ,handbook to the collection of ,british ,pottery and ,porcelain in the ,museum4 ,london1 #ahic1 #hvo4 ,,marini 7,g474 ,iscrizioni antiche doliari1 edited by ,g4 ,b4 de ,rossi and ,h4 ,dressel4 ,rome1 #ahhd1 #dto4 ,,marquardt 7,j474 ,handbuch der rmischen ,alterthmer 7with ,t4 ,,mommsen74 ,bd4 vii41 ,privatalterthmer4 ,leipzig1 #ahgi-hb1 #hvo4 ,see p4 #faf ff4 for ,roman pottery4 ,,mazard 7,h4 ,a474 ,de la connaissance par les anciens des glaures plombifres4 ,paris1 #ahgi1 #hvo4 7,on the enamelled ,roman wares described in ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #abi47 ,,middleton 7,j4 ,h474 ,the ,remains of ,ancient ,rome4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahib1 #hvo4 7,on the use of bricks and tiles at ,rome47 ,,plicque 7,a4 ,e474 tude de ,cramique arverno-romaine4 ,caen1 #ahhg1 #hvo4 7,on the potteries of ,lezoux47 ,,roach-,,smith 7,c74 ,collectanea ,antiqua2 etchings and notices of ancient remains1 etc4 #g vols4 ,london1 #ahdh-hj1 #hvo4 ,useful for records of discoveries of ,roman remains in ,gaul and ,britain4 ---- ,illustrations of ,roman ,london4 ,london1 #ahei1 #dto4 ,,steiner 7,j4 ,w4 ,c74 ,codex ,inscriptionum ,romanarum ,danubii et ,rheni4 #d vols4 ,darmstadt1 etc41 #ahea-fa1 #hvo4 ,contains many inscriptions on pottery and tiles not as yet published in the ,c4,i4,l4 ,victoria ,county ,history of ,england1 ed4 by ,w4 ,,page1 etc4 ,in progress4 ,london1 #aijj1 etc4 ,articles in the first volume of each separate county history1 by ,f4 ,,haverfield1 dealing with all known ,roman remains4 ,those of ,northants and ,hampshire are especially useful and complete4 ,,wright 7,t474 ,the ,celt1 the ,roman1 and the ,saxon4 ,fourth edn41 #ahhe4 ,still useful as a summary of ,roman ,britain1 though out of date and inaccurate in many particulars4 ---------- ,reference should also be made to the ,bonner ,jahrbcher 7see above1 p4 xix71 especially to the treatise by ,dragendorff in vol4 xcvi41 and for ,german pottery to ,von ,hefner's article in ,oberbayrische ,archiv fr vaterlandische ,geschichte1 xxii4 7#ahfc71 p4 #a ff4 ,for ,bibliography of ,roman ,lamps1 see heading to ,chapter ,,xx4 ---------- ,,note ,,on ,,abbreviations ,,used ,,in ,,this ,,work ,b4,f4 ,black-figured vases4 ,r4,f4 ,red-figured vases4 ,b4,m4 ,british ,museum4 ,reinach ,reinach's ,rpertoire des ,vases 7see ,bibliography74 ,in the cases where particular vases are cited1 as in ,chapters ,,xii4-,,xv41 the name of the museum is given with the catalogue number attached1 as ,b4,m4 ,b #a2 ,louvre ,g #b2 ,berlin #bjjj1 etc4 ,the vases in the ,vatican ,museum at ,rome are quoted as ,helbig1 #a1 #b1 #c1 etc4 7see ,bibliography1 under ,rome74 ,all other abbreviations will be found in the ,bibliography4 ,,part ,i ,,greek ,,pottery ,,in ,,general ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,importance of study of ancient monuments--,value of pottery as evidence of early civilisation--,invention of the art--,use of brick in ,babylonia--,the potter's wheel--,enamel and glazes--,earliest ,greek pottery--,use of study of vases--,ethnological1 historical1 mythological1 and artistic aspects--,earliest writings on the subject--,the 8,etruscan0 theory--,history of the study of ,greek vases--,artistic1 epexegetic1 and historical methods--,the vase-collections of ,europe and their history--,list of existing collections4 ,the present age is above all an age of ,discovery4 ,the thirst for knowledge manifests itself in all directions--theological1 scientific1 geographical1 historical1 and antiquarian4 ,the handiwork of ,nature and of ,man alike are called upon to yield up their secrets to satisfy the universal demand which has arisen from the spread of education and the ever-increasing desire for culture which is one of the characteristics of the present day4 ,and though1 perhaps1 the science of ,archaeology does not command as many adherents as other branches of learning1 there is still a very general desire to enquire into the records of the past1 to learn what we can of the methods of our forefathers1 and to trace the influence of their writings or other evidences of their existence on succeeding ages4 ,to many of us what is known as a classical education seems perhaps in these utilitarian times somewhat antiquated and unnecessary1 but at the same time 8the glory that was ,greece and the grandeur that was ,rome0 have not lost their interest for us1 and can awaken responsive chords in most of our hearts4 ,nor can we ever be quite forgetful of the debt that we owe to those nations in almost every branch of human learning and industry4 ,to take the most patent instance of all1 that of our language1 it is not too much to say that nearly every word is either directly derived from a classical source or can be shown to have etymological affinities with either of the two ancient tongues4 ,nor is it necessary to pursue illustrations further4 ,we need only point to the evidences of classical influence on modern literature1 modern philosophy1 and modern political and social institutions1 to indicate how our civilisation is permeated and saturated with the results of ancient ideas and thoughts4 ,the man of science has recourse to ,greek or ,latin for his nomenclature2 the scholar employs ,latin as the most appropriate vehicle for criticism2 and modern architecture was for a long time only a revival 7whether successful or not7 of the principles and achievements of the classical genius4 ,now1 those who would pursue the study of a nation's history cannot be content with the mere perusal of such literary records as it may have left behind4 ,it needs brief consideration to realise that this leaves us equipped with very little real knowledge of an ancient race1 inasmuch as the range of literature is necessarily limited1 and deals with only a few sides of the national character3 its military history1 its political constitution1 or its intellectual and philosophical bent--in short1 its external and public life alone4 ,he who would thoroughly investigate the history of a nation instinctively desires something more2 he will seek to gain a comprehensive acquaintance with its social life1 its religious beliefs1 its artistic and intellectual attainments1 and generally to estimate the extent of its culture and civilisation4 ,but to do this it is necessary not only to be thoroughly conversant with its literary and historical records1 but to turn attention also to its monuments4 ,it need hardly be said that the word 8monument0 is here used in the quasi-technical sense current among archaeologists 7witness the ,german use of the word ,denkmler71 and that it must bear here a much wider signification than is generally accorded to it nowadays4 ,it may1 in fact1 be applied to any object which has come down to us as a memorial and evidence of a nation's productive capacity or as an illustration of its social or political life4 ,the student of antiquity can adopt no better motto than the familiar line of ,terence3 ,homo sum2 humani nihil a me alienum puto4 ,for the very humblest product of the human brain or hand1 a potsherd or a few letters scratched on a stone1 may throw the most instructive light on the history of a race4 ,in no instance is this better seen than in the case of ,assyria1 where almost all that we know of that great and wonderful people is derived from the cuneiform inscriptions scratched on tablets of baked clay4 ,or1 again1 we may cite the stone and bronze implements of the primitive peoples of ,europe as another instance where 8the weak and base things of the world and the things that are despised0 have thrown floods of light on the condition of things in a period about which we should have been completely in the dark so long as we looked only to literary records for our information4 ,nothing is so common that it may be overlooked1 and we may learn more from a humble implement in daily use than from the finest product of a poetic or artistic intellect1 if we are really desirous of obtaining an intimate acquaintance with the domestic life of a people4 ,among the simplest yet most necessary adjuncts of a developing civilisation ,pottery may be recognised as one of the most universal4 ,the very earliest and rudest remains of any people generally take the form of coarse and common pots1 in which they cooked their food or consumed their beverages4 ,and the fact that such vast quantities of pottery from all ancient civilisations have been preserved to us is due partly to its comparatively imperishable nature1 partly to the absence of any intrinsic value which saved it from falling a prey to the ravages of fire1 human greed1 or other causes which have destroyed more precious monuments1 such as gold ornaments1 paintings1 and statues of marble or bronze4 ,moreover1 it is always in the pottery that we perceive the first indications of whatever artistic instinct a race possesses1 clay being a material so easy to decorate and so readily lending itself to plastic treatment for the creation of new forms or development from simple to elaborate shapes4 ,to trace the history of the art of working in clay1 from its rise amongst the oldest nations of antiquity to the period of the decline of the ,roman ,empire1 is the object of the present work4 ,the subject resolves itself into two great divisions1 which have engaged the attention of two distinct classes of enquirers3 namely1 the technical or practical part1 comprising all the details of material1 manipulation1 and processes2 and1 secondly1 the historical portion1 which embraces not only the history of the art itself1 and the application of ancient literature to its elucidation1 but also an account of the light thrown by monuments in clay on the history of mankind4 ,such an investigation is therefore neither trifling in character nor deficient in valuable results4 ,it is impossible to determine when the manufacture of pottery was invented4 ,clay is a material so generally diffused1 and its plastic nature is so easily discovered1 that the art of working it does not exceed the intelligence of the rudest savage4 ,even the most primitive graves of ,europe and ,western ,asia contain specimens of pottery1 rude and elementary indeed1 but in sufficient quantities to show that it was at all times reckoned among the indispensable adjuncts of daily life4 ,it is said that the very earliest specimens of pottery1 hand-made and almost shapeless1 have been discovered in the cave-dwellings of ,palaeolithic ,man1 such as the ,hhlefels cave near ,ulm1 and that of ,nabrigas1 near ,toulouse2 and pottery has also been found in the 8kitchen-middens0 of ,denmark1 which belong to this period4 ,such relics are1 however1 so rude and fragmentary1 and so much doubt has been cast on the circumstances of their discovery1 that it is better to be content with the evidence afforded by the ,neolithic ,age1 of which perhaps the best authenticated is the predynastic pottery of ,egypt4#a ,abundant specimens of pottery have been found in long barrows in all parts of ,western ,europe2 these are supposed to be the burial-places of the early dolichocephalic races1 now represented by the ,finns and ,lapps1 which preceded the ,aryan immigration4 ,the chief characteristic of this pottery is the almost entire absence of ornamentation4 ,neolithic man appears to have been far less endowed with the artistic instinct than his palaeolithic predecessor4 ,where ornament does occur1 it appears to have a quite fortuitous origin3 for instance1 a kind of rope-pattern that appears on the earliest pottery of ,britain and ,germany1 and also in ,america1 owes its origin to the practice of moulding the clay in a kind of basket of bark or thread4 ,it is also possible that cords of some kind were used for carrying the pots2 and this reminds us of another characteristic of the earliest pottery1 which1 indeed1 lasts down to the ,bronze ,age--namely1 the absence of handles4 ,the baking of clay1 so as to produce an indestructible and tenacious substance1 was probably also the result of accident rather than design4 ,this was pointed out as long ago as the middle of the eighteenth century by ,m4 ,goguet4 ,in most countries the condition of the atmosphere precludes the survival of sun-dried clay for any length of time2 moreover1 such a material was more suitable for architecture 7as we shall see later7 than for vessels destined to hold liquids4 ,thus it is that ,egypt1 ,assyria1 and ,babylonia alone have transmitted to posterity the early efforts of workers in sun-dried clay4 ,to return to the new invention4 ,the savage conceivably found that the calabash or gourd in which he boiled the water for his simple culinary needs was liable to be damaged by the action of fire2 and it required no very advanced mental process to smear the exterior of the vessel with some such substance as clay in order to protect it4 ,as he found that the surface of the clay was thereby rendered hard and impervious1 his next step would naturally be to dispense with the calabash and mould the clay into a similar form4 ,these two simple qualities of clay1 its plastic nature and its susceptibility to the action of fire1 are the two elements which form the basis of the whole development of the potter's art4 ,from the necessity for symmetrical buildings arose the invention of the brick1 which must have superseded the rude plastering of the hut with clay1 to protect it against the sun or storm4 ,in the history of the ,semitic nations the brick appears among the earliest inventions1 and its use can be traced with various modifications1 from the building of the ,tower of ,babel to the present day4 ,it is essential that bricks should be symmetrical1 and their form is generally rectangular4 ,their geometrical shape affords us a clue to ancient units of measurement1 and the various inscriptions with which they have been stamped have elevated them to the dignity of historical monuments4 ,thus the bricks of ,egypt not only afford testimony1 by their composition of straw and clay1 that the writer of ,exodus was acquainted with that country1 but also1 by the hieroglyphs impressed upon them1 transmit the names of a series of kings1 and testify to the existence of edifices1 all knowledge of which1 except for these relics1 would have utterly perished4 ,those of ,assyria and ,babylon1 in addition to the same information1 have1 by their cuneiform inscriptions1 which mention the locality of the edifices for which they were made1 afforded the means of tracing the sites of ancient ,mesopotamia and ,assyria with an accuracy unattainable by any other means4 ,the ,roman bricks have also borne their testimony to history4 ,a large number of them present a series of the names of consuls of imperial ,rome2 while others show that the proud nobility of the eternal city partly derived their revenues from the kilns of their ,campanian and ,sabine estates4 ,from the next step in the progress of the manufacture--namely1 that of modelling in clay the forms of the physical world--arose the plastic art4 ,delicate as is the touch of the finger1 which the clay seems to obey1 almost as if comprehending the intention of the potter's mind1 yet certain forms and ornaments which require a finer point than the nail gave rise to the use of pieces of horn1 wood1 and metal1 and thus contributed to the invention of tools4 ,but modelling in clay was soon superseded by sculpture in stone and metal1 and at length only answered two subordinate ends3 that of enabling the sculptor to elaborate his first conceptions in a material which could be modified at will2 and that of readily producing works of a small and inexpensive form1 for some transitory purpose4 ,the invention of the mould carried this last application to perfection1 and the terracottas of antiquity were as numerous and as cheap as the plaster casts now sold by itinerants4 ,the materials used for writing have varied in different ages and nations4 ,stone and bronze1 linen and papyrus1 wax and parchment1 have all been used4 ,but the ,assyrians and ,babylonians employed for their public archives1 their astronomical computations1 their religious dedications1 their historical annals1 and even for title-deeds and bills of exchange1 tablets1 cylinders1 and hexagonal prisms of terracotta4 ,some of these cylinders1 still extant1 contain the history of the ,assyrian monarchs ,tiglath-pileser and ,assurbanipal1 and the campaign of ,sennacherib against the kingdom of ,judah2 and others1 excavated from the ,birs ,nimrud1 give a detailed account of the dedication of the great temple by ,nebuchadnezzar to the seven planets4 ,to this indestructible material1 and to the happy idea of employing it in this manner1 the present age is indebted for a detailed history of the ,assyrian monarchy2 whilst the decades of ,livy1 the plays of ,menander1 and the lays of ,anakreon1 confided to a more perishable material1 have either wholly or partly disappeared4 ,the application of clay to the making of vases was made effective by the invention of the potter's wheel4 ,before the introduction of the wheel only vessels fashioned by the hand1 and of rude unsymmetrical shape1 could have been made4 ,but the application of a circular table or lathe1 laid horizontally and revolving on a central pivot1 on which the clay was placed1 and to which it adhered1 was in its day a truly wonderful advance4 ,as the wheel spun round1 all combinations of oval1 spherical1 and cylindrical forms could be produced1 and the vases not only became symmetrical in their proportions1 but truthfully reproduced the potter's conception4 ,the invention of the wheel has been ascribed to all the great nations of antiquity4 ,it is represented in full activity in the ,egyptian sculptures2 it is mentioned in the ,scriptures1 and was certainly in use at an early period in ,assyria4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans attributed it to a ,scythian philosopher1 and to the states of ,athens1 ,corinth1 and ,sikyon1 the first two of which were great rivals in the ceramic art4 ,but1 as will be explained hereafter1 it was introduced at a very early stage in the history of civilisation upon ,greek soil 7see p4 #bjf74 ,although none of the very ancient kilns have survived the destructive influence of time1 yet among all the great nations baked earthenware is of the highest antiquity4 ,in ,egypt1 in the tombs of the first dynasties1 vases and other remains of baked earthenware are abundantly found2 and in ,assyria and ,babylon even the oldest bricks and tablets have passed through the furnace4 ,the oldest remains of ,hellenic pottery in all cases owe their preservation to their having been subjected to the action of fire4 ,to this process1 as to the consummation of the art1 the other processes of preparing1 levigating1 kneading1 drying1 and moulding the clay were necessarily ancillary4 ,the desire of rendering terracotta less porous1 and of producing vases capable of retaining liquids1 gave rise to the covering of it with a vitreous enamel or glaze4 ,the invention of glass was attributed by the ancients to the ,phoenicians2 but opaque glass or enamels1 as old as the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 and enamelled objects as early as the ,fourth1 have been found in ,egypt4 ,the employment of copper to produce a brilliant blue-coloured enamel was very early both in ,babylonia and ,assyria2 but the use of tin for a white enamel1 as discovered in the enamelled bricks and vases of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 anticipated by many centuries the rediscovery of that process in ,europe in the fifteenth century1 and shows the early application of metallic oxides4 ,this invention apparently remained for many centuries a secret among the ,eastern nations only1 enamelled terracotta and glass forming articles of commercial export from ,egypt and ,phoenicia to every part of the ,mediterranean4 ,among the ,egyptians and ,assyrians enamelling was used more frequently than glazing2 hence they used a kind of faience consisting of a loose frit or body1 to which an enamel adheres after only a slight fusion4 ,after the fall of the ,roman ,empire1 the art of enamelling terracotta disappeared except amongst the ,arab and ,moorish races1 who had retained a traditionary knowledge of the process4 ,the application of a transparent vitreous coating1 or glaze1 to the entire surface1 like the varnish of a picture1 is also to be referred to a high antiquity4 ,originally intended to improve the utility of the vase1 it was used by ,greeks and ,romans with a keen sense of the decorative effects that could be derived from its use4 ,in ,greece1 although nearly all traces of the ,stone ,age are wanting1 and little pottery has been found which can be referred to that period1#b yet the earliest existing remains of civilisation are1 as we shall see later1 in the form of pottery2 and ,greece is no exception to the general rule4 ,but the important difference between the pottery of ,asia and ,egypt and that of ,greece is that only in the latter was there any development due to artistic feeling4 ,of the ,greek it may be said1 as of the medieval craftsman1 nihil tetigit quod non ornavit4 ,in the commonest vessel or implement in every-day use we see almost from the first the workings of this artistic instinct1 tending to exalt any and every object above the mere level of utilitarianism1 and to make it1 in addition to its primary purpose of usefulness1 8a thing of beauty and a joy for ever40 ,feeble and rude it may be at first1 and hampered by imperfect knowledge of technique or capacity for expression--but still the instinct is there4 ,there is indeed at first but little in ,greek pottery to differentiate it from that of other nations possessing any decorative instincts4 ,as ,m4 ,pottier#c has pointed out1 there is a universal law which manifests itself in nascent art all over the world3 8,more than once men have remarked the extraordinary resemblance which the linear decoration of ,peruvian1 ,mexican1 and ,kabyle vases bears to the ornamentation of the most ancient ,greek pottery4 ,there is no possibility of contact between these different peoples1 separated by enormous distances of time and space4 ,if they have this common resemblance at the outset of their artistic evolution1 it is because all must pass through a certain phase1 resulting in some measure from the structure of the human brain4 ,even so at the present day there are savages in ,polynesia who1 by means of a point applied to the soft clay1 produce patterns exactly similar to those found on ,greek or ,cypriote pottery of fifteen or twenty centuries before our era40 ,or to take a later stage of development1 the compositions of vase-paintings of the sixth century ,b4,c4 are governed by the same immutable laws of convention and principles of symmetry as the carvings of the ,middle ,ages4 ,instances might be multiplied ad infinitum2 but the principle is universal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a question that may be well asked by any visitor to a great museum is1 ,what is the use of the study of ,greek vases8 ,the answer is1 that no remains of ,greek art have come down to us in such large quantities1 except perhaps coins1 and certainly none cover so long a period4 ,portraying as they do both the objective and subjective side of ,greek life1 they form perhaps the best introduction to the study of ,greek archaeology in general4 ,in no other class of monuments are the daily life and religious beliefs of the ,greeks so vividly presented as in the painted vases4 ,their value to the modern student may be treated under four separate heads3 7#a7 ,ethnological2 7#b7 ,historical2 7#c7 ,mythological2 7#d7 ,artistic4 7#a7 ,ethnological4--,on this subject we have already touched in this chapter1 pointing out that pottery has an exceptional importance1 not only as one of the most universal and instructive illustrations of the early developments of a single nation1 but for purposes of comparison of one nation with another4 ,sculpture1 painting1 architecture1 and other arts have a more limited range1 and tell us nothing of domestic life or social progress2 but the common utensils of daily life1 like flint implements or bronze weapons1 are of incalculable value for the light that they throw on the subject1 and the evidence which1 in the absence of historical data1 they afford4 ,we have also called attention to the prevalence of universal laws acting on the development of the early art of all nations4 ,thus in dealing with the early history of ,greece1 before historical records are available1 we are enabled by the pottery-finds to trace the extent of the ,mycenaean civilisation1 from ,egypt to the ,western ,mediterranean2 we may see ,homeric customs reflected in the vases of the ,geometrical period from ,athens2 and in the decorative patterns of the succeeding period we may see signs of close intercourse with ,assyria and a knowledge of ,oriental textile fabrics4 ,the finds in ,rhodes1 ,cyprus1 and the islands off ,asia ,minor also testify to a continued and extensive intercourse between the mainland of ,greece and the ,eastern ,aegean4 7#b7 ,historical4--,the historical value of ,greek vases rests partly on the external1 partly on the internal evidence that they afford4 ,in the former aspect those of historic times1 like those of the primitive age1 confirm1 if they do not actually supplement1 literary records of ,greek history4 ,thus the numerous importations of vases from ,corinth to ,sicily and ,italy in the seventh century ,b4,c4 show the maritime importance of that city and the extent of her commercial relations2 while in the succeeding century the commercial rivalry between her and ,athens is indicated by the appearance of large numbers of ,attic fabrics in the tombs of ,italy along with the ,corinthian2 the final supremacy of ,athens by the gradual disappearance of the ,corinthian wares1 and the consequent monopoly enjoyed by the rival state4 ,the fact that after the middle of the fifth century the red-figured ,attic vases are seldom found in ,sicilian or ,italian tombs shows clearly the blow dealt at ,athenian commerce by the ,peloponnesian ,war1 and the enforced cessation of exports to the west1 owing to the hostility of ,sicily and the crippling of ,athenian navies2 and the gradual growth of local fabrics shows that the colonists of ,magna ,graecia at that time began themselves to supply local demands4 ,instances might be multiplied4 ,but the internal evidence of the vases is of even greater value1 not only for the political1 but still more for the social history of ,greece4 ,by the application of painting to vases the ,greeks made them something more than mere articles of commercial value or daily use4 ,besides the light they throw on the ,greek schools of painting1 they have become an inexhaustible source for illustrating the manners1 customs1 and literature of ,greece4 ,a ,greek vase-painting--to quote ,m4 ,pottier-- is not only a work of art1 but also an historical document4 ,even when all artistic qualities are lacking1 and the vase at first sight is liable to be regarded as a worthless and uninteresting production1 a closer inspection will often reveal some small point which throws light on a question of mythology1 or of costume or armour4 ,or1 again1 an inscription painted or even scratched on a vase may be of surpassing philological or palaeographical importance4 ,for instance1 the earliest inscription known in the ,attic alphabet is a graffito on a vase of the seventh century ,b4,c4 7see ,chapter ,,xvii471 which of itself would command no consideration2 but this inscription is valuable not only as evidence for early forms of lettering1 but from its subject-matter4 ,it is true that it need not necessarily be contemporary with the vase itself1 as it may have been scratched in after it was made1 but this cannot detract from its importance or affect its chronological value4 ,or1 again1 a fragment of a painted vase found at ,athens bears the name of ,xanthippos rudely scratched upon it2 on the foot of another is that of ,megakles 7see below1 p4 #ajc74 ,both of these are undoubted instances of 1 which were used for the banishment of these historical personages4 ,they therefore provide a striking illustration of the institution of ,ostracism1 and bear out what we have said as to the importance of archaeological discoveries for the study of ,history4 ,historical or quasi-historical subjects are sometimes actually depicted on the vases1 but this question must be reserved for fuller treatment in ,part ,,iii41 which deals with the subjects on vases in detail4 ,in that section of the work we shall also deal with the relations of vase-paintings to ancient literature2 and in the list of subjects taken from daily life 7,chapter ,,xv47 it will be seen what ample information is afforded on such points as the vocations and pastimes of men1 the life of women1 war and athletics1 sport and education4 7#c7 ,mythological4--,on this head reference must again be made to the chapters on ,subjects1 as affording ample evidence of the importance of the vases not only for the elucidation of ,greek mythology and legend1 but also for religious cults and beliefs4 ,one other point1 however1 is worth noting here4 ,our knowledge of ,greek mythology1 if only derived from literary records1 rests largely on the compilations of ,roman or late writers1 such as ,ovid1 ,hyginus1 and ,apollodoros4 ,it has been aptly pointed out by a recent writer#d that in these authors we have mythology in a crystallised form1 modified and systematised1 and perhaps confused with ,latin elements1 and that our popular modern notions are mainly derived from these sources as they have been filtered down to us through the medium of ,lemprire's ,dictionary and similar works4 ,but vase-paintings are more or less original and contemporary documents4 ,granted that it is possible to run to the opposite extreme and accept art traditions to the utter neglect of the literary tradition as derived from ,homer and the ,tragedians1 the fact still remains that for suggestions1 and for raising problems that could never have arisen through a literary medium1 the evidence of vases is of inestimable value4 ,in regard to ,greek religious beliefs1 it should be borne in mind that with the ,greeks art was the language by which they expressed their ideas of the gods4 ,it was thus largely due to their religion that they attained supremacy in the plastic art1 and their absolute freedom of treatment of their religious beliefs almost eliminated the hieratic and conventional character of ,oriental art from their own1 with its infinite variety of conceptions4 ,the vase-paintings1 almost more than any other class of monuments1 reveal the universal religious sentiment which pervaded their life--the which prevailed even in ,romanised ,athens4 ,thus the vases constitute a pictorial commentary on all aspects of ,greek life and thought4#e 7#d7 ,artistic4--7a7 ,form4 ,in the grace of their artistic forms the ,greeks have excelled all nations1 either past or present4 ,the beauty and simplicity of the shapes of their vases have caused them to be taken as models2 but as every civilised people has received from other sources forms sanctioned by time1 and as many of the ,greek forms cannot be adapted to the requirements of modern use1 they have not been extensively imitated4 ,yet to every eye familiar with works of art of the higher order their beauty is fully apparent4 7b7 ,decoration4 ,it is at first difficult to realise how little we actually know of ,greek painting4 ,our modern museums are so full of specimens of ,greek sculpture1 either originals or ancient copies of masterpieces1 that we feel it possible to obtain an adequate idea of the genius of ,pheidias or ,praxiteles at first-hand1 so to speak4 ,but ancient literature clearly shows that painting was held by the ,greeks in equally high estimation with sculpture1 if not even higher4 ,consult the writings of the elder ,pliny on ancient art4 ,a considerable space is there devoted to the account of the great painters ,zeuxis1 ,apelles1 and ,parrhasios1 while ,pheidias is barely mentioned1 and the account of ,praxiteles' works is far from complete4 ,yet we look in vain through most modern collections for any specimen of ,greek painting on fresco or panel4 ,this is1 of course1 due to the perishable character of pictures and the destruction of the buildings on the walls of which the great frescoes were preserved4 ,but the fact remains that we have to look in other directions for the evidence we require to find4 ,we have here and there a painted ,greek tombstone1 a ,pompeian fresco1 or the decoration of an ,etruscan sepulchre to give us a hint2 but while the first-named are far too inconsiderable in number to give us any idea of the art of their time1 the two latter are merely products of an imitative art1 giving but a faint echo of the originals4 ,now1 in the vases we have1 as noted in regard to mythology1 contemporary evidence4 ,it must never be forgotten that vase-painting is essentially a decorative art2 but1 as we shall see later in tracing its historical development1 there is always a tendency to ignore the essential subserviency of design to use1 and to give the decoration a more pictorial character4 ,many of the late vases are1 in fact1 pictures on terracotta4 ,again1 there is a class of fifth-century vases with polychrome paintings on white ground which actually recall the method we know to have been employed by the great master of that century1 ,polygnotos4 ,and with regard to the late vases we shall hope to show in a future chapter that1 like the ,pompeian paintings1 they often reflect the spirit1 if not the exact likeness1 of some well-known painting of which we have record4 ,many instances might be given of vase-paintings which reflect1 or assist our knowledge of1 the products of the higher arts4 ,even as early as the end of the sixth century the group of the ,tyrant-slayers1 the creation of ,antenor and of ,kritios and ,nesiotes1 is found repeated on a black-figured vase#f2 and the early poros pediments from the ,athenian ,acropolis find an interesting parallel in an early ,attic vase of about the same date4#g ,so again in ,ionia1 the style of the sculptures of the archaic temple at ,ephesos finds its reflection in some of the local sixth-century vase-fabrics4#h ,coming to the fifth century1 the heads in ,euphronios' paintings may be compared with some of the ,attic heads in marble1 like that of the ephebos from the ,acropolis4#i ,combats of ,greeks with ,amazons and ,centaurs on later ,r4,f4 vases often seem to suggest a comparison with the friezes of ,phigaleia and ,olympia2 a figure from the balustrade of the ,nike temple is almost reproduced on a ,r4,f4 vase1#aj and the riding youths of the ,parthenon frieze on some of the white ,athenian lekythi2 and the ,kertch vase with the contest of ,athena and ,poseidon 7,plate ,l47 is of special interest as an almost contemporary reproduction of the ,parthenon west pediment4 ,in painting1 again1 the later ,r4,f4 vases in many instances reflect what we know of the style and composition of ,polygnotos' paintings1 and there are many instances on the vases of the subjects treated by him and ,mikon4#aa ,it is not necessary here to say more of the importance of a study of ,greek vases on the several lines that we have pointed out4 ,it is sufficient to say that specialists in all these branches of ,archaeology instinctively turn to vases for the main source of their information4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the earliest date at which public attention was directed to the painted vases was the end of the seventeenth century4 ,in those days1 it need hardly be said1 systematic excavation was a thing quite unknown1 while archaeology as a science was non-existent4 ,beyond a few sculptures which had been handed down at ,rome or elsewhere through many vicissitudes1 cabinets of gems which had been preserved by cardinals and other dignitaries who employed them for signet-rings1 chiefly for ecclesiastical purposes1 and some collections of coins of the ,renaissance period1 there were no specimens of ancient art preserved4 ,during the seventeenth century1 however1 the fashion arose of making voyages to ,italy or ,greece1 and bringing back any spoils that might attract the notice of the traveller4 ,in this way the collection of ,arundel ,marbles at ,oxford was made1 and the nucleus of many of the famous private collections of ,england formed4 ,but the painted vases1 which for the most part lay buried in tombs1 escaped notice almost entirely--and1 perhaps even where specimens were preserved1 they attracted little notice--until with ,winckelmann arose a gradual hankering after the possession of artistic treasures and the formation of collections of antiques4 ,the earliest allusion to be found to painted vases is in the works of ,la ,chausse 7,caussius71#ab and in the ,thesaurus of ,graevius1#ac while the oldest existing catalogue is that of the collection of the ,elector of ,brandenburg1 compiled by ,l4 ,beger in #afif-agja4ad ,some few are illustrated in these works1 while others were given later by ,montfaucon1#ae ,dempster1#af ,gori1#ag and ,caylus4#ah ,winckelmann published several vases in his ,histoire de l',art 7#agfd7 and ,monumenti ,antichi 7#agfi71 and the industrious ,passeri in #agfg-ge published1 besides a supplement to ,dempster1 three volumes containing coloured engravings of vases in various collections4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 who was for some time ,english ,ambassador at ,naples1 formed there a considerable collection of ,greek and ,roman antiquities1 mostly painted vases1 which had been discovered in various tombs in ,southern ,italy and ,etruria4 ,all these he brought with him to ,england and sold to the newly instituted ,british ,museum in #agfg4 ,a ,frenchman named ,hugues or ,d',hancarville compiled a magnificent work in four volumes#ai illustrating the vases in this collection1 with elaborate diagrams of the shapes2 but the representations of the subjects are often marred by the imaginary ornamental borders in which they are framed1 while the whole work1 like others of the same period1 is marked by a tendency to ignore all but the artistic interest1 and instead of an accurate reproduction to aim merely at giving a pretty picture4 ,a second collection of vases belonging to ,hamilton was mostly lost at sea1 but a record of it has been preserved in ,tischbein's work1 ,vases d',hamilton#bj in four volumes1 which is more accurate and useful than that of ,d',hancarville4 ,it is believed that many of these vases are now in the ,hope collection at ,deepdene1 which is unfortunately inaccessible to archaeologists4 ,the ,hamilton collection formed1 as we have said1 the nucleus of the magnificent array of vases in the ,british ,museum4 ,most of them1 it is true1 belong to the later period or decadence of vase-painting1 and were not only found1 but had also been manufactured1 in ,italy4 ,although the time for a scientific study and classification was not yet to be for some sixty years1 the interest in the subject was decidedly on the increase1 and many ,english noblemen and gentlemen were forming collections1 as well as such foreigners as the ,duc de ,blacas1 the ,duc de ,luynes1 and ,m4 ,millin4 ,it became the fashion to produce large folio works embodying the contents of these collections in series of coloured illustrations1 and thus we have1 besides those already mentioned1 the imposing publications of ,millin1#ba ,millingen#bb1 ,laborde#bc1 and others4 ,on the same lines1 but mostly of later date1 are the publications of ,de ,rossi#bd1 ,christie#be1 ,moses#bf1 ,inghirami#bg1 ,lanzi#bh1 ,bttiger#bi1 ,micali#cj1 ,raoul-,rochette#ca1 ,stackelberg#cb1 and the ,duc de ,luynes#cc1 who published either their own vases1 as ,de ,luynes1 or some well-known collection like that of the ,duc de ,blacas1 or some particular class of vases3 e4g4 ,micali1 those found in ,etruria2 ,raoul-,rochette and ,inghirami1 those illustrating ,homer2 and ,stackelberg1 those found in tombs in ,greece ,proper4 ,few of these1 it will be seen1 were published in ,england1 where neither public patronage nor private enterprise were found prepared to rival the achievements of the ,continent4 ,in most of these works the vases are styled 8,etruscan0 as a matter of course4 ,even nowadays it is a very common experience to hear vases spoken of as 8,etruscan0 or even as 8,etruscan urns10 as if every vase was used as a receptacle for the ashes of the dead4 ,this error has lasted1 with all the perseverance of a popular fallacy1 for over a century1 and cannot now be too strongly denounced4 ,but at the beginning of the last century the ,etruscan origin of painted vases was most strongly maintained by erudite scholars1 chiefly ,italians who desired to champion the credit of their own country1 and the controversy raged with varying force till ,greece was able to substantiate her own case by the numbers of vases that came forth from her tombs to proclaim their ,hellenic origin4 ,the 8,etruscan0 theory was first promulgated by ,montfaucon1 ,gori1 ,caylus1 and ,passeri1 between #agai and #ageb2 their arguments being based on the plausible ground that up till that time the vases had been found almost exclusively in ,etruria4 ,so the term 8,etruscan vase0 passed into the languages of ,europe1 and has survived in spite of a century of refutation4 ,but in #agfc ,winckelmann1 the father of scientific archaeology1 conceived the idea that the spirit and character of the vase-paintings were wholly ,greek2 and he proposed to call them ,italo-,greek or ,graeco-,sicilian1 indicating ,magna ,graecia as the true place of their manufacture4 ,this was a step in the right direction1 and he was supported later by ,lanzi1 ,millin1 ,millingen1 and others 7#agia-ahac74 ,a further attempt was made to define the particular places of their fabric1 and ,nola1 ,locri1 and ,agrigentum were suggested as the most important centres4 ,meanwhile1 the discoveries of vases in ,attica1 at ,corinth1 and elsewhere in ,greece1 and subsequently the publication of ,stackelberg's work1 helped to confirm the position of ,winckelmann's followers4 ,in #ahbh came what ,m4 ,pottier terms 8an objectionable revival of ,etruscomania10 with the extensive and marvellously fruitful excavations at ,vulci under the direction of the ,prince of ,canino1 ,lucien ,bonaparte1 on whose estates most of the tombs were found4 ,several thousand vases were the yield of this site1 mostly of the best periods of ,greek art4 ,this was a great epoch in the history of the study of ,greek vases4 ,a flood of fresh light was thrown on the subject by the mass of new material1 and a whole new literature arose in consequence4 ,hitherto vases of the archaic and fine periods had only been known in isolated instances1 and the bulk of the existing collections was formed of the florid vases of the ,decadence2 but now it became possible to fill up the gaps and trace the whole development of the art from the simplest specimens with decorative patterns or figures of animals down to the very last stages of painting4 ,these discoveries prompted ,prince ,lucien ,bonaparte to revive the theory of ,etruscan origin1 in which he was supported by ,d',amatis and ,de ,fea4 ,it is probable that all three were animated more by patriotic motives than by intellectual conviction4 ,at any rate their arguments appealed but little to scholars1 although not a few inclined to take a middle course1 and maintained that there existed1 not only in ,etruria but also in ,southern ,italy1 various local centres of manufacture under ,greek superintendence and in close connection with ,athens and her influences4 ,these ideas were upheld by ,gerhard1 ,welcker1 the ,duc de ,luynes1 and ,ch4 ,lenormant4 ,but the preponderating arguments were to be found on the other side1 from ,kramer 7#ahcg71 who attributed all vases but those of the ,decadence to an ,attic origin1 ,o4 ,mller1 who limited this to the finer examples from ,vulci1 and ,raoul-,rochette1 who pinned his faith to ,sicily1 to ,otto ,jahn#cd1 who may be said to have founded the modern comparative study of ,greek ceramics on its present basis 7#ahed74 ,jahn pronounced decisively for the ,greek origin of all but the later fabrics1 and his principles have been adopted by all succeeding archaeologists1 with the exception of ,brunn1 and one or two of the latter's disciples1 who have swung back to the ,italian theory in some respects4 ,up to his time all had been in chaos1 and each writer worked on his own particular line without regard to others1 both as regards the origin of the vases and the subjects depicted thereon2 but ,jahn1 in his epoch-making catalogue of the vases at ,munich1 was the first to make a serious and scientific attempt to reduce the chaos to order1 not only by adopting a rational system of interpretation1 but by systematising and reducing to one common denominator all previous contributions to knowledge4 ,we may say that the study of ,greek vases has passed through three main stages3 7#a7 ,artistic2 7#b7 ,epexegetic2 7#c7 ,historical4 7#a7 ,artistic 7#afij--aggj74--;,in the first stage1 as we have seen1 the artistic merit of the vases and the aim of producing a pretty picture were alone regarded4 ,hence1 too1 arose the fashion of making copies of ,greek vases1 and many specimens were produced by ,wedgwood#ce1 bearing1 however1 no more than a superficial likeness to the originals4 7#b7 ,epexegetic 7#aggj--ahed74--;,in the second stage it seems to have been suddenly discovered that the figures on the vases were not mere meaningless groups1 like the ,watteau shepherds and shepherdesses on ,dresden china1 and many strange theories were at first promulgated as to the purposes for which the vases were made and the subjects thereon depicted4 ,three main lines of interpretation seem to have been adopted by the writers of this period3-- 7a7 ,passeri1 ,millin1 ,lanzi1 and ,visconti supposed that allusions were made to the life of the deceased person in whose tomb they were found2 allegorical representations were given of his childish games1 his youthful pastimes1 or the religious and social ceremonies in which he took part4 7b7 ,italynski1 in his preface to ,tischbein's work1 enunciates the strange notion that they allude to events of ,greek and ,roman history3 for instance1 three draped men represent the three chief archons of ,athens1 or three women conversing1 ,veturia1 the mother of ,coriolanus1 with her daughter and daughter-in-law1 considering whether she should appear as a suppliant before her son4 ,the utterly fantastic and unscientific nature of these explanations was self-evident2 the writers of the first group at any rate had a sounder basis for their theories1 and on the analogy of the sculptured ,greek tombstones might well have been near the truth4 7c7 ,another theory1 which attained great popularity1 and was even adhered to partially for some years afterwards by ,panofka1 ,gerhard1 and ,lenormant1 was that the subjects bore allusion to the ,mysteries1 more particularly the ,eleusinian4 ,the vases were regarded as presents given to the initiated1 and the reason why their interpretation was so difficult was that they related to the secrets unfolded in those ceremonies4 ,many attempts were made to unlock those secrets and to show the mystic moral purport of the pictures2 but all is the merest guesswork4 ,the height of fantastic explanation is perhaps reached by ,christie1 whose work is quite worth perusal as a literary curiosity4 ,panofka1 on the other hand1 turned his attention to the inscriptions on the vases1#cf and discerned a symbolical meaning in these1 reading into the names of artists rebuses on the subjects over which they were inscribed1 e4g4 ,douris is indicated by ,athena with a spear 77 or ,hermaios by a figure of ,hermes4 7#c7 ,historical4--,the historical or scientific method of studying ,greek vases consists mainly in classifying them according to different periods1 and within that period to different schools4 ,to these main considerations the artistic merits of the vases and the explanation of the subjects are subordinated4 ,the reason for this is obvious4 ,the artistic and mythological interest of the vases is soon exhausted1 and receives no new impetus from new discoveries4 ,now1 with the comparative study of vases this is not the case4 ,any day may bring forth a new discovery which will completely revolutionise all preconceived theories2 hence there is the constant necessity for being 8up-to-date10 and for the adjustment of old beliefs to new4 ,but the historical method is not entirely of modern growth4 ,as long ago as #agfg the first attempt was made by ,d',hancarville#cg to classify vases according to their age4 ,taking such scanty data as were available1 he divided ,italian vases into five classes1 ranging from 8some centuries before the foundation of ,rome0 down to the reigns of ,trajan1 the ,antonines1 and ,septimius ,severus1 which 8announc'd the total decadency of the ,art40 ,the earlier vases he sought to fix more precisely by reference to the history of painting as told by ,pliny4 ,the ,duc de ,luynes1 writing in #ahcb1ch hesitates to define the exact age of the various styles1 though he arranges them generally in six classes1 ranging from the 8,doric0 or 8,phoenician0 vases down to barbaric imitations by the natives of ,italy4 ,according to him the red-figured vases lasted from the time of ,perikles down to that of ,pyrrhos4 ,millingen was content with three periods only1 his division#ci being3 7#a7 ancient style1 #gjj-dej ,b4,c42 7#b7 fine style1 #dej-bbh ,b4,c42 7#c7 late style1 #bbh to ,social ,war4 ,kramer distinguishes five epochs3 7,a7 ,egyptian style1 #ehj-ejj ,b4,c42 7,b7 older style1 #ejj-dfj ,b4,c42 7,c7 severe style1 #dfj--dbj ,b4,c42 7,d7 fine style1 #dbj-chj ,b4,c42 7,e7 rich style1 #chj-bjj ,b4,c4#dj ,gerhard#da surmised that the earliest vases might date from the ninth or tenth century ,b4,c41 the fine style extending over the fifth and fourth1 while the decadence culminated in the second1 and in the first century fictile vases were entirely supplanted by those of metal4 ,de ,witte made a more detailed classification1 extending to nine groups1 and based rather on technical differences1 as several of the groups are contemporaneous2 but his classification is essentially a practical one1 and may be regarded as forming a sound basis for all succeeding catalogues and treatises1 as also for the arrangement of museums4 ,jahn in his ,introduction is content with four main headings1 which for a general classification of a large collection is convenient enough1 and has1 in fact1 been adopted in the ,vase ,rooms of the ,british ,museum4 ,under this system the four divisions are3 7#a7 ,primitive2 7#b7 ,black-figured2 7#c7 ,red-figured2 7#d7 ,vases of the ,decadence4 ,in the ,louvre1 on the other hand1 the arrangement is mainly geographical1 according to the sites from which the vases have come4 ,it is recognised by modern archaeologists1#db working on the lines laid down by ,jahn in the three main divisions of his ,introduction1 that in dating and classifying a vase or series of vases three points must be taken into consideration3 7#a7 circumstances of discovery2 7#b7 technique and style2 7#c7 inscriptions 7when present74 ,the various questions with which the modern study of vase-paintings has mainly to deal will be fully investigated in subsequent chapters1 and it is not necessary to say more on this head4 ,but we trust that sufficient attention has been drawn to the many-sided interests presented by--it is not necessary to say a collection of vases1 but--a single vase#dc4 ,it may be worth while here to turn aside for a moment and study the rise and growth of the various great vase-collections of ,europe4 ,we may with pardonable pride regard the ,british ,museum as standing at the head of these collections1 possessing as it does the most representative collection of any1 if not the largest4 ,hardly any known fabric is unrepresented1 nor the work of any known artist2 though here and there another museum may have the advantage--as1 for instance1 the ,louvre in early black-figured fabrics1 ,naples in vases of ,southern ,italy 7especially the large specimens71 or ,athens in various fabrics peculiar to ,greece1 such as the early vases of ,thera and ,melos1 or the marvellous specimens of 8transitional0 handiwork found on the ,acropolis of ,athens4 ,the nucleus of the ,british ,museum collection was1 as has been indicated1 formed by the vases obtained from ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton in #agfg1 supplemented by those of ,towneley and ,payne ,knight 7#ahje-bd73 these are nearly all vases of the late period from ,southern ,italy4 ,between the years #ahcg and #ahde a large quantity of fine black-figured and red-figured vases was acquired from the ,canino collection1 having been found on that estate at ,vulci1 and in #ahcf acquisitions from ,m4 ,durand's sale had helped to swell the number of vases representing that site1 including some very fine examples4 ,in #ahdb came the ,burgon collection1 mostly of small vases from ,athens and the ,greek islands2 in #ahef the bequest by ,sir ,william ,temple of his collection1 formed at ,naples1 added greatly to the value of the collection of later vases4 ,in #ahfj-fd large numbers of vases of all periods from #gjj ,b4,c4 to #djj ,b4,c4 were excavated by ,salzmann and ,biliotti at ,kameiros in ,rhodes2 and from ,ialysos in the same island came a number of ,mycenaean vases by the generosity of ,prof4 ,ruskin in #ahgj4 ,meanwhile1 the ,blacas collection1 purchased in #ahfg1 had added a large number1 chiefly of red-figured and ,italian vases1 and in #ahgc many more fine specimens from ,capua1 ,nola1 and elsewhere were acquired from ,m4 ,castellani4 ,of late years the chief additions have been from ,cyprus1 beginning with a few vases from ,cesnola in #ahgf down to the ,turner ,bequest excavations in #ahid-if1 and from the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund's excavations at ,naukratis and ,daphnae 7#ahhd-hf74 ,other acquisitions have been mostly in the form of isolated purchases1 especially of the white lekythi and similar classes2 some have come from important collections1 such as those of ,forman1 ,tyszkiewicz1 and ,van ,branteghem4 ,in #ahgj1 when the old ,catalogue was completed1 the collection must have numbered over #b1jjj painted vases1 besides #a1jjj undecorated2 at the present day the total cannot be computed at less than #e1jjj1 of which about #d1jjj may be described as painted vases4 ,the ,louvre collection in ,paris#dd started life about a century ago under the first ,napoleon1 who established a ceramic section about #agig4 ,other vases were added from the ,vatican and ,naples2 and meanwhile the ,royal collection went to form the present ,cabinet of ,antiquities in the ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,in #ahah the very limited collection was augmented by #efd vases from ,m4 ,tochon1 and in #ahbe came a magnificent acquisition of about #b1jjj vases 7mostly painted7 from ,m4 ,durand4 ,from this time till #ahfc the growth was very slow1 and the ,louvre does not seem to have profited like other museums by the excavations at ,vulci4 ,in the latter year1 however1 another splendid collection of #b1jjj painted and #a1djj unpainted vases was acquired from ,count ,campana1 which necessitated the building of new galleries4 ,the early ,b4,f4 fabrics1 in which the ,louvre is so pre-eminently rich1 were all in this collection4 ,during the last thirty years the only acquisitions of importance have been representative specimens from ,greece and ,cyprus2 but the total number is now reckoned at #f1jjj4 ,the growth of the ,berlin collection has been much more slow and consistent4#de ,its nucleus was derived from the collection of the ,elector of ,brandenburg described by ,beger in #agja4 ,up to #ahcj most of the vases acquired were from ,southern ,italy and ,campania1 including #a1cdh from the ,koller collection in #ahbh4 ,in #ahca1 #ddb vases and #agi specimens of ,etruscan plain ware were acquired from the ,dorow collection1 and from #ahcc to #ahfg the activity of ,gerhard procured fine specimens from time to time1 while #agd were bequeathed by him at his death4 ,when ,levezow's ,catalogue was published in #ahcd1 it included #a1egi specimens2 the next one by ,furtwaengler in #ahhe describes more than #d1jjj4 ,of late years many valuable specimens have been derived from various parts of ,greece4 ,these three may be regarded as the typical representative collections of ,europe2 those of ,athens1 ,munich1 ,naples1 and ,petersburg are all of great merit and value1 but chiefly strong in one particular department--,athens in early vases and ,attic lekythi1 ,petersburg in late red-figured vases1 and ,naples in the fabrics of ,southern ,italy4 ,many of the finest specimens1 however1 are to be found in the smaller collections in the ,paris ,bibliothque1 at ,florence1 ,vienna1 ,madrid1 and in ,rome4 ,of late years ,europe has found a formidable rival in ,america1 especially in the ,museum of ,fine ,arts at ,boston1 which1 backed by almost inexhaustible private benefactions1 is gradually acquiring a large proportion of the signed vases and other chefs-d'uvre which from time to time find their way into the market4 ,the ,metropolitan ,museum at ,new ,york1 on the other hand1 rests its claim to distinction on the possession of ,general ,cesnola's enormous collections of ,cypriote pottery of all periods4 ,the gradual centralising of vases into public museums is a noteworthy feature at the present day4 ,the private collections formed by so many amateurs at the beginning of the century have nearly all been long since dispersed and incorporated with the various national collections#df2 and those formed more recently are rapidly sharing the same fate4 ,hardly a year passes now without seeing the dispersion of some notable collection like those of ,m4 ,sabouroff1 ,m4 van ,branteghem1 ,colonel ,brown 7,forman collection71 or ,m4 ,bourguignon2 and almost the only important one that still remains intact is that of ,sig4 ,jatta at ,ruvo 7consisting almost entirely of ,south ,italian vases74 ,now that the days are past when it was the custom for rich collectors to publish magnificently illustrated atlases of their possessions1 this tendency to centralisation can only be welcomed both by artists and students4 ,for the latter now it only remains to be desired that a scientific and well-illustrated catalogue of every public museum should be available4 ,we append here a list of the principal museums and collections in ,europe1 which may form a supplement to that given by ,jahn in #ahed4 ,the more important ones are printed in heavier type4 ,i4 ,,great ,,britain4 #a4 ,london4 ,british ,museum 7see p4 #bd74 ,catalogue by ,c4 ,smith and ,walters4 ,south ,kensington ,museum 7a few isolated specimens2 also some from the ,museum of ,practical ,geology ,jermyn ,street74 ,soane ,museum 7the ,cawdor ,vase74 #b4 ,oxford4 ,ashmolean ,museum4 ,catalogue by ,p4 ,gardner 7#ahic74 #c4 ,cambridge4 ,fitzwilliam ,museum4 ,catalogue by ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner 7#ahif74 #d4 ,deepdene 7,dorking74 ,hope ,collection4 ,inaccessible to students4 ,consists entirely of late vases from ,southern ,italy4 #e4 ,numerous private collections1 among the more important being-- ,richmond4 ,the late ,sir ,f4 ,cook4 ,castle ,ashby4 ,marquis of ,northampton4 #f4 ,harrow ,school ,museum 7a fine 8,theseus0 ,kylix and ,krater with ,centaurs74 ,catalogue by ,c4 ,torr 7#ahhg74 #g4 ,edinburgh4 ,,ii4 ,,france4 #a4 ,paris4 ,the ,louvre 7see p4 #be74 ,catalogue by ,pottier 7in progress74 ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,catalogue by ,a4 de ,ridder 7#aijb74 ,dzialynski ,collection4 ,see ,de ,witte1 ,coll4 l',htel ,lambert4 #b4 ,marseilles ,museum4 ,catalogue by ,froehner 7#ahig74 #c4 ,rouen ,museum4 #d4 ,boulogne ,museum4 #e4 ,compigne ,museum4 #f4 ,svres ,museum4 ,,iii4 ,,belgium ,,and ,,holland4 #a4 ,brussels4#dg ,see ,cat4 of ,muse de ,ravestein4 ,somze ,collection 7now dispersed74 #b4 ,amsterdam4 ,six ,collection4 #c4 ,leyden ,museum4 ,see ,roulez1 ,vases de ,leyde4 ,,iv4 ,,germany4 #a4 ,berlin4 ,antiquarium 7see p4 #be74 ,catalogue by ,furtwaengler 7#ahhe74 #b4 ,altenburg4 #c4 ,bonn4 #d4 ,breslau4 #e4 ,brunswick4 #f4 ,dresden4 #g4 ,frankfurt4 ,museum ,stdel4 #h4 ,gotha4 #i4 ,heidelberg4 #aj4 ,karlsruhe4 ,catalogue by ,winnefeld 7#ahhg74 #aa4 ,leipzig4 #ab4 ,munich4 ,catalogue by ,jahn 7#ahed74 #ac4 ,schwerin4 #ad4 ,wrzburg4 ,antikenkabinet4 ,coll4 ,bank4 ,v4 ,,denmark ,,and ,,sweden4 #a4 ,kopenhagen4 ,catalogue by ,smith 7#ahfb74 #b4 ,stockholm4 ,,vi4 ,,russia4 #a4 ,petersburg4 ,hermitage4 ,catalogue by ,stephani 7#ahfi74 ,stroganoff ,coll4 ,pisareff ,coll4 #b4 ,dorpat 7,university74 ,,vii4 ,,austria4 #a4 ,vienna4 ,oesterreichisches ,museum4 ,catalogue by ,masner 7#ahia74 ,k4 ,k4 ,kabinet4 ,university4 #b4 ,cracow4 ,czartoryski ,coll4 #c4 ,prague4 ,pollak ,coll4 #d4 ,trieste4 ,museum4 ,,viii4 ,,switzerland4 #a4 ,berne #b4 ,geneva ,all unimportant for ,greek ,vases4 #c4 ,zrich4 ,,ix4 ,,spain4 ,madrid4 ,x4 ,,italy ,,and ,,sicily4 #a4 ,acerra4 ,spinelli ,coll4 #b4 ,adria4 ,museo ,bocchi4 ,publication by ,schne4 #c4 ,arezzo4 ,chiefly ,roman ,arretine ware4 #d4 ,bologna4 ,museo ,civico4 ,catalogue by ,pellegrini 7#aijj74 ,universit4 #e4 ,capua4 ,campana ,coll4 #f4 ,cervetri4 ,ruspoli ,coll4 #g4 ,chiusi4 ,museum4 ,casucchini ,coll4 7but see p4 #gc74 #h4 ,corneto4 ,museum4 ,bruschi ,coll4 #i4 ,florence4 ,museum4 #aj4 ,naples4 ,museo ,nazionale4 ,catalogue by ,heydemann 7#ahgb74 #aa4 ,orvieto4 ,museum4 ,faina ,coll4 #ab4 ,palermo4 ,museum4 #ac4 ,parma4 #ad4 ,perugia4 ,museum4 #ae4 ,ruvo4 ,jatta ,coll4 ,catalogue by ,sig4 ,g4 ,jatta 7#ahfi74 #af4 ,taranto4 ,museum4 #ag4 ,terranuova 7,gela74 ,private collections4 #ah4 ,rome4 ,vatican 7,mus4 ,gregoriano74 ,guide by ,helbig4 ,museo ,capitolino4 ,museo ,papa ,giulio4 ,numerous private collections3 ,hartwig1 ,torlonia1 ,castellani1 etc41 and ,deutsches ,arch4 ,inst4 ,,xi4 ,,greece4 #a4 ,athens4 ,national ,museum4 ,catalogue by ,couve and ,collignon 7#aijb74 ,do4 7,acropolis ,collection74 ,catalogue in progress4 ,trikoupis ,coll4 ,other private collections4 #b4 ,eleusis4 ,museum 7local finds74 #c4 ,candia 7,crete74 ,,xii4 ,,asia ,,minor4 ,smyrna4 ,various private collections4 ,,xiii4 ,,cyprus4 ,nicosia4 ,cyprus ,museum4 ,catalogue by ,myres and ,richter 7#ahii74 ,private collections at ,larnaka1 ,nicosia1 and ,limassol4 ,,xiv4 ,,egypt4 ,cairo4 ,ghizeh ,museum4 ,,xv4 ,,america4 #a4 ,boston4 ,catalogue by ,robinson4 #b4 ,new ,york4 ,metropolitan ,museum4 ,atlas of ,cesnola ,collection from ,cyprus published4 #c4 ,baltimore4 #d4 ,chicago4 ----- ,footnote #a3 ,b4,m4 ,guide to ,first and ,second ,egyptian ,rooms 7#aijd71 p4 #bb2 for early ,neolithic pottery from ,ireland see ,guide to ,antiqs4 of ,stone ,age1 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #b3 ,remains of ,neolithic pottery have recently been found in ,crete 7,j4,h4,s4 xxiii4 p4 #aeh7 and in the ,cyclades4 ,footnote #c3 ,cat4 des ,vases ,antiques du ,louvre i4 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #d3 ,miss ,harrison1 ,mythology and ,monuments of ,athens1 preface1 p4 ii4 ,the ,introduction to this work contains some excellent examples of the modern method of using vase-paintings to elucidate mythology4 ,footnote #e3 ,for the use of vase-paintings in illustration of ,greek religious beliefs and customs1 reference may be made to ,miss ,harrison's ,prolegomena to ,greek ,religion 7,cambridge ,press1 #aijc71 containing many interesting interpretations of scenes on the vases which may bear on the subject4 ,footnote #f3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiv41 ad fin4 ,footnote #g3 ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 #eg4 ,footnote #h3 ,cf4 for instance ,berlin #baed 7,endt1 ,ion4 ,vasenm4 p4 #bi74 ,footnote #i3 ,collignon1 ,hist4 de la ,sculpt4 ,grecque1 i4 p4 #cfb4 ,footnote #aj3 ,gerhard1 ,auserl4 ,vasenb4 #ha4 ,footnote #aa3 ,as1 for instance1 the subjects of ,odysseus and ,philoktetes2 ,orestes slaying ,aegisthos2 the death of ,polyxena2 ,theseus fetching the ring from ,amphitrite4 ,cf4 ,huddilston1 ,lessons from ,greek ,pottery1 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #ab3 ,museum ,romanum1 ,rome1 #afij1 fol4 ,footnote #ac3 ,thesaur4 ,antiq4 ,rom4 xii4 #iee4 ,footnote #ad3 ,thesaur4 regii ,brandenb4 vol4 iii4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ant4 ,expliq4 iii4 pls4 #ga-gg 7#agai74 ,footnote #af3 ,etr4 ,regal4 #agbc1 fol4 ,footnote #ag3 ,mus4 ,etr4 #agcg-dc4 ,footnote #ah3 ,recueil1 #ageb-fg 7especially vols4 i4-ii474 ,footnote #ai3 ,antiqs4 tr4 ,gr4 et ,rom41 tires du ,cabinet de ,m4 ,h41 fol4 #agff-fg4 ,footnote #bj3 #agia-ahjc4 ,plates for a fifth volume were prepared1 but never regularly published 7see ,reinach1 ,rpertoire des ,vases ,peints1 ii4 p4 #ccd74 ,footnote #ba3 ,peintures des ,vases ,antiques1 edited by ,m4 ,dubois-,maisonneuve1 in two volumes1 with ,introduction 7#ahjh-aj72 now re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach 7#ahia74 ,footnote #bb3 ,vases ,grecs1 ,rome1 #ahac2 ,vases de ,coghill1 ,rome1 #ahag2 ,ancient ,uned4 ,monuments1 ,london1 #ahbb2 the two former now re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach1 #ahia and #aijj4 ,footnote #bc3 ,vases de ,lamberg1 ,paris1 #ahac-be2 re-edited by ,s4 ,reinach1 #aijj4 ,footnote #bd3 ,vasi de ,blacas4 ,this was never actually published3 see ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 ii4 p4 #chc4 ,footnote #be3 ,disquisitions on the ,painted ,vases1 #ahjf4 ,footnote #bf3 ,coll4 of ,antique ,vases1 ,london1 #ahad4 ,footnote #bg3 ,vasi ,fittili1 #d vols4 #ahcc2 ,mon4 ,etruschi 7#ahbd71 vol4 v42 ,gal4 ,omerica1 #c vols4 #ahca-cf1 etc4 ,footnote #bh3 ,de' vasi antichi dipinti1 #ahjf4 ,footnote #bi3 ,gr4 ,vasengemlde1 #agig-ahjj4 ,footnote #cj3 ,monumenti per servire alla storia degli ant4 pop4 ital4 #bnd edn4 #ahcc2 ,monumenti inediti1 #ahdd4 ,footnote #ca3 ,mon4 ,ind4 #ahbh4 ,footnote #cb3 ,grber der ,hellenen1 ,berlin1 #ahcg4 ,footnote #cc3 ,descr4 de quelques vases peints1 #ahdj4 ,footnote #cd3 ,die ,vasensammlung zu ,mnchen1 ,introduction4 ,footnote #ce3 ,he gave the name of ,etruria to the place in ,staffordshire where he set up his pottery1 after the supposed origin of the ancient vases4 ,footnote #cf3 ,namen der ,vasenbilder1 #ahdi4 ,footnote #cg3 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #ch3 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahcb1 p4 #ade ff4 ,footnote #ci3 ,peintures1 p4 viii4 ,footnote #dj3 ,der ,stil u4 ,herkunft der gr4 ,vasen1 p4 #df ff4 ,footnote #da3 ,rapporto ,volcente1 in ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahca1 p4 #ih ff4 ,footnote #db3 ,the names of the chief modern writers on the subject are given in the ,bibliography1 and in the notes to the ,historical ,chapters 7,,vi4-,,xi471 where also brief bibliographies are given4 ,footnote #dc3 ,the writer is indebted to the ,introduction to ,m4 ,pottier's admirable little ,catalogue of the ,vases in the ,louvre for many ideas worked up in the foregoing pages4 ,footnote #dd3 ,see ,pottier's ,catalogue1 i4 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #de3 ,see the ,introduction to ,furtwaengler's ,catalogue4 ,footnote #df3 ,cf4 the lists given by ,jahn1 ,vasens4 zu ,mnchen1 pp4 xi1 xiv1 with 7for instance7 the notes appended to the pages of ,reinach's ,rpertoire4 ,footnote #dg3 ,the collection made by ,baron ,hirsch in ,paris is now incorporated with this ,museum4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,sites ,,and ,,circumstances ,,of ,,discovery ,,of ,,greek ,,vases ,historical and geographical limits of subject--,description of ,greek tombs--,tombs in ,cyprus1 ,cyrenaica1 ,sicily1 ,italy--,condition of vases when found--,subsequent restorations--,imitations and forgeries--,prices of vases--,sites on which painted vases have been found3 ,athens1 ,corinth1 ,boeotia1 ,greek islands1 ,crimea1 ,asia ,minor1 ,cyprus1 ,north ,africa1 ,italy1 ,etruria--,vulci discoveries--,southern ,italy1 ,sicily4 ,before dealing with ,greek vases in further detail1 it may be as well to say something of the circumstances under which1 and the localities in which1 they have been discovered4 ,and further1 we must clearly define the limits of our subject1 both historically and geographically4 7#a7 ,historical4--,it may seem somewhat paradoxical to doubt whether the primitive pottery found on ,greek soil ought1 strictly speaking1 to be called ,greek4 ,in a succeeding chapter we shall have occasion to touch upon the question of the ethnological origin of this pottery1 which1 in the opinion of some authorities1 is not the product of ,greeks as we understand the term1 but of some ,oriental nation1 such as the ,phoenicians4 ,it is1 however1 enough for our present purpose that it has been found on ,greek soil1 and that it forms a stage which we cannot omit from a study of the development of ,greek pottery1 seeing that its influence can be plainly traced on later fabrics4 ,turning to the other limit of the subject1 we find that nearly all the latest vases1 belonging to the period of the ,decadence1 were manufactured in ,southern ,italy or ,etruria4 ,but nearly all bear so unmistakably the stamp of ,greek influence1 however degenerate and obscured1 that we can only regard them as made by ,greek artists settled in the colonies of ,magna ,graecia1 or at any rate by native workers in direct imitation of the ,greeks4 ,we may roughly define our historical limits as from #bejj ,b4,c41 the approximate age of the early pottery of ,crete1 ,cyprus1 and ,hissarlik1 down to #bjj ,b4,c41 when the manufacture of painted vases came to an end under the growing dominion of ,rome4 ,it was formerly supposed that the senatorial edict of #ahf ,b4,c41 forbidding the performance of ,bacchanalian ceremonies in ,italy1 was the means of putting an end to this industry1 but this is hardly borne out by facts2 it rather died a natural death owing to the growing popularity of relief-work both in terracotta and in metal 7see ,chapters ,,xi4 and ,,xxii474 7#b7 ,geographical4--,having defined our historical limits1 it remains to consider the extent of ,greek civilisation during that period1 as attested by archaeological or other evidence4 ,besides the mainland of ,greece and the islands of the ,aegean ,sea1 the whole of ,asia ,minor may be regarded as in a measure ,greek1 although practically speaking only a strip of territory along the western coast became really ,hellenised1 and we shall not be concerned with pottery-finds in any other part of the country4#dh ,to the north-east1 ,greek colonisation penetrated as far as ,kertch and other places in the ,crimea1 known to the ancients as ,panticapaeum and the ,bosphoros respectively4 ,in the ,eastern ,mediterranean the island of ,cyprus will demand a large share of our attention4 ,egypt1 again1 has yielded large numbers of vases1 mostly from the two ,greek settlements of ,naukratis and ,daphnae2 and farther to the west along the north coast of ,africa was the ,greek colony of ,kyrene1 also a fruitful site for excavators4 ,the rest of the ground is covered by the island of ,sicily and the peninsular portion of ,italy from ,bologna southwards4 ,greek vases have occasionally turned up in ,spain1 ,gaul 7i4e4 ,france and ,north ,italy71 as at ,marseilles 7,massilia71 where primitive ,greek pottery has been found1 and also in ,sardinia2 but the ,western ,mediterranean sites are chiefly confined to ,southern ,italy and ,etruria4 ,in fact1 till recent years these regions were almost our only source of information on ,greek pottery1 as has already been pointed out4 ,generally speaking1 it may be said that all ,greek vases have been found in tombs1 but the circumstances under which they have been found differ according to locality4 ,we propose in the succeeding section to say something of the nature of the ancient tombs1 and the differences between those of ,greece1 ,cyprus1 ,italy1 and other sites4 ,of finds on the sites of temples and sanctuaries it is not necessary to say much here2 the explanation of such discoveries will receive some attention in ,chapter ,,iv41 and the individual sites will also be noted in the next section of this chapter4 ,it is a rare occurrence to find complete vases under these circumstances1 as they generally owe their preservation to the fact that they have been broken in pieces and cast away as rubbish into holes and pits4 ,the most notable instance is the remarkable series of fragments discovered on the ,acropolis at ,athens4 ,greek tombs are not usually very remarkable in character1#di being for the most part small and designed for single corpses2 this may possibly account for the comparatively small size of the vases discovered on most ,hellenic sites4 ,in the earlier tombs at ,athens and ,corinth the pottery was found at a very great depth below the soil4 ,the six shaft-graves in the circle at ,mycenae are of great size1 and contained large quantities of painted pottery2 an exact reproduction of the sixth1 found by ,m4 ,stamatakis in #ahgh1 with its contents1 is in the ,national ,museum at ,athens4 ,here also are reproductions of two typical fifth-century ,greek tombs containing sepulchral lekythi1#ej and showing how the vases were arranged round the corpse4#ea ,rock-graves are seldom found in ,greece1 the normal form of tomb being a hole or trench dug in the earth1 either filled in with earth or covered with tiles 7as at ,tanagra74 ,the rock-grave is almost exclusively ,asiatic1 but some fine specimens were found at ,kertch in the ,crimea4#eb ,some large ones have also been found in ,rhodes1#ec but the most typical form of tomb there is a square chamber cut out of the hard clayey earth1 approached by a square vertical shaft and a door4 ,they generally contained single bodies1 round which were ranged vases and terracotta figures4 ,sir ,a4 ,biliotti1 in his diary of the excavations at ,kameiros 7#ahfd71 also records the finding of tombs cut in the clay in the form of longitudinal trenches1 covered with flat stones forming a vaulted roof4 ,others were merely troughs cut in the surface of the rock and covered with stones and earth4 ,in the shafts of the first type of tomb large jars or were often found containing the bones of children 7see page #aeb74 ,nearly all these tombs have yielded ,greek vases of all dates4 ,in the island of ,karpathos#ed ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,bent found tombs containing early pottery1 consisting of two or three chambers with stone benches round the sides4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,interior ,,of ,,coffin ,,found ,,at ,,athens1 ,,showing ,,arrangement ,,of ,,vases4 ,the tombs of ,cyprus are especially interesting for two reasons3 firstly1 that they exhibit types not found elsewhere2 and1 secondly1 that they vary in size and character at different periods of the island's history4 ,in the earliest tombs of the ,bronze ,age period 7down to about #hjj ,b4,c47 we find a very simple type1 consisting of a mere oven-like hole a few feet below the surface of the ground1 with a short sloping leading to it 7,fig4 #b74 ,these tombs have very rarely been found intact1 and in most cases are full of fallen earth1 so that exact details of their original arrangement can seldom be obtained4 ,each tomb generally contained a few exported ,mycenaean vases and a large number of local fabric1 usually hand-made and rude in character4 ,the rich cemetery of ,enkomi is1 however1 an exception1 for here we find large built tombs1 with roofs and walls of stone4 ,sometimes the ,bronze ,age tombs were in the form of a deep well4#ee ,illustration3 ,from ,ath4 ,mitth4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,bronze ,,age ,,tombs1 ,,agia ,,paraskevi1 ,,cyprus4 ,in the ,graeco-,phoenician period 7about #gjj-cjj ,b4,c47 the 8oven0 type of tomb is preserved1 but on a larger scale and at a greater depth1 and often reached by a long flight of stone steps4 ,these tombs usually contain large quantities of the local geometrical pottery1 as many as eighty or a hundred vases being sometimes found in one tomb4 ,at ,curium and elsewhere1 where the tombs contain ,greek painted vases1 they are sometimes in the form of narrow ramifying passages4 ,the tombs of the ,hellenistic period are of a very elaborate character1 especially those of ,roman date1 with long narrow leading to a chamber some ten by twenty feet or more1 round the walls of which are sarcophagi and niches2 but these tombs seldom contain any but plain and inferior pottery1 the manufacture of painted vases in the island having come to an end1 as in the rest of ,greece4 ,frequently a tomb was found to contain pottery of widely different periods1 especially in cemeteries such as ,amathus and ,curium1 where the finds are of all dates1 showing that the tombs were used again and again for burials4#ef ,the tombs in the ,cyrenaica1 which were explored by ,mr4 ,dennis and contained many ,greek vases1 he describes as follows#eg3 8,the great majority of the tombs were sunk in the rock1 in the form of pits1 from #f to #g feet long1 from #c to #d feet wide1 and from #e to #f feet deep4444 ,vases were sometimes placed in all four corners of the sepulchre1 but this was rare2 they were generally confined to two corners1 often to one4 ,the most usual place was the corner to the right of the head1 and this was the place of honour2 for here a ,panathenaic vase in the tomb of a victor1 a ribbed amphora of glazed black ware1 or more commonly an ordinary wine-diota1 would be deposited upright1 with a number of smaller vases within it1 or at its foot1 either figured or of black or plain ware1 according to the circumstances of the deceased4 ,occasionally small vases1 or sometimes terracotta figures1 were placed along the sides of the tomb1 between the head and feet of the corpse2 but ,i do not remember ever to have found vases deposited on the breast1 or under the arms of the deceased1 as was often the case in the ,greek tombs of ,sicily40 ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans has given an interesting account of the tombs at ,gela 7,terranuova7 in ,sicily1 from which he has excavated many fine vases for the ,ashmolean ,museum4#eh ,chronologically the limits of their date can be ascertained1 between the foundation of ,gela in #ehi ,b4,c4 and its depopulation by the ,carthaginians in #dji ,b4,c41 but a few tombs belong to the subsequent period down to #bhd ,b4,c41 when it was finally destroyed by the ,mamertines4 ,in the early graves containing ,b4,f4 vases skeletons were found2 these tombs were in the form of terracotta cists with gabled covers and tiled floors4 ,the next stage1 containing ,r4,f4 vases1 has vaulted roofs made of two pieces of stone4 ,during this period cremation-pits containing ashes and bones are sometimes found2 the burnt bones were placed in kraters and covered with shallow vessels4 ,in these were found white lekythi1 in some respects rivalling those of ,athens2 but the subjects are domestic rather than sepulchral1 and they are probably1 like many of the ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases1 local fabrics4 ,some of the tombs with ,b4,f4 vases are in the form of chambers with vaulted cement roofs4 ,in the earlier tombs the disposition was usually as follows3 a kylix on the left side of the head1 an alabastron under the right arm1 and a lekythos under the left 7,fig4 #c474 ,the tombs of ,selinus1 which are all of early date1 have been described by a local explorer4#ei ,illustration3 ,from ,ashmolean ,vases4 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,disposition ,,of ,,vases ,,in ,,tomb ,,at ,,gela1 ,,sicily4 ,we next review the types of tombs in ,italy from which vases have been obtained4 ,those at ,vulci1 and in the ,etruscan territory generally1 from which the finest and largest vases have been extracted1 are chambers hewn in the rocks4 ,the early tombs of ,civita ,vecchia and ,cervetri are tunnelled in the earth2 in ,southern ,italy1 especially in ,campania1 they are large chambers1 about two feet under the surface4 ,in ,d',hancarville's work 7see p4 #ag7 an illustration is given#fj of a tomb in ,southern ,italy1 which is constructed of large blocks of stone1 arranged in squared masses1 called the ,etruscan style of masonry1 in contradistinction to the ,cyclopean4 ,the walls are painted with subjects1 the body is laid upon the stone floor1 and the larger vases1 such as the kraters1 are placed round it4 ,the jugs are hung upon nails round the walls4 ,fig4 #d4 gives an example of a tomb of this kind from ,veii4 ,a full account1 with illustrations1 of the tombs excavated in the ,certosa at ,bologna about thirty years ago1 has been given by ,signor ,zannoni4#fa ,the tombs of ,southern and ,central ,italy were made upon the same plan1 and the same description applies to both sites4#fb ,the most ordinary tombs were constructed of rude stones or tiles1 of a dimension sufficient to contain the body and five or six vases2 a small one near the head and others between the legs1 and on each side1 more often on the right than on the left side4 ,an oinochoe and phiale were usually found in every tomb2 but the number1 size1 and quality of the vases varied1 probably according to the rank or wealth of the person for whom the tomb was made4 ,the better sort of tombs were of larger size1 and constructed with large hewn stones1 generally without1 but sometimes completed with1 cement2 the walls were stuccoed1 and sometimes ornamented with painted patterns4 ,in these tombs1 which were like small chambers1 the body lay face upwards on the floor1 with the vases placed round it2 sometimes vases have been found hanging upon nails of iron or bronze1 attached to the side walls4 ,the vases in the larger tombs were always more numerous1 of a larger size1 and of a superior quality in every respect to those of the ordinary tombs1 which had little to recommend them except their form4 ,many of the larger and more important ,etruscan tombs have also been described and illustrated by ,dennis in his work on ,etruria1 especially those of ,vulci and ,corneto1 which are famous both for their contents and for the paintings which adorn their walls4#fc ,in the basement of the ,british ,museum may be seen large models of ,etruscan tombs in which the arrangement is carefully reproduced4 ,the vases1 as we have already mentioned1 are often ranged round the dead1 being hung upon or placed near the walls1 or piled up in the corners4 ,some hold the ashes of the deceased2 others1 small objects used during life4 ,they are seldom perfect1 having generally either been crushed into fragments by the weight of the superincumbent earth1 or else broken into sherds1 and thrown into corners4 ,some exhibit marks of burning1 probably from having accompanied the deceased to the funeral pyre4 ,sometimes they are dug up in a complete state of preservation1 and still full of the ashes of the dead4#fd ,these are sometimes found inside a large and coarser vase of unglazed clay1 which forms a case to protect them from the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,the ,,campana ,,tomb ,,at ,,veii1 ,,as ,,it ,,appeared ,,when ,,opened4 99 99 99 99 99 ,almost all the vases in the museums of ,europe have been mended1 and the most skilful workmen at ,naples and ,rome were employed to restore them to their pristine perfection4 ,their defective parts were scraped1 filed1 rejoined1 and supplied with pieces from other vases1 or else completed in plaster of ,paris1 over which coating the restored portions were painted in appropriate colours1 and varnished1 so as to deceive the inexperienced eye4 ,but either through carelessness1 or else owing to the difference of process1 the restorations had one glaring technical defect3 the inner lines are not of the glossy hue of the genuine vases1 and there is no indication of the thick raised line which follows the original outline in the old paintings4 ,sometimes the restorer pared away the ancient incrustation1 and cut down to the dull-coloured paste of the body of the vase4 ,sometimes he even went so far as to paint figures in a light red or orange oil paint on the black ground1 or in black paint of the same kind on orange ground4 ,but in all these frauds the dull tone of colour1 the inferior style of art1 and the wide difference between modern and ancient drawing and treatment of subjects1 disclose the deception4 ,the calcareous incrustation deposited on the vases by the infiltration into the tombs of water1 containing lime in solution1 can be removed by soaking the vases in a solution of hydrochloric acid4#fe ,in other cases vases with subjects have been counterfeited by taking an ancient vase covered entirely with black glaze1 tracing upon it the subject and inscription intended to be fabricated1 and cutting away all the black portions surrounding these tracings1 so as to expose the natural colour of the clay for the fictitious ground4 ,when red figures were intended to be counterfeited1 the contrary course was adopted1 the part for the figures only being scraped away1 and the rest left untouched4 ,vases1 indeed1 in which the ground or figures are below the surface should always be regarded with suspicion1 and their genuineness can only be determined by the general composition and style of the figures1 and by the peculiarities of the inscriptions4 ,the latter also are often fictitious1 being painted in with colours imitating the true ones1 and often incised2 indeed1 nearly all inscriptions incised after the vase has been baked are liable to give rise to suspicion4 ,the difference of style in the composition of groups1 and especially small points in the drawing1 such as the over-careful drawing of details1 the indication of nails1 and various other minute particulars1 are also criteria for detecting false or imitated vases4 ,water1 alcohol1 and acids will remove false inscriptions1 but leave the true ones intact4 ,greek vases are not so easy to imitate as terracotta figures1 the main difficulty being the black varnish1 which can never be successfully reproduced4 ,acids or alcohol will always remove modern counterfeits1 but cannot touch the original substance4 ,since the discovery in ,greece of white-ground vases forgers have had a better chance1 and they have often ingeniously availed themselves of genuine ancient vases on which to place modern paintings4 ,but the antique drawing is exceedingly difficult to imitate4 ,in former times ,pietro ,fondi established manufactories at ,venice and ,corfu1 and the ,vasari family at ,venice1 for fictitious vases1#ff and many such imitations have been made at ,naples for the purpose of modern decoration4 ,the first to make such an attempt in ,england was the famous potter ,wedgwood1 whose copy of the ,portland ,vase is well known4 ,his paste is1 however1 too heavy1 and his drawings far inferior to the antique in freedom and spirit4 ,at ,naples1 chiefly through the researches and under the direction of ,gargiulo1 vases were produced1 which in their paste and glaze resembled the antique1 although the drawings were vastly inferior1 and the imitation could be at once detected by a practised eye4 ,they were1 indeed1 far inferior in all essential respects to the ancient vases4 ,even soon after the acquisition of the ,hamilton collection by the public1 the taste created for these novelties caused various imitations to be produced4 ,some of the simplest kind were made of wood1 covered with painted paper1 the subjects being traced from the vases themselves1 and this was the most obvious mode of making them4 ,battam also made very excellent facsimiles of these vases1 but they were produced in a manner very different from that of the ancient potters1 the black colour for the grounds or figures not being laid on with a glaze1 but merely with a cold pigment which had not been fired1 and their lustre was produced by a polish4 ,in technical details they did not equal the imitations made at ,naples1 some of the best of which deceived both archaeologists and collectors4 ,sometimes illustrations of vases which never had any real existence have appeared in publications4 ,one of the most remarkable of these fabricated engravings was issued by ,brndsted and ,stackelberg in a fit of archaeological jealousy4 ,a modern archaeologist is seen running after a draped woman called ,,ph,m1 or 8,fame10 who flies from him exclaiming1 1 8,a long way off1 my fine fellow60 ,this vase1 which never existed except upon paper1 deceived the credulous ,inghirami1 who too late endeavoured to cancel it from his work4 ,other vases1 evidently false1 have also been published4#fg ,m4 ,tyszkiewicz1 the great collector1 in his entertaining ,souvenirs1#fh gives some interesting illustrations of the methods of ,italian forgers of vases1 of which he had frequent experience4 8,the ,neapolitans10 he says1 8excel above all others in this industry2 and it is in ancient ,capua1 now ,sta4 ,maria di ,capua ,vetere1 that the best ateliers for the manufacture of painted vases are situated40 ,but 8even the famous connoisseur ,raimondi1 who was considered the master of his art at ,sta4 ,maria--even he could never invent altogether the decoration of a vase so as to make it pass for an antique4 ,only if this talented artist could get just a few fragments of a fine vase1 he was clever enough to be able1 by the aid of illustrations of vases in museums or in private collections1 to reconstruct the whole subject4 ,he replaced the missing parts1 and threw such an air of uniformity over the vase that it was almost impossible to tell what was modern4 ,but if you tried to wash a vase faked up in this manner1 in pure alcohol chemically rectified1 you would find that the modern portions would vanish1 while the ancient paintings would remain4 ,neither ,raimondi nor any one else could ever manage to discover the secret of the ancient potters--how to obtain the background of a brilliant black colour1 improperly known as the varnish of ,nola4 ,to disguise their failure in this respect1 the forgers are obliged1 when the vase is entirely reconstructed and repainted1 to cover it all over with a varnish of their own invention2 but the surface of this varnish1 although brilliant1 lacks the freshness and brightness of that used by the ancients4 ,relatively this surface appears dull1 and vanishes the moment it is washed with alcohol40 ,at ,athens also1 says ,m4 ,tyszkiewicz1 laboratories have been established for making vases1 of which he was acquainted with three4 ,these forgers excel in turning out the white-ground vases1 which1 even when antique1 cannot resist the action of alcohol4 ,for the same reason they apply gilding to their black-and-red vases1 because this also yields to its action4 ,the large prices fetched by the white vases 7see below7 have stimulated their activity in this direction1 and their efforts have not been without artistic merit1 though failing in technique4#fi ,on the subject of forgeries in relation to ,greek vases the literature is very scanty2 but reference may be made to ,prof4 ,furtwaengler's ,neuere ,flschungen von ,antiken1 which raises some very interesting questions in regard to forgeries1 though his conclusions may sometimes be thought rather arbitrary4 ,of the prices paid for painted vases in ancient times1 no positive mention occurs in classical authorities1 yet it is most probable that vases of the best class1 the products of eminent painters1 obtained considerable prices4 ,for works of inferior merit only small sums were paid1 as will be seen by referring to the account of the inscriptions which were incised underneath their feet1 and gave their contemporary value 7,chapter ,,xvii474 ,in modern times we have no information about the prices paid for these works of art till about seventy years ago1 when they began to realise considerable sums4 ,in this country the collections of ,mr4 ,towneley1 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 ,lord ,elgin1 and ,mr4 ,payne ,knight all contained painted vases2 but as they included other objects1 it is difficult to determine the value placed on the vases4 ,the sum of #h1djj was paid for the vases of the ,hamilton collection1 one of the most remarkable of the time1 and consisting of many beautiful specimens from ,southern ,italy4 ,the great discoveries of the ,prince of ,canino in #ahbg1 and the subsequent sale of numerous vases1 gave them1 however1 a definite market value1 to which the sale of the collection of ,baron ,durand1 which consisted almost entirely of vases1 affords some clue4 ,his collection sold in #ahcf for #cac1afj francs1 or about #ab1ebd4 ,the most valuable specimen in the collection was the vase representing the death of ,kroisos 7,fig4 #acb71 which was purchased for the ,louvre at the price of #f1fjj francs1 or #bfd4 ,the cup with the subject of ,arkesilaos 7p4 #cdb7 brought #a1jej francs1 or #db4 ,another magnificent vase1 now in the ,louvre1 with the subject of the youthful ,herakles strangling the serpents1#gj was only secured for ,france after reaching the price of #f1jjj francs1 or #bdj2 another1 with the subject of ,herakles1 ,deianeira1 and ,hyllos1#ga was purchased for the sum of #c1eej francs1 or #adb4 ,a krater1 with the subject of ,akamas and ,demophon bringing back ,aithra1 was obtained by ,magnoncourt for #d1bej francs1 or #agj4gb ,an amphora of the maker ,exekias 7,b #baj7 was bought by the ,british ,museum for #adb4 ,the inferior vases of course realised much smaller sums1 varying from a few francs to a few pounds2 but high prices continued to be obtained1 and the sale by the ,prince of ,canino in #ahcg of some of his finest vases contributed to enrich the museums of ,europe1 although1 as many of the vases were bought in1 it does not afford a good criterion as to price4 ,an oinocho with ,apollo and the ,muses1 and a hydria1 with the same subject1 were bought in for #b1jjj francs1 or #hj each4 ,a kylix1 with a love scene1 and another with ,priam redeeming ,hektor's corpse1#gc brought #f1fjj francs1 or #bfd4 ,an amphora with the subject of ,dionysos1 and the ,euphronios cup with ,herakles and ,geryon 7,plate ,,xxxviii471 sold for #h1jjj francs1 or #cbj each4 ,a vase with the subject of ,theseus seizing ,korone 7,chap4 ,,xiv471 another by ,euthymides with the arming of ,paris1 and a third with ,peleus and ,thetis1 sold for #f1jjj francs1 or #bdj4 ,the collector ,steuart was offered #g1ejj francs1 or #cjj1 for a large krater1 found in ,southern ,italy1 ornamented with the subject of ,kadmos and the dragon2 #abj was paid by the ,british ,museum for a fine krater ornamented with the exploits of ,achilles#gd2 #ajj for an amphora of ,apulian style1 with the subject of ,pelops and ,oinomaos at the altar of the ,olympian ,zeus4#ge ,for another vase1 with the name of ,mousaios1 #abj was paid1 and #ajj for the well-known ,athenian prize vase excavated by ,burgon4#gf ,at ,mr4 ,beckford's sale the ,duke of ,hamilton gave #bjj for a lekythos representing a procession of ,persians1 which is now in the ,british ,museum 7,e #fie74 ,at ,naples the passion for possessing fine vases outstripped these prices2 #b1djj ducats1 or #ejj1 was given for a vase with gilded figures discovered at ,capua4 ,still more incredible1 early in the nineteenth century1 #h1jjj ducats1 or #a1ejj1 was paid to ,vivenzio for the vase now in the ,naples ,museum representing the sack of ,troy2 #f1jjj ducats1 or #a1jjj1 for one with a ,dionysiac feast2 and #d1jjj ducats1 or #hjj1 for the grand vase with the battle of the ,amazons1 published by ,schulz4#gg ,another vase1 for which the sum of #a1jjj was paid1 was the so-called ,capo di ,monte ,vase1 purchased by ,mr4 ,edwards1 at ,naples4#gh ,for the large colossal vases of ,southern ,italy from #cjj to #ejj has been given1 according to their condition and style4 ,but such sums will not be hereafter realised1 now that their place in the estimation of the connoisseur has been rightly taken by the fine red-figured or white ground vases1 which1 owing to the stringency of modern laws1 seldom now find their way into the market4 ,the vases with white grounds and polychrome figures have also been always much sought after1 and have realised large prices1 the best-preserved examples fetching as much as #gj or #ajj4gi ,generally the highest prices have been paid for artistic merit1 but these have been surpassed in the case of some vases of high literary or historical value4 ,as a general rule vases with inscriptions have always been most sought after1 especially when the inscriptions are the signatures of the names of potters or artists1 or names of historical interest4 ,the inferior kinds have fetched prices much more moderate1 the kylikes averaging from #e to #aj1 the amphorae from #aj to #bj1 the hydriae about the same2 the kraters from #e to #bj1 according to their general excellence1 the oinochoae about #e1 and other shapes from a few shillings to a few pounds4 ,the charming glaze and shapes of the vases discovered at ,nola have often obtained good prices from amateurs4 ,those of ,greece ,proper have also fetched higher prices than those of ,italy1 on account of the interest attached to the place of their discovery4#hj 99 99 99 99 99 ,we propose now to give a survey of the principal localities in which the fictile products of the ,greeks have been discovered1 and the excavations which have taken place on these sites4 ,it need hardly be said1 however1 that it is quite impossible to detail all the places where specimens of common pottery have been found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,map ,,of ,,greece4 ,i4 ,,greece ,we naturally begin with ,greece1 following the geographical order observed by ,jahn1#ha as the mainland and centre of ,hellenic civilisation2 and since ,athens was not only the principal1 for many years the only1 centre of the manufacture of ,greek vases1 but has also been the most prolific source of recent discoveries1 it is to ,athens that we first turn our attention4 ,athens was duly celebrated in ancient times as the chief home of the ceramic industry4#hb ,the clay of ,cape ,kolias is eulogised by ,suidas for its excellent qualities1 and the extent of the 1 or potters' quarter1 is still visible beyond the ,dipylon gate4 ,one of the earliest painted vases found on ,attic soil was the famous ,panathenaic amphora discovered by ,burgon in #ahac outside the ,acharnian gate1 and now in the ,british ,museum4#hc ,the tomb in which it was found also contained remains of burnt bones1 a lekythos1 and other small vases4 ,the subjects are3 on one side ,athena brandishing a spear1 with the inscription 1 8,i am a prize from the games at ,athens02 on the other1 a man driving a biga1 or two-horse chariot4 ,the date is usually considered to be about #efj ,b4,c4 ,it was rightly identified by the early writers as one of the prize-vases described by ,pindar in the passage we have quoted elsewhere 7p4 #acb71 and was the means of identifying many other vases similarly painted and inscribed1 but found on other sites1 as belonging to the same class4 ,a considerable number of vases found on ,greek soil1 mostly at ,athens1 were published by ,stackelberg in #ahcg1hd but little was done for many years in the way of systematic excavation4 ,the ,national ,museum was opened shortly after the declaration of ,greek independence1 and assisted by royal benefactions4 ,the law forbidding the export of antiquities has now been in force for many years1 but unfortunately has had a bad as well as a good effect1 in that the vendors of surreptitious finds are wont to give imaginary accounts of the circumstances of their discoveries1 in order to screen themselves4 ,to give anything like a description of the vases found at ,athens would be useless here1 where so many classes are illustrated by the finds2 it may1 however1 be worth while to note a few of the most typically ,athenian groups of pottery4 7#a7 ,earliest in date are the ,dipylon vases1 which were found outside the gate of that name1 and have from their conspicuous character given a name to a whole class4 ,they are1 however1 fully treated of in ,chapter ,,vii4 7#b7 ,the numerous fragments of vases found on the ,acropolis1 which can all be dated anterior to #dhj ,b4,c41 include many exceedingly beautiful and unique specimens of the transitional period of vase-painting1 some having black1 some red figures4#he ,although in few cases anything more than fragments have been preserved1 yet these fragments are enough to show that the originals were masterpieces surpassing even the finest examples from the ,italian cemeteries4 ,they will1 it is to be hoped1 shortly be made known to the world by means of an exhaustive catalogue4 7#c7 ,the white lekythi1 discussed at length elsewhere 7,chapter ,,xi471 besides forming a class by themselves1 are specially remarkable as being almost peculiar to ,athens4 ,it is not1 however1 certain that they were not made also at ,eretria1 where many fine ones have been found of late years2 but otherwise none have been found outside ,attica1 with the exception of a few importations to ,cyprus1 ,locri in ,italy1 or ,sicily4 7#d7 ,a group of late ,r4,f4 vases of the 8fine0 style1 mostly of small size and sometimes with polychrome decoration4 ,the drawing is free and graceful1 but tends to carelessness2 the subjects are drawn chiefly from the life of women and children4 ,some of the smaller specimens were no doubt actually children's playthings4 ,elsewhere in ,attica vases have not been numerous4 ,eleusis has yielded some interesting fragments1#hf including a plaque of about #djj ,b4,c41 with an interesting representation of the local deities1 found in #ahie2 at ,marathon the grave of the fallen warriors has been recently explored1 and was found to contain both ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases1 but none of particular merit4#hg ,the find was1 however1 important1 as illustrating ,greek methods of burial4 ,the tombs of ,phaleron are important1 as having yielded a special class of early vases which are known by the name of the site4#hh ,these ,phaleron vases combine in an interesting manner the characteristics of the ,geometrical and ,rhodian or ,oriental styles1 being akin to the so-called ,proto-,corinthian4 ,the beehive tombs at ,menidi and ,spata and other tombs at ,haliki1 near ,marathon1 have yielded ,mycenaean pottery of the usual types1 and an instructive find of early ,geometrical pottery has been made at ,aphidna4#hi ,there are vases in the museums of ,athens and ,berlin of various dates1 to which the following provenances are assigned3 ,alike1 ,alopeke1 ,hymettos1#ij ,kephissia1 ,cape ,kolias1#ia ,pikrodaphni1#ib ,peiraeus1#ic ,sunium1#id ,thorikos1#ie ,trakhones1#if ,vari1#ig ,velanideza1 and ,vourva1 the two latter near ,marathon4#ih ,megara#ii has produced little beyond specimens of a class of late bowls with designs in relief1 sometimes known as 8,megarian bowls10 but more probably of ,boeotian origin 7see p4 #ec74 ,corinth1 as a centre of the manufacture of vases1 occupied in early times a position in ,greece only second to ,athens4 ,down to the first half of the sixth century it actually seems to have held the pre-eminence2 but after the rise of ,athens it sank altogether into obscurity1 and ceased to produce any pottery at all after about #ebj ,b4,c4 ,but we know from ,strabo#ajj that the fame of ,corinthian wares still existed in ,roman times1 for in the days of ,julius ,caesar the tombs of the new ,colonia ,julia were ransacked for the vases which were the admiration of the rich nobles of ,rome4 ,the expression used by ,strabo1 1 seems to imply that these were probably specimens of the later relief-ware which did not become popular in ,greece before the fourth century1 but then gradually ousted the painted fabrics4 ,corinth1 like ,athens1 claimed the invention of pottery and of the wheel2 it was also one of the supposed centres of the origin of painting in ,greece4 ,we read1 moreover1 that when ,demaratos fled thence to ,italy he took with him two artists named ,eucheir and ,eugrammos1 who doubtless helped to develop the art of vase-making in ,etruria4 ,the vases found here are nearly all of the early archaic and ,b4,f4 periods1 from the so-called ,proto-,corinthian wares down to ordinary ,b4,f4 fabrics4 ,the ,mycenaean and ,geometrical styles are practically unrepresented1 but occasional finds have been made of ,attic ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases4 ,with these exceptions all were actually made at ,corinth1 as is shown in many cases by the inscriptions in the local alphabet painted upon the vases4 ,the earliest discovery1 and in some respects one of the most remarkable1 was the vase known as the ,dodwell pyxis 7see p4 #cae71 which was acquired by that traveller in #ahje1 and is now at ,munich4 ,in #ahce a large number of vases were found by peasants at ,chiliomodi1 the ancient ,tenea1#aja one of which represented ,herakles and the ,centaur ,nessos2 most of these are now at ,athens4 ,in #ahdc ,ross#ajb records the discovery of over a thousand at various sites1 on the ,isthmus and at or near ,tenea1 and ever since that time tomb-digging has been carried on without intermission4 ,the best collections of ,corinthian vases are those at ,athens1 ,berlin1 and the ,british ,museum4 ,but the most noteworthy find at ,corinth has been that of the series of plaques 77 or votive tablets discovered at ,penteskouphia in #ahgi1 most of which are now at ,berlin4 ,they are all of votive character1 and come from the rubbish-heap of a temple of ,poseidon2 most of them are painted with figures of and inscribed with dedications to that deity1 and they belong to the late seventh or early sixth century ,b4,c4#ajc ,the ,british ,museum possesses a ,r4,f4 8pelike0 from ,solygea1 near ,corinth1 and isolated finds are also recorded from ,sikyon4#ajd ,turning to the adjoining state of ,argolis1 we find three sites of special importance in early times--,mycenae1 ,tiryns1 and ,argos4 ,of these the two former had ceased to have any importance in historic times1 but this is amply compensated for by the wonderful discoveries of the ,mycenaean period4#aje ,at ,mycenae large quantities of painted pottery were found in the six shaft-tombs in the ,agora1 five of which were excavated by ,dr4 ,schliemann2 outside the ,acropolis1 and possibly belonging to a later period1 was found the remarkable vase with figures of warriors marching4#ajf ,the finds at ,tiryns were chiefly fragmentary1 but at ,nauplia1 where considerable quantities were found1 there were some fragments with painted designs of chariots like the vases from ,cyprus 7p4 #bdf74ajg ,mycenaean pottery has also been found at ,asine1#ajh and the site of the ,heraion at ,argos1 recently excavated by the ,american ,school1 has yielded an exhaustive series of fragments of pottery1 representative of nearly every known fabric from ,mycenaean times down to the best ,greek period4 ,they have not as yet been published1 but may be expected to yield important results4 ,other occasional finds are reported from ,argos1 including a curious archaic vase with a representation of ,herakles and ,kerberos4#aji ,at ,kleonae1 on the northern frontier of the state1 was found a ,corinthian vase signed by ,timonidas1 and there are vases from ,hermione in the museum at ,athens4#aaj ,in the rest of the ,peloponnese finds of painted vases have been exceedingly rare4 ,the ,berlin ,museum possesses a ,b4,f4 vase found at ,megalopolis1#aaa and isolated finds are also recorded from ,magoula in ,laconia and ,amyklae near ,sparta4#aab ,at ,olympia painted vases were very rare1 but several different fabrics from the ,proto-,corinthian downwards are represented by fragments4#aac ,in ,central and ,northern ,greece the only fruitful region has been ,boeotia1 particularly its capital1 ,thebes4 ,this city1 like ,corinth1 has principally yielded early vases4 ,as has been shown elsewhere 7pp4 #bhf1 #cjj71 ,boeotia was the home of more than one indigenous fabric1 notably the local variety of ,geometrical ware1 partly parallel with that of ,athens and other sites1 partly a degenerate variety with local peculiarities1 forming a transition to the ,phaleron and ,proto-,corinthian fabrics4 ,the last-named have frequently been found at ,thebes1 notably the ,macmillan lekythos in the ,british ,museum4 ,signed vases of local fabric1 with the names of ,gamedes1 ,menaidas1 and ,theozotos1 are in the ,british ,museum and in the ,louvre4 ,on the site of the ,temple of the ,kabeiri1 near ,thebes1 a remarkable series of late ,b4,f4 pottery came to light1 evidently a local fabric1 with dedicatory inscriptions and subjects of a grotesque or caricatured nature4#aad ,they are quite peculiar to the site1 and seem to have had a close connection with its religious rites4 ,besides many examples of the ,geometrical and ,corinthian fabrics1 there have been found at ,thebes several specimens of the so-called ,megarian bowls with reliefs1 of the second century ,b4,c42 the proportion to other sites is such that ,thebes has been thought to be the centre of the fabric4 ,another local fabric is that produced by ,tanagra about the end of the fifth century ,b4,c41 consisting of small cups1 toilet-boxes1 etc41 with somewhat nave outlined designs4#aae ,the vase-finds here have served as evidence for the dating of the terracotta statuettes1 with which no painted fabrics were found1 but only ribbed or moulded black-glaze wares1 characteristic of the fourth and third centuries ,b4,c4#aaf ,where painted vases have been found1 the accompanying statuettes were all of an archaic or even primitive type4#aag ,in excavations at ,orchomenos in #ahicaah the ,french ,school unearthed large numbers of fragments1 ,mycenaean1 ,boeotian ,geometrical1 ,proto-,corinthian1 ,corinthian1 and ,attic black-figured2 ,mycenaean vases have been found at ,lebadea1 and ,thespiae1 ,thisbe1 and ,akraiphiae are also mentioned as sites where painted vases have been found4#aai ,very few sites in ,northern ,greece have yielded finds of pottery1 but the ,athens ,museum contains ,r4,f4 vases from ,lokris1 ,phokis1 and ,lamia#abj on the ,malian ,gulf1 and finds are also recorded from ,anthedon1#aba ,atalante1#abb ,exarchos1 and ,galaxidi in ,lokris1 from ,elateia1#abc ,abae1#abd and ,daulis in ,phokis1 and from ,thessaly4 ,fragments of painted pottery were seen by early travellers at ,delphi4#abe ,at ,daulis the pottery was of ,mycenaean character1#abf as also that from the beehive-tombs of ,volo in ,thessaly and its neighbourhood4 ,a recent excavation at ,dimini is reported to have yielded very early painted vases of a quite new1 probably local ware1 with affinities to the ,cycladic types of ,thera and elsewhere4#abg ,turning now to the ,greek islands1 we find somewhat more extensive and interesting results4 ,little indeed has been found in the ,ionian ,islands of the western coast1#abh even in ,corfu1 which as a rule has been fruitful in works of art4 ,the only vases worth mentioning from that island are those found in the cemetery of ,kastrades1 in the tomb of ,menekrates4#abi ,the contents of this tomb1 which are all of an early and somewhat mixed character1 are now in the ,british ,museum2 they can be dated from the inscription on the tomb about #fjj ,b4,c4 ,travelling round by the south of the ,peloponnese1 we come to ,kythera1 which has yielded a cup 7now in the ,british ,museum7 remarkable for its inscription1 2 it is illustrated below1 p4 #ace4 ,salamis#acj again has produced little1 but some interesting pottery of a transitional character from ,mycenaean to ,geometrical has been found4#aca ,aegina appears to have been a pottery centre in early times1 and recent discoveries are adding to our knowledge of its fabrics4 ,among the older finds from this island are a fine early oinochoe in the ,british ,museum 7from the ,castellani collection71 formerly supposed to be from ,thera1#acb and several very fine red-figured and white-ground vases1 notably the elegant ,r4,f4 astragalos or knucklebone-shaped vase in the ,british ,museum1 with its figures of dancers2 a white ,athenian lekythos1 with the subject of ,charon1#acc and two beautiful vases now in the ,munich ,museum 7#bjh1 #bji71 with polychrome designs on a white ground4#acd ,in #ahib-ic the ,british ,museum acquired a series of ,mycenaean1 ,corinthian1 and ,attic vases from a find on this island1#ace and other examples of ,corinthian and ,attic vases are recorded4#acf ,in #ahid excavations were made on the site of the so-called temple of ,aphrodite1 and yielded a number of early vases chiefly ,mycenaean1 ,geometrical of the ,athenian type1 and a large series of ,proto-,corinthian wares1 some of unusual size4#acg ,some of this pottery may possibly be of local fabric4 ,more recently the excavations on the site of the great ,doric temple 7now shown to be dedicated to the goddess ,aphaia7 have yielded an extensive series of fragments of different dates4#ach ,aegina was always celebrated in antiquity for its artistic achievements1 and that it was a centre for pottery is indicated by an anonymous comic writer1 who addresses the island as 8rocky echo1 vendor of pots0 774#aci ,euboea possessed two important art-centres in ,chalkis and ,eretria4 ,it is true that no vases have actually been found at ,chalkis1 but the existence of early ,b4,f4 vases with inscriptions in the local dialect amply testifies to the existence of potteries there 7see p4 #cba74 ,eretria1 on the other hand1 has been carefully excavated in recent years1 and has yielded many antiquities both of the early and of the finest period4 ,among the former are vases of a type akin to the earlier ,attic fabrics1 but distinguished by the use of a 8pot-hook0 decorative ornament1 and others more akin to the ,attic ,b4,f4 vases1 but clearly of local make#adj2 among the latter are so many fine white-ground lekythi 7as well as other forms7 that it has been supposed that they must have been specially manufactured here as well as at ,athens4 ,the ,british ,museum has lately acquired several white-ground and late ,r4,f4 vases of considerable beauty from this site4 ,many years ago an inscribed ,corinthian vase was found at ,karystos4#ada ,the ,cyclades4--,in these islands we find traces of absolutely the earliest fabrics known in the history of ,greek pottery1 but later finds of painted vases are comparatively rare4 ,mycenaean pottery has been found in the islands of ,amorgos1#adb ,delos and ,rheneia1 ,kythnos1 ,seriphos1 ,sikinos1 ,syros1 ,thera1 and ,melos4#adc ,other finds recorded are from ,paros and ,antiparos 7early fabrics71 ,keos1 ,kimolos1#add ,kythnos1#ade ,siphnos1 and ,syros#adf2 a remarkable ,ionic vase in the ,louvre1 found in ,etruria1 has also been attributed to an island fabric1 that of ,keos1#adg and another at ,wrzburg to that of ,naxos4#adh ,the chief finds of 8,cycladic0 or pre-,mycenaean pottery are those from the volcanic deposits of the island of ,thera 7see p4 #bfj71 which1 from the circumstances of their discovery and the geological history of the island1 are supposed to date back beyond #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,they are painted with vegetable patterns in brown on a white ground1 and have chiefly been excavated by the ,french ,school during the years #ahfg-gd2 a few are in ,athens1 but the majority are in the ,louvre or the ,svres ,museum4 ,in the superincumbent layers ,mycenaean and ,geometrical pottery came to light1#adi and a fragment of a large ,melian amphora with the so-called ,asiatic ,artemis1 now in the ,berlin ,museum 7,no4 #cja71 is stated by ,ross to have come from this island4 ,the same traveller saw here large with painted subjects of early character and similar smaller vases1 also some with black figures1 in a private collection4#aej ,more recently 7in #aijj7 excavations made in the ,acropolis cemetery by ,german archaeologists yielded a large quantity of pottery1 chiefly ,geometrical in character1 extending from the eighth to the middle of the sixth century ,b4,c4#aea ,the vases found in ,melos amount to a considerable number1 of different ages and styles4#aeb ,recent excavations by the ,british ,school on the site of ,phylakopi brought to light large quantities1 not only of ,mycenaean1 but of pre-,mycenaean remains1 including pottery4#aec ,mr4 ,thomas ,burgon's collection included many ,b4,f4 and later vases from ,melos1 now in the ,british ,museum2 they are mostly small and unimportant4 ,ross also saw painted vases in ,melos4#aed ,the island is1 however1 chiefly celebrated for a class of early vases1 few in number1 but of exceptional merit1 which have mostly been found in the island1 and so are known as 8,melian0 amphorae 7see below1 p4 #cja74 ,recently1 however1 large numbers of fragments of similar pottery have been found at ,rheneia1 opposite ,delos1 and it is possible that ,delos was the centre of the fabric1 not ,melos1 as hitherto supposed4#aee ,they date from the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,among the finds of later date from ,melos1 by far the most noteworthy is the ,louvre ,gigantomachia krater 7see ,chapter ,,xii474#aef ,turning now to the eastern group of ,aegean ,islands1 known as the ,sporades1 we begin with ,lesbos1 where many fragments of ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases were found by ,mr4 ,newton during his ,vice-,consulate4 ,from epigraphical evidence it seems probable that many of the early ,b4,f4 fragments found at ,naukratis 7see below7 should be attributed to a ,lesbian fabric1 but this has not so far been established4 ,vases have also been found in ,tenedos and ,chios4#aeg ,next we come to ,samos1 an island always renowned in antiquity for its fictile ware4 ,the ,homeric hymn to the potters is addressed to ,samians4 ,it was1 however1 in ,roman times that its renown was especially great1 and its connection with a certain class of red glazed wares has caused the name of 8,samian ,ware0 to be applied indiscriminately but falsely to all ,roman pottery of that kind4#aeh ,finds of pottery have1 however1 been few and far between4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a lekythos of the ,b4,f4 period in the form of a sandalled foot 7,plate ,,xlvi471 which ,mr4 ,finlay obtained here4 ,more recently ,dr4 ,bhlau excavated some early cemeteries1 and found a considerable quantity of pottery of the 8,ionic0 type1 which enabled him to establish a ,samian origin for certain wares of the sixth century4#aei ,kalymnos was explored by ,mr4 ,newton in #ahef1 but has yielded little beyond plain glazed ware1#afj and the same may be said of ,kos1 although the latter was famed in antiquity for its amphorae and culinary vessels4 ,the small islands of ,telos1#afa ,nisyros1 ,chiliodromia1#afb and ,karpathos have been explored at different times by ,ross1 ,theodore ,bent1 and others1 and have yielded vases of a late ,r4,f4 period1 corresponding to the later ,athenian fabrics1 several of which are in the ,british ,museum4 ,messrs4 ,bent and ,paton have also found pottery of the ,mycenaean period in ,kalymnos and ,karpathos#afc2 and similar remains are reported from ,kos4#afd ,but all other discoveries in the islands are far exceeded both in extent and importance by those of ,rhodes4#afe ,they are principally due to the labours of ,messrs4 ,salzmann and ,biliotti1 who diligently explored the island during the 'sixties1 and the results as far as pottery is concerned1 extend from ,mycenaean times down to the destruction of ,kameiros in #djd ,b4,c4 ,the earliest finds were on the site of ,ialysos1 and these are exclusively of 8,mycenaean0 type4 ,the tombs containing ,mycenaean vases were cut in the rock in quadrangular form1 with vaulted and steps4 ,this site was explored by the above-named gentlemen about the years #ahfg-gj1 and the results of the excavation1 by the liberality of ,prof4 ,ruskin1 found their way into the ,british ,museum4 ,their archaeological value was not recognised for some years2 but when the discoveries of ,mycenae became known1 it was at once seen that the ,ialysos pottery must fall into line with them4 ,kameiros is first heard of as a ,dorian colony of the eleventh century1 and its history extends down to #djh ,b4,c4 ,it was fully and systematically excavated between #ahei and #ahfd4 ,far more abundant and comprehensive than the ,ialysos results1 the ,kameiros finds illustrate the history of ,greek pottery from the ,geometrical period#aff down to the time of its decline1 and include many fine specimens of the ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 periods1 as well as numerous examples of the ,rhodian1 ,corinthian1 and other early classes1 from the eighth to the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,the most interesting discovery was perhaps that of the pinax1 with the fight over the body of ,euphorbos1 which is described elsewhere 7p4 #cce74 ,among the finer specimens of the later period is the polychrome pelike with ,peleus wooing ,thetis4 ,the majority of these finds are now in the ,british ,museum1 together with porcelain1 bronze1 and other objects illustrating the early pottery2 part also went to the ,louvre and to ,berlin4 ,the latest vases are of the free and careless type of late ,r4,f4 ,athenian fabrics1 and since they are known to be not later than the fifth century they supply valuable evidence for the dating of ,r4,f4 vases4 ,crete in all probability will1 before many years are over1 supply a great mass of material for the history of early ,greek pottery4 ,until recent years it has received little attention from travellers or explorers1 and few vases of any period have come therefrom into our ,museums4#afg ,but ,crete has always been looked to by archaeologists for the solution of the ,mycenaean problem1 and the systematic excavations now at length set on foot are even richer in their yield of ,mycenaean and primitive pottery than those of ,rhodes1 ,melos1 and ,cyprus4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,myres found at ,kamarais in #ahid a series of fragments of painted pottery with designs in opaque colours on a black ground1 which he regarded as pre-,mycenaean4#afh ,this theory was subsequently borne out by the discoveries of ,messrs4 ,arthur ,evans and ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth at ,knossos and elsewhere1 which have been very rich in pottery of a similar kind1 and also in vases with remarkably naturalistic patterns in relief4#afi ,other finds have been made in the ,dictaean ,cave1#agj at ,zakro#aga and ,palaeokastro1#agb at ,phaestos1#agc ,praesos1 ,erganos and ,kourtes1 and ,kavousi4#agd ,before we turn our attention to the continent of ,asia we must hark back to the ,european mainland1 working round by the northern coasts of the ,aegaean and ,euxine ,seas4 ,macedonia and ,thrace have yielded scarcely anything1#age but when we come to the northern shore of the ,black ,sea we find at ,kertch1 in the ,crimea 7the ancient ,panticapaeum71 a remarkable centre of ,greek artistic production4 ,the finds here are practically limited to one period1 covering little more than a hundred years1 and mainly illustrate the art of the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,there are1 however1 many magnificent vases1 which in style1 if not in shape or composition of subjects1 must belong to an earlier time--namely1 that of the fine red-figured period4#agf ,the excavations have mostly been undertaken by the ,russian ,government1 in whose museum at the ,hermitage the collections are now to be seen1 but much was done unsystematically by ,englishmen and others at the time of the ,crimean ,war4 ,it cannot be said that more than about one-quarter of the total find of #djj vases have any merit2 they are chiefly small1 with red figures1 and of the later fine period2 some are polychrome and ornamented with gilding4#agg ,the most remarkable by far is the vase signed by the ,athenian ,xenophantos 7p4 #ddg72 but that with the contest of ,athena and ,poseidon 7,plate ,l47 is also an exceptionally fine specimen2 and others have interesting subjects relating to the ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,at ,phanagoria an early ,b4,f4 vase of ,ionic style came to light4#agh ,vases have also been found at ,olbia on the neighbouring mainland1 at ,kief1 at ,temir ,gora in ,circassia1 and on the modern sites of ,blisnitza1 ,iouz ,oba1 ,melek ,chesme and ,pavlovski-,kourgane in the ,crimea4#agi ,,ii4 ,,asia ,,minor ,the ,troad first claims our attention4 ,here on the site of the second city of ,troy1 at ,hissarlik1 ,dr4 ,schliemann found the earliest pottery at present known from ,greek soil 7see ,chapter ,,vi474 ,this has been generally dated about #bejj-bjjj ,b4,c4 ,in subsequent excavations ,dr4 ,drpfeld proved the sixth city to be the ,homeric ,troy1 the remains from which1 including pottery1 are all of ,mycenaean character4 ,later finds of pottery from the ,troad are of no great importance#ahj2 some are of ,aeolic or ,ionian origin1 and others seem to be from an inferior local fabric1 consisting of flat bowls with looped side-handles1 carelessly painted in matt-black silhouette with figures of ducks and other animals4 ,some of these were found in #ahee-ef by ,mr4 ,brunton on the sites of ,new ,ilium and ,dardanus2 others by ,mr4 ,calvert in #ahge-gf1 and by ,drpfeld and ,brueckner in #ahic4 ,the finds of the two first-named are in the ,british ,museum1 together with some poor ,r4,f4 vases of late style4 ,from ,sigeion two polychrome lekythi have been reported1 resembling the ,attic white-ground fabric#aha2 ,jahn also records finds of painted vases from ,lampsakos and ,parion1#ahb and a fine gilded vase with figures in relief has recently been found on the former site4#ahc ,in ,aeolis and ,mysia the finds have not been considerable1 but some are of importance as throwing light on the existence of local fabrics4 ,in a private collection at ,smyrna there is or was a late ,b4,f4 vase from ,assos1 with careless silhouette figures4#ahd ,at ,pitane a very curious ,mycenaean false amphora has been found1 with figures of marine and other animals#ahe2 and at ,larisa ,dr4 ,bhlau has found fragments of early painted vases1 probably a local fabric imitating that of ,rhodes4#ahf ,,mm4 ,pottier and ,reinach1 in the course of their excavations at ,myrina 7#ahhd-he71 found pottery of various dates and styles3 ,mycenaean1 ,ionian1 ,corinthian1 ,attic ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f41 late ,r4,f41 and vases of the so-called ,gnatia style 7see p4 #dhh7 or with reliefs4#ahg ,among those which can be traced to an ,ionic or local fabric there is a very remarkable one with a head of a bearded man4 ,pergamon does not seem to have yielded any vases1 but ,kyme may have been a centre of ,ionic vase-manufacture 7see ,chapter ,,viii474 ,some fragments of an early ,b4,f4 krater have been found there which presents similar characteristics to those of the ,ionian fabrics mentioned below4#ahh ,coming lower down the coast of ,ionia we meet with the home of an important school of painting in the sixth century1 which seems to have centred in the flourishing cities of ,phocaea1 ,clazomenae and elsewhere round the ,gulf of ,smyrna4 ,the actual finds of such vases in the neighbourhood is not great1 but is compensated for by the remarkable series of painted terracotta sarcophagi discovered at ,clazomenae1 the finest of which is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,these1 which obviously represent the characteristics of the ,ionian school of painting1 show such a close relation with a series of vases found at ,naukratis and ,daphnae in ,egypt1 and at ,cervetri and elsewhere in ,italy1 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,asia ,,minor ,,the ,,archipelago ,showing sites on which painted vases have been found4 ,,fig4 #f4 that the latter classes can only be regarded as of ,ionian origin1 or1 if not imported1 local ,italian imitations of the ,ionic wares4 ,such are the ,caeretan hydriae which were directly imitated by the ,etruscans4#ahi ,a vase obtained at ,phocaea by ,mr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay in #ahhj 7p4 #bed7 appears to be an imported ,cypriote fabric of late date1 though archaic in appearance4 ,at ,smyrna little has been found1 but there are some vases attributed thereto in the ,leyden ,museum4 ,at ,clazomenae some fragments of painted vases in the style of the ,caeretan hydriae have recently been found1 which help to establish the theories above mentioned4#aij ,teos is associated with a particular kind of cup 7 7 mentioned by the poet ,alcaeus1#aia but nothing has been found there1 nor yet at ,kolophon1 ,ephesos1 or ,miletos4 ,in the interior regions of ,asia primitive painted pottery is recorded from ,mount ,sipylos1#aib and also from ,sardis on the sites of the tombs of the ,lydian kings4 ,from the tumulus known as ,bin ,tepe on the latter site the ,british ,museum has obtained 7through the agency of ,mr4 ,dennis7 some early pottery1 which is decorated apparently in direct imitation of ,phoenician glass wares4 ,fragments of ,mycenaean and other primitive fabrics are reported from ,cappadocia and from ,gordion in ,galatia1#aic and have been recently picked up by ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay at ,derbe in ,lycaonia4 ,in ,caria early local fabrics seem to be indicated by finds at ,mylasa and ,stratonikeia 7,idrias74#aid ,at ,assarlik ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,paton found pottery of a transitional character from ,mycenaean to ,geometrical4 ,tralles and ,knidos were famous in antiquity for pottery1#aie but have left virtually nothing1 nor has ,halicarnassos4 ,a ,mycenaean false amphora is reported from ,telmessos in ,lycia1 and fragments of ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases from ,xanthos4#aif ,from the distant site of ,susa in ,persia an interesting find has been recently reported1#aig of part of a ,r4,f4 rhyton in the form of a horse's head1 on which is painted the figure of a ,persian in polychrome on a white ground4 ,it belongs to the period #ejj-dhj ,b4,c41 and may have been carried off by the ,persians when they sacked the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,cyprus4--,this island is of special interest to us as being now the only classical land in our own possession4 ,although we have not perhaps utilised to the full extent the opportunities thereby afforded us for excavations1 yet of late years much has been done1 especially by the ,british ,museum1 to remedy this defect1 and the collection of ,cypriote antiquities in the national museum is now fully worthy of that institution and as representative as could be wished4 ,previous to the ,english occupation the island remained undisturbed1 with a few exceptions1 the first being the excavations of ,mr4 ,r4 ,lang at ,dali 7,idalion7 in #ahfg4 ,the finds here were chiefly of terracottas and sculpture1 and are now in the ,british ,museum1 but1 owing to the misconception of ,cypriote history that formerly prevailed1 have been somewhat incongruously placed in the ,oriental ,department4 ,meanwhile1 another consul1 ,general ,l4 ,cesnola1 was not slow to make use of his opportunities1 seeing in the obvious richness of the field1 the chances of gaining great distinction as an explorer4 ,of his energy and liberality in the cause there can be little doubt2 but he was not an archaeologist1 and did not realise the value of scientific evidence1 negative or positive4 ,hence1 although he deserves a meed of praise as the pioneer of ,cypriote exploration1 his statements are not always sufficiently explicit to be used without hesitation4 ,his extensive collections are now in the ,metropolitan ,museum at ,new ,york2 the ,british ,museum has a few of the vases1 but lost the opportunity of acquiring the whole4 ,another ,english consul1 ,mr4 ,sandwith1 also made a collection of ,cypriote pottery1 and1 with an acuteness in advance of his time1 made a successful attempt to classify it according to periods and styles4 ,lastly1 a brother of ,general ,cesnola's1 ,a4 ,p4 di ,cesnola1 who lived for some time in the island1 made large collections in the same manner as his brother1 but with the same lack of scientific accuracy4 ,the record of discoveries since #ahgh has been carefully systematised by ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,myres1 who has given an excellent summary of results4#aih ,the cemeteries in which the island is so extraordinarily rich may be divided into two classes3 ,bronze ,age tombs1 including ,mycenaean and earlier remains2 and ,graeco-,phoenician1 with tombs of ,hellenistic and ,roman date4 ,on some sites1 such as ,curium and ,salamis1 tombs of all periods are found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,map ,,of ,,cyprus4 ,mr4 ,myres notes about thirty sites on which ,bronze ,age pottery has been discovered1 mostly in the centre and east of the island1 i4e4 in the more level and cultivated districts4 ,the most important sites are ,enkomi 7,salamis71 ,curium1 ,alambra1 ,agia ,paraskevi 7,nicosia71 ,maroni1 and ,larnaka 7several sites71 at all of which ,mycenaean pottery has been found1 ,enkomi being especially rich in this respect2 others only contained local varieties1 either of the earliest incised wares or of the hand-made pottery which seems to have been a later development4 ,graeco-,phoenician pottery 7#gjj-cjj ,b4,c47 has been found in great quantities in all parts of the island1 chiefly at ,amathus1 ,dali1 ,larnaka 7,kition71 ,curium1 ,poli 7,marion71 ,paphos 7,kouklia71 ,salamis1 and ,tamassos4 ,in conjunction therewith ,hellenic vases have appeared at ,amathus1 ,curium1 ,salamis1 and especially at ,poli1 where some really fine ,r4,f4 vases have been found1 some with artists' names4#aii ,hellenistic pottery has appeared on most of the above sites1 ,poli and ,curium supplying the best examples4 ,the different varieties of ,cypriote pottery are described in detail in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,iii4 ,,africa ,greek settlements in ,africa were far fewer than in ,asia1 and in fact only two appear to have had any importance1 these being the ,ionic colony in the ,egyptian ,delta and the ,dorian colony from ,thera in the ,cyrenaica4 ,mycenaean vases have1 however1 appeared spasmodically in ,egyptian tombs of the eighteenth to twenty-first dynasties1 the evidence for the date of those at ,tell-el-,amarna 7c4 #adjj ,b4,c47 being apparently well established4 ,it should also be noted that pre-,mycenaean wares corresponding to the second city pottery at ,hissarlik and the ,kamaraes 7,crete7 pottery have been found at ,kahun and elsewhere in the ,faym1 in tombs of the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties 7#bejj-bjjj ,b4,c474#bjj ,painted and other pottery of the ,hellenistic age has not infrequently been found in ,egypt2 the ,british ,museum acquired a specimen from ,alexandria in #ahih with a boy riding on a fish painted in opaque pink and blue on a red unglazed ground4 ,other examples come from ,naukratis1#bja and from the ,faym4#bjb ,at ,alexandria1 where for obvious reasons no vases earlier than the third century could have come to light1 a hydria was found in the catacombs with a myrtle-wreath painted on a light ground2 this when discovered was filled with bones4#bjc ,other vases of the same type are said to be in the ,louvre4 ,in ,mons4 ,g4 ,feuardent's collection in ,new ,york1 the late ,prof4 ,merriam saw a group of seventy-five vases from rock-cut tombs at ,alexandria1 some with inscriptions4#bjd ,they include hydriae of a dark red clay1 covered with a white slip on which are polychrome designs 7,gorgoneia1 armour1 etc472 others of unglazed salmon-coloured clay1 painted with wreaths1 monsters1 etc42 two-handled vases of black ware with ribbed body and twisted handles1 decorated with medallions in relief and wreaths in white1 like the vases of ,gnatia 7p4 #dhh74 ,the inscriptions are laid on in ink with a reed1 or incised1 the former being in ,,ms4 type2 the method of dating is difficult to interpret1 but they seem to belong to the middle of the third century4 ,the ,ionian settlements of ,naukratis and ,daphnae 7,defenneh7 in the ,delta have yielded very important results for the history of ,greek pottery1 though differing in extent4 ,the finds of pottery at ,daphnae may from the circumstances of discovery be dated entirely between #fjj and #eej ,b4,c42 and though only fragmentary1 they are interesting not only as showing the results of ,egyptian influences1 but for the points of comparison they afford with the pottery of ,ionic origin and the ,clazomenae sarcophagi4 ,at ,naukratis1 on the other hand1 the finds form a complete series extending from the foundation of the city by ,milesians about #fej ,b4,c41 down to the end of the fifth century1 at which point importations of ,greek pottery ceased4 ,the earlier fabrics are by far the most important1 being almost entirely of local character and distinguished by the white ground on which the ,naucratite artist painted his designs or figures in various colours4 ,among the fragments of ,b4,f4 pottery were many with names of artists4 ,these finds were all made among the rubbish-heaps of temple-sites by the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund in #ahhd-hf1 with the exception of some subsequent work by the ,british ,school in #ahih-ii4 ,most of the results are in the ,british ,museum3 see also p4 #cde ff4 ,in the second season 7#ahhe-hf7 at ,naukratis were found several interesting fragments of a ,b4,f4 white-ground ware1 which from the nature of the designs has been connected with ,kyrene 7see ,chapter ,,viii41 p4 #cda74 ,but so far no specimens of this ware have been found in the latter place1 nor indeed anything earlier than the end of the fifth century4 ,it is to be hoped that the earlier cemeteries are yet to be discovered4 ,mr4 ,george ,dennis and others1 however1 explored a considerable tract of country in the ,cyrenaica between #ahef and #ahfh1bje and found many vases of late ,r4,f4 style1 some of considerable merit2 also several ,panathenaic amphorae of the fourth century on which the old ,b4,f4 method of painting is preserved4 ,these were found on the site of ,teucheira1 but most of the vases came from ,benghazi1 the ancient ,euesperitis1 more to the south-west1 the ancient name of which1 ,berenike1 came from the queen of ,ptolemy ,euergetes4 ,nearly all the vases found here are of the late fine ,r4,f4 period1 corresponding to those of the ,crimea2 they are1 however1 mostly smaller and inferior in merit4 ,the ,panathenaic amphorae can be dated by the names of ,athenian archons which appear upon them3 ,nikokrates1 #ccc ,b4,c42 ,hegesias1 #cbd ,b4,c42 ,kephisodoros1 #cbc ,b4,c42 ,archippos1 #cba ,b4,c42 and ,theophrastos1 #cac ,b4,c4 7see p4 #cij74 ,they are of course importations from ,athens4 ,among the ,r4,f4 vases is one representing a ,persian king attacked by a lion2 some have polychrome designs1 in one case combined with reliefs 7,b4,m4 ,g #ab74 ,most of the ,cyrenaica vases are now in the ,british ,museum and the ,louvre4 ,,iv4 ,,italy ,with the mainland of ,italy we include in our review the two islands of ,sicily and ,sardinia4 ,the remaining area in which ,greek pottery has been found on classical sites thus corresponds with the modern kingdom of ,italy4 ,beyond its borders there is only one site1 that of ,massilia 7,marseilles71 which has produced ,greek pottery4 ,vases of the primitive ,thera style 7see p4 #bfa7 were found here1#bjf betokening a system of commerce between ,east and ,west in those times4 ,the vases found in ,greece may be regarded as on the whole small in size and few in number1 when compared with those discovered in the ancient cemeteries and on the sites of the old cities of ,italy4 ,these are indeed so numerous that 7within certain limits7 they might in themselves almost serve as a basis for the history of ,greek vase-painting4 ,roughly speaking1 the vases found in ,italy fall into two geographical divisions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,map ,,of ,,italy4 ,the first division comprises the vases discovered in ,etruria1 which are found in every ,etruscan city of importance1 from ,atria or ,hadria at the mouth of the ,po to the very gates of ,rome itself4 ,in particular1 the tombs of ,caere1 ,tarquinii1 and above all ,vulci1 have yielded an immense number of vases4 ,the second is formed by the vases found in the southern half of the peninsula1 including the territories of ,campania1 ,lucania1 and ,apulia1 and the cities of ,magna ,graecia1 such as ,cumae1 ,locri and ,tarentum4 ,the establishment of the potter's art in these maritime cities at an early stage of ,greek history helped to infuse a certain degree of civilisation into the regions of the interior1 and its influence is to be seen in the pottery of the semi-barbarous populations1 such as the ,osco-,samnites and ,iapygians4 ,the chief sites for the discovery of vases are3 in ,apulia and ,calabria1 ,ruvo1 ,canosa1 and ,tarentum2 in ,lucania1 ,anzi2 in ,campania1 ,capua and ,nola4 ,we now proceed to describe in detail these sites and the discoveries of which they have been the scene4 ,it is obvious that it will be found impossible to enumerate every spot in ,italy where painted vases have been found1 but it is hoped that no place or site of interest has been omitted4 ,the order followed in describing these sites is a geographical one from north to south1 which on the whole will be found the most convenient4 ,we accordingly begin with the northernmost spot to which the exportation of ,greek vases seems to have reached--namely1 ,atria or ,hadria1 at the mouth of the ,po4 ,this place down to the time of ,pliny#bjg continued to manufacture drinking-cups of fine quality1 celebrated for their durability1 and painted vases have also been found in its tombs4 ,they were first excavated as early as the sixteenth century2 and in later excavations undertaken by the ,austrian ,government fragments of ,greek pottery were found at some depth below remains of the ,roman period4#bjh ,the cities of ,asti1 ,modena 7,mutina71 and ,pollenza 7,pollentia7 were also celebrated in ,pliny's time for their cups1 which he groups with those of ,arretium under the heading of 8,samian0 ware#bji2 specimens of this ware have been found in the two latter places4#baj ,near ,mantua a vase was discovered with the subject of ,perseus and ,andromeda#baa2 and others at ,gavolda on the ,mincio4#bab ,at ,genoa a fine ,r4,f4 krater was found in #ahih4bac ,bologna has been the scene of discoveries sufficiently important to demand a separate paragraph4 ,these were made by ,signor ,zannoni1 in #ahfi-gf1 in the cloister of the ,certosa convent1 and a fully illustrated description was published by him at the conclusion of his labours4#bad ,the finds include1 besides remarkable bronzes of the ,villanova period of ,italian civilisation 7#hjj-ejj ,b4,c471 a large number of ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases covering the whole period of exportations from ,athens to ,etruria 7#eej-djj ,b4,c471 and also some local imitations of ,b4,f4 fabrics4 ,all these are now in the ,museo ,civico at ,bologna4 ,turning now to the important district of ,,etruria1 which has been so prolific in discoveries of ancient vases1 we come first to ,pisa1 where1 in the beginning of the last century1 a potter's establishment was discovered4 ,since that time red-figured vases both of the severe and fine styles have been found1 including a hydria figured by ,inghirami4#bae ,at ,volterra 7,volaterrae7 ,jahn states that many painted vases have been found#baf2 but the contents of the local museum are limited to inferior ,etruscan pottery of the later period with yellow figures on black ground or staring heads painted in silhouette4 ,on the other hand some of the plain black ware is remarkably good4#bag ,arezzo 7,arretium7 enjoyed in ,pliny's time an even wider reputation than the places already mentioned1 for its pottery of all kinds1 not only cups#bah2 its ware is also referred to by ,martial and other authors4 ,these allusions have been fully borne out by the extensive discoveries of potteries that have been made2 the red glazed ware1 stamped with the potter's name and with designs in relief1 has been found in large quantities1 and fully justified the substitution of the name ,arretine for the old 8,samian0 in relation to the whole class4 ,it is more fully dealt with in the section on ,roman pottery 7,chapter ,,xxii474 ,few ,greek vases have been found here2 but ,lucignano in the neighbourhood is mentioned as a site where they have been discovered4#bai ,perugia was another important town of ancient ,etruria1 but does not appear to have been a centre either for the manufacture or importation of pottery4 ,the museum1 however1 contains several good ,greek vases with mythological subjects1 and some ,etruscan imitations of ,r4,f4 vases have also been found here4#bbj ,at ,chiusi 7,clusium71 on the other hand1 some very important discoveries have been made1 including the magnificent krater of the ,florence ,museum1 known as the 8,franois ,vase10 after its discoverer4#bba ,it was found in a tomb which had been already pillaged1 and was broken to pieces1 but entire4 ,many vases of the ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 periods have been found1 some signed with artists' names1 including those of ,pamphaios and ,anakles4 ,on the whole1 this site has yielded more fine vases than any in ,etruria1 except ,cervetri1 and of course ,vulci2 it is also noteworthy for the early ,etruscan black wares1 of which there are many remarkable specimens in the ,museum4#bbb ,the ,casuccini collection1 which was very representative of ,chiusi finds1 has now been disposed of en bloc to the ,museum at ,palermo4#bbc ,in the immediate neighbourhood is ,sarteano1 also remarkable for the specimens of early black ware which it has yielded1 but almost entirely deficient in painted vases4 ,at ,roselle 7,rusellae7 and ,orbetello in the ,maremma the finds of pottery have been of a comparatively insignificant character1 the vases of ,orbetello being nearly all late ,etruscan fabrics1 of rude forms1 with coarse ill-drawn subjects4 ,the same remark applies to ,toscanella1 near ,vulci1 where ,greek vases are seldom found4 ,bolsena 7,volsinii7 is specially distinguished by a curious class of late vases of coarse red ware with designs in relief1 which show evident signs of having been coated with a solution producing the effect of silver4#bbd ,they seem to be peculiar to this locality1 though ,athenaeus#bbe tells us that a similar practice was in vogue at ,naukratis4 ,no other kinds of pottery have been found4 ,at ,orvieto excavations were first made in #ahcj1 but without very great results2 the site was then neglected until the 'seventies1 during which years ,signor ,mancini's excavations were so successful that a local ,museum has been established1 which now contains many good specimens of ,greek vases1 as well as ,etruscan black wares4#bbf ,at ,viterbo various ,greek vases1 mostly black-figured1 were found in the early 'twenties1 and later on a kylix by the master ,euphronios came to light4#bbg ,bomarzo has yielded some good ,greek vases1 including signed examples by ,euphronios and ,hieron4#bbh ,corneto is more famous for the splendid wall-paintings of its tombs and for its coloured sarcophagi than for painted vases1 but has nevertheless yielded some vases of considerable interest1 notably a fine ,r4,f4 kylix with representation of the ,olympian deities1 signed by ,oltos and ,euxitheos1 the beautiful kylix representing the desertion of ,ariadne by ,theseus1#bbi and some specimens of ,corinthian wares4 ,under its ancient name of ,tarquinii it was of course famous as the spot to which ,demaratos and his artist-companions were said to have fled from ,corinth4 ,excavations were first begun in #ahbe-bg4 ,besides the collection now in the public ,museum1#bcj there is a large one made by ,count ,bruschi from excavations on his own lands1 the majority of the vases being of the ,b4,f4 period4#bca ,not far distant are ,civita ,vecchia1 represented only by some remarkable early vases in the ,british ,museum1#bcb ,italian imitations of the ,greek ,dipylon ware1 and ,la ,tolfa1 where ,etruscan1 ,corinthian1 and ,ionic ,b4,f4 vases have been found4#bcc ,few finds1 at least of ,greek pottery1 have been made at ,civita ,castellana1 the ancient ,falerii2 but this town appears to have had a special manufacture of its own in the fourth or third century ,b4,c41 like all other ,etruscan fabrics an imitation of ,greek vases1 but with certain strongly marked peculiarities of drawing and colouring4 ,there is a fine specimen in the ,british ,museum4#bcd ,these vases have only been found in recent years4 ,the ,british ,museum also 7among others7 possesses an interesting collection of local early black and red wares from this site1 including two large caldrons on open-work stands1 with ,gryphons' heads projecting4 ,isola ,farnese1 the ancient ,veii1 again1 is more celebrated for its local fabrics than for ,greek importations4 ,painted vases were found in #ahch-ci1bce and in #ahdc ,campana discovered a remarkable tomb containing vases of early character without human figures1 and early ,italian wares4 ,the archaic paintings of this tomb are of special interest for comparison with the vases of the period4#bcf ,next to ,vulci1 which we have reserved for the last1 by far the most important discoveries in ,etruria are those made in the tombs of ,cervetri 7,caere71 mostly of early fabrics4 ,in #ahcf the famous ,regulini-,galassi tomb came to light1 a passage-like structure sixty feet in length1 with doorway of slabs sloping forward to form an arch2 but it contained few vases4 ,in the same year was found a remarkable vase of plain black ware1 on which was engraved an early ,greek alphabet1 with a sort of syllabic primer4#bcg ,another tomb contained a series of slabs painted with archaic ,etruscan figures in the style of early ,b4,f4 vases1 which are now in the ,british ,museum4 ,others of similar character are in the ,louvre4#bch ,but though these large tombs yielded little painted pottery1 yet ,cervetri has been the site of many notable discoveries1 chiefly of early ,b4,f4 vases illustrating various developments of vase-painting4 ,the most important is formed by the series of hydriae named 8,caeretan10 after the site1 which are fully discussed in ,chapter ,,viii42 and among other finds we may note the ,amphiaraos krater at ,berlin1#bci of ,corinthian style4 ,excavations went on for many years from #ahca onwards1 and yielded also some interesting later vases1 including examples with the signatures of ,nikosthenes1 ,xenokles1 ,pamphaios1 ,euphronios1#bdj and ,charitaios1 and the famous vase representing the oil-merchant4#bda ,jahn#bdb gives a list of the most important red-figured vases found here4 ,at ,selva la ,rocca1 near ,monteroni in the same neighbourhood1 the ,duchessa di ,sermoneta excavated a series of ,greek painted vases of all periods4 ,other sites in ,etruria on which vases have been found are ,doganella1#bdc ,ferento near ,viterbo1#bdd ,capannori1#bde ,montepulciano1#bdf ,pitigliano1#bdg ,poggia ,sommavilla on the border of the ,sabine territory1#bdh ,s4 ,filippo dei ,neri1 ,tragliatella4#bdi ,but the discoveries made on all the other ,etruscan sites combined are surpassed1 both in number and interest1 by those of ,vulci1 a name which eighty years since was scarcely known1 but now represents to us one of the most important cities of antiquity4 ,the site is represented by the modern ,ponte della ,badia1 a district of about five miles in circumference round the bridge over the stream ,fiora1 between the estates of ,canino and ,montalto4 ,the former estate lay on the left bank1 distinguished by a hill named ,cucumella4 ,the discovery of painted vases here was brought about purely by accident1 about the year #ahbh4 ,some oxen in ploughing broke through into an ,etruscan tomb containing two broken vases1 and thus the local landlord1 the ,prince of ,canino1 was led to further researches4 ,in the course of four months he discovered about #b1jjj objects in tombs on one small plot of ground1 and subsequently other explorers joined in emulating his good fortune4 ,the number of painted vases alone discovered during the year #ahbi is reckoned at over #c1jjj1 according to the elaborate report published by ,gerhard in the ,annali1#bej describing and classifying the results4 ,it would not be too much to assert that nine-tenths of the painted vases that have been brought to light in ,etruria are from this site4 ,most of those now in the ,british ,museum are from ,camposcala1 on the ,montalto estate2 but many are from the collections formed by ,lucien ,bonaparte1 the ,prince of ,canino1 who continued to excavate intermittently for many years1 though the numbers of the finds materially diminished after the first great discovery4 ,in recent years the only important excavations on this site have been those conducted by ,m4 ,gsell on the estate of ,musignano1 at the expense of the proprietor1 ,prince ,torlonia4 ,the object was to exhaust the site by sporadic diggings over the three principal areas of ,ponte della ,badia1 ,polledrara1 and ,cucumella4 ,in all #acf tombs were opened1 ranging from the period of 8well-tombs0 7about the ninth or eighth century ,b4,c47 down to the chamber-tombs of the early fifth century4#bea ,besides local pottery of all kinds they contained imported ,greek fabrics from the ,geometrical ware down to the red-figure period4 ,the later included ,corinthian vases of various kinds1 a good 8,tyrrhenian0 amphora1 and one of the 8affected0 ,b4,f4 style1 a cup signed by ,tleson and one in the style of ,epiktetos1 and ,etruscan imitations of ,b4,f4 fabrics4 ,m4 ,tyszkiewicz1 the great collector1 in his entertaining ,souvenirs1#beb tells a curious story of the fate of one of the vases found in ,m4 ,gsell's excavations3-- 8,one day ,i received a visit from a country fellow1 who said he had come from the neighbourhood of ,canino1 and brought with him a vase painted in the early ,corinthian manner1 the names of the figures being indicated by ,greek inscriptions4 ,the man declared he had discovered it in a tomb which had fallen in after heavy rains4 ,the price asked was very reasonable1 and the bargain was soon concluded4 ,at that time ,m4 van ,branteghem 444 was one of the most eager buyers of ,greek vases1 and he was so envious of my acquisition that ,i had real pleasure in giving it up to him4 ,a little while after this1 there called on me at my house a member of the ,french ,school in ,rome1 ,m4 ,gsell4444 ,he began by asking me if ,i had not lately purchased a vase1 which he closely described1 and which proved to be the very one ,i had bought from the native of ,canino4 ,now ,m4 ,gsell inspected so attentively the excavations under his care that it was impossible1 he assured me1 for the workmen to have stolen anything4 ,all objects found were registered as soon as they were taken out of the tombs1 and were locked up every evening in a warehouse4 ,however1 one day ,m4 ,gsell perceived that one had disappeared4 ,he sent for the supposed thief 7one of his superintendents71 and by means of threats extracted a confession of the theft1 and the name of the amateur to whom the vase had been sold4 ,in conclusion1 ,m4 ,gsell entreated me to let him have the vase4444 ,having parted with the vase1 ,i felt the situation very embarrassing1 but ,i told my interlocutor what had happened1 and why ,i had handed the vase over to ,m4 van ,branteghem4 ,the distress of ,m4 ,gsell on hearing this news touched me to such a degree that ,i ended by telling him that1 knowing ,m4 van ,branteghem to be a gentleman1 ,i would inform him he had become the owner of stolen goods1 and throw myself on his mercy4 ,the same day ,i wrote to the ,belgian amateur and made a clean breast of the matter1 and the vase was returned as quickly as possible4 ,the vase was replaced in the museum of the ,prince ,torlonia at the ,lungara4 8,years passed away1 when one morning ,i was told that a peasant1 who was waiting in the hall1 desired to show me an antique work of art4 ,this was an event of daily occurrence--indeed1 it happened several times every day1 and usually ,i found that the object for whose sake ,i had been disturbed was either quite uninteresting or else a fraud4 ,but this time--astonishing fact6--,i was shown the very vase that ,i had restored to the ,french ,school1 and had afterwards seen at the ,lungara ,museum4 ,once again it had been stolen60 ,the tombs in which the vases were found were mostly small grottoes hollowed in the tufa1 and with a few exceptions only a few feet underground4 ,there was nothing remarkable in them except the vases1 for they were neither spacious nor decorated1 nor finished with splendid ornaments like the tombs of ,corneto and of ,magna ,graecia4 ,some had seats for holding the objects deposited with the dead2 others pegs for hanging the vases on the walls4 ,the wonder was to find such fine specimens of art in tombs so homely4 ,these vases were of all styles and epochs from early ,corinthian of about the seventh century to the ,decadence4 ,besides these1 an immense number of vases painted black only1 without any subject1 and others of the black bucchero ware1 were discovered in the various tombs1 along with bronzes1 ivories1 and other objects peculiarly ,etruscan4#bec ,this vast discovery naturally attracted the attention of ,europe4 ,notwithstanding the obvious fact of their possessing ,greek inscriptions1 and the light thrown upon them by the researches of ,winckelmann1 ,lanzi1 and other enlightened scholars1 the ,italian antiquaries1 fired with a mistaken patriotism1 insisted on claiming all the vases as ,etruscan fabrics4 ,the history of this error1 long since discredited1 is briefly summarised in the ,introductory chapter4#bed 99 99 99 99 99 ,turning now to ,southern ,italy1 ,latium need not detain us long4 ,it is true that ,greek vases have from time to time been found at ,rome1 or at any rate fragments1 as in the recent excavations in the ,forum#bee2 but few of these are of importance except as historical data4 ,when ,rome is given as the provenance of a vase1 it probably implies nothing more than that it has been acquired from some dealer in that city4 ,at ,civita ,lavinia ,lord ,savile found some fragments of painted pottery of different periods4 ,alba ,longa is famous as the site whence the hut-urns1 elsewhere discussed1 have been obtained2 but on the whole ,rome and the cities of ,latium seem to be quite barren in regard to finds of pottery4 ,with the three main divisions of the southern half of ,italy the case is quite different4 ,it is true that there has been no ,vulci in these districts1 and indeed that no scientific excavations have taken place compared with those in ,etruria2 yet the yield of vases from these parts is extraordinarily large4 ,in the eighteenth century the neighbourhood of ,naples1 ,paestum1 etc41 was a favourite hunting-ground with dilettanti1 such as ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 who appear to have acquired their large collections chiefly from ,campanian tombs2 but unfortunately they have left no record of the sites on which these vases were found4 ,in the ,samnite district and north of the ,apennines pottery-finds are almost unknown2 while the barbaric regions of ,bruttii and ,calabria are only represented by a few late painted vases of the rudest local fabrics4 ,it may be noted that as a general rule the ,greek colonies on the coast1 which maintained from the earliest times a constant intercourse with ,greece1 have yielded from their tombs a fair proportion of the older ,greek fabrics1 whereas the inland cities are more remarkable for their remains of the later ,athenian and local wares1 being of more recent origin4 ,beginning with ,campania1 we take first the famous colony of ,cumae1 the most ancient in ,magna ,graecia1 which was founded by the ,chalcidians of ,kyme in ,aeolis at an unknown date1 but not later than the eighth century4 ,vases of all periods have been found here1 though not in great numbers4 ,the earliest belong to the infancy of the colony1 and include the famous lekythos of ,tataie found in #ahdc1 and now in the ,british ,museum4#bef ,it bears an inscription in the ,chalcidian alphabet4 ,but the majority of the finds belong to the period when there appears to have been a flourishing local fabric1 about the third century ,b4,c4 ,they are the most typical representatives of the ,campanian style1 and may be studied to best advantage in the ,raccolta ,cumana of the ,naples ,museum1 where they are collected together4#beg ,many of these were found in #ahdb4 ,cumae was famous for its pottery even in ,roman times1#beh and specimens of ,roman ware with reliefs have been found here1 as also at the neighbouring ,puteoli 7,chapter ,,xxii47 ,next in importance for the history of local fabrics are the vases found at ,s4 ,agata dei ,goti1 the ancient ,saticula1 which can also claim a manufacture of its own4#bei ,they are for the most part bell-shaped kraters1 and were chiefly excavated at the end of the eighteenth century4 ,signed vases by the ,paestum masters ,assteas and ,python 7see below7 came from this site4 ,the vases of ,abella form another class of ,campanian ware1 but of a degenerate and late type1 mostly hydriae of very pale clay4 ,other sites which have yielded ,campanian vases are3 ,naples 7,neapolis71 ,telese1 ,teano1 ,acerra1 ,sessa1 and ,nuceria ,alfaterna 7,nocera74#bfj ,capua1 on the other hand1 does not appear to have had any special fabric of its own1 although the finds of all periods are as numerous as from any site in ,southern ,italy except ,ruvo and ,nola4 ,among the earlier specimens may be mentioned the inscribed ,corinthian krater in the ,british ,museum 7,b #cg7 from the ,hamilton collection 7,plate ,,xxi474 ,the red-figured vases include cups signed by ,euergides1 ,epiktetos1 and ,pistoxenos4 ,the vases of the ,decadence have1 as indicated1 no distinctive features of their own4 ,most of the late red-figured vases of fancy shapes 7such as rhyta7 in the ,british ,museum are from this site1 whence they passed into the hands of ,castellani4 ,the black vases with gilded ornamentation1 of which the ,british ,museum possesses some fine specimens1 are also characteristic of ,capua4 ,a large number of the vases obtained by ,sir ,william ,temple are from this site1 as is also one of the later ,panathenaic amphorae4#bfa ,at ,calvi 7,cales7 ,greek painted vases are almost unrepresented1#bfb but this site is distinguished as the origin of two late varieties of fictile ware4 ,one is formed by the ,calene phialae 7p4 #ejb71 or bowls of black ware with interior designs in relief1 sometimes signed with the names of local potters2 the other consists of large vases highly ornamented with terracotta figurines attached in different places1 or else modelled in the form of female figures or heads4 ,strictly speaking1 the latter must be classed under the heading of terracottas 7see p4 #aai74 ,lastly1 we have to speak of ,nola1 which1 like ,capua1 was always a city of considerable importance1 and is represented by a large series of vases of all periods4#bfc ,here again we can detect no signs of a special local fabric1 though for a long time the so-called 8,nolan0 amphorae of the red-figured period were thought to have been made on the spot1 so frequently have they been found4 ,the name is still retained as convenient for describing this particular form of amphora 7see p4 #afb71 with its exquisite black varnish1 graceful outlines1 and simple yet effective decoration2 but it is1 of course1 quite conventional4 ,the vases are purely ,attic 7some are signed by ,athenian artists71 and it can only be supposed that they found especial favour in the ,nolan market4 ,corinthian and ,attic black-figured vases occur in large numbers1 and both here and at ,capua there seems to have been a tendency to imitate the exported ,athenian wares4 ,thus we find not only vases with black figures on buff ground on which the drawing is obviously free and developed1 but also imitations of the 8,nolan0 amphorae1 both classes dating from about the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,at ,sorrento and the neighbouring ,vico ,equense a few vases of different periods have been found1 including a fine ,r4,f4 krater signed by ,polygnotos1 which was discovered in #ahic1 and is now in the ,british ,museum4#bfd ,salerno is also mentioned as a site where ,greek vases have come to light4 ,the famous city of ,paestum lay actually within the borders of ,lucania1 but all its relations were with ,campania1 and it may practically be regarded as a ,campanian city4 ,little has been found here except local fourth- and third-century fabrics1 but these are for the most part so remarkable that they have established the existence of a school of vase-painting at ,paestum quite distinct from and earlier than the fabrics of the three districts of ,southern ,italy4#bfe ,nearly all the vases found here 7including three signed by the master ,assteas7 have the distinguishing characteristics of this class4 ,they are mostly to be seen in the ,naples ,museum2 a fuller account of them is given in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,among the sites in ,lucania on which vases have been found1#bff the most important is ,anzi1 the ancient ,anxia1 which appears to have been the chief centre for the manufacture of the ,lucanian vases4 ,earlier examples of ,greek red-figured vases have also come from this site1 but the majority are of the ,lucanian class4#bfg ,provenances in this district are1 however1 always doubtful1 and in many cases nothing more definite than 8,basilicata0 can be ascertained4 ,but discoveries on the following sites seem to be well attested3 ,armento1#bfh ,eboli1#bfi ,missanello1 ,grumento1 ,potenza1#bgj ,pomarico1 and ,pisticci4#bga ,the ,british ,museum collection includes a fine ,b4,f4 krater 7,b #cfj7 from ,armento1 the famous vase with the ,doloneia 7,f #aeg ,fig4 #acj47 from ,pisticci1 several from ,anzi1 and a few from ,pomarico4 ,in the ,naples ,museum are vases from ,pomarico1 ,pisticci1 and elsewhere 7chiefly in the ,santangelo collection71 while the ,koller collection1 now in the ,berlin ,museum1 contains many from ,castelluccio1 ,s4 ,arcangelo1 and other sites4 ,but none of these finds compare in any sense with those of ,apulia and ,campania4 ,there were no ancient cities of special importance in this region1 and hence no large cemeteries1 while the local fabric was probably not of long duration4 ,in ,apulia the site above all others important is that of ,ruvo1 which was no doubt the chief centre of the local pottery-manufactures1 and has yielded a great majority of the vases known as 8,apulian10 as well as many of earlier style4 ,excavations began here in the eighteenth century1 but it was not until #ahbh that they were undertaken on any large scale4 ,vases are still found from time to time at the present day1 and one of the largest private collections still existing1 that of ,signor ,jatta1 is extraordinarily rich in the vases of ,apulian style collected by this gentleman and preserved on the spot4 ,it is curious that ,ruvo 7,rubi7 had no special importance in antiquity2 it may1 however1 be worth noting that remains of a pottery with furnaces1 etc41 have come to light4#bgb ,the ,apulian vases from ,ruvo have no special characteristics which distinguish them from the other ,apulian fabrics4 ,it would be futile to attempt a detailed description of the finds at ,ruvo1#bgc which include such a large proportion of the magnificent ,apulian vases covered with paintings of an elaborate nature4 ,of earlier specimens1 an isolated ,corinthian vase1 two ,panathenaic amphorae1 and sundry other ,b4,f4 vases are known1 as also occasional ,r4,f4 vases1 but these are almost exceptions4 ,among the most famous ,apulian vases are those representing the ,death of ,talos1 the ,death of ,archemoros1 preparations for a ,satyric ,drama1 and so on4#bgd ,more important in antiquity1 though less productive in vases1 is ,canosa1 the ancient ,canusium1 where a set of fine vases was first discovered in #ahac and published by ,millin4 ,among the best of these is the great ,dareios vase at ,naples 7see ,chapter ,,xiv4 ad fin474 ,nearly all are of the ,apulian class1 with preferences for certain forms and details 7such as the use of purple7 not appearing at ,ruvo1 and a typical local product is a kind of prochos or tall jug4#bge ,canosa was also a centre for the large terracotta vases which have been also found at ,calvi 7see p4 #aai74 ,at ,bari vases have been found from time to time1 and there is a fair collection in the local museum#bgf2 they include the famous ,poniatowski vase with ,triptolemos' setting-out1 now in the ,vatican1 and the krater in the ,british ,museum 7,f #bfi7 with the burlesque combat of ,ares and ,hephaistos over ,hera4 ,ceglie has chiefly supplied the ,berlin ,museum with its ,apulian specimens 7from the ,koller collection71 others passing into a private collection at ,naples4 ,they are mostly of the later over-elaborated style4 ,altemura has supplied a few1 but chiefly fine1 vases1 including the ,r4,f4 krater with the birth of ,pandora 7,brit4 ,mus4 ,e #dfg7 and the magnificent vase representing the ,under-world found in #ahdg and now in ,naples4 ,other finds have been made at ,polignano1 ,putignano1 and ,fasano 7,gnatia71 which last site is interesting as the probable centre of a late fabric4 ,most of the vases found here have figures or patterns painted in opaque white and purple on the black glaze1 and represent the latest stage of vase-painting in ,southern ,italy4#bgg ,they are found almost exclusively on this site4 ,it is also represented by some late ,r4,f4 vases with polychrome decoration4 ,in the region covered by the 8heel0 of ,italy the most important site1 as also the most important city in ancient times1 is ,taranto or ,tarentum4 ,chiefly on the authority of ,m4 ,lenormant1#bgh this city was for a long time regarded as the centre of many ,south ,italian fabrics1 including the vases with burlesque scenes 771 those of ,paestum1 the ,fasano ware1 and1 in fact1 all ,apulian fabrics4 ,but the extensive excavations that have taken place at ,tarentum of late years have shown that ,lenormant and those who followed him were quite misled4 ,few ,apulian vases have come to light1 the ,paestum fabric is unrepresented1 and although the of ,tarentum were no doubt specially famous in antiquity1 there is no authority for connecting this class of vases with them to the exclusion of other sites4 ,vases1 in fact1 are extremely rare at ,tarentum1 which made a much greater speciality of terracottas1 especially of a votive kind2 a few ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 specimens are known1#bgi including the remarkable fragment of a ,r4,f4 krater in the ,british ,museum 7,e #did71 and a fine krater with an ,amazonomachia 7,bibl4 ,nat4 #dba74 ,vases from ,metapontum also are few and far between2 the ,british ,museum possesses a specimen with figures in relief on black ground2 and finds are also reported from ,lecce1 ,brindisi1 and ,oria4#bhj ,many examples of local fabrics1 described in ,chapter ,,xviii41 have been found in this district1 and specimens are preserved in the museums at ,bari1 ,lecce1 and elsewhere4 ,lastly we have to speak of the finds made at ,locri on the east side of the 8toe0 of ,italy1 the only important site in that district which has yielded ,greek vases4 ,many of these are white lekythi with figures in outline and polychrome1 resembling the well-known ,athenian fabrics4 ,they were originally 7like those of ,gela7 thought to be local products1 but it is more likely that they were made at ,athens and imported1 the ,locrians having a particular preference for these vases1 as the people of ,nola had for the slim amphorae4 ,some of the ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases found here are of a very fair order of merit4#bha ,sicily1 so celebrated for its magnificent works of art1 has yielded a considerable number of painted vases of all periods4 ,the cities of the southern coast have produced the greatest number1 especially ,syracuse1 ,gela 7,terranuova71 and ,agrigentum 7,girgenti74 ,many have also come from the cemeteries of ,acrae1 ,leontini1 and ,megara ,hyblaea4 ,palermo1 ,messina1 and ,catania have produced isolated examples4 ,the richest finds have been in the recently excavated cemeteries of ,syracuse4 ,the discoveries of early vases and fragments made here by ,dr4 ,orsi are of the utmost importance1 and include quantities of specimens of ,mycenaean and 8,proto-,corinthian0 wares4#bhb ,at ,terranuova or ,gela1 one of the earliest settlements of the island1 vases with black and with red figures were found as long ago as the eighteenth century1#bhc and in #agib a pottery with furnaces and vases was discovered in the neighbourhood4#bhd ,of late years vases with black and red figures1 some of the latter being of the finest style1 have been discovered in large numbers1 as well as white lekythi1 probably imported from ,athens4 ,of these finds we have already given some description 7p4 #cg74 ,in #ahfb ,mr4 ,george ,dennis found a series of fine ,r4,f4 lekythi of the 8severe0 period1 together with ,b4,f4 vases and archaic terracottas1 now in the ,british ,museum2 and these have been fully rivalled by ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans' discoveries in later years4 ,the site has also yielded vases of a primitive character1 imitating early ,greek wares4 ,gela was always noted for its potteries1 as the ceramic decorations of the ,geloan ,treasury at ,olympia show 7p4 #ajj72 many of the vases have characteristic ,sicilian subjects1 and there was undoubtedly a considerable local fabric4 ,of the vases found at ,girgenti 7,agrigentum7 the most noteworthy is the beautiful lebes now in the ,british ,museum1#bhe of the finest ,r4,f4 style1 described as 8one of the finest specimens of ,greek ceramography that has come down to us1 absolutely unsurpassed in its combination of artistic merit and mythological interest40 ,it was found in #ahcj1 and belonged to the poet ,samuel ,rogers2 the subject is the combat of ,theseus with the ,amazons4 ,other ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases of fine style have come from this site1#bhf as well as a series of moulds for vases with reliefs1 of the ,hellenistic period4#bhg ,fine vases are said to have been found at ,kamarina1#bhh a few with red figures at ,himera1 and some archaic lekythi at ,selinus4#bhi ,from ,lentini ,jahn records polychrome and ,r4,f4 vases1 the latter of the 8strong0 and later periods4#bij ,at ,palazzolo 7,acrae7 ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases have been found1 including a ,b4,f4 kotyle in the ,british ,museum 7,b #gi71 representing ,dionysos in a car formed like a ship4 ,at ,centorbi 7,centuripae7 almost the only find of note was a conical cover of a large bowl ornamented with encaustic paintings1 the colours having been prepared with wax2 parts of two bowls were also found decorated with designs in relief and gilt1 of scrolls1 small ,cupids1 and heads of ,medusa4#bia ,other sites that may be mentioned are3 ,hybla ,heraea 7,ragusa71#bib ,catania1 ,alicata1#bic ,aderno#bid at the foot of ,etna1 and ,monte ,saraceno4#bie ,at ,tharros1 in ,sardinia1 extensive excavations were made in #ahef1 and a long series of tombs found containing ,phoenician objects in porcelain1 engraved scarabs1 terracotta figures1 and other objects1 but little painted ,greek pottery of any importance4#bif ,an interesting krater of late date1 with the head of the ,satyr ,akratos1 from the island of ,lipari is now in the collection of ,mr4 ,j4 ,stevenson at ,glasgow#big2 and in ,ischia was found a krater with the subject of the infant ,dionysos confided to the ,nymphs4#bih ,in the public museum of ,malta some ,greek vases are to be seen1#bii but it is not known whether they were actually found there4 ,we have now completed the circuit of the ancient world1 so far as finds of ,greek pottery are concerned1 as with the exception of ,marseilles1 already alluded to none can be traced in ,spain or ,central ,europe4 ----- ,footnote #dh3 ,curiously enough1 the relative proportions of ,greek and ,oriental civilisation in ,asia ,minor are almost exactly the same at the present day as in the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,the ,greeks are mostly to be found in towns like ,smyrna1 and the adjoining islands1 while the central part of the country is almost entirely ,turkish4 ,footnote #di3 ,see for references to descriptions of tombs ,hermann1 ,lehrbuch d4 ,antiq4 iv4 7#ahhb71 p4 #cgg4 ,footnote #ej3 ,room ,k1 ,cases #fi-gb4 ,footnote #ea3 ,for specimens of typical ,athenian tombs see ,stackelberg1 ,grber der ,hellenen1 pl4 #g4 ,fig4 #a4 gives a reproduction of a cist full of vases from ibid4 pl4 #h4 ,for an admirable description of the tombs of the ,dipylon1 see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahic1 p4 #gd ff4 ,footnote #eb3 ,compte-,rendu1 ,atlas1 #ahei1 pls4 #e-f2 ,macpherson1 ,antiqs4 of ,kertch1 passim4 ,footnote #ec3 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahej1 p4 #bji1 pl4 #ai4 ,footnote #ed3 ,journ4 ,hell4 ,stud4 vi4 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #ee3 ,see for illustrations of tombs at ,agia ,paraskevi1 near ,nicosia1 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhf1 xi4 p4 #bji ff41 and ,suppl4 pl4 #b1 from which ,fig4 #b4 is taken4 ,footnote #ef3 ,for specimens of ,cypriote tombs of all periods the reader is referred to ,cesnola's ,cyprus2 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 #ahic-if2 ,journ4 ,hell4 ,stud4 ix4 p4 #bfd 7,paphos7 and xi4 p4#ai ff4 7,poli74 ,footnote #eg3 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,lit4 #bnd ,ser4 ix4 7#ahgj71 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #eh3 ,gardner1 ,cat4 of ,vases in ,ashmol4 ,mus4 p4 vii4 ,footnote #ei3 ,cavallari in ,bull4 della ,comm4 di ,antich4 in ,sicil4 #ahgb1 v4 p4 #aj1 pl4 #c4 ,footnote #fj3 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #eg1 vignette4 ,models of this tomb exist in cork1 and specimens may be seen in the ,winchester ,college ,museum and ,eton ,school ,library4 ,footnote #fa3 ,scavi di ,certosa1 #ahge1 text and plates4 ,footnote #fb3 ,for tombs at ,ruvo see ,jatta1 ,cat4 del ,museo1 p4 #ec ff4 ,footnote #fc3 ,reference may also be made to ,martha1 ,l',art trusque1 p4 #ahc ff4 ,footnote #fd3 ,for an example in the ,b4,m4 see ,e #haa in the ,fourth ,vase ,room1 ,cases #f-g4 ,a plain jar of late date1 from ,halikarnassos1 full of calcined bones1 is in the ,terracotta ,room of the ,b4,m41 ,case #bj4 ,footnote #fe3 ,see also ,rathgen1 ,konservirung von ,altertumsfunden1 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #ff3 ,westropp1 ,epochs of ,painted ,vases1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #fg3 ,inghirami1 ,vasi ,fittili1 i4 pl4 #ac2 a false vase is also published in ,passeri1 #cjj1 and others in ,d',hancarville1 ii4 #ga1 #hd4 ,the worst specimen is perhaps that engraved by ,millin1 ,peintures1 ii1 pls4 #ed-e 7reproduced in ,reinach's edition71 which yet for a long time found general acceptance4 ,as a curiosity and a warning it deserves perpetuation4 ,footnote #fh3 ,eng4 transl4 p4 #ahj ff4 ,footnote #fi3 ,curiously enough there was in ,m4 ,tyszkiewicz's own collection a white-ground cup with the subject of ,phrixos 7,sale ,cat4 pl4 #ce71 which is certainly open to suspicion ,footnote #gj3 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahge1 pl4 #ad4 ,footnote #ga3 ,reinach1 ii4 #fb 7in ,louvre74 ,footnote #gb3 ,b4,m4 ,e #deh4 ,footnote #gc3 ,munich #djd4 ,footnote #gd3 ,b4,m4 ,e #dfh4 ,footnote #ge3 ,b4,m4 ,f #cca4 ,footnote #gf3 ,b4,m4 ,b #acj4 ,footnote #gg3 ,see ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 ii4 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #gh3 ,millin-,reinach1 i4 pl4 #di2 now at ,deepdene 7874 ,footnote #gi3 ,this has been especially the case of late years1 as in the sale of ,m4 van ,branteghem's collection in #ahib1 when a small kylix signed by ,sotades cost as much as #djj1 and two others slightly less4 ,footnote #hj3 ,some account of the prices paid for vases will be found in ,de ,witte's ,description des ,antiquits et ,objets d',art qui composent le cabinet de feu ,m4 le ,chev4 ,e4 ,durand1 ,paris1 #ahcf2 and in the same author's ,description d'une collection de vases peints et bronzes antiques provenant des fouilles de l'trurie1 ,paris1 #ahcg4 ,footnote #ha3 ,his ,introduction to the ,munich ,vase ,catalogue gives a good account of finds of vases in ,greece up to that time 7#ahed72 see p4 xxi4 ff4 ,footnote #hb3 ,cf4 ,athenaeus1 i4 #bh ,c2 xi4 #dhd ,f1 and #dhj ,c4 ,footnote #hc3 ,b #acj4 ,see ,cat4 vol4 ii4 for list of publications of this vase4 ,footnote #hd3 ,grber der ,hellenen4 ,he also gives some description of the tombs in which they were found1 and the nature of their contents 7see above1 p4 #cc74 ,footnote #he3 ,good summaries of these discoveries will be found in the ,arch4 ,anzeiger1 #ahic1 p4 #ac ff41 and ,berliner ,philol4 ,wochenschr4 #ahie1 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #hf3 ,e4g4 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #hfe bis2 4 4 #ahhe1 pls4 #h-i2 #ahhh1 pl4 #ab2 #ahih1 pls4 #b-e2 #aija1 pl4 #a4 ,footnote #hg3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahic1 p4 #df ff43 see also ,bibl4 ,nat4 #dif bis1 #ejf4 ,footnote #hh3 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #dag is from the neighbouring ,munychia4 ,footnote #hi3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahif1 p4 #che ff42 and see below1 p4 #bgh4 ,footnote #ij3 ,berlin #ef ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 pl4 #e4 ,footnote #ia3 ,a fine ,r4,f4 and polychrome kylix ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 x4 #cg a ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 p4 #bjg2 also ,athens #fhh ,reinach1 i4 #afd4 ,footnote #ib3 ,berlin #bjcj2 ,athens #aafg4 ,footnote #ic3 ,berlin #bdic1 #bfij2 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhj1 pl4 #af ,reinach1 i4 p4 #dbh4 ,footnote #id3 ,berlin #bcgc4 ,footnote #ie3 4 4 #ahie1 pl4 #aa 7,mycenaean74 ,footnote #if3 ,berlin #ahhg-hi4 ,footnote #ig3 ,athens #abda2 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #aijc1 p4 #cbj4 ,footnote #ih3 ,see for the ,vourva vases ,athens #eib ff42 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahij1 p4 #cah ff42 ,jahrbuch1 #aijc1 p4 #abd ff42 and p4 #bii below4 ,footnote #ii3 ,see ,dodwell1 ,tour1 ii4 p4 #ahj4 ,stephanus of ,byzantium speaks of the pottery of ,megara 7s4v47 ,see also ,athens #aheh2 ,petersburg #aefc a4 ,footnote #ajj3 viii4 p4 #cha3 cf4 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #aja3 ,ross1 ,arch4 ,aufs4 ii4 p4 #cdd2 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #aja3 see also ,jahn's ,einleitung1 p4 xxv4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,ibid4 i4 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,see p4 #caf4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,e4g4 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #id1 #cac1 #aagi4 ,footnote #aje3 ,see generally ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,myken4 ,vasen1 p4 #ej2 for notices of ,mycenaean fragments by early travellers1 ,dodwell1 ,tour1 ii4 p4 #bcg1 and ,burgon in ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,lit4 #bnd ,ser4 ii4 7#ahdg71 p4 #beh ff41 with plate opposite p4 #bif4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,fig4 #hh1 p4 #big4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,ibid4 pls4 #ae1 #ba1 p4 #de2 4 4 #ahie1 pl4 #aa4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #aji3 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahei1 pl4 #abe ,reinach1 i4 #chi3 see also ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahcb1 p4 #fb2 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahdg1 p4 #bej4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,cat4 #afae1 #aija1 #aica-cb3 see also ,branteghem ,sale ,cat4 #id4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,cat4 #aigd4 ,footnote #aab3 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #aff2 ,class4 ,review1 #ahia1 p4 #gc2 4 4 #ahib1 pl4 #d4 ,footnote #aac3 ,see ,ergebnisse1 iv4 p4 #aih ff4 ,footnote #aad3 ,see p4 #cia4 ,footnote #aae3 ,see p4 #dea4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,see ,kekul1 ,thonfiguren aus ,tanagra1 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #aag3 ,isolated vase-finds from ,tanagra are the early ,b4,f4 tripod1 ,berlin #agbg1 and the fine ,r4,f4 krater1 ,athens #abei4 ,footnote #aah3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 xix4 p4 #agg4 ,footnote #aai3 ,cf4 ,athens #fgh1 #hji1 #aaef1 #aaeh4 ,footnote #abj3 ,vases from ,lamia are ,nos4 #afba and #aihd2 from ,lokris1 #aced1 #adcd2 from ,phokis1 #aagg1 #aaha4 ,footnote #aba3 ,branteghem ,sale ,cat4 ,no4 #if4 ,footnote #abb3 ,ibid4 ,no4 #dc2 ,berlin #bich4 ,footnote #abc3 ,b4,m4 ,e #gai1 an alabastron formerly in the ,branteghem collection4 ,footnote #abd3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhi1 p4 #aea3 see below1 p4 #bag4 ,a late ,b4,f4 vase of 8,kabeirion0 style4 ,footnote #abe3 ,fragments from ,delphi are recorded in ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahda1 p4 #aj2 ,jahn1 ,vasens4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 xxv2 ,morgenblatt1 #ahce1 p4 #fih4 ,footnote #abf3 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #abg3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aija1 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #abh3 ,for ,kephallenia see ,j4,h4,s4 xxiv4 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #abi3 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahdg1 p4 #bdg1 note #e2 ,mustoxidi1 ,delle cose ,corciresi1 i4 p4 #bga2 ,b4,m4 ,a #afgj4 ,footnote #acj3 ,a beautiful polychrome lekythos in the ,b4,m4 7,d #gj ,plate ,,lv47 is from this island1 on the authority of ,raoul-,rochette 7,peint4 ,antiq4 p4 #dae72 but see ,benndorf1 ,gr4 u4 ,sic4 ,vasenb4 p4 #db1 where it is attributed to ,aegina4 ,footnote #aca3 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 vii4 pp4 #ea1 #bjh4 ,footnote #acb3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bei4 ,footnote #acc3 ,stackelberg1 pl4 #dh2 ,magazin ,encycl4 #ahaa1 ii4 p4 #adj2 and see note #acj4 ,footnote #acd3 ,see also ,brongniart1 ,mus4 ,cram4 pl4 #ac1 #aa1 and ,trait1 i4 p4 #egf2 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahbi1 p4 #aac1 #ahcj1 p4 #abi2 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahcg1 p4 #ace1 #ahdb1 p4 #ajc1 #ahdg1 p4 #bej2 and numerous vases in the ,bibl4 ,nat4 7see p4 #fhi of ,catalogue74 ,footnote #ace3 ,j4,h4,s4 xvii4 p4 #gg2 xviii4 p4 #bha ff4 ,footnote #acf3 ,b4,m4 ,b #h2 ,berlin #afhb ,reinach1 i4 #dda2 ,reinach1 i4 #aah1 #b2 ,b4,m4 ,e #ejh2 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4,b4 iii4 #bch ,reinach1 ii4 #abj 7in ,berlin71 signed by ,ergotimos4 ,footnote #acg3 ,pallat in ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bfe4 ,footnote #ach3 ,berl4 ,phil4 ,woch4 #aija1 pp4 #ajja1 #adcf4 ,footnote #aci3 ,see ,hesychius1 s4v4 2 he adds1 1 4 ,footnote #adj3 ,jahrbuch1 #aijc1 p4 #abd ff42 4 4 #aija1 pls4 #i-ab1 p4 #agc ff4 ,footnote #ada3 ,athens #fah ,baumeister1 iii4 p4 #aifc1 fig4 #bjih4 ,footnote #adb3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhf1 p4 #af4 ,footnote #adc3 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #add3 ,ross1 ,reisen1 iii4 p4 #be4 ,footnote #ade3 ,athens #ahfa4 ,footnote #adf3 ,class4 ,review1 #ahii1 p4 #dfh4 ,footnote #adg3 ,e #gcb3 see p4 #ceg and ,fig4 ,,iii4 ,footnote #adh3 ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 ,gr4 ,vasenmalerei1 p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #adi3 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 p4 #ba4 ,for ,geometrical1 see ,brongniart and ,riocreux1 ,mus4 de ,svres1 pl4 #ac1 figs4 #d1 #ac1 #ae1 #af4 ,footnote #aej3 ,reisen1 i4 p4 #ff2 iii4 p4 #bg4 ,see also ,berlin #cija1 #djhh2 ,brongniart1 ,trait1 i4 p4 #egg2 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #ai1 #ba1 #bb4 ,the ,svres vases mentioned by ,brongniart were found about thirty feet below the volcanic deposits4 ,footnote #aea3 ,see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aijc1 p4 #a ff42 ,h4 von ,gaertringen1 ,thera1 vol4 ii4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,see ,jahn1 ,vasens4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 xxvi2 ,berlin #ahhf2 ,rhein4 ,mus4 #ahdc1 p4 #dce2 ,boettiger1 ,vasengem4 i4 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #aec3 ,these are fully described and illustrated in a volume issued by the ,hellenic ,society 7#aijd74 ,footnote #aed3 ,op4 cit4 iii4 p4 #ae ff4 ,footnote #aee3 ,j4,h4,s4 xxii4 p4 #df ff4 ,footnote #aef3 ,mon4 ,grecs1 #ahge1 pls4 #a-b4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,rhein4 ,mus4 #ahdc4 p4 #dce2 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #hgc 7,chios72 for ,tenedos as a pottery centre see ,dio ,chrys4 ,orat4 #db1 #e2 ,plutarch1 ,vit4 aer4 alien4 #b4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,for ancient references to ,samian ware see ,chapter ,,xxii41 where the subject is discussed in detail4 ,footnote #aei3 ,aus ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 7#ahih72 he also found ,cyrenaic1 ,corinthian1 and ,attic pottery 7p4 #abe ff474 ,see below1 p4 #ccf4 ,footnote #afj3 ,see also ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahdh1 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #afa3 ,see ,ross1 ,reisen1 iv4 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #afb3 ,brongniart1 ,trait1 i4 p4 #eha 7plain wares only74 ,footnote #afc3 ,j4,h4,s4 viii4 p4 #ddf4 pl4 #hc4 ,footnote #afd3 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #afe3 ,see ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #acj ff4 ,footnote #aff3 ,see on the ,geometrical pottery ,pottier1 op4 cit4 p4 #acf4 ,it is probably imported1 although ,dmmler 7,jahrbuch1 #ahia1 p4 #bfh7 thinks otherwise4 ,footnote #afg3 ,there is at least one late ,r4,f4 vase from ,crete in the ,national ,museum at ,athens 7,cat4 #ahea1 #ahfj1 #aiba74 ,see for other instances of earlier finds1 below1 p4 #bfi2 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 p4 #bb2 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #afh3 ,proc4 ,soc4 ,antiqs4 #bnd ,ser4 xv4 7#ahie71 p4 #cea ff4 ,footnote #afi3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xxiii4 p4 #aeg ff4 for an estimate of the ,knossos pottery2 also p4 #bfe below4 ,footnote #agj3 ,british ,school ,annual1 #ahii-aijj1 p4 #id ff42 ,j4,h4,s4 xxi4 p4 #gh ff4 ,footnote #aga3 ,ibid4 #aijj-ja1 p4 #aba ff42 ,j4,h4,s4 xxiii4 p4 #bdh ff4 ,footnote #agb3 ,ibid4 #aija-b1 p4 #bhi ff42 #aijb-c1 p4 #big4 ,footnote #agc3 ,rendiconti dell' ,accad4 dei ,lincei1 #aijj1 p4 #fca4 ,footnote #agd3 ,american ,journ4 of ,arch4 #aija1 p4 #cga ff41 #cjb1 #abh2 ,british ,school ,annual1 #aija-jb1 p4 #bce 7,praesos74 ,footnote #age3 ,nos4 #ih and #ii in the collection of ,m4 van ,branteghem were two fine ,r4,f4 8aryballi0 from ,apollonia in ,thrace4 ,footnote #agf3 ,the reader who wishes to gain a comprehensive idea of these vases is referred to the plates of the ,atlas to ,stephani's ,compte-,rendu de la ,comm4 imp4 arch4 de ,st4-,ptersbourg 7#ahfa-hc7 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 p4 #a ff4 ,footnote #agg3 ,see also ,jahn1 ,vasens4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 xxvii4 ,footnote #agh3 ,compte-,rendu1 #ahgj-ga1 pl4 #d ,reinach1 i4 #cd4 ,footnote #agi3 ,see an interesting article in ,anzeiger1 #aijj1 p4 #aea1 on the relations of the ,black ,sea colonies to ,greece1 especially in regard to pottery4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,see ,drpfeld1 ,troja und ,ilion1 i4 p4 #cjd ff4 ,footnote #aha3 ,so ,jahn1 ,vasens4 p4 xxvii1 but from the illustration given in ,choiseul-,gouffier's ,voyage pittoresque1 pt4 #b1 pl4 #cj1 this seems doubtful4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,jahn1 ,vasens4 p4 xxvii4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,monuments ,piot1 x4 pls4 #f-g4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,the style resembled that of ,b #hj in the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,see ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 vi4 pp4 #ibi1 #ica4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a similar one from ,kalymnos 7p4 #bgc74 ,footnote #ahf3 ,ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 pp4 #hf-g4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #bgd2 ,pottier and ,reinach1 ,ncropole de ,myrina1 pp4 #bba1 #dii2 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahhd1 p4 #eji2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhh1 pl4 #f2 now in ,brit4 ,mus4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,see generally ,chapter ,,viii4 ,footnote #aij3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahih1 pl4 #f1 p4 #ch ff4 ,footnote #aia3 ,athen4 xi4 #dha ,a4 ,see also ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aijj1 p4 #id4 ,footnote #aib3 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,lit4 #bnd ,ser4 ii4 7#ahdg71 p4 #beh1 and plate1 fig4 ,d4 ,footnote #aic3 ,chantre1 ,recherches archol4 pls4 #h-ad2 ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #cg ff4 ,footnote #aid3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 xii4 7#ahhg71 pp4 #bbf1 #cgf4 ,footnote #aie3 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #afa2 ,athenaeus1 i4 #bh ,d2 ,lucian1 ,lexiph4 #g4 ,for pottery from ,datcha1 near ,knidos1 see ,rev4 ,arch4 xxv4 7#ahid71 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #aif3 ,jahn1 p4 xxvii4 ,footnote #aig3 ,comptes-,rendus de l',acad4 des ,inscr4 ,aug4 #aijb1 p4 #dbh ff42 #aijc1 p4 #baf4 ,footnote #aih3 ,catalogue of ,cyprus ,museum1 ,oxford1 #ahii4 ,footnote #aii3 ,see ,hermann1 ,grberfeld von ,marion 7#ahhh72 ,j4,h4,s4 xi4 p4 #da ff41 xii4 p4 #cae2 ,branteghem ,sale ,cat4 ,nos4 #ad-ah1 #bh-cj4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,j4,h4,s4 xi4 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #bja3 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iv4 ,f #eaj-ab4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,petrie1 ,hawara1 pl4 #af1 figs4 #a-d4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,it was presented to the ,british ,museum by ,sir ,e4 ,codrington in #ahcj4 ,similar painted vases were found in ,roman tombs at ,curium1 ,cyprus 7,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #gh74 ,footnote #bjd3 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahhe1 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #bje3 ,see ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 of ,lit4 #bnd ,ser4 ix4 p4 #afe ff41 and ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahdf1 p4 #baf2 also p4 #cf above4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahhd1 pl4 #ac2 ,froehner1 ,ant4 du ,mus4 de ,marseilles1 #aibh-cj4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #afa4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,see ,jahn1 ,vasens4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 lxxxiv2 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahej1 pl4 #ah ,reinach1 i4 #cgb2 ,micali1 ,mon4 ,ined4 pl4 #de1 p4 #bgi2 and ,schne1 ,mus4 ,bocchi1 #ahgh4 ,footnote #bji3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #afj4 ,footnote #baj3 ,see ,chapter ,,xxii41 and ,brongniart1 ,trait1 i4 p4 #ehc4 ,footnote #baa3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahdh1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #bab3 ,ibid4 #ahdg1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #bac3 ,class4 ,review1 #ahii1 p4 #cbi2 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahii1 pl4 #g4 ,footnote #bad3 ,scavi della ,certosa di ,bologna1 text and plates1 #ahgf3 see also ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahgb1 pp4 #ab ff41 #gf ff41 #ajh ff4 ,footnote #bae3 ,see ,vasi ,fitt4 iv4 pl4 #cee1 p4 #hb2 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahdi1 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #baf3 ,p4 lxxxiii4 ,footnote #bag3 ,dennis1 ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria1 ii4 p4 #ahi2 ,micali1 ,mon4 ,ined4 p4 #baf4 ,footnote #bah3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #afj3 ,retinet hanc nobilitatem 7sc4 of ,samian ware7 et ,arretium in ,italia4 ,footnote #bai3 ,jahn1 ,vasens4 p4 lxxxii2 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 #afc1 #ccb2 and see #aff4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,dennis1 ,etruria1 ii4 p4 #dca2 ,jahn1 p4 lxxxii2 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 #acg1 #afa1 #bea1 #chd4 ,footnote #bba3 ,see ,plate ,,xxviii4 and p4 #cgj4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,see ,dennis1 ii4 p4 #cjg ff42 ,jahn1 p4 lxxix4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,dennis1 ibid4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iv4 p4 #be1 ,nos4 ,g #agi-id3 cf4 ,class4 ,review1 #ahig1 p4 #bgf1 and ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahga1 p4 #e ff4 ,footnote #bbe3 xi4 #dhj ,e4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,dennis1 ,etruria1 ii4 p4 #df4 ,class4 ,review1 #ahid1 p4 #bgg1 gives some more recent finds4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,hartwig1 ,meistersch4 pl4 #dg1 p4 #dff3 cf4 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahcj1 p4 #bcc4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,see ,jahn1 p4 lxxviii4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,reinach1 i4 #bjc1 #bbb 7,plate ,,xxxix74 ,footnote #bcj3 ,see also ,class4 ,review1 #ahic1 pp4 #hd1 #cha2 #ahid1 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #bca3 ,dennis1 i4 p4 #dje2 ,jahn1 p4 lxviii4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,b4,m4 ,a #dfi1 #aecg1 #aedj4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhi1 pls4 #e-f1 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,f #dgi2 also ,reinach1 i4 #bae4 ,for a late ,r4,f4 vase with a ,latin inscription from this site see ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 pl4 #aj1 p4 #bca4 ,footnote #bce3 ,jahn1 p4 lxv4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,for an account of this tomb see ,dennis1 i4 p4 #cc ff41 and above1 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,see ,chapter ,,xviii41 and ,roberts1 ,gk4 ,epigraphy1 i4 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #bch3 ,see for these ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,footnote #bci3 ,cat4 #afee,reinach1 i4 #aii3 see p4 #cai4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,the ,antaios krater and the ,petersburg psykter3 see p4 #dca4 ,footnote #bda3 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,p4 lxvi4 ff43 see also generally ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #cee ff4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,b4,m4 ,e #da4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,notizie degli ,scavi1 #aijb1 p4 #hd ff4 ,footnote #bde3 ,class4 ,review1 #ahid1 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,reinach1 i4 #cbj4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,class4 ,review1 #ahig1 p4 #bbf4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,jahn1 p4 lxiv2 ,reinach1 i4 #aji1 #cfh2 ,class4 ,review1 #ahig1 p4 #bgf4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,reinach1 i4 #cde4 ,footnote #bej3 #ahca2 see also ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahca1 p4 #afa4 ,a view of the site is given in ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 i4 pl4 #da4 ,footnote #bea3 ,see generally ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,the finds are described in a work edited by ,gsell1 entitled ,fouilles de ,vulci 7#ahia74 ,footnote #beb3 ,eng4 transl4 p4 #aab4 ,footnote #bec3 ,besides the already cited ,rapporto ,volcente of ,gerhard in the ,annali for #ahca1 an account of these discoveries will be found in the ,musum trusque of the ,prince of ,canino2 ,trans4 ,royal ,soc4 of ,lit4 ii4 7#ahcd71 p4 #gf ff4 7,millingen72 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahbi1 p4 #ahh ff42 ,jahn's ,einleitung1 p4 lxviii2 and an excellent description in ,dennis's ,etruria1 #bnd edn4 i4 p4 #ddh ff43 see also ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,above all1 reference should be made to the recent summary by ,gsell 7see above74 ,footnote #bed3 ,those who are curious in such matters may be grateful for a bibliography of the controversy3 ,lanzi1 ,dei ,vasi antichi dipinti2 ,winckelmann1 ,hist4 de l',art1 i4 p4 #ahh ff42 ,canino1 ,mus4 tr4 7#ahbi71 and ,cat4 di scelte ant4 tr42 ,annali1 #ahca1 p4 #aje ff41 #ahcd1 p4 #bhe2 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahbi1 pp4 #fj1 #aac ff41 #ahca1 p4 #afa ff41 #ahcb1 p4 #gd ff41 #ahcc1 p4 #gc ff42 ,gerhard1 ,berl4 ant4 ,bildw4 p4 #adc2 ,journal de ,savans1 #ahcj1 pp4 #aae ff41 #agg ff42 ,kramer1 ,styl und ,herkunft1 p4 #adf2 ,thiersch1 ,hell4 bemalte ,vasen1 etc4 ,footnote #bee3 ,finds of 8,proto-,corinthian10 ,b4,f41 and ,r4,f4 fragments have been recently made in the precincts of the temple of ,vesta 7,class4 ,review1 #aija1 p4 #ic74 ,footnote #bef3 ,a #ajed ,bull4 ,arch4 ,nap4 ii4 pl4 #a1 #a-b4 ,footnote #beg3 ,see p4 #dhc1 and ,patroni1 ,ceramica ,antica1 p4 #gi ff4 ,footnote #beh3 ,mart4 ,ep4 xiv4 #aad2 ,stat4 ,silv4 iv4 #i1 #dc4 ,footnote #bei3 ,see ,patroni1 op4 cit4 p4 #ic1 also ,jahn1 op4 cit4 p4 lxii1 for ,b4,f4 and other vases found here4 ,some of the vases are direct imitations of ,athenian fabrics4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,naples #cceb-ee4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,b4,m4 ,b #faj4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,see ,jahn1 p4 lxiii2 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 #cag4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,see ,jahn1 p4 lii4 ,those in the ,british ,museum from ,nola came chiefly from the ,blacas collection4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,see also ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 #bbh1 #cdh2 ,branteghem ,sale ,cat4 ,nos4 #hd-e2 and ,jahn1 p4 li4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,walters1 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iv4 p4 #af2 ,patroni1 ,ceram4 ,ant4 pp4 #cg1 #gf4 ,footnote #bff3 ,see ,jahn1 p4 xlvi ff4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,e4g4 ,petersburg #cee1 and others in ,b4,m4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,petersburg #aahg1 #adbg2 ,naples #biia1 ,s4,a4 #aa1 #gjh-i4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,see ,jahn1 p4 l1 for examples from this site1 mostly of inferior merit2 also ,reinach1 i4 #bej4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,berlin #bfid2 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahcj1 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #bga3 ,b4,m4 ,f #aeg2 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #dbb4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,lenormant1 ,grande ,grce1 i4 p4 #id4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,see ,jahn1 p4 xl4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,for recent excavations see ,class4 ,review1 #ahic1 p4 #cha2 #ahid1 p4 #abi 7vases with subjects of ,kanake and ,theseus with the ring74 ,footnote #bge3 ,patroni1 ,ceram4 ,ant4 p4 #adb2 ,b4,m4 ,f #bcg-ch4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,cf4 also ,petersburg #ggh1 #hie4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,see p4 #dhh1 and ,b4,m4 ,f #edc ff42 for earlier vases1 ,reinach1 i4 pp4 #dga-gg4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,la ,grande ,grce1 i4 p4 #ib ff4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,see ,class4 ,review1 #ahih1 p4 #ahe1 for mention of two ,b4,f4 kylikes signed by ,antidoros2 also ,notizie degli ,scavi1 #aijc1 p4 #cd ff41 #bje ff41 for other interesting ,b4,f4 vases1 including signatures of ,tleson1 ,sakonides1 and ,thrax4 ,the two latter were found at ,leporano1 about ten miles ,s4,w4 of ,tarentum4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,mycenaean vases from this site are in the ,louvre 7,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,myken4 ,vasen1 p4 #dh74 ,footnote #bha3 ,as for instance ,munich #gha ,reinach1 ii4 #abf4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,these discoveries are summarised in the ,class4 ,review1 #ahid1 p4 #bgh2 #ahif1 p4 #agc2 #ahih1 p4 #dbh4 ,fuller details are given in the ,notizie degli ,scavi for those years4 ,see also ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,jahn1 p4 xxxi4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,arch4-,intell4 ,blatt1 #ahcf1 ,no4 #cd1 p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,gerhard1 ,auserl4 ,vasenb4 #cbi-cj2 ,forman ,sale ,cat4 ,no4 #ceg4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,millin-,reinach1 ii4 #fa-b 7,taleides72 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 i4 pl4 #eb2 ,b4,m4 ,b #bie 7,nikosthenes72 ,b4,m4 ,e #dgd1 ,e #dgh3 cf4 ,jahn1 p4 xxxii1 and the index to ,reinach's ,rpertoire1 s4v4 ,agrigente4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bfa ff4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,jahn1 p4 xxxi4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,arch4-,intell4 ,blatt1 #ahcd1 ,no4 #ef1 p4 #deg ff43 see also ,bull4 della ,comm4 di ,antich4 in ,sicilia1 #ahgb1 p4 #ac ff4 pls4 #d-e4 ,footnote #bij3 ,p4 xxxi4 ,one of the late vases with burlesque scenes 7,mon4 dell' ,inst4 iv4 pl4 #ab7 was also found here4 ,footnote #bia3 ,see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,d #a-b2 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bfb4 ,footnote #bib3 ,class4 ,review1 #ahic1 p4 #bca4 ,footnote #bic3 ,jahn1 p4 xxxii4 ,footnote #bid3 ,ibid4 p4 xxx4 ,footnote #bie3 ,reinach1 i4 #djh4 ,footnote #bif3 ,a ,b4,f4 vase in the ,cagliari ,museum is published in ,bull4 ,arch4 ,nap4 ,n4,s4 iv4 pl4 #ac4 ,footnote #big3 ,j4,h4,s4 vii4 pl4 #fb1 p4 #ee4 ,footnote #bih3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahdb1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #bii3 ,jahn1 p4 xxix4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,clay ,technical terms--,sun-dried clay and unburnt bricks--,use of these in ,greece--,methods of manufacture--,roof-tiles and architectural decorations in terracotta--,antefixal ornaments--,sicilian and ,italian systems--,inscribed tiles--,sarcophagi--,braziers--,moulds-- ,greek lamps--,sculpture in terracotta--,origin of art--,large statues in terracotta--,statuettes--,processes of manufacture--,moulding--,colouring--,vas es with plastic decoration--,reliefs--,toys--,types and uses of statuettes--,porcelain and enamelled wares--,hellenistic and ,roman enamelled fabrics4 ,we now proceed to treat the subject of the fictile art among the ,greeks in its technical aspects1 prefacing our study with a section dealing with the uses of clay in general4 ,the term employed by the ,greeks for pottery is 1 or for the material 4 ,the word for clay in a general sense is 1 while has the more restricted sense of clay as material for fictile objects2 the latter word is supposed to be connected with 1 to mix4 ,they likewise applied to pottery the term 1 meaning literally an oyster-shell1 and #cjj is also an expression found for works in terracotta4 ,nor must we omit to mention that too comes to bear a restricted sense1 when it is applied to the unburnt or sun-dried bricks freely employed in early architecture4 ,keramos was regarded by the ,greeks as a legendary hero1 from whom the name of the district in ,athens known as the ,kerameikos1 or potter's quarter1 was derived4#cja ,the word soon became generic1 and as early as ,homer's time we find such an expression as for a bronze vessel#cjb2 similarly it came to be used for tiles1 even when they were of marble 7see below1 p4 #ajj74 ,the art of working in clay may be considered among the ,greeks1 as among all other nations1 under three heads1 according to the nature of the processes employed3 7#a7 ,sun-dried clay 7,gk4 or 1 ,lat4 cruda72 7#b7 baked clay without a glaze1 or terracotta 7,gk4 72 7#c7 baked clay with the addition of a glaze1 corresponding to the modern porcelain4 ,it is then possible to treat of the uses of clay under these three heads4 ,the first1 from its limited use1 will occupy our attention but very briefly2 the second1 the manufacture of building materials and terracotta figures1 only technically comes under the heading of pottery1 and will therefore also receive comparatively brief mention4 ,it remains1 then1 that in the succeeding chapters1 as in the preceding1 it will be almost exclusively with the third heading that we are concerned4 ,before1 however1 dealing with this third heading1 or pottery1 we may review briefly the purposes for which clay was worked1 under the other two headings of brick and terracotta4 ,the uses of clay among the ,greeks were very varied and extensive4 ,sun-dried clay was used for building material1 and we have already seen what an important part was played by pottery in their domestic and religious life4 ,the uses of terracotta are almost more manifold than those of pottery4 ,it supplied the most important parts both of public and private buildings1 such as bricks1 roof-tiles1 drain-tiles1 and various architectural adornments2 and was frequently used in the construction and decoration of tombs and coffins4 ,among its adaptations for religious purposes may be noted its use as a substitute for more expensive materials in the statues of deities1 as well as the countless figurines or statuettes in this material1 many of which have been found on the sites of temples or in private shrines2 and besides the statuettes and other figures1 of which such quantities have been found in tombs1 it was used for imitations of jewellery or metal vases made solely for a sepulchral purpose4 ,it also supplied many of the wants of every-day life1 in the form of spindle-whorls1 theatre-tickets1 lamps and braziers1 and culinary and domestic utensils of all kinds1 taking the place of the earthenware of modern times4 ,it supplied the potter with moulds for his figures and the sculptor with models for his work in marble or bronze1 and placed works of art within the reach of those who found marble and the precious metals beyond their means4 ,one of the most elementary uses of clay is for the manufacture of building material1 for which it plays an important part1 as we have already seen1 in the history of the ,semitic races4 ,both burnt and unburnt bricks were employed in ,egypt and ,mesopotamia1 and their use has already been referred to in the ,introduction4 ,vitruvius#cjc speaks of the use of brick in the palace of ,kroisos at ,sardis1 and we also read of the walls of ,babylon and ,larissa 7on the site of ,nineveh7 as being of brick4#cjd ,generally speaking1 sun-dried bricks belong to an earlier period of development than baked bricks2 at any rate1 this is the case in the buildings of ,greece and ,rome4 ,in ,greece itself the antiquity of brick is implied by the words of ,pliny1#cje who tells us that ,hyperbius and ,euryalus of ,athens 8were the first to0 construct brick-kilns 7laterarias7 and houses2 before their time men lived in caves4 ,he further goes on to say that ,gellius regarded one ,toxius as the inventor of buildings of sun-dried clay1 inspired by the construction of swallows' nests4 ,the reference is obviously to the employment by swallows of straw and twigs to make the clay for their nests cohere2 this may well have suggested1 in the first instance1 the principle of mixing straw with sun-dried clay bricks1 as was done by the ,israelites in their bondage in ,egypt4 ,the method is one still practised in the ,east1 where in such countries as ,palestine and ,cyprus whole villages built in this fashion may be seen4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that in ,greece1 with its stores of marble and stone for building1 brick never became general1 though it was probably more used in sun-dried form in earlier buildings before the ,greeks had begun to realise the possibilities of stone buildings4 ,pausanias#cjf speaks of temples of ,demeter at ,lepreon in ,arcadia and ,stiris in ,phokis1 of a shrine of ,asklepios at ,panopeus in ,phokis1 and of the ,stoa of ,kotys at ,epidauros 7restored by ,antoninus ,pius7 as being of unburnt brick 774 ,of the same material was the cella of a temple at ,patrae#cjg2 but the walls of various cities1 such as ,mantinea1 were of burnt brick4#cjh ,nor was the use of sun-dried clay confined to building material4 ,it seems also to have been employed for modelling decorations of public buildings4 ,thus ,pausanias mentions 8images of clay10 representing ,dionysos feasting in the house of ,amphiktyon1 adorning a chamber in the temenos of that god in the ,kerameikos1#cji and it seems highly probable that these are to be identified with the cruda opera of one ,chalcosthenes or ,caicosthenes mentioned by ,pliny1#caj where the word cruda can only be used in a technical sense 7,greek 74 ,he also mentions at ,tritaea in ,achaia#caa statues of the in clay1 and at ,megara an image of ,zeus by ,theokosmos1#cab of which the face was gold and ivory1 the rest clay and gypsum4 ,our knowledge of the use of brick 7both burnt and unburnt7 and terracotta in ,greek architecture has been largely increased1 not to say revolutionised1 by recent discoveries in all parts of the ,greek world1 and going back to a very remote period4 ,recent excavations have yielded walls of unburnt brick at ,eleusis1 ,mycenae1 ,olympia1 ,tegea1 and ,tiryns4#cac ,the ,heraion at ,olympia1 which dates from the tenth century ,b4,c41 is a peripteral temple with stone stylobate1 pillars and antae of wood1 and cella-wall of unburnt brick4 ,in this respect it resembles the temple of ,zeus and ,herakles at ,patrae 7see above74 ,it also possesses the oldest known example of a terracotta roof 7,fig4 #i474 ,a recently discovered temple at ,thermon in ,acarnania is constructed of wood and terracotta1 with painted terracotta slabs in wooden frames for metopes2 the style of the paintings appears to be ,corinthian1 and they form a valuable contribution to the history of early ,greek painting4#cad ,illustration3 ,from ,durm's ,handbuch4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,roof-,,tiling1 ,,heraion1 ,,olympia4 ,the stone stylobate at the ,heraion was a necessity because of the destructive effect of the moist earth on terracotta2 it consisted of a row of vertical slabs on which the bricks were placed in regular courses4 ,we may see in this method of construction the forerunner of the system1 universal since that time1 of building walls on a plinth1 which survives even to the present day4 ,in the same way door-jambs and lintels1 which were of necessity made of wood1 not of brick1 continued to be constructed in that material even after the introduction of stone4#cae ,it has been assumed by some authorities that the ,doric style of architecture is derived from a wooden prototype2 this1 however true of the ,ionic style1 is not altogether true of ,doric4 ,the proportions of the latter are too heavy4 ,a more probable explanation is that it is the combination of wood with sun-dried tiles or bricks which we see in the ,heraion that developed with the introduction of stone into the ,doric system4#caf ,it is then clear that although in ,greece bricks were by no means indispensable for building temples1 houses1 and walls1 and though stone and marble undoubtedly had the preference1 especially in later times1 yet their use is more general than was hitherto supposed4 ,but when they are mentioned by classical authors it is generally when speaking of foreign or barbarian edifices1 such as the palace of ,kroisos at ,sardis or the monument of ,hephaestion at ,babylon1#cag and in a manner which shows that they were not much employed in ,greece at the time when they wrote4 ,the older temple of ,apollo at ,megara is described by ,pausanias#cah as having been of brick 771 but we are left in doubt as to whether this was baked or sun-dried2 while the excavations at ,olympia have distinctly contradicted his statement#cai that the ,philippeion was of brick1 as it is proved to have been built of stone ashlar4#cbj ,in #ccc-cbi ,b4,c4 the ,long ,walls of ,athens were constructed1 partly in brick1 under ,habron1 son of ,lykourgos1 with ,laconian tiles for the roofs4#cba ,other recorded buildings are all of late date and under ,roman influence1 and we must leave an account of ,roman brick-building to be dealt with in a later chapter 7,,xix474 ,there is an interesting passage in the ,birds of ,aristophanes1 in which he is describing the building of the city of ,nephelokokkygia1 the walls of which are apparently conceived as being of sun-dried brick4 ,he there speaks of 8,egyptian brick-bearers10#cbb implying that the use of brick was a characteristic distinction of that nation4 ,the passage 7#aacc-ea7 is worth quoting in full1 as showing the process employed in the making of sun-dried bricks4 ,mess4 ,birds and none else2 no bricklayer of ,egypt1 ,no stone-hewer was there1 no carpenter3 ,with their own hands they did it1 to my marvel4 ,there came from ,libya thirty thousand cranes1 ,all having swallowed down foundation-stones1 ,which with their beaks the rails still aptly shaped3 ,another party of ten thousand storks ,were brick-makers3 and water from below ,the plovers and the other wading birds ,were raising up into the higher air4 ,peisth4 ,and who conveyed the mortar#cbc for them8 ,mess4 ,herons1 ,in hods 774 ,peisth4 ,and how did they get in the mortar8 ,mess4 ,that was the cleverest device of all1 sir4 ,the geese with their webbed feet1 as though with spades 771 ,dipp'd down1 and laid it neatly on the hods4 ,peisth4 ,what feat indeed may not be wrought with feet8 ,mess4 ,aye1 and the ducks1 by ,jove1 all tightly girt1 ,kept carrying bricks1 and other birds were flying1 ,with trowel on their head1 to lay the bricks2 ,and then1 like children sucking lollipops1 ,the swallows minced the mortar in their mouths4 7,kennedy's ,trans47 ,sun-dried bricks were known as 7lateres crudi72 baked bricks as 7lateres cocti or coctiles74 ,the ,romans also used the word testa for baked brick1 corresponding to the ,greek 4 ,vitruvius#cbd distinguishes three varieties of unburnt bricks1 as used by the ,greeks4 ,one1 known as 8,lydian10 was also used by the ,romans1 who named the bricks from their length sesquipedales2 their size was #a by #a ft4 ,the other two1 exclusively ,greek1 were known as and 1 the word signifying a 8palm0 or three inches2 in other words1 they were respectively fifteen inches and one foot square4 ,the former was used for public buildings1 the latter for private houses1 and they were arranged in the walls in courses of alternate whole and half bricks1 as is frequently done at the present day4 ,vitruvius also speaks of bricks made at ,pitane in ,mysia1 and in ,spain1 which were so light that they would float in water4#cbe ,he advises that bricks should not be made of sandy or pebbly clay1 which makes them heavy and prevents the straw from cohering1 so that they fall to pieces after wet4 ,many other directions are given by him1#cbf but are too lengthy to quote here4 ,bricks were made in a mould called 1 a rectangular framework of boards#cbg2 and the sun-dried bricks were1 as we learn from the passage quoted above1 made by collecting the clay with shovels 77 into troughs 77 and working it with the feet4#cbh ,it is probable that we have some allusion to the use of moulds in certain passages from the ,latin writers4#cbi ,the final proceeding was the drying in the sun4 ,an important branch of the subject is the use of terracotta for roof-tiles and other architectural decorations of temples and other buildings4 ,on this point our knowledge has during the last five-and-twenty years been marvellously increased1 the extent of its use in architecture having been hitherto but little suspected4#ccj ,the generic term for a roof-tile is in ,greek 2 they are generally divided into flat tiles 7 or 1 tegulae7 and covering-tiles 71 imbrices74 ,besides the ordinary roof-tiles there must also be taken into consideration four varieties of ornamental tiles which found their place on a classical building4 ,they are3 7#a7 the covering-slabs arranged in a row along the 1 or raking cornice of the pediment2 7#b7 the or cornice above the 2 7#c7 the cornice along the sides of the building1 with spouts in the form of lions' heads1 to carry off rain-water2 7#d7 the row of antefixal ornaments or surmounting the side-tiles4#cca ,the flat roof-tiles or 1 as in the ,heraion of ,olympia and other early buildings1 are square and slightly concave1 so that the raised edges placed side by side may catch under the semi-cylindrical 1 and so be held in their place4 ,the latter are of plain semi-cylindrical form1 except the row at the lower edge of the roof1 which have attached to them the vertical semi-elliptical slabs known as 8antefixae10 of which more later4 ,the were painted with elaborate patterns of lotos-and-honeysuckle1 or maeanders1 in red1 blue1 brown1 and yellow1 the principle being preserved 7as always in ,greek architectural decoration7 of employing curvilinear patterns only on curved surfaces1 rectilinear only on flat surfaces4#ccb ,at the back was the gutter for collecting rain-water1 which ran off through the holes pierced at intervals in the cornice1 passing through the mouths of lions' heads1 moulded in very salient relief4 ,these correspond to the gurgoyles of ,gothic architecture4 ,many specimens have been found at ,olympia1 ,elateia1 and elsewhere in ,greece2 one of the finest1 from a temple of ,apollo at ,metapontum1 is now in the ,bibliothque ,nationale at ,paris4 ,it is very finely modelled1 and the whole1 with the background1 richly coloured in red1 yellow1 and black4#ccc ,spouts were sometimes modelled in other forms1 such as a ,satyric mask1 or the fore-part of a lion2 of the latter there are some examples in the ,british ,museum4#ccd ,in the accounts for the erection of the arsenal at the ,peiraeus there is an interesting entry relating to these lions' head spouts1 in which they are described as 1 8principal tiles with lions' heads40#cce ,the invention of antefixae is attributed by ,pliny#ccf to ,butades of ,sikyon1 who is also credited with the invention of modelling in clay1 in a well-known story2 8he was10 says ,pliny1 8the first to place masks on the extremities of the roof-tiles1 which were at first called bas-reliefs 7protypa71 but afterwards alto-reliefs 7ectypa740#ccg ,it is possible that the seen by ,pausanias in the ,stoa ,basileios at ,athens#cch were or antefixal ornaments at the angles of the cornice1 but they are more likely to have been modelled free and in the round than in relief on a background4#cci ,such sculptured groups were not uncommon in ,greek architecture2 thus the cornice of the pediment of the temple of ,zeus at ,olympia was adorned with a series of figures of ,victory4 ,the groups above mentioned represented ,theseus slaying ,skiron and ,eos carrying off ,kephalos2 and it is interesting to note that a terracotta group with the latter subject found at ,cervetri#cdj also undoubtedly came from the cornice of a building4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,ii ,illustration3 ,,archaic ,,antefixae ,,of ,,graeco-,,italian ,,style 7,,british ,,museum74 #a4 ,,satyr ,,and ,,maenad1 ,,from ,,civita ,,lavinia2 #b4 ,,female ,,head1 ,,from ,,capua4 ------------------------------------ ,the manner in which the antefixae were treated by the ,greeks and ,etruscans for purposes of decoration is well illustrated in the ,british ,museum collection4 ,in ,cases #fd-ga of the ,terracotta ,room may be seen a series from ,capua of archaic style1 the front part being semi-elliptical in form1 having within an ornamental border a female bust1 ,gorgon's head1 or other design in relief1 all being richly coloured 7,plate ,,ii474 ,the back projects in a semi-cylindrical termination1 forming the covering-tile1 with an arched support to the upright piece4 ,similar antefixae were found by ,lord ,savile at ,civita ,lavinia 7see below71 and some have elaborate subjects1 such as ,artemis with two lions1 or a ,satyr and ,maenad with a panther 7,plate ,,ii474#cda ,many have also been found at ,cervetri1 from which site came some interesting friezes of terracotta now in the ,british ,museum 7,b #fbf7 and at ,berlin4 ,these works of art1 with which we must rank for their style the reliefs on the archaic terracotta sarcophagus in the ,british ,museum 7see ,chapter ,,xviii471 show throughout a strong influence of ,ionic art2 though all of local manufacture1 their style is purely ,greek1 as is the case with many of the contemporary works in bronze found in ,italy4#cdb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,terracotta ,,antefix ,,from ,,marathon 7,,british ,,museum74 ,antefixes from ,hellenic sites are not so common1 nor do they present the same variety of subject or richness of colour4 ,in many cases1 as in the fourth-century ,british ,museum specimens from ,asia ,minor1#cdc the decoration is confined to scrolls and floral patterns in low relief1 the palmette being regarded as the most appropriate decorative motive for this form of tile4 ,an example of this type in the ,british ,museum 7,c #ijb ,fig4 #aj471 found on the field of ,marathon1 is inscribed with the name ,athenaios4 ,many later antefixes with remains of colouring have been found at ,tarentum1 the subjects being chiefly heads of women or mythological personages4 ,roof-tiles proper have been discovered in large numbers both in ,greece and ,italy4 ,olympia has proved the richest site in this respect1 and there are many specimens in the ,museums of ,athens and ,palermo4#cdd ,many of them have coloured decoration1 and these terracotta remains are almost the only evidence we now have of the extensive system of colouring applied by the ,greeks to their temples4#cde ,at ,olympia all the buildings have terracotta roofs except the temple of ,zeus and two others1 the dates varying from the seventh century ,b4,c4 down to ,roman times4 ,we know from ,pausanias#cdf that the temple of ,zeus was roofed with marble tiles in imitation of terracotta1 an invention traditionally attributed to ,byzes of ,naxos4 ,the covering-tiles of the ,heraion roof 7see ,fig4 #i47 end in semicircular discs painted with ornamental patterns2 the flat roof-tiles are of the concave type described above4 ,the normal sixth-century type of roof is seen in the ,treasury of the ,megarians1 which has smooth flat tiles and covering-tiles ending in antefixes with palmette-and-lotos ornament1 and a kymation cornice with lion's head spouts4 ,a greater variety of tiles is to be seen in the ,treasury of ,gela4 ,here for the first time we note the introduction of a new system1 which consists in nailing slabs of terracotta over the surface of the stonework1 or1 to use the convenient ,german term1 8,bekleidungstechnik40#cdg ,it is obvious at the first glance that the origin of this practice dates from the time when buildings were largely or wholly of wood1 which required protection from the weather4 ,when the wood was replaced by stone1 the fashion held its ground for a time2 but with the more extensive use of marble1 which could not well be covered in this manner1 it disappeared altogether in ,greece4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,iii ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,,archaic ,,temple ,,with ,,terracotta ,,roof1 ,,civita ,,lavinia1 ,,as ,,restored ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,museum4 ------------------------------------ ,but the ,treasury of ,gela is by a ,sicilian architect1 and it seems highly probable that the method of decoration employed was not one usually practised in ,greece1 but was introduced from the ,western ,mediterranean4 ,though rare in ,greece1 it is exceedingly common in ,sicily and ,southern ,italy4 ,the middle temple 7known as ,c7 on the acropolis of ,selinus1 and buildings at ,gela and ,syracuse1 may be cited as examples4 ,the principle is also well illustrated in the terracotta remains of the temple at ,civita ,lavinia1 excavated by ,lord ,savile in #ahij-id1 which are now in the ,british ,museum4 ,they have1 as far as possible1 been incorporated in a conjectural restoration in the ,etruscan ,saloon 7,plate ,,iii474#cdh ,it will be noted that most of the slabs are pierced with holes1 by means of which they were attached to the walls or surface of the entablature2 they are mostly decorated with lotos-and-honeysuckle and other patterns1 in relief and coloured1 the same being repeated in colour only on the back of the overhanging edges of the cornice4 ,these remains belong to two periods1 the end of the sixth century and the fourth century ,b4,c42 they may be easily distinguished by the differences in the treatment of the ornamental patterns1 while there is a marked absence of colouring in the later remains4 ,similar architectural remains in terracotta have been found in ,etruria1 and are described in ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,it should be noted that the ,civita ,lavinia slabs are flat1 whereas those used at ,olympia1 and many others in ,southern ,italy and ,sicily1 are three-sided4 ,specimens of ordinary ,greek tiles have been found in many parts of the ancient world1 besides those for special architectural purposes already discussed4 ,avolio#cdi mentions many examples from ,acrae and elsewhere in ,sicily1 stamped with emblems or names of officials and of makers4 ,at ,olbia1 in ,southern ,russia1 tiles were found stamped with names of ,greek aediles 771 like the amphora-handles described below 7p4 #aeh71cej and in ,corfu tiles and bricks with names of magistrates 771 indicating in each case the existence of public regulations concerning the potteries4#cea ,at ,kertch 7,panticapaeum7 ,dr4 ,macpherson discovered large numbers of tiles with labels on which was stamped the word 1 8,royal10 together with other inscriptions4#ceb ,these tiles showed the manner of their attachment one upon the other1 and their dimensions answered to the ,lydian variety mentioned above4 ,other tiles discovered by ,mr4 ,burgon at ,athens1 by ,sir ,charles ,newton in ,kalymnos1 and by ,mr4 ,colnaghi at ,kandyla 7,alyzia7 in ,acarnania1 bore labels with inscriptions and designs in relief4#cec ,on one of the latter series in the ,british ,museum is the inscription ,,alyzei,n1 8of the people of ,alyzia0 7,fig4 #aa72 on another was inscribed in the manner of the ,athenian vases 7see ,chapters ,x4 and ,,xvii47 1 8,hippeus seems handsome to ,aristomedes40#ced ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,inscribed ,,tiles ,,from ,,acarnania ,,and ,,corfu 7,,british ,,museum74 ,inscribed tiles from ,greece proper are somewhat rare1 and the best-known examples1 to the number of sixteen1 have been collected by ,m4 ,paris#cee2 they are usually inscribed with the word or 1 as a sort of ,government stamp4 ,others have magistrates' names1 as ,f1 771 on a tile at ,corinth1 or the maker's name1 ,f1 ,f1 on one from ,thisbe in ,boeotia4#cef ,those found by ,m4 ,paris at ,elateia have either the word or with the name of the magistrate2 though all are fragmentary1 it is possible to restore the full formula as 1 8government bricks1 in the year of ,apelleas' office40#ceg ,a remarkable tile or stele1 found near ,capua and now in the ,british ,museum1 has an inscription in ,oscan1 and two stamps of a boar and a head of ,athena1 resembling types on ,italian coins of the early part of the third century4#ceh ,illustration ,illustration ,from ,benndorf ,from ,jahrbuch d4 arch4 ,inst4 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,calyx-,,krater ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,ostrakon ,,of ,,xanthippos4 ,we may recall the fact that it was with a tile that ,pyrrhus met his death when besieging ,argos4 ,nor is this the only occasion on which these humble objects have played a part in history4 ,in the well-known ,athenian institution of ,ostracism the act of voting was performed by writing on fragments of tiles or potsherds the names of those whom it was desired to banish4 ,recent excavations have yielded more than one actual specimen of these or sherds1--one bearing the name of ,megakles 7,fig4 #ab472 another1 part of a painted vase from the pre-,persian dbris on the ,athenian ,acropolis1 the name of ,xanthippos1 the father of ,perikles 7,fig4 #ac72 and a third1 that of ,themistokles4#cei ,it is also probable that in ,greece1 as among the ,romans1 the hollow floors of the hypocausts1 as well as the flue-tiles of the hot baths1 were made of terracotta4 ,the same material was also used for the pipes1 by means of which water was conveyed from aqueducts or drained from the soil4 ,a drain-pipe from ,ephesos in the ,museum at ,svres is noted by ,brongniart and ,riocreux1#cfj and others have been found at ,athens#cfa and in the ,troad4#cfb ,tiles were also employed for constructing graves1 as has already been noted in ,chapter ,,ii4 7see p4 #cd74 ,in some tombs the floor was paved with flat tiles1 and the roof was constructed of arched tiles forming a vault4 ,the flat and square tiles were not used for tombs until a comparatively late period4 ,some graves had a second layer of tiles to protect the body from the superincumbent earth4#cfc ,we shall have occasion to make further allusion to the use of painted terracotta slabs in ,etruscan tombs 7,chapter ,,xviii474 ,the sarcophagi which played so important a part in the tomb were also frequently made of terracotta1 this material being most commonly employed in ,etruria4 ,we have already mentioned 7p4 #fb7 the series of archaic painted sarcophagi1 which have all come from ,clazomenae1 near ,smyrna1 and furnish us with much valuable information on the art of painting in ,ionia in the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,they will receive some attention from this point of view in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,british ,museum contains two very remarkable examples of ,etruscan terracotta sarcophagi1 which are described in ,chapter ,,xviii41 as well as a series of smaller examples1 which are mere cinerary urns4 ,among other examples of terracotta as used in tombs may be mentioned here a series of small reliefs found in tombs at ,capua and elsewhere in ,southern ,italy4 ,they consist of masks of ,satyrs1 river-gods1 and ,gorgons1 and are often highly coloured in red and blue4 ,they are of late archaic work1 about #dhj ,b4,c41 but the exact way in which they were used to decorate the tombs is uncertain4 ,the ,british ,museum collection contains many specimens of these objects4#cfd ,there is a curious class of objects which hardly come under the heading of any other category1 but may be conveniently discussed here4 ,complete specimens are very rare1 but there is one in the ,museum at ,geneva which has been identified as a brazier 7 or 71 and more recently as a baking-oven 774#cfe ,the form is that of a large basin on a high stand1 hollow underneath1 with three square solid handles projecting upwards from the rim4 ,these handles1 of which over a thousand examples are to be found in various collections1 are usually the only part remaining1 sometimes with part of the rim attached4 ,they are decorated with heads and other devices1 usually in relief on square panels1 and the majority of these heads are of a ,satyric or grotesque character1 wearing conical caps or adorned with ivy-wreaths4 ,they probably represent demons of some kind1 and are placed there with superstitious intent1 to avert evil influences from whatever was baked or cooked in the vessel4 ,similar masks are usually seen attached to representations of forges and ovens on the painted vases1#cff and remind us of the pseudo-,homeric invocation of evil deities against the potters of ,samos 7see also p4 #bac below74 ,professor ,furtwaengler has identified the heads as those of the ,kyklopes1 the attendant workmen of ,hephaistos4#cfg ,these objects are found all over the ,mediterranean1 especially at ,halikarnassos1 ,naukratis1 and ,delos1 and the last-named place has been regarded as the centre of their manufacture4 ,they are all of the same brick-like1 coarse1 red clay4 ,some bear the name of their maker1 ,hekataios or ,nikolaos4 ,besides the heads already mentioned1 heads of goats or oxen1 or of ,sirius1 thunderbolts and rosettes are used by way of devices4 ,they have been collected together1 and illustrations of all the different types given by ,conze in the ,jahrbuch for #ahij1 p4 #aah ff43 two specimens are given on ,plate ,,iv4 ,they belong to the ,hellenistic ,age4 ,other objects that exemplify the use of clay or terracotta in ,greek daily life are3 moulds for vases and terracotta figures1 lamps1 weights1 and stamps for various purposes4 ,many flat discs of terracotta have been found at ,tarsus1 ,gela in ,sicily1 ,tarentum1 and other places1 pierced with two holes and about three inches in diameter4#cfh ,they are stamped with various devices and inscriptions1 but their use is unknown4 ,other discs of convex form found at ,halikarnassos and stamped with heads in relief are supposed to have been weights 77 to hold down the threads of the loom 771#cfi such as are used by the ,greeks at the present day2 others again may be the weights used for keeping the ends of the folds of a himation in position4 ,small pierced cones of terracotta often found in the fields of ,greece have been supposed to have been suspended round the necks of cattle1 but are probably weights of some kind4#cgj ,lastly1 terracotta egg-shaped objects have been found in ,sicily inscribed with various names1 and are supposed to have been voting-tickets used for the ballots of the tribes4#cga ,many examples have been found of terracotta impressions from coins1 which may have been the trial-pieces of die-sinkers or forgers1 since persons of that class1 as among the ,romans1 seem to have employed this material for their nefarious practices4 ,they are more fully discussed in ,chapter ,,xix4 ,the ,british ,museum contains a large collection of these found in the ,faym in ,egypt1 all of ,roman date2 also a copy of a coin of ,larissa from ,acarnania4 ,terracotta medallions with impressions of gems or seals are not uncommon1 especially in ,asia ,minor and at ,naukratis1 and among the latter are many lumps of clay actually used as seals1 with the pattern of the substance in which they were impressed adhering to the back of them1 while on the front is a design from a signet-ring4#cgb 99 99 99 99 99 ,the subject of ,lamps is one that is more conveniently and appropriately treated in the ,roman section of this work 7see ,chapter ,,xx471 almost all existing examples in terracotta being of that period2 it may not1 however1 be out of place to include here a few general remarks on the subject1 pointing out the distinctive features of those of purely ,greek origin4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,iv ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,lamps ,,and 8,,brazier-,,handles40 #a1 #c1 #d1 #f1 ,,lamps ,,from ,,greek ,,sites2 #b1 #e ,,braziers ,,from ,,halikarnassos ,,and ,,cyprus 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,the invention of lamps was ascribed by ,clement of ,alexandria to the ,egyptians2 and they were certainly in common use among the ,greeks4 ,herodotos#cgc describes those which he saw in ,egypt as simple saucers filled with oil in which the wick floated1 and this statement is partly supported by the form of the lamps found in the earlier tombs of ,cyprus and on sites under ,phoenician influence4#cgd ,he also uses the phrase 1 8about the time of lighting lamps10 to denote the evening4#cge ,the ,greek comic writers allude to the use of lamps of terracotta or metal1#cgf and they played a part in religious ceremonies4 ,the regular ,greek name for a lamp was 7not 1 which means a torch71 and a lampstand was called 2 the spout or nozzle in which the wick was placed was known as or 1 the wick itself as 4#cgg ,a lamp with more than one nozzle was known as or 4#cgh ,the simple form was that derived from the ,phoenician lamp1 an open saucer with a bent-up lip in which the wick was placed2 but commonly the ,greek lamp had a circular or oval body 7the receiver7 with flat covered top1 in the centre of which was the filling-hole4 ,to this was sometimes attached a handle permitting the insertion of a finger1 and the nozzle was usually very small and quite plain4 ,an epithet applied by ,aristophanes#cgi to a lamp is 1 8made on the wheel02 but evidence points to their being always made in moulds4 ,the majority of the lamps which have been found on ,greek sites are of ,roman date1 and they frequently bear ,latin inscriptions2 those of the ,hellenic period are seldom ornamented1 and are usually covered with a thin black glaze4 ,others are modelled in the form of human figures1 animals1 heads1 or sandalled feet2 the ,british ,museum possesses a good example of grey ware from ,knidos in the form of a figure of ,artemis 7,cat4 ,c #dba71 with the oil-receptacle on the top of her head2 another from ,naukratis represents ,eros 7see for these ,plate ,,iv474 ,one from ,athens was inscribed 1 8,do not touch10#chj an inscription of similar import to those on the ,roman lamps from the ,esquiline described in ,chapter ,,xx4 ,little has at present been done in the way of a scientific investigation of ,roman lamps1 but the results of a rough classification according to shapes show that certain forms are more specially associated with ,greek sites1 and moreover frequently bear names of makers in ,greek letters4 ,this is particularly the case with one form1 which appears to be confined to ,athens1 ,corfu1 the coast of ,asia ,minor1 and ,cyprus4 ,these lamps1 of a pale yellow clay1 have a circular body with flat top1 round the edge of which runs a border of impressed egg-pattern1 interrupted on either side by a small plain raised panel4#cha ,the handle is small and pierced with a hole1 the nozzle also small1 with straight sides4 ,these lamps bear the makers' names 7in the genitive71 ,primus 771 ,abaskantos 7,c71 etc41 the former being especially common2 all are in ,greek letters4 ,some again only have a single letter or monogram engraved underneath4 ,they are often very carefully executed1 with sharply cut details1 and the subjects are usually mythological 7see ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #a72 they appear to be of very late date1 not earlier than the third century after ,christ4 ,another form which appears to be specially characteristic of ,greek sites is that with a plain or heart-shaped nozzle1 sometimes with a groove incised at the base1 but without a handle4 ,they are usually quite small1 with circular bodies4 ,large numbers of these were found by ,mr4 ,newton at ,knidos in #ahei1chb and by ,mr4 ,barker at ,tarsos in #ahde4chc ,the subjects are mostly poor and devoid of interest1 including animals1 rosettes1 and various floral patterns4 ,many of these lamps bear the signature ,,romaine7,n7,,sis1 the form of the word indicating that they were made by a ,roman residing abroad 7i4e4 at ,knidos71 not in ,rome4#chd ,a third form1 approximating to the ,christian type1 has a small solid handle and plain nozzle1 and is confined to sites on or near the coast of ,asia ,minor4 ,these1 with the remaining types of lamps1 will be more fully dealt with in the ,roman section of this work4 ,it may1 however1 be worth while mentioning here that ,mr4 ,newton found at ,knidos several lamps of a coarse black ware1 covered with thin glaze1 which are mostly of large size4 ,they are circular1 and convex above1 and are supplied with two or more long nozzles with blunt terminations radiating round them 7see ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #f74 ,between the nozzles are roughly stamped devices of ,satyrs' heads1 flowers1 etc41 in relief4 ,these may fairly be regarded as a ,greek type4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the subject of ,greek sculpture in terracotta is so wide as to demand a volume to itself2 but a discussion of the uses to which clay was put by the ,greeks would not be complete without some mention of their achievements in this direction4 ,we propose therefore briefly to review the main features of ,greek terracotta statuettes and reliefs1 by way of illustrating the purely artistic use which they made of this material4 ,the subject may be divided under four heads3 7#a7 ,large statues2 7#b7 ,statuettes or figurines2 7#c7 ,reliefs2 7#d7 ,moulds4 ,large or life-size statues belong more particularly to the earlier phases of ,greek art1 but appear again in its later developments1 under ,italian influences4 ,statues of terracotta were also a common feature of ,italian art1 being1 in fact1 the usual material employed by ,etruscan statuaries1 as well as for the decoration of temples 7see ,chapter ,,xviii474 ,greek terracotta statues are practically non-existent2 and although there are some female figures nearly life-size and a male torso of almost colossal proportions in the ,british ,museum1 also a ,hermes in the ,vatican1 these were found at ,rome1 belong to the ,roman period1 and1 though ,greek in style1 are really following an ,etruscan fashion4 ,it is characteristic of the ,hellenic race that from its earliest beginnings it did not employ clay for utilitarian purposes exclusively1 but1 influenced partly by the natural imitative instincts of man1 partly by the anthropomorphic tendencies of the ,greek religion1 soon learned the value of this easily worked material for producing images of deities1 animals1 and other objects4 ,although an equally high antiquity may be claimed for images of wood1 and the word used for a primitive cult-statue argues for the frequent use of this material1 yet the history of the word tells equally in the other direction4 ,originally used of moulding wet clay1 it came by degrees to denote modelling in general1 and finally its derivative became the authorised classical word for sculpture4 ,lactantius#che speaks of ,prometheus as the inventor of fictile images for religious purposes1 and of figures in bronze and marble as a later development2 the ,latin poets#chf bear similar witness to the primitive use of clay for sculptured images1 and ,pliny marvels at its long-continued employment in ,italy4#chg ,among early ,greek legends the most noteworthy is that of ,butades1 the potter of ,sikyon1 to whom the invention of modelling clay in relief was ascribed by ,pliny#chh and ,athenagoras4 ,the story as told by the former was that1 in order to preserve the likeness of his daughter's lover1 he moulded in terracotta the shadow of his profile which the girl drew on the wall4 ,this account1 however1 is not very intelligible1 and the clue is perhaps to be found in the words of ,athenagoras1#chi who says that he hollowed out the lines of the face in the wall1 filled in the grooves with clay1 and so obtained his relief as from a mould4 ,this primitive work of art was said to have been exhibited in the ,nymphaeum at ,corinth4 ,but this same invention was also claimed by the ,samian sculptors1 ,theodoros and ,rhoikos1 who flourished about the end of the seventh century4 ,they were pre-eminently artists in bronze1 and were associated with the introduction of hollow-casting in that material into ,greece2 it may therefore be supposed that they actually were among the first to use clay models for statues1 this being an essential preliminary to the hollow-casting process4 ,this would not be incompatible with the invention of moulding reliefs by ,butades1 admitting the truth of his story4 ,the latter was also credited with the invention of antefixal ornaments 7see above1 p4 #ih7 and the introduction of a mixture of red ochre or ruddle with clay in order to give it a warmer tone4 ,the clay models used by sculptors as the basis of their work1 which were known as 1 were probably made on the same lines as the large works of art in clay4 ,we read that ,lysistratos of ,sikyon1 the brother of ,lysippos1 was the first to make casts of statues by means of terracotta moulds1#cij implying that it was about this time that the practice arose of multiplying the principal statues in the same manner as is now done by means of plaster casts4 ,some of the latter artists combined the plastic art with that of painting1 and ,zeuxis is said to have previously modelled in terracotta the subjects which he afterwards painted4 ,pasiteles1 an artist who lived at ,rome in the first century ,b4,c41 always first modelled his statues in terracotta1 and spoke of the plastic art as the mother of statuary4#cia ,but it must not be supposed that as a general rule the ,greek sculptors worked their marble statues from models2 rather1 the contrary was the case1 and ,pasiteles seems to have been peculiar in this respect4 ,the statue of ,zeus1 which has already been mentioned as made by ,theokosmos for ,megara 7p4 #ib71 appears to have been made from a clay model4 ,it was intended to be of gold and ivory1 but the breaking out of the ,peloponnesian ,war prevented the artist from carrying out his intention1 and only the head was completed1 the other portions being of gypsum and terracotta4 ,at a later period gypsum was sometimes used for sculpture1 as in the case of an ,apollo mentioned by ,prudentius1#cib and some fragmentary remains from ,cyprus in the ,british ,museum4 ,the clay models were sometimes made entirely by hand1 but more usually on a wooden core known as 1#cic which we may conjecture to have been formed of two rods in the form of a cross1 from the use of the ,latin word crux in this connection4#cid ,it was certainly a framework1 not a solid core1 and must be carefully distinguished from 1 a lay-figure4 ,aristotle1 in an interesting passage1 uses the word in speaking of skeletons drawn on a wall4#cie ,the modelling of details was done partly with tools1 partly with the finger4 ,the use of the finger-nail for this purpose became proverbial1 as in the saying attributed to ,polykleitos3 8,when the clay has reached the finger-nail stage1 then the real difficulty begins40#cif ,the chief attention of inferior artists was directed to the production of small terracotta figures1 which the ,greeks used as ornaments or household gods1 buried in their tombs1 or dedicated in their temples4 ,they follow the same lines of development as the larger sculptures1 beginning with the columnar 77 and board-like 77 types found in the primitive tombs of the ,mycenaean and early ,hellenic civilisation4 ,originally they seem to have been manufactured purely for religious purposes1 but in course of time1 with the gradual rationalising of religious beliefs and consequent secularisation of art-types1 they lost this significance1 and1 while the types were preserved1 they were converted into genre figures from daily life4 ,these statuettes have been found on nearly all the famous sites of antiquity from ,babylonia to ,carthage and ,kertch2 the most fruitful have been ,tanagra in ,boeotia1 ,rhodes1 the ,cyrenaica1 ,capua and ,canosa in ,italy1 and various sites in ,sicily4 ,in ,cyprus1 ,sardinia1 and to a great extent also in ,rhodes1 ,phoenician influences seem to have been dominant1 and the earlier types bear a markedly ,oriental character4 ,for beauty and charm the palm has by general consent been given to the ,tanagra statuettes of the fourth and third centuries1 which were known in antiquity as or 8maidens10 from the prevalence of the seated or standing types of girls in various attitudes4 ,the makers of these charming figures1 known as or 1 were1 like the vase-painters1 quite in a subordinate position in the artistic world1 and are spoken of with some contempt by ,isokrates1 as if it would be absurd to compare them with a ,pheidias or a ,zeuxis4#cig ,a fable of ,aesop's#cih represents ,hermes being offered a statue of ,zeus for a drachma and one of himself for a mere song2 the low price seems to suggest that they were of terracotta1 but the vendor is called an 1 not a 4 ,demosthenes#cii condemns the ,athenians for voting for figure-head generals like makers of toys for the market2 and in further illustration of the uses to which they were put1 we may cite the definition of ,suidas1 of 8those who fashion little images out of clay of all kinds of creatures1 with which to trick children02 and the remark of ,dio ,chrysostom1 who speaks of those who buy the 8maiden0 figures for their children4 ,a pretty epigram in the ,anthology#djj tells how ,timareta1 when about to marry1 dedicated to ,artemis the playthings of her childhood1 including her terracotta dolls 774 ,lastly1 ,plato speaks of and images hung up in shrines4#dja ,the processes employed in the manufacture of terracotta statuettes were five in number3 7#a7 the preparation of the clay2 7#b7 moulding2 7#c7 retouching2 7#d7 baking2 and 7#e7 colouring and gilding4 ,it does not follow that all five were employed in the production of any one object2 on the other hand1 all processes necessary to the completion of any one object fall under one or other of these heads4 ,there were many varieties of clay in use among the ,greeks1 some being considered more suitable for one purpose1 some for another4 ,these clays vary in their characteristics in different parts of the ,greek world1 and this may often be an important criterion for distinguishing fabrics and detecting instances of importation4 ,the clay of ,cyprus differs much from that of ,rhodes1 and that of ,naukratis again from either1 being of a dark1 coarse1 and brick-like consistency4 ,m4 ,pottier noted nine varieties of clay in use at ,myrina in ,asia ,minor1 and ,m4 ,martha distinguishes five in the terracottas of ,athens4 ,but these differences may be explained by variations in the length or temperature of the firing rather than in the clay4 ,generally speaking1 the clay of the terracottas is softer and more porous than that of the vases4 ,it is easily scratched or marked1 and does not ring a clear sound when struck2 nor does it when submitted to a high temperature become so hard as the pottery4#djb ,its colour ranges from deep red to a pale buff colour1 and its texture and density vary greatly in different localities4 ,it was prepared by being washed free of all granular substances1 and then kneaded with the aid of water4 ,so1 as we read in ,hesiod's account of the creation of ,pandora1#djc the god directed the mixing of clay and water1 in order to form his new creation4 ,the modelling of the figures was done by hand in the case of the earlier fabrics1 and of small objects such as the toys and dolls2 the clay was worked up into a solid mass with the fingers1 and the marks of these1 left while it was wet1 may still be often seen4 ,subsequently the use of moulds became universal1 the final touches being given to the figure either with the finger or with a graving-tool1 traces of which are often visible on the faces and hair of the ,tanagra figures4 ,these were invariably moulded1 and the finer ones show traces of having been most carefully touched up4 ,there is a pretty epigram in the ,anthology1#djd which seems to imply that the wheel was sometimes brought into use for modelling figures1 perhaps for the first rough outlining4 ,a statuette of ,hermes is supposed to say3 ,the rolling circle of the potter's wheel ,me1 ,hermes1 formed1 of clay from head to heel4 ,mud-made1 ,i lie not3 the poor potter's art1 ,stranger6 was ever pleasant to my heart4 7,,macgregor47 ,the process of moulding gave scope for reducing the 8walls0 of the figure to the smallest possible thickness1 thereby avoiding the danger of shrinkage in the baking2 it also rendered them extremely light1 and allowed of great accuracy in detail4 ,a model 77 was made in terracotta with modelling-tools1 from which the mould 77 was taken1 also in terracotta1 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,v ,illustration3 ,,moulds ,,for ,,terracotta ,,figures1 ,,with ,,casts ,,from ,,the ,,moulds4 #b1 #c4 ,,archaic1 ,,from ,,rhodes2 #a1 #d4 ,,archaistic1 ,,from ,,tarentum 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ usually in two pieces1 which were then baked to a considerable hardness4 ,from this mould the figure was made by smearing it with layers of clay until a sufficient thickness was reached1 leaving the figure hollow4 ,the back was made separately1 either from a mould or by hand1 and then fitted carefully on to the front1 the join being concealed by a layer of wet clay4 ,the base was usually left open1 and a vent-hole was left at the back which may have served a double purpose--first to allow the clay to contract without cracking1 and subsequently in some cases for the suspension of the completed figure4 ,the heads and arms were usually moulded separately and attached afterwards1 and altogether the average number of moulds employed--say for a ,tanagra figure--was four or five4 ,m4 ,pottier#dje quotes an instance of an ,eros from ,myrina which is made up of no less than fourteen2 yet it is not a specially complicated figure4 ,greek moulds1 either for statuettes or reliefs1 are somewhat rare2 but the ,british ,museum contains a fair number from ,tarentum of all kinds 7see ,plate ,v474#djf ,those that we possess are mostly for small objects1 such as figures of animals2 but in the ,museum collection there are several moulds for reliefs1 as well as for vases of the later class with reliefs 7see ,chapters ,,xi41 ,,xxii471 such as the ,calenian phialae with embossed designs4#djg ,moulds employed for making stamps of various kinds are also in existence2 at ,naukratis ,mr4 ,petrie found several circular 8cake-stamps0 with various designs4 ,of the moulds used by forgers or others for copying coins we have already spoken 7p4 #ajf74djh ,the shrinkage of the clay as it dried afterwards permitted the figure to be withdrawn easily from the mould1 and it was then ready for the necessary retouching4 ,it is obvious from a glance at any collection of terracottas that there is a great similarity between the various representatives of any one type1 and that actual or virtual repetitions are by no means uncommon4 ,this was1 of course1 due to the fact that only a limited number of moulds were used1 corresponding to the different types4 ,at the same time there are in almost all cases minute differences which redeem them from a charge of monotony1 and these were obtained in various ways3 by varying the pose of the head or attaching the arms in different positions2 by retouching before the baking2 or by the addition of attributes and colouring4 ,as it has been neatly put by ,m4 ,pottier1#dji 8,all the ,tanagra figures are sisters1 but few of them are twins40 ,but retouching is not invariable1 and is1 in fact1 confined to the finer specimens1 such as those of ,tanagra4 ,in the statuettes from the ,cyrenaica and ,southern ,italy it is the exception4 ,the difference which it effected may be well observed by comparing two statuettes of ,eros in the ,british ,museum from ,myrina 7,c #ece-cf71 which are from the same mould4 ,they are identical in style and type1 yet one is far superior to the other in artistic merit1 just because of the greater finish of detail4 ,the process of baking required great care and attention2 for if no allowance was made for the evaporation of moisture1 or if too great a degree of temperature was reached1 the result was bound to be disastrous4 ,it does not appear that a very high temperature was reached1 especially as compared with the pottery4 ,the clay was further insured against too rapid drying by preliminary exposure to the air4 ,a story told by ,plutarch#daj of the fate which befell the chariot cast for the temple of ,jupiter on the ,capitol illustrates the possibility of disasters either from accident or carelessness4 ,the clay swelled up to such a size and hardness that it could only be extracted by pulling the kiln to pieces4 ,the colouring of statuettes may be considered a fairly universal practice1 although not always suggested by their present appearance4 ,the earlier archaic specimens were not always1 or only roughly1 coloured1 and those of the ,roman period seem to have been often left plain2 but otherwise it is the general rule4 ,the surface on which the colours were applied was formed by a white slip or engobe of a creamy colour and consistency1 with which the whole figure 7except the back7 was coated4 ,this when dry becomes very flaky1 and is liable to drop off1 carrying the colours with it2 most statuettes retain at least traces of this coating4 ,the method of painting is that known as in tempera1 the pigments being opaque1 mixed with some stiffening medium4 ,the colouring was as a rule conventional1 aiming at giving the figure a pleasing appearance1 without any particular regard to nature4 ,it was applied after the firing1 as in that process the colours would have been liable to injury4 ,the tints are what are known as body-colours1 without any attempts at shading1 and those usually employed are red1 blue1 yellow1 and black1 the white slip forming a ground throughout1 and left untouched over the nude parts and often over the drapery2 of these the favourites1 especially for drapery1 were blue and red1 as also we learn from ,lucian4#daa ,pollux says it was a speciality of the to colour their figures yellow1 or with a golden tint4#dab ,the reds range in shade from scarlet to rose-colour and purple4 ,at all times there was a tendency to treat the drapery in masses of colour1 and this we see especially in the ,tanagra figures1 in which the chiton is almost invariably blue1 the himation rose-pink4 ,at a later date it became more customary to leave the drapery white1 with borders and stripes only of colour4 ,black was only used for details of features1 such as the eyes2 green is very rare2 and yellow was employed 7in a deep brownish shade7 for the hair1 and also for jewellery1 etc4 ,the use of gilding is at all times rare in the statuettes2 but some good examples are known--as1 for instance1 two archaic statuettes from the ,polledrara tomb1 and a head of ,zeus1 all in the ,british ,museum4#dac ,imitation jewellery in terracotta gilt is not at all uncommon4 ,on many of the earlier figures from ,cyprus the drapery is indicated by stripes of red and yellow laid directly on the clay1 while animals are usually decorated with stripes of red and black2 the method employed is the same as on the contemporary vases 7p4 #bec74 ,similarly1 in the terracottas of the ,mycenaean and ,geometrical periods1 such as those from ,boeotia1 the technique of the painted vases is closely followed1 and the same decorative patterns are employed4 ,the use of an enamelled glaze first appears at ,athens in the fourth century1 and it is also occasionally found at ,tanagra4 ,the colour is uniformly a dull ashen-grey4 ,a few examples are also known from the ,cyrenaica1 but it was in ,sicily that the practice found most favour4 ,there we find attempts to reproduce the colouring of the flesh by an enamel coating varying in hue from rose-pink to orange1 and also grey and purple tints4 ,it is probable that the colours employed for painting terracottas were made from the same earths1 though of a coarser kind1 as the ware itself4 ,some information on the subject may be derived from ,theophrastos1 ,vitruvius1 and ,dioskorides4#dad ,for white the artist used a white earth1 such as ,melos produces1 and white lead2 it is also said to have been produced from the burnt lees of wine1 and from ivory4 ,the reds were composed of a red earth1 probably ochre from ,sinope1 and vermilion or minium4 ,yellow was obtained from ,skyros and ,lydia2 and a yellow ochre was obtained by burning a red earth4#dae ,the ,egyptian smalto or cobalt served for blue1 and a copper solution prepared with alkali and silica was also employed4 ,copper green was obtained from many places1 and mixed with white or black4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this may be a convenient point at which to speak of a class of vases which come rather under the heading of terracottas than that of painted pottery4 ,they are found at ,calvi1 ,canosa1 ,cumae1 and other places in ,southern ,italy1 and belong to the ,hellenistic period1 forming a parallel development to the glazed wares with reliefs of which we shall speak later 7p4 #dig ff474 ,they combine in a marked degree the characteristics of the vase and the statuette1 some being vases with moulded reliefs or small figures in the round attached in different places1 others again actual figures or colossal heads modelled in vase form by the addition of mouth1 handle1 and base 7see ,plate ,,vi474 ,they are usually of considerable--sometimes gigantic--size1 and do not appear to have served any practical purpose2 some1 indeed1 are only imitation vases with false bottoms4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that they were manufactured for sepulchral purposes only1 like the large painted kraters and amphorae of ,apulia 7p4 #dgf74 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,vi ,illustration3 ,,terracotta ,,vases ,,from ,,southern ,,italy 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,like the statuettes1 they are covered throughout with a white slip laid directly on the unglazed clay1 and this is often richly coloured in tempera4 ,some of the heads have the hair covered with intersecting pink lines to imitate a net1 and the figures attached to them are usually coloured in the manner of the statuettes1 with blue and pink draperies4 ,there are some1 however1 in which the encaustic or a similar process seems to have been employed#daf2 one example1 in the ,british ,museum 7,d #ahe1 shown on ,plate ,,vi471 has a ,hippocamp painted on either side in white and colours outlined with black1 the wings being elaborately rendered in blue1 brown1 yellow1 and pink4 ,the same process is employed for a large cover of a vase in the ,british ,museum from ,sicily 7,d #a71 but the figures are now nearly obliterated4 ,the prevailing shape of these vases is that conventionally known as the askos1 with spherical body1 over which passes a flat handle and three mouths on the top2 the latter are often covered in and figures placed upon them4 ,on the front and back of these vases appliqu masks of ,medusa or figures in relief are usually placed1 flanked by the fore-parts of galloping horses4 ,others take the form of a large jug or bowl with appliqu ornaments4 ,it now remains to consider the small but interesting class of terracotta reliefs1 which are nearly all of the late archaic period1 dating from the beginning of the fifth century4 ,later reliefs are nearly all architectural in character1 and have already been described1 as have those which were made for the decoration of tombs and sarcophagi4 ,but the purpose for which the reliefs were made1 of which we are about to speak1 is not so certain4 ,one group appears from the character of the subjects to be votive1 and they may possibly have been let into the walls of temples or shrines2 but the others are mostly known to have been found in tombs4 ,the former group are found at ,athens and at ,locri in ,southern ,italy2 the latter at ,melos and other sites round the ,aegean ,sea1 being usually known as 8,melian0 reliefs4 ,the character of the work of these ,melian reliefs 7see ,plate ,,vii47 is exceedingly delicate and refined2 the subjects are mainly mythological1 and include the slaying of ,medusa by ,perseus and of the ,chimaera by ,bellerophon1 ,helle on the ram1 ,peleus seizing ,thetis1 ,eos carrying off ,kephalos1 and the death of ,aktaeon4 ,three classes have been distinguished1#dag of which the peculiarly ,melian type has the figures cut out1 without background2 in the second only the outer contours are cut round1 and the third consists of rectangular plaques4 ,brunn#dah considers that they served a definite architectural purpose1 being intended to cover a field enclosed by borders1 and that the holes with which they are pierced show that they were used either for suspension or attachment4 ,but his reasons for regarding them as an archaistic survival have not been generally accepted4 ,the ,locrian type of relief takes the form of a square plaque4#dai ,they are easily recognised by the rough micaceous character of the clay1 and by their subjects1 which mostly relate to the myth and cult of ,persephone4 ,they were probably dedicated in one of her shrines1 as were those found on the ,acropolis at ,athens to ,athena4 ,all these reliefs seem to have been impressed in moulds1 not modelled by hand1 as many of them exist in duplicate4 ,those from ,greece are sometimes coloured4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,vii ,illustration3 ,,terracotta 8,,melian0 ,,reliefs1 ,,archaic ,,period 7,,brit4 ,,mus474 ------------------------------------ ,many little figures in the shape of animals and other objects1 such as goats1 pigs1 pigeons1 tortoises1 chariots or boats1 boys or apes riding on animals1 women making bread1 and similar subjects1 together with jointed dolls or 1 were evidently used as children's toys4 ,they have been found deposited with the bodies of children in the tombs of ,melos1 ,rhodes1 and ,athens4 ,in ,mr4 ,biliotti's excavations at ,kameiros in ,rhodes in #ahfc1 one child's tomb was found containing two of the 8,melian0 reliefs1 small vases of glass and black-glazed ware1 a terracotta basket of fruit1 and a sea-shell2 in another were a bird1 two dolls1 a child in a cradle1 two grotesque figures1 a woman playing a tambourine1 and two other terracotta figures4 ,the terracotta dolls were cast in a mould like the ordinary figures1 but the bodies1 legs1 and arms are formed of separate pieces pierced with holes1 so that they might be joined and moved with strings1 like the modern marionettes2 hence their name of 1 8drawn by wires40 ,they all represent girls1 and sometimes dancers with castanets in their hands2 they are coloured in the usual manner1 and date from various periods between #ejj and #bjj ,b4,c4 ,allusion is sometimes made to these figures in the ,greek writers--as1 for instance1 by ,xenophon1 who in his ,symposium#dbj introduces ,socrates inquiring of an exhibitor of these puppets what he chiefly relies on in the world4 8,a great number of fools10 he replies1 8for such are those who support me by the pleasure they take in my performances40 ,aristotle#dba mentions dolls that moved their limbs and winked their eyes like marionettes1 but this can hardly refer to terracotta figures4#dbb 99 99 99 99 99 ,it would require too much space to enumerate all the subjects represented in the terracotta statuettes4 ,but it may be found convenient to give an outline of the subjects and principal types adopted at different periods4#dbc ,roughly speaking1 the range of subjects may be divided into seven groups3 7#a7 figures of deities2 7#b7 mythological subjects2 7#c7 scenes from daily life2 7#d7 imitations of works of art2 7#e7 caricatures2 7#f7 masks2 7#g7 animals4 ,among the figures of the ,olympian deities we find most commonly ,demeter1 ,aphrodite1 and ,artemis2 ,hephaistos1 ,ares1 and ,hestia are seldom if ever represented2 ,zeus1 ,poseidon1 ,hera1 and even ,athena are also very rare4 ,of the inferior deities1 ,dionysos1 ,persephone1 ,eros1 and ,nike 7,victory7 are most frequently found1 as well as ,satyrs and similar personages4 ,nor is it always easy to ascertain definitely whether a figure is or is not intended to be mythological in significance4 ,this question is1 in fact1 closely bound up with that of the ,uses for which the statuettes were made1 as on such a purpose their interpretation in a mythological or human sense may largely depend4 ,the uncertainty of identification arises from the practice which obtained of adhering closely to certain recognised types1 which occur repeatedly at all periods4 ,there is a strong probability that a clear distinction was not recognised by the ,greek 1 but that the same type of figure might be used either for a votive offering to a deity1 or as a mere ornament or article of tomb-furniture4 ,and we are further met with the fact that a type which was mythological at one period ceases to be so at another1 or at any rate is transformed by some slight alteration of details or omission of an attribute4 ,thus the seated figure of an ,earth-goddess or ,nursing-mother of a ,rhodian or ,cypriote tomb becomes the nurse and child of the fourth century at ,tanagra1 while the archaic standing type of a ,persephone holding a flower requires little but the omission of her special head-dress to transform her into the girl-type of the ,hellenistic age4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,viii ,illustration3 ,,archaic ,,greek ,,terracottas 7,,british ,,museum74 #a4 ,,man ,,with ,,ram 7,,rhodes72 #b4 ,,persephone 7,,sicily72 #c4 ,,rhodes2 #d4 ,,doll 7,,athens74 ------------------------------------ ,the earliest beginnings of the statuette proper show1 as might be expected in primitive ,greek art1 a very limited range of ideas4 ,as in marble1 bronze1 and wood1 so also in clay1 the type of the female deity reigns supreme4 ,the primitive ,hellenic type of goddess adopts two forms1 both derived from an original in wood1 the board-form or 1 and the column-form 7 or 71 each of which finds parallels in sculpture4 ,the limbs are either completely wanting or of the most rudimentary description1 the figure terminating below in a spreading base4 ,both these types are found in ,rhodes1 but on the mainland of ,greece the columnar form is confined to the ,mycenaean period4 ,in the succeeding 8,geometrical0 age the board-like types rose into popularity at ,athens and ,tegea1 and above all in ,boeotia4 ,two varieties are found1 a standing and a sitting type1 and they are usually painted in the manner of the local vases 7see p4 #bij74 ,the later examples show a great advance in modelling1 especially in the heads4 ,the columnar form exhibits its development best in the terracottas of the ,graeco-,phoenician period from ,cyprus4 ,the standing and sitting goddess 7,plate ,,viii47 are the two principal types in archaic ,greek art1 and are remarkable for their wide distribution and universal popularity4 ,the name of the goddess may vary with the locality1 but the types remain almost identical1 and the attributes show little variation4 ,another interesting archaic type is the so-called funeral mask or bust 7,plate ,,viii471 of which the best examples have come from ,rhodes4 ,being almost exclusively feminine1 we must suppose that they ceased to represent the image of the dead person1 as in ,egypt and primitive ,greece1 and became images of the ,chthonian goddess1 ,demeter or ,persephone1 represented under the form of a bust rising out of the earth4#dbd ,thus they played in the tombs the rle of protection against evil influences1 like the mask of ,demeter ,kidaria1 worn by the priest at ,pheneus in ,arcadia on certain occasions4#dbe ,male masks are occasionally found1 representing the ,chthonian ,dionysos4 ,they are very rare after the fifth century4 ,the purely divine and mythological types in the archaic period are very few in number4 ,of the ,olympian deities few are represented1 except in the conventional hieratic types1 hardly to be differentiated one from another4 ,but on certain sites are found representations of nature-goddesses1 such as the ,earth-mother with a child in her lap 7,gaia ,kourotrophos71 or a nude goddess within a shrine1 who may be a combination of ,astarte and ,aphrodite4 ,these types are of ,oriental origin1 and are found in ,cyprus1 ,rhodes1 ,naukratis1 and ,sardinia4 ,they may represent offerings made after child-birth4 ,among the individualised deities we may point to figures of ,hermes ,kriophoros 7from ,rhodes and ,sicily71#dbf of ,herakles1#dbg or of the local nymph ,kyrene1 who appears holding the silphium-plant in a terracotta from ,carthage4#dbh ,among miscellaneous feminine types are the hydrophoros or water-carrier1 the woman riding on a mule1 horse1 or other animal1 the musician1 and the mother nursing a child4 ,some of these have their mythological counterparts1 as in the ,aphrodite riding on a goose1 or the ,earth-mother1 already mentioned4 ,male types are curiously rare1 the athletic influences1 which are so strongly manifest in early ,greek sculpture1 not affecting terracottas4 ,the most popular is that of the horseman1 particularly in ,cyprus4 ,these figures are usually of a rude and primitive kind1 especially in ,cyprus and at ,halikarnassos4 ,the examples from ,greece ,proper show a more developed archaism1 and are found at ,athens and in ,boeotia4 ,sometimes instead of a horse the man rides on a swan1 mule1 or tortoise4 ,reclining male figures are sometimes characterised as ,herakles or a ,satyr2 but this type is most fully developed at ,tarentum1 in numerous terracottas representing the well-known subject of the ,sepulchral ,banquet1 associated with a cult of the ,chthonian deities4#dbi ,there are also various types of grotesque figures1 usually in a squatting or crouching attitude2 some assume the form of a ,satyr1 and others are obviously derived from the ,egyptian figures of ,ptah-,socharis1 with bent knees and protruding stomach4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,ix ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,terracottas ,,of ,,hellenistic ,,period 7,,british ,,museum74 #a1 #d1 ,,tanagra2 #b1 #c1 ,,southern ,,italy4 ------------------------------------ ,in the fine and later periods1 from the end of the fifth century onwards1 the standing or seated feminine figures are still by far the most prominent4 ,the change1 however1 which has taken place1 from mythological to genre1 has been described as an evolution rather than a revolution1 brought about by artistic1 not religious1 considerations4 ,the possible varieties of the feminine standing types may be best studied in the ,tanagra figures 7,plate ,,ix471 which include women or girls in every variety of pose or attitude4 ,in most cases the arms are more or less concealed by the himation1 which is drawn closely across the figure2 in others a fan1 mirror1 wreath1 or mask is held in one hand1 the other drawing the edges of the drapery together4 ,some lean on a column or are seated on a rock2 others play with a bird or perform their toilet4 ,imitations of the ,tanagra figures1 but vastly inferior in merit1 subsequently became popular all over the ,greek world2 they are found at ,myrina in ,asia ,minor1 in ,cyprus1 the ,cyrenaica1 and many parts of ,southern ,italy4 ,among miscellaneous types of the ,hellenistic period1 many of the archaic ones already mentioned retain their popularity4 ,others appear for the first time1 and are more in accordance with the spirit of the age1 such as girls dancing1 playing with knucklebones1 or carrying one another pick-a-back4 ,there is a beautiful group of two knucklebone-players from ,capua in the ,british ,museum 7,d #afa74 ,the dancing type is found widely distributed4 ,figures of goddesses and mythological subjects are very rare at ,tanagra1 but fairly common on other sites1 as at ,myrina and ,naukratis4 ,archaistic imitations of the archaic seated and standing goddesses are often found in the ,cyrenaica and ,southern ,italy2 but the ,chthonian deities appear but rarely among the types of more advanced style4 ,as in sculpture and vase-paintings1 ,aphrodite now becomes the most prominent among the feminine deities1 and some of the later statuettes appear to be reproductions of well-known works of art1 the ,cnidian ,aphrodite1 the ,anadyomene1 or the crouching type of ,aphrodite at the bath4 ,artemis and ,athena are occasionally found1 but ,nike 7,victory7 is really the most popular figure after ,aphrodite4 ,she1 however1 plays little more than the part of a female ,eros1 a counterpart to whom the ,hellenic artist felt to be a necessity4 ,formerly these winged female types were styled ,psyche1 but this was a conception of post-,hellenistic origin4 ,among the male deities the conditions remain much as before4 ,zeus appears for the first time1 and was especially popular at ,smyrna1 and ,sarapis and ,asklepios are also occasionally found4 ,in ,naukratis the influence of the ,egyptian religion made itself felt in the production of numerous figures of ,bes1 ,harpocrates1 and the like4 ,hermes is not found so often as might have been expected1 though there is a notable instance in the ,british ,museum 7,c #djf7 of a caricature of the famous statue by ,praxiteles1 where a ,satyr takes his place4 ,dionysos is only met with occasionally1 as are ,satyrs and ,maenads2 but masks of a ,bacchic character are very common in ,italy4 ,the one deity who really seems to have caught the popular taste is ,eros1 although at the time when most of the ,tanagra statuettes were produced this popularity was hardly assured4 ,the types of ,eros standing1 seated1 flying1 or riding on animals are innumerable and found all over the ,greek world4 ,the best examples come from ,eretria in ,euboea1 but ,myrina and ,sicily have also produced large numbers4 ,they vary from almost ,praxitelean conceptions1 like the ,flying ,eros from ,eretria in the ,british ,museum 7,c #aii71 to the veritable ,pompeian amoretti from the same site and from ,myrina4 ,the riding types of ,eros 7on a horse1 dog1 swan1 or dolphin7 are chiefly found in the ,cyrenaica or ,southern ,italy4 ,in many cases the ,eros types are used for ordinary unwinged boys4 ,among the human male types a new feature is the introduction of the athlete1 as he appears in many boyish figures from ,tanagra1 and later as a boxer among the somewhat coarse conceptions of the ,roman period4 ,some years ago a remarkable copy of the ,diadumenos of ,polykleitos in terracotta was found in ,asia ,minor4#dcj 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the tombs of the ,aegean ,islands1 ,italy1 and elsewhere1 a class of ware has sometimes been found quite distinct from the ordinary fictile pottery and resembling the porcelain or enamelled ware of the ,egyptians and ,babylonians1 such as the ushabtiu1 found in the tombs of the former1 and the enamelled bricks of the latter4 ,for the most part they must be regarded as importations1 of foreign manufacture1 the medium of commerce being the ,phoenicians1 who not only introduced ,egyptian objects of art1 but themselves endeavoured to imitate them4 ,hence we must distinguish some as of ,egyptian origin1 others as made by the ,phoenicians4 ,as might be expected1 they are most often found where ,phoenician influence was strong1 as in ,rhodes and ,sardinia4 ,egyptian perfume-vases have been found in the ,polledrara tomb at ,vulci 7see ,chapter ,,xviii47 and may be dated by the accompanying scarabs of ,psammetichus ,i4 as belonging to the end of the sixth century4 ,but these are by no means the earliest examples4 ,in the ,bronze ,age tombs of ,cyprus occasional finds have been made of plates of blue porcelain or faence1 with ,egyptian designs going back to the eighteenth dynasty#dca2 and for several centuries other ,egyptian objects in porcelain1 or with enamelled glaze1 continue to be found in the tombs of ,cyprus1 ,rhodes1 and ,greece4 ,and there is also a considerable quantity of such wares which is not ,egyptian in character1 although it may be to some extent imitative1 and therefore demands notice4 ,of this the most remarkable examples are the rhyta1 or drinking-horns1 found at ,enkomi in ,cyprus1 in #ahif1 and now in the ,british ,museum4#dcb ,the two finest specimens are in the form of a female head surmounted by a cup 7,plate ,x47 and a ram's head respectively4 ,although found in tombs with ,mycenaean objects1 and therefore presumably of early date1 the style and modelling are so far advanced--so purely ,hellenic--that they may be compared with archaic work of the sixth century ,b4,c4 or even later4 ,in the tombs of ,kameiros in ,rhodes1#dcc along with ,egyptian porcelain objects1 were found many vases of this ware1 of apparently ,greek workmanship4 ,this is further implied by the presence in one tomb of a figure of a dolphin with a ,greek 1 8,i belong to ,pythes40#dcd ,it is quite conceivable that the ,greeks of ,rhodes 7as of ,naukratis3 see below7 knew and practised ,egyptian methods4 ,the finds include small alabastra with friezes of men and animals in relief1 and flasks of a compressed globular shape similarly ornamented2 also aryballi of various moulded forms1 such as animals or helmeted heads 7,plate ,x4 fig4 #c74 ,the vase in the form of a head seems to be an early ,phoenician idea2 and this particular type of the helmeted head seems to have been adopted subsequently by ,ionian artists in the ,clazomenae sarcophagi4#dce ,similar vases and figures have been discovered in the tombs of ,melos1 ,corinth1 ,cervetri1 and ,vulci1 and also in ,syria and at ,naukratis in ,egypt4#dcf ,others again from the tombs of ,kameiros and ,vulci take the form of jars of opaque glass ornamented with zigzag patterns in white and dull crimson on a greenish ground4#dcg ,a specimen of somewhat similar ware was found in a ,bronze ,age tomb at ,curium1 ,cyprus1 in #ahie1dch consisting of a tall funnel-shaped beaker of blue and yellow glazed ware with an edging of dark brown 7,plate ,x474 ,the technique is superior to that of the later examples1 and more on a level with that of the porcelain rhyta from ,enkomi4 ,in ,greece ,proper there are altogether few traces of this enamelled ware1 and after the sixth century ,b4,c4 it quite disappeared4 ,but some very fine specimens have been found in the tombs of ,southern ,italy4 ,a jug with delicate ornamentation in blue and white came from ,naples1 and a similar vase from the same site1 but shaped like a kalathos and of a pale green colour1 is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,objects of this ware have also been found on the site of the ancient ,tharros in ,sardinia4 ,their glaze was a pale green1 like that of the twenty-sixth dynasty wares1 and with them was found a scarab of ,psammetichus ,i1 which shows them to be contemporaneous with the objects found in the ,polledrara tomb4 ,but the strong ,phoenician element in ,sardinia is sufficient to indicate that these fabrics are all of ,egyptian importation4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,x ,illustration3 ,,porcelain ,,and ,,enamel-,,glazed ,,wares 7,,british ,,museum74 #d1 #f1 ,,cypriote ,,bronze ,,age2 #c1 ,,archaic ,,greek 7,,rhodes72 #a1 #b1 #e1 ,,graeco-,,roman ,,period4 ------------------------------------ ,in the ,hellenistic period1 when vase-painting had reached its latest stages1 the fashion of glazed enamelled ware was revived2 its chief centre was ,alexandria1 which would naturally have carried on the traditions of ,egyptian porcelain or faence4 ,specimens of glazed ware with reliefs or modelled in various forms have been found at ,naukratis and in the ,faym1 including a fine blue porcelain head of a ,ptolemaic queen 7,plate ,x474 ,in a tomb at ,tanagra were found a beautiful askos in the form of a duck on which ,eros rides1 and another porcelain vase1#dci evidently imported from ,alexandria1 or some other industrial centre of ,hellenised ,egypt4 ,porcelain jugs1 inscribed with the names of ,arsinoe1 ,berenike1 and one of the ,ptolemies1 have been found at ,benghazi in ,north ,africa1 at ,alexandria1 and at ,canosa in ,southern ,italy4#ddj ,they are of blue ware1 with reliefs of ,greek style attached4 ,fragments of the same kind dating from the first century ,b4,c4 were found at ,tarsos in ,cilicia1#dda and in the ,louvre there are glazed wares covered with yellow or green enamel from ,smyrna and ,kyme4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses similar vases from ,kos and elsewhere1 with wreaths and similar patterns in relief 7,plate ,x471 but these are not earlier than the ,roman period4 ,enamelled wares of early ,roman date have also been found on the ,esquiline1 and the ware is common at ,pompeii4#ddb ,it does not appear that the manufacture of these enamelled wares was confined to one spot2 they are found all over ,asia ,minor1 ,italy1 and ,gaul1 and in other countries bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,it seems probable1 however1 that there were three principal centres of the fabric1 at least in the ,roman period4 ,the first of these was in ,asia ,minor1 or the islands along its coasts1 whence came the specimens found at ,tarsos1 in ,ionia1 and in the islands such as ,kos4 ,these are mostly small vases1 of metallic form1 especially in the treatment of the handles 7cf4 ,plate ,x41 fig4 #e71 the colour being usually a bluish green1 though some examples are more polychromatic4 ,these seem to have been exported to ,italy1 and vi ,marseilles to ,gaul4 ,next1 there are the wares made at ,alexandria1 of which the vases described above are examples4 ,and1 thirdly1 there was a ,gaulish fabric1 which must probably be located at ,lezoux in the ,auvergne 7see ,chapter ,,xxiii471 examples from which are found at ,vichy1 in the ,rhone ,valley1 and at ,trier and ,andernach in ,germany4#ddc ,fragments of this ware are even reported to have been found in ,england--as1 for instance1 at ,ewell in ,surrey1 at ,colchester and ,weymouth4#ddd ,these are of grey clay with yellow1 green1 or brown glaze1 with ornaments of leaves1 vine-branches1 or scrolls1 stamped in moulds2 the shapes are jugs1 flasks1 or two-handled cups4 ,a later variety is of white clay with a malachite-green glaze1 the forms being again of a metallic type1 and towards the end of the period imitations of glass with barbotine decoration 7see ,chapter ,,xxiii47 appear4 ,these two groups cover the first century after ,christ4 ,sometimes the ornamentation of the later glazed wares from ,italy takes the form of small reliefs 7emblemata71 made separately and attached before the glaze was applied1 and there are two or three specimens of this class in the ,british ,museum4 ,it was also not infrequently used for lamps1 which1 apart from the glaze1 have all the characteristics of the ordinary kinds1 and even for figures of gladiators1 boats1 and other objects4 ,the glaze is of a thick vitreous character1 and was not improbably produced by lead2 at all events a ,french writer#dde maintains1 in opposition to the views of ,brongniart and ,blmner1 that by a study of this ware he has established a knowledge of lead-glaze among the ancients4#ddf ----- ,footnote #cjj3 ,strabo1 viii4 p4 #cha 7the expression should probably be confined to vases with reliefs74 ,footnote #cja3 ,paus4 i4 #c1 #a2 ,harpokration1 s4v4 4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,il4 v4 #chg4 ,footnote #cjc3 ii4 #h1 #aj4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,hdt4 i4 #agi2 ,xen4 ,anab4 iii4 #d1 #g4 ,cf4 ,ovid1 ,mel4 iv4 #eg3 8ubi dicitur altam ,coctilibus muris cinxisse ,semiramis urbem40 ,footnote #cje3 ,h4,n4 vii4 #aid4 ,footnote #cjf3 v4 #e1 #d2 x4 #ce1 #e and #d1 #c2 ii4 #bg1 #g 7 3 see ,frazer's note ad loc472 ,nissen1 ,pompeian4 ,studien1 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,vitr4 ii4 #h1 #i4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,xen4 ,hell4 v4 #b1 #e2 ,paus4 viii4 #h1 #e4 ,footnote #cji3 1 i4 #b1 #e4 ,footnote #caj3 xxxv4 #aee2 see ,milchhoefer in ,arch4 ,stud4 ,h4 ,brunn dargebr4 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #caa3 vii4 #bb1 #f4 ,footnote #cab3 i4 #dj1 #d4 ,footnote #cac3 ,see on the subject generally ,drpfeld and others1 ,die ,verwendung von ,terrakotten1 ,berlin1 #ahha4 ,footnote #cad3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 xxiv4 7#ahii71 p4 #cej2 4 4 #aijc1 pls4 #b-f1 p4 #ga ff4 ,cf4 the painted terracotta panels in wooden frames at ,sparta1 mentioned by ,vitruvius 7ii4 #h1 #i74 ,footnote #cae3 ,see a passage in ,xenophon 7,mem4 iii4 #a1 #g7 bearing on the different materials used in ,greek domestic architecture4 ,footnote #caf3 ,see ,drpfeld1 ,die antike ,ziegelbau u4 sein ,einfluss auf d4 dor4 ,styl1 in ,hist4 u4 ,phil4 ,aufstze ,e4 ,curtius gewidmet1 p4 #aci ff4 ,footnote #cag3 ,diod4 ,sic4 xvii4 #aae4 ,footnote #cah3 i4 #db1 #e4 ,footnote #cai3 v4 #bj1 #e4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,blmner1 ,technologie1 ii4 p4 #aa2 ,olympia 7,ergebnisse71 ii4 p4 #abi ff4 ,footnote #cba3 ,inscr4 ,gr4 7,atticae71 ii4 #afg4 ,footnote #cbb3 7l4 #aacc74 ,footnote #cbc3 ,an obviously incorrect rendering of 2 ,tr4 plos the process of making sun-dried bricks is certainly here referred to1 as the allusion to implies4 ,footnote #cbd3 ii4 #c1 #c4 ,footnote #cbe3 ii4 #b1 #d4 ,footnote #cbf3 ii4 #b1 #a1 #b4 ,for further details see ,chapter ,,xix4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,ar4 ,ran4 #hjj1 quoted by ,pollux1 x4 #adh3 cf4 ,plut4 ,vit4 ,sol4 #be4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,for representations of this process in ,egyptian wall-paintings see ,rosellini1 ,mon4 ,civili1 ii4 p4 #bee1 pl4 #di1 #a1 and ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs1 i4 p4 #cdd4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,isid4 ,orig4 xix4 #aj1 #af3 lateres 444 inde nominati sunt quod lati ligneis formis efficiuntur4 ,cf4 ibid4 xv4 #h1 #af4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,see on the subject generally1 ,drpfeld1 ,die ,verwendung von ,terrakotten1 #ahha1 and ,borrmann's excellent treatise in ,durm's ,handbuch d4 ,architektur1 ,die ,keramik in d4 ,baukunst 7#a4 ,theil1 ,bd4 #d71 p4 #bh ff42 also ,wiegand1 ,puteol4 ,bauinschr4 pp4 #gai1 #gef ff4 ,footnote #cca3 ,on the origin of see ,benndorf in ,jahreshefte1 #ahii1 p4 #a ff4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,c #ijd4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,rayet and ,collignon1 pl4 #af4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,d #gjg-h4 ,footnote #cce3 ,boeckh1 ,urkunde ber ,scewesen 7,staatshaushaltung1 iii471 p4 #djf4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #aea4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #aeb4 ,footnote #cch3 i4 #c1 #a4 ,footnote #cci3 ,the use of the word also seems to point to this conclusion4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhb1 pl4 #ae4 ,footnote #cda3 ,j4,h4,s4 xiii4 p4 #cae4 ,see generally1 ,minervini1 ,terrecotte del ,museo ,campano4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,see ,furtwaengler1 ,meisterwerke1 p4 #bej4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,c #iaj ff4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,a good example of a painted tile from ,aegion in ,achaia is in the ,british ,museum 7,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,c #ijh74 ,footnote #cde3 ,cf4 also the tiles from the temple at ,elateia in ,boeotia1 described by ,m4 ,paris1 late1 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #cdf3 v4 #aj1 #c4 ,it is noteworthy that ,pausanias here uses the word 1 although the tiles are not of terracotta1 indicating that it had become by long usage the generic word for tiles of all kinds4 ,cf4 ,st4 ,luke v4 #ai4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,see ,drpfeld1 etc41 ,verwendung von ,terrakotten1 pls4 #a-d2 ,olympia1 ii4 p4 #aic ff4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,see ,builder1 #d ,march #ahii1 p4 #bai4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,fatture di argille in ,sicilia1 pp4 #bg1 #ca4 ,footnote #cej3 ,becker in ,mlanges ,grco-,romaines1 i4 7#ahed71 p4 #dhb ff4 ,footnote #cea3 ,inscr4 ,gr4 ix4 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,antiqs4 of ,kertch1 pp4 #gb1 #ge1 pl4 #g4 ,footnote #cec3 ,see ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,e #aca ff41 ,e #ahf4 ,footnote #ced3 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 i4 #eda4 ,footnote #cee3 late1 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #cef3 ,see also ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahgg1 p4 #dda1 for a long inscription from ,sparta4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,others with and a magistrate's name are in the ,british ,museum 7,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,e #aca-cc1 #ahf ff473 see also ,inscr4 ,gr4 ix4 #gce ff4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,e #acj4 ,footnote #cei3 ,see ,benndorf1 ,gr4 u4 ,sic4 ,vasenb4 p4 #ej1 pl4 #bi1 fig4 #aj2 ,jahrbuch d4 arch4 ,inst4 ii4 7#ahhg71 p4 #afa2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #cde2 ,hicks and ,hill1 ,gk4 ,hist4 ,inscrs4 p4 #af4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,muse de ,svres1 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 ii4 7#ahgg71 pl4 #h1 p4 #aai2 ,daremberg and ,saglio1 ,dict4 i4 p4 #abfj1 fig4 #afgc4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,daremberg and ,saglio1 i4 p4 #cch1 fig4 #cii4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,cf4 ,stackelberg1 ,grber der ,hellenen1 pl4 #g2 ,dodwell1 ,tour1 i4 p4 #deb4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,b #did ff4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,benndorf in ,eranos ,vindobonensis1 p4 #chd4 ,footnote #cff3 ,fig4 #fg44 ,cf4 also ,berlin #bbid1 and see ,daremberg and ,saglio1 s4v4 ,caminus4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,jahrbuch1 vi4 7#ahia71 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,e #aef ff4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xiii4 p4 #hj4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,cf4 ,macpherson1 ,antiqs4 of ,kertch1 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #cga3 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 iii4 #efhf4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,for examples of these see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,e #ic ff4 ,footnote #cgc3 ii4 #fb4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,see ,daremberg and ,saglio1 art4 ,lucerna1 init42 ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #hj4 ,footnote #cge3 vii4 #bae4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,ar4 ,eccl4 #a2 ,axionikos1 quoted by ,pollux1 x4 #abb4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,the words and seem to denote the material of which the wick was made 7cf4 ,pollux1 x4 #aae74 ,footnote #cgh3 ,pollux1 vi4 #ajc2 x4 #aae4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,loc4 cit4 supr4 ,footnote #chj3 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahfh1 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #cha3 ,probably an imitation of the projections on bronze lamps1 to which chains for suspension were attached4 ,see on this type ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #aijc1 p4 #cch ff4 ,footnote #chb3 ,newton1 ,travels and ,discoveries1 ii4 p4 #ahd;,discoveries1 ii4 pt4 #b1 p4 #cie4 ,footnote #chc3 ,barker and ,ainsworth1 ,lares and ,penates1 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #chd3 ,see ,c4,i4,l4 iii4 ,suppl4 ,no4 #gcaj4 ,footnote #che3 ,div4 ,inst4 ii4 #aa4 ,footnote #chf3 ,juvenal1 xi4 #aaf2 ,propertius1 v4 #a1 #e2 ,ovid1 ,fast4 i4 #bjb4 ,footnote #chg3 ,h4,n4 xxxiv4 #cd4 ,footnote #chh3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #aea4 ,footnote #chi3 ,leg4 pro ,christ4 #ag1 #bic1 ed4 ,migne2 see ,blmner1 ,technologie1 ii4 p4 #abi1 note #b4 ,footnote #cij3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #aec4 ,footnote #cia3 ,ibid4 #aef4 ,footnote #cib3 ,apotheosis1 #deh4 ,see generally ,blmner1 ii4 p4 #adj ff4 ,footnote #cic3 ,pollux1 x4 #ahi2 ,hesych41 s4v42 ,ber4 d4 schs4 ,gesellsch4 #ahed1 p4 #db2 ,blmner1 ii4 pp4 #db1 #aag2 and cf4 p4 #aec below4 ,footnote #cid3 ,tertull4 ,apol4 #ab2 ad ,nat4 i4 #ab4 ,footnote #cie3 ,anim4 ,gener4 ii4 #f2 ,hist4 ,anim4 iii4 #e4 ,footnote #cif3 ,plut4 ,de profect4 in virt4 #ag1 p4 #hf ,a2 ,quaest4 conviv4 ii4 #c1 #b1 p4 #fcf ,c4 ,footnote #cig3 ,de permut4 #b4 ,footnote #cih3 ,fab4 #acg 7,teubner74 ,footnote #cii3 ,phil4 i4 #i1 #dg4 ,footnote #djj3 ,anth4 ,p4 vi4 #bhj4 ,footnote #dja3 ,phaedr4 #bcj ,b4 ,footnote #djb3 ,brongniart1 ,trait1 i4 p4 #cje4 ,footnote #djc3 ,op4 et ,di4 #fj3 444 4 ,footnote #djd3 ,anth4 ,p4 xvi4 #aia4 ,footnote #dje3 ,statuettes de ,terre ,cuite1 p4 #bea4 ,footnote #djf3 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,e #a ff4 ,footnote #djg3 ,see also for some interesting moulds from ,girgenti1 ,rm4 ,mitth4 xii4 7#ahig71 p4 #bec ff4 ,similar specimens have been found at ,kertch and ,smyrna4 ,footnote #djh3 ,see also on the subject ,c4 ,c4 ,edgar1 ,greek ,moulds 7,cat4 du ,muse du ,caire1 viii4 #aijc71 pls4 #bc-h1 #cc1 p4 xiv ff4 ,these moulds are nearly all made of plaster2 but the account there given of the technical processes would hold good of terracotta moulds4 ,footnote #dji3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bed4 ,footnote #daj3 ,poplic4 #ac3 see ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,footnote #daa3 ,lexiph4 #bb4 ,footnote #dab3 vii4 #afc4 ,footnote #dac3 ,cat4 ,b #deh-ei1 ,d #cib4 ,footnote #dad3 ,see ,blmner1 ,technologie1 iv4 p4 #dfd ff4 ,footnote #dae3 ,hirt1 ,gesch4 d4 bild4 ,kunst1 p4 #afe4 ,footnote #daf3 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 xxxvi4 #ahi7 mentions one ,agrippa who painted in encaustic on terracotta3 see ,chapter ,,xix4 for possible examples of this process4 ,footnote #dag3 ,schne1 ,gr4 ,reliefs1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #dah3 ,sitzungber4 d4 k4 bayer4 ,akad4 ,phil4 ,cl4 #ahhc1 p4 #bii ff4 ,footnote #dai3 ,see for those from ,athens ,j4,h4,s4 xvii4 p4 #cjf ff4 ,footnote #dbj3 iv4 #ee4 ,footnote #dba3 ,de ,mundo1 #f1 #cih4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,see on the subject ,hermann1 ,lehrbuch d4 gr4 ,altert4 iv4 7#ahhb71 p4 #bie2 ,blmner1 ,technol4 ii4 p4 #abc2 ,baumeister1 ,denkm4 ii4 p4 #ggh4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,a ,corpus of all the known types of terracotta statuettes has recently been published by the ,german ,archaeological ,institute1 edited by ,dr4 ,f4 ,winter 7,typen der figrlichen ,terrakotten1 #b vols4 #aijc74 ,footnote #dbd3 ,cf4 the types on painted vases1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,chapter ,,xii4 7,eleusinian deities74 ,footnote #dbe3 ,paus4 viii4 #ae1 #c4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,b4,m4 ,b #beh1 #daj4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,b4,m4 ,b #bef1 #bhf1 #cce4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,b4,m4 ,b #cei3 cf4 p4 #cdd4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,j4,h4,s4 vii4 p4 #i ff4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,j4,h4,s4 vi4 pl4 #fa4 ,footnote #dca3 ,cesnola1 ,cyprus1 p4 #ajb2 ,b4,m4 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #ce1 fig4 #fc4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,b4,m4 ,excavations1 p4 #bb1 pl4 #c4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,see ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #aej2 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 p4 #aic2 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 iii4 pl4 #e4 ,footnote #dcd3 ,roberts1 ,gk4 ,epigraphy1 i4 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #dce3 ,cf4 ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 p4 #aa4 ,heuzey1 however1 thinks that the ,phoenicians imitated the ,greek painted examples of this time 7such as ,a #aaag ff4 in ,b4,m474 ,cf4 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahhj1 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,good examples are given in ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 iii4 p4 #fgf2 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahhj1 pl4 #bh 7in ,louvre1 from ,corinth72 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahgi1 pl4 #ai3 cf4 also ,berlin #abhh-ia1 and many examples in ,b4,m4 7,first ,vase ,room74 ,on one from ,kos was found the name of ,apries 7#eii-efi ,b4,c474 ,see also ,naukratis ,i4 pl4 #b1 figs4 #f-ah4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art4 iii4 pl4 #f4 ,footnote #dch3 ,b4,m4 ,excavations1 p4 #fi1 fig4 #ii4 ,footnote #dci3 ,furtwaengler1 ,coll4 ,sabouroff1 i4 pl4 #gj1 fig4 #c 7with text72 ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #cgd4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,see ,journ4 des ,savans1 ,march #ahfb1 p4 #afc2 ,rev4 ,arch4 vii4 7#ahfc71 p4 #bei 7name of ,ptolemy wrongly read as ,kleopatra72 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahfi1 p4 #ce2 ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #cgb4 ,footnote #dda3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 ,nov4 #ahgf1 p4 #che ff4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,von ,rohden1 ,terracotten von ,pompeii1 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,hettner in ,festschr4 fr ,j4 ,overbeck1 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,archaeologia1 xxxii4 p4 #deb 7,ewell72 ,british ,museum1 ,romano-,british ,room1 ,case ,h4 ,footnote #dde3 ,mazard1 ,de la connaissance par les anciens des glaures plombifres2 cf4 ,blmner1 ,technol4 ii4 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,on the subject generally see ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 chap4 xiii42 ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #cfe ff42 ,daremberg and ,saglio1 s4v4 ,figlinum1 p4 #aaca2 and for the ,graeco-,roman enamelled wares1 ,bonner ,jahrbcher1 xcvi4 p4 #aag1 and ,mazard1 op4 cit41 where a full description and list of examples is given4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,uses ,,and ,,shapes ,,of ,,greek ,,vases ,mention of painted vases in literature--,civil and domestic use of pottery--,measures of capacity--,use in daily life--,decorative use--,religious and votive uses--,use in funeral ceremonies--,shapes and their names--,ancient and modern classifications--,vases for storage--,pithos--,wine-amphora--,amphor a--,stamnos--,hydria--,vases for mixing--,krater--,deinos or ,lebes--,cooking-vessels--,vases for pouring wine--,oinochoe and variants--,ladles--,drinking-cups--,name s recorded by ,athenaeus--,kotyle--,skyphos--,kantharo s--,kylix--,phiale--,rhyton-- ,dishes--,oil-vases--,lekythos--,alabast ron--,pyxis--,askos--,moulded vases4 ,those who are acquainted with the enormous number of painted vases now gathered together in our ,museums1 showing the important part they must have played in the daily life of the ,greeks and the high estimation in which they were clearly held1 as evidenced by the great care bestowed on their decoration and the pride exhibited by artists in their signed productions1 may feel some surprise that so few allusions to them can be traced in classical literature4 ,such passages as can be interpreted as referring to them may actually be counted on the fingers of one hand1 and even these are but passing allusions2 while any full descriptions of vases1 such as that in ,theocritus' first ,idyll or some of those in ,athenaeus' ,book ,,xi41 almost invariably refer to metal vases with chased designs4 ,nor can we trace any reference to known potters or artists in literature or documents1 save in a few inscriptions recently found at ,athens1 which are1 of course1 of secondary importance for literary history4 ,more general allusions to pottery and its use in daily life are common enough1 and it would hardly be profitable to quote all such passages in detail2 many indeed1 such as the early allusion to the potter's wheel in the ,iliad 7see p4 #bjg71 have found a place elsewhere in this work4 ,the passage of ,homer at all events supplies proof1 if such were needed1 that the use of the wheel was known in early times in ,greece4 ,of undoubted references to painted vases there are but two1 though both of them are particularly interesting1 as they refer to well-known special classes of ,attic vases4 ,the earlier of the two is in ,pindar's tenth ,nemean ,ode1#ddg in which he celebrates the victory of ,thiaios of ,argos1 who had twice been successful in the ,panathenaic games at ,athens4 ,he says3 1 4#ddh ,these prize-vases are also mentioned by ,simonides of ,keos3 ' ' 4#ddi ,the other passage1 from the ,ecclesiazusae of ,aristophanes 7l4 #iif71 is equally well known4 ,one speaker1 in somewhat contemptuous terms1 alludes to 8the fellow who paints the lekythi for the dead03 4#dej ,these lekythi may with certainty be identified with the white ,athenian variety decorated with appropriate subjects and made specially for funerals 7see ,chapter ,,xi474 ,the best examples of this class belong to the very period at which the ,ecclesiazusae was written 7#cib ,b4,c471 but most of them show signs of being hastily executed or made to be sold at a low price4 ,it is probably for this reason that the speaker implies his contempt for the painter1 although at the same time it seems likely that vase-painters1 like all craftsmen1 were looked down upon by the ,athenians of that day1 in spite of the real beauty and artistic merit of their productions4 ,one or two doubtful allusions must next be considered4 ,the lyric poet ,alcaeus1 who flourished #faj-ehj ,b4,c41 seems to allude to painted vases1 but the reading is very doubtful4 ,the passage is read by ,bergk as follows 7,poet4 ,lyr4 ,graec4 iii4 p4 #afe1 frag4 #da73 ' 1 ' 1 1 444 1 ' 4#dea ,ahrens#deb read for ' 1 1 1 and other versions have been suggested4 ,bergk's reading is very uncouth1 and it certainly seems as if was intended1 whatever the preceding word4 ,if it is allowed to stand1 it obviously implies painted vases1 as in the of ,pindar4 ,in the speech of ,demosthenes ,de ,falsa ,legatione 7p4 #dae7 occurs a passage which is generally taken as having reference to painted vases3 1 1 1 8,and you1 ,philochares1 who paint the alabastos-stands and the pediments40 ,the word is commonly supposed to describe a stand with holders for pots of perfume 7also called 1 see below1 p4 #aie71 although most painted examples of this vase found in ,greece are of very early date4 ,the are more easy of explanation1 being the triangular pediments of temples1 which1 like the metopes of the so-called ,theseion at ,athens and those at ,thermon 7p4 #ib71 were no doubt often adorned with paintings in place of sculpture4 ,other passages1 if they do not actually refer to painted or even to fictile vases1 are at least of value as giving information as to the current names for those in every-day use1 or as to various purposes for which they were used4 ,reference will be made to many of these in the course of the chapter4 ,suetonius in his ,life of ,caesar 7 #ha7 describes how the colonists who were sent out under the ,lex ,julia to build new houses were destroying ancient tombs for the purpose when they came upon remains of ancient pottery 7aliquantum vasculorum operis antiqui71 the discovery of which caused them to redouble their efforts in the work of destruction4 ,similarly ,strabo#dec tells us that when ,julius ,caesar sent colonists to rebuild ,corinth they came upon tombs containing large quantities of 1 which they nicknamed 8,necrocorinthia40 ,the meaning of this expression is somewhat doubtful1 but the word seems to imply chased or relief work1 and it is probable that these were not painted vases1 but ,hellenistic ware with reliefs1 like the so-called ,megarian bowls4#ded ,the latter can be identified1 by means of their subjects1 with the scyphi ,homerici of which ,nero was so fond2 ,suetonius tells us that they were so named a caelatura carminum ,homeri1 from the subjects from ,homer's poems carved in relief upon them4#dee ,the scyphi were doubtless of metal1 the use of which was confined to the wealthy and luxurious1 while the so-called ,megarian bowls and similar ware were copied from them in the cheaper material for the use of the humbler classes4 ,we see1 then1 that classical literature throws but little light on the uses made of painted vases as such by the ,greeks4 ,but we are by no means ill supplied with information as to the uses of pottery in general1 about which evidence may be obtained both from the vases themselves and from innumerable passages in ancient writers or the commentaries of the scholiasts and lexicographers4 ,this question is more or less bound up with that of the different shapes and names of vases1 of which some #aej have been handed down by ,athenaeus1 ,pollux1 and other writers1 and these will be considered in detail subsequently4 ,for the present it may suffice to say a few words on what is known of the use of pottery in general and of painted vases in particular4 ,as most of the vases hitherto known have been discovered in tombs1 it would at first sight appear that they were exclusively destined for sepulchral purposes2 but this seems to have been in many cases only a subsequent use of them1 and they doubtless also found a place among the wants of daily life4 ,that this is true of the plain unglazed or unpainted pottery goes indeed without saying2 in regard to the painted vases the question is1 in view of the scanty literary evidence1 more difficult to decide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,,hemikotylion 7,,vase ,,used ,,as ,,measure74 ,,british ,,museum4 ,as the civil and domestic use of pottery is the most important1 it is necessary to consider it first4 ,for ordinary purposes earthenware largely took the place of bronze and the precious metals1 just as it does at the present day4 ,one instance of this we have already quoted in speaking of the 8,homeric bowls10 and others might be cited1 in particular its use for measures1 for which metal would naturally be employed as a general rule4 ,this usage is established by the occasional discovery of vases inscribed with the names of measures and the like4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a small one-handled cup of black glazed ware 7,f #eie ,fig4 #ad7 found in the island of ,cerigo 7,kythera71 on which is incised in fifth-century lettering the word 1 1 or 8half-kotyle40 ,the word is interesting as denoting not only a shape of a drinking-cup 7see below1 p4 #ahd71 but a ,greek measure1 equivalent to about half a pint4 ,again1 in #ahfg1 a cylindrical vase of red ware was found at ,athens inscribed 1 1 or 8public 7measure740#def ,it was stamped with the figure of an owl and an olive-branch1 the official seal of ,athens1 and has been supposed to represent the or quart1 its capacity having been estimated at #jif litres1 or #a pints1 while the is generally reckoned as equivalent to #a litre4#deg ,many of the names in common use for shapes of vases are also found applied to measures of capacity either for liquid or dry stuffs2 and it is possible that herein lies the explanation of the somewhat puzzling graffiti inscriptions found under the feet of ,attic vases 7see ,chapter ,,xvii471 where the words used seem to have no relation to the vase itself4 ,thus in liquid measure the amphora 77 or 1 also known as 1 was equivalent to about #g gallons1 and was divided into #ab 1 the into #ab 1 which1 as we have seen1 answer to our -pints4 ,the was one-fourth of a 1 the one-sixth4#deh ,all these words were in common use to express various forms of vases1 as will be seen later on4 ,further1 the word 1 which1 like the ,latin testa1 is used generally for pottery1 has a more restricted sense of a cask or vessel used for transporting wine1 and is even used as a term of measure1 presumably equivalent to the amphora4#dei ,earthenware was also used generally for the purpose of storing liquids or various kinds of food1 for the preparation of food and liquids1 and for the uses of the table or toilet4 ,the painted ware1 however1 was not employed for the commoner purposes1 nor to contain large quantities of liquids1 for which it would have been far too expensive4 ,but we know that it was largely used at banquets and drinking-bouts1 and on other occasions1 from the evidence of the vases themselves4 ,thus1 in the well-known vase with the ,harpies robbing the blind ,phineus of his food 7p4 #ceg71 a kotyle painted with black figures is seen in the king's hands2 and in a scene representing the reception of ,paris by ,helen1#dfj the former is offered wine drawn from a large four-handled vase on which figures are painted4#dfa ,vases with subjects represented on them are also seen placed on columns forming the background of scenes1 as if forming part of the furniture of a hall or chamber4 ,but as a general rule the vases represented in banquet scenes and elsewhere are left plain or only decorated with patterns4 ,to the use of vases in connection with athletic games we have already alluded in discussing ,pindar's mention of the ,panathenaic amphorae2 it is1 of course1 likely that other forms of vases were also given as prizes or presented to young men on special occasions1 such as entering the ranks of the or being married1 but we have no evidence of such customs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,child ,,playing ,,with ,,jug 7,,british ,,museum74 ,vases were also used as toys1 as is proved by the discovery of many little vases1 chiefly jugs1 in the tombs of children at ,athens1 on which are depicted children playing at various games4#dfb ,they are too small to have served any other purpose1 and as similarly shaped jugs appear among the toys used by the children in these scenes1 it is reasonable to suppose that they were playthings4 ,no doubt some of the more unusual shapes were made with the same end1 such as vases in the shape of animals or fruit1 or the aski 7p4 #bjj71 which contained little balls and were used as rattles4 ,we have already hinted at the purely decorative use of vases as domestic ornaments1 in which capacity they were often placed on columns2 there is1 however1 no hint of this in ancient authors4 ,but that it was customary in ,greece and ,italy1 at all events in the later period 7i4e4 after the ,persian ,wars71 seems to be indicated by the practice which obtains with the larger vases of executing only one side with care1 while the other exhibits an unimportant and badly painted design 7generally three boys or men wrapped in mantles74 ,it is natural to suppose that the carelessly executed side was not supposed to be seen1 owing to the fact that the vase was intended to be placed against a wall4 ,some of the large round dishes of ,apulian fabric seem to have been intended for hanging up against a wall1 on the same principle4#dfc ,the question which next arises is that of the extent to which vases were used for religious and votive purposes4 ,here1 however1 with one exception noted below1 we derive little aid from a study of the painted vases themselves1 in spite of the frequency of mythological subjects4 ,but inasmuch as many instances are known of offerings of metal vases in the temples of the gods1 it can hardly be doubted that painted vases served the same purpose for those who could only afford the humbler material4 ,it was at one time supposed that the large vases painted for a front view only1 of which we have just spoken1 were destined for this purpose2 but as they are mostly found in tombs1 this can hardly be the case4 ,of late years1 however1 much light has been thrown upon this question by means of scientific excavations4 ,on many temple-sites which have been systematically explored1 such as the ,acropolis of ,athens or ,naukratis in the ,egyptian ,delta1 enormous numbers of fragments of painted vases have been found which are clearly the remains of votive offerings4 ,it was a well-known ,greek custom to clear out the temples from time to time and form rubbish-heaps of the disused vases and statuettes1 sometimes by digging pits for them2 and thus these broken fragments1 rejected from their apparent uselessness1 have from these very circumstances been preserved to the present day to cast a flood of light on many points of archaeology4 ,at ,naukratis many of the fragments bear incised inscriptions in the form of dedications to ,apollo 7,fig4 #af47 or ,aphrodite1 according to the site on which they were found4 ,at ,penteskouphia near ,corinth a large series of early painted tablets1 with representations of ,poseidon and inscribed dedications1 were found in #ahgi 7p4 #caf71 and illustrate the practice of making offerings in this form1 mentioned by ,aeschylos4#dfd ,tablets painted with figures and hung on trees or walls are not infrequently depicted on red-figured vases1 the subject generally implying their votive character4#dfe ,fig4 #ag4 represents a youth carrying a tablet of this kind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,rim ,,of ,,vase ,,from ,,naukratis ,,with ,,dedication ,,to ,,apollo 7,,brit4 ,,mus474 ,illustration3 ,from ,benndorf1 ,gr4 u4 ,sic4 ,vasenb4 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,youth ,,with ,,votive ,,tablet4 ,there is no doubt that vases 7though not1 perhaps1 painted ones7 must have played a considerable part in the religious ceremonies of the ,greeks4 ,in the ,athenian festival of the ,anthesteria1 the second day was devoted to the holding of 1 or 8pot-contests10 vessels full of corn being dedicated to ,hermes ,chthonios4#dff ,at the festival of the ,gardens of ,adonis flower-pots of earthenware containing flowers were cast into the sea1 as a type of the premature death of ,adonis4#dfg ,these flower-pots were also placed on the tops of houses1 and in this same festival1 which was chiefly celebrated by hetairae1 little terracotta figures 77 were introduced4#dfh ,the use of flower-pots placed in windows to form artificial gardens is mentioned by ,martial and ,pliny#dfi2 and they were also employed to protect tender plants1 as hinted by ,theophrastos1#dgj who speaks of the necessity of propagating southernwood by slips in pots4 ,it is1 perhaps1 hardly necessary to speak of the constant use of the jug and bowl 7phiale7 in sacrifices and libation scenes1 as seen on innumerable vases of the ,r4,f4 and later periods 7see pp4 #agh1 #aia74 ,fig4 #ah shows the use of vases on the occasion of a sacrifice to ,dionysos4 ,there is also a type of vase which1 according to a recent writer1#dga was used for burning incense4 ,it is a form which hitherto had been conventionally named the 1 on account of its recurved lip 7see below1 p4 #ahg72 but it is pointed out that it had three feet 7the form being clearly derived from the tripod71 and therefore stood1 and was not carried about2 also that it varies much in size1 and is found at an early date1 and chiefly in women's graves4#dgb ,there is also evidence that it was meant to stand fire or hold coals4 ,from these details the conclusion is deduced that it represents the earlier form of incense-burner 7down to about #ejj ,b4,c471 those of later date being of a different form1 as often seen on ,r4,f4 vases4#dgc ,illustration3 ,from ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold4 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,,vases ,,used ,,in ,,sacrifice 7,,from ,,vase ,,at ,,naples74 ,the most important use1 however1 for which vases were employed1 and that to which their preservation is mainly due1 was for purposes connected with funeral ceremonies4 ,these were of a varied nature1 including the use of vases at the burial1 the placing of them on the tomb to hold offerings1 and the depositing of them in the tomb1 either to hold the ashes of the dead or as 8tomb-furniture10 in accordance with the religious beliefs of the ,greeks on the life after death4 ,the principal methods in which they have been found deposited in the tombs have already been described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,vases were employed in the burial rites in various ways1 as we learn from the subjects depicted upon them4 ,in the celebrated vase representing the death and funeral of ,archemoros1#dgd two persons are seen carrying tables laden with vases to the tomb1 while an oinocho is placed under the bier on which the corpse is laid4 ,it is also probable that they were often burnt on the funeral pile with the corpse1 and if this is the case it may account for the discoloured condition of many fine vases in which the red glaze has turned to an ashen grey under the action of fire4#dge ,in any case vases were often broken before being placed in the tomb1 the idea being that they must participate in the death of the person to whom they were consecrated4 ,there is a special class of ,b4,f4 amphorae found at ,athens1 which are commonly known as 8prothesis-amphorae10 the subjects relating exclusively to the or laying-out1 and other funeral rites4 ,they were1 therefore1 probably placed round the bier during this ceremony4 ,vases were also used for holding milk1 oil1 unguents1 and other liquids which were poured upon the corpse1 or for the lustral water placed at the entrance of the tomb4 ,it was the regular practice of the ,athenians to place vases on the outside of the tombs1 the commonest forms being that of the lekythos1 or a larger vase known as the 1 mentioned by ,demosthenes4#dgf ,these were1 however1 generally of stone1 and are sometimes sculptured in relief1 or bear inscriptions like the ,attic stelae#dgg and modern tombstones4 ,the custom of placing lekythi on tombs is also alluded to once or twice by ,aristophanes in the ,ecclesiazusae--e4g4 line #ech3 ' 1 and again1 line #ajcb3 4#dgh ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,funeral ,,lekythos1 ,,with ,,vases ,,inside ,,tomb 7,,brit4 ,,mus474 ,the manner of employing vases as adjuncts to the tomb is nowhere better illustrated than on the ,athenian white lekythi1 which are almost all painted with funeral subjects1 and1 from the hasty way in which many are executed1 show that they were often made to order at short notice 7see above1 p4 #acb74 ,in particular1 one example in the ,british ,museum 7,d #ef ,fig4 #ai7 shows the interior of a conical tomb or tumulus1 within which vases of various shapes are seen4 ,in other examples they are ranged along the steps of a stele1 or are represented as being brought to the tomb in baskets by mourning women4#dgi ,the larger vases of ,southern ,italy1 which similarly show by their subjects that they were only made for funeral purposes1 bear a close relation to the white lekythi1 and also to the ,attic funeral stelae with reliefs4 ,the treatment of the subject varies in the different fabrics1 but two main types prevail4 ,in the one1 of ,lucanian origin1 the tomb takes the form of a stele or column1 round which vases are ranged on steps#dhj2 in the other1 on the large ,apulian kraters and amphorae1 the tomb is in the shape of a or small temple1 within which is seen the figure of the deceased1 while on either side approach women bearing offerings 7,fig4 #ajf72 but vases do not play an important part in these latter scenes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,vases ,,placed ,,on ,,tomb 7,,lucanian ,,hydria ,,in ,,brit4 ,,mus474 ,thirdly1 we have to deal with the use of painted vases in the tomb itself4 ,as regards their use as cinerary urns1 to contain the ashes of the dead1 it appears to have been somewhat restricted4 ,in the ,mycenaean period we know that inhumation1 not cremation1 was the practice1 contrary to that of the heroic or ,homeric age1 in which an entirely different state of things is represented4 ,but when we do read in ,homer or the tragic poets1 of the methods of dealing with the ashes of the dead1 there is no mention of any but metal urns4 ,thus the ashes of ,patroklos were collected in a #dha 7the word is probably used loosely71 while those of ,achilles were stored in a golden amphora4#dhb ,again1 ,sophokles1 in the fictitious account of ,orestes' death given in his ,electra1 uses the expression 7l4 #geh7dhc3 1 showing that metal vases were generally employed for this purpose4 ,no instances occurred among the early tombs in the ,dipylon cemetery at ,athens or elsewhere in ,greece before the sixth century1 nor was the practice usually favoured by the ,etruscans1 who employed painted vases in their tombs exclusively as furniture4 ,in ,mycenaean times in ,crete coffers 77 of terracotta1 painted like the vases1 were used as ossuaria#dhd2 and similarly in ,etruria at all periods the remains of the deceased were placed in rectangular chests or sarcophagi of terracotta or stone4 ,but in the earliest tombs of ,etruria and ,central ,italy urns and hut-shaped receptacles for the ashes were invariably employed 7see ,chapter ,,xviii474 ,it is1 however1 probable that in course of time there was a partial adoption of the practice in ,greece4 ,as early as the middle of the sixth century there is an instance in the well-known ,burgon ,panathenaic amphora1 now in the ,british ,museum1#dhe found by ,mr4 ,burgon in #ahac2 it contained remains of burnt bones and several small plain vases4 ,this would seem to indicate that the ,panathenaic amphorae in particular were considered appropriate for this purpose1 namely1 that the cherished prize won by the living should be used for the most sacred purpose in connection with the dead4 ,among the red-figured vases of the fifth century which have been found to contain ashes1 may be mentioned the famous ,vivenzio vase at ,naples1#dhf which was found carefully deposited within another vase at ,nola1 and a vase of the shape known as 1 now in the ,british ,museum1 found near the ,peiraeus4#dhg ,there is also a covered vase in the ,british ,museum1#dhh which was employed for a similar purpose4 ,it is not1 strictly speaking1 a painted vase1 being covered with a white slip and coloured like the terracottas1 while the heads of monsters project from its sides2 the shape is that known as 78tureen071 and it dates from the fourth century4 ,it contained human bones1 among which were found a small terracotta figure of a ,siren and other objects2 the jaw-bone1 which was preserved1 had still fixed in it the obolos1 or small silver coin which was placed there as ,charon's fare for ferrying the soul over the ,styx4 ,of later date is a vase found at ,alexandria1 in the catacombs1 similarly decorated1 and also filled with bones2 it was presented to the ,british ,museum in #ahcj by ,sir ,e4 ,codrington4 ,the class of large terracotta vases found in tombs at ,canosa1 ,cumae1 ,capua and ,calvi 7,cales71 of which fine specimens may be seen in the ,terracotta ,room of the ,british ,museum 7see above1 p4 #aai71 seems to have been made for sepulchral purposes1 as in many cases they are not adapted for practical use4 ,on the other hand1 they may have been ornaments for houses4 ,they are decorated with figures in high relief1 or attached to different parts of the vase1 and many of them1 especially those in the form of female heads1 are strictly speaking not vases at all1 having no proper bottom4 ,the majority of painted vases found in the tombs must be regarded purely as tomb-furniture1 placed there with the idea that the deceased would require in his future life all that had been associated with his former existence4 ,sometimes they were placed round the corpse1 with food or liquids in them for the use of the 8ghost10 and instances are known of eggs and other objects having been preserved in this manner4#dhi ,toy-vases are found buried with children in tombs at ,athens and elsewhere1 and toilet-boxes or unguent-vases in women's graves4 ,nevertheless1 it is probably not wide of the mark to say that in the sixth and fifth centuries the custom had lost much of its original meaning2 the habit of placing painted vases in tombs survived1 but the original idea of the practice had become obscured1 and the religious significance was restricted to certain classes of vases1 the prothesis-amphorae1 white lekythi1 and others1 which were not used during life but only made specially for this purpose4 ,great value seems to have been set upon the painted vases by their possessors4 ,when broken1 they were repaired by the pieces being skilfully fitted and drilled1 with a rivet of lead or bronze neatly attached to the sides4 ,several mended vases exist in the ,european collections4#dij ,occasionally they were repaired by inserting pieces of other vases4 ,thus a vase with two handles1 found at ,vulci1 of the shape called 1 is repaired with a part of a kylix representing quite a different subject1 and thus presents a discordant effect4#dia ,a ,r4,f4 vase in the ,louvre has actually been mended with part of a ,b4,f4 vase4#dib ,a ,b4,f4 kylix in the ,british ,museum 7,b #cih7 has a piece inserted with the name of ,priapos2 similarly the two handles of the ,r4,f4 kylix ,e #d1 with the signature of ,thypheithides1 do not belong to the vase2 but these may both be modern restorations4 ,the large casks of coarse and unglazed ware 77 were also repaired with leaden cramps4 8,the casks of the ill-clad ,cynic10 says the ,roman satirist1 8do not burn2 should you break one of them1 another house will be made by to-morrow1 or the same will continue to serve when repaired with lead40#dic ,aristophanes puts into the mouth of his old litigant turned rou a popular story of ,sybaris which alludes to the use of bronze rivets4 ,a woman of that city broke an earthen pot1 which was represented as screaming out1 and calling for witnesses to prove how badly it had been treated4 8,by ,persephone60 exclaims the dame1 8were you to leave off bawling for witnesses1 and make haste to buy a copper clamp 77 to rivet yourself with1 you would show more sense40#did 99 99 99 99 99 ,after noting the chief uses of ,greek vases it is necessary to give some account of the different shapes1 and to identify the recorded names as far as possible with the various kinds actually found4 ,the subject is1 however1 one of great difficulty1 and it is impossible to attain to scientific accuracy1 owing to the differences of time between the authors by whom they are mentioned1 the difficulty of explaining types by verbal descriptions1 and the ambiguity often caused by the ancient practice of describing a vase of one shape by the name of another4 ,a study of any collection of ,greek vases will make it apparent that there is a great variety in the forms of the different periods4 ,this is especially marked in the earliest ages of ,greece1 in which the variety is almost endless1 and the adoption and development of certain recognised forms practically unknown4 ,it must therefore be evident that the statements of ancient writers must always be used with caution1 and that a shape described by an early writer must not be taken as representing the same in a later period1 even if the same word be used1 or vice versa4 ,for instance1 the of ,homer1 which finds a curious parallel in the gold cup with the doves discovered by ,schliemann at ,mycenae1 is1 whatever view we may take of the ,homeric civilisation1 only an example of a passing fashion4 ,or again1 many of the drinking-cups described by ,athenaeus in his eleventh book are doubtless only instances of new experiments in pottery or metal-work characteristic of the ,hellenistic age1 with its tendency to strive after novelties4 ,many of his names are little more than nicknames for familiar shapes1 which enjoyed a temporary popularity4 ,some information may be derived from the vases themselves by means of inscriptions1 specimens of which are given in ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,thus on the ,franois vase the three-handled pitcher used by ,polyxena is inscribed 1 or 8water-pot10 and enables us to apply the name hydria with certainty to a three-handled vase1 of which many black- and red-figured specimens exist4#die ,then we have the lekythos of ,tataie1 and the kylikes of ,philto and ,kephisophon1#dif which testify by inscriptions to the name by which they were known4 ,the names incised in graffito on the feet of vases#dig are a more doubtful source of evidence1 inasmuch as they may refer either to mixed batches of vases or to the names of measures of capacity4 ,examples of cursory mention of names in the ancient writers1 such as ,aristophanes1 are innumerable1 but seldom explicit1 and the scholia on these writers are hardly more useful1 inasmuch as the grammarians probably knew little more about obsolete shapes than we do ourselves1 and their commentaries have little critical weight4 ,the loci classici on the subject are the book of ,athenaeus already referred to1#dih in which he gives a list of over one hundred names1 with more or less full explanation and commentary1 most of the forms being apparently varieties of drinking-cups1 and the ,onomasticon of ,pollux4#dii ,notices of vases are also to be found in the lexicographers1 such as ,hesychius and ,suidas1 and the ,etymologicum ,magnum4 ,in the early days of modern archaeology the first to propose an identification of the shapes of vases was ,panofka1#ejj whose fanciful and uncritical lucubrations were shortly afterwards combated by ,letronne#eja and ,gerhard1#ejb the latter of whom introduced a more scientific method of criticism and classification1 though his results cannot be considered as final4 ,other writers were ,mller1#ejc ,thiersch1#ejd ,ussing1#eje ,krause1#ejf and ,jahn1#ejg of whom ,ussing followed practically on ,gerhard's lines but with more success2 ,krause1 though exhaustive1 is on the whole uncritical2 and ,jahn has treated the subject with his wonted conciseness and sobriety4 ,of late years little attention has been paid to it1 principally1 no doubt1 for the reason that so many conventional names have been generally accepted for the ordinary shapes by archaeologists1 who have recognised the fact that it will never be possible to treat the subject with scientific accuracy4#ejh ,the classification of the shapes of vases has usually been undertaken on the lines of distinguishing their main uses1 such as 7#a7 those in which food or liquids were preserved2 7#b7 those in which liquids were mixed or cooked2 7#c7 those by means of which liquids were poured out or food distributed2 7#d7 drinking-cups2 7#e7 other vases for the use of the table or toilet4 ,thus we have the pithos and amphora for storing wine1 the krater for mixing it1 the psykter for cooling it1 the kyathos for ladling it out1 and the oinocho or prochoos for pouring it out2 the hydria was used for fetching water from the well4 ,of smaller vases1 the names for drinking-cups are innumerable1 but the phiale1 for instance1 was employed chiefly for pouring libations2 while dishes and plates are represented by the lekane1 tryblion1 pinax1 and so on4 ,the pyxis was used by women at their toilet1 and the lekythos1 alabastron1 and askos for holding oil and unguents4 ,there is an interesting passage in ,athenaeus 7iv4 #adb ,d7#eji which gives a list of the vases required for use at a banquet3 8,and on the tripod was placed a bronze wine-cooler 77 and a 7bucket7 and a silver holding two kotylae 7one pint71 and a ladle 772 and the wine-jug 77 was of bronze1 but nobody was offered drink unless he asked for it2 and one ladleful was given out before the meal40 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the purposes of this work it is hoped that the usual method of classification indicated above will be found sufficient1 supplemented by the descriptions of ,athenaeus and other writers1 where any details can be obtained2 but it is obvious that a really critical treatment of the subject should be chronological1 with endeavours to trace the first appearance and development of each type4 ,in the present state of our knowledge1 however1 it would seem impossible to do so with success4 ,we begin our description of the vases of the ,greeks with an account of the large vases of rough manufacture calculated to hold great quantities of wine1 water1 or food4 ,the chief vase of this class is the ,pithos or cask 7,lat4 dolium71 a vase of gigantic size1 found both in ,italy and ,greece4#eaj ,they are shaped like enormous barrels1 with bulging bodies and wide mouths1 and answer to the modern hogshead or pipe4 ,when full1 the casks were closed with a circular stone1 or with a cover of clay4 ,they were used to hold honey1 wine1 and figs1 and were usually kept half-buried in the earth4#eaa ,they were sufficiently capacious to hold a man1 and the famous 8tub0 of ,diogenes was of this form4 ,on a lamp in the ,british ,museum and other monuments#eab he is represented appearing from one1 presumably on the occasion of his interview with ,alexander4 ,in the vase-paintings ,eurystheus takes refuge in a pithos from ,herakles when he brings the ,erymanthian boar1#eac and the same shape of vase is represented as holding the wine of the ,centaurs and the water drawn by the ,danaids4#ead ,the 8box0 of ,pandora was in reality a large jar of this kind1 as we learn from ,hesiod4#eae ,it required great skill to make these vases1 whence a ,greek proverb characterised an ambitious but inexperienced man as 8one who began with a cask0 7 74#eaf ,they were not made on the wheel but by a peculiar process1 which is described as plastering the clay round a framework of wood1 called #eag2 it appears to have been made of vertical boards ranged in a circle1 like a tub4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,pithos ,,from ,,knossos4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses two or three of exceptional size1 ornamented with bands of geometrical patterns in relief1 which were obtained from ,mr4 7now ,sir ,a47 ,biliotti's excavations at ,ialysos in ,rhodes1 and belong to the ,mycenaean period4 ,in #aijj ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans1 among the remains of the ,minoan palace at ,knossos in ,crete1 came upon a courtyard round which stood a number of similar 1 with decorations of a ,mycenaean character 7see ,fig4 #ba74eah ,these may be considered to belong to the middle of the second millennium ,b4,c41 and it is therefore evident that the may claim an antiquity second to none among forms of ,greek vases4 ,among examples of later date may be mentioned the large series recently found in ,thera by ,german explorers1 some plain1 others with painted geometrical decoration2 they are partly of native make1 partly importations from ,crete1 and date from the seventh century ,b4,c4#eai ,dr4 ,drpfeld found examples of in the remains of the earlier cities at ,hissarlik1 from the second to the seventh layers4 ,these were used for keeping all sorts of liquids and solids1 and also apparently formed part of the cooking apparatus4#ebj ,others were found in the excavations of ,mr4 ,j4 ,brunton on the site of ,dardanus in the ,troad2 they were of pale red clay1 with a stone cover4 ,in excavating between ,balaclava and ,sevastopol ,colonel ,munroe discovered no less than sixteen1 about #d ft4 #d in4 in height1 within a circular building1 apparently a storehouse2 they were also of pale red ware4 ,one had incised upon its lip 1 apparently indicating its price4 ,similar have been found in ,athens1 some having fractures joined by leaden rivets4 ,large with archaic reliefs have been found in ,crete1 ,rhodes1 ,sicily1 and ,etruria 7at ,cervetri72 they are imitated from metal vases1 with designs of ,oriental character4#eba ,perhaps of all the ancient vases the best known is the ,amphora 7 or 71 which was used for a variety of domestic and commercial purposes4 ,so numerous are the vases of this form1 found all over the ,greek world1 that they merit a lengthy description4 ,they were principally used for wine1 but also for corn1 honey1 oil1 and other substances1#ebb and to the use of the word as a measure of capacity we have already alluded4 ,it should be borne in mind that the conventional use of the word amphora in speaking of the painted ,greek vases implies a quite different form from the plain wine-amphorae1 which were neither painted nor varnished2 the type of vase is the same1 but the painted examples are smaller and stouter1 with a proper foot4 ,for the present we confine our description to the unadorned amphora of commerce4 ,besides the two handles from which the word derives its name1#ebc the wine-amphora 7,fig4 #bb47 is distinguished by its long egg-shaped body1 narrow cylindrical neck1 and pointed base2 this form is often known as diota 7the ,latin equivalent74 ,the base is sometimes supplied with a ring to stand on1 but is more usually pointed1 in order to be easily fixed in the earth in cellars4 ,the mouth was sealed by means of a conical cover terminating in a boss4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,greek ,,wine-,,jars 7,,british ,,museum74 ,remains of these amphorae have been discovered not only in ,greece itself1 but also wherever the ,greek commerce and settlements extended1 as in ,alexandria1 ,kertch 7,panticapaeum71 ,corfu1 ,rhodes1 ,sicily1 and ,asia ,minor4 ,they appear to have been used at a very early period1 plain specimens of red ware being found not only in the early ,greek tombs1 like that of ,menekrates in ,corfu 7p4 #ed71 but even in tombs of the ,bronze ,age period1 as in ,cyprus4 ,the typical long shape1 however1 did not come into fashion until about #cjj ,b4,c41 when the island of ,rhodes was a great trading centre1 carrying on an active commerce all over the ,mediterranean4 ,amphorae of this form are represented on the coins of ,chios and ,thasos with reference to their trade in wine1 and on the ,athenian silver tetradrachms which belong to the period subsequent to about #bbj ,b4,c42 they are shown on the reverse1 lying horizontally1 with an owl above4 ,in this case the reference may be either to the large ,attic trade in oil or to the use of the amphora for voting at the election of magistrates 7see p4 #afg74 ,the most interesting feature of the wine-amphorae is the device or impression stamped on the handles either in a circular medallion or an oblong depression4 ,this was done by means of a stone or bronze stamp1 while the clay was still moist4 ,they are found in all parts of the ancient world1 but the greater number can be traced to a few places of origin1 of which the most important are3 ,rhodes1 ,knidos1 ,thasos1 ,paros1 and ,olbia in ,southern ,russia4 ,as regards the stamps1 the usage differs at each centre2 but apart from them the handles can be distinguished by their shapes and material1 as will be seen in the subsequent description4 ,the ,rhodian amphorae1 of which large numbers have been found at ,alexandria as well as in the island itself1 were of a very pure and tenacious clay1 with a fracture as sharp as that of delf4 ,the colour is pale1 deepening to a salmon hue4 ,the numerous separate handles which have also been found have all belonged to the same form of amphora1 with long square-shouldered handles1 as on the ,athenian and ,chian coins4 ,an entire vase1 but without a stamp1#ebd which was brought from ,rhodes1 was #dj in4 in height1 and the height of the handles alone was #aj in41 the upper part attached to the top of the mouth being #c in4 long4 ,this is a typical instance for the shape4 ,the seal when found is impressed on the upper part of the handle1 the size of the label being generally about #a in4 or #a in4 long1 by in4 wide1 except when they are oval or circular4 ,at ,alexandria eight distinct varieties of handles were found1 broken from amphorae of different countries1 but only one inscribed2 the base also assumed various forms4 ,in the ,rhodian amphorae two stamps are in use1 a principal and an accessory one 7,fig4 #bc4;a74#ebe ,the former has a device of the head of ,helios1 the ,sun-,god1 or the emblematic rose1 both of which types occur on the coins2 it is accompanied by an inscription1 in the form 1 sometimes explicitly described as 1 i4e4 in the year of the eponymous priest of the ,sun4 ,this is followed by the name of a ,rhodian month4 ,the accessory stamp contains the name of a person1 usually in the genitive4 ,the months belong to the ,doric calendar1 and are as follows3 ,thesmophorios1 ,theudaisios1 ,pedageitnyos1 ,diosthyos1 ,badromios1 ,sminthios1 ,artamitios1 ,agrianios1 ,hyakinthios1 ,panamos1 ,dalios1 ,karneios1 and the second ,panamos1 an intercalary month4#ebf ,the object of the stamps is involved in obscurity1 but they were probably intended to certify that the amphora 7which was also a measure7 held the proper quantity4 ,it is clear that they could not have been intended to attest the age of the wine1 as the vessel might be used for any sort1 and the stamps bear the name of every month in the year4 ,illustration3 ,from ,dumont4 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,amphora-,,stamps ,,from ,,rhodes4 ,other handles of ,rhodian amphorae1 stamped with an oblong cartouche or label1 may be divided into two classes3 7#a7 ,those inscribed with the name of a magistrate and an emblem4 ,the latter resembled the 8adjuncts0 found on the coins of some ,greek cities1 but it is uncertain whether they were selected on any fixed principle1 or merely adopted from caprice4 ,they may perhaps allude to the deity whom the magistrate particularly honoured as the patron god of his tribe or village4 ,the same symbol was1 however1 often used by many individuals1 and on the whole the number known is not large4 7#b7 ,those bearing the name of a magistrate1 accompanied by that of a month of the ,doric calendar1 but without any emblem 7,fig4 #bc4;b74 ,many handles of amphorae from ,knidos have been found on different sites4 ,their clay is coarser than the ,rhodian1 its colour darker and duller1 and the amphorae differ also somewhat in form1 nor are they of so early a date1 being mostly as late as the ,roman ,empire4 ,the stamps on the ,cnidian amphorae1 like those of ,rhodes1 are inscribed with the name of the eponymous magistrate1 and also with that of the wine-grower or exporter of the produce1 which is always marked as ,cnidian4 ,the stamps show a great variety in the matter of emblems4 ,remains of ,cnidian amphorae have been found in ,sicily1 at ,athens1 ,alexandria1 and ,olbia4 ,the palaeography of the inscriptions covers a period of two centuries1 from ,augustus to ,marcus ,aurelius1 or even later4 ,numerous examples have been found of handles of amphorae1 in which the celebrated wine of ,thasos was exported to places such as ,thasos and ,olbia4 ,the stamps are nearly square1 with a device in the middle1 the inscription 1 and the name of an official4 ,the names are usually in the nominative1 but in one instance at least the genitive is used4 ,the symbols include an amphora1 kneeling archer1 cornucopia1 dolphin1 etc4 7,fig4 #bd74ebg ,the known stamps of ,paros are few in number2 they are simply inscribed 1 which in one instance is written retrograde4#ebh ,handles inscribed with the name of an aedile 77 and of another person1 probably a magistrate1 have been found on various sites in the ,crimea and ,southern ,russia1 principally at ,olbia4 ,at ,panticapaeum 7,kertch7 two amphorae were found with stamps across the neck1 thus3 ,,euarcho ,,epi ,,kallia ,,ariston ,,eopamonos the upper name being that of the magistrate4#ebi ,these vases appear to have been made on the spot4 ,illustration3 ,from ,dumont4 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,amphora-,,stamps ,,from ,,thasos4 ,stoddart also mentions amphora-handles as having come from ,corinth1#ecj with names which can be traced to the time of the ,roman dominion4 ,falkner found at ,pompeii an amphora with a ,greek inscription of three lines painted in red and black1 with the name of ,menodotos and the letters ,,kor4 ,,opt41 which may mean 8the best ,corcyraean brand40#eca ,a bibliography of the subject is appended below4#ecb ,among painted vases the amphora holds a high place1 especially in the black-figure period1 during which it was most prominent4 ,it is distinguished from the plain type1 as already pointed out1 by the proportions of the body1 as well as by the graceful curve of the handles and the flat circular foot4 ,the variations in its form at different places and periods are so marked that they have led to the adoption of qualifying adjectives for each kind4 ,although these names cannot now be accepted in a strict sense1 they are sometimes useful as conventional expressions4 ,we proceed to describe these in detail4 7#a7 ,the origin of the ,greek amphora is clearly to be sought in the pithos of primitive times1 as may be seen in the vases of the ,melian and ,proto-,attic classes1 and in the early vases with reliefs from ,boeotia1 ,crete1 ,thera1 and elsewhere4 ,it is not found in the ,mycenaean style1 the large vases of which come under the heading of the krater 7see below72 and its appearance in ,greece dates from the developed stage of the ,geometrical period4 ,the earliest specimens among the painted vases are virtually small pithoi1 characterised by a long cylindrical neck1 and large elaborate handles obviously imitating metal 7see p4 #die74 ,of this type are several of the ,boeotian ,geometrical and ,proto-,attic vases discussed in ,chapter ,,vii41#ecc and the ,boeotian vases with reliefs4#ecd ,among the ,proto-,attic vases found at ,vourva a development occurs1 in which the neck is greatly elongated1 and the body becomes exceedingly slim1 while the handles are simplified into plain flat bands united to the neck by bars of clay 7see ,fig4 #hi1 p4 #bii74 ,this form is found still further developed in the prothesis-amphorae of the ,b4,f4 period#ece2 but these are comparatively rare1 and the more normal evolution of the amphora with cylindrical neck is to be traced in the varieties 7#b7 and 7#f7 described below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 8,,tyrrhenian0 ,,amphora4 7#b7 ,the early amphorae preceding the ordinary ,b4,f4 ,athenian types were divided by ,gerhard into two classes1 8,egyptian0 and 8,tyrrhenian40#ecf ,he describes the former as a vase with tolerably pronounced curve of body1 entirely covered with horizontal bands of figures2 the latter as of similar form1 but with decoration confined to a panel on either side4 ,as regards shape1 therefore1 the two are actually one1 and may be regarded as such for our present purpose2 but it is curious to note that the particular class called 8,egyptian0 by ,gerhard has since his time been generally known as 8,tyrrhenian10 while his 8,tyrrhenian0 class has now received1 from the peculiar mannerisms of the paintings1 the name of 8affected0 vases4#ecg ,at all events the word is convenient to adhere to for the description of this particular shape 7,fig4 #be71 with its long1 egg-shaped body1 the vertical section of which is almost an ellipse1 a shape common to all early ,b4,f4 fabrics--,athenian1 ,rhodian1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian--but best illustrated by the 8,corintho-,attic0 class described by ,thiersch4#ech ,it is seldom found in purely ,attic examples1 and disappears after the middle of the sixth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,panathenaic ,,amphora4 7#c7 ,gerhard's next class is that of the ,panathenaic amphorae1 which have a long body shaped something like a top1 and tapering sharply downwards2 the mouth1 handles1 and neck are small1 as is also the foot 7,fig4 #bf74 ,it is so called as being the characteristic form of the earlier 7sixth-century7 ,panathenaic prize-vases1 but is also occasionally found in the ordinary fabrics4 ,this type1 together with the two following examples1 not mentioned explicitly by ,gerhard or the other early writers1 form the class of 8black-bodied0 amphorae1 as they may conveniently be termed1 in order to distinguish those with panel-decoration from those in which the body is entirely covered with red glaze 7see below74 7#d7 ,the second variety of 8black-bodied0 amphora 7,fig4 #bg47 is closely akin to the ,panathenaic1 but the body is better proportioned4 ,it is characterised by the wide mouth in the form of a thick ring1 the cylindrical handles1 and the concave curve of the shoulder4 ,from the style of the paintings it is probable that this variety must be placed early in the black-figure period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,panel-,,amphora4 7#e7 ,this type1 on the other hand1 is later in the period1 being developed out of the last1 from which it is marked off only by the form of the handles1 which are broad and flanged1 and often decorated with patterns4 ,these vases are mostly of large size1 and are transitional1 some ,r4,f4 varieties being known4 ,the paintings on them are in the style of ,exekias1 ,andokides1 and ,euthymides 7see for an example ,plates ,,xxxi41 ,,xxxii474 7#f7 ,the shape of the 8red-bodied0 amphora 7,fig4 #bh7 is peculiar to the black-figure period4#eci ,its characteristic features are the straight1 cylindrical neck1 with its chain of lotos-and-honeysuckle1 the width of the shoulder1 and the ribbed handles1 formed from moulds in two or three parallel pieces4 ,artistically it is far superior to the black-bodied1 and includes some of the finest specimens of ,b4,f4 painting 7as in the vases of ,exekias71 while the decorative element reaches the perfection of beauty and symmetry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,red-,,bodied ,,amphora4 7#g7 ,the red-bodied amphora seems to have been the prototype of what is the most characteristic form of the red-figure period--the so-called 8,nolan0 amphora 7,fig4 #bi74edj ,these have been largely1 but not exclusively1 found at ,nola1 whither they seem to have been imported in large numbers from ,greece4 ,the whole vase is covered with black1 and the decoration confined to one or two figures each side1 while the elegant and beautiful outline1 the lustre of the varnish1 and the restraint of the designs combine to render these perhaps the most beautiful products of ,athenian ceramic art4 ,the handles are sometimes four-sided1 more often ribbed1 and sometimes formed of two twisted strands1 produced by rolling up the soft paste2 the general outline is that of the last class1 but the proportions are far more slender and graceful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 8,,nolan0 ,,amphora4 7#h7 ,the ,apulian amphora 7,fig4 #cj7 illustrates the form which1 though generally adopted in ,apulia1 may have had its origin at ,athens1 as it is adopted for the fourth-century ,panathenaic amphorae4#eda ,it is distinguished by its great size and egg-shaped body2 the mouth is thick and high1 spreading out like an inverted cone1 and the neck is not cylindrical1 but merges into the shoulder4 ,a variety of the ,apulian amphora1 hardly common enough to form a separate class1 was formerly known as the 8candelabrum-amphora10 from its resemblance to an incense-burner 7an object wrongly interpreted formerly as a candelabrum1 or lamp-stand74 ,its peculiarities are the cylindrical body1 tall neck1 and elaborate handles in the form of double scrolls4#edb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,apulian ,,amphora4 7#i7 ,the ,campanian amphora is derived directly from the 8,nolan10 and is in fact a local adaptation1 but it was chiefly manufactured at ,cumae4#edc ,it generally has twisted handles1 and is painted in polychrome2 the proportions are somewhat more elongated than those of the 8,nolan0 class4 7#aj7 ,a rare variety of the amphora is sometimes found in the red-figure period1 with large spheroidal body and pointed base1 intended to be placed in a separate stand4 ,the conventional name of diota is sometimes given to this form1 from its imitation of the pointed base of the wine-amphora4#edd 7#aa7 ,the last variety of the amphora which calls for consideration is the wide-bellied type1 usually called 7on very slight authority7 a pelike1 k 7,fig4 #ca74ede ,the name was invented by ,gerhard1 and has been generally adopted since1 but is only to be regarded as a conventional term4 ,this form1 which swells out towards the base1 and has no stem or neck1 is very rarely found before the fifth century1#edf but is common in the ,r4,f4 period1 and in the ,apulian style1 in which its proportions are usually more slender4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,,so-,,called 8,,pelike40 ,the amphora when complete usually had a cover of clay1 either coated with a plain black varnish or decorated with bands and patterns2 it was lifted by means of a central knob4 ,an amphora in the ,berlin ,museum 7,cat4 #ahfj7 has a double cover1 the inner one being of alabaster4 ,of the other names which seem to denote vases adapted for containing and storing wine or other commodities1 the most important is the ,stamnos 771 used for holding wine and oil4 ,it is mentioned by ,pollux#edg in his list of wine-jars1 and he quotes a line from ,aristophanes about 8a stamnos of ,chian wine arriving40 ,the diminutives and are also found1 and ,aristophanes speaks of a 8small ,thasian stamnos of wine40#edh ,the amphora is defined in the ,etymologicum ,magnum as 8a two-eared 40 ,it has been generally identified with a form well known in the ,r4,f4 period1 but only found in that style3 a spherical jar with short thick neck and small side-handles1 of which some very beautiful specimens exist 7,fig4 #cb74 ,the word is still in use in modern ,greek4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,,stamnos4 ,the is described by ,hesychios as a with ears1 and by ,eustathius as a vessel holding wine#edi2 it was also used for figs and salted food4#eej ,it is probably only another name for the 1 but it seems to be inaccurately described by ,athenaeus#eea as 8a saucer-shaped drinking-cup0 7 74 ,it was apparently identical with the 1#eeb a word used by ,aristophanes1#eec but more commonly by ,roman writers in its ,latin form orca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,so-,,called 8,,lekane40 ,the names of ,apulian stamnos or have at different times been given to a late form of painted vase found in ,southern ,italy1 with high or low stem1 upright handles1 and cover1 which latter often takes an elaborate form1 being surmounted by one or more small vases1 also with handles 7,fig4 #cc474 ,the word 1#eed however1 seems to indicate a large bowl rather than a covered jar1 and no satisfactory name has as yet been found4 ,a similar but flatter form of vase1 like a covered bowl or dish1 has been named 1 1 or covered pyxis1 but no name is satisfactory4 ,the or seems to have been a narrow-necked jar of considerable size4 ,athenaeus#eee says the word represented a ,greek measure1 equivalent to twelve ,attic 1 or six pints1 and that it was in use at ,patrae4 ,the word is used by ,plutarch for the jar in which the stork offered entertainment to the fox#eef2 it frequently appears in the ,latin form lagena 7see ,chapter ,,xxi474 ,a wicker-covered was known as a 4#eeg ,another form of the same class is the s1 with its diminutive 1 which is represented by the ,latin situla1 or bucket1 the latter word being the one usually employed by archaeologists4 ,it is a form easily to be recognised in ,greek art1 but is more usually found in metal-work1 e4g4 in ,etruscan and ,italian bronzes1 than in pottery4#eeh ,the painted situlae1 of which a few late examples from ,italian tombs exist1 are obviously direct imitations of the metal buckets1 and in some cases actually have movable bronze handles attached4 ,the situla appears to have been used not only for keeping wine in the cellar1 but for serving it up at banquets#eei2 the word is also used by ,aristophanes for a voting-urn and a well-bucket4#efj ,in ,latin the uses were probably distinguished1 cadus denoting a wine-jar1 situla a water-bucket4 ,athenaeus obviously goes astray in regarding it as a drinking-cup4 ,a vase which was used almost exclusively for carrying water was the ,hydria1 as is implied by its name 71 from 74 ,its most essential characteristic is the possession of three handles1 a large one at the back for carrying when empty1 and two small horizontal handles at the sides for carrying when full4 ,the shape of the body varies at different periods2 in the ,b4,f4 period the shoulder is flat and marked off by a sharp angle from the body 7,fig4 #cd72 but about the beginning of the fifth century this is replaced by a form with more rounded outline and smaller handle at the back1 generally known for the sake of distinction as a kalpis 7,fig4 #ce74 ,in the earlier variety 7of which some ,r4,f4 examples are known7 there are always two subjects1 one forming a frieze on the shoulder1 the other treated more in the manner of a metope on the body2 they are invariably enclosed in frames or panels1 as on the 8black-bodied0 amphorae4 ,sometimes a third subject in the form of a frieze of animals is added below4 ,in the earlier stages of the ,b4,f4 period this form is seldom found1 except in a class known as the 8,caeretan hydriae10 distinguished 7as far as concerns their shape7 by their round1 plump body1 as also by the florid character of their ornament and curious treatment of subjects 7p4 #cec74 ,these vases were closely copied by the ,etruscans4 ,the kalpis form sometimes occurs with black figures1 but only in small late specimens1 chiefly found in ,rhodes4 ,in the vases of ,southern ,italy the kalpis is fairly popular1 but the body is more cylindrical and the foot higher4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,hydria4 ,any doubt that might have existed as to the identification of the is solved by the appearance of the word inscribed over the pitcher which ,polyxena dropped in her flight from ,achilles1 on the ,franois vase4 ,in a scene very common on ,b4,f4 hydriae1 which represents women drawing water at a fountain1 this form of vase is invariably depicted4 ,the word seldom occurs in ,greek literature1 but ,kallimachos speaks of placed on the roof of the ,parthenon 787 at ,athens1 not1 he says1 by way of ornament1 but as prizes of wrestlers4#efa ,hence the idea was conceived by ,panofka that ,panathenaic prize-vases were of this form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,kalpis4 ,pollux 7x4 #gd7 thinks that the hydria was also a wine-vase1 and suggests its identity with the 1 a vase with broad base used in the ,mysteries2 but ,athenaeus#efb implies that this was used for pouring1 and it must therefore have been some kind of jug4 ,the is actually identified with the by ,aristophanes1 as may be seen by a comparison of two lines in the ,lysistrata4#efc ,from a passage in ,isocrates#efd it would appear that the hydria was used as a voting-urn or ballot-box1 but the was more generally used for this purpose4 ,that the amphora was also so used we know from ,athenian coins4 ,the next class to be considered is that of vases employed for mixing wine and water for drinking1 for which the generic name is that of 7from 1 8,i mix074 ,before discussing this form1 however1 allusion must be made to a vessel which is variously described as a hydria or a krater1 and is therefore a link between the two varieties2 it was at any rate pre-eminently a water-jar1 and was known as a 7connected with ,fr4 cruche ,eng4 8crock074 ,we have no indications of its form except that it had two handles#efe2 ,pollux 7viii4 #ff7 ranks it with the and as a water-vessel4#eff ,it was also used for holding ashes1#efg and ,plutarch enumerates it among the vessels in the bath of ,darius4#efh ,of the same character was perhaps the or 1 described as a water-pot4#efi ,athenaeus also mentions a 1 or wooden vessel of the krater type1 as used in ,attica4#egj ,the ,krater is distinguished from the amphora by its larger body1 wider mouth1 and smaller handles4 ,it was often placed on a stand1 called 1 or 1#ega which was either of pottery or metal such as bronze4 ,this either took the form of a hollow cylindrical base1 painted with subjects1 or of an elaborately moulded stem with egg-and-tongue and other patterns4#egb ,it is constantly mentioned in ,homer1 but the kraters standing in the halls of the great palaces1 as in that of ,odysseus1 were made of gold or silver4 ,it is on the average the largest of all ,greek vases 7except the pithos71 some of the later ,apulian specimens 7of which ,f #bgh in the ,b4,m4 is one7 reaching a height of about four feet2 the ordinary examples have a capacity of three or four gallons4 ,the names ,argolic1 ,lesbian1 ,laconian1 ,corinthian1 and ,thericleian are applied to it by various ancient authors4#egc ,in the different fabrics of ,greek pottery it takes several distinct forms1 to which convenient descriptive names have been given by ,italian dealers1 and some attempt has been made to identify names given by classical authors as forms of the krater1 but without any success4 ,the ,italian names1 however1 which will be mentioned in due course1 are somewhat cumbersome for ,english use4 ,among ,mycenaean vases there is a variety almost confined to ,cyprus1 to which the name of krater may fairly be given4#egd ,its chief characteristics are a wide spheroidal body1 hardly contracted at the neck 7which in some varieties is non-existent71 flat vertical side-handles1 and a high stem4 ,we hardly meet with this form again until the end of the ,corinthian style1 when it suddenly leaps into popularity4#ege ,the form in which it appears recalls1 though it can hardly be imitated from1 the ,mycenaean krater1 but the stem disappears1 and the body is in section about two-thirds of a circle4#egf ,it is clearly a local invention1 and on the evidence of finds at ,syracuse1 its first appearance may be traced to the first half of the seventh century4 ,its distinguishing feature1 however1 is in the handles1 each of which is composed of two short vertical bars1 sometimes meeting in an arch1 supporting a flat square piece formed by a projection from the flat broad rim1 which is generally decorated4 ,from the columnar appearance of these handles1 the type has received the name of vaso a colonnette1 which at all events is a more accurate description than the name which1 first proposed by ,gerhard1 has been generally employed by archaeologists1 on what grounds it is not clear4 ,this word1 as described by ,athenaeus1 is clearly intended to imply a drinking-cup of some kind#egg2 he quotes from ,anakreon 7frag4 #fc1 ,bergk71 who speaks of drinking its contents at one draught 774 ,on the other hand he quotes the authority of ,pamphilos for identifying it with the 1 or 8water-heater10 a kind of kettle4 ,the probability is that it was a general and loosely-employed word4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,krater ,,with ,,column-,,handles4 ,the column-handled krater is also found in the ,naukratis wares of the sixth century1 as well as in the imitations of ,corinthian fabrics in which the ,campana collection of the ,louvre is so rich2 the clay1 style1 and inscriptions of the latter clearly show their ,corinthian origin1 apart from the form4 ,this krater is often decorated with friezes of figures 7as in the famous ,amphiaraos krater1 p4 #cai74 ,in the few existing ,attic examples with black figures the subjects are in framed panels4 ,this form1 after dying out before the end of the sixth century1 is revived towards the middle of the fifth in the later ,r4,f4 fabrics1 but in a much altered form1 which gives greater prominence to the columnar character of the handles4 ,the neck is higher and narrower1 and the handles consequently lengthened1 the square tops being much diminished1 and the body also takes a narrower and straighter form4 ,in the fabrics of ,southern ,italy this development is even more strongly marked1 and the elongated neck is adorned with an ivy-wreath in a panel2 this type enjoyed some popularity both in ,apulia and ,lucania4 ,the system of panel-decoration is employed throughout in all these cases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,,volute-,,handled ,,krater4 ,the only other form of krater found in the ,b4,f4 period--and that but rarely--is that known as volute-handled 7a rotelle71 from the large handles reaching above the lip and curved round in a scroll 7,fig4 #cg74 ,it has an egg-shaped body and large neck4 ,the best and earliest example is the ,franois vase 7p4 #cgj71 from which it may be clearly seen that the form is derived from the columnar-handled krater4 ,the ,british ,museum also possesses a fine example signed by ,nikosthenes1 with a design in a frieze on the neck 7,b #cfd74 ,the same shape and method of decoration appear in some fine examples of the severe ,r4,f4 style 7cf4 ,b4,m4 ,e #dfh1 #dfi74 ,during the ,r4,f4 period1 two entirely new forms of krater suddenly appear1 known respectively as the vaso a calice and the vaso a campana1 or 8calyx-krater0 and 8bell-krater02 the former is first used by ,euphronios4#egh ,these names give a very accurate description of the forms1 the one being like the opening calyx of a flower1 the other like an inverted bell 7,figs4 #ch1 #ci74 ,in each the lip projects above the body1 the neck having entirely disappeared1 while the handles of the calyx-krater drop to the lower part of the vase1 and those of the bell-krater are attached horizontally to the sides4 ,both types of handle are evidently adapted to carrying full vessels1 like the side-handles of the hydria4 ,the name of was given by ,gerhard#egi to the bell-krater1 again without any real authority1 and probably owing to an error1 from finding the name scratched underneath one example4 ,comparison1 however1 with similar inscriptions 7see ,chapter ,,xvii47 shows clearly that the was a small measure1 less even than a 1 or ladleful4 ,athenaeus 7xi4 #did ,b7 is very explicit on this point4 ,he derives the name from 1 vinegar1 which liquid the vessel was used to contain1 and describes it as 4 ,it was therefore a small cup of some kind 7see p4 #aid74 ,illustration ,illustration ,,fig4 #ch4 ,,calyx-,,krater ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,bell-,,krater ,in ,southern ,italy the krater holds the same position as the amphora of the ,b4,f4 period4#ehj ,the calyx- and bell-kraters are the two forms chiefly affected in the transition period when ,athenian artists were working in ,italy1 or ,italian artists directly under the influence of ,athenian 7see p4 #dfe71 but they are also found among the purely local fabrics1 especially those of ,cumae and ,paestum 7ibid474 ,the calyx-krater seems to have been reserved for the better and more carefully-executed specimens1#eha and the ,italian bell-kraters often have a top-heavy effect from the greater height of their stems4 ,in ,apulia 7and occasionally also in ,lucania--the ,campanian potters did not affect large vases7 the volute-handled krater once more appears1 in great magnificence4 ,not only is the total size and bulk increased1 but the neck is lengthened and the handles are often treated with great elaboration of detail1 ending below in swans' necks spreading over the vase4 ,in ,apulia the volutes are generally replaced by medallions 7whence the ,italian name vaso con maniche a mascheroni7 decorated with ,gorgons' heads or figures1 in relief1 painted white1 yellow1 and red4 ,these vases are sometimes1 but incorrectly1 called amphorae2 they range from two to three or four feet in height4 ,they are generally painted from head to foot with subjects1 often of a sepulchral nature1 and were no doubt largely made for use at funeral ceremonies4 ,they are more fully described in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,,lucanian ,,krater4 ,the last variety of krater 7,fig4 #dj7 is formed by a peculiar type of vase1 apparently devised by the ,iapygian aborigines of ,southern ,italy1#ehb which has a wide mouth and sloping shoulder1 and sometimes a high neck4 ,its peculiarity is that it has four handles1 two upright and two horizontal1 to the sides of which large discs are attached1 whence its ,italian name is vaso con maniche a rotelle1 from the wheel or rosette patterns painted on the discs4 ,this feature caused ,panofka to give it the name of 1 with reference to the famous four-handled cup of ,nestor 7,il4 xi4 #fcb74 ,it need hardly be pointed out that there can be little in common between this form and the drinking-cup used by the ,homeric hero1 in spite of the fact that the latter was too heavy for an ordinary man to lift4 ,we need not suppose that ,nestor's cup 7concerning which see below1 p4 #aha7 was larger than an ordinary 8loving-cup10 and the poet was probably guilty of a pardonable exaggeration4 ,as a painted vase1 this four-handled krater is peculiar to ,lucania1 and it is interesting to note that it sometimes appears depicted on ,lucanian vases as used in daily life4#ehc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,,psykter4 ,closely related to the krater is the or 1 a wine-cooler 7from 1 8cool071 which was used for cooling wine by means of snow or cold water4#ehd ,the extant specimens are but few in number and vary in form4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a very remarkable specimen in the form of a ,b4,f4 panel amphora 7,b #adh71ehe with double walls and bottom1 and a large spout on one side1 through which the snow or cold water was introduced into the outer space2 it was afterwards withdrawn through an aperture in the bottom4#ehf ,similar vases in the 8,chalcidian0 style are also known4 ,after the beginning of the ,r4,f4 period a new type was introduced in the shape of a vessel with a short neck1 the body of which bulges out towards its base1 and is supported on a high stem2 it generally has two small eared handles 7,fig4 #da74 ,several ,r4,f4 examples are known1 of which two are in the ,british ,museum1#ehg and three or four in the ,louvre2 the ,british ,museum also possesses a late ,b4,f4 specimen 7,b #bii74 ,the designs are painted in a frieze round the vase4 ,the 1 or vessel for holding unmixed wine1 seems to have been another name for the 2 ,pollux 7vi4 #ij7 says the difference was that it was supported on small knobs 7lit4 small knucklebones7 instead of a stem4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,,deinos ,,or ,,lebes4 ,another name identified in antiquity with the is that of the 7sometimes spelled 72 but the identity was more probably one of usage than of form4#ehh ,as to the latter1 there is considerable discrepancy in the accounts of the grammarians#ehi2 one calls it a deep cup tapering down to a point2 another1 probably more correctly1 since it was certainly not a drinking-vessel1 a clay vessel for wine without a base1 but rounded underneath4 ,in virtue of this description the name has usually been applied to a class of vase1 commoner in the earlier periods than the later1 and more often found on ,greek sites than on ,italian1 which has a rounded base without foot1 and no handles 7,fig4 #db74 ,these vases are found as early as the seventh century in ,greece1 and were very common at ,naukratis1 appearing also in most of the ,b4,f4 fabrics4 ,that they were used to contain the ashes of the dead is shown by the ,b4,m4 example already referred to 7p4 #adf71 which belongs to the end of the ,r4,f4 period4#eij ,in ,southern ,italy this form of vase is generally placed on a separate high moulded stem1 and has a cover with an ornamental knob4 ,a variety with hemispherical cover nearly equal in size to the vase itself has been identified with the 78cut in half071 a form mentioned by ,athenaeus4#eia ,this type of vase has more usually been described by the name of 1 denoting a kettle or caldron2 but though the form of the was practically the same 7as we may gather from the fact of its always being placed on a tripod71 the purpose for which it was used 7i4e4 for boiling water7 and the fact that it was always of metal1 suggest that it is not such an appropriate name as for this form of painted vase4 ,the is constantly mentioned in ,homer1 both as a cooking-vessel and as a washing-basin4#eib ,herodotos#eic says that the ,scythians used a for cooking flesh1 which resembled the ,lesbian krater1 but was much larger4 ,it was also the vessel in which the ram1 and subsequently ,pelias1 were boiled by ,medeia2 and may be seen depicted in several ,b4,f4 representations of that story4#eid ,a golden lebes was placed at each angle of the temple of ,zeus at ,olympia4#eie ,it is also the name of the vessel used by the ,boeotians in their ingenious contrivance at the siege of ,delion4#eif ,to its use as a cinerary urn in the tragic poets we have already alluded4 ,the ordinary name for a cooking-vessel of earthenware in ,greece was 1 answering to our 8pot03 it was used both for water and for solids1 as well as for other domestic purposes4 ,children were exposed in #eig2 and a boy's game called is described by ,pollux#eih2 it was apparently played in two ways1 either by a boy representing a 1 who was pulled about by the other players until he caught one1 or by a boy carrying a pot1 with some obscure reference to the story of ,midas4 ,there were several proverbial expressions connected with the 1 such as 1 8to paint pots10 expressive of useless labour1 owing to the roughness of the ware2 and together with the 1 a vessel only known as a measure 7#ab kotylae or #e pints71 it played a part in the festival of the ,anthesteria1 one day of which was known as 1 or 8,pot-and-,pan ,day40#eii ,the word 1 used by ,hesiod#fjj and ,aristophanes1#fja seems merely to denote a cooking-pot with feet4 ,the or large clay vessels used either as brasiers or for baking purposes1 have been already described in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,a few other general words for cooking-vessels and domestic utensils may also be mentioned here4 ,the mentioned by ,pollux#fjb is presumably identical with the and of ,athenaeus 7#dge ,d1 #ghc ,f71 the former1 as its name implies1 being a vessel in which hot drinks were prepared4 ,it seems to have been exclusively made of metal1 and may1 indeed1 only be another name for the 4 ,it has1 as we have seen1 been identified with the 4 ,pollux gives a list of vessels used for warming water4#fjc ,the 1 or strainer1#fjd answers to the modern colander1 and is represented by a flat round vessel with long handle1 of which some late fictile examples exist4#fje ,it is mentioned among the vessels in the ,sigeian inscription1#fjf but is there spelled 4 ,most of the existing specimens are of bronze4 ,the mentioned by ,athenaeus#fjg appears to have been a bowl used for washing cups4 ,the 78boat07 is a general term used in the classics for vessels of varied import3 basins1 troughs1 washing-tubs1 bowls1 etc4#fjh ,it is the name used in inscriptions relating to the ,panathenaic festival to describe the flat dishes or trays borne by the maidens who were called ,skaphephori in the procession1 as represented on the ,parthenon frieze4#fji ,the diminutive form or also occurs1 and is identified with 4 ,the 1 generally used to denote a mortar1#faj also signified a bowl1#faa and had the special signification of the hollow bowl in which the priestess of ,apollo sat when delivering oracles from the ,delphic tripod4 ,it may here be noted that the word appears to be used in ancient writers#fab not only for the stand which supported the and other vessels1 but for a vessel itself when thus supported on three feet4 ,most of the existing tripods are made of bronze1#fac but one or two fictile examples are known1 including a very remarkable one in ,berlin1#fad found at ,tanagra1 and covered with archaic paintings in the ,b4,f4 method4 ,on bathing and washing vessels our best authority is ,pollux 7x4 #fc72 it is not1 however1 likely that they were often of earthenware4 ,the at all events was of metal2 it is often seen on ,r4,f4 vases with the subject of ,theseus killing ,procrustes4#fae ,large vessels1 resembling modern baths1 were known by the names of 3 and #faf2 the 1 or laver1 on a high stem1 is frequently represented on ,south ,italian vases1#fag but is a purely decorative adjunct4 ,it is there painted white to indicate marble4 ,the #fah should also perhaps be included here1 as according to the literary accounts it was a basin used for washing feet or clothes1 or for vomiting4 ,it also served the purpose of a mortar1 and was used in the game of kottabos4 ,a method of divination sometimes practised was known as and consisted in placing waxen images in a lekane full of water1 which became as it were animated and sank1 thus signifying the destruction of an enemy4 ,in ,pseudo-,callisthenes we read how ,nectanebos1 the supposed father of ,alexander1 made use of this procedure4#fai ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,,oinocho 7#g,,th ,,century74 ,the next series with which we have to deal is that of vases used for pouring out wine and serving it at the table4 ,they fall into two classes3 the wine-jug for pouring1 and the ladle for filling it out of the mixing-bowl4 ,we begin with the series of wine-jugs1 as being the more important4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,,oinocho 7#e,,th ,,century74 ,of these the most conspicuous is the ,oinocho 71 from 1 8wine10 and 1 8pour071 one of the most beautiful shapes among ,greek vases4 ,it appears in several forms1 but the name is generally restricted to one1 which corresponds most closely to the modern beer-jug4 ,it is found at all periods1 and the form never varies to any marked extent1 except that the later examples are rather more graceful than the earlier1 and some of the fine ,r4,f4 specimens reach the perfection of elegance in form and decoration 7,fig4 #dd74 ,its chief characteristic is the trefoil-shaped mouth1 but this is not invariable1 many specimens having a plain circular lip4 ,it is very commonly found in the ,rhodian wares of the seventh century1 with designs in a continuous frieze 7,fig4 #dc72 and a peculiar form appears in an ,ionic fabric 7see page #cei71 with egg-shaped body and coarse designs4 ,in the ,b4,f4 period the subjects are nearly always in framed panels4 ,among the ,r4,f4 vases of the fine style1 many diminutive oinochoae occur1 nearly all of which were found at ,athens1 the subjects being those of children playing with go-carts and other toys1 and sometimes with jugs of the same shape4 ,as these appear to have been found in children's tombs1 it is evident that these painted specimens were actually used as playthings4#fbj ,the oinocho is frequently represented in vase-paintings1 chiefly in scenes of libation1 in which ceremony it was invariably used for pouring wine into the phiale or patera1 from which the libation was made4 ,it occurs on the ,parthenon frieze4 ,in conjunction with the krater1 or mixing-bowl1 it is seen on a 8,cyrenaic0 kylix in the ,b4,m4 7,b #c71 in a scene representing a sacrifice4 ,in reference to this may be quoted a curious injunction given by ,hesiod 7,op4 et ,di4 #gdd71 ' 1 which seems to imply that it was considered an unlucky thing to put the jug back in its place on the edge of the krater during a banquet4#fba ,thucydides#fbb speaks of silver oinochoae in the temple at ,eryx1 in conjunction with libation-bowls and incense-burners1 and ,athenaeus#fbc mentions similar offerings at ,metapontum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,,procho,s4 ,a variety of the oinocho1 which is not found before the middle of the ,r4,f4 period1 but becomes very popular in ,apulia1 has a very high curved handle and tall stem1 the body tapering straighter downwards 7,fig4 #de74 ,this is usually known as the 1 and corresponds in form to our claret-decanter4 ,the served the same purpose as the 1 and is frequently mentioned in ,homer4 ,it was used not only for pouring wine1 but for water to wash the hands of guests4#fbd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,,olpe4 ,a third form1 usually known as the 7,fig4 #df71 is almost cylindrical in shape1 with plain or trefoil lip and no marked neck2 it is more usually found in the ,b4,f4 period4 ,in early ,b4,f4 wares the subjects on the olpae are usually painted on the side1 adjoining the handle on the right#fbe2 they are always in panels4 ,the word is mentioned by ,sappho and ,ion of ,chios4#fbf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,,epichysis4 ,lastly1 we have a curious form1 only found in ,apulia1 and belonging to the extreme decadence of vase-painting 7,fig4 #dg71 which has a flat cylindrical body like a round toilet-box 7see ,pyxis1 p4 #aih7 with moulded edges4 ,this is surmounted by a long narrow neck and beak-like semi-cylindrical mouth#fbg2 and the whole effect is awkward and inartistic4 ,the name 1 derived from the list given by ,pollux1#fbh is generally given to this form4 ,for the ladle used for drawing wine out of the krater to fill the oinocho the ordinary name was 7,lat4 simpulum74 ,this word also commonly denoted a measure of about one gill4 ,among the painted vases it is represented by a rare but particularly graceful shape1 the body fashioned like a straight-sided bowl1 with a high looped handle 7,fig4 #dh74 ,in the early ,b4,f4 examples a high stem is added4 ,this shape is not found in the later ,r4,f4 period or in ,southern ,italy4 ,the long handle is obviously for convenience in dipping4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,,kyathos4 ,a series of names1 all of which are derivatives from the word 1 8draw0 7used only of drawing water71 appear to represent ladles of various forms and uses4 ,herodotos#fbi mentions the word 1 and the forms 1 1 1 1 are also found4#fcj ,the appears to have been a bronze ladle1 used in the baths for collecting oil1 and for filling lamps4#fca ,the 1 on the other hand1 was a wine-ladle1 also known as an 2 it appears to have been used in voting in the law-courts4#fcb ,another word used by ,aristophanes is #fcc2 two parallels to which are the and of the same author#fcd and other comic writers1 both words meaning 8soup-ladle40 ,it is doubtful if any of these words were in use for fictile utensils4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the next branch of the subject is concerned with the various forms of ,drinking-cups in use among the ,greeks4 ,in these the potters may perhaps be said to have attained their highest excellence1 not only in regard to beauty and grace of form1 but also1 so far as concerns one variety at any rate--the ,r4,f4 ,athenian kylix--in regard to the decoration4 ,the locus classicus on the subject is the eleventh book of ,athenaeus1 to which frequent reference has already been made#fce2 but there are of course frequent references to these cups in ,homer and other poets4 ,athenaeus devotes a discourse by one of his 8,doctors at ,dinner0 entirely to this subject1 the different names being discussed in alphabetical order4 ,many of them are1 as will be seen1 only alternatives names or nicknames for well-known shapes1 while others included in his description are certainly not drinking-cups at all4 ,it must also be borne in mind that many of the names are purely generic1 like the ,latin poculum1 and are not intended to connote any special form2 this is particularly the case in the descriptions of ,homer1 where1 indeed1 we should not look for scientific accuracy4 ,the ordinary word for a drinking-cup was or 1 but neither is known to ,homer#fcf2 the terms he uses are 1 1 and 1 the first being further defined as 4 ,the word #fcg may be once for all briefly dismissed2 it was so called from 7ivy71 probably as being ornamented with ivy-foliage in relief1 and was made of wood4 ,it is seldom that ,homer's descriptions give any details as to form1 and where they do they are difficult to interpret aright4 ,athenaeus devotes a lengthy section of his discourse to the explanation of the famous cup 77 of ,nestor1#fch which he names 7cf4 p4 #agb71 but arrives at no definite conclusion4 ,it has already been pointed out that a hint at its form seems to be given by the gold and silver cups found in ,mycenaean tombs1 at ,mycenae1 and ,enkomi in ,cyprus1 although it need not be assumed that these are the products of the civilisation which ,homer describes2 he may1 however1 be speaking of traditional forms4 ,another instance of the in legend1 is in the story of ,herakles crossing the ocean in the golden of the ,sun4#fci ,among the names of drinking-cups given by ,athenaeus1 the following may be taken as used in a purely general sense1 without any idea of a particular form4 4--,a cup from which it is possible to drink at one draught 7cf4 1 p4 #afi74 4--,a two-handled cup 7see under ,skyphos1 p4 #ahf74 4--,a cup named after ,king ,antigonos4 4--,a cup of metal 7not necessarily silver74 ,pollux also gives the word 4 4--,a ,cypriote name for a cup 78without handles10 from and 74 4--,an ,alexandrine variety1 of glass or clay4 4--,also an ,alexandrine form1 widening out below4 4--,a ,megarian name 7the form of the word is ,doric74 4--,an uncertain form1 variously explained4 4--,a bye-form of 1 in use at ,kleitor in ,arcadia4 4--,also known as 4 ,see under ,rhyton 7p4 #aic74 or 4--,the significance of these names is not obvious1 but see p4 #agi for the former4 4--,a ,rhodian name 7cf4 ,pollux1 vi4 #if74 ,said to have been made by the ,rhodians in competition with the ,athenian 7see below1 p4 #ahi74 ,they were of light make1 and not1 like the ,thericleian cups1 for the exclusive use of the rich4 4--,apparently an ,egyptian name4 4--,an ,athenian cup1 probably hemispherical 7but see above1 p4 #agd74 4--,a ,cypriote term4 4--,see under ,krater 7p4 #afi74 4--,an ,asiatic name4 ,menander describes it as holding ten kotylae1 or about five pints4 or 4--,polemon mentions silver specimens in the temple of ,hera and treasury of the ,byzantines at ,olympia4 4--,it is doubtful if this word denotes a cup1 as it is catalogued with the 1 1 and 4 4--,a ,persian cup1 named from 8greedy0 drinking 7 74 4--,a cup made of ,laconian clay4 4 4--,a cup or bowl placed on the top of the kottabos-stand1 and used in the game of kottabos to receive the drops of wine thrown from the kylix 7q4v47 4 4--,a name given to the wine-cup dedicated to ,herakles by the ephebi at the time of entry into that rank4 4--,a wooden cup4 4--,probably a variety of the ,skyphos 7q4v474 4--,see under ,amphora 7p4 #afc74 ,a generally disputed form4 4--,a wide flat cup 7from 1 8spread074 4 4--,named from the king of ,bithynia4 4--,called a cup by ,athenaeus1 but more probably to be identified with the 7p4 #agh74 or 4--,probably a variant of 4 ,it is described as taking the form of a ,gryphon or ,pegasos1 both of which occur in rhyta 7p4 #aic74 4--,a ,persian cup4 4--,a cup named after ,king ,seleukos4 4--,a wooden cup4 4--,probably a kind of rhyton 7p4 #aic74 4--,see p4 #ahf1 under 4 4 4--,probably named from the ,thracian ,chalkidike4 4--,a bronze cup 7perhaps a kind of kylix74 4--,a cup associated with the singing of 4 4--,an egg-shaped cup4 4--,a double cup1 apparently like an egg standing in an egg-cup4 ,pollux also mentions the names and 2 and ,athenaeus describes a 1 or cup ornamented with letters 7in relief71 probably a late ,hellenistic type4 ,we now come to the names which can be identified with existing vases1 or are described with some indication of their form4 ,a name which constantly occurs in two forms is the or 4 ,the distinction appears to be that the former had no handles1 but the latter one1#fdj but otherwise the form was probably much the same1 being that of a deep cup2 it is also probable that it was sometimes used like the 1 as a ladle for drawing out wine1 as well as for drinking4 ,the word is found as early as ,homer1#fda used metaphorically for the hollow where the thigh-bone joins the hip2 in its proper meaning as a cup1 it occurs in the familiar proverb#fdb which has been adopted into our language3 8,there's many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip40 ,as a measure it was equivalent to six kyathi1 or roughly half a pint1 as already shown 7p4 #ace74 ,the there discussed is1 however1 a one-handled cup1 and therefore to be called a rather than a 4 ,the latter is a word constantly found in ,greek literature from ,homer downwards1 as in the passage where ,andromache describes the impending fate of her orphan child1 to whom a pitying patron will hold out a cup1 merely to taste1 not to drain4#fdc ,from ,athenaeus we learn that the was like a deep washing-basin 771 and that it was associated with ,dionysos4 ,eratosthenes#fdd calls it the most beautiful and the best for drinking of all cups4 ,the diminutive form occurs in connection with the 1 discussed below 7p4 #aie71 which had many of these little cups attached to it4 ,it has been customary to apply the name to a class of vase found at all periods1 with flat base1 slightly curved sides1 and two flat handles level with the rim 7,fig4 #di72 it sometimes attains a considerable size for a drinking-cup1 and is usually decorated with one or two figures each side4 ,a notable exception is the beautiful vase in the ,british ,museum 7,plate ,,li471 signed by ,hieron1 with its frieze of figures all round4 ,this identification is of course at variance with ,athenaeus' statement that the kotyle has no handle2 but no other satisfactory name has been found for the form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,,kotyle4 ,closely connected1 it would seem1 with the is the cup known as the or 1 to which there are frequent references in the poets and elsewhere but not in ,aristophanes4 ,homer#fde describes it as a rustic sort of bowl1 which held milk2 ,simonides applies to it the epithet 1 or 8handled40 ,athenaeus connects the word with 1 a round wooden vessel which held milk or whey1 and this seems to accord with the mention of it in ,homer4 ,it was always specially associated with ,herakles1#fdf who was said to have used it on his expeditions2 hence certain varieties were known as 1 but it is more probable that this word refers to ,heraklea ,trachinia in ,northern ,greece4 ,besides the ,herakleotic1 ,athenaeus mentions specially ,boeotian1 ,rhodian1 and ,syracusan skyphi4 ,the ordinary shape of the vase may be inferred from the form of that which ,herakles is often depicted holding on the monuments#fdg2 it is of the same type as the 1 but the body tapers below and has a higher foot1 while the handles are placed lower down and bent upwards4 ,among the late black-glazed wares with opaque paintings 7p4 #dhh7 some examples occur of cups with handles twisted in a kind of knot1 and it has been suggested that these represent the 8,heraklean knot0 described by ,athenaeus#fdh as to be seen on the handles of these3 4 ,the word is also frequently used by ,roman authors1 and there is a particularly interesting passage in ,suetonius 7cf4 p4 #acd7 alluding to the ,homerici scyphi adorned with chased designs from the ,homeric poems#fdi which ,nero possessed2 these were1 of course1 metal bowls with reliefs1#fej but they have their fictile counterparts in the so-called ,megarian bowls 7p4 #dii74 ,athenaeus#fea quotes from the philosopher ,poseidonios a passage referring to drinking-cups called 1 which may be supposed to have some connection with the ,panathenaic festival1 and attempts have been made to identify them with a class of skyphi or kotylae of the ,r4,f4 period1 the invariable subject on which is an owl between two olive-branches 7p4 #daj74feb ,there is no doubt some reference to the ,athenian goddess1 but it is more likely that they represent some kind of official measure 7see above1 p4 #ace74 ,it will be noted that the appears to have been originally a wooden vessel used as a milking-pail1 and it is further identified in ,theocritus with the wooden 1 to which we have already alluded4 ,two other words are given by ,athenaeus to denote large wooden bowls of the type of the 1 namely the and the #fec both used as milking-pails4 ,they were not strictly speaking drinking-cups4 ,among existing ,greek vases this form1 viz4 a deep straight-sided bowl1 such as a carved wooden vessel would naturally take1 seems to be best represented by the examples discovered on the site of the ,cabeiric temple at ,thebes1 which are of this shape and of considerable size 7see ,fig4 #ih1 p4 #cib74fed ,the is described by ,athenaeus#fee as a cup resembling the taller skyphi1 and the #fef 7whence the ecclesiastical ,latin ciborium#feg7 was also a kind of skyphos4 ,the name should also be included here1 from the likeness of the cup to the skyphos4 ,its characteristic is that it has no foot but only a small knob1 and therefore exactly resembles a woman's breast with the nipple1 whence its name4 ,in ,greek pottery the only known painted examples are of the ,b4,f4 period1#feh and these are usually modelled and painted with great care and delicacy4 ,the so-called ,megarian bowls 7see p4 #dii7 should also be included under this heading1 in reference to which it has been pointed out that of metal were dedicated in temples at ,oropos in ,boeotia and at ,paphos4#fei ,another form of cup1 of which ,athenaeus has much to say1 is the #ffj 7other forms being and 71 which was supposed to represent the of ,homer4 ,he describes it as small and deep1 without foot or handles4 ,on the other hand1 the word also means 8a boat10 and we further find the words and cited by ,athenaeus#ffa as names of cups1 the former being expressly called 8a boat-shaped cup40 ,this has the support of the author ,didymos 7quoted by ,athenaeus1 #dha ,f7 who says the was a long narrow cup like a ship4#ffb ,a possible instance of it is a long askos-shaped vessel in the ,british ,museum1#ffc on which is incised 1 8,drink1 do not lay me down02 but it is not of a form adapted for drinking4 ,the question must therefore remain undecided4 ,ussing thinks that was originally a cup-name1 and that the other meaning is derived from it2 but1 on the other hand1 and are merely nicknames as applied to cups4 ,the is a cup which cannot now be identified1 but is often referred to by ancient authors4#ffd ,it seems to have been a ,spartan name for a soldier's cup1 used for drinking-water1 and was adapted by its recurved mouth for straining off mud4#ffe ,it has been conjectured to have been the name for the shape we have above described as a 1 but on no good grounds2 ,pollux 7vii4 #afb7 wrongly classifies it with the and amphora1 but it was undoubtedly a cup1 as indeed he implies elsewhere 7vi4 #ig74 ,usually of clay1 it is sometimes described as of bronze1#fff and ,aristophanes applies to it the epithet 1#ffg which suggests a bright metallic surface4 ,hesychius and ,suidas describe it as having one handle4 ,from the was derived the word 1 8to drink hard40#ffh ,the was a cup so called because of a fancied resemblance to an inverted beetle4#ffi ,it was specially associated with ,dionysos1#fgj and from this fact its form has been identified with certainty from the two-handled drinking-cup which he is so often depicted holding1 especially on ,b4,f4 vases4 ,it is a very beautiful though for some reason never a very popular shape in pottery1 and is found at all periods4#fga ,in form it may be described as a deep straight-sided cup on a high stem1 with loop-shaped handles starting from the rim each side and coming down to the lower edge of the body 7,fig4 #ej74 ,probably it was considered a difficult shape to produce in pottery1 and was commoner in metal examples4 ,at all events the 1 a similar kind of cup1 seems to have been consistently made of metal4 ,athenaeus#fgb describes it with more than usual detail as tall1 moderately contracted in the middle1 with handles reaching to the bottom 7i4e4 of the bowl74 ,the form is to be recognised on the monuments 7if not in actual examples#fgc7 as a variation of the in which the body has a sort of 8waist10 bulging out again below4 ,virgil mentions carchesia1#fgd and silver specimens were among the dedications in the ,parthenon at ,athens4#fge ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,,kantharos4 ,of all the ancient forms of drinking-cup1 the most celebrated and in some respects also the most beautiful1 was the ,kylix 1 ,lat4 calix71#fgf a two-handled cup of varying size1 with large bowl on a high stem4 ,the shape of this vase shows a continuous development1 as does also its decorative treatment1 from the most primitive times down to the end of ,greek vase-painting4 ,it was moreover the form which the great artists of the early part of the fifth century selected as the medium of their finest efforts4 ,the kylix played an important part at the banquet1 being not only one of the commonest forms of drinking-cup in use1 but as being also used in the game of kottabos 7see ,chapter ,,xv474 ,in the banqueting-scenes which are so popular a subject on the ,r4,f4 kylikes of the best period1 the guests are often represented twirling vases of this shape on one finger crooked through the handle2 this being the manner in which they discharged the drops of wine at the mark4 ,hence the kylix was also known as or 4 ,when not in use the kylix was hung on a peg on the wall1 as it is sometimes depicted on ,r4,f4 vases4#fgg ,athenaeus#fgh cites the ,athenian and ,argive kylikes as being of special repute2 the latter are described by ,simonides as 1 a word of doubtful meaning4#fgi ,in the former's own city of ,naukratis a special kind of kylix#fhj was made by hand 7not on the wheel71 with four handles and a very flat base1 and this was dipped in a solution of silver to give it a metallic appearance4#fha ,lacedaemonian1 ,chian1 and ,teian kylikes are also mentioned 7the last-named by ,alcaeus3 see p4 #fd74 ,but the most famous variety was the ,thericleian1 so named from ,therikles1 a ,corinthian potter contemporary with ,aristophanes4 ,these cups were chiefly made at ,athens2 they are frequently mentioned by ,middle and ,new ,comedy writers1 and are described by ,athenaeus#fhb as depressed round the sides1 deep1 with short handles4 ,they were imitated in wood or glass1 and gilded1 and ,athenaeus mentions that the ,rhodians made 7see above7 in emulation of them4#fhc ,besides the various diminutive forms of 1 such as 7see above1 p4 #acc71 1 etc41#fhd there is a long list of synonyms for this form1 about most of which1 however1 there is nothing to say except that they are probably mere nicknames4 ,athenaeus gives the following3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 and 2 also 1 from its use after the washing of the hands1 i4e4 at the end of the meal2 1 named from a king of ,bithynia2 and 1 corresponding to our 8loving-cup40#fhe ,in the history of ,greek vase-painting the kylix is a shape known and popular at all periods1 from the ,mycenaean ,age down to the end of the fifth century2 in the fabrics of ,southern ,italy it but seldom occurs4 ,the ,mycenaean form is peculiarly graceful1 with its tall stem and swelling bowl2 it is generally decorated with a cuttle-fish1 a motive well suited to its outlines 7see ,plate ,,xv474 ,during the archaic period of ,greek vases a steady development can be traced1 both in form and methods of decoration1 until the outburst of the ,r4,f4 style4 ,the early ,corinthian specimens 7cf4 p4 #cac7 are somewhat cumbrous1 with very low stem1 shallow bowl with heavy overhanging lip and small handles2 in strong contrast thereto are the ,cyrenaic cups 7p4 #cda ff471 which are in execution quite in advance of their time 7first half of sixth century72 their graceful1 delicate forms are evidently imitated from metal4 ,these early cups are as a rule covered with a cream-coloured or buff slip and decorated all over1 and the interior designs1 which cover the whole or almost the whole of the inside1 are a marked feature of these types4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,,kylix 7,,earlier ,,form74 ,turning to the ,attic fabrics we find that in the beginning of the sixth century the prevalent form 7evolved from the ,corinthian type7 has a high stem and deep bowl with off-set lip1 the decoration being confined to the upper band of the exterior1 in the form of a frieze 7,fig4 #ea74 ,this type is also illustrated by a small ,rhodian group in the ,british ,museum1#fhf which1 however1 has elaborate interior designs4 ,in the next stage1 represented by the ,minor ,artists 7see p4 #cgi ff471 the form remains the same1 but the manner of decoration is different1 interior designs again appearing2 often the design is confined to a narrow band1 the rest of the exterior being coloured black4 ,lastly1 towards the end of the fifth century1 an entirely new form is introduced1 in which the break in the outline disappears and the bowl becomes flatter1 with a gracefully-curved convex outline1 while the stem is shortened 7,fig4 #eb74 ,this form is the one adopted throughout the ,r4,f4 period1 with few exceptions1 and it is possible that it was actually invented by the earliest ,r4,f4 artists1 such as ,nikosthenes and ,pamphaios1 though it is also employed by ,exekias4#fhg ,the methods of decoration cannot however be treated of here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,,kylix 7,,later ,,form74 ,an extremely delicate form of kylix is used by the potter ,sotades 7,chapter ,x471 with handles in imitation of a bird's merrythought4 ,towards the end of the fifth century the shape changes somewhat1 the stem disappearing and the bowl becoming deeper4 ,in ,southern ,italy the kylix-form is only represented by gigantic shallow bowls1 with small stout handles attached to the rim1 probably intended for hanging against the wall4 ,the ,naucratite kylikes mentioned above seem to have been made somewhat after this pattern2 it was at any rate typical of ,hellenistic taste4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,,phiale4 ,the word #fhh 7,lat4 patera7 bore in ,greek a very different meaning from that suggested by the modern word phial4 ,it was in fact a shallow bowl shaped like a saucer1 and had no handle1 but in place of one a boss 77 in the centre1 which was hollowed out underneath in order to admit of the insertion of a thumb or finger 7,fig4 #ec74 ,hence it was generally styled or 4#fhi ,as a vase-form it is not of frequent occurrence1 and was probably more frequently made in metal1 especially in the ,hellenistic period4 ,those depicted on painted vases are usually indicated as having ribbed or fluted exteriors1 which can only denote metal 7cf4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #acb74 ,about the third or second century ,b4,c4 imitations of metal phialae in terracotta1 with moulded interior designs1 are of common occurrence4 ,being signed by potters residing at ,cales1 they are usually known as 8,calene phialae40 ,there are two in the ,british ,museum1#fij which are an exact reproduction of silver specimens in the same collection4 ,homer uses the word in two senses3 7#a7 as equivalent to a 1 as if used for boiling water#fia2 7#b7 as a cinerary urn4#fib ,obviously in both these cases the significance of this particular word must not be pressed4 ,later1 however1 we find very frequent mention of the phiale in classical authors1 such as ,herodotos1 ,pindar1 and ,plato1 in all cases with the same restricted significance1 that of a vessel used in making libations4 ,on the ,r4,f4 vases it appears in countless examples1 used in this manner1 especially by ,nike4 ,aristotle1 by way of illustrating the inversion of a simile1 says 8,you may call the shield the phiale of ,ares1 or the phiale the shield of ,dionysos10 no doubt with reference to its buckler-like shape4#fic ,athenaeus 7xi4 #dfb ,d7 quotes a passage from ,xenophanes which implies its use for holding perfumes at banquets4 ,many words occur as synonyms of 1 such as the 1 1 1 1 1 1 and 4#fid ,the last-named word has been suggested above 7p4 #afe7 for a kind of large covered dish or bowl1 but we can only ascertain that it was a drinking-vessel of some kind1 resembling a large kylix4#fie ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,rhyton4 ,the 1 or drinking-horn 7from 1 8flow071 is a familiar shape in the ,r4,f4 and later styles1 but as a vase-form does not occur before the middle of the fifth century4#fif ,its peculiarities were3 firstly1 that it could not be set down without drinking the contents2 secondly1 that the narrow end was almost always modelled in the form of the head of some animal1 or of a woman or ,satyr4 ,some examples are known in the form of two heads back to back1 usually a ,satyr and a ,maenad1 but these having a flat circular base are an exception to the first rule noted above1 and partake more of the nature of a cup than of a drinking-horn4 ,although no archaic examples have been preserved1 the rhyton1 or 1#fig as it is also called1 frequently appears on ,b4,f4 vases1 being generally held by ,satyrs or revellers1 or by ,dionysos4#fih ,athenaeus says it was a form reserved for the use of heroes1 and that was the older name for it4#fii ,among the ,south ,italian vases1 it is found almost exclusively in ,apulia1 and these belong to the decadence of the ,apulian style1 the paintings being limited to a figure of ,eros1 or a woman1 and little more4 ,these rhyta have one handle1 and the cup-part is generally cylindrical in form1 tapering slightly towards the lower part1 where the head is attached 7,fig4 #ed474 ,in some instances the form is narrower and more elongated1 with fluted body4 ,the animals' heads are usually left unvarnished1 and coloured in detail like the terracotta figures2 the mouth often forms a spout from which the liquid could be allowed to run out4#gjj ,the heads1 which occur in great variety1 include the panther1 fox1 wolf1 horse1 goat1 mule1 deer1 and dog#gja2 also ,gryphons and ,pegasi 7see below74 ,athenaeus mentions a vase called the 1#gjb which was doubtless a rhyton ending in two heads1 a goat and a deer conjoined1 like some known specimens2 he also quotes a description of another called 1 explained as a rhyton with two spouts 774#gjc ,further1 under the heading 1 which is doubtless a synonym for 1 he mentions one in the form of a ,gryphon1 another in the form of a ,pegasos4#gjd ,the name is mentioned by ,demosthenes1 together with and 4#gje ,it is worthy of mention that among the ,mycenaean objects discovered at ,enkomi in ,cyprus1 in #ahif1 and now in the ,british ,museum1 there are two or three rhyta in porcelain1 corresponding in form to those of the ,r4,f4 period1 and of very advanced style#gjf2 they are in fact quite unique4 ,a few comparatively unimportant names of vessels for holding food and liquids at the table may next be discussed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,,pinax4 ,the names given for dishes are 1 1 and 1 the latter of which frequently occurs in ,aristophanes1 but seems to be of late introduction1 and more used by the ,romans 7see ,chapter ,,xxi474#gjg ,for a plate the usual name was 7also 1 71 a form which is interesting as often occurring among painted vases 7,fig4 #ee74 ,it is found at all periods1 from the fabrics of ,rhodes and ,naukratis down to the ,apulian and ,campanian 8fish-plates10 which have a sinking in the centre1 and are painted with fish1 shell-fish1 etc4 ,they were no doubt used for eating fish1 the sinking being for the sauce4#gjh ,a famous early instance of the pinax is the 8,euphorbos-plate0 in the ,british ,museum 7see p4 #cce74 ,the name is also given to the square plaques or tablets1 such as those found at ,corinth1 on the ,athenian ,acropolis1 and elsewhere1 which were generally of a votive character4 ,they are often depicted on the vases themselves1 indicating the locality of a shrine4#gji ,vessels for holding vinegar or sauces were known by the names of 1 1 or 4#gaj ,the shapes are not exactly known1 but they were apparently small cups or dishes2 the incorrect identification of the first-named with the we have already discussed 7p4 #aga74 ,the words and are given by ,pollux#gaa as vases for holding sweets1 and the or was1 as the name implies1 a box or receptacle for spices4#gab ,the last-named has been identified with the 1 described by ,athenaeus as 8a round vessel1 having attached several little kotylae 7740#gac ,two existing forms correspond in some degree to this description3 one found in ,cyprus and at ,corinth1 and consisting of a hollow ring1 to which small cups or jars are attached at intervals2 the other found chiefly in ,melos1 and consisting of a central stand1 round which are grouped a varying number of alabastron-like vases1 evidently designed for holding small quantities of unguents or perfumes1 or perhaps flowers1 eggs1 or other objects4 ,they are all of very early date1 and decorated in primitive fashion4#gad ,a better form of the word seems to be 4 ,many have been found at ,eleusis1#gae and it is supposed that they were used in the ,mysteries for carrying the first-fruits4#gaf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,,lekythos4 ,several kinds of vases were used for holding oil1 the characteristic of all these shapes being the narrow neck and small mouth1 which were better adapted for pouring the liquid drop by drop4 ,the ordinary ,greek word for an oil-flask is 1 frequently found in ,aristophanes and elsewhere4 ,we have already referred 7pp4 #acb1 #adc7 to the passages in the ,ecclesiazusae where the practice of placing lekythi on tombs1 and generally of using them for funeral purposes1 finds allusion4 ,from these passages it has been possible to identify the class of white-ground ,athenian vases on which funeral subjects are painted1 with absolute certainty as ,lekythi4 ,but the shape is not confined to this one class4 ,in the early ,b4,f4 period 7especially in ,corinthian wares7 it assumes a less elegant form1 with cup-shaped mouth1 short thick neck1 and quasi-cylindrical body tapering slightly upwards 7cf4 the alabastron below74 ,the later form1 which prevails from the middle of the ,b4,f4 period down to the end of the fourth century at ,athens1 with very little variation of form1 is one of the most beautiful types of ,greek vases 7,fig4 #ef74 ,it has a long neck1 to which the handle is attached1 flat or almost concave shoulder1 and cylindrical body1 semi-oval at the base4 ,the ,b4,f4 examples are seldom found in ,italy1 and almost all come from ,athens and other ,hellenic sites1 or from ,sicily1 a country in which the form seems to have been exceptionally popular4 ,the same may be said of the ordinary ,r4,f4 examples1 which have no sepulchral reference1 and are found in large numbers at ,gela 7,terranuova7 in ,sicily1 but seldom elsewhere4 ,the white lekythi have been found in ,eretria1 and at ,gela1 and ,locri in ,southern ,italy1 besides ,athens4 ,the lekythos seldom attains to any great size1 except in the marble examples used as tombstones4 ,they were probably used at the bath and in the gymnasium1 and may also have served other purposes1 e4g4 for pigments4 ,in illustration of this reference may be made to the well-known passage in ,aristophanes' ,frogs 7#abjj ff471 where the jeer of ,aeschylos at ,euripides' stereotyped beginnings of his plays1 1 seems to imply 8he is hard up for something new to say10 i4e4 8he has lost his paint-pot2 his lines need embellishment40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,,lekythos 7,,later ,,form74 ,towards the end of the fifth century the lekythos takes a new departure 7,fig4 #eg71 and appears with a squat1 almost spherical body1 without foot 7except for the base-ring74 ,this form is sometimes known as aryballos 7see below71 but is perhaps more accurately described as a 8wide-bodied0 7,germ4 bauchige7 lekythos4 ,it is very popular at ,athens in the late fine or polychrome vases1#gag and was adopted exclusively in ,southern ,italy1 where it is the only form of lekythos found4 ,this type of vase is often found in the period of the ,decadence with a subject moulded in relief attached to the front1 sometimes of a comic nature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,,alabastron4 ,the alabastron 7 or 1 both forms being found in ,classical ,greek7 is a shape closely allied to the lekythos4 ,it preserves the same form throughout the period of ,greek vase-painting 7,fig4 #eh471 but is not often found after the middle of the sixth century4 ,in the early ,corinthian wares it is very common4 ,the name is derived from the material of which it was originally made1 and many examples of alabaster vases of this shape have been found in excavations4 ,it was chiefly used for holding oil1 unguents1 and cosmetics1 and is often represented in scenes of ladies' toilet as in use for these purposes4 ,its characteristics are a flat round top with small orifice1 short neck1 and more or less cylindrical body with rounded-off base1 intended for placing in a stand 774#gah ,it is generally without handles1 but when they occur they are in the form of two small ears1 through which a cord was passed for carrying or suspending it4 ,the 8alabaster box0 of the ,gospels was a vessel of this form 7cf4 the original ,greek71 and it was broken by knocking off the top1 in order that the contents might flow out quickly4 ,the name is also given as a synonym of the 4#gai ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,,aryballos4 ,another vase of the same type is that known as the 4 ,the derivation of the word is unknown1 but the first half connects it with the 8ladle0 class of vases 71 etc471 of which we have already spoken4 ,it can1 however1 hardly be a vase of that type1 and the connection seems to be its use in the bath1#gbj i4e4 as an oil-flask4 ,it is generally described as resembling a purse2 ,athenaeus#gba says it is broader below than above1 like a purse tied at the neck with a string4 ,the name1 however1 is usually applied to a form of vase akin to the alabastron1 but with small globular body1 handle1 and very short neck 7,fig4 #ei474 ,this type is almost confined to the ,corinthian and other early fabrics1 and frequently occurs in glazed or enamelled ware 7see p4 #abg74 ,its connection with the bath is undoubted1 and it was generally carried on a string1 together with a strigil or flesh-scraper4 ,as this form died out in the sixth century1 the name has been used1 as noted above1 for a later variety of the lekythos1 in which the body approaches a globular form4 ,transitional between the alabastron and the aryballos is a type of which some examples occur among early ,corinthian wares1 with egg-shaped body1 flat round top1 and small ear-like handle1 the base being rounded off4 ,to this the name has been tentatively given1 on the authority of ,antisthenes1 who defines the word as meaning a kind of lekythos with narrow neck4#gbb ,in the same passage of ,athenaeus#gbc it is contrasted with the quickly-emptied or bowl2 those who drink from it must do so drop by drop 7 74 ,the name may denote a cocoon1 the shape of which this vase resembles1 or may be imitative1 from the gurgling sound made by a liquid poured therefrom4 ,the was also probably a kind of oil-flask4#gbd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,,pyxis4 ,a few forms of vases were exclusively devoted to feminine use4 ,these include the 1 a cylindrical box with cover1 in which jewellery or other objects such as hair-pins1 cosmetics1 etc41 might be kept for use in the toilet 7,fig4 #fj474 ,the painted examples of this form1 which nearly all belong to the later ,r4,f4 period1 are usually decorated with appropriate subjects1 women at their toilet1 preparations for weddings1 etc4 ,the 1 or soap-box1 served similar purposes4#gbe ,it seems to be represented by a form of vase of which the ,british ,museum possesses a specimen 7without figure decoration71 with cover and high stem1 but no handle except the knob on the cover4 ,it is intermediate in form between the pyxis and the so-called 7p4 #afe71 and sometimes appears in toilet and other scenes4#gbf ,a rare form1 found almost exclusively in the ,r4,f4 period1#gbg consisting of a globular vase with vertical looped handles on a high stem1 has been variously named1 but the latest theory is that it represents a 4#gbh ,it contained lustral water1 and is usually decorated with bridal scenes4 ,one is depicted in a toilet scene on a pyxis in the ,british ,museum4#gbi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,,epinetron ,,or ,,onos4 ,lastly1 a peculiar semi-cylindrical vessel1 closed at one end and open down the side 7,fig4 #fa471 was for a long time a puzzle to archaeologists1 but its use was finally determined by its appearance in a vase-painting4#gcj ,it is there held by a seated woman1 fitted over her knee and thigh1 and was used while spinning to pass the thread over4 ,the name of these objects is given by ,pollux 7vii4 #cb7 as or 78the donkey074 ,several of them are painted with spinning scenes1 and the vase-painting alluded to above is curiously enough on a vase of this form4 ,there is a type of vase1 of which two or three varieties occur1 which1 from its general likeness to a wine-skin1 is usually styled ,askos4 ,it does not1 however1 appear that there is any direct authority for this1 at least in literary records2 where the word does occur1 it always denotes a leather skin1 such as is sometimes depicted on the vases1 carried by a ,seilenos or ,satyr4 ,it is1 however1 a convenient expression1 and there is no other recorded term which can on any grounds be associated with this type4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,,askos4 ,the earliest examples1 which date from the middle of the ,r4,f4 period1 have a flat round body with convex top1 and a projecting spout 7,fig4 #fb72 the handle is sometimes arched over the back to meet the spout1 or else takes a separate ring-like form4#gca ,they are usually decorated with two small figures1 one on each side4 ,in the vases of ,southern ,italy a new form appears 7,fig4 #fc71 chiefly found in ,apulia1 in which the resemblance to a wine-skin is much more apparent1 the tied-up pairs of legs being represented by the spout or a projection4 ,the handle is usually arched over the back1 and the pouch-shaped body sometimes assumes an almost birdlike form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,,apulian ,,askos4 ,a variety which is also common in ,southern ,italy is made of plain black ware1 and is not painted but has a subject in relief in a medallion on the top#gcb2 the handle is ring-shaped#gcc and the form generally resembles the variety first described1 except that the body is flat on the top1 and convex below1 with a base-ring 7,fig4 #fd74 ,it seems probable that these vases were used for holding oil for feeding lamps1 and consequently they are generally known by the ,latin name of guttus1 or 8lamp-feeder0 7see pp4 #baa1 #ejc74 ,whether the painted aski were used for the same purpose is doubtful2 those1 however1 with the large body seem to have been intended for other purposes1 especially as they often have a strainer inserted in them4 ,some indeed appear to have been used as rattles1 and still contain small balls or pebbles1 placed within them for that purpose4 ,on the whole1 however1 it seems more convenient to reckon the with the oil-vases4#gcd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,,so-,,called 8,,guttus40 ,among vases which do not exactly fall under the heading of any particular shape may be noted certain types of moulded vases1 and those with reliefs modelled on them or attached4 ,many of these almost fall under the category of terracotta figures1 but still must be reckoned as vases1 even when painted in the methods of terracottas rather than pottery4 ,such are the large aski described on page #aai1 and the contemporary ornamental vases modelled in the form of female heads1 of ,maenads1 or of ,athena 7as ,b4,m4 ,g #a74 ,other types we have described elsewhere1#gce such as the rhyta ending in animals' heads1 the kanthari and rhyta of the ,r4,f4 period in the form of human or ,dionysiac heads1 and the analogous vases of the archaic period4 ,again1 there are such forms as the flasks with flat circular bodies1 and the large pyxides which are often found in ,southern ,italy4#gcf ,they usually bear a subject in relief1 covered with a white slip and painted in pink and blue1 like the ,canosa vases2 a specimen from ,pompeii1 with rich remains of colouring1 has lately been acquired by the ,british ,museum4 ,the curious type of vase sometimes found in ,sicily1 with a tall conical cover1 the ornamentation being partly in encaustic1 partly in gilded relief1 has been already mentioned4#gcg ,there is also a late variety of the so-called kernos 7p4 #aie71 consisting of four cups united on an elaborate fluted stand1 of which the ,british ,museum possesses two good examples4#gch ,it should be borne in mind that all these exceptional shapes are probably imitations of metal-work1 perhaps made for the benefit of those who could not afford the more expensive material1 just as imitation jewellery was sometimes made in gilt terracotta4 ,throughout the ,hellenistic period 7to which the classes we are discussing chiefly belong71 the universal tendency is to substitute metal vases for pottery1 and moulded or relief-wares for painted decoration1 and the potter1 finding the painted vases were no longer appreciated1 was forced to confine himself to imitating metal1 and thus keep abreast with the new fashion4 ,the whole subject of the plastic decoration of vases has been more fully dealt with elsewhere 7,chapter ,,xi474 ----- ,footnote #ddg3 ,l4 #fd4 ,footnote #ddh3 8,and in earthenware baked in the fire1 within the closure of figured urns1 there came among the goodly folk of ,hera the prize of the olive-fruit0 7,myers74 ,footnote #ddi3 8,and he won five garlands in succession at the ,panathenaic games1 amphorae full of oil0 7,frag4 #aee1 ed4 ,bergk ,anth4 ,p4 xiii4 #ai74 ,see also ,schol4 in ,ar4 ,nub4 #ajje1 and ,inscr4 ,gr4 7,atticae71 ii4 #ife;b4 ,footnote #dej3 ,cf4 ,schol4 in ,plat4 ,hipp4 ,min4 #cfh ,c3 4 ,footnote #dea3 8,and raise the great goblets1 or if1 ,oikis1 thou desirest aught else 444 pour in and mix one and two full up to the brim1 and let the one goblet oust the other40 ,footnote #deb3 ,graec4 ,ling4 ,dialect1 i4 p4 #bdg4 ,footnote #dec3 viii4 #cha3 see also p4 #ej4 ,footnote #ded3 ,see p4 #dii4 ,footnote #dee3 ,suet4 ,ner4 #dg3 see ,robert1 ,homer4 ,becher1 and ,class4 ,review1 #ahid1 p4 #cbe4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a silver phiale1 with terracotta replicas 7,g #aag1 #aah71 one of which is shown on ,plate ,,xlviii4 ,see also p4 #ejj4 ,footnote #def3 ,cf4 the use of the word on bronze and lead weights4 ,footnote #deg3 ,egger in ,revue ,archol4 xvi4 7#ahfg71 p4 #bib4 ,footnote #deh3 ,see ,hultsch1 ,metrologie1 p4 #ii ff4 ,footnote #dei3 ,arist4 ,categ4 #ab2 also ,polybius1 iv4 #ef1 4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,b4,m4 ,f #age4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,other instances are3 ,millingen-,reinach1 #b2 ,munich #dbc2 ,reinach1 i4 #bia-ib4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,e #ecd-cg1 #edh-ec2 also ,stackelberg1 ,grber der ,hellenen1 pl4 #ag4 ,fig4 #ae is from the vase ,f #aja in the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,f #deg-ff4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,suppl4 #dfc4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,e #did4 ,see also ,chapter ,,xv4 ,footnote #dff3 ,see ,schol4 in ,ar4 ,ran4 #bah1 and ,j4,h4,s4 xx4 p4 #aaj ff4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,for explanation and parallels see ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 p4 #aai ff4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,raoul-,rochette in ,revue ,archol4 viii4 7#ahea71 p4 #aab3 see also ,theocr4 xv4 #aac ff4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,revue ,archol4 l4c4 p4 #aah2 ,mart4 xi4 #ai2 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xix4 #ei4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,hist4 ,plant4 vi4 #g4 ,footnote #dga3 ,pernice in ,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 p4 #fj ff4 ,he would also regard the so-called 7see p4 #aih7 as a vase of this class2 but this seems much more doubtful4 ,see also p4 #afg1 under 4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,cf4 ,bhlau1 ,ion4 u4 ,ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #ci2 ,berlin #aajh4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,pernice's arguments have been directly impugned by ,kouroniotes in 4 4 #ahii1 p4 #bcc1 and by ,robinson in ,boston ,mus4 ,report1 p4 #gc2 and it certainly seems more probable that metal vessels would have been used for this purpose2 moreover1 the form of the is well known4 ,but he has personally assured the present writer that the clay show traces internally of the use of fire4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,reinach1 i4 #bce ,naples #cbee4 ,footnote #dge3 ,see p4 #bad4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,adv4 ,leoch4 #ajhf1 #ajhi4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,sculpture1 i4 p4 #big4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,see note on p4 #acb above4 ,the custom seems to have been specially in favour in the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,footnote #dgi3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,d #fe1 #gj-a2 ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 pl4 #b4 ,on the subject generally1 see ibid4 p4 #afi ff4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,fig4 #bj ,f #ic1 a ,lucanian hydria in the ,british ,museum1 is a very fine instance1 several of the vases being represented with painted subjects4 ,among them is a ,panathenaic amphora 7see above1 p4 #acb71 on which is depicted a chariot-race4 ,footnote #dha3 ,il4 xxiii4 #bec4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,q4 ,smyrn4 iii4 #gcg4 ,footnote #dhc3 ,it no doubt suggested ,tennyson's 8,two handfuls of white dust1 shut in an urn of brass40 ,cf4 l4 #aadb 774 ,footnote #dhd3 ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 #aija-b1 pls4 #ah-ai1 p4 #bih2 ,mon4 ,antichi1 i4 p4 #bja1 pls4 #a-b4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,b #acj3 see also p4 #df4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,no4 #bdbb ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #cd4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,e #haa3 see for other instances1 ,jahn1 ,vasensamml4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 lxxxv1 note #fjj1 and p4 #ci above4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,c #ab4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,myres1 on opening a tomb at ,amathus1 in ,cyprus1 in #ahid1 found jugs1 bowls1 and other kinds of vases ranged round the body1 like a dinner-service set out on a table4 ,footnote #dij3 ,a good instance is the ,python krater in the ,british ,museum 7,f #adi71 one of the handles of which has been repaired with lead4 ,see also ,jahn1 ,vasens4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 ci1 note #gca2 ,b4,m4 ,b #fjg1 ,b #fjh1 ,e #ajf2 ,berlin #agfh4 ,footnote #dia3 ,gerhard1 ,auserl4 ,vasenb4 ii4 #ade ,reinach1 ii4 #ge4 ,footnote #dib3 ,rev4 ,arch4 iii4 7#aijd71 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #dic3 ,juvenal1 xiv4 #cjh4 ,footnote #did3 ,vespae1 #adcg4 ,footnote #die3 ,the use of this form of vase is further illustrated by the hydrophoria-scenes on ,b4,f4 vases1 in which it constantly occurs4 ,see below1 p4 #aff4 ,footnote #dif3 ,b4,m4 ,a #ajed1 ,b #dej2 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 i4 #ede4 ,footnote #dig3 ,see ,chapter ,,xvii41 where examples are given4 ,footnote #dih3 ,cf4 also ,bk4 v4 #aih ff4 ,footnote #dii3 x4 #fb ff4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,recherches sur les vritables ,noms des ,vases ,grecs1 ,paris1 #ahbi4 ,footnote #eja3 ,observations sur les ,noms des ,vases ,grecs1 etc41 ,paris1 #ahcc1 and ,supplment1 #ahcg-ch4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,rapporto ,volcente in ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahca1 p4 #bba ff42 and in criticism of ,letronne1 ,berlins ant4 ,bildwerke1 i4 p4 #cdb ff41 and ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahcf1 p4 #adg ff4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,handbuch d4 ,archol4 #bih-cja4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,ueber die hellenischen bemalten ,vasen1 ,munich1 #ahdd4 ,footnote #eje3 ,de ,nominibus ,vasorum ,graecorum1 ,kopenhagen1 #ahdd4 ,this work is very useful for its exhaustive references to classical literature4 ,it is also critically up to the mark4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,angeiologie1 ,halle1 #ahed4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,vasensamml4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 lxxxvi ff4 7#ahed74 ,footnote #ejh3 ,there are some very useful articles in ,daremberg and ,saglio's ,dictionnaire under the respective headings1 so far as the work has appeared 7down to ,m in #aijd74 ,footnote #eji3 ,cf4 also xi4 #dfb ,d4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,pliny 7,h4,n4 iii4 #hb7 states that the island of ,pithecusa 7the modern ,ischia7 was so called not from 1 an ape1 but from 7a figulinis doliorum71 implying that wine-casks were made here in antiquity1 as they are at the present day4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,athen4 xi4 #dfe ,a1 and cf4 #die ,b2 ,il4 xxiv4 #ebg2 see ,ussing1 p4 #cc1 and ,suidas1 s4v4 ,the comic poets also speak of a 1 or small 1 used for holding wine at festivals4 ,footnote #eab3 ,see ,chapter ,,xx41 and a relief in the ,villa ,albani1 ,helbig1 ,fhrer#b1 ii4 p4 #ef1 ,no4 #hec2 cf4 also ,hesychius1 1 and ,ar4 ,eq4 #gib4 ,footnote #eac3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiv4 7,fig4 #abf74 ,footnote #ead3 ,b4,m4 ,b #dfd1 ,f #baj4 ,footnote #eae3 ,op4 et ,di4 #ih2 the word has been confused with 1 meaning a box4 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xx4 p4 #ii4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,hesych4 s4v42 ,pollux1 vii4 #afc4 ,footnote #eag3 ,this must be distinguished from 7see p4 #aaa71 a skeleton frame on which statues were modelled4 ,see ,geoponica1 vi4 #c1 p4 #d2 ,pollux1 vii4 #afd2 ,jahn in ,ber4 d4 schs4 ,gesellsch4 #ahed1 p4 #db2 ,blmner1 ,technologie1 ii4 p4 #db4 ,footnote #eah3 ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 #ahii-aijj1 p4 #bb2 cf4 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #aija1 p4 #djd4 ,footnote #eai3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aijc1 pp4 #if ff41 #adj ff41 ,beilagen #a-e4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,troja und ,ilion1 i4 p4 #cae4 ,footnote #eba3 ,see ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #cha ff42 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhf1 pl4 #d2 ,rm4 ,mitth4 xii4 7#ahig71 p4 #bef2 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahha1 p4 #dd ff42 ,kekul1 ,terracotten von ,sicilien1 pls4 #ee-g1 #fj2 and p4 #dif4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,hom4 ,il4 xxiii4 #agj2 ,od4 ii4 #bij1 ix4 #afd2 ,inscr4 ,gr4 7,atticae71 ii4 #ife b 7oil72 and see ,chap4 ,,xxi41 s4v4 ,see also ,jahn1 ,vasens4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 xcii1 and cf4 the amphora in ,rome with the oil-selling scene 7,helbig1 #gj ,reinach1 i4 p4 #ajf74 ,footnote #ebc3 1 from 1 8on either side10 and 1 8,i carry40 ,athenaeus 7xi4 #eja ,a7 explains it as 4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,lit4 #bnd ,ser4 iii4 7#ahej71 p4 #g4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,dumont1 ,inscrs4 ,cramiques1 pl4 #i4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,the order here given is that suggested by ,h4 von ,gaertringen in ,inscr4 ,gr4 xii4 pt4 #a1 p4 #h4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,dumont1 ,inscrs4 ,cramiques1 pl4 #f2 see also ,revue ,archol4 ,n4,s4 iii4 7#ahfa71 pls4 #i1 #aj1 p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,jahrbcher fr ,philol4 ,suppl4 xvii4 7#ahij71 p4 #bha4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 ii4 #baba4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,lit4 iii4 7#ahej71 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #eca3 ,c4,i4,l4 iv4 #behd2 other examples from ,pompeii are given in ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,stoddart in ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,lit4 #bnd ,ser4 iii4 7#ahej71 p4 #a ff41 iv4 7#ahec71 p4 #a ff42 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 iii4 ,nos4 #ecge-ecib1 #eeee-eeff1 #egea 7,sicily72 ,philologus1 #ahea1 p4 #bgh ff4 7,sicily72 ,jahrb4 fr ,philol4 ,suppl4-,bd4 xviii4 p4 #ebj ff42 ,abh4 d4 phil4-phil4 ,kl4 d4 k4 bayer4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss4 ii4 7#ahcg71 p4 #gha ff42 ,mlanges ,grco-,romaines1 i4 p4 #daf ff4 7,olbia72 ,dumont1 ,inscrs4 ,cramiques de ,grce1 ,paris1 #ahgb2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahif1 p4 #abg ff42 ,jahrb4 fr ,philol4 ,suppl4-,bd4 iv4 p4 #dec1 v4 p4 #ddg1 x4 pp4 #a1 #bjg 7,olbia72 ,inscr4 ,gr4 7,ins4 ,maris ,aegaei71 xii4 pp4 #age-bjc1 ,nos4 #ajfe-adda 7amphora-handles from ,rhodes72 and other references already given4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,e4g4 ,athens #feg4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahih1 pls4 #d1 #f2 ,plate ,,xlvii4 ,footnote #ece3 ,e4g4 ,baumeister1 iii4 p4 #aige1 fig4 #baad2 ,athens #fhh1 #fij4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,berlins ant4 ,bildw4 p4 #cdf2 see also ,thiersch1 ,tyrrhen4 ,amphoren1 p4 #a ff4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,see below1 p4 #chh1 and ,karo in ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #adg ff4 ,footnote #ech3 ,see note #ecf above2 also p4 #cbd4 ,footnote #eci3 ,a 8transitional0 example has recently been published by ,hartwig in ,rm4 ,mitth4 #aija1 pl4 #e1 p4 #aag4 ,footnote #edj3 ,see also ,plate ,,xxxv4 ,footnote #eda3 ,cf4 ,b #fjc-fji with ,f #cca1 #ccb in the ,fourth ,vase ,room of the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,but it appears in ,southern ,italy at an earlier period than the fourth century2 see ,patroni1 ,ceram4 ,antica1 p4 #ach1 and below1 p4 #dhe4 ,footnote #edb3 ,see for examples ,f #cci1 #cdj in ,brit4 ,mus41 and ,patroni1 ,ceramica ,antica1 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #edc3 ,see ,patroni1 ,ceramica ,antica1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #edd3 ,instances in ,b4,m41 ,e #cej1 and ,brussels ,museum 7,noel des ,vergers1 trurie1 pls4 #cb-cf72 also a plain wine-amphora of this form1 dredged up from the sea1 in the ,terracotta ,room1 ,british ,museum1 ,case #ea4 ,footnote #ede3 ,see ,pollux1 x4 #gh2 ,athen4 xi4 #die ,a4 ,the former gives as an ,aeolic synonym of 4 ,footnote #edf3 ,b4,f4 8pelikae0 in ,b4,m41 ,b #aij-aib4 ,footnote #edg3 x4 #gb4 ,cf4 also ,plat4 ,com4 apud ,athen4 xi4 #ghc ,d4 ,footnote #edh3 ,lys4 #aif4 ,see also ,demosth4 ,lacr4 #icc1 where eighty stamni of sour wine are mentioned4 ,footnote #edi3 1 ad ,il4 xviii4 #aafc1 #bc4 ,cf4 also ,herodotos1 i4 #aid2 ,xen4 ,anab4 i4 #i1 #be4 ,footnote #eej3 ,lucian1 ,meretr4 dial4 #ad2 ,athen1 iii4 #aaf ,f4 ,footnote #eea3 xi4 #ghd ,d4 ,footnote #eeb3 ,pollux1 vi4 #ad4 ,footnote #eec3 ,vesp4 #fgf1 and ,schol4 ad loc4 ,footnote #eed3 ,see below for an account of this word 7p4 #agf74 ,footnote #eee3 xi4 #dii ,b1 q4v4 for several quotations illustrative of this word2 also ,anth4 ,p4 vi4 #bdh 774 ,footnote #eef3 ,quaest4 ,conviv4 i4 #a1 #e1 p4 #fad ,e 773 cf4 ,phaedr4 i4 #bf1 #h4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,hesych4 s4v4 4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,see for a fine instance1 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat4 of ,bronzes1 #fej4 ,footnote #eei3 ,cf4 ,hdt4 iii4 #bj2 ,athen4 xi4 #dhc ,d2 ,hor4 ,od4 iv4 #aa1 #b2 #ab1 #ag4 ,footnote #efj3 ,av4 #ajcb2 ,eccl4 #ajjb4 ,footnote #efa3 ,ussing1 p4 #de4 ,cf4 ,pind4 ,ol4 vi4 #fh2 also ,schol4 in ,nem4 x4 #fd4 ,footnote #efb3 xi4 #dif ,a4 ,see ,boston ,mus4 ,report1 #ahii1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #efc3 ,cf4 #cbg with #eci4 ,see for other mentions of the word1 ,ussing1 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #efd3 ,trapezitae1 #cc2 cf4 ,lucian1 ,hermot4 #dj1 #eg 771 and ,chap4 ,,xxi4 ,footnote #efe3 ,soph4 ,o4,c4 #dgc1 4 ,he is here speaking of a 1 but in l4 #dgh he calls the same vase a 4 ,footnote #eff3 ,cf4 also ,aesch4 ,fr4 #ia1 and ,eur4 ,cycl4 #hi2 ,ion1 #aagc2 ,theocr4 xiii4 #df4 ,footnote #efg3 ,mosch4 iv4 #cd2 ,anth4 ,p4 vii4 #gaj4 ,footnote #efh3 ,alex4 #bj4 ,footnote #efi3 ,hesych4 s4v42 ,pollux1 viii4 #ff4 ,footnote #egj3 xi4 #die ,a4 ,footnote #ega3 ,cf4 ,hdt4 i4 #be and the ,sigean inscription 7,roberts1 ,gk4 ,epigraphy1 i4 p4 #gh74 ,footnote #egb3 ,examples of such painted stands in the ,b4,m4 are ,a #chc-he1 #dfd 7,geometrical72 ,a #acdi2 ,b #afg 7does not belong to the amphora below which it is placed74 ,a #gda is unpainted2 ,f #bgi is placed on an ornamental open stand of bronze4 ,footnote #egc3 ,see ,hdt4 iv4 #fa1 #aeb2 ,athen4 xi4 #dgb ,a and v4 #aih ,d1 #aii ,b1 #aii ,e4 ,footnote #egd3 ,see p4 #bdf and ,plate ,,xii4 ,footnote #ege3 ,the ,aristonos krater 7see p4 #big7 is almost of the ,mycenaean form1 and represents the transition to the ,corinthian4 ,cf4 also ,notizie degli ,scavi1 #ahie1 p4 #ahe1 for one found at ,syracuse4 ,footnote #egf3 ,for specimens found at ,corinth1 see ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahih1 p4 #aif2 the form is also depicted on the ,corinthian pinakes 7,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 pl4 #h1 ,nos4 #ab1 #ah74 ,footnote #egg3 xi4 #dge ,d4 ,but ,couve1 in his valuable article in ,daremberg and ,saglio's ,dictionnaire 7s4v4 ,kelebe71 is equally confident that the passage implies a kind of krater4 ,footnote #egh3 ,the ,antaios krater in the ,louvre1 ,g #ajc4 ,footnote #egi3 ,see ,berlins ,ant4 ,bildw4 p4 #ceh1 ,no4 #ah4 ,footnote #ehj3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iv4 p4 #f4 ,footnote #eha3 ,cf4 ,f #cg1 #bfi-gc in ,b4,m4 ,footnote #ehb3 ,see ,chap4 ,,xviii2 ,patroni1 ,ceramica ,antica1 p4 #be2 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bja ff4 ,footnote #ehc3 ,e4g4 ,fig4 #ajh1 p4 #dhb4 ,footnote #ehd3 ,cf4 ,plat4 ,symp4 #bad ,a1 where it is described as holding more than eight kotylae4 ,footnote #ehe3 ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 pl4 #f1 p4 #ada2 cf4 ,arch4 ,anzeiger1 #ahhi1 p4 #ia2 ,daremberg and ,saglio1 i4 p4 #hba1 fig4 #ajbf4 ,footnote #ehf3 ,a vase of the same type1 but probably used as a 8puzzle-jug10 is published in the ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 xix4 pls4 #ai1 #bj4 ,footnote #ehg3 ,e #gfg1 #gfh1 the latter signed by ,duris2 see also ,j4,h4,s4 l4c4 ,another good example is the ,euphronios psykter in ,petersburg 7p4 #dca74 ,footnote #ehh3 ,cf4 ,athen4 xi4 #ejc ,c and #dfg ,d4 ,in #dfg ,f he identifies the with the 2 this use would be parallel to the ,homeric use of the for washing 7see below74 ,footnote #ehi3 ,cf4 ,schol4 in ,ar4 ,nub4 #bhj1 #adgb ff4 ,footnote #eij3 ,cf4 the use of the word for a cinerary urn by ,aeschylus and ,sophokles 7,ag4 #ddd2 ,cho4 #fhf2 ,el4 #adja74 ,footnote #eia3 xi4 #dgj ,d4 ,an example in the ,b4,m4 is ,f #cjf4 ,footnote #eib3 ,e4g4 ,il4 xxi4 #cfb2 ,od4 xix4 #chf4 ,footnote #eic3 iv4 #fa4 ,footnote #eid3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #bba1 ,b #cbh4 ,footnote #eie3 ,paus4 v4 #aj1 #d4 ,footnote #eif3 ,thuc4 iv4 #ajj4 ,footnote #eig3 ,hence the word 4 ,cf4 the episode in ,ar4 ,thesm4 #eje ff4 ,footnote #eih3 ix4 #aac-ad4 ,footnote #eii3 ,cf4 ,ar4 ,ach4 #ajgf4 ,footnote #fjj3 ,op4 et ,di4 #gdh4 ,footnote #fja3 ,ran4 #eje4 ,footnote #fjb3 vi4 #hi and x4 #ff4 ,footnote #fjc3 x4 #ff4 ,footnote #fjd3 ,eur4 ,fr4 #cgc2 ,pherekr4 4 #d 7apud ,athen4 xi4 #dhj ,b74 ,footnote #fje3 ,b4,m4 ,vases1 iv4 ,g #aid4 ,footnote #fjf3 ,roberts1 ,gk4 ,epigraphy1 i4 p4 #gh4 ,footnote #fjg3 v4 #aie ,c1 #aii ,e3 see also ,pollux1 vi4 #ajj2 ,plut4 ,alex4 #bj4 ,footnote #fjh3 ,ussing1 p4 #aaf2 ,poll4 x4 #gg4 ,footnote #fji3 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat4 of ,sculpture1 i4 p4 #aff1 ,no4 #cbeaa4 ,footnote #faj3 ,hdt4 i4 #bjj4 ,footnote #faa3 ,athen4 xi4 #did ,a 774 ,see also ,liddell and ,scott1 s4v4 ,footnote #fab3 ,see ,liddell and ,scott1 s4v4 ,footnote #fac3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,nos4 #ehg1 #ehh1 etc42 also ,olympia1 iv4 pl4 #cd4 ,footnote #fad3 ,cat4 #agbg4 ,footnote #fae3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,footnote #faf3 ,cf4 ,hom4 ,od4 iii4 #dfh1 iv4 #abh1 x4 #cfa2 ,il4 x4 #egf2 also ,j4,h4,s4 ,suppl4 iv4 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #fag3 ,e4g4 ,f #ccb in ,b4,m4 7,plate ,,xlv474 ,an early specimen is given by ,wolters in ,jahrbuch1 #ahih1 p4 #bf2 #ahii1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #fah3 ,see ,pollux1 x4 #gf-gh2 ,ar4 ,av4 #hdj1 #aadc1 ,vesp4 #fjj2 ,schol4 in ,pac4 #abdd2 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 ii4 #cjga2 and generally1 ,ussing1 p4 #aah4 ,the name has been conventionally given to a kind of jar2 see above1 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #fai3 ,budge1 ,life and ,exploits of ,alexander1 p4 #d ff4 ,footnote #fbj3 ,see p4 #acg1 and ,b4,m4 ,e #ecc ff41 #edh ff4 ,footnote #fba3 ,cf4 the modern superstition against crossing a knife and fork on a plate4 ,footnote #fbb3 vi4 #df4 ,footnote #fbc3 xi4 #dgi ,f2 cf4 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 i4 #aej1 line #cj ,b4,m4 ,inscrs4 #bi4 ,footnote #fbd3 ,od4 i4 #acf2 xviii4 #cih4 ,footnote #fbe3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,a #aecb1 ,b #cc1 ,b #eb4 ,footnote #fbf3 ,athen4 x4 #dbe ,d 7in form 72 xi4 #die ,b4 ,footnote #fbg3 ,german ,schnabelkanne4 ,this type of mouth is often seen in the primitive pottery of ,cyprus4 ,footnote #fbh3 vi4 #ajc2 x4 #ib4 ,footnote #fbi3 ii4 #afh4 ,footnote #fcj3 ,athen4 x4 #dbd ,b2 xi4 #ghc ,f4 ,footnote #fca3 ,ar4 ,eq4 #ajia2 ,pollux1 x4 #fc2 ,theophr4 ,char4 #i4 ,footnote #fcb3 ,hesych4 s4v42 ,pollux1 vi4 #ai2 ,athen4 x4 #dbd ,c2 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 ii4 #baci2 ,schol4 in ,ar4 ,vesp4 #hee4 ,footnote #fcc3 ,ach4 #bde and ,schol4 ,footnote #fcd3 ,ach4 #ajfg and ,schol42 ,athen4 iv4 #afi ,b2 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 i4 #afa1 #c4 ,footnote #fce3 ,see also ,pollux1 x4 #ff4 ,footnote #fcf3 ,it should be noted that the cups he describes are always of metal4 ,footnote #fcg3 ,od4 ix4 #cdf1 xiv4 #gh2 cf4 the description in ,theocr4 i4 #bf ff41 and see below1 p4 #ahe2 also ,ussing1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #fch3 xi4 #dhh ff42 cf4 ,il4 xi4 #fcb4 ,it is described by ,homer as 8studded with golden nails2 and four handles there were2 and about each rested two golden doves2 and beneath there were two bottoms40 ,footnote #fci3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiii42 and below1 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #fdj3 ,poll4 vi4 #if2 ,athen4 xi4 #dgh ,b1 ,f4 ,footnote #fda3 ,il4 v4 #cjf4 ,footnote #fdb3 ,athen4 xi4 #dgh ,e4 ,footnote #fdc3 ,il4 xxii4 #did4 ,see for other instances of its use1 ,od4 xv4 #cab1 xvii4 #ab 7 1 8bite and sup072 ,schol4 ad ,ar4 ,plut4 #ajed2 and ,athen4 xi4 #dgh-gi4 ,footnote #fdd3 ,apud ,athen4 #dhb ,b4 ,footnote #fde3 ,od4 xiv4 #aab4 ,see ,athenaeus1 xi4 #dih for quotations2 also ,eur4 ,cycl4 #bef1 #cij1 #eef1 and ,liddell and ,scott1 s4v4 ,footnote #fdf3 ,athen4 xi4 #ejj ,a2 ,macrob4 v4 #ba1 #af4 ,footnote #fdg3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,bronzes1 #abdd1 #abgb1 #acji-ad2 ,stephani1 ,ausruhende ,herakles1 pp4 #aea ff41 #aie ff4 ,footnote #fdh3 7#ejj ,a74 ,footnote #fdi3 ,the sculptor ,mys made a with the sack of ,troy chased upon it 7,athen4 xi4 #ghb ,b74 ,footnote #fej3 ,in ,c4,i4,g4 ii4 #bheb silver chased with figures of animals are recorded among the offerings in the temple of ,apollo at ,branchidae4 ,footnote #fea3 xi4 #die ,a4 ,footnote #feb3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,e #aeb1 and see ,cat4 iii4 p4 #ad4 ,the owl and olive-branch seem to have been official marks2 they appear on coins and dicasts' tickets4 ,footnote #fec3 xi4 #ghc ,d2 #die ,c2 cf4 ,theocr4 i4 #be4 ,footnote #fed3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,b #gg1 #gh2 ,j4,h4,s4 xiii4 p4 #gh4 ,footnote #fee3 xi4 #ghd ,d4 ,footnote #fef3 ,see id4 xi4 #dgg ,e4 ,footnote #feg3 ,the word also occurs in ,horace 7,od4 ii4 #g1 #bb7 for a large wine-cup4 ,footnote #feh3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #cgj1 #cga1 #fha4 ,footnote #fei3 ,robert1 ,homerische ,becker1 p4 #c4 ,footnote #ffj3 xi4 #dha ,d4 ,footnote #ffa3 xi4 #ghb ,f1 #ejj ,f4 ,footnote #ffb3 ,cf4 ,macrob4 v4 #ba3 pocula procera ac navibus similia4 ,in illustration of the resemblance of a bowl to a ship we may cite the story of the wise men of ,gotham1 also the golden bowl of the ,sun 7p4 #aha71 and the form of the ,welsh coracle4 ,footnote #ffc3 ,f #eif4 ,footnote #ffd3 ,athen4 xi4 #dhc ,b4 ,footnote #ffe3 ,cf4 ,ar4 ,eq4 #fjj1 and see the account of this cup given by ,plutarch1 ,lycurg4 #i4 ,the word for the inner rim or lip is 7,pollux1 vi4 #ig2 ,critias apud ,athen4 xi4 #dhc ,b2 see ibid4 viii4 p4 #cdg ,b74 ,the shape formerly regarded as a on account of its recurved lip has been thought by ,pernice to have been used for incense 7,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 p4 #fj72 but see above1 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #fff3 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 i4 #afa4 ,footnote #ffg3 ,pac4 #ajid4 ,footnote #ffh3 ,athen4 xi4 #dhc ,f4 ,footnote #ffi3 ,ibid4 #dgc ,d4 ,footnote #fgj3 ,macrob4 v4 #ba4 ,footnote #fga3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 p4 #bhh4 ,for typical examples see ,athens #fab and ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahig1 p4 #dej 7,boeotian72 also ,berlin #agcg1 #baaf-bj1 #bhgf1 #bhgg1 #djai2 ,anzeiger1 #ahia1 p4 #aaf4 ,footnote #fgb3 xi4 #dgd ,e2 cf4 v4 #aih ,b1 ,c4 ,footnote #fgc3 ,e4g4 ,visconti1 ,mus4 ,pio-,clem4 iv4 pl4 #ce2 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,b #dij4 ,footnote #fgd3 ,georg4 iv4 #chj4 ,footnote #fge3 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 i4 #adj1 #ada1 #aej ,b4,m4 ,inscrs4 #bg-bi4 ,footnote #fgf3 ,so called from being turned 77 on the wheel 7,athen4 xi4 #dhj ,b74 ,the word constantly occurs in literature3 ,phokyl4 #aa2 ,sappho1 #e2 ,hdt4 iv4 #gj1 etc4 ,footnote #fgg3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,e #di1 #ej4 ,cf4 ,hermippus apud ,athen4 xi4 #dhj ,e1 and the ,ficoroni cista 7,roscher1 i4 p4 #ebg74 ,footnote #fgh3 xi4 #dhj ,c 7quoting ,pindar74 ,footnote #fgi3 ,see p4 #bae4 ,footnote #fhj3 ,athen4 xi4 #dhj ,e4 ,footnote #fha3 ,this was also done in the case of some late ,italian fabrics2 see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iv4 p4 #be and below1 p4 #eja4 ,footnote #fhb3 xi4 #dgj ,e1 #dga ,d2 cf4 v4 #aii ,b4 ,footnote #fhc3 xi4 #dfi ,b4 ,in #dfd ,c he speaks of 1 which lessened the tendency to inebriety1 and in #dif ,f he describes a cup called 4 ,footnote #fhd3 ,pollux1 vi4 #ie-ih2 x4 #ff4 ,footnote #fhe3 ,ar4 ,lys4 #bjc4 ,footnote #fhf3 ,b #cgi-hb4 ,footnote #fhg3 ,a recent writer 7,bhlau1 in ,athen4 ,mitth4 for #aijj1 p4 #dj ff47 attributes this shape to an ,ionic origin4 ,footnote #fhh3 ,see generally ,athen4 xi4 #eja ff4 ,isidorus 7,etym4 xx4 #e7 says3 8,phyalae dictae quod ex vitro fiant0 7sc4 74 ,footnote #fhi3 ,the words 1 1 and also seem to be descriptive of this type4 ,phialae 77 dedicated to ,agathe ,tyche1 ,themis1 ,leto1 and ,hekate1 were among the possessions of the temple of ,apollo at ,branchidae 7,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 ii4 #bheb74 ,footnote #fij3 ,g #aag1 #aah3 see ,plate ,,xlviii4 ,footnote #fia3 ,il4 xxiii4 #bgj1 where it is described as 1 implying that it was used over a fire4 ,footnote #fib3 ,ibid4 l4 #bdc4 ,footnote #fic3 ,rhet4 iii4 #d3 cf4 ,athen4 x4 #dcc ,c4 ,footnote #fid3 ,see ,athen4 xi4 s4vv42 also ,pollux1 vi4 #ih4 ,footnote #fie3 ,schol4 in ,ar4 ,pac4 #iaf4 ,footnote #fif3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,e #ghd-hjc4 ,footnote #fig3 ,see for a discussion of this word1 ,athen4 xi4 #dgf ,a4 ,footnote #fih3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #db1 #df1 #aha1 #bjd1 etc4 ,footnote #fii3 xi4 #dfa ,b1 #dig ,b4 ,footnote #gjj3 1 ,athen4 xi4 #dig ,e4 ,footnote #gja3 ,exx4 in ,b4,m4 ,f #dag-cf4 ,footnote #gjb3 xi4 #ejj ,e4 ,in the temple of ,apollo at ,branchidae there were 1 1 1 with dedicatory inscriptions to ,apollo and ,artemis2 evidently rhyta of this kind 7,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 ii4 #bheb74 ,an example in the ,b4,m4 7,f #dca7 ends in the heads of a boar and dog conjoined4 ,footnote #gjc3 xi4 #dfh ,f2 cf4 #dig ,a4 ,footnote #gjd3 xi4 #dif ,e2 other names for the rhyton are 7,pollux1 vi4 #ig71 1 1 and 3 see note #gjb4 ,footnote #gje3 ,in ,meid4 #efe fin4 ,footnote #gjf3 ,see p4 #abg and ,plate ,x4 ,footnote #gjg3 ,pollux1 vi4 #hd-e2 x4 #hf2 ,ar4 passim2 ,lucian1 ,somn4 #ad1 p4 #gbc 772 see ,ussing1 ,de nom4 vas4 graec4 p4 #afj ff4 ,footnote #gjh3 ,schne in ,comm4 phil4 in hon4 ,mommseni1 p4 #fec1 mentions a plate with inscribed underneath4 ,cf4 also ,plate ,,xliv4 and p4 #dhg4 ,footnote #gji3 ,see p4 #aci4 ,footnote #gaj3 ,pollux1 vi4 #he2 x4 #hf2 ,ar4 ,ran4 #addj1 ,plut4 #hab1 ,av4 #cfa2 ,athen4 ii4 #fg ,d1 xi4 #did ,c4 ,cf4 for these words ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #gaa3 x4 #ib4 ,liddell and ,scott state that is a vox nihili4 ,footnote #gab3 ,pollux1 x4 #ic4 ,footnote #gac3 xi4 #dgf ,e4 ,footnote #gad3 ,see ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 iii4 7#ahif-ig7 p4 #eh2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahih1 p4 #bga2 ,couve in ,daremberg and ,saglio's ,dict4 s4v4 ,kernos4 ,athenaeus cannot have known this type4 ,footnote #gae3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahih1 pls4 #ac1 #ad2 ,ephem4 ,arch4 #ahhe1 pl4 #i1 #ahig1 p4 #afc ff4 ,footnote #gaf3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 loc4 cit4 p4 #bie4 ,footnote #gag3 ,see ,jahrbuch1 #ahid1 p4 #eg ff4 ,footnote #gah3 ,cf4 ,dem4 ,fals4 ,leg4 p4 #dae1 and p4 #acc above4 ,footnote #gai3 ,athen4 xi4 #ghd ,b4 ,footnote #gbj3 ,see ,pollux1 vii4 #aff2 x4 #fc4 ,footnote #gba3 xi4 #ghc ,f2 he derives the - from 7sic74 ,he also says it is like the 1 and that 4 ,footnote #gbb3 ,see ,athen4 xi4 #ghd ,d2 ,pollux1 vi4 #ih2 ,hippokrates1 #did1 #ee4 ,footnote #gbc3 ,he somewhat vaguely identifies it with the ,thericleian and ,rhodian kylikes4 ,pollux 7vi4 #ih7 also implies it to be a cup4 ,footnote #gbd3 ,see ,ussing1 p4 #aag2 ,pollux1 vi4 #ajf1 x4 #aba2 ,ar4 ,ach4 #ajfc4 ,footnote #gbe3 ,hesych4 s4v4 4 ,also called 4 ,footnote #gbf3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 #bjh1 #bbe1 #cgf1 #chf1 #gid1 #haj1 ,d #fe4 ,but see on this shape ,pernice in ,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 p4 #fh1 and ,robinson in ,boston ,mus4 ,report1 #ahii1 p4 #gc4 ,the latter rejects ,pernice's incense-burner theory 7see above1 p4 #adj71 and suggests their use for perfume or scented water4 ,footnote #gbg3 ,the ,b4,m4 has a late ,b4,f4 example1 ,b #bih4 ,footnote #gbh3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #gbi3 ,e #ggd2 ,e #haj in the ,b4,m4 is a good example of this form4 ,footnote #gcj3 ,it was formerly thought to be a kind of roof-tile4 ,see ,robert in 4 4 #ahib1 p4 #bdg2 ,b4,m4 ,b #eig1 #eih2 ,athens #aehh-ib4 ,footnote #gca3 ,see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iii4 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #gcb3 ,see op4 cit4 iv4 p4 #h1 fig4 #ah4 ,footnote #gcc3 ,in the examples from ,greek sites1 such as the ,cyrenaica1 the handle is arched over the back1 as in ,fig4 #fb4 ,footnote #gcd3 ,for the ,mycenaean 8false amphora10 a variation of the askos1 see p4 #bga and ,plate ,,xv4 ,footnote #gce3 ,see ,chapter ,,xi4 for a general discussion of the subject1 and ,chapter ,v4 for its technical aspect4 ,footnote #gcf3 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,d #bjd ff4 ,footnote #gcg3 ,see p4 #hh2 also ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,d #a-b2 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bfb4 ,footnote #gch3 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,d #bji-aj4 ,,chapter ,v ,,technical ,,processes ,nature of clay--,places whence obtained--,hand-made vases--,invention of potter's wheel--,methods of modelling--,moulded vases and relief-decoration--,baking--,potteries and furnaces--,painted vases and their classification--,black varnish--,methods of painting--,instruments and colours employed--,status of potters in antiquity4 ,in this chapter we propose to deal with the various technical processes required for the manufacture of painted vases1 that being of all the methods of working in clay employed by the ,greeks the most important1 and thus1 as already implied1 forming the main branch of our subject4 ,these vases show1 in fact1 the highest point of perfection to which the ceramic art attained4 ,in the making of ,greek vases we can distinguish four separate stages3 7#a7 ,preparation of the clay2 7#b7 ,modelling 7a7 on the wheel1 7b7 by hand1 or 7c7 from a mould2 7#c7 ,baking2 7#d7 ,painting1 glazing1 and other decoration4 ,the last-named is not absolutely essential1 i4e4 a vase1 especially one for ordinary daily use1 may be considered complete without it4 ,further1 the three first stages are practically the same at all periods of ,greek art1 whereas the systems of painting and decoration are subject to local variations and chronological development4 ,for the purposes of the present chapter it is sufficient to consider only those vases which have undergone the complete process of manufacture1 or what are known for the purposes of study as 8,painted ,greek ,vases40 #a4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,clay ,the paste of these vases is similar to terracotta in its general characteristics1 such as the constitution of the mixture of which it is composed2 it is in general very delicate1 but deeper in tone and finer in texture than that of the terracottas4 ,brongniart has described it as 8tender1 easily scratched or cut with a knife1 remarkably fine and homogeneous1 but of loose texture0#gci2 but it would be more accurate to say that it varies in one respect1 being sometimes so hard that cutting or scratching has no effect upon it4 ,when broken it exhibits a dull opaque colour1 varying from red to yellow and yellow to grey4 ,on being struck it gives forth a dull metallic sound2 it is exceedingly porous1 and easily allows water to ooze through4 ,the surface was protected by a fine1 thin alkaline glaze1 which is semi-transparent1 enhancing the colours with which the vase was painted1 like the varnish of a picture4 ,it is this glaze which forms the special distinction of the ,greek painted vases and renders them1 in contradistinction to common pottery or earthenware1 the counterpart of the medieval faences or majolicas1 or the finer porcelain of the present day4 ,as to the chemical composition of the paste1 it would seem that hitherto investigations have been confined to vases of ,italian origin1 but probably those found on ,greek soil would yield similar results4 ,the principal ingredients are clay1 silicic acid1 and iron oxide1 with slight admixtures of carbonate of lime and magnesia4 ,the principal results of previous investigations have been tabulated by ,blmner1#gdj and yield the following average result 7chiefly from analyses of vases from ,southern ,italy73-- ,silicic acid #eb to #fj parts4 ,clay earth #ac to #ai parts4 ,chalk #e to #aj parts4 ,magnesia #a to #c parts4 ,iron oxide #ab to #ai parts4 ,the largest proportion of clay found in any one vase was #bg parts2 there was also one instance given of #bd parts of iron oxide4 ,the variations in tone of the clay of ,greek vases are very marked4 ,the usual colour is an ochre varying from yellowish-white to brownish-red1 the mean being a sort of orange4 ,these variations were apparently regulated by the amount of iron oxide employed4 ,it has been noted by ,jahn#gda that vases were sometimes moulded 8double10 i4e4 turned on the wheel in two different thicknesses of clay1 the finer and ruddier forming the exterior surface for decoration4 ,the earliest and most primitive ,greek vases 7including those of the ,mycenaean period7 in most cases exhibit the natural quality of the clay1 ranging from yellow to grey in colour2 it is usually coarse and insufficiently baked1 and protected by no lustrous glaze4 ,in the early archaic vases1 such as those of ,melos1 ,athens1 and ,rhodes1 we observe a pale yellow tone1 which is apparently not a glaze1 but inherent in the clay4#gdb ,thenceforward the clay becomes appreciably redder and warmer in tone until the lustrous glaze reaches its perfection in the ,attic vases of the fifth century4 ,in the later ,italian fabrics again there is a great degeneration1 the clay rapidly reverting to a paler hue1 especially in the vases of ,campania2 while in the ,etruscan imitations of the third century it is a dull coarse yellow1 apparently due to a preponderance of lime4 ,generally speaking1 it may be said that the colour depends on the proportion in which the constituent parts are mixed1 a larger proportion of iron oxide producing a redder1 a larger proportion of lime a paler hue4 ,the clay is permeable1 allowing water to exude when not glazed1 and when moistened emits a strong earthy smell4 ,it is not known how this paste was prepared1 for the ,greeks have left few or no details of their processes1 but it has been conjectured that the clay was fined by pouring it into a series of vats1 and constantly decanting the water1 so that the last vat held only the finest particles in suspension4 ,the clay was worked up to the right consistency with the hands1 and is supposed to have been ground in a mill or trodden out with the feet4 ,either red or white clay1 or a mixture of the two1 was preferred by the ancients1 according to the nature of the pottery required to be made1 as we learn from an interesting passage in the ,geoponica3--8,all kinds of earth are not suited for pottery1 but some prefer the reddish variety1 others the white2 others again blend the two 444 but the potter ought personally to assist in the operations and see that the clay is well levigated and not placed on the wheel until he has obtained a clear idea of the probable appearance of the jar after the baking0 7vi4 #c74 ,certain sites enjoyed in antiquity great reputation for their clays4 ,one of the most celebrated was that procured from a mine near the promontory of ,cape ,kolias1#gdc close to ,phaleron1 from which was produced the paste which gave so much renown to the products of the ,athenian ,kerameikos4 ,the vases made of it became so fashionable1 that ,plutarch#gdd relates an anecdote of a person who1 having swallowed poison1 refused to drink the antidote except out of a vessel made of this clay4 ,it seems to have been of a fine quality1 but not remarkably warm in tone when submitted to the furnace2 ruddle1 or red ochre 7rubrica71 being employed to impart to it that rich deep orange glow which distinguishes the finest vases of the best period4#gde ,corinth1#gdf ,knidos1 ,samos1 and various other places famous for their potteries1 were provided with fine clays4 ,at ,koptos1 in ,egypt1 and in ,rhodes1 vases were manufactured of an aromatic earth4#gdg ,the extreme lightness of the paste of these vases was remarked by the ancients1 and its tenuity is mentioned by ,plutarch4#gdh ,that it was an object of ambition to excel in this respect1 appears from the two amphorae mentioned by ,pliny as preserved in the temple of ,erythrae1#gdi of extreme lightness and thinness1 made by a potter and his pupil when contending which could produce the lightest vase4 ,the thinnest vases which have come down to us are scarcely thicker than pieces of stout paper4 ,great difference is to be observed in the pastes of vases from widely-separated localities1 due either to the composition or to the baking1 as has been noted in the case of the terracottas 7p4 #aac74 #b4 ,,manufacture ,,of ,,vases ,the earliest glazed vases were made with the hand1 but the wheel was an invention of very remote antiquity1 as has been noted in our ,introductory ,chapter4 ,it is generally supposed that its origin is to be attributed to ,egypt4 ,its introduction into ,greece may easily be traced by a study of primitive pottery from any site such as ,crete1 ,cyprus1 or ,troy1 where the distinction between hand-made and wheel-made vessels is clear4 ,thus in the tombs of ,cyprus which belong to the ,bronze ,age1 the earlier finds1 dating from about #bejj-aejj ,b4,c41 are exclusively of hand-made pottery4#gej ,the latter part of the ,bronze ,age may be regarded as a transitional period1 in which the tombs contain hand-made unglazed painted vases1 together with pottery of a much more developed character1 with a lustrous yellow glaze1 bearing unmistakable evidence of having been turned on a wheel4 ,this pottery appears to be largely imported1 as opposed to the local wares1 which are still hand-made1 and its widespread distribution over the whole of the 8,aegean0 area marks an important epoch in the history of early ceramics 7see ,chapter ,,vi474 ,it covers the period from #aejj to about #ijj ,b4,c41 and it is to this time that we may attribute the general use of the potter's wheel in ,greece1 although it was known even earlier1 as some isolated specimens prove4 ,among the ,greeks there were many contending claims for the honour of having invented the potter's wheel4 ,tradition attributed it to various personages1 such as ,daedalos1#gea or his nephew and rival ,talos#geb2 ,hyperbios of ,corinth#gec2 ,koroibos of ,athens2 and ,anacharsis the ,scythian4#ged ,kritias1 the comic poet1 claimed the invention for ,athens--8that city which 444 invented pottery1 the famous offspring of the wheel1 of earth1 and of fire40#gee ,there is also a familiar allusion to it in ,homer1#gef which is a fair testimony to its antiquity3-- 8,full lightly1 as when some potter sitteth and maketh assay ,of the wheel to his hands well-fitted1 to know if it runneth true40 ,as regards the traditions1 even ,strabo#geg realised their absurdity1 when he asked1 8,how could the wheel be the invention of ,anacharsis1 when his predecessor ,homer knew of it80 ,on the other hand1 ,poseidonios adheres to the tradition1 maintaining that the passage in ,homer is an interpolation4#geh ,other allusions to the wheel are in the writings of ,plato#gei and the comic poet ,antiphanes4#gfj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,,potter',s ,,wheel 7,,from ,a ,,painting ,,of ,,about #fjj ,b4,c474 ,among the ,egyptians and ,greeks the wheel took the form of a low circular table1 turned with the hand1 not as nowadays with the foot4#gfa ,the assumption that the wheel was turned with the foot is only supported by one passage in the ,book of ,ecclesiasticus#gfb2 the evidence of ,plutarch#gfc and ,hippokrates#gfd tells decidedly against it4 ,in #ahdj some discs of terracotta1 strengthened with spokes and a leaden tire1 came to light on the site of the ancient potteries at ,arezzo1 and these had evidently been used as potter's wheels4#gfe ,the process is also represented on two or three vases1 as on a ,corinthian painted tablet of about #fjj ,b4,c4 7,fig4 #fe71gff on a kylix in the ,british ,museum 7,b #dcc71 on a ,b4,f4 hydria in ,munich 7,fig4 #fg b1 below71 and on a ,r4,f4 fragment from the ,acropolis of ,athens 7,fig4 #ff71gfg which shows a man modelling the foot of a large krater1 while a boy or slave turns the wheel1 as on the ,munich vase4 ,on the ,british ,museum cup the potter is seated on a low stool1 apparently modelling a vase which he has just turned into shape on the wheel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,,potter',s ,,wheel 7,,from ,a ,,vase ,,of ,,about #ejj ,b4,c474 ,in making the vases the wheel was used in the following manner3--,a piece of paste of the required size was placed upon it vertically in the centre1 and while it revolved was formed with the finger and thumb1 the potter paying regard not only to the production of the right shape1 but to the necessary thickness of the walls4 ,this process sufficed for the smaller pieces1 such as cups or jugs2 the larger amphorae and hydriae required the introduction of the arm4 ,the feet1 necks1 mouths1 and handles were separately turned on moulds1 and fixed on while the clay was moist4 ,they are often modelled with great beauty and precision1 especially the feet1 which are admirably finished off1 to effect which the vase must have been inverted4 ,the modelling and separate attachment of the handle is represented in more than one ancient work of art 7see ,fig4 #ff74 ,in many cases the joining of the handles is so excellent that it is easier to break than to detach them4 ,great technical skill was displayed in turning certain peculiar forms of vases1 and generally speaking the ,greeks with their simple wheel effected wonders1 producing shapes still unrivalled for beauty4 ,in the case of the earlier vases1 which are made by hand1 after the clay was properly kneaded the potter took up a mass of the paste1 and hollowing it into the shape of walls with one hand1 placed the other inside it and pressed it out into the required form4 ,in this way also the thickness of the walls could be regulated4 ,when raised or incised ornaments were required1 he used modeller's tools1 such as wooden or bronze chisels4 ,the largest and coarsest vases of the ,greeks were made with the hand1 and the large 1 or casks1 such as have been recently found in such numbers in ,crete and ,thera 7p4 #aeb71 were modelled by the aid of a kind of hooped mould 773 see ibid474 ,the smaller and finer vases1 however1 were invariably turned on the wheel4 ,on a ,graeco-,roman lamp from ,pozzuoli1 in the ,british ,museum1#gfh a potter is seen standing and modelling a vase before his furnace1 in the manner no doubt employed at all periods4 ,certain parts of the ancient painted vases were modelled by the potter from the earliest times--e4g4 on those of the ,geometrical period horses are occasionally found on the covers of the flat dishes moulded in full relief1 and in other examples the handle is enriched with the moulded figure of a serpent twining round it4 ,this kind of ornament is more suitable to works in metal than in clay1 and suggests the idea that such vases were1 in fact1 imitations of metallic ones4 ,on vases of all periods moulded bosses and heads1 like the reliefs on metal vases1 are sometimes found2 even in black-figured vases the insertions of the handles of hydriae and oinochoae are occasionally thus enriched4 ,in the later styles modelling was more profusely employed2 small projecting heads were affixed to the handles of jugs#gfi at their tops and bases1 and on the large kraters found in ,apulia the discs in which the handles terminated 7see above1 p4 #aga7 were ornamented with heads of the ,gorgon ,medusa1 or with such subjects as ,satyrs and ,maenads4 ,these portions were sometimes covered with the black varnish used for the body of the vase1 but frequently they were painted with white and red colours of the opaque kind4 ,a peculiar kind of modelling was used for the gilded portions of reliefs1 introduced over the black varnish4 ,when the vase was baked a fine clay was applied to the parts intended for gilding and delicately modelled1 either with a small tool or a brush1 a process similar to that adopted in the ,roman red ware 7en barbotine1 see ,chapter ,,xxi474 ,it may indeed have been squeezed in a fluid state through a tube upon the vase1 and then modelled4 ,as the gilded-portions are generally small1 this process was not difficult or important4 ,a vase discovered at ,cumae#ggj has two friezes executed in this style1 the upper round the neck1 representing the ,eleusinian deities1 delicately modelled1 coloured1 and with the flesh completely gilded2 the lower one consists of a band of animals and arabesque ornaments4 ,several vases from the same locality1 from ,capua and from the ,cyrenaica1 have wreaths of corn1 ivy1 or myrtle1 and necklaces round the neck1 modelled in the same style1 while the rest is plain4 ,but the art of modelling was soon extensively superseded by that of moulding1 or producing several impressions from a mould1 generally itself of terracotta4 ,the subject was in the first place modelled in relief with considerable care2 and from this model a cast in clay was taken and then baked4 ,the potter availed himself of moulds for various purposes4 ,from them he produced entire parts of his vase in full relief1 such as the handles1 and possibly in some instances the feet4 ,he also stamped out certain ornaments in relief1 much in the same manner as the ornaments of cakes are prepared1 and fixed them while moist to the still damp body of the vase4 ,such ornaments were principally placed upon the lips or at the base of the handles1 and in the interior of the kylikes or cups of a late style4 ,a late bowl of black glazed ware in the ,british ,museum 7see ,plate ,,xlviii47 contains an impression from one of the later ,syracusan decadrachms having for its subject the head of ,persephone surrounded by dolphins3 it was struck about #cgj ,b4,c4 by ,euainetos4#gga ,the last method to be described is that of producing the entire vase from a mould by stamping it out1 a process extensively adopted in ,roman pottery4 ,during the best period of the fictile art1 while painting flourished1 such vases were very rare2 but on the introduction of a taste for magnificent vases of chased metal1 the potters endeavoured to meet the public taste by imitating the reliefs of metal ware4 ,the most remarkable of these moulded vases are the rhyta or drinking-horns1 the bodies of which terminate in the heads of animals1 produced from a mould 7see above1 p4 #aib74 ,by the same process were also made vases in the form of jugs or lekythi1 the bodies of which are moulded in the shape of human heads1 and sometimes glazed1 while the necks were fashioned on the lathe1 and the handles added4 ,these were coloured and ornamented on the same principle as the rhyta1 the vase-portion being generally covered with a black glaze1 but sometimes with a white slip1 after the manner of the terracottas4 ,besides the rhyta1 phialae1 or saucers1 were also moulded2 fine examples of which process may be seen on the flat bossed saucers1 or phialae mesomphaloi1 discussed in ,chapter ,,xi41 p4 #ejb4 ,amphorae and other vases of late black ware1 the bodies of which are reeded1 were also evidently produced from moulds1 and could not be made by the expensive process of modelling4 ,of smaller dimensions1 but also made by moulding1 were the vases known as gutti1 or 8lamp-feeders0 7see above1 p4 #bjj74 ,they have reeded bodies1 long-necked mouths1 and circular handles2 and on their upper surface a small circular medallion in bas-relief1 with a mythological subject4 ,such vases are principally found in ,southern ,italy and in ,sicily1 and belong to the second century ,b4,c4 7,chapter ,,xi41 p4 #ejb74 ,after being moulded they were entirely covered with a black glaze4 ,other vases again are entirely moulded in human or animal forms1 with a small mouth or spout4 ,these are found at all periods1 but chiefly in the archaic ,rhodian and ,corinthian fabrics1 and again reviving in the later stages of vase-fabrics in ,southern ,italy4 ,examples may be seen in the ,first ,vase ,room 7,cases #cc-cd and ,f7 and ,fourth ,vase ,room 7,case ,b7 of the ,british ,museum3 see also ,plate ,,xlvi4 ,others again retain the form of the jug or lekythos1 with a figure or relief attached to the front of the body and coloured or covered with a white slip1 while the back is varnished black4 ,the whole subject is treated in fuller detail in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,many vases of the fourth century and later are entirely covered with a coating of black glaze1 while rows of small stamped ornaments1 apparently made with a metal punch1 have been impressed on the wet clay before the glaze was applied4 ,these decorations are unimportant in their subjects1 which are generally small ,gorgons' heads1 tendrils1 or palmettes1 and hatched bands1 arranged round the axis of the vase4 ,this latter ornament was probably produced by rolling the edge of a disc notched for the purpose round the vase1 in the same manner as a bookbinder uses his brass punch4 ,when these vases came into use the potter's trade had ceased to be artistic1 and was essentially mechanical4 ,they are found on almost all sites from ,cyprus to ,italy4#ggb 99 99 99 99 99 ,after the vases had been made on the wheel they were duly dried in the sun#ggc and lightly baked1 after which they were ready for varnishing and painting2 it is evident that they could not be painted while wet and soft4 ,moreover the glaze ran best on a surface already baked4 ,it is also probable that the glaze was brought out by a process of polishing1 the surface of the clay being smoothed by means of a small piece of wood or hard leather4 ,at all events this seems the most satisfactory interpretation of a vase-painting in ,berlin 7,fig4 #fg;a71#ggd where a boy is seen applying a tool of some kind to the outer surface of a completed vase 7kotyle72 that the vase is not yet varnished is shown by its being left in a red colour1 while two others1 varnished black all over1 stand on the steps of an oven close by1 probably to dry after the application of the varnish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 7a7 ,,cup ,,in ,,berlin ,,with ,,boy ,,polishing ,,vase2 7b7 ,,hydria ,,in ,,munich3 ,,interior ,,of ,,pottery4 ,many vases1 whether decorated with designs or not1 are varnished black throughout the exterior1 except the feet and lips1 and we cannot be certain whether or not any glaze had been previously applied to the surface2 but in respect of the red-figured vases1 it is clear from the method employed 7see p4 #bba7 that they were originally glazed throughout4 ,this lustrous glaze is1 like the black varnish1 now quite a lost art4 ,seen under a microscope it has evidently been fused by baking2 it yields neither to acids nor the blow-pipe4 ,it is remarkably fine and thin1 insomuch that it can only be analysed with great difficulty4 ,no lead entered into its composition4 ,it is however far inferior to modern glazes1 being permeable by water2 but it is not decomposed by the same chemical agents4 ,on the later ,r4,f4 vases it is of decidedly inferior quality1 and often scales away1 carrying the superimposed colours with it4#gge #c4 ,,the ,,baking ,,of ,,vases ,the process of baking 71 coquere7 was regarded as one of the most critical in the potter's art4 ,it was not indeed universal1 as ,plato#ggf distinguishes between vases which have or have not been exposed to the action of fire 7 and 71 and ,pliny#ggg speaks of fictile crudum 77 used for medicinal purposes4 ,but all the vases that have come down to us have certainly been baked4 ,the necessary amount of heat required was regulated by the character of the ware1 and in the case of most ,greek fabrics it appears to have been high4 ,many examples exist of discoloured vases which have been subjected to too much or too little heat1 and in which the varnish has acquired a greenish or reddish hue4 ,on the other hand1 in some of those that have been subjected to subsequent burning1 the red glaze has turned to an ashen-grey colour1#ggh the black remaining unimpaired2 but there are also instances of the varnish peeling off1 the red colour alone preserving the outline of the figures4 ,other accidents were liable to befall them in the baking1 such as the cracking of the vase under too great heat2 this produced an effect expressed by the term or 1 words which seem to have some reference to the sound of a cracked pot4#ggi ,or the shape of a vase might be damaged while it was yet soft1 one knocking against another and denting its side1 or crushing the lip through being carelessly superimposed4 ,on a ,r4,f4 amphora in the ,british ,museum 7,e #bie7 a dent has been caused by the pressure of another vase1 which has left traces of a band of maeanders4 ,this probably happened when the vases were in the kiln for the second firing4 ,the quality of the baking was tested by tapping the walls of the vase4#ghj ,these misfortunes were attributed to the action of malicious demons1 whose influence had to be counteracted in various ways2 thus1 for instance1 a ,satyric or grotesque head was placed in front of the furnace and was supposed to have an apotropaeic effect against the evil eye4#gha ,the pseudo-,homeric hymn addressed to the potters of ,samos invokes the protection of ,athena for the vases in the furnace1 and mentions the evil spirits which are ready to injure them in the case of bad faith on the potter's part4 ,among the names given are3 1 8the ,unquenchable02 1 8the ,crasher02 1 8the ,smasher02 1 8the ,savage ,conqueror40 ,the form of the oven probably differed little from those in use at the present day4 ,no furnaces have been found in ,greece1 and our only evidence is derived from the painted vases2 but they have been found at ,ruvo#ghb and elsewhere in ,italy1 and also in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,england4 ,those of ,roman date are indeed by no means uncommon1 but are discussed in fuller detail in the corresponding section of the work 7,chapter ,,xxi474 ,as depicted on vases and elsewhere1 the ancient furnaces seem to have been of simple construction1 tall conical ovens fed by fires from beneath1 into which the vases were placed with a long shovel resembling a baker's peel4 ,the kilns were heated with charcoal or wood fuel1 and in some of the representations of them we see men holding long instruments with which they are about to poke or rake the fires 7,fig4 #fh74 ,they had two doors1 one for the insertion of the vases and one for the potter to watch the progress of the baking4 ,for vases of great size1 like the huge 1 special ovens must have been necessary2 and we have a representation on a ,corinthian pinax#ghc of such an oven1 the roof of which resembles the upper part of a large pithos surrounded by flames4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,,seilenos ,,as ,,potter4 ,on the lamp from ,pozzuoli in the ,british ,museum1 referred to on p4 #bji1 there is a curious subject in relief1 representing a potter about to place a vase in an oven with a tall chimney2 and on a hydria at ,munich#ghd 7,fig4 #fg b7 a man is about to place an amphora in a kiln1 while other jars 7painted white7 stand ready to be baked4 ,but for our purposes the ,corinthian pinakes are even more valuable for the information they afford4 ,there are several representing the exterior of the conical furnace1 with men standing by watching the fires and tending them with rakes#ghe2 in another we have a bird's-eye view in horizontal section of the interior of an oven1 filled with jugs of various forms 7,fig4 #fi74 ,flames are usually indicated rising from underneath the ovens4#ghf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,,interior ,,of ,,furnace 7,,from ,,corinthian ,,pinax7 ,the ,munich hydria 7,fig4 #fg;b7 reproduces the interior of a potter's workshop with such detail that a full description of the scene may be permissible4#ghg ,on the left of the picture a seated man seems to be examining an amphora1 which has just been finished 7it is painted black7 and is brought up for his approval4 ,next is seen an amphora on the potter's wheel1 painted white to indicate its imperfect state2 one man places his arm inside to shape the interior1 while another turns the wheel for him4 ,on their right another white amphora is being carried out1 just fresh from the wheel1 but without handles or mouth1 to be dried in the open or at the furnace2 next is another standing on the ground to dry4 ,on the right of the scene stands the foreman or master of the pottery1 before whom a nude man carries what has been thought to be a sack of coals for the furnace1 which is seen on the extreme right4 ,even more vivid and instructive1 in spite of its careless execution1 is the painting on a kotyle found at ,exarchos or ,abae in ,lokris1 and now in the ,athens ,museum 7,fig4 #gj74ghh ,the style is that of the imitation ,b4,f4 vases found in the temple of the ,kabeiri at ,thebes1 late in the fifth century4 ,we see represented the interior of a potter's workshop1 in which the master of the business sits holding up a kylix in one hand1 while with the other he threatens a slave1 who runs off with three kotylae ready for the furnace2 three similar kotylae stand by the master's feet1 and behind him are two more vases on a shelf4 ,on the right of the scene a workman sits at a table on which is a pot full of paint1 with a brush in it2 he holds up a newly-painted kotyle1 admiring his workmanship4 ,the picture is completed by a realistic representation of an unfortunate slave suspended by cords to the ceiling as a punishment for some offence1 while another belabours him with a leather thong4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,,interior ,,of ,,pottery4 ,it would appear that the vases after the baking were often placed on the exterior of the furnace1 either to prevent the too rapid cooling of the clay1 or 7as indicated on the ,berlin cup7 for the pigments to dry4 ,jahn and others have published a gem#ghi on which a small two-handled vase is placed on the top of an oven1 and a youth is applying two sticks to it1 perhaps in order to take it down without injury by the contact of the hand4 ,a companion gem1#gij on which an artist is painting a similar jar1 shows a jug and a kylix standing on a kiln4 ,when the vases were returned from the furnace1 the potter appears to have made good as far as possible the defects of those not absolutely spoiled2 and if naturally or by accident any parts remained too pale after the baking1 the defect was remedied by rubbing them over with a deep red ochre1 which supplied the necessary tone4 #d4 ,,painting ,we may distinguish three principal classes of painted pottery1 of which one at least admits of several subdivisions3-- 7#a7 ,primitive ,greek vases1 with simple painted ornaments1 chiefly linear and geometrical1 laid directly on the ground of the clay with the brush4 ,the colour employed is usually a yellowish or brownish red1 passing into black4 ,the execution varies1 but is often extremely coarse4 7#b7 ,greek vases 7and ,italian imitations7 painted with figures4 ,these may be subdivided as follows3-- 7a7 ,vases with figures in black varnish on red glazed ground 7see ,frontispiece1 ,vol4 ,,ii472 7b7 ,vases with figures left in the red glaze on a ground of black varnish 7see ,frontispiece1 ,vol4 ,i474 7#c7 7a7 ,vases of various dates with outline or polychrome decoration on white ground 7see ,plate ,,xliii472 7b7 ,vases 7also of various dates7 with designs in opaque colour on black ground4 ,of these1 the second group is by far the largest and most important1 and the complicated and technical processes which it involved will demand by far the greater share of our attention in the following account of the methods of painting4 ,in both the classes 7a7 and 7b7 the colouring is almost confined to a contrasting of the red glazed ground of the clay with a black varnish-like pigment1 a contrast which perhaps more than anything else furnishes the great charm of a ,greek vase4 ,this black varnish is particularly lustrous and deep1 but varies under different circumstances4 ,great difference of opinion has always existed as to its nature1 and the method by which it was brought to such perfection by the ,greeks4 ,the variations in its appearance are due partly to differences of locality and fabric1 partly to accidents of production4 ,it is seen in its greatest perfection in the so-called ,nolan amphorae of the severe red-figure period2 and at its worst in the ,etruscan and ,italiote imitations of ,greek fabrics4 ,on the vases found at ,vulci it shows a tendency to assume a greenish hue1 as opposed to the blue-black of the ,nolan vases1 while variations in the direction of red1 brown1 and 7on late ,south ,italy fabrics7 grey are of frequent occurrence4 ,it is probable that these gradations of quality are mainly due to the action of fire1 according as a higher or lower temperature was employed4 ,on the other hand1 the ashen-grey hue which vases of all periods sometimes assume#gia seems to be due to the direct action of fire in contact with them1 and this may perhaps be explained by supposing that they had been burnt on a funeral pyre4 ,this varnish also varies in the thickness with which it was laid on1 as can be easily detected with the finger4 ,although the chemical action of the earth sometimes causes the black varnish to disappear entirely1 leaving only the figures faintly indicated on the red-clay ground1 there has never yet been found any acid which has any effect upon it4#gib ,various opinions have been promulgated1 from ,caylus downwards1 as to the elements of which it is composed4#gic ,brongniart#gid has analysed it with the following results3-- ,silicic acid #dfcj #ejjj ,clay earth #aaij ,iron oxide #afgj #agjj ,chalk #egj ,magnesia #bcj ,soda #agaj ,copper traces4 ,it is unnecessary here to enter in detail into the numerous other theories of its composition1 but so far it cannot be said that any certainty has been attained4 ,turning now to the methods by which the black varnish was applied1 we find it necessary to distinguish between the two classes of black-figured and red-figured vases2 some vases1 of course1 are completely covered with it1 having no painted design1 but these do not enter into the question4 ,in the black-figured vases the figures are painted in black silhouette on the red ground of the vase1 the outlines being first roughly indicated by a pointed instrument making a faint line4#gie ,the surface within these outlines was then filled in with the black pigment by means of a brush1 the details of anatomy1 drapery1 armour1 etc41 being subsequently brought out in part by further incising of lines with a pointed tool4 ,in some of the finest vases1 such as those of ,amasis and ,exekias 7p4 #cha71 the delicacy and minuteness of these lines is brought to an extraordinary pitch of perfection4 ,after a second baking had taken place1 the designs were further enriched by the application of opaque purple and white pigments1 usually following certain conventional principles1 the flesh of women and devices on shields1 for instance1 being always white1 folds of drapery always purple4 ,a third baking at a much lower heat was necessary to fix these colours1 and the vase was then complete4 ,it should here be noted that there are really two subdivisions of these black-figured vases1 which may be termed for convenience 8red-bodied0 and 8black-bodied40#gif ,in the former the whole vase stands out in the natural red colour of the clay2 whereas in the latter the treatment approaches more nearly to the red-figure method which we shall presently discuss4 ,the whole body of the vase is in these examples covered with the black varnish1 with the exception of a framed panel of red1 on which the figures are painted4 ,this distinction may be well observed in the ,second ,vase ,room of the ,british ,museum1 where most of the vases on the east side of the room belong to the former or 8red-bodied0 class1 while all those on the west side are 8black-bodied10 with designs in panels4 ,in the red-figured vases the black varnish is used as the background1 and covers the whole vase1 as in the 8black-bodied0 ,b4,f4 fabrics1 the figures not being actually painted1 but left red in the colour of the clay4 ,the process was as follows3--,before the varnish was applied the outlines of the figures were indicated1 not by incised lines but by drawing a thick line of black with a brush round their contours4 ,it is probable that a fine brush was used at first1 especially for more delicate work1 and then a broader brush producing a line about an eighth of an inch in thickness4 ,the process1 be it noted1 is more akin to drawing than painting2 and it was as draughtsmen par excellence that the red-figure artists excelled4 ,the next stage was to mark the inner details by means of very fine black lines 7corresponding to the incised lines of ,b4,f4 vases71 or by masses of black for surfaces such as the hair2 white and purple were also employed1 but far more sparingly than on the earlier vases4 ,in the late ,athenian and ,south ,italian vases a tendency to polychromy sprang up1 but the main process always remained the same to the final decadence of the art4 ,the figures being completed and protected from accidents by their broad black borders1 the varnishing of the whole exterior surface was then proceeded with4 ,this was of course a purely mechanical business4 ,a fragment of a red-figured vase in the ,svres ,museum forms an excellent illustration of the method employed1 as1 although the figures are finished1 the ground has never been filled in1 and the original black border is plainly visible 7,fig4 #ga74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,,fragment ,,of ,,unfinished ,,red-,,figured ,,vase4 ,the result of the second baking was to fix the varnish and cause it to permeate the surface of the clay in such a way as to become practically inseparable from it4 ,the subsidiary colours1 on the other hand1 which were laid on over the black1 are always liable to disappear or fade4 ,a very interesting representation of painters at work on their vases is to be seen on a hydria from ,ruvo 7,fig4 #gb74gig ,three painters are seated at work with their brushes1 of whom two are being crowned by ,victories1 while the third is about to receive a wreath from ,athena1 the protecting goddess of the industry4 ,their paint-pots are to be seen by their side4 ,at one end of the scene a woman is similarly occupied4 ,from ,blmner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,,studio ,,of ,,vase-,,painter4 ,in class #c 7a71 or vases with figures on white ground1 we have to deal with the process of covering the naturally pale clay with a white slip of more or less thick and creamy consistency1 on which the designs were painted4 ,in the archaic period this process is fairly common1 especially in the earliest vases of ,corinth and of ,ionia1 and at ,kyrene and ,naukratis4 ,it was revived at ,athens about the end of the sixth century 7see pp4 #che1 #dee74 ,but when once the white slip was laid on1 the technical process differed little from that in use on ordinary red-ground vases1 except for the general avoidance of white as an accessory2 it merely results that instead of a contrast of black and red1 one of black and cream is obtained4 ,the method was one also largely practised in early painting1 as we see in the ,corinthian pinakes and the sarcophagi of ,clazomenae 7pp4 #caf1 #cfb74 ,but there is another class of white-ground vases to which we must devote more special attention1 namely1 those on which the figures are painted either in outline or with polychrome washes on the same white slip4 ,the earliest instance of such a method is in the series of fragments found at ,naukratis1 dating from the beginning of the sixth century 7see p4 #cdh71 which technically and artistically are of remarkably advanced character1 and combine the two methods of painting in outline and in washes of colour4 ,in the fifth century the practice was revived at ,athens as a means of obtaining effective results with small vases1 and became especially characteristic of one class1 the funeral lekythi1 which are elsewhere described 7,chapter ,,xi474 ,this1 however1 must serve as the most convenient place for a few remarks on their technique4 ,the vases1 after they had left the wheel and were fitted with handle1 etc41 were covered with a coating of white flaky pigment1 in consistency resembling liquid plaster of ,paris1 or1 when dry1 pipeclay4 ,they received this coat of white while still on the wheel1 and then a second coating1 of the usual black varnish1 was applied to such parts as were not required for decoration4 ,usually the white covered the cylindrical part of the body1 and the shoulder up to the neck2 black was applied to the mouth1 neck1 handle1 base of body1 and stem4 ,the clay1 it should be noted1 is of the ordinary kind1 but two varieties have been distinguished1 one of pale red1 for light thin vases1 the other of a blackish-grey1 for thicker and heavier ware4 ,the natural colour appears on the inside of the lip and foot4 ,before being removed from the wheel the vases were finely polished1 which gave to the white coating a sort of lustrous sheen2 they were then fired at a low temperature4 ,the method of decoration#gih was usually as follows3--,a preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines1 ignoring draperies 7hence the lines of figures are usually visible through the draperies71 but not always necessarily followed when the colours were laid on4 ,this was done as soon as the first lines were dry1 the colour being applied with a fine brush and in monochrome--black1 yellow1 or red--following the lines of the sketch more or less closely4 ,in the later examples red was used exclusively1 and at all periods at ,athens2 but in the vases attributed to ,locri and ,sicily1 a black turning to yellow is used4 ,this combination of black and yellow is also used on the best ,attic vases for various details1 such as eyes and hair4 ,the outlines also served to indicate the folds of the draperies4 ,for the surfaces of drapery and other details1 polychrome washes were employed1 the colour being spread uniformly by means of a large brush4 ,all varieties of red from rose to brown are found1 also violet1 light and brownish yellow1 blue1 black1 and green4 ,hair is sometimes treated in outline1 sometimes by means of washes4 ,it is noteworthy that in the later examples the wash-colours were often painted right over the red lines4 ,on the bodies of the figures these washes are rare1 but in some cases shades of brown are used for flesh colour1 as on the figure of ,hypnos on a lekythos in the ,british ,museum 7,d #eh74 ,at ,athens this polychrome decoration was not indeed limited to the lekythi1 but was extended to the kylix1 the pyxis1 and other forms1 of which some beautiful examples exist in the ,british ,museum and at ,athens4#gii ,in these1 as in the best of the lekythi1 the drawing of ,greek artists seems almost to have reached perfection1 and arouses our wonder yet more when we reflect that everything was done merely by freehand strokes of the brush4 ,this technique is practically limited to the period #dhj-cej ,b4,c4 ,the subsidiary ornamentation of the lekythi was put on either after the main design or before1 this being immaterial4 ,the lines above the design can be seen to have been painted on the wheel1 as they go all round the vase2 but the palmettes on the shoulder and maeander patterns above the design do not extend beyond it4 ,after the colouring the vases appear to have been fired again1 and in some cases the white slip was probably varnished4 ,the details of their manufacture show that the lekythi were not intended for daily use2 the shape is awkward for handling--the handles1 for instance1 are obviously not intended for practical use--and the delicate1 lightly baked slip made them too porous for liquids4 ,everything tends in the direction of elegance and delicacy4 ,our next sub-division consists of vases1 chiefly of late date1 in which the decoration is by means of opaque colours laid on the surface of a vase altogether coated with black varnish or glaze4 ,the process is not indeed one absolutely unknown in earlier times1 for there is the primitive ,kamaraes ware of ,crete 7p4 #bff71 and also a small series of archaic vases belonging to the early part of the fifth century 7p4 #cic7 in which this principle is adhered to1 the designs being painted in opaque red or white on the black varnish4 ,the latter seem to show a development from the black-figure period1 to the end of which they belong1 and may have been intended to rival the new red-figure method1 but failed to attain popularity4 ,we next meet with the process in ,southern ,italy1 where it again appears as the last effort of a worn-out fashion to flicker into life with renewed popularity4 ,the centre of this revival1 which follows on after the ,apulian vases of the third century1 was ,gnatia 7,fasano71 on the coast of that district4 ,the vases are partly modelled in relief1 or have ornaments in relief attached2 the decoration1 in white and purple1 is confined to one side only1 and is very feeble and limited in its scope4 ,an apparently local variety1 perhaps made in ,campania by native craftsmen1 has the figures in opaque red1 with details marked by rudely incised lines4 ,the ,gnatia style was adopted by the ,romans in the second century for a small series of vases inscribed with names of ,italian deities1 such as ,juno and ,vesta 7p4 #dij71 and it appears in the method of decoration known as en barbotine on the pottery of the ,empire 7see ,chapters ,,xxi41 ,,xxiii474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,,vase-,,painter ,,varnishing ,,cup ,,on ,,wheel4 ,the instruments which were employed for the painting of the vases were not1 as formerly supposed1 limited to a metal or reed pen1 and a camel's-hair brush4 ,it has been recently pointed out in a most illuminating article by ,dr4 ,hartwig#hjj that the lines of black bordering the figures on red-figured vases are usually double1 the space in between being filled in with varnish thus3 ornament4 ,practical experiments have shown that this can be obtained with a feather brush or pen1 drawing the lines separately1 not concurrently1 as might be done with a metal pen4#hja ,the feathers of the snipe were specially suitable for this purpose1 as were also those of the swallow4 ,it is probable that we see the use of the ordinary brush on the ,ruvo vase-painting already mentioned1 but this was no doubt used for filling in the ground and all parts where the colour was laid on in large masses4 ,again1 on a fragment from the ,athenian ,acropolis 7,fig4 #gc7hjb a man is seen covering the inside of a ,b4,f4 kylix with black varnish while he turns it on the wheel2 this is also done with an ordinary brush4 ,but there is a ,r4,f4 kylix1#hjc on the interior of which we see the undoubted use of the feather-brush or pen 7,fig4 #gd74 ,in his left hand the painter seems to hold the sharp tool for engraving the outlines of the figures1 and with his right he manipulates the feather-pen which is seen to consist of a small feather inserted in a wooden holder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,,vase-,,painter ,,using ,,feather-,,brush4 ,it is not likely that this instrument was generally used before the introduction of the ,r4,f4 style2 it would hardly have been required either for the silhouette figures of the ,b4,f4 vases or the outlines on the white ground4 ,according to ,hartwig1 ,andokides1 one of the earliest ,r4,f4 artists 7about #ebj ,b4,c47 was making experiments in the use of the feather-pen1 and in the course of twenty years1 in the vases of ,epiktetos and his school1 its use had become general4 ,it is not indeed unknown on ,b4,f4 vases1 and can be traced in the ornamentation where fine lines were required1 as on the ,amasis vase in the ,bibliothque ,nationale4#hjd ,it was probably first used in the more developed ,ionic pottery1 but as we have seen had no chance of becoming generally used until the essentially linear ,r4,f4 style came into vogue4 ,the artists who reached the height of skill in its use were ,meidias and the painters of the delicate little vases of the latter half of the fifth century1 this instrument being also admirably adapted for making the fine inner lines in which the painters of that period achieved such success4 ,besides the painting-brush and the feather-pen1 the other instruments used in the decoration of vases include the pointed graving-tools employed for incised lines1 modelling-tools for the parts in relief1 a stick for steadying the hand while at work1 and a pair of compasses4 ,the latter were employed for marking circles1 as may be clearly seen on shields on the ,b4,f4 vases1 where the mark left by the central point of the compasses is often visible4 ,the difficulties in the painting of ,greek vases must have been numerous4 ,in the first place1 it was necessary for the artist to finish his sketch with great rapidity1 since the clay rapidly absorbed the colouring matter1 and the outlines were required to be bold and continuous1 any joins producing a bad effect4 ,again1 the vases were often painted while in an upright position1 and the artist was obliged to stoop1 rise1 and execute his work in these difficult attitudes2 nor could he remove the pencil from any figure which he had once begun4 ,the eye must have been his only guide4 ,then1 as he was obliged to draw his outline upon a damp surface1 the black colour which he used was instantly confounded with the tint of the clay4 ,the lines grew broad at first1 and afterwards contracted themselves1 leaving but a light trace1 so that the artist could with difficulty discern what he had been doing4 ,moreover1 the lines1 once begun1 could not be left off except where they met other lines which cut or terminated them4 ,thus1 for example1 the profile of a head must have been executed with a single continuous line1 which could not be interrupted till it met the neck2 and in drawing a thigh or leg1 the whole outline must have been finished without taking off the pencil3 proceeding from the top downwards1 making use of the point to mark the horizontal lines1 and afterwards rising upwards to finish the opposite side4 ,the drawing was done entirely by the hand and no pattern used4 ,the outlines round the figures on ,r4,f4 vases were drawn strongly1 in the manner described above1 to prevent the background encroaching on the figure4 ,that this was done while the clay was moist appears by the outlines uniting1 which could not have taken place if the clay had been dry4 ,it was so difficult to fill in the outlines without alteration1 that they were frequently changed1 and sometimes the ground was not reached1 while at others it exceeded the line4 ,the ancient artists1 notwithstanding these difficulties1 observed all the laws of balance and proportion1 especially 1 or the law of equal height of all figures2 conveyed expression by means of attitude2 and1 by the use of profile1 and the introduction of accessories1 or small objects1 into the background1 contrived to compensate for the want of perspective4 ,this latter deficiency was due to the use of flat colours1 which did not allow of shades1 and the figures were consequently not seen in masses distinguished by light and shade1 but isolated in the air4 ,hence1 in order to make the figures distinct1 and to express by attitude all the actions and sentiments required1 the artist was compelled to use profile4 ,the black colour1 the choice of which may at first appear singular1 is1 after all1 the most harmonious1 and the best suited for showing the elegance and purity of the outline2 whilst by its aptness to reveal any defects of shape1 it compelled the artist to be very careful in his drawing4 ,the colours employed#hje were1 as we have seen1 remarkably few in number4 ,of the black varnish which plays such an important part1 and of its composition we have already spoken4 ,of the opaque accessory colours1 the white is said by ,brongniart#hjf to be a carbonate of lime or fine clay4 ,it is evidently an earth of some kind1 and gives no trace of lead under analysis4 ,the creamy slip of the white-ground vases is of similar character1 and appears to be a kind of pipeclay4 ,it was probably of the same character as the earth of ,melos used by ,polygnotos4#hjg ,the deep purple or crimson1 so largely employed on the ,corinthian and early ,attic ,b4,f4 vases1 is known to be an oxide of iron1 an element which entered largely into the red glaze4 ,the yellow found on the white vases and those of ,apulia as an accessory to white is of an ochrous nature4 ,the red used for outlines on the white lekythi is probably not vermilion 7minium71 but red ochre 71 rubrica74 ,blue and green1 which are rarely found1 and only on vases of the later styles1 were produced from a basis of copper4 ,on vases from the time of ,euphronios and ,brygos 7about #dhj ,b4,c47 onwards1 gilding was occasionally employed1 the process being one which we have already described 7see above1 p4 #baj74 ,good instances of this process are to be seen in the fourth-century vases from ,capua1 which are glazed black throughout and ornamented solely with gilding4#hjh ,but the gold leaf has often perished4 ,besides ,capua1 these vases are found chiefly in ,athens and the ,cyrenaica4 #e4 ,,status ,,of ,,potters ,it now remains to say something respecting the makers of ,greek vases--the potters of antiquity4 ,unfortunately1 however1 little is known of their condition1 except that they formed a guild1 or fraternity1 and that they amassed considerable fortunes by exporting their products to the principal emporia of the ancient world4 ,the existence of two ,kerameikoi1 or pottery districts1 at ,athens shows the great commercial importance of the manufacture4 ,in later times there seems to have been a considerable tendency to division of labour among the potters1 and each man 8specialised0 in some particular shape2 hence we find them characterised as and 1#hji 1#haj 1#haa or 4#hab ,it is assumed that the word 1 8made10 when found on a vase1 indicates the potter1 and not the artist1 although it is reasonable to suppose that when no artist's name accompanies the formula the potter was at the same time the painter4 ,on one vase the names of two potters1 ,glaukytes and ,archikles1 are found#hac2 one has been supposed to be the artist's1 but it is more probable they were partners4 ,by the ,athenians1 potters were called ,prometheans1#had from the ,titan ,prometheus1 who made man out of clay--which1 according to one myth1 was the blood of the ,titans1 or ,giants--and was thus the founder of the fictile art4 ,it was not1 however1 much esteemed1 although without doubt the pursuit of it was a lucrative one1 and many of the trade realised large fortunes2 in proof of which may be cited the well-known anecdote of ,agathokles1#hae who1 at a time when the rich used plate1 was in the habit of mixing earthenware with it at his table1 telling his officers that he formerly made such ware1 but that now1 owing to his prudence and valour1 he was served in gold--an anecdote which also suggests that the profession was not highly esteemed4 ,the guild at ,athens was called 1 8of the potters10#haf and we also hear of a college of at ,thyateira4#hag ,however1 the competition in the trade was so warm as to pass into a proverb1 and the animosity of some of the rival potters is even recorded upon the vases4#hah ,to this spirit are also probably to be referred many of the tricks of the trade1 such as imitations of the names of makers1 and the numerous illegible inscriptions4 ,when the potter's establishment--called an ergasterion--was large1 he employed under him a number of persons1 some of whom were probably free but poor citizens1 whilst others were slaves belonging to him4#hai ,how the labour was subdivided there are no means of accurately determining1 but the following hands were probably employed3--7#a7 ,a potter1 to make the vase on the wheel2 7#b7 an artist1 to trace with a point in outline the subject of the vase2 7#c7 a painter1 who executed the whole subject in outline1 and who probably returned it to ,no4 #b1 when incised lines were required2 7#d7 a modeller1 who added such parts of the vase as were moulded2 7#e7 a fireman1 who took the vase to the furnace and brought it back2 7#f7 a fireman for the furnace2 7#g7 packers1 to prepare the vases for exportation4 ,hence it may readily be conceived that a large establishment employed a considerable number of hands1 and exhibited an animated scene of industrial activity4 ----- ,footnote #gci3 ,trait1 i4 p4 #edh4 ,footnote #gdj3 ,technologie1 ii4 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #gda3 ,die ,malerei1 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #gdb3 ,see ,jahn1 ,vasens4 zu ,mnchen1 p4 cxliv2 and ,brunn-,lau1 ,griech4 ,vasen1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #gdc3 ,suidas1 s4v42 ,athenaeus1 xi4 #dhb ,b2 ,blmner1 ,technol4 ii4 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #gdd3 ,de recta audiendi rat4 #i1 #db ,d4 ,footnote #gde3 ,suidas1 s4v4 2 cf4 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #aeb4 ,footnote #gdf3 ,for representations of quarrying for clay at ,corinth see the pinakes at ,berlin1 ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 pl4 #h1 ,nos4 #g1 #bc4 ,footnote #gdg3 ,athen4 xi4 #dfd ,b4 ,c4 ,footnote #gdh3 ,reg4 et ,imp4 ,apophth4 #agd ,e4 ,footnote #gdi3 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #afa4 ,footnote #gej3 ,myres in ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #af4 ,footnote #gea3 ,diod4 ,sic4 iv4 #gf4 ,footnote #geb3 ,see ,frazer1 ,pausanias1 note to i4 #ba1 #d4 ,footnote #gec3 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 vii4 #aih2 ,schol4 ad ,pind4 ,ol4 xiii4 #bg4 ,footnote #ged3 ,diog4 ,laert4 i4 #aje2 ,suidas1 s4v4 4 ,footnote #gee3 ,athen4 i4 #bh ,c4 ,footnote #gef3 ,il4 xviii4 #fjj4 ,footnote #geg3 vii4 #cjc4 ,footnote #geh3 ,seneca1 ,ep4 #ij1 #ca4 ,footnote #gei3 ,rep4 #dbj ,e4 ,footnote #gfj3 ,apud ,athenaeum1 x4 #ddi ,b4 ,footnote #gfa3 ,see ,blmner1 ,technologie1 ii4 p4 #ch1 note #c4 ,footnote #gfb3 xxxviii4 #bi3 444 4 ,footnote #gfc3 ,de gen4 ,socr4 #bj1 p4 #ehh ,f4 ,footnote #gfd3 i4 #fde ,k1 quoted by ,blmner4 ,footnote #gfe3 ,blmner1 ii4 p4 #ci2 ,jahn in ,ber4 d4 schs4 ,gesellsch4 #ahed1 p4 #dj1 note4 ,see also ,chapters ,,xxi4-,,xxii4 ,footnote #gff3 ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 pl4 #h1 figs4 #ag1 #ah2 cf4 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahhj1 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #gfg3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 xiv4 7#ahhi71 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #gfh3 ,blmner1 ,technologie1 ii4 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #gfi3 ,as on the vases of ,nikosthenes 7see below1 p4 #che2 ,b4,m4 ,b #fai1 #fbj2 ,louvre ,f #aaf1 #aag74 ,footnote #ggj3 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 #aa ,petersburg #ebe4 ,footnote #gga3 ,evans1 in ,num4 ,chron4 #crd ,ser4 xi4 p4 #cai ,b4,m4 ,cat4 iv4 ,g #aba1 #abb4 ,footnote #ggb3 ,see for examples ,b4 ,m4 ,cat4 iv4 ,g #hg-ie4 ,footnote #ggc3 ,cf4 ,aesop1 ,fab4 #aff a1 b4 ,footnote #ggd3 ,cat4 #bedb ,blmner1 ,technologie1 ii4 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #gge3 ,brongniart1 ,trait1 i4 p4 #eeb4 ,footnote #ggf3 ,legg4 iii4 #fgi ,a4 ,footnote #ggg3 ,h4,n4 xxix4 #cd4 ,footnote #ggh3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #dbf1 ,e #dei4 ,footnote #ggi3 ,cf4 ,ar4 ,ach4 #icc3 4 ,see also ,suid4 s4v4 2 ,pollux1 vii4 #afd2 ,etym4 ,magn4 p4 #gih1 #ag2 and ,schol4 in ,hom4 ,il4 ii4 #bai4 ,i cannot but think that in the term 1 as applied to ,thersites' head1 there is some correspondence to our phrase 8crack-brained40 ,simonides 7apud ,athen4 xi4 #dhj ,d7 speaks of a 1 a term of disputed meaning2 but a cup of which the brim 77 would suggest the shape of a peaked head is hardly conceivable2 and here again there must surely be some notion of sound4 ,footnote #ghj3 ,see ,blmner1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #df4 ,footnote #gha3 ,see ,fig4 #fg b2 ,berlin #bbid2 ,furtwaengler1 in ,jahrbuch1 vi4 7#ahia71 p4 #aaj1 points out that these heads probably represent the ,kyklopes or demon-attendants of the fire-god ,hephaistos4 ,see above1 p4 #aje1 under 2 also ,daremberg and ,saglio1 art4 ,caminus4 ,footnote #ghb3 ,lenormant1 ,la ,grande ,grce1 i4 p4 #id4 ,footnote #ghc3 ,berlin #hjb ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 #h1 #d4 ,footnote #ghd3 ,cat4 #gca ,jahn in ,ber4 d4 schs4 ,gesellsch4 #ahed1 pl4 #a1 fig4 #a1 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #ghe3 ,a ,seilenos in this act appears on a vase in ,sale ,cat4 ,htel ,drouot1 ,may #aath1 #aijc1 ,no4 #aca 7reproduced in ,fig4 #fh74 ,footnote #ghf3 ,examples are3 ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 pl4 #h1 figs4 #ab1 #ai;b1 #bb 7in ,berlin72 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahhj1 pp4 #aje1 #ajf 7in ,louvre74 ,footnote #ghg3 ,a better drawing has recently been given in ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 ,gr4 ,vasenm4 p4 #aei2 but the reproduction in ,fig4 #fg is accurate in all essentials4 ,footnote #ghh3 ,cat4 #aaad ,ath4 ,mitth4 xiv4 7#ahhi71 p4 #aea4 ,footnote #ghi3 ,see ,blmner1 ii4 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #gij3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #gia3 ,see above1 p4 #bad4 ,footnote #gib3 ,blmner 7ii4 p4 #ge7 gives an account of various chemical experiments made upon it4 ,footnote #gic3 ,see ,blmner1 ii4 p4 #gf ff4 ,footnote #gid3 ,trait1 i4 p4 #eej4 ,footnote #gie3 ,this process is well illustrated on certain vases 7e4g4 ,b #aeh in ,brit4 ,mus471 where the artist has subsequently altered his design1 and the lines still remain visible4 ,footnote #gif3 ,see for a fuller consideration of this point p4 #cfh4 ,footnote #gig3 ,baumeister1 iii4 p4 #aiib1 fig4 #bacg ,reinach1 i4 #ccf4 ,footnote #gih3 ,see ,pottier1 ,lecythes blancs1 p4 #ii ff4 ,footnote #gii3 ,see ,chapter ,,xi41 and ,hartwig1 ,meisterschalen1 p4 #dii4 ,footnote #hjj3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 p4 #adg ff4 ,footnote #hja3 ,see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahia1 p4 #cgf4 ,footnote #hjb3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #hjc3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 pl4 #d4 ,footnote #hjd3 ,cat4 #bbb4 ,footnote #hje3 ,see ,durand-,grville in ,rev4 ,arch4 xviii4 7#ahia71 p4 #ii ff41 xix4 7#ahib71 p4 #cfc ff4 ,footnote #hjf3 ,see ,blmner1 ,technol4 ii4 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #hjg3 ,see for the four colours used by him1 ,plut4 de defect4 orac4 #dg1 #dcf ,c2 ,cic4 ,brut4 #ah1 #gj2 and cf4 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #ej4 ,footnote #hjh3 ,on vases with gilding1 see ,jahn1 ,vasen mit ,goldschmuck 7#ahfe74 ,footnote #hji3 ,plat4 ,theaet4 #adg ,a1 ,rep4 iv4 #dba ,d2 ,pollux1 vii4 #afc4 ,footnote #haj3 ,strabo1 xv4 #gag2 ,pollux1 vii4 #ahb4 ,footnote #haa3 ,schol4 in ,ar4 ,pac4 #abjb4 ,footnote #hab3 ,pollux1 vii4 #afj4 ,footnote #hac3 ,b4,m4 ,b #djj4 ,footnote #had3 ,lucian1 ,prom4 in ,verbis1 #b2 cf4 ,lactantius1 ,div4 ,inst4 ii4 #aa4 ,footnote #hae3 ,plutarch1 ,apophth4 ,reg4 et ,imp4 #agf ,e4 ,footnote #haf3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,sculpt4 i4 #eii2 ,ross-,meier1 ,demen von ,attika1 p4 #abb1 ,no4 #fg4 ,the persons here mentioned were not necessarily potters4 ,footnote #hag3 ,boeckh1 ,c4,i4,g4 ii4 #cdhe4 ,footnote #hah3 ,hes4 ,op4 et ,di4 #be3 2 quoted by ,aristotle1 ,rhet4 ii4 #d1 #ba1 and ,plat4 ,lys4 #bae ,c4 ,euthymides on one of his vases places the boast1 8,euphronios never did anything like this40 ,see for these two artists1 ,chapter ,x4 ,footnote #hai3 ,cf4 the vase at ,athens described above 7p4 #bah71 and the others with representations of potteries4 ,,part ,,ii ,,history ,,of ,,greek ,,vase-,,painting ,,chapter ,,vi ,,primitive ,,fabrics ,introductory--,cypriote ,bronze-,age pottery--,classification--,mycenaean pottery in ,cyprus--,graeco-,phoenician fabrics--,shapes and decoration--,hellenic and later vases--,primitive pottery in ,greece--,troy--,thera and ,cyclades--,crete--,recent discoveries--,mycenaean pottery--,classification and distribution--,centres of fabric--,ethnography and chronology4 ,in the preceding chapters we have given a general rsum of the subject of ,greek pottery2 we have discussed the sites on which ,greek vases have been found1 the methods employed in their manufacture1 the shapes which they assume1 and the uses to which they were put both on earth and in the tombs2 and we have now reached perhaps the most important part of the subject1 at any rate in the eyes of archaeologists1 namely1 the history of the rise1 development and decadence of painting on ,greek vases4 ,it has already been noted 7in ,chapter ,i47 that this branch of the study of ,greek vases is one that has only been called into existence in comparatively recent times1 and that up to the year #ahed or thereabouts all attempts at dating the vases 7chiefly of course owing to the poverty of material7 were purely empirical and tentative4 ,they were moreover largely combined with fantastic interpretations of the painted designs4 ,during the last forty years1 and especially during the last twenty1 the steady growth of archaeological study and increased attention to excavations have enormously increased both the material at command and the power of utilising it with scientific method4 ,the extensive finds of pottery in ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 ,northern ,africa1 ,italy1 and elsewhere1 including more especially products of the earlier periods1 have enabled the students of the subject to trace the sequence of fabrics from the rude wares of ,troy and the ,greek ,islands up to the graceful and finished products of the ,athenian ateliers1 and onward to the overgrown luxuriousness of the gigantic ,apulian wares4 ,the subjects of the paintings1 once of all-absorbing1 are now only of subordinate interest1 except so far as they illustrate certain phases of development1 and the chief interest of the vases is the question of their origin1 their maker1 or their place in relation to others4 ,it will therefore be the object of this and of the succeeding chapters to trace with all possible detail1 as far as space permits1 the history of ,greek vase-manufacture and vase-painting in all their aspects4 ,we have already indicated 7p4 #ca7 the limits within which the subject falls1 and the convenient rough division into four main classes of which it permits 7p4 #bc74 ,this introductory chapter1 therefore1 deals with the primitive fabrics1 leading up1 through the two following1 to the period of black-figured vases in ,chapter ,,ix4 ,the lines of demarcation are1 indeed1 difficult if not impossible to draw1 but they must not in any case be taken as rigid ones1 being largely conventional1 and only adopted in order to obtain a point of division for the chapters4 ,perhaps the leading feature of the early history of ,greek vases is the gradual coalescence of the numerous local fabrics first into two or three main streams1 and finally into the one great and all-absorbing current of ,athenian art4 ,in the sixth century this was really brought about more by historical causes than anything else1 as a result of the gradually increasing supremacy of ,athens in art and culture from the time of the ,peisistratidae down to that of ,perikles4 ,one region1 and one only1 pursues its artistic course without regard to the contemporaneous tendencies prevailing in the ,greek world1 and that is the island of ,cyprus4 ,here again the causes are largely political1 as we shall see2 largely also ethnographical and geographical1 from the character of the inhabitants and the position of the island1 a meeting-place and bone of contention between the great nations of the ,eastern ,mediterranean4 ,for this reason we propose to deal first with the pottery of ,cyprus1 which has little in common with that of the rest of ,greece1 and always retains something of its primitive character1 though it is always as much influenced from ,greece on the one hand as from the ,east on the other4 ,it is in ,cyprus also that we meet with some of the earliest remains of pottery yet found on ,greek soil4 #a4 ,,cypriote ,,pottery ,,bibliography ,cesnola1 ,cyprus2 ,o4-,richter1 ,kypros1 the ,bible1 and ,homer2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,hist4 de l',art1 iii4 p4 #fdh ff42 ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 7,myres and ,o4-,richter72 ,b4,m4 ,excavations in ,cyprus 7,turner ,bequest71 #ahid-f2 ,dmmler in ,ath4 ,mitth4 xi4 7#ahhf71 p4 #bji ff42 ,archaeologia1 xlv4 p4 #abg ff42 ,pottier1 ,cat4 des ,vases ant4 du ,louvre1 i4 p4 #hb ff41 and other references there given4 ,in order to understand aright the history of ,cypriote art1 it is indeed necessary to know something of its ethnography and political history1 and the various influences to which it has been subjected4 ,but space forbids us to do more than make very brief allusions to the more important of these features4 ,speaking generally1 ,cyprus may be regarded as a centre wherein have met all the currents of ancient civilisation1 forming an amalgamation of artistic elements4 ,thus ,cypriote art1 though it loses in originality1 gains in interest2 and yet though often slavishly imitative1 it has at bottom great individuality1 more especially in its pottery4 ,hence it will be seen that it is essentially necessary to consider the pottery of ,cyprus as a thing apart4 ,as regards chronology1 except for a certain determinable sequence of artistic phases1 even more caution than in dealing with ,hellenic art is required4 ,the remarkable conservatism and persistence of types exhibited by ,cypriote art has more than once proved a pitfall1 and has given rise to considerable controversy at one time or another4 ,dates can only be used in the vaguest manner4 ,the pottery of ,cyprus falls under three headings1 which for convenience1 though not perhaps with the strictest accuracy1 are usually defined as follows3-- #a4 ,bronze ,age1 from about #bejj ,b4,c4 to #hjj ,b4,c4 #b4 ,graeco-,phoenician period1 from #hjj ,b4,c4 to #djj ,b4,c41 overlapping with #c4 ,hellenic period1 from #eej ,b4,c4 to #bjj ,b4,c41 representing the time during which imported ,greek vases are found in the tombs1 native pottery gradually dying out except in the form of plain vessels4 ,the pottery of the ,bronze-,age period again falls into two distinct periods3 7#a7 ,copper ,age or pre-,mycenaean period 7#bejj-aejj ,b4,c471 during which few bronze implements are found in the tombs1 and all the pottery is purely indigenous1 the work of the original inhabitants of the island1 without any admixture of importations4 7#b7 ,the ,mycenaean period 7#aejj-hjj ,b4,c471 during which the local pottery 7including both unpainted and painted vases7 is reinforced by large quantities of imported ,mycenaean pottery1 together with elaborately decorated vases of ,mycenaean technique1 either made locally or specially made for ,cyprus and imported4 ,the sites on which ,bronze-,age remains are found 7see above1 p4 #ff7 are chiefly confined to the central and southern parts of the island1 the most important sites being near the modern towns of ,nicosia1 ,larnaka1 and ,famagusta4 ,the discovery in these tombs of such objects as milking-bowls and querns is an additional proof of the conclusion naturally to be drawn--that the early inhabitants of ,cyprus were a race of pastoral lowlanders4#hbj ,the tombs 7see p4 #ce7 are mostly pit-tombs of moderate depth1 recalling in type the ,egyptian mastaba1 and burial is universal4 ,there is no doubt that the art of pottery was introduced into ,cyprus coincidently with the beginning of the ,copper ,age1 which may be placed at about the year #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,although no bronze is found in the earliest tombs1 on the other hand stone implements are absent1 and the types of the pottery are identical with those of the later ,bronze ,age4 ,it will be seen that it presents throughout very striking parallels with the pottery of ,hissarlik1 which will form the subject of the next section4 ,the forms are largely similar and the technique is the same1 but the ,hissarlik pottery is ruder and of inferior clay4 ,stone implements are found at ,hissarlik1 but no copper1 from which the inference may be drawn that that metal1 being indigenous to ,cyprus1 supplanted stone there at an earlier date than in the ,troad1 whither it had to find its way by means of commerce4 ,it was no doubt largely due to the existence of its copper ores that ,cyprus so early shows an advance in its civilisation4 ,the shapes of the earliest ,cypriote pottery are purely indigenous and very characteristic1 but the technique may very likely have been learned from elsewhere2 in regard to which it should be noted that as it is invariably hand-made1 an ,egyptian origin is altogether precluded1 owing to the early use of the wheel for pottery in that country 7see pp4 #g1 #bjf74 ,for the most part the forms are characterised by a tendency to fantastic and unsymmetrical modelling1 with a preference for complicated forms1 such as two or three vases joined together4 ,others again imitate gourds or vessels of straw and basket-work1 such as are used in ,cyprus at the present day4 ,they have no foot or 8base-ring0 to stand upon2 and another characteristic is the frequent absence of handles1 the place of which is supplied by small ears1 by means of which the vase was hung up or carried by cords4#hba ,sometimes these ears cover the whole outline of the vase4 ,the plastic principle is always popular in the ,bronze-,age pottery1 and manifests itself in more than one direction4 ,from the first it is exhibited in the tendency1 so common in early art1 to combine the vase and the statuette1#hbb a tendency which is even stronger in the pottery of ,hissarlik4 ,it also takes the form of designs in relief covering the surface of1 or moulded to1 the vase4 ,in one point ,cyprus is manifestly in advance of the rest of the ancient world1 and that is1 in the decoration of the pottery4 ,here1 in fact1 we meet with the first attempts at painted vases1 combined with the employment of a fine bright red or polished black slip to cover the surface4 ,in the earlier varieties the designs1 when they occur1 are confined to simple rectilinear geometrical patterns incised through the slip before baking2 but these are soon supplemented by the employment1 first of a matt-white pigment1 secondly of a brown-black paint obtained from the native umber4 ,the only other locality in which painted vases occur at so early a period is the island of ,thera 7see below1 p4 #bfj74 ,we pass now to the consideration of the later ,bronze-,age pottery--namely1 that which is found in tombs together with vases of ,mycenaean style4 ,in this we see various modifications of the indigenous art1 and witness its eventual transformation by the introduction of new processes and ideas from various sources4 ,the main streams of influence are three in number1 coming from the east1 south1 and west respectively4 ,of these the first represents the ,asiatic civilisations of ,babylonia and the ,hittites1 to whom in the first place are due the engraved cylinders frequently found in these tombs1 and at a comparatively late date such objects as the ivory draught-box from ,enkomi in the ,british ,museum1 which affords points of comparison with the reliefs of ,kouyounjik4 ,egyptian influences date from the invasion of ,cyprus by ,thothmes ,,iii4 7eighteenth dynasty71 about #adej ,b4,c41 as exemplified by the frequent occurrence of scarabs and porcelain objects4 ,a counter-influence of ,cyprus on ,egypt is seen in the presence of exported ,cypriote pottery in tombs at ,kahun1 ,saqqara1 and elsewhere4#hbc ,lastly1 there is the far more extensive influence of the ,mycenaean civilisation1 covering several hundred years1 and eventually absorbing the indigenous fabrics until the foundations of a new phase of decorative art were laid on a combination of the two4 ,the ,mycenaean vases belong to the later styles exclusively 7see below1 p4 #bga71 and show a strong preference for certain forms such as the false-necked amphora and the large richly-decorated krater peculiar to ,cyprus2 but these we must discuss later in fuller detail4 ,briefly1 they represent the first entry of ,greece proper into the ,cypriote world4 ,the ethnological affinities of the early inhabitants of ,cyprus cannot be positively ascertained4 ,in ,m4 ,heuzey's opinion they were ,asiatics1 ,syrian rather than ,phoenician1 and he suggests that the names of ,kition 7,chittim7 and ,amathus 7,hamath7 imply ,hittite and ,hamathite colonists4 ,dmmler regarded them as closely akin to the race which inhabited the second city at ,hissarlik1#hbd an idea to which the similarity of the pottery might be thought to lend support4 ,at all events in ,greek legend this people was personified by the mythical king ,kinyras1 the father of ,adonis1 who came from the neighbouring ,asiatic coast4 ,the ,hellenic1 or rather ,achaean1 invasion is crystallised into the legends of ,teucer's colonisation of ,salamis after the fall of ,troy1#hbe of an ,arcadian settlement at ,kerynia and elsewhere1 and of the founding of ,curium by ,argives 78 ,mycenaeans74#hbf ,the first attempt to classify the pottery of ,cyprus1 and to distinguish between the ,bronze-,age wares and what are now known as the ,graeco-,phoenician fabrics1 was made by the late ,mr4 ,t4 ,b4 ,sandwith in #ahgf4hbg ,considering the comparative poverty of material at his command1 and the state of archaeological knowledge at the time1 his brief but illuminating monograph is a wonderfully accurate and scientific contribution1 and1 so far as it goes1 his classification can still be accepted in the main4 ,but the extensive series of excavations in the island since the ,british occupation1 and the investigation of such fruitful sites as ,salamis1 ,curium1 and ,kition1 have resulted in a great advance of our knowledge of the subject4 ,the elaborate classification made by ,messrs4 ,myres and ,ohnefalsch-,richter of the representative collections of the ,cyprus ,museum must for the present be regarded as final1 and of necessity forms the basis of the succeeding description4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the pottery of the ,bronze ,age may be classified under two main headings3 ,painted and ,unpainted ,pottery4 ,of these the former is practically confined to the later tombs1 and we naturally turn first to the unpainted pottery as taking precedence in chronology and development4 ,almost the commonest1 and probably the earliest1 variety is the red polished ware1 sometimes plain1 but generally ornamented with incised patterns or reliefs 7see ,plate ,,xi41 ,nos4 #c1 #d1 #g74hbh ,the polished surface1 which seems to betoken a great advance in technique1 was doubtless produced by means of a burnisher4 ,in some varieties the surface is black1 a result due to the action of smoke in firing4 ,the commonest forms are a globular bottle with long neck and handle1 a plain bowl1 a cooking-pot on feet1 and a two-handled globular amphora2 besides composite and abnormal forms4 ,none of these vases have any kind of base except the cooking-pots4 ,the incised patterns1 when they occur1 are scratched in deeply before firing1 and often filled in with white2 the patterns1 which tend to become more and more elaborate1 consist of zigzags1 wavy lines1 chequers and lozenges1 network patterns1 and concentric circles4 ,ornament in relief is applied in the form of strips of clay1 often worked into the shape of rude figures of trees1 snakes1 animals1 or simple patterns4 ,many tombs and even cemeteries1 as at ,alambra1 ,agia ,paraskevi1 and elsewhere1 contain no other form of pottery2 but though these are undoubtedly earlier than the mixed tombs1 the red ware in a degenerate form continues long afterwards4 ,there is also a small class of black-slip ware1 covered with a thin dark lustreless slip which flakes off easily4 ,the ornamentation1 which is seldom absent1 is generally in the form of a straight or wavy line with a row of dots alternately on either side1 either incised or in relief4 ,the forms are much the same as in the red ware1 but often seem to suggest metal or leather prototypes4 ,an interesting class is formed by the black punctured ware1 in which the clay is black throughout1 without a slip1 but partly polished4 ,most of these vases are small jugs with a narrow neck1 swelling body1 and small foot1 and they are ornamented with punctured dots1 usually in triangular patches1 but sometimes irregularly distributed4 ,in ,cyprus they are mostly found in the early necropolis at ,kalopsida1 but they also occur in the late ,mycenaean tombs at ,enkomi4 ,the special interest of this ware is that it is found in ,egypt1 under such circumstances that it can fairly be dated2 notably at ,khata'anah in conjunction with scarabs and flint chips of the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties 7#bejj-bjjj ,b4,c474 ,it is also found in the ,faym1 where ,prof4 ,petrie obtained some good specimens4#hbi ,allied to this is the ,cypriote bucchero ware1 of plain black clay without slip1 ornamented with ribs or flutings4 ,it is only found in the later tombs1 and can be traced through the subsequent transitional period4#hcj ,of the remaining fabrics the most conspicuous is that termed by ,mr4 ,myres the base-ring ware1 which is marked off from other ,bronze-,age types by its flat-ringed base in all cases4 ,the clay is dark and of fine texture1 with thinly-glazed surface4 ,the ornament is either in relief or painted in matt-white1 the patterns being exclusively of a basket or network type 7,plate ,,xi41 figs4 #a1 #b74 ,the reliefs1 when they occur1 consist of scrolls or raised seams curving over the body1 obviously in imitation of the seams of a leather bottle2 they sometimes end in a leaf-ornament1#hca and at other times take the form of a snake4 ,this fabric is very commonly found in the later tombs with ,mycenaean vases1 and hardly earlier4 ,it has been found in ,egypt and at ,lachish4#hcb ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xi ,illustration3 ,,early ,,cypriote ,,pottery 7,,british ,,museum74 #a1 #b1 8,,base-,,ring0 ,,black ,,ware2 #c1 #d1 #g1 ,,incised ,,red ,,and ,,black ,,wares2 #e1 #f1 8,,white-,,slip0 ,,wares4 ------------------------------------ ,among the rarer varieties of unpainted wares ,mr4 ,myres includes white base-ring ware 7plates and bowls71 imitations of straw-plait or wicker-work1 and plain wheel-made wares with red or black slip1 of peculiar form4#hcc ,among the ,painted ,pottery by far the most widely-spread local fabric is that styled by ,mr4 ,myres the white-slip ware1 which appears in the tombs of the later ,bronze ,age1 and is more than any other associated with ,mycenaean vases4 ,in cemeteries such as ,enkomi1 ,curium1 and ,maroni#hcd it has been found in large quantities in almost every tomb1 and its range is not limited to ,cyprus4 ,the characteristics of this ware are a black gritty clay1 worked very thin1 and a thick white creamy slip with which it is covered both inside and out2 it is exceedingly brittle1 and perfect specimens are comparatively uncommon4 ,the ornament is laid on in a black pigment1 often turning to red by the action of fire2 the most common form is that of a hemispherical bowl with a flat triangular handle1 notched at the apex4 ,almost the only other forms are a long-necked flask or bottle of the lekythos type and a large jug with cylindrical body 7like an olpe7 and a flat thumb-piece above the handle4 ,mr4 ,myres#hce points out that the scheme of decoration seems intended to imitate the binding and seams of a leather bowl2 it usually consists of a band of various patterns 7lattice-work1 zigzags1 lozenges1 or lines of dots7 round the rim1 from which similar bands descend vertically1 but do not meet at the bottom4 ,similarly the handle seems intended to represent two pieces of flexible wood bound together4 ,in the case of the jugs the patterns follow a similar principle1 giving the effect of a decoration in panels to the upper part4 ,specimens of this ware are given in ,plate ,,xi41 ,nos4 #e1 #f4 ,beyond the confines of ,cyprus isolated specimens of this ware have been found at ,athens1 ,hissarlik1 ,thera1 ,lachish in ,palestine1 and at ,saqqara and ,tell-el-,amarna in ,egypt1 in the last-named instance along with ,mycenaean vases4#hcf ,the resemblance of some white-slip wares to the ,dipylon vases is not a little curious4#hcg ,but it can hardly be thought that the one influenced the other4 ,the other local painted wares are by no means so common4 ,they are1 in fact1 almost limited to specimens of an unpolished white ware1 with fine cream-coloured clay1 on which patterns such as groups of straight or wavy lines1 chevrons1 chequers1 and triangles filled with hatched lines are painted with a pigment varying from dull black to dull red4 ,the commonest forms are one-handled bowls and small bottles1 either globular or sausage-shaped4 ,the latter are distinguished by often having long tube-like spouts attached and by the numerous perforated projections for the attachment of strings1 handles being generally absent at first1 but when they are introduced the projections remain as an ornamental survival4 ,in a few isolated specimens the surface is covered with a polished slip4 ,others again are covered with a black glaze1#hch on which are painted in dull red groups of short parallel lines1 which 7as ,mr4 ,myres points out7 seem to have been executed at a single stroke with a cluster of brushes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,mycenaean pottery which has been found on not a few sites in ,cyprus1 and of late years in such surprising quantities at ,enkomi and in the neighbourhood of ,larnaka and ,limassol 7,maroni1 ,curium1 etc471 belongs properly to another section of this chapter1 and would not call for discussion in this connection1 but for the fact that in ,cyprus it presents certain features which seem to be almost exclusively local4 ,at all events it is advisable to consider how far ,mycenaean pottery in ,cyprus differs from that found in ,rhodes1 ,crete1 or ,mycenae4 ,two points claim our attention in the first instance3 7#a7 that in point of technique the ,cypriote finds fall absolutely into line with those in other parts of the ,mycenaean world2 7#b7 that the range of subjects depicted on the vases found in ,cyprus is wider and in a measure more developed than elsewhere4 ,to what extent we may be permitted1 bearing both facts in mind1 to predicate a local fabric of ,mycenaean pottery in ,cyprus1 must for the present remain an open question2 at the same time it seems extremely probable that the larger vases1 which it will be necessary to discuss in detail1 are1 if not of local manufacture1 at all events a fabric made specially for exportation to ,cyprus1 as we shall see was the case with a later variety of black-figured ,attic ware4 ,the peculiarity of the ,cypriote-,mycenaean pottery is that whereas on other sites the decoration is confined to linear ornaments1 and animal or vegetable subjects drawn almost exclusively from the aquatic world 7such as cuttle-fish1 shell-fish1 or seaweed71 in ,cyprus we find represented not only animals1 such as bulls1 deer1 goats1 and dogs1 but even human figures1 both male and female1 and monsters such as ,sphinxes and ,gryphons4 ,having regard to what ,m4 ,pottier#hci calls the law of the hierarchie des genres1 it does not seem impossible that this may imply a late survival of ,mycenaean art in ,cyprus1 and although this view has been hitherto strongly contested in certain quarters1 it finds support from other evidence obtained in recent excavations4 ,the whole chronology of ,cypriote pottery is still in a very unsettled state1 and until it can be definitely shown that the ,cypriote ,geometrical style began concurrently with the appearance of ,geometrical pottery in ,greece1 it is still admissible to urge that ,mycenaean art prevailed here for some time subsequent to its disappearance from the greater part of the ,hellenic world4 ,for this the accepted date is the end of the tenth century ,b4,c41 but it is not necessary to extend its influence in ,cyprus more than two centuries longer1 i4e4 beyond the eighth century1 at the latest4 ,if we accept the view generally held that the ,mycenaean civilisation was ,achaean1 and that after the ,dorian invasion its representatives were driven in an easterly direction and settled on the coast of ,asia ,minor2 and if again we regard this as an historical version of the ,greek traditions of the ,trojan war and the subsequent migrations of the ,achaean heroes#hdj2 we may then consider that the stories of ,teucer's foundation of a new ,salamis and of an ,argive colonisation of ,curium find their verification in the ,mycenaean settlements recently discovered on those two ,cypriote sites4 ,the extent and richness of the old ,salamis at ,enkomi at any rate seems to suggest that it may have flourished as a ,mycenaean settlement for some centuries4 ,but to return to the pottery4 ,two forms are eminently characteristic of the ,cypriote varieties4 ,of these1 one--the 8false amphora0 7p4 #bga7--;is not peculiar to the island1 but is found wherever ,mycenaean pottery has penetrated2 though especially common in ,cyprus1 it is in fact the most popular of all ,mycenaean shapes4 ,the other is a large krater1 found in two varieties1 either a straight-sided deep bowl with wide mouth and no neck1 or a spheroidal vessel on a high stem1 with a low straight neck of less diameter than the body4 ,it is this latter class which appears to be of local manufacture and presents such a variety of painted decoration4 ,up to the year #ahie only some half-dozen of these kraters were known1 one of which was found by ,general ,cesnola in the rich necropolis at ,agia ,paraskevi near ,nicosia#hda2 another he alleged to have come from ,amathus1 but it was no doubt found at ,maroni1 not so far distant1 where for many years a ,bronze-,age cemetery has been known4 ,in the above-named year two more came to light at ,curium1#hdb one of the same type as ,general ,cesnola's1 with figures driving two-horse chariots2 the other having in addition the unique subject of a series of women1 each figure in a separate panel1 represented as waving their arms or holding flowers4#hdc ,these were speedily followed by the rich and valuable series from ,enkomi now in the ,british ,museum1 since which time other interesting specimens have been obtained for the ,museum in various excavations or have found their way into the hands of local collectors 7see ,plate ,,xii474 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xii ,illustration3 ,,mycenaean ,,vases ,,from ,,cyprus 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,native imitations of the ,mycenaean vases1 which have been described as 8sub-,mycenaean wares10 have been found in considerable numbers on most of the sites where the genuine ,mycenaean ware exists4 ,they fall technically under the heading of painted white ware 7p4 #bea71hdd the difference being that the decoration is in matt colour 7varying from black to red7 on an unpolished drab ground4 ,the patterns mostly follow ,mycenaean models1 but some are new4 ,they are well represented on the ,mycenaean site at ,curium1#hde especially in one or two tombs of transitional character1 and in some cases the decoration is of a distinctly ,geometrical type1 illustrating the development of the succeeding style4 ,in any case it is not difficult to distinguish them from the genuine ,mycenaean fabrics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in these so-called sub-,mycenaean vases we can trace the best evidence of the transition from the ,bronze ,age to the succeeding or ,graeco-,phoenician period4 ,but on the whole the line of demarcation is clearly defined1 as for instance by the forms and position of the tombs1 which become larger and lie deeper2 by the appearance of iron implements and bronze fibulae2 and by the fact that all the native pottery is now made on the wheel4 ,relations with continental ,greece are evidenced by the occasional importation of ,geometrical pottery of the ,dipylon type 7as in the great vase found at ,curium71 dating from the ninth and eighth centuries ,b4,c4 ,as we have already seen1 the first ,hellenic settlements in ,cyprus seem to have followed on more or less immediately after the ,dorian invasion1 in the sites of ,salamis1 ,curium1 ,kerynia1 ,paphos1 and others which afterwards became the capitals of small ,hellenic kingdoms4 ,on the other hand1 the ,phoenician thalassocracy1 which began about the ninth century ,b4,c41 never had much foothold in ,cyprus1 less at any rate than was formerly supposed4 ,politically at all events the ,phoenician influence was comparatively small1 even in their settlements at ,kition and ,amathus#hdf2 we read of expeditions of the kings of ,tyre in the tenth and eighth centuries1 the object of which was to force the former town to pay tribute2 but subsequently they were compelled by the ,assyrian domination under ,sargon to retreat westwards4 ,in the seventh century a new power arose in the shape of ,egypt1 and in the sixth ,cyprus became a tributary of ,amasis4#hdg ,throughout1 however1 relations with ,greece were maintained1 and we read that in #eja ,b4,c4 the ,cypriote princes joined the ,ionians in their revolt against ,persia1 a fact which shows the strength of the ,hellenic element4 ,nevertheless the term 8,graeco-,phoenician10 which has been adopted to describe the art of this period1 is convenient1 and can hardly be improved upon1 if we bear in mind that the term 8,phoenician0 really represents the combination of ,egyptian and ,assyrian elements of art which filtered through that race into ,cyprus1 and in which sometimes the one1 sometimes the other has the predominance4 ,this is seen perhaps more clearly in the sculpture1 metal-work1 and terracottas1 as for instance in the incised bronze and silver bowls1#hdh than in the pottery4 ,painted pottery was never a feature of ,oriental art1 and the ,phoenician influence in the pottery is confined to borrowed motives of ,oriental character1 like foreign words in a language4 ,another proof that ,cyprus resisted the ,phoenician domination is afforded by the curious fact that though the ,greeks of the mainland adopted the ,phoenician alphabet entirely1 in ,cyprus1 on the other hand--where1 above all1 we should have expected to find it--its place is taken by a syllabary1 the forms of which appear to bear some relation to the ,lycian1 ,carian1 and ,pamphylian alphabets4 ,that this syllabary1 which is universally employed for inscriptions down to the fourth century1 is of a very high antiquity is shown by its close affinities with the newly-discovered ,cretan script1 and by the fact that single characters of a similar type are often found engraved on the handles of ,mycenaean vases in ,cyprus4 ,each character represents a syllable1 not a letter 7except in the case of vowels71 and the dialect is thought to be largely influenced by ,aeolic4 ,mycenaean influence1 as might be expected1 was slow to die out in ,cyprus1 and the pottery is no exception4 ,it is seen not only in the patterns1 such as the concentric circles--an invention of the ,cypriote-,mycenaean pottery1 which forms a favourite and almost universal motive at a later date--but in the subjects and technique4 ,the practice of painting figures in outline1 not in silhouette1 as in the birds and beasts of the ,enkomi kraters1 the use of dull red and black pigments on an unglazed light-coloured surface1 and many other details are an heritage from the ,bronze ,age1 extending over many a succeeding century4 ,with these are combined the influences of the early ,attic pottery1#hdi in the panels of ,geometrical patterns1 and the later rosette and conventionalised lotos-flower1 which1 with the concentric circles1 form the stock-in-trade of the 8,graeco-,phoenician0 potter4 ,the ,british ,museum collection includes one or two remarkable isolated specimens which illustrate this principle4 ,it is for instance instructive to compare the ,sphinxes on a krater from ,enkomi#hej with those on a large amphora lately acquired from the ,karpas1#hea or the oinochoe from ,general ,cesnola's collection with a chariot-scene 7,plate ,,xiii471#heb with those from ,mycenaean sites similarly decorated4 ,on the other hand1 the extraordinary large vase from ,tamassos1#hec with its crudely and childishly drawn figures1 combines a curious admixture of ,greek and ,oriental motives1 and early as it must be1 is not ,mycenaean in conception or technique4 ,oriental influence is not1 however1 altogether wanting in the pottery4 ,the lotos-flowers and rosettes1 of which we have already spoken1 are derived respectively from ,egypt and ,assyria1 and the conventionalised palm-trees1 which also appear1 are of course purely ,oriental4 ,so too1 again1 the typically ,oriental subject of the sacred tree between two animals appears in various forms4 ,but here again we are met with the surprising fact that the ,oriental element is far stronger in ,greece than in ,cyprus1 as will be seen later in the account of the early ,hellenic fabrics2 and no doubt it is due to this cause that the ,geometric style was not driven out from ,cyprus as it was from ,greece1 but continued for many centuries4 ,in attempting a detailed description of the ,graeco-,phoenician pottery1 it will be seen that any chronological system is impossible4 ,the conservative tendency of ,cypriote art caused the same methods of decoration to be employed with extraordinary persistency during a period of time which saw the whole development of ,hellenic vase-painting from its earliest beginnings to its decline1 and though there is a certain amount of variety1 there is no development properly speaking1 and the latest fabrics are1 artistically speaking1 on the same level as the earliest4 ,it might be thought that the evidence of excavations would compensate for this absence of artistic criteria2 but such is not the case4 ,as a general rule in tombs containing imported ,greek vases1 the dates of which can be fixed within reasonable limits1 native pottery is conspicuous by its absence1 as may be seen from the results obtained at ,curium4 ,in any case1 in the tombs richest in ,hellenic pottery1 as at ,poli1 the local wares are largely of a definitely late character1 and so far distinct from the ,geometrical and ,orientalising fabrics as to form a class by themselves4 ,another difficulty which has to be taken into account1 is that caused by the frequency of re-burials in ,cypriote tombs4 ,of this there were countless instances at ,amathus and ,poli1 so much so that explorers of the latter site were actually led to believe that the ,geometrical pottery was contemporaneous with remains of the ,hellenistic age with which it was frequently found4#hed ,but where trustworthy evidence can be obtained1 it entirely militates against this possibility4 ,the principal sites#hee on which 8,graeco-,phoenician0 pottery has been found are3 ,amathus1 ,curium1 ,dali 7,idalion71 ,kition1 ,lapathos1 ,poli 7,marion-,arsinoe71 ,paphos1 ,salamis1 ,soli1 and ,tamassos4 ,other sites are not at present identified1 but the finds were made in the neighbourhood of the modern ,achna1 ,ormidhia1 and other villages1 and in the ,karpas4 ,of these sites the richest are ,amathus1 ,dali1 ,curium1 and ,poli2 but in the finest collection of vases of this class1 that of ,general ,cesnola at ,new ,york1 the alleged sites are not always to be accepted with certainty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,,jug ,,with ,,concentric ,,circles3 ,,graeco-,,phoenician ,,period 7,,british ,,museum74 ,graeco-,phoenician pottery is1 as has been said1 exclusively wheel-made1 and almost always supplied with a 8base-ring40 ,reliefs and incised ornaments are never found1 but instances of moulded wares1 combining the vase with the statuette1 are not wanting1 especially among the later varieties4 ,the designs are usually painted in a non-lustrous black pigment1 varied with the use of opaque purple and white1 corresponding to the pigments employed by ,hellenic potters4 ,the ground is either white1 without any polish or slip--as in the painted white ware of the ,bronze ,age and sub-,mycenaean fabrics--or else covered with a more or less lustrous red slip1 varying from a bright orange or deep red to a dark brown 7the latter usually with unpolished surface74 ,purple is employed only on the white wares1 white only on the red4 ,the typical decoration of the white wares consists of lotos-patterns1 tree-ornaments1 and water-fowl4 ,generally speaking1 these are earlier than the red4 ,on the lustrous red wares the decoration is usually confined to simple patterns of concentric circles1 vertical and horizontal1 maeander crosses1 lozenges and triangles4 ,fig4 #ge1 from ,curium1 is a typical specimen of the more elaborate types1 and another is shown in ,plate ,,xiii4 ,the forms are at first very varied1 but gradually crystallise into some half-dozen main types3 dishes1 bowls on stems1 lekythi with one or two handles1 jugs with globular bodies1 and large amphorae with vertical side-handles4 ,of these the jug is by far the commonest4 ,among the peculiar forms in the earlier tombs 7eighth to sixth centuries7 may be mentioned aski in the form of birds or oxen 7the latter a ,mycenaean survival71 and a kind of flask with barrel-shaped body1 on which the decoration of concentric circles1 etc41 does not follow the usual horizontal system of classical pottery1 but is disposed vertically1 in contradiction to all artistic feeling 7see ,plate ,,xiii474 ,the circles are often very fine and close1 and were produced by holding a brush full of paint close to the surface of the vase as it was turned on the wheel4 ,the drawing of the circles in different planes1 without regard to the lines of the vase1 was easily effected by placing it in different positions4 ,in the period of ,hellenic importations the principal form is the jug with ovoid body and modelled spout1 and flat dishes are also common4 99 99 99 99 99 ,unpainted pottery is almost as common as painted in the ,graeco-,phoenician period1 and calls for a few words of separate treatment4 ,for the most part it comes under the heading of ,domestic ,ware1 or earthenware vessels similar to those in ordinary use at the present day4 ,they are made of plain1 unrefined1 usually reddish1 clay1 without any slip or polish1 and include various forms of jugs1 bowls1 and plates1 as well as the large wine-amphorae with pointed bases universally found at all periods4 ,many lamps and small 8cup-and-saucer0 double bowls occur in this category4 ,in the earlier tombs of the ,transitional period1 pottery of a black-slip ware1 with reeded body1 is frequently found1 chiefly in the form of jugs and kraters4 ,plain black wares1 like the ,italian bucchero1 are also rarely found2 as are vessels covered with a fine red slip and polished4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in most of the painted pottery of the ,graeco-,phoenician period1 especially in its earlier phases1 the technical methods are those which we have already described in speaking not only of the 8sub-,mycenaean0 or ,transitional fabrics1 but also of the painted white ware of the ,bronze-,age tombs4 ,that is to say1 that the decoration is in dull colour on a lustreless and 7usually7 unpolished white or drab ground4 ,the colour1 however1 is usually not red1 as in the earlier stages1 but black1 red being used chiefly as an accessory or for picked-out details4 ,the latter varies from a pale brick-red to deep purple4 ,the system of decoration is often extremely elaborate1 although the range of subjects is limited4 ,apart from geometrical or conventional patterns1 such as the stylised palmette1 lotos-flower1 stars1 or trees1 we only find water-fowl1 fish1 a few quadrupeds such as bulls or deer1#hef and finally human figures4 ,but the last are exceedingly rare1 and confined to the white wares1 the best example being perhaps the very ,oriental design of two warriors driving in a chariot1#heg or the worshippers rendering homage to seated deities on the fine vase from ,ormidhia 7,fig4 #gf74heh ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xiii ,illustration3 ,,cypriote ,,pottery3 ,,graeco-,,phoenician ,,period 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,the system of geometrical decoration on some of the earlier vases1 especially the large jars1 is often extremely elaborate1 covering every available inch of the surface#hei2 the patterns consist of rosettes1 panels of lozenge-pattern or chequers1 triangles of hatched lines1 dotted circles1 etc41 all combined in parallel bands or friezes1 much in the same way as on the ,dipylon wares4 ,the disappearance of this elaborate style1 together with human figures and figures of animals1 is perhaps to be accounted for by the importations of ,hellenic wares which began in the sixth century1 and relegated the local fabrics to a subordinate position1 just as in ,greece the early ,geometrical fabrics were obscured by the ,mycenaean pottery 7see below1 p4 #bgi74 ,some interesting specimens1 forming a late survival of these earlier ,geometrical wares1 were found at ,amathus in #ahid4hfj ,they include one which has a parallel in a vase found at ,phocaea by ,prof4 ,ramsay1#hfa and originally thought to be ,ionic in origin2 the decoration consists of a head of ,hathor the ,egyptian goddess in a panel1 with debased geometrical patterns4 ,there can be no doubt now that the fabric is ,cypriote1 probably of the fifth century1 and not without traces of ,ionic influence4 ,another shows a remarkable development in the direction of naturalism1 and the subject is unique in ,cypriote pottery3 men banqueting under a palm-tree4 ,illustration3 ,from ,baumeister4 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,,cypriote ,,vase ,,from ,,ormidhia4 ,these probably date from the fifth century1 the period which seems to be represented by the later ,geometrical red wares with concentric circles1 now slowly dying out under the influence of ,hellenic importations1 and exceedingly rare in tombs where ,greek vases are found4 ,at the same time a great transformation comes over the contents of the tombs1 which themselves begin to increase in size1 with a shorter 1 to which a flight of steps leads down4 ,other tombs--and this is often the case where ,greek importations are found1 as at ,curium--are merely in the form of ramifying passages cut in the earth1 without any structural remains4 ,sixth century and earlier ,greek fabrics1 such as the ,geometrical1 ,corinthian1 or ,ionian wares1 are very rare2 but the imported ,dipylon vase found by ,general ,cesnola at ,curium#hfb is a notable instance4 ,black-figured vases when found are almost invariably of a late and careless type1 characteristic of the last efforts of that style in the fifth century4 ,there is1 however1 a remarkable exception in the case of a small class of jugs1 which are in shape an exact imitation of the globular ,cypriote jugs with concentric-circle decoration#hfc2 the long narrow neck and trefoil mouth1 with its incised eyes1 are retained1 but the decoration is purely ,attic1 in the style of ,b4,f4 vases of #ebj-ejj ,b4,c4 ,these are found at ,poli and ,amathus1 and appear to have been made specially at ,athens for importation to ,cyprus4 ,poli 7,marion7 was for some reason a great centre for ,athenian imports in general1 and has yielded many fine specimens of ,hellenic pottery 7see p4 #fg74 ,red-figured vases signed by ,chachrylion1 ,hermaios1 etc41 have been found here1#hfd and at ,curium a fine ,r4,f4 krater with the name of ,megakles 77#hfe2 also some fine white-ground specimens at ,poli4#hff ,by the fourth century1 if not earlier1 the ,geometrical and ,hellenic vases are almost entirely replaced by a new class of wares1 which may be termed 8,graeco-,cypriote10 in contradistinction to the ,graeco-,phoenician4 ,the same red clay1 covered with a more or less polished red slip1 still obtains1 but the painted decoration is confined to olive-wreaths in brown or plain bands of colour4 ,we also witness the revival of an old practice1 in a partial return to the taste for plastic decoration on vases4 ,in many of the fourth-century tombs are found large pitchers1 with a spout modelled in the form of a woman holding a jug1 out of which the liquid was intended to pour 7,plate ,,xiii474#hfg ,these are sometimes richly decorated in polychrome1 red1 blue1 green1 black1 pink1 and white2 but the colouring is apt to flake off and disappear4 ,the imported wares of the fourth century are confined to plain cups and bowls of glazed black ware with stamped patterns1 such as are often found in ,greece and ,italy4 ,in the ,hellenistic period 7#cjj-adf ,b4,c47 painted vases are practically unknown1 though a few rare specimens have turned up at ,curium#hfh2 and it is not long before they are entirely replaced by the glass vessels and common wine-amphorae of the large and elaborate ,roman tombs4 #b4 ,,primitive ,,pottery ,,in ,,greece ,,bibliography ,,troy3 ,schliemann1 ,ilios2 ,drpfeld1 ,troja #ahic1 and ,troja und ,ilion 7#aijb71 i4 p4 #bdc ff42 ,dumont-,pottier1 ,cramiques1 i4 p4 #c ff42 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #gd ff4 ,,thera3 ,fouqu1 ,santorin2 ,dumont-,pottier1 ,cramiques1 i4 p4 #ai ff42 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 vi4 p4 #ace ff42 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,myken4 ,vasen1 p4 #ah2 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #aai ff42 ,hiller von ,gaertringen1 ,thera1 vol4 ii4 7#aijc71 p4 #abg ff42 ,ath4 ,mitth4 xxviii4 7#aijc71 p4 #a ff4 ,,melos3 ,excavations of ,british ,school at ,phylakopi 7,j4,h4,s4 ,suppl4 ,vol4 iv4 #aijd74 ,see also ,dmmler in ,ath4 ,mitth4 xi4 7#ahhf71 p4 #ae ff4 ,the earliest remains of pottery on ,hellenic soil are to be sought chiefly in the ,cyclades and on the site of ancient ,troy4 ,we have already had occasion to allude to the latter in speaking of the earliest ,cypriote fabrics1 and it is therefore fitting that we should now give it our first attention4 ,the site of ,troy1 now known as ,hissarlik1 was1 as is well known1 first explored by ,dr4 ,schliemann in his laudable endeavours to prove the truth of the early ,greek legends of the ,trojan ,war4 ,although doubtless there are visible links between the ,homeric poems and the discoveries at ,hissarlik1 and although it is not necessary to deny all credence to the historical truth of the 8,bible of the ,greeks10 yet it is now generally recognised that ,dr4 ,schliemann's pardonable enthusiasm sometimes led him to hasty conclusions4 ,for instance1 ,dr4 ,drpfeld in his more recent investigations proved that if any remains are to be connected with the tale of ,troy1 it is those of the sixth1 not of the second or burnt city4#hfi ,nine layers in all have been traced1 of which the five lowest may be termed prehistoric1 the third1 fourth1 and fifth being mere villages on the ruins of the first two4 ,in the lowest and earliest of all1 which may be roughly dated #cjjj-bejj ,b4,c41 flint implements were found1 together with rude black pottery3 hand-made utensils baked in the open1 with rings for suspension in place of handles4 ,the second city belongs to the period #bejj-bjjj ,b4,c41 and it is this which has yielded pottery analogous to the earliest examples from ,cyprus 7p4 #bch74 ,it is of the same rough hand-polished black ware1 with decoration either of a plastic character or engraved in the clay while wet and filled in with white paint4 ,apart from this there are no traces of painted decoration1 or of any slip2 but the colour of the surface varies with the firing4 ,the patterns consist of zigzags1 circles1 and other rudimentary geometrical ornaments4 ,a few wheel-made specimens were found1 but the majority are made by hand4 ,what artistic sense was evinced by these primitive potters was shown exclusively in the forms1 and in the tendency which is especially conspicuous in primitive times1 though it lingered on through the history of ,greek art1 and again broke out in the period of the decadence1 to combine the ceramic and the plastic idea1 and to give to the vase the rude resemblance of the human form4#hgj ,that this was no far-fetched idea is shown by the universal nomenclature which permits us to speak of the mouth1 neck1 shoulder1 body1 and foot of a vase--a principle which has been extended by general consent to countless inanimate objects4 ,thus we find the ,hissarlik potter incising eyes on the upper part of the vase1 or affixing lumps of clay to give a rude suggestion of ears1 nose or breasts1 or bands to denote necklaces4 ,the handles often seem intended for rudimentary arms1 and we are tempted to see in the hat-shaped covers of the vases the idea of a head-covering4 ,schliemann even went so far as to regard them as actual idols1 and was led by the superficial resemblance of some to the form of an owl into identifying them with figures of the 8owl-eyed0 77 ,pallas ,athena 7cf4 ,fig4 #gg74 ,but this interpretation has not found favour for many reasons1 and the accidental combination of forms is obviously only an artistic phase4 ,there are also many similar shapes1 such as plain jars and jugs1 and deep funnel-shaped cups with two graceful handles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 8,,owl-,,vase0 ,,from ,,troy4 ,m4 ,dumont#hga classifies the fabrics as follows3 7#a7 ordinary vessels1 plates1 etc42 7#b7 large jars or amphorae2 7#c7 primitive kraters1 deep cups1 etc42 7#d7 spherical vases with base-ring 8 and long neck#hgb2 7#e7 long two-handled cups2 7#f7 vases reproducing the human form2 7#g7 vases in the form of pigs and other animals2 7#h7 exceptional forms1 such as double vases2 7#i7 vases with incised patterns1 on one of which a ,sphinx is engraved4 ,figs4 #gh-hj give examples of classes 7#e71 7#g71 and 7#h72 ,fig4 #gg a specimen of class 7#f74hgc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,,funnel-,,vase ,,from ,,troy4 ,the ,hissarlik pottery may be regarded as a local development1 partly parallel with that of ,cyprus1#hgd partly derivative therefrom2 of ,oriental influence there are no traces1 but the connection with ,thera and ,cyprus is indisputable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,,vase ,,in ,,form ,,of ,,pig1 ,,from ,,troy4 ,passing over the unimportant traces of the three succeeding settlements1 we find in the sixth city a great advance4 ,the plastic forms disappear1 and generally speaking the shapes become more classical4 ,besides plain pottery with matt-black polished surface we meet with painted vases with curvilinear and vegetable patterns4 ,the remains of genuine ,mycenaean pottery1 the fortifications and buildings1 with great halls in the style of ,mycenae and ,tiryns1 bear out ,dr4 ,drpfeld's contention that this is the ,troy of ,homer4 ,two points among the pottery finds of this period are worth noting2 firstly that they included a fragment of ,cypriote 8white-slip0 ware1 secondly that ,geometrical patterns mingle with the ,mycenaean in the upper layers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,,vase ,,with ,,two ,,necks 7,,troy74 ,the three remaining layers cover respectively the archaic period1 the developed ,hellenic and ,hellenistic periods1 and the age in which the city of ,ilium was refounded by the ,romans4 ,dr4 ,drpfeld found some interesting local fabrics dating from the fifth century1 examples of which had previously been obtained by ,mr4 ,calvert for the ,british ,museum4#hge 99 99 99 99 99 ,of almost equal antiquity with the remains at ,hissarlik is some of the pottery discovered in the ,cyclades1 and especially at ,thera4 ,here1 indeed1 we meet with the earliest known examples of ,greek painted pottery 7,crete excepted71 and that1 as we shall see1 of a remarkably developed type4 ,the island of ,thera may be described as a sort of prehistoric ,pompeii buried under volcanic deposits1 which have completely transformed the configuration of the island4 ,the results of preliminary excavations by the ,french in #ahff showed that the cataclysm which overwhelmed the island must 7on geological grounds7 have taken place about the twentieth century ,b4,c41 and that the remains of pottery must be anterior to this event4#hgf ,herodotos#hgg states that ,kadmos founded a settlement in the fourteenth century1 and the ,minyae again about the twelfth1 and the island must have been uninhabitable for a long time previously4 ,the houses and other remains of civilisation discovered below the volcanic deposits show an advance on ,hissarlik 7second city7 and the earliest ,cypriote culture1 and the pottery is no exception4 ,the vases are wheel-made1 fired at a moderate heat in closed furnaces 7sometimes baked in the sun71 and plastic forms are almost wanting4#hgh ,many are pierced with holes in the bottom1 for what purpose is not known4 ,they were often found in situ1 mixed with stone implements1 and with evidence of having contained grain4 ,the forms are very regular1 a cylindrical shape being specially affected1 and they are made of a badly levigated clay1 covered with a greyish slip1 on which the patterns are laid in matt colours--white1 black1 or red--without any incised markings4 ,illustration3 ,from ,baumeister4 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,,vases ,,from ,,thera4 ,m4 ,dumont distinguishes four varieties of ornament3 simple patterns1 such as bands1 hatchings1 and dots2 volutes1 wave-patterns1 and intersecting circles2 vegetable motives1 such as long narrow leaves or flowers2 and animals1 including deer1 and ducks or swans4 ,generally there is a strong predilection for vegetable motives1 and in this naturalistic tendency we may see the prelude to the ,mycenaean period4 ,among those now at the ,french ,school at ,athens1 which has the best collection1 are several interesting examples illustrated in ,fig4 #ha4hgi ,one is a trefoil-mouthed jug with running quadrupeds in black1 and red bands1 on a grey ground2 another jug is painted with birds in black1 the details in red and white4 ,a sort of cream-jug is decorated with water-plant patterns2 a cylindrical jar with oblique wreaths2 and a dish with seaweed4 ,a funnel-shaped vase and a beak-mouthed jug are obvious prototypes of ,mycenaean forms4 ,the chief differences from the ,hissarlik vases are in the forms and methods of decoration1 but resemblances may be noted in the long narrow necks1 and the rings for suspension1 as in the plastic forms when they do occur4 ,that the fabric is a local one hardly admits of doubt1 but it is interesting to note the occurrence of a bowl of white-slip ware from ,cyprus in ,thera1#hhj and conversely the appearance of a vase of ,thera fabric at ,mycenae4#hha ,thus we have evidence of extensive commercial relations4 ,some tombs of the ,hellenic period seem to have been dug right down into the volcanic deposit1 for they contained pottery with ,geometrical decoration4#hhb ,the discovery of primitive stone idols in ,thera shows that it belonged to the ,cycladic civilisation1 which extended from #bejj to #afjj ,b4,c41 filling up the gap between ,hissarlik and ,mycenae4 ,it has been suggested that these ,cycladic peoples were ,carians1#hhc subsequently driven to the ,asiatic mainland by ,minos1 who typifies the rising power of ,crete and the ,mycenaean world4#hhd ,this ,cycladic civilisation is also exemplified in the earliest finds from other islands1 such as ,amorgos1 ,syra1 ,paros1 and ,antiparos1 and in other instances noted early in the century by the observant traveller ,ross4#hhe ,the pottery from these sites is1 however1 less advanced than that of ,thera1 but varies in character4 ,painted patterns were found on vases from ,amorgos and ,syra1 the latter in the form of brown foliage on yellow ground4 ,it would not be right to conclude this section without some notice of the remarkably interesting pottery excavated at ,phylakopi in ,melos by the ,british ,school in #ahif-ii1 which is important as forming a connecting link between the ,cycladic wares and the fully-developed ,mycenaean style4 ,space forbids more than a brief abstract of the results obtained1 which have just been given to the world in an admirable publication4#hhf ,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,edgar1 to whom the task of studying the pottery was allotted1 distinguishes four main groups3 #a4 7a7 ,primitive pottery of the cist-tomb type1 corresponding to that of ,hissarlik2 7b7 more advanced ware of the same kind4 #b4 ,painted ,geometrical wares4 #c4 ,local pottery in ,mycenaean style with spiral and naturalistic designs1 falling into two divisions1 earlier and later4 #d4 ,imported ,mycenaean pottery of the third and fourth styles 7see below1 p4 #bga74 ,generally speaking the pottery is of local make1 and ,phylakopi seems to have been an important centre in the early ,mycenaean period1 having considerable intercourse with ,crete4 ,the earliest wares 7class #a7 include plain pottery1 hand-made1 with burnished brown surface or simple incised patterns2 those of class #b are painted in lustrous or matt black on a white slip1 or in white on lustrous black or red1 with simple patterns2 they appear to be hand-made4 ,the ,mycenaean pottery is more or less akin to that found elsewhere in the ,aegean4 #c4 ,crete ,,bibliography ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 p4 #fd 7finds in #ahgh at ,knossos72 ,milchhoefer1 ,anfnge der ,kunst2 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,myken4 ,vasen1 p4 #bb2 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #agc2 ,mon4 ,antichi1 vi4 p4 #ccc ff42 ,j4,h4,s4 xxi4 p4 #gh ff41 xxiii4 p4 #aeg ff42 ,british ,school ,annual1 vi4 p4 #he ff41 vii4 p4 #ea1 and ix4 p4 #big ff42 ,proc4 ,soc4 ,antiqs4 xv4 7#ahid71 p4 #cea ff4 ,in turning our attention next to the island of ,crete1 we are confronted with a new element in ,greek archaeology2 namely1 the results of the recent discoveries1 which as yet have hardly become material ripe for use in a general handbook4 ,on the other hand1 their singular importance deserves full recognition4 ,it must1 therefore1 be borne in mind that much in the succeeding section is merely the embodiment of previous researches1 and that the new evidence can only be briefly summarised4 ,allusion has just been made to the thalassocracy of ,minos and its bearing on the history of early ,greek civilisations1 and the recent discoveries have done much to show that the prince who built the great palace at ,knossos in the early days of ,mycenaean civilisation1 if he is not actually the ,minos of ,greek legend1 yet represents the rising power which extended its dominion over the ,aegean and drove the ,carian people to the mainland4 ,this supremacy of ,crete from the fifteenth to the eleventh century was artistic as well as political4 ,the ,crete of ,minos was1 moreover1 the point of contact between the ,aegean peoples and the ,oriental races2 and in the story of the ,minotaur we may perhaps see a reflection of the human sacrifices offered to the ,phoenician ,moloch or ,melkarth4 ,the familiar passage in ,homer#hhg which deals with the ethnography of ,crete speaks of four component elements1 which may be explained as 7#a7 the ,eteokretes1 or aborigines of the island1 to whom the early civilisation exemplified in their ceramic and glyptic products is mainly due2 7#b7 the ,kydonii or ,leleges1 brought by ,minos from the islands#hhh2 7#c7 the ,achaeans or mainland ,greeks of the period of the ,trojan ,war2 7#d7 the ,dorians1 whose connection with the island dates from the eleventh century onwards4 ,even before the recent excavations pottery had been found in ,crete which dated from the dawn of the ,mycenaean period1 and from the island's early connection with ,egypt was thought to be contemporaneous with that of ,hissarlik and ,thera4 ,from the circumstances of its first appearance in any quantity at ,kamaraes1 in the plain of ,ida1 it has usually been named after that place4 ,dr4 ,orsi discovered two fragments of ,hissarlik type at ,phaestos1#hhi also a vase of island type1 one of ,thera type1#hij and some early ,cypriote wares4#hia ,large numbers of fragments of this ware in the ,museum at ,candia were first noted by ,dr4 ,orsi and ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,myres about #ahid4hib ,the extensive discoveries made by ,messrs4 ,hogarth and ,welch for the ,british ,school at ,athens in #ahii-aijj 7see p4 #fj7 have added still further to our knowledge of the ware2 and these1 taken in conjunction with ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans's extensive finds at ,knossos 7#ahii-aijb71 have enabled a recent writer to draw up a tentative classification of all the prehistoric pottery of ,crete4#hic ,in his paper ,mr4 ,mackenzie divides the pottery into three main classes1 which he distinguishes as ,neolithic1 ,early and ,middle ,minoan1 and ,late ,minoan4 ,the first-named extends down to about #cjjj ,b4,c42 the second covers the period #cjjj-bjjj ,b4,c42 and the third 7including ,mycenaean pottery of the usual types7 lasts down to #aejj ,b4,c41 about which time the ,cretan supremacy came to an end1 and the ,mycenaean centre of gravity was shifted to the mainland of ,greece4 7#a7 ,pottery of the ,neolithic period is quite exceptional in ,aegean localities2 yet the evidence from the excavations is so unmistakable that there can be no question of its great antiquity4 ,it consists of common household vessels of grey clay1 hand-made and burnished2 at first devoid of decoration1 but subsequently fragments appear with incised patterns filled in with white4 ,these1 it may be noted1 may help to date the analogous wares from ,troy and ,egypt4 ,the black surface becomes more and more lustrous1 and in some cases a sort of rippling effect is produced in the soft clay with a blunt instrument#hid2 finally an age of decline manifests itself1 but at the same time an advance is made from filling in hollows with white to painting in colours on the flat surface4 7#b7 ,the pottery in this stage is still hand-made2 but the clay1 which is of a brick or terracotta colour1 is greatly improved1 and shows that a potter's oven must have been employed4 ,the most remarkable feature is that1 along with the white or polychrome patterns on dark ground1 the origin of which has been noted1 there appear vases with patterns in lustrous dark colour on buff ground1 like the ,mycenaean wares4 ,hitherto it had been supposed that the latter process was much later than the other#hie2 but the ,cretan evidence admits of no doubt as to their synchronism1 even at this early stage of painted pottery in any form4 ,the pre-,mycenaean character of the ,early ,minoan deposits is1 for instance1 proved by the entire absence of plain pottery of ,mycenaean types4 ,it is then clear that ,crete developed both independently of1 and with far greater rapidity than1 the rest of the ,aegean at this period4 ,the painted patterns are usually of a ,geometrical character4#hif ,the middle deposits of the third millennium1 found above the floors of the first palace1 are1 like the preceding1 both polychrome and monochrome in their decoration4 ,the former include most of the types formerly known as ,kamaraes ware1 the patterns being mainly but not exclusively ,geometrical2 the curvilinear are rather later in date4 ,the commonest shape is one resembling a tea-cup4#hig ,in the next stage relief-work is introduced to enhance the polychrome effect1 probably in imitation of metal4 ,in the latest deposits a great decline is manifest1 and the monochrome vases tend to assert themselves to the exclusion of the others4 ,that the period under discussion must have been one of great length is shown by the depth of the 8,minoan0 deposits2 they are1 moreover1 so extensive at ,knossos1 and so scanty and isolated are examples from other sites1 that it cannot be doubted that here we have the centre of the fabric4 ,as regards their date we have good evidence from early ,aegean deposits in ,egypt4 ,by means of ,professor ,petrie's finds at ,kahun in the ,faym1 which include specimens of the best ,minoan ware1#hih we are able to place the height of the period about #bejj ,b4,c4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xiv ,illustration3 ,from ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 ix4 ,,stand ,,for ,,vase2 ,,kamaraes ,,ware4 ,,from ,,palaiokastro1 ,,crete4 ------------------------------------ ,the appearance of the so-called ,kamaraes ware is unmistakable1 with its bright1 almost gay1 aspect1 and the contrast of the colours with the lustrous black ground4 ,the pigments employed are four in number--milky white1 yellow ochre1 brick-red1 and purple-red4 ,these vases are mostly made on the wheel1 and the buff-coloured clay is fairly well levigated1 as is the slip1 on which the pigments are directly laid2 its lustre often almost rivals that of the best ,hellenic pottery4 ,mr4 ,evans found some specimens in #aijb of an extremely delicate character1 almost as thin as an egg-shell4 ,the colours are1 however1 sometimes dull and powdery1 and apt to flake away except when fired4 ,the forms are of a ,cycladic type1 the favourite being a two-handled globular vase with spout1 and a pear-shaped one-handled vase1 also with a spout#hii 7see also ,plate ,,xiv4#ijj74 ,the decoration is1 as has been indicated1 plastic as well as pictorial2 the relief ornaments are often of an elaborate type1 as may be seen in some of ,mr4 ,hogarth's finds4#ija ,some vases are merely covered with knobs1 or with a sort of honeycombing in relief#ijb2 in others toothed or bossed bands are employed1 either simply or combined into complex patterns4 ,in any case this plastic element is quite a new departure4 ,the pictorial designs include geometrical and linear patterns1 zigzags1 network1 concentric circles1 spirals1 and swastikas2 leaves1 rosettes1 and other vegetable forms2 fishes1 and even in one case a human figure4#ijc ,the chief field of decoration is the shoulder of the vase4 ,although varying in the extent of their naturalism1 the patterns exhibit considerable boldness and power of drawing2 they seem to be drawn chiefly from floral or textile sources1 and are closely parallel to the ,thera vases1 but more advanced4 ,some motives are of ,mycenaean character1 such as the use of rows of white dots#ijd2 on the other hand1 the style of the fishes and human figure is more like that of the ,geometrical vases4 ,mr4 ,hogarth notes that metal types of ,kamaraes cups appear in the hands of ,kefti tributaries in the paintings of the tomb of ,rekhmara 7about #aeej ,b4,c471 and he even found their ,neolithic prototypes at ,kephala1 near ,knossos4#ije ,he also traces a connection with the early ,aegean pottery of ,phylakopi in ,melos4 ,the ,kamaraes pottery can be shown not to have survived the incoming of the new ,mycenaean influences1 but the patterns rapidly became conventionalised1 and are replaced by the new motives of the ,mycenaean wares4 ,it may further be noted that fragments of ,kamaraes ware have turned up not only in ,egypt1 as at ,kahun 7already mentioned71 but at ,tiryns1 in the fifth and sixth ,acropolis graves at ,mycenae1 and at ,curium in ,cyprus4 7#c7 ,the pottery of the 8,late ,minoan0 period from the palace of ,knossos falls into two groups--the 8palace0 style1 and the ordinary ,mycenaean fabrics4 ,the former class of vases has been found in considerable numbers in the second palace1 and also at ,zakro and other sites4 ,the vases are painted in a lustrous brown-to-black glaze on a buff hand-polished slip1 with fine and elaborate naturalistic designs1 including vegetable patterns1 birds1 and fishes2 others1 again1 are more architectonic in character4#ijf ,we also find adaptations of the ,kamaraes style1 with bands of white paint laid on the black varnish1 the usual forms being a flat bowl and a small cup with flat handles like the ,vaphio cups4#ijg ,in their decoration the most highly developed varieties of the 8palace0 style show a parallelism with the wall-paintings1 the patterns consisting of rosettes1 spirals1 and conventional flowers2 in some very naturalistic examples this is strongly marked1 the designs of olive and myrtle wreaths and bulbous plants showing an almost ,japanese fidelity to nature4 ,others1 again1 have marine subjects--seaweed1 shells1 and rocks4 ,lastly1 there are the representations of the double axe1 which ,mr4 ,evans has shown to be a religious symbol4#ijh ,the whole of this pottery belongs to the third or highest period of ,mycenaean pottery1 a time when decadence was actually beginning to set in1 concurrent with the end of the eighteenth dynasty4 ,at this time all over the ,aegean area1 in ,melos1 ,egypt1 and elsewhere1 the styles of pottery were perfectly uniform1 and had clearly been imported from one centre4 ,in the light of recent discoveries we can no longer doubt that this centre was ,crete1 and the previous history of its pottery and the early development of its technical processes1 as well as its geographical position1 point in the same direction4 ,about the year #aejj ,b4,c4 the site appears to have been invaded and abandoned1 with the consequent result that ,mycenaean civilisation now spread all over the ,aegean1 centring chiefly in ,greece1 where it lasted several centuries longer4 ,of its influence on ,cyprus we have already spoken4 ,mycenaean vases had turned up in ,crete for some time previous to #ahii in a sporadic fashion#iji2 but these1 being for the most part of the ordinary type1 do not call for separate consideration4 ,there is1 however1 one class that appears to be peculiar to the island4 ,it consists of large 8false amphorae0 and other vases1 made of a rough coarse-grained clay1 and decorated in the 8third ,mycenaean0 style with large cuttle-fish2 at ,knossos this was found only outside the palace1 and was probably a coarse household ware4 ,a good specimen has also been found at ,curium in ,cyprus4#iaj #d4 ,,mycenaean ,,pottery ,,bibliography ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,mykenische ,thongefsse 7#ahgi71 and ,mykenische ,vasen 7#ahhf72 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 p4 #dg ff42 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 vi4 p4 #hic ff42 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #aha ff4 ,general reference should also be made to ,schuchhardt1 ,schliemann's ,excavations 7transl4 ,e4 ,sellers72 ,schliemann's own works2 ,hall1 ,oldest ,civilisation of ,greece2 ,tsountas and ,manatt1 ,the ,mycenaean ,age2 and other works4 ,we have already had occasion to deal to some extent with ,mycenaean pottery in connection with ,cyprus and ,crete1 but it is now necessary to review it as a whole in the light of the present state of our knowledge of this wonderful civilisation and its products4 ,to enter here upon the wide and much-debated questions to which the discoveries of the last thirty years have given rise is of course beyond our province2 but the pottery of the people to whom the name ,mycenaean has been somewhat loosely given is of so homogeneous a character1 although found in all parts of the ,mediterranean1 that it may be treated as a phase of ,greek ceramics1 independently of considerations of ethnography and chronology4 ,first found in any quantity at ,ialysos in the island of ,rhodes1 its exact position in the history of early art was not then recognised2 but when the marvellous discoveries of ,heinrich ,schliemann at ,mycenae became known to the world1 including large numbers of similar vases1 ,sir ,charles ,newton readily recognised that the ,ialysos vases in the ,british ,museum belonged to the same class4 ,it was not long before the whole number of vases of this type1 now christened ,mycenaean1 was collected in a 8,corpus0 by two ,german scholars1 with numerous illustrations2 but since that time the excavations of 8,mycenaean0 sites in ,cyprus and ,crete must have doubled or even trebled the material available4 ,the pottery at ,mycenae was found in four different positions1 implying consecutive chronological stages1 ranging roughly from the fifteenth to the tenth or even ninth century4 ,on these grounds ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke#iaa distinguished four main classes2 but it will be seen that these are capable of even more subdivision4 ,there are1 in fact1 two main classes1 distinguished by the use of matt and lustrous colour respectively2 and of the first of these two1 of the second four1 subdivisions are possible4 ,class 7#a7 is indeed comparatively rare1#iab and only found at ,thera and in the oldest tombs on the ,mycenaean ,acropolis2 it represents the transition from the pottery of ,troy and ,thera to that of ,mycenae4 ,the subdivision is a purely technical one3 7a7 vases of pale coarse clay1 with patterns in a brown colour1 some hand-made#iac2 7b7 wheel-made vases of a reddish and finer clay1 the designs in black and pale red1 occasionally white4#iad ,the decoration generally resembles that of the ,thera vases1 and animals occasionally appear4 7#b7 ,the vases with lustrous painting may be classified as follows3 7a7 ,badly levigated clay2 floral motives in matt-white or red-brown on black ground4#iae ,a fine example of this class was recently excavated at ,maroni in ,cyprus1 a large krater with a figure of a bird outlined in white on either side 7,plate ,,xii474 7b7 ,similar clay1 but coated with a white or yellow slip on which geometrical or floral patterns are painted in lustrous black4#iaf 7c7 ,fine clay with polished yellow surface2 designs in black turning to red or yellow1 with occasional details in white2 chiefly marine plants and animals1 but occasionally 7especially in ,cyprus7 human figures4#iag ,this class is by far the most numerous of all1 but is not found in ,thera4 ,it corresponds with the period #adjj-ajjj ,b4,c4 7d7 ,clay grey or reddish1 less brilliant1 as is also the black2 large figures of quadrupeds and human figures4#iah ,the vases are sometimes painted inside1 which is a sign of late date4 ,the structure of these vases is very varied1 and no less than #abb different forms may be distinguished in the illustrations to the ,mykenische ,vasen4 ,most characteristic and popular is the 8false amphora10 as it is generally termed 7,german1 ,bgelkanne71 a vase with spheroidal body1 of varying size1 with the peculiarity that the ordinary neck and mouth on the top are closed by a flat handle arching over the vase1 and the only aperture is a spout on one side 7see ,plate ,,xv4 and ,fig4 #hb74 ,these are very widely distributed1 but their decoration is as a rule very simple2 they appear depicted on the paintings of ,egyptian tombs of the eighteenth dynasty1 and this has often been used as an argument for the dating of ,mycenaean vases4 ,but they must have remained in favour for a considerable period4 ,other favourite shapes are3 a funnel-shaped vase with handle at the top1 doubtless a reminiscence of a ,hissarlik type 7p4 #beh72 a tall graceful two-handled goblet or kylix1 almost invariably decorated with cuttle-fish 7see ,plate ,,xv471 as the funnel-vases are with murex 7purple dye7 shells2 a beaked jug 7,german ,schnabelkanne71 derived from ,thera2 a squat jar or pyxis1 with three small handles 7cf4 ,fig4 #hb72 and a tall pear-shaped vase with three handles on a high stem1 which is perhaps the prototype of the hydria4 ,the large kraters are1 as we have seen1 peculiar to ,cyprus4 ,rarer forms are a sort of mug1 and a combination of the false amphora and pyxis4 ,mention should also be made of the painted or ossuaria found in ,crete by ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,marshall 7p4 #bfh above7 and by ,dr4 ,orsi4#iai ,the technique presents several entirely new features1 such as the use of a slip as a basis for the colours2 the polished1 brilliant1 and even surface2 and above all the lustrous black varnish1 which was the peculiar pride of ,greek potters1 and is now a lost art4 ,the comparative monotony of the colouring is probably due to a purely technical reason1 namely1 the difficulty of resisting the action of fire2 otherwise such an artistic people would doubtless have exhibited the same richness of colouring in their pottery that we find in their frescoes4 ,the ,mycenaean pottery is deservedly held in high estimation for its picturesque and naturalistic style1 which in its reproduction of animal and vegetable forms often rivals ,japanese art4 ,although its scope is remarkably wide1 yet there is a strong preference for marine subjects--the cuttle-fish1 the murex shell1 the nautilus1 and various kinds of seaweed or such plants as the ,vallisneria spiralis 7,chapter ,,xvi474 ,in ,fig4 #hb two good examples in the ,british ,museum are illustrated--one from ,egypt1 the other from ,kalymnos4#ibj ,altogether there is an originality and poetry of ideas such as never appears again in ,greek art2 but that is not a peculiar possession of the potters1 as the metal-work1 gem-engraving1 and fresco-paintings testify--above all1 such masterpieces as the ,vaphio gold cups1 or some of the wall-paintings recently discovered in ,crete4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xv ,illustration3 ,,mycenaean ,,pottery 7,,british ,,museum74 ,to face page #bgc4 ------------------------------------ ,religious ideas1 on the other hand1 are strangely conspicuous by their absence4 ,mycenaean mythology is so far almost nonexistent in the art2 and although attempts have at times been made to detect traces of early cults1 as in the figures of men dressed as animals1#iba or the representations of the double axe1#ibb they have not as yet met with universal acceptance4 ,more improbable is the curious idea recently mooted1#ibc that the subjects of the vase-paintings indicate an acquaintance with such theories as those of biological evolution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,,mycenaean ,,vases ,,with ,,marine ,,subjects 7,,brit4 ,,mus474 ,mycenaean pottery has been found on a very large number of sites throughout the ,mediterranean4 ,the most productive have been ,mycenae1 ,crete1 and ,cyprus1 especially the cemetery at ,enkomi in the latter island4 ,other ,cypriote centres are ,curium1 ,agia ,paraskevi near ,nicosia1 ,maroni1 and the neighbourhood of ,dali and ,larnaka 7see p4 #ff74 ,in ,attica the ,acropolis of ,athens and the beehive tombs of ,spata and ,menidi have been most fruitful1 and finds have been made at ,haliki and elsewhere4 ,in the ,peloponnese the chief site is ,tiryns1 and many fragments have also been found at ,nauplia2 in ,central ,greece several sites in ,boeotia1 such as ,orchomenos1 may be mentioned4 ,of the ,aegean islands1 ,rhodes and ,melos are most conspicuous1 especially the sites of ,ialysos in the former island1 ,phylakopi in the latter4 ,in ,asia ,minor1 ,mycenaean remains are rare1 except at ,troy1 but in ,egypt there is ample evidence of a close commercial relation1 as in the finds at ,tell-el-,amarna1 in the ,faym1 and elsewhere4 ,in the ,western ,mediterranean1 ,syracuse has yielded numerous fragments1 and occasional finds have been made in ,italy4#ibd ,having reviewed the extent of ,mycenaean influence1 the next question we must consider is which1 if any1 was the centre whence this pottery was exported4 ,it had been for some time observed that the early varieties of ,thera1 and those of ,crete and ,cyprus 7v4 supra71 showed strong indications of local origin2 but on the whole the ,mycenaean pottery proper is remarkably uniform and homogeneous4 ,it is perhaps possible to detect technical differences between the pottery1 e4g41 of ,athens and ,rhodes1 but they may be only differences of date rather than fabric4 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke regarded ,argolis as the centre of manufacture1 at least for the later lustrous varieties#ibe2 ,pottier1 on the other hand1 writing before the recent discoveries1 thought that ,crete was1 after ,thera1 the original centre1 and ,argolis only subsequently1 the pottery of ,rhodes lying midway between4 ,in the light of the ,cretan discoveries it is now possible largely to disregard previous theories4 ,we have seen that ,mycenaean pottery found in ,crete has a pedigree which no other region can claim1 and that it can only have a local origin4 ,we have also seen that the ,cretan supremacy came to an end about #aejj ,b4,c41 and that1 though the pottery may have continued to be made in the island1 it ceased to be an exclusive centre1 and for the remainder of the ,mycenaean ,age the art1 learned in ,crete1 spread to other ,aegean centres--,mycenae1 ,rhodes1 and ,cyprus4 ,a far more difficult question to decide is the ethnographical one1 together with the consideration of the relation of the ,mycenaean civilisation to others in which the same decoration appears 7as in the case of the spiral74 ,one point seems to be abundantly clear1 viz4 that ,mycenaean decoration owes nothing to ,oriental influences4 ,that there was a close relation with the ,east has already been indicated1 and is much more apparent in other forms of ,mycenaean art2 but no student of this art in general can doubt that it is1 as has been pointed out1 purely spontaneous and unique1 the art of a people of genuine artistic genius4 ,among the art of ancient races it stands alone in this respect1 that of ,egypt and ,assyria1 its only prominent rivals1 being always essentially conventional2 and herein lies its special distinction4 ,that the ,mycenaeans were a maritime people admits of no doubt4 ,it is shown by the position of their chief centres1 by the evidence of their extensive commercial relations1 and1 as far as concerns their pottery1 pre-eminently by the subjects which form the staple decoration4 ,hence of late years an attempt has been made to substitute for 8,mycenaean0 the more comprehensive term 8,aegean10 and there is much to be said in its favour4 ,as regards the actual ethnographical position of the race1 ,quot homines1 tot sententiae1 may almost be said4 ,they have been identified with the ,achaeans1 the ,pelasgians1 the ,phoenicians1 the ,carians1 and as combinations of ,phrygians with ,cretans1 of ,phoenicians with ,greeks of ,asia ,minor4#ibf ,but few of these terms have real historical value1 and such identifications do not really advance the solution of the question4 ,a more real ground of battle is that afforded by the question of date1 though on this point scholars now show a greater tendency to fall into line1 and a period culminating in the years #adjj to #aajj or #ajjj ,b4,c4 is now very generally accepted4#ibg ,the question necessarily turns largely on the evidence afforded by ,crete and ,egypt1 and so far as this is trustworthy it all points in the same direction4 ,but it would be beyond the scope of a work of this kind to do more than briefly summarise the general results of archaeological criticism4 ,an interesting study of ,mycenaean ornamentation has been made by ,dr4 ,riegl1#ibh who deals generally with the principles underlying its vegetable motives1 and points out that here we first meet with scrolls or continuous bands of foliage applied to a decorative purpose4 ,these motives are peculiar to ,greek art1 and in ,mycenaean design their origin is to be sought4 ,in this way we may regard it as the immediate forerunner of ,hellenic art1 although its development was temporarily arrested by the ,dorian invasion1 just as the people who produced it formed the basis of the ,hellenic race4 ,the naturalism of ,mycenaean ornament1 which is seen both in continuous and in isolated patterns1 is in marked contrast to the convention of ,egypt1 where the same motives may be in use4 ,it is not1 in short1 the motive1 but its treatment1 which shows the independence of ,mycenaean art4 ,there are1 again1 other patterns1 such as the spiral1 which cannot be traced in ,oriental art1 and seem to be purely original1 at least as far as concerns the ,eastern ,mediterranean4 ,another recent writer1 ,dr4 ,s4 ,wide1 has noticed that where ,mycenaean influence was originally strongest1 as in ,crete and ,rhodes1 there its characteristics were most strongly impressed upon the art of the succeeding period1 and he is inclined to place the centre of the fabric in these islands or on the coast of the adjoining continent of ,asia4 ,at all events the ,mycenaean influence shows itself more in the pottery of the islands than it does in ,attica2 and1 in ,crete and ,rhodes in particular1 instances have been found of undoubted survivals of typical ,mycenaean ornaments in later pottery4#ibi ----- ,footnote #hbj3 ,see ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #hba3 ,cf4 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 iii4 figs4 #dhg-ic4 ,footnote #hbb3 ,cf4 ,perrot1 op4 cit4 iii4 figs4 #dih-ejc4 ,footnote #hbc3 ,see ,hall1 ,oldest ,civilisation of ,greece1 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #hbd3 ,see ,athen4 ,mitth4 xi4 p4 #bdi ff41 and ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 vi4 p4 #fdh4 ,a fragment of late ,bronze-,age ,cypriote pottery was found at ,hissarlik 7,drpfeld1 ,troja und ,ilion1 i4 p4 #bhf1 fig4 #ahb74 ,footnote #hbe3 ,see ,meursius1 ,cyprus1 i4 chap4 #bj2 ,heuzey1 ,cat4 des ,fig4 ant4 du ,louvre1 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #hbf3 ,strabo1 xiv4 #f1 p4 #fhc4 ,footnote #hbg3 ,archaeologia1 xlv4 p4 #abg ff4 ,footnote #hbh3 ,similar red polished wares were found in the ,new-,race tombs of ,egypt 7seventh to tenth dynasty71 but in spite of the likeness it cannot be said that one is borrowed from the other 7,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #af74 ,footnote #hbi3 ,see ,hall1 ,oldest ,greek ,civilisation1 p4 #fi2 ,journ4 ,hell4 ,stud4 xi4 pl4 #ad2 ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #hcj3 ,the resemblance to ,italian bucchero ware is probably only accidental4 ,see ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,footnote #hca3 ,e4g4 ,a #ff in ,b4,m4 ,footnote #hcb3 ,hall1 ,oldest ,civilisation1 pp4 #gb1 #ih4 ,footnote #hcc3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,a #fg-h4 ,footnote #hcd3 ,cf4 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 pp4 #cd ff41 #gb4 ,footnote #hce3 ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #hcf3 ,myres1 ibid4 ,footnote #hcg3 ,cf4 for instance the jug given in ,cesnola1 ,cyprus1 p4 #djh1 fig4 #bi4 ,footnote #hch3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,a #acd3 cf4 ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 #dja-b4 ,footnote #hci3 ,cat4 des ,vases du ,louvre1 i4 p4 #bej3 see below1 pp4 #bhd1 #cae4 ,footnote #hdj3 ,the ,trojan legends were familiar in ,cyprus1 as the of the local ,cyclic poet ,stasinos shows4 ,footnote #hda3 ,cf4 ,perrot1 ,hist1 de l',art1 iii4 pp4 #gad-ae1 figs4 #ebe-bf4 ,footnote #hdb3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #hdc3 ,recent discoveries by ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans at ,knossos 7,brit4 ,sch4 ,annual1 #aija-b1 p4 #ae7 seem to suggest that these panels may be meant for windows or storeys of houses4 ,cf4 also the bronze from ,enkomi 7,excavations1 p4 #aj74 ,footnote #hdd3 ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #hde3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #hdf3 ,see ,athen4 ,mitth4 xi4 7#ahhf71 p4 #bdh2 cf4 also ,meursius1 ,cyprus1 i4 chap4 #aj2 ,heuzey1 ,cat4 des ,fig4 ant4 du ,louvre1 pp4 #aaf-ag4 ,footnote #hdg3 ,cypriote pottery with concentric circles has been found at ,nebesheh in the ,delta4 ,it was brought by the ,cypriote mercenaries1 enrolled by ,psammetichus1 in the seventh century 7,eg4 ,expl4 ,fund1 #dth ,mem4 pl4 #c1 p4 #bj74 ,footnote #hdh3 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 iii4 p4 #gfi ff4 ,footnote #hdi3 ,m4 ,pottier 7,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #ib7 thinks that ,greek influence may explain all the stages of ,cypriote pottery from the ,mycenaean period onwards4 ,see also on this subject ,dmmler1 in ,ath4 ,mitth4 xi4 p4 #bhd4 ,footnote #hej3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #h1 fig4 #ad4 ,footnote #hea3 ,b4,m4 ,c #bdd4 ,footnote #heb3 ,b4,m4 ,c #aba ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 iii4 pp4 #gaf-ag1 figs4 #ebg-h4 ,footnote #hec3 ,b4,m4 ,c #abj ,rev4 ,arch4 ix4 7#ahhg71 p4 #gg ff4 ,footnote #hed3 ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #hee3 ,ibid4 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #hef3 ,see ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 iii4 figs4 #eaj-ac2 ibid4 figs4 #ebj-bc 7human figures72 ,cesnola1 ,cyprus1 p4 #ee1 pls4 #dd-f2 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 pp4 #ge1 #ajd ff42 ,j4,h4,s4 v4 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #heg3 ,see above1 p4 #bdi4 ,cf4 ,layard1 ,monuments of ,nineveh1 pl4 #aj ,nimroud ,gallery of ,b4,m41 slab #d;a4 ,footnote #heh3 ,perrot1 op4 cit4 iii4 p4 #gaa1 fig4 #ebc4 ,footnote #hei3 ,e4g4 ,perrot1 op4 cit4 iii4 figs4 #ejg1 #ebc1 pp4 #fii1 #gaa2 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 pp4 #ajd-e1 figs4 #aea-eb4 ,footnote #hfj3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #aje1 fig4 #aeb4 ,footnote #hfa3 ,b4,m4 ,c #bfh ,j4,h4,s4 ii4 p4 #cjd4 ,footnote #hfb3 ,cyprus1 pl4 #bi4 ,footnote #hfc3 ,see ,o4-,richter1 ,kypros1 the ,bible1 and ,homer1 p4 #dig1 and frontispiece to text volume2 also ,b4,m4 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #aje1 fig4 #aeb4 ,footnote #hfd3 ,b4,m4 ,e #cd2 ,branteghem ,cat4 #cj2 ,klein1 ,meistersig4#b p4 #bba4 ,footnote #hfe3 ,louvre ,a #beh4 ,footnote #hff3 ,e4g4 ,j4,h4,s4 xii4 pl4 #ad2 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 pl4 #aa4 ,footnote #hfg3 ,see ,hermann1 ,grberfeld von ,marion1 p4 #df ff42 ,b4,m4 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 pp4 #gh1 #aji4 ,footnote #hfh3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #gh1 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,footnote #hfi3 ,troja #ahic1 p4 #hf2 ,troja u4 ,ilion1 i4 p4 #ah4 ,on the pottery generally see the latter1 p4 #bdc ff4 ,footnote #hgj3 ,its evolution is well illustrated by the ,canopic vases described in ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,footnote #hga3 ,cramiques1 i4 p4 #f3 see for examples ibid4 pp4 #g1 #aa4 ,footnote #hgb3 ,a jug with beak-shaped mouth1 called by the ,germans a ,schnabelkanne4 ,the base-ring to which he alludes is not apparent4 ,cf4 for the type ,fig4 #ha below1 from ,thera4 ,footnote #hgc3 ,see ,schliemann1 ,ilios1 pp4 #cdj1 #cgb1 #cge1 #chd4 ,footnote #hgd3 ,cf4 ,cyprus ,mus4 ,cat4 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #hge3 ibid41 p4 #aah2 ibid41 i4 p4 #caj2 ,b4,m4 ,b #hc ff42 and see p4 #cci4 ,footnote #hgf3 ,see ,fouqu1 ,santorin1 passim2 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 p4 #bh2 ,hiller von ,gaertringen1 ,thera1 i4 p4 #cf ff4 ,footnote #hgg3 iv4 #adg-dh4 ,footnote #hgh3 ,one is given by ,dumont-,pottier1 pl4 #b1 fig4 #ac4 ,footnote #hgi3 ,see ,dumont-,pottier1 p4 #ba1 figs4 #cb-c1 pls4 #a1 #b4 ,footnote #hhj3 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,myken4 ,vasen1 pl4 #ab1 ,no4 #hj4 ,footnote #hha3 ,fouqu1 op4 cit4 p4 #abg1 note4 ,footnote #hhb3 ,on the later pottery from ,thera see generally ,hiller von ,gaertringen1 ,thera1 ii4 p4 #abg ff42 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aijc1 p4 #a ff4 ,footnote #hhc3 ,dmmler 7,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhf1 p4 #de7 calls them 8,leleges02 but he places ,minos in the ,geometrical period4 ,footnote #hhd3 ,cf4 ,hdt4 i4 #aga1 and ,thuc4 i4 #d-h4 ,footnote #hhe3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhf1 p4 #ae2 ,ross1 ,reisen durch die ,inseln1 passim2 ,athens ,mus4 ,nos4 #bc-i1 #acf1 #adb-dc2 ,j4,h4,s4 v4 p4 #ec ff4 ,footnote #hhf3 ,j4,h4,s4 ,suppl4 ,papers1 vol4 iv4 7#aijd74 ,footnote #hhg3 ,od4 xix4 #agb ff4 ,footnote #hhh3 ,hdt4 i4 #aga4 ,footnote #hhi3 ,mon4 ,antichi1 vi4 p4 #cdb1 pl4 #ab1 figs4 #ej1 #eb4 ,footnote #hij3 ,ibid4 pl4 #aa1 figs4 #dd-e4 ,footnote #hia3 ,ibid4 pl4 #aj1 fig4 #bc2 pl4 #ab1 figs4 #eg1 #ei4 ,footnote #hib3 ,mon4 ,antichi1 vi4 p4 #ccc ff41 pls4 #i-aa2 ,proc4 ,soc4 ,antiqs4 #bnd ,ser4 xv4 p4 #cea ff4 ,footnote #hic3 ,j4,h4,s4 xxiii4 p4 #aeg ff4 ,footnote #hid3 ,ibid4 pl4 #d1 figs4 #f-ad4 ,footnote #hie3 ,see1 for instance1 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,myken4 ,vasen1 p4 vi4 ,footnote #hif3 ,j4,h4,s4 xxi4 p4 #ig1 fig4 #ca1 will serve as an example4 ,footnote #hig3 ,ibid4 xxiii4 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #hih3 ,ibid4 xi4 pl4 #ad1 figs4 #e-aj1 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #hii3 ,cf4 ,mon4 ,antichi1 vi4 pl4 #i1 fig4 #h2 pl4 #aj1 fig4 #ad4 ,footnote #ijj3 ,from ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 ix4 p4 #cjh4 ,footnote #ija3 ,j4,h4,s4 xxi4 pls4 #f1 #g1 p4 #hd ff4 ,footnote #ijb3 ,mon4 ,antichi1 vi4 pl4 #i1 figs4 #b1 #f2 pl4 #aj1 fig4 #ad4 ,footnote #ijc3 ,ibid4 pl4 #i1 fig4 #aj4 ,footnote #ijd3 ,ibid4 p4 #cci4 ,footnote #ije3 ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 vi4 p4 #he4 ,on the ,kefti1 see ibid4 viii4 p4 #aeg ff4 ,footnote #ijf3 ,see for examples,j4,h4,s4 xxiii4 p4 #aib ff4 ,footnote #ijg3 ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 vi4 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #ijh3 ,j4,h4,s4 xxi4 p4 #ii ff4 ,see the larnax published by ,mr4 ,bosanquet in ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 viii4 pls4 #ah-i3 cf4 ibid4 vii4 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #iji3 ,see ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,myken4 ,vasen1 pls4 #ac-d2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhf1 pl4 #c and pl4 #d 7a large pithos with reliefs1 for which compare p4 #aeb above72 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahhj1 p4 #abe1 #ahib1 p4 #bie2 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 vi4 p4 #dea ff42 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #iaj3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #gd1 fig4 #abh4 cf4 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 op4 cit4 pl4 #ad1 ,no4 #hh2 ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 vi4 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #iaa3 ,myken4 ,vasen1 p4 vi4 ff4 ,the evidence from ,crete1 however1 appears to upset this chronology1 the vases with lustrous painting being there found on a level with the matt paintings on dark ground4 ,footnote #iab3 ,for examples see ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 ,myken4 ,thongef4 pls4 #a2 #d1 #ac2 #e1 #bj2 #g1 #dj2 #aa1 #eb4 ,footnote #iac3 ,myken4 ,thongef4 pl4 #a1 fig4 #f2 ,myken4 ,vasen1 pls4 #bc-d4 ,footnote #iad3 ,myken4 ,thongef4 pl4 #h2 pl4 #aa1 #eb2 ,myken4 ,vasen1 pl4 #bc4 ,footnote #iae3 ,myken4 ,thongef4 pl4 #f1 #cb1 #cd4 ,footnote #iaf3 ,myken4 ,thongef4 pl4 #ab2 ,myken4 ,vasen1 pls4 #g1 #be4 ,footnote #iag3 ,schliemann1 ,tiryns1 pl4 #bb1 p4 #ii1 fig4 #bj2 ,myken4 ,thongef4 pls4 #b1 #d2 ,myken4 ,vasen1 pls4 #bf-cd1 #ci-da4 ,footnote #iah3 ,myken4 ,vasen1 pls4 #cg-da4 ,footnote #iai3 ,mon4 ,antichi1 i4 p4 #bja ff41 pls4 #a-b4 ,footnote #ibj3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xvii4 pp4 #ge1 #gf4 ,footnote #iba3 ,cook in ,j4,h4,s4 xiv4 p4 #ha ff4 ,footnote #ibb3 ,evans in ,j4,h4,s4 xxi4 p4 #ii ff4 ,recent discoveries seem to leave little room for doubt as to the correctness of ,mr4 ,evans' theories4 ,footnote #ibc3 ,rev4 ,arch4 xxvi4 7#ahie71 p4 #a ff42 xxx4 7#ahig71 p4 #ha ff43 cf4 ibid4 xxviii4 7#ahif71 p4 #bd ff4 ,footnote #ibd3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xxiv4 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #ibe3 ,myken4 ,vasen1 p4 ix4 ff4 ,footnote #ibf3 ,see for a summary of the theories1 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #bjj ff4 ,footnote #ibg3 ,see ,hall1 ,oldest ,civilisation1 chap4 iii42 ,pottier1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #bji2 and ,arch4 ,anzeiger1 #ahib1 p4 #aa ff4 ,footnote #ibh3 ,stilfragen1 p4 #aab ff4 ,footnote #ibi3 ,see ,wide1 in ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bcc2 and for some general considerations on ,mycenaean pottery and its achievements1 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #bdg4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,rise ,,of ,,vase-,,painting ,,in ,,greece ,geometrical decoration--,its origin--,distribution of pottery--,shapes and ornamentation of vases--,subjects--,dipylon vases--,boeotian ,geometrical wares--,chronology--,proto-,attic fabrics--,phaleron ware--,later ,boeotian vases--,melian amphorae--,corinth and its pottery--8,proto-,corinthian0 vases--,vases with imbrications and floral decoration--,incised lines and ground-ornaments--,introduction of figure-subjects--,chalcidian vases--8,tyrrhenian ,amphorae40 #a4 ,,the ,,geometrical ,,period ,,bibliography ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 vii4 p4 #aed ff42 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahgb1 p4 #ach ff42 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhf1 p4 #id ff42 #ahii1 pp4 #bf1 #gh1 #ahh2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahha1 p4 #ajf2 #ahib1 p4 #bhe2 #ahic1 p4 #gc ff42 #ahif1 p4 #che ff42 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #bab ff4 ,for ,boeotian ,geometrical pottery1 ,bhlau in ,jahrbuch1 #ahhh1 p4 #cbe ff42 for early ,argive wares1 ,waldstein1 ,argive ,heraeum1 i4 p4 #di ff4 ,the ,dorian invasion of ,greece1 which is generally supposed to have taken place in the twelfth century--the traditional date is about #aajj ,b4,c4--was1 like the contemporaneous ,etruscan immigration 7,chapter ,,xviii471 only an episode in the general displacement taking place throughout ,europe4 ,in ,greece it caused a dispersion of the ,achaean race1 chiefly in the direction of ,asia ,minor1 which1 as we have already seen1 probably gave rise to the stories of the ,trojan ,war and subsequent adventures of the ,achaean leaders4 ,in other words1 the ,mycenaean civilisation was driven to seek a new home elsewhere1 and to lay the foundations of a new artistic development in the cities of ,aeolis and ,ionia4 ,but its disappearance from ,greece was not complete1 and ,hellenic ,greece was from the beginning an amalgam of the old and new elements1 the ,achaean 7or ,ionian7 and the ,dorian1 in which one or the other had at different times or in different places the pre-eminence4 ,the ,ionian element represents the civilisation of the ,mediterranean1 succeeding to that of the ,mycenaean world2 the ,dorian1 the influence of ,central ,europe4#icj ,it has hitherto been a truism of archaeology that the ,dorians brought with them from ,central ,europe a new form of art1 of which the chief characteristic is that of rectilinear and geometrical decoration1 forming1 it is obvious1 a marked contrast to the curvilinear and naturalistic ,mycenaean designs4 ,this new principle was thought to be most conspicuously illustrated by the pottery which now replaces the ,mycenaean4 ,but certain recent discoveries have given occasion for some scepticism in regard to the acceptance of this idea as conveying the whole truth2 and even if they do not radically alter preconceived ideas1 they are at least worthy of consideration4 ,at ,aphidna in ,attica a find has been made of very rude pottery1 without glaze or varnish1 but with decoration of a ,geometrical character1 sometimes painted4#ica ,although earlier than any other pottery in ,attica1 it need not be pre-,mycenaean in date2 it seems more likely to be a contemporary survival4 ,early wares have also been found in the islands1 as in ,aegina1 with ,geometrical ornament in matt-colour2 nor must we forget that the ,geometrical principle was known in ,cyprus and the ,cyclades1 as also at ,hissarlik1 at a very remote age4 ,from these data ,dr4 ,wide has ingeniously drawn the conclusion that the ,geometrical style was always indigenous in ,greece1#icb pointing out that it was more likely and more in accordance with historical precedent that the ,dorians1 like ,rome in later days1 accepted the art of the people they conquered#icc than that they introduced their own and forced it upon the subjugated race4 ,this theory has the additional merit of disposing of a difficulty which had always been felt4 ,if the ,geometrical pottery was ,dorian1 how do we account for its reaching its height in ,attica1 which was never at any time ,doric1 or influenced by ,doric characteristics8 ,but if it can be shown to be indigenous in ,attica1 the difficulty disappears4 ,again1 it is necessary to explain the varying character of ,geometrical pottery in different parts of ,greece1 as compared with the homogeneity of the ,mycenaean wares4 ,if1 as was supposed1 the ,geometrical style came full-grown into ,greece1 why should this be8 ,dr4 ,wide therefore maintains that there were in ,greece concurrently a ,bauernstil or domestic art1 aboriginal and industrial1 which produced the rude geometrical fabrics1 and a ,herrenstil or art de luxe1 exotic and ornamental1 which we know as ,mycenaean4 ,with the upheaval and dispersion of the ,achaean aristocracy this art practically died out1 but the humbler industry held its ground1 and gradually forged its way to comparative excellence1 perhaps learning much from ,mycenaean technique4 ,the real novelty of the developed ,geometrical pottery which now manifests itself in ,greece consists in its evolution as a style1 and the combination of the patterns into an artistic system1 with a continuous progress towards symmetry and rhythm4 ,geometrical patterns are indeed the property of all primitive peoples1 and are no less spontaneous and universal in their origin than the folk-lore stories which we find adopting the same or similar forms in all parts of the world4 ,in ,greece1 no doubt1 the cultured traditions of ,mycenaean art had in course of time their due effect1 and both in technique and in ornament left their impress on the inferior fabrics1#icd as we have seen to have been the case1 especially in the ,greek islands4 ,it is an influence which is not confined to the pottery1 but made itself felt1 for instance1 in architecture4 ,it can hardly be doubted that in the ,lion ,gate of ,mycenae we find the prototype of the ,doric column2 and the parallel with the ,geometrical pottery can be further followed up when we consider that ,doric architecture also became the common property of ,continental ,greece1 and also realised its highest perfection at ,athens4 ,the ,geometrical pottery has been found in great numbers in ,attica and ,boeotia1 in the islands of ,aegina1 ,melos1 ,thera1 ,rhodes1 and ,crete1#ice in ,argolis and ,laconia1 in ,sicily and ,etruria1 and also isolated specimens in ,cyprus and the ,troad4#icf ,that found in ,italy and ,cyprus is certainly exported from the mainland4 ,it has been observed that each region has its own peculiar variety of the style1 and this is especially conspicuous in the examples from ,attica and ,boeotia4#icg ,the first writer who attempted to deal with it scientifically was ,conze1#ich but owing to its clearly-defined characteristics it has always been more or less correctly treated by the older schools of archaeologists4 ,but with a more extended outlook over the fabrics of early ,hellas1 many problems have arisen in connection with it which have called for more recent discussion1 and the writings of ,kroker1 ,bhlau1 and ,wide in particular should be studied4#ici ,at ,mycenae fragments of ,geometrical pottery were found both on the surface and in the palace1 among the dbris of the huts built on its site2 while in the island of ,salamis there is a cemetery of distinctly transitional character1 containing false amphorae with linear decoration and combinations of the spiral with the maeander4#idj ,it may be noted that a similar transitional cemetery was found by ,mr4 ,paton at ,assarlik in ,caria1#ida and that the 8sub-,mycenaean0 pottery of ,cyprus 7p4 #bdf7 has been shown to exhibit the same combination of features4 ,these facts fall into line with what has already been said as to the survival of ,mycenaean art in these fabrics4 ,from the fact that large quantities of this ware have been obtained from the tombs of the ,kerameikos near the ,dipylon ,gate of ,athens1 chiefly between #ahgj and #ahia1 it has frequently been styled ,dipylon ware2 but it is questionable whether this title should not be reserved for varieties peculiar to this site4 ,these ,dipylon tombs were in the form of deep quadrangular trenches1 and the bodies had been sometimes inhumed1 sometimes cremated1 the bones being placed in vessels of bronze or clay1 containing smaller objects4 ,above the trenches was a layer of earth mixed with burnt offerings1 on the top of which1 outside the tombs1 were placed the large painted vases 7representing the tombstones or stone sepulchral vases of later times7 which now form a prominent part of the collections at ,athens and in the ,louvre4#idb 99 99 99 99 99 ,turning to treat of their general characteristics1 we note that the vases are all wheel-made1 of a carefully-prepared red clay covered with a lustrous and impermeable yellow slip1 on which the designs are painted in the same lustrous black as the ,mycenaean wares4 ,later1 but rarely1 white is introduced as an accessory4 ,as regards the shapes1 there is less variety than in ,mycenaean pottery4 ,they include the typical forms of ,dipylon vases1 a large wide-mouthed krater on a high stem1 and an amphora with cylindrical neck and side-handles2 also the lebes1 the cylindrical jug or olpe1 the wide bowl or skyphos1 and the pyxis or covered jar4 ,open-work stands for vases are often found in the ,cyclades4#idc ,on the covers of the pyxides a group of two or three rudely-modelled horses sometimes forms the handle4 ,in considering the forms generally1 it is permissible to say that the potter of the day was in advance of his ,mycenaean predecessor1 although the painter was not4 ,the decoration follows a development which permits of the division of ,geometrical vases into three periods1 in which we follow ,kroker#idd3 7#a7 for a long time it is exclusively limited to ,geometrical patterns1 and 7#b7 even when quadrupeds and birds are introduced they are still only decorative 7as in ,boeotia72 7#c7 finally1 while the animals take a subsidiary place1 human figures and large compositions spring into prominence4 ,but this final development is chiefly characteristic of ,athens4 ,wide distinguishes four varieties of the ,dipylon ware3 7a7 amphorae1 with black varnished bodies and designs only on the neck2 7b7 8black ,dipylon ware10 mainly varnished1 but more decorated than 7a72 7c7 large vases1 with linear decoration or figures all over in horizontal friezes 7the tomb-amphorae72 7d7 as the last1 but with vertical panels1 divided like metopes4 ,his view is that these represent a continuous development1 but that the style did not last long in ,attica4 ,returning to ,kroker's classification1 it must be borne in mind that the three classes are not successive in point of time1 only in artistic development2 the plain linear decoration survived throughout1 and is often found in tombs contemporaneously with the figure subjects4 ,the patterns are mainly1 though not exclusively1 rectilinear1 and sometimes extremely elaborate4 ,the favourite are a large bold maeander1 chevrons1 chequers1 and arrangements of hatched lines2 also squares1 with diagonals and much ground-ornament4 ,among the simpler motives are lines of dots1 triangles1 lozenges1 and various forms of crosses2 but concentric and 8tangent0 circles occur not infrequently1 the latter being clearly derived from the ,mycenaean spiral1 and one vegetable motive appears in the form of a conventionalised leaf1 later developed into a rosette4 ,m4 ,perrot#ide gives a very instructive diagram of the typical scheme of ornamentation on the neck and body of a vase1 including most of the principal varieties4 ,it should also be noted that these patterns occur frequently on the field of the designs as ground-ornaments1 to cover the vacant spaces4 ,in the arrangement of the patterns an architectural instinct is clearly at work1 the influence of the ,doric metope being especially prominent4 ,they are usually arranged1 as the diagram 7,fig4 #hc7 shows1 in horizontal bands round the neck and body1 like the bands of painted ornament on the entablature of a temple4 ,the metopes and triglyphs are represented by large square patterns of ornament1 separated by narrow vertical strips of simpler motives 7cf4 ,fig4 #hd74 ,the introduction of the frieze principle proper is a later development4 ,generally speaking1 there is an invariable tendency towards symmetry and refinement in the arrangement4 ,when figure subjects begin to be introduced1 it betokens a great advance in decorative art1 especially over the ,cypriote and other varieties of the style4 ,in the tendency to a horror vacui1 the style is inferior to ,mycenaean1 as also in the figure-drawing1 of which more anon4 ,the absence of any plant-ornament is most characteristic1 as showing the great change from the ,mycenaean spirit2 but it was not long before this element was destined to reappear and virtually usurp the field of decoration4#idf ,illustration3 ,from ,perrot's ,hist4 de l',art4 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,,scheme ,,of ,,ornamentation ,,on ,,geometrical ,,vases4 ,in regard to its ornamentation the ,geometrical style may be said to have attained success4 ,it is not so1 however1 with its representations of living form1 least of all those of human beings4 ,but this is only in accordance with the principle which ,m4 ,pottier styles the hierarchie des genres1 a principle which is universal in all early development of ,greek art1 and to which we have already referred 7p4 #bde3 see also p4 #cae74 ,briefly it is this3 first1 the predominance of pure ornament and the perfecting of the same2 secondly1 the employment of animal forms and the relegation of ornament to a subsidiary place2 thirdly and lastly1 the rise and development of human forms1 the other animals ceasing to form the main theme of decoration1 and sinking to the level of mere decorative adjuncts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,,geometrical ,,vase ,,with ,,panels 7,,brit4 ,,mus474 ,hence we find that figures of animals when first introduced on ,geometrical vases are of a conventional and ill-drawn character1 but show a gradual progress and development4 ,human forms again1 which now appear for the first time1 are only seen in a very rude and undeveloped stage1 from which there is continuous development throughout the archaic period till perfection is reached in the fifth century4 ,their original extreme conventionality may be the result of a training in ,egyptian canons of art4 ,the favourite animal motives are the horse1 the deer1 and water-fowl4 ,the first also appears in a plastic form1 surmounting the covers of vases and forming a sort of handle4 ,usually a single animal is seen in a metope-like panel 7cf4 ,fig4 #hd71 and the frieze system is seldom found at this period4 ,a curious conception is that of a lion or wolf devouring a man1 whose legs are seen protruding from its mouth1 and this appears to have been adopted by the ,etruscans1 on whose archaic bronze-work and bucchero vases it sometimes occurs4#idg ,the lions on the ,geometrical vases1 it may be noted in passing1 are obviously drawn without knowledge1 and borrowed from ,asiatic art2 the same conventional type obtains at a later date1 as in the ,burgon lebes 7below1 p4 #bif74 ,human figures are almost confined to the large vases from the ,dipylon cemetery1 which are evidently a purely local product2 almost the only exceptions are two from ,boeotia 7see below1 p4 #bhh71 and one from ,rhodes in the ,british ,museum 7,a #dci74 ,the infantile and barbarous style of the figures recalls in a measure the primitive marble idols from the ,cyclades2 there is seldom any actual distinction of sex1 the narrow waist1 wide hips1 and tapering limbs being apparently common to both4 ,the figures being painted in plain silhouette1 there is no attempt at rendering features4 ,where it is intended to represent a warrior1 the body is completely hidden behind a shield of the ,boeotian type ,boeotian shield1 a ready resource of the artist for avoiding anatomical difficulties1 which was also adopted later by his seventh-century ,corinthian successors1 except that in the latter case the shield is circular4 ,the subjects include battles and naval scenes1 dances of women hand in hand1 and funeral processions4 ,from the combination of ships with funeral scenes1 it would seem that they were sometimes used for carrying the dead4 ,a remarkable lebes recently acquired by the ,british ,museum#idh is decorated with a large ship-of-war with two banks of rowers 7bireme71 and appears to represent a warrior landing therefrom on shore4#idi ,the funeral scenes on the great ,dipylon vases are exceedingly elaborate1 and exhibit a corpse drawn on a bier1 accompanied by chariots and bands of mourning women beating their heads4#iej ,by a conventional attempt at perspective the figures are often placed above the central group when they are supposed to be on its farther side1 just as1 in the fresco from ,tiryns1 and an 8,island-gem0 of the ,mycenaean period1 a man leading a bull is represented over its back4#iea ,two very interesting specimens of ,geometrical fabrics are in the museum at ,kopenhagen1#ieb late indeed and almost transitional in character1 but still typical4 ,one is a deep two-handled cup or bowl with long panels on either side1 in two tiers2 the upper ones are filled with ornaments and animals1 and in the lower are several subjects--combatants1 lyre-players1 a dance of armed men with shield and spear1 two lions devouring a man 7see above71 and men with jugs and lustral branches preparing for some religious rite4 ,the other is a jug1 with very little ornamentation except on the background of the designs1 which also include several subjects4 ,on the neck is a man holding horses2 on the shoulder1 dogs pursuing a hare2 and on the body1 combats on land and sea4 ,in the range of subjects a general correspondence with epic poetry is to be noted1#iec as in the funerals and combats2 but there are some important discrepancies1 such as the quadriga in place of the ,homeric biga1 the types of the ships1 and in the appearance of horsemen1 which are of course unknown to ,homer4#ied ,the ,geometrical vases found in ,boeotia form an important and distinct local variety1 which calls for separate treatment4 ,the existence of this local style was first suspected by ,furtwaengler in #ahgh on seeing the first finds made at ,thebes1 and it has since been studied with great care and detail by ,bhlau4#iee ,among these finds were1 in addition to the recognised local pottery1 ordinary 7imported7 ,dipylon vases1 and later ,proto-,corinthian and ,corinthian wares1 as well as bronze fibulae and terracotta figures1 to which subsequent reference must be made4 ,similar pottery was also found in large numbers on the site of the temple of ,apollo at ,mount ,ptos in #ahhe-ia1 and other examples have turned up at ,tanagra4 ,it has been suggested1 though on somewhat slight grounds1 that ,aulis was the centre of the local fabric2 and1 further1 it was supposed by ,bhlau1 who is supported by ,perrot1#ief that the ,boeotian wares represent a primitive phase of the ,geometrical pottery1 anterior to the ,dipylon1 and consequently that ,boeotia is the original home of the style as a whole4 ,but in view of what has been said above1 and generally of the relation of the ,boeotian pottery to the ,dipylon1 and to the later ,proto-,corinthian1 it seems doubtful if this view can be maintained4 ,moreover1 it has been pointed out by ,m4 ,holleaux1#ieg in discussing the ,ptos finds1 that the pure ,geometrical vases were found at a lower level than the typical local wares1 and were never found either with them or with the analogous terracotta figures4 ,this certainly points to the later origin of the ,boeotian pottery4 ,the local clay differs from that of ,athens both in nature and appearance1 being less well levigated and of a reddish-yellow colour1 as compared with the warm brown of the ,dipylon4 ,further1 the designs are not laid directly on the clay1 as in the latter1 but on a thin creamy-yellow slip1 as in ,mycenaean and ,ionian pottery4 ,the technique is1 generally speaking1 inferior1 as is also the black pigment used2 the work is rough and hasty1 the drawing careless and inaccurate4 ,the vases are mostly small1 at least compared with those of the ,dipylon1 and the favourite shape is the kylix1 with or without a stem4 ,out of seventy-two examples given by ,bhlau1 no less than fifty-five take this form4 ,he traces its development from a deep bowl with 8base-ring10 which seems to be related to the ,cypriote white-slip one-handled bowls2 but the ,boeotian type has at first two small finger-pieces in place of handles1 afterwards replaced by a single handle for hanging up4 ,the majority1 however1 have no less than four handles1 and that they were still intended for suspension is shown by the method of decoration which can only be properly seen in this position 7cf4 ,fig4 #he74 ,illustration3 ,from ,jahrbuch4 ,,fig4 #he4 ,,boeotian ,,geometrical ,,vases 7,,berlin ,,museum74 ,there is a wearisome uniformity in the patterns1 and indeed in the decoration generally4 ,only two examples are known from ,boeotia with human figures1#ieh and the rest belong to the intermediate class1 with its combination of animals and decorative patterns4 ,on the exterior is usually a broad frieze1 divided by bands of ornament into four or five fields1 in which are birds or palmette patterns2 these panels are not necessarily arranged with reference to the position of the handles4 ,the patterns comprise rows of vertical zigzags1 dotted lozenges1 chevrons1 latticed triangles1 rosettes1 and scrolls1 the first-named being specially characteristic of ,boeotia4 ,it is to be noted that the typical ,athenian motives1 the maeander and the ornamented square1 do not occur2 in fact1 these bowls have no analogies in the ,dipylon ware4 ,but it is also interesting to observe the appearance of a new vegetable element in the form of friezes of palmettes and lotos-flowers4#iei ,the importance of this feature is due to the extensive part it was destined to play in the ornamentation of ,greek vases all through the sixth century4 ,some of the palmettes are remarkably advanced1 and the whole pattern is even emancipated from the confinement of the frieze1 and treated freely without regard to space4#ifj ,bhlau1 in his analysis of the ornament as a whole1 notes its independence of the ,athenian vases1 though remaining a parallel and closely-related development4 ,individual vases do not call for much comment1 but there is a curious coffer of terracotta from ,thebes in ,berlin 7,fig4 #hf71ifa painted with figures in this style4 ,the subjects include the ,asiatic ,artemis1 a hare-hunt1 a woman leading a horse1 a horse tied up1 and two serpents erect1 confronted4 ,the ground is filled in with rosettes1 crosses1 and other ornaments1 such as the so-called swastika4 ,illustration3 ,from ,jahrbuch4 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,,coffer ,,from ,,thebes3 ,,boeotian ,,geometrical ,,style 7,,berlin ,,museum74 ,while on the subject of the ,boeotian vases it is worth while to call attention to the remarkable parallels presented by two other classes of objects also found in that region3 bronze fibulae and terracotta statuettes4 ,the former may be regarded as important chronological evidence1 inasmuch as their development can be clearly traced from their first appearance at the end of the ,mycenaean period 7about the tenth century71 and similar types have been found in ,rhodes1 at ,olympia1 and elsewhere4 ,the characteristic of the ,boeotian fibulae is the flat plate which forms the foot 7in some cases the central part or bow71 and is generally of a quadrangular form1 decorated with an engraved subject1 usually animals or birds of a similar type to those painted in the panels on the vases4 ,more rarely ships or human figures are found4#ifb ,the terracotta figures 7p4 #abc71 on the other hand1 bear a different relation to the pottery4 ,they are flat board-like figures 771 known to the modern ,greek digger as 8,pappades10 the high head-dress which they wear suggesting to him the well-known hat of the orthodox 8,papas0 or priest4 ,the flat surface of the body gives scope for ornamentation representing embroidered robes1#ifc and the patterns employed are just those which are seen on the vases2 and1 moreover1 the method of painting is the same1 the figures being covered with a buff slip1 the patterns in black with purple details4 ,it should be remarked that some of these figures are comparatively developed in style1#ifd and that they are practically later imitations of the decoration of the vases4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in considering the ,geometrical vases as a whole1 we are struck with the laudable aspirations of the artist1 who1 though unable to execute his new ambitions with complete success1 yet shows in his work the same promise of the future that is latent in all early ,greek art4 ,his best achievement is in the ornamentation4 ,oriental influences as yet count for very little1 though they are perhaps to be discerned in the human figures1 as already noted2 ,kroker also thinks that the nude female figures on the larger vases are due to ,oriental art4#ife ,in any case they are not to be traced until late in the period1 and first1 as might be expected for geographical reasons1 in the fabrics found at ,kameiros in ,rhodes4 ,the question of chronology must next be considered4 ,that the developed ,geometrical style succeeds to the ,mycenaean1 and forms a link between it and the early ,attic attempts at black-figured ware1 of which we shall subsequently treat1 is sufficiently clear4 ,it may also be laid down that the ,dipylon ware represents the last stage of ,geometrical decoration1 being in point of fact too far advanced to be regarded as a purely typical ,geometrical ware4 ,such data as the finding of iron in the tombs1 or the evidence of finds at ,troy1#iff also tend to place the beginning of the style at least as early as the tenth century4 ,it has also been noted that the figures correspond closely with the bronzes of ,olympia which are dated about the ninth century1 and this1 if accepted1 necessitates placing the simpler linear decoration back as far as the tenth4 ,the lower limits of the style may be roughly fixed by the evidence from the tombs of ,etruria1 discussed in ,chapter ,,xviii41 at about #gjj ,b4,c4 ,next1 there is the evidence afforded by the ships1#ifg which it should be noted are all of the bireme or form1 with two banks of oars4 ,the invention of the trireme1 as we learn from ,thucydides 7i4 #ac1 #e71 was due to ,ameinokles1 about the year #gjd ,b4,c4 ,hence ,kroker's dating of the ,dipylon vases about the year #gjj can hardly be accepted4 ,but the eighth century may be taken as representing the latest period of the ,geometrical pottery1 both in ,attica and ,boeotia4 ,the curious inscription engraved on a ,dipylon vase from ,athens is dealt with elsewhere 7,chapter ,,xvii472 undoubtedly the earliest known ,attic inscription1 its value as evidence is limited to that of a terminus ante quem1 from the fact that it was probably engraved at a subsequent time to the manufacture of the vase4 ,the question of centres of manufacture is one that has already been the subject of some discussion1#ifh the result of which has been to show that there is no complete homogeneity in the wares from different sites1 and consequently no one central fabric4 ,the colossal funerary vases1 which1 it may be remarked in passing1 stand at the head of a long line of funerary fabrics and show the ,athenian fondness for this class of vase1#ifi were not1 and could not have been1 generally exported1 in spite of the notable exception at ,curium4 ,the ordinary wares might have been made in some one place 7probably a ,dorian centre1 not ,attica or ,boeotia72 but we have seen that most finds1 as in ,rhodes1 present local peculiarities4#igj ,athens at this period was not sufficiently advanced to become the centre of large potteries1 and did not become so1 as we shall see1 before the age of the ,peisistratidae2 such vases as were made were strictly confined to special purposes4 ,it is a curious fact that very little ,geometrical ware was found on the ,acropolis4 ,the ,geometrical pottery of ,cyprus has already been discussed in its relation to that of ,greece 7pp4 #bdi1 #bec7iga2 but there is yet another region which passed through a ,geometrical period similar to that of ,greece1 and that is ,etruria 7see ,chapter ,,xviii474 ,it is1 however1 better illustrated by the metal products of the ,villanova period1 such as the bronze discs and large cinerary urns1 than by the local pottery1 which never reached the same level as in ,greece2 in the former the same combinations of elaborate ornament with rude animals and yet ruder human figures may be witnessed1 and it is possible that importations from ,greece may have had a share in influencing these products4 ,they cover the period from the tenth to the eighth century ,b4,c4 #b4 ,,attica1 ,,boeotia1 ,,and ,,melos ,following on to the ,geometrical vases both in chronological and artistic sequence is a small class of ,athenian vases1 which1 more for convenience than with regard to strict accuracy1 have been styled ,proto-,attic4 ,the term has this much of truth in it1 that the group may be said to stand at the head of1 and in direct relation to1 the long series of painted vases produced in the ,athenian potteries for some two centuries afterwards4 ,it is only of late years that a sufficient number of these vases has become known for them to be studied as a separate class1 and even when ,bhlau first drew attention to them1 in #ahhg1 only two or three were known4 ,the list up to date is as follows 7the order being roughly chronological73-- #a4 ,athens #dfg 7,couve's ,amphora ,kerameikos ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahib1 pl4 ,cat47 #aj4 #b4 ,berlin #ef ,amphora ,hymettos ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 pl4 #e4 #c4 ,athens #dfh ,hydria ,analatos ibid4 pls4 #c1 #d4 7,phaleron7 #d4 ,athens #dfd ,lebes ,thebes ibid4 pl4 #d4 #e4 ,athens #dfi ,amphora ,pikrodaphni ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahic1 pls4 #b1 #c4 #f4 ,athens ,mus4 ,amphora ,kynosarges ,j4,h4,s4 xxii4 pls4 #b-d4 #g4 ,athens #fej ,fragment ,aegina ,benndorf1 ,gr4 u4 ,sic4 ,vasenb4 pl4 #ed4 #h4 ,athens #feg ,amphora ,kerameikos ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 pl4 #eg4 #i4 ,athens #fea ,amphora ,peiraeus 4 4 #ahig1 pl4 #e4 #aj4 ,berlin #afhb ,lebes ,aegina ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhb1 pls4 #i1 #aj4 #aa4 ,b4,m4 ,a #ece ,lebes ,athens ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #dc ,fig4 #hg4 ,we may also add to this list ,athens #feb-ffd1 a vase from ,aegina 7,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 pl4 #h71 ,b4,m4 ,a #aeca 7,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahih1 p4 #bhe71 and another at ,athens 7ibid4 p4 #bhc74 ,it will be noticed that the majority are of the amphora form1 and that all without exception have been found in or near ,athens1 which leaves little room for doubt as to their origin4 ,a close connection with the ,dipylon vases may be observed in the first three1 not only in shape and technique1 but in decoration4 ,in ,no4 #b1 which we may take as typical of the oldest form of the ,attic amphora1 a combination of ,geometrical and ,mycenaean ornament is to be observed1 but the figures of the warriors are purely ,hellenic1 like those of the ,euphorbos pinax 7p4 #cce74 ,the shape of ,no4 #c is typical of the ,geometrical vases1 with its long neck and slim body1 and it is perhaps more accurately called a three-handled jug than a hydria1 though at the same time it is clearly the prototype of the later ,attic hydria4 ,the panel on the neck of the vase 7also seen in ,no4 #f7 is also a ,geometrical feature1 and the figures therein are quite in the ,dipylon style4 ,on the other hand1 in the arrangement of the designs in continuous friezes without vertical divisions we trace the incoming influence of a foreign style--the ,rhodian or ,ionian4 ,other motives again1 such as the birds and the vegetable ornaments1 have nothing of the ,geometrical or ,ionian about them1 and may perhaps be directly derived from ,mycenaean vases4 ,but the typically ,geometrical lozenges1 zigzags1 etc41 still hold their own4 ,in ,no4 #f ,mr4 ,cecil ,smith notes that the ornamentation covering the field of the design is partly rectilinear and geometrical1 partly floral and of ,mycenaean origin4 ,the spiral pattern which here closes the design1 and is also seen on ,no4 #a1 is again an instance of ,mycenaean influence1 and is a motive which became exceedingly popular4 ,in another seventh-century class1 the so-called ,melian vases1 it is absolutely overdone1 but the more restrained ,attic tradition is preserved for many years as an appropriate decoration for the division of the designs under the handles1 especially in the red-bodied amphorae of the developed ,b4,f4 style4 ,this vase has some other unusual features1 such as incised lines1 which are also found on some early ,attic fragments from the ,acropolis1#igb but seem to appear equally early at ,corinth1 so that it is impossible to say certainly if the process is an ,attic invention4 ,at all events it is not ,ionian1 as its place is taken on the east of the ,aegean by lines of white paint 7e4g4 in the ,clazomenae sarcophagi74 ,curiously enough1 in this same vase 7,no4 #f7 may be noted attempts at this very process1 here1 no doubt1 as on the ,ionian vases1 due to ,mycenaean influence 7see p4 #cca72 but it is unique in early ,attic work4#igc ,the peculiar treatment of the eye and hair is also worthy of attention4 ,to sum up the characteristics of the ,proto-,attic vases1 it may be said that they represent the transformation of the ,attico-,dorian element into the ,attico-,ionian1 just as we shall see in the next stage a further transformation under new influences into ,attico-,corinthian 7p4 #cbd74 ,the ,ionian influence brings with it into ,attica not only a revival of ,mycenaean elements1 but also traces of ,orientalism4#igd ,the general appearance of the decoration links it with the ,geometrical1 but closer examination shows the admixture of spirals1 rosettes1 and lotos-flowers with the lozenges and zigzags1 while the ,geometrical animal-types are combined with new ones from ,ionia1 such as the lion1 and the funeral scenes and combats are supplanted by ,centaurs and winged genii of ,assyrian character4#ige ,further1 there is a distinct tendency to get rid of the old silhouette and to draw in outline1 a practice typical of ,ionia and a direct heritage from ,mycenaean vase-paintings4 ,as in the ,rhodian vases1 the bodies are rendered in full colour1 the heads in outline2 while the practice of covering the field with ground-ornaments is also a peculiarly ,rhodian characteristic4 ,these latter1 however1 gradually disappear1 as do the ,geometrical conventions in the drawing of the figures4 ,the amphora-type develops steadily onwards from the ,berlin ,hymettos amphora1 which1 as has been pointed out1 is the oldest ,attic variety4 ,in some of the forms1 as in ,no4 #e1 there are traces of a metallic origin1 shown by the open-work handles and other details4#igf ,generally speaking1 there is a tendency towards the colossal1 and towards emphasising the figure-decoration1 not only by increasing the size of the figures1 but by confining the subject to one side4 ,m4 ,pottier thinks that this is due to architectural influences1 and suggests a comparison with a temple-faade4 ,but the local traditions are still strong1 and in spite of the influence of the lively and original ,ionic style1 the vases remain 8continental0 at bottom1 the drawing always soberer and more powerful throughout4 ,in many respects there is1 as we shall see1 a close parallelism with the so-called ,melian fabrics4 ,no4 #aa1 the large ,burgon lebes in the ,british ,museum 7,fig4 #hg71 is one of the latest representatives of the ,proto-,attic class2 its ,ionic-looking lions and 8,rhodian0 wealth of ground-ornaments seem to suggest ,asiatic influences1 the presence of which has been accounted for above4 ,moreover1 the loop-pattern on the reverse is distinctly ,proto-,attic1 and finds its parallels on vases found at ,eretria1#igg as well as on others of the class under consideration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,,burgon ,,lebes 7,,british ,,museum74 ,another interesting point in connection with the ,proto-,attic vases is the introduction of mythological subjects1 as on ,no4 #f 7,herakles and ,antaios71 ,no4 #h 7,herakles and the ,centaur ,nessos71 ,no4 #aj 7,perseus and ,athena1 and a ,harpy#igh74 ,the only parallel to this early appearance of myths on vases is to be found in the ,melian class 7see below1 p4 #cja71 the ,aristonos krater 7see below7 and the ,euphorbos pinax 7p4 #cce71 which1 however1 is of later date4 ,it will be seen that they only occur in the later group of the ,attic vases4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xvi ,illustration3 ,from ,wiener ,vorl4 ,,the ,,aristono,s ,,krater 7,,in ,,the ,,vatican74 ------------------------------------ ,on two of these it is to be noted that inscriptions occur1 identifying the figures 7,nos4 #h and #aj74 ,these are the oldest painted inscriptions on ,attic vases1 but henceforward they increase in number1 at least in the ,athenian and ,corinthian fabrics2 they are always more characteristic of the mainland than of ,asia ,minor4#igi ,there are two early signed vases which may possibly represent the work of ,athenian artists prior to the time of the ,franois vase1 the cup by ,oikopheles at ,oxford1#ihj and the famous vase of ,aristonophos1#iha ,ariston of ,kos 7 71 ,aristonothos1 or ,aristonos as various scholars interpret the name4#ihb ,the former1 however1 is somewhat archaistic in character1 with careless rather than incompetent drawing1 and hardly earlier than the sixth century2 and the latter has been claimed with much probability as ,ionian work1 on account of the treatment of certain details1 as well as on the ground of the name ,ariston of ,kos 7if this interpretation be accepted74 ,the inscription is not conclusive either way1 and it may also be here remarked that the krater has several points of resemblance with the well-known 8,warrior0 vase of ,mycenae 7,fig4 #hh71ihc which is probably later in date than the rest of the pottery from that site1 being found outside the ,acropolis4 ,the ,aristonos vase 7,plate ,,xvi47 is usually dated in the seventh century1 and is interesting for its subjects as well as for its artistic position4 ,on one side is a sea-fight1 a subject only common on ,greek vases in the ,geometrical period1 and therefore obviously derived from that source2 on the other1 the blinding of ,polyphemos by ,odysseus1 a subject popular in archaic vase-painting 7see ,chapter ,,xiv471 and found in ,cyrenaic and other early examples4 ,at first sight this vase would certainly seem to be of the ,proto-,attic class1 showing the transition from ,geometrical to developed ,attic style2 but the ,mycenaean and ,ionian elements must not be left out of consideration4 ,as regards the ,warrior vase1 ,m4 ,pottier has given good grounds for showing that it also is to be reckoned as ,proto-,attic4 ,but we must not leave out of sight the view urged by ,furtwaengler1#ihd that the ,aristonos vase is of an ,argive fabric4 ,when the ,heraion finds are published1 they may afford more evidence on this point4 ,meanwhile1 it may be remarked that the circumstances of the finding of the ,warrior vase may support this view4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,,vase ,,from ,,mycenae1 ,,with ,,warriors4 ,closely connected with these early ,attic fabrics is a very interesting series of small vases which1 from the place of their discovery1 are usually known as ,phaleron ware4 ,they are nearly all small jugs1 and number some fifty1 mostly at ,athens1 but there is a representative series in the ,british ,museum4 ,more conspicuously1 perhaps1 than the ,proto-,attic1 they illustrate the growing tendency to combine ,geometrical and ,oriental influences4 ,in form and technique they are ,geometrical1 but in the ornamentation there is a large admixture of ,oriental elements4 ,it has been said that 8the whole character of these vases seems to reflect an influence of the style of ,oriental vases on painters accustomed to the ,dipylon style10#ihe and it is largely in the arrangement of the decoration that the former is apparent1 as well as in the introduction of new motives and patterns4#ihf ,see for examples ,plate ,,xvii4 figs4 #b1 #d1 #e4 ,illustration3 ,from ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahij4 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,,vase ,,of ,,proto-,,attic ,,type ,,from ,,vourva4 ,the usual scheme consists of a panel with figures on the neck1 a band of ornament round the shoulder1 and below that parallel bands of lines or other ornaments1 with zigzags or rays round the foot4 ,a typical example is ,a #dga in the ,british ,museum1 with a cock on the neck1 and below1 dogs pursuing a hare4#ihg ,on a cup of ,geometrical form1 with conventionalised plants and ground-ornaments of ,geometrical character1 are two deer fleeing from a lion1 and there is also a pyxis with chariot-scenes obviously derived from ,mycenaean vases4 ,but most curious and interesting is a jug with two bearded heads and a woman with very small body1 apparently playing flutes4#ihh ,the general effect is quite unique1 but the drawing is rude and childish to a degree2 the middle head is almost ,semitic in type4 ,it would seem that here again we have a ,mycenaean influence at work1 and in general the appearance and style of these vases undoubtedly recall the figured vases from ,cyprus4#ihi ,another series of vases in close relation to the ,proto-,attic fabrics is that found at ,vourva1 near ,marathon#iij2 they are important as forming a connecting link with the next development of ,attic vase-painting1 the ,tyrrhenian amphorae described at the conclusion of this chapter4 ,they have been studied by ,bhlau1#iia and more recently by ,nilsson1#iib and these writers have shown how they represent the influence of ,ionic ideas1 derived through ,euboea4 ,on the other hand the friezes of animals1 which are so characteristic of this class1 are clearly derived from ,corinthian sources1 but are distinguished from those on ,corinthian vases by the absence of accessory colours4 ,fig4 #hiiic may be taken as a typical example4 ,they appear to be contemporary with the later ,proto-,attic vases1 such as the ,burgon lebes1 on which also traces of ,ionic influence have been noted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the ,geometrical period onwards the manufacture of painted vases seems to have been continued intermittently in ,boeotia down to the fourth century4 ,it would be taking too great a liberty with chronology to deal with all ,boeotian fabrics here1 and the later must fall into their place with the contemporary ,attic fabrics4 ,but there is a small class which seems to take its origin directly or indirectly from the ,geometrical pottery2 and as it belongs to a period anterior to the perfected ,b4,f4 style1 it may be treated here as analogous in development to the ,proto-,attic vases4 ,a favourite shape among the ,boeotian ,geometrical wares was that of a jug with long cylindrical neck and somewhat flat body1 of a form clearly imitated from metal4#iid ,this shape1 which is also often found in ,proto-,corinthian fabrics 7see below1 p4 #cjh71 was utilised by a potter named ,gamedes1 whose signature is found on a vase from ,tanagra in the ,louvre1#iie in the ,boeotian alphabet of about #fjj ,b4,c4 ,it is decorated with the figure of a herdsman driving before him a bull and a flock of sheep1 the figures being in black silhouette1 with details indicated by white markings within incised lines4 ,this is quite a local peculiarity1#iif and seems to be due to a combination of ,corinthian and ,ionian influences4 ,gamedes has also signed his name on an unpainted aryballos of the typical early ,corinthian globular form 7see p4 #aig7 in the ,british ,museum 7,plate ,,xvii4 fig4 #f71 and a similar vase in the ,louvre is signed by ,menaidas4#iig ,yet another ,boeotian potter1 ,theozotos1 has a signed vase with a similar subject to the ,gamedes jug1 but the style is more advanced4#iih ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xvii ,illustration3 ,,early ,,pottery ,,from ,,greece 7,,british ,,museum74 #a1 #c1 8,,proto-,,corinthian02 #b1 #d1 #e1 8,,phaleron0 ,,ware2 #f1 ,,boeotian1 ,,signed ,,by ,,gamedes4 ------------------------------------ ,another typically ,boeotian form found in the same period is a kantharos1#iii also obviously imitated from metal and decorated with figures of animals or palmette-and-lotos patterns of a peculiarly local type4 ,the style of the animals is1 like that of the ,gamedes vase1 also peculiar and local2 but both in decoration and technique these vases seem to reflect ,corinthian influence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a small but remarkable class of vases1 which seem to stand almost by themselves1 is that known as the ,melian amphorae4 ,four vases of this type now in the ,athens ,museum#ajjj were found in ,melos many years ago1 and were recognised as a separate class and described as 8,melian vases0 as long ago as #ahfb by ,conze4#ajja ,since that time a splendid example has been added to the list1 found in the same island in #ahicajjb2 and to this must be added several fragments recognised at different times1 including one from ,naukratis in the ,british ,museum4#ajjc ,all the complete vases are large amphorae1 about three feet high1 but of elegant proportions1 with two handles branching out low down on the body4 ,the figures are painted in brown on a pale yellow ground1 and enhanced with dull red and purple accessories1 some of the details also being incised4 ,in two cases the subjects are mythological1 one representing ,apollo with his lyre in a chariot accompanied by ,artemis and two ,muses#ajjd2 another the ,asiatic ,artemis 7see ,chapter ,,xii47#ajje2 another1 the one found in #ahic1 has the subjects of ,hermes and ,athena1 and ,herakles carrying off ,iole4 ,deities in chariots are a typical ,melian subject4 ,the figures are of quite original design1 in no way imitative1 and the costumes seem to indicate a period between ,homer and the sixth century4 ,they may be roughly dated about the middle of the seventh4 ,they exhibit a combination of highly-developed ,geometrical ornament with vegetable motives from the ,east and ,mycenaean details1 such as the spiral1 which1 as has already been noted 7p4 #bid71 attains almost to a rank growth over the vacant spaces of the vases4 ,the human forms are conceived with a remarkable degree of freedom4 ,in general appearance they are not unlike the large ,proto-,attic amphorae1 but much richer and freer in style2 they may be also said to approach the finer ,naukratite or ,rhodian vases1 such as the ,euphorbos pinax with its quasi-,homeric subject and lavish use of ornament4#ajjf ,the decoration is more advanced than that of the ,proto-,attic class1 the palmettes1 for instance1 being more freely treated4 ,riegl#ajjg notes that the palmettes and lotos-flowers are derived from ,egypt1 but transformed and ,hellenised1 and that the spirals are not ,geometrical1 but are naturalised into plants4 ,the characteristic arrangement of the ornament in long vertical stripes he traces from ,egypt through ,mycenaean art2 it develops later into the plait-band of the ,clazomenae sarcophagi 7,plate ,,xxvii474 ,in brief1 the ornament of the ,melian vases forms a direct link between ,mycenaean and ,hellenic ornament4 ,an altogether new light has been thrown on this group by a large series of fragments of painted pottery found in #ahih in the island of ,rheneia1 which undoubtedly form part of the contents of graves brought over from ,delos in #dbf-be ,b4,c41 as recorded by ,thucydides 7iii4 #ajd74 ,they have been recently made the subject of careful study by ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,hopkinson1#ajjh who recognised them as belonging to the ,melian class1 and identified parts of at least ten distinct vases4 ,the scanty preservation of fragments of complete vases is1 in his opinion1 due to the fact that they had been originally placed outside the tombs like the ,dipylon vases4 ,like the complete examples1 they are characterised by their fine slip and brilliant polychrome technique1 the system of frieze-decoration with ,geometric ornaments and spirals1 the free and spirited drawing1 and their purely plastic forms1 showing no signs of imitation of metal4 ,they also bear out the isolated character of this fabric1 in which all the vases seem to be on the same level of excellence1 without any signs of transition at either end4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xviii ,illustration3 ,,melian ,,amphora 7,,athens ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,mr4 ,hopkinson draws the conclusion1 in which he may prove to be justified1 that this pottery is of ,delian manufacture1 but if so1 that the clay must have been imported1 as the local clay is1 and always has been1 too poor in character4 ,at all events1 the ,cycladic origin of the fabric can hardly be a matter of doubt1 and it is clear that the intermediate position of these islands would account for a combination of ,geometrical and ,ionian elements1 so far as such exists4 ,but the strongly individualistic character of the vases compels us to seek some other influence for their real origin1 and it seems on the whole probable that they represent a separate and independent descent from ,mycenaean pottery1 starting with the spiral as the basis of ornamentation4 ,some evidence of this descent may be traced in the native pottery of ,phylakopi1 to which allusion has been made in the previous chapter 7p4 #bfc74ajji #c4 ,,corinth ,,bibliography ,wilisch1 ,altkorinthische ,thonindustrie 7#ahib72 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #dag ff42 ,dumont-,pottier1 ,cramiques1 i4 chaps4 xi4 and xvi42 ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #ci ff4 ,for 8,proto-,corinthian0 pottery see references given in text4 ,as a commercial and artistic centre1 no one city during the early archaic period entered into serious rivalry with ,corinth1 which was at a very remote date in relations with the ,east1 and was one of the first of the ,greek states to extend the system of colonisation in the ,mediterranean1 by the foundation of ,corcyra1 ,syracuse1 and other important outposts4 ,the epoch of this supremacy and of its commercial prosperity extends from the eighth to the sixth century ,b4,c41 being coincident with the rule of the great tyrants1 ,periander1 ,kypselos1 etc4 ,in the course of the sixth century1 when the ,athenian tyranny rose to such a great height under ,peisistratos1 ,corinth1 with equal rapidity1 sank to a subordinate position1 and her artistic supremacy passed to the growing power of ,athens4 ,hence it is fitting that ,corinth and its famous potteries should be the subject of our next section4 ,two causes contributed to the importance of ,corinth as a centre of ceramic industry--the excellence of its clay 7see p4 #bje71 and its position as a commercial port at the junction of the ,peloponnese and ,central ,greece4 ,pollux#ajaj selects ,corinthian clay for commendation1 and other writers speak of different varieties of pottery as ,corinthian4 ,hence it is not surprising that large quantities of pottery should have been found here1 the local origin of which is established by the inscriptions in the ,corinthian alphabet which are frequently painted upon them2 and not only that1 but similar pottery has been found almost all over the ,mediterranean1 being more widely distributed than any other fabric except the ,athenian ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 vases4 ,the list of sites as given by ,wilisch is as follows3 ,athens1 ,eleusis1 ,aegina1 ,argos1 ,kleonae1 ,tiryns1 ,mycenae1 ,thebes1 and ,tanagra in ,greece2 ,euboea 7,karystos71 ,melos1 ,corfu1 ,crete1 ,rhodes1#ajaa ,samos1 and ,cyprus among the islands2 ,hissarlik1 ,smyrna1 ,pontus1 and the ,crimea2 ,alexandria1 ,naukratis1 and ,carthage2 ,syracuse and ,selinus in ,sicily1 and ,sardinia2 and many places in ,italy1 such as ,bari1 ,nola1 ,capua1 ,cumae1 ,beneventum1 ,cervetri1 ,vulci1 ,orvieto1 ,corneto1 and ,viterbo4 ,m4 ,pottier thinks that this wide distribution is due1 not to the merit of the vases themselves1 which are often of poor style1 but to the merchandise which they contained4 ,this might1 at any rate1 account for the great preponderance of small oil-flasks1 a form which took the place of the ,mycenaean 8false amphora40 ,the ,corinthian vases are not1 however1 strictly homogeneous1 and1 in fact1 fall into certain distinct categories4 ,the earliest class found at ,corinth stands quite by itself1 and has been termed 8,proto-,corinthian10 though the justice of this title has been strongly combated by some scholars4 ,on many of the ,sicilian and ,italian sites a class of small vases#ajab is found which differs from the authentic ,corinthian examples of the same forms1 and may not impossibly denote local fabrics4 ,if this is so1 they would stand in the same relation to the genuine ,corinthian as the ,boeotian ,geometrical vases to those of the ,dipylon1 forming a sort of supplementary fabric4 ,at all events1 such imitations of a popular ware might reasonably be expected4 ,m4 ,pottier maintains that five distinct varieties of clay may be observed1 which partially serve as a basis for classification1 apart from questions of style and ornamentation4 ,they are as follows3 7#a7 small vases of a greenish-yellow clay found in ,greece1 especially at ,corinth1 but rare in ,italy2 7#b7 vases of cream-coloured clay from ,boeotia1 and large kraters from ,cervetri2 7#c7 vases of reddish clay from ,boeotia1 ,euboea1 and ,etruria2 7#d7 vases of white and grey clay1 very numerous in ,italy2 7#e7 vases of yellow clay1 chiefly found in ,italy4 ,some of the 8,proto-,corinthian0 wares belong to ,class 7#a71 but as a rule they are marked off from the rest by technique as well as decoration4 ,this first class is without doubt exclusively local1 and represents the of ,pollux2 the same clay is even used at ,corinth at the present day4 ,on one of the ,penteskuphia pinakes 7see p4 #caf71 the clay of which differs from the rest1 a potter is represented making an aryballos of 8,proto-,corinthian0 form#ajac2 but the majority belong to the second class1 which is also local1 and includes the large kraters of advanced style with ,corinthian inscriptions4 ,in colour and porosity the clay resembles that of ,boeotia4 ,the red clay of ,class 7#c7 suggests a connection with ,chalkis1 a question which needs future consideration 7see below1 p4 #cba72 7#d7 and 7#e7 present analogies to the native clays of ,italy1 and include all the local imitative fabrics4 ,the older varieties with merely linear decoration are most largely found at ,corinth and ,syracuse1 and the later with incised lines and figures of animals or men are comparatively rare4 ,but as far as the present state of our knowledge permits1 it is certainly possible to claim as ,corinthian1 at least in a sense1 all the varieties of fabrics which have been hitherto mentioned1 except probably the 8,proto-,corinthian40 ,in describing these fabrics in detail1 it will be found more convenient to ignore the technical differences1 and adopt the more chronologically accurate system of classification which follows the development of the decoration4 ,we thus obtain five distinct classes1#ajad which may be summarised as follows3-- #a4 8,proto-,corinthian0 wares 7called by ,m4 ,pottier the ,corinthian ,geometric style74 #gej-fej ,b4,c41 and later4 #b4 ,corinthian vases with incised scale-patterns or imbrications4 #c4 ,corinthian vases with floral decoration1 ground-ornaments1 and figures not incised4 #d4 ,similar vases1 but with figures incised4 ,classes #b to #d roughly cover the seventh century4 #e4 ,corinthian vases without ground-ornaments1 and with large friezes of animals or human figures2 incised details4 #fjj-eej ,b4,c4 #a4 ,although the priority of the so-called ,proto-,corinthian or ,corinthian ,geometrical pottery is certain1 the term is1 strictly speaking1 applied to vases of different dates1 which are only connected by form with the original fabrics4#ajae ,the distinction lies in the fact that the earlier vases have linear decoration without purple accessories or incised lines1 both of which occur in the more developed examples as the result of the revolution effected by the ,corinthian painters4#ajaf ,they therefore fall into two main classes1 of which the earlier includes the larger vases with purely ,geometrical decoration of a simple type1 doubtless reflecting the original local ,geometrical pottery1 and sometimes with zones of animals4 ,the figures are merely in black silhouette4 ,in the later class the vases are small1 sometimes diminutive1 but of developed style1 with zones of animals of the later ,corinthian type1 and with purple accessories and incised lines4 ,the earlier class date from the eighth to the seventh century ,b4,c42 the later cannot be older than the sixth4 ,for the dating of the earlier group some evidence may be derived from the results of excavations at ,syracuse1 founded from ,corinth in #gce ,b4,c4 ,in its earliest cemeteries1 as also at ,megara ,hyblaea1 numerous ,proto-,corinthian vases of the earlier class have been found4#ajag ,in ,italy ,proto-,corinthian wares were found in trench-tombs of about #gej-fej ,b4,c41 and in the earlier chamber-tombs 7see ,chapter ,,xviii474 ,the older class disappears by the end of the seventh century1 when the typical ,corinthian aryballos 7see p4 #aig7 takes its place4 ,besides ,corinth and ,syracuse1 ,proto-,corinthian vases have been found in considerable numbers at the ,argive ,heraion1 at ,thebes1 and in the island of ,aegina1 and more rarely at ,tiryns1 ,athens1 ,eleusis1 ,tanagra1 ,smyrna1 and ,hissarlik4 ,out of thirty in the ,berlin ,museum1 eight certainly came from ,corinth4 ,taking this into consideration1 and also the ,corinthian origin of ,syracuse1 it is evident that there is1 apart from their style1 a strong presumption in favour of their ,corinthian origin4#ajah ,as long ago1 however1 as #ahgg ,helbig cast doubts on this and proposed to locate them at the rival commercial centre of ,chalkis4#ajai ,he was followed by ,dmmler1 ,klein1 and others1#ajbj but recently ,aegina#ajba and ,boeotia#ajbb have also been suggested1 the latter at least for the earlier class4 ,yet more recently the pendulum has swung in another direction1 that of ,argos1#ajbc chiefly in view of the extensive finds at the ,heraion 7not yet published74 ,two specimens have recently been made known which bear inscriptions1 but neither yields very definite evidence4 ,one is a signed vase 7with the name of ,pyrrhos#ajbd71 in which the alphabet is mixed1 but mainly ,chalcidian in character2 in the other#ajbe the inscriptions are fragmentary1 but though the letter appears in ,argive1 not ,corinthian1 form1 the is not of the peculiar ,argive ,argive type1 but ,sicyonian 4 ,the ,pyrrhos inscription cannot be much later than #gjj ,b4,c41 and thus ranks as the earliest known 8signature40 ,mr4 ,hoppin1#ajbf arguing from the ,heraion finds1 regards the ,proto-,corinthian fabrics as a direct offshoot of ,mycenaean pottery1 not as forming a link between the ,geometrical and the ,corinthian4 ,the term1 however1 may be preserved1 as implying priority in point of time1 and it cannot be said as yet that the ,corinthian theory is absolutely disproved4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xix ,illustration3 8,,proto-,,corinthian0 ,,and ,,early ,,corinthian ,,vases 7,,british ,,museum74 #a-c1 #e1 ,,early ,,corinthian2 #d1 #f1 8,,proto-,,corinthian40 ------------------------------------ ,the dominating form is that of the alabastron or lekythos1 a pear-shaped vase with flat round lip and flat handle4 ,the aryballos form is also known1 as are the skyphos1 pyxis1 and a small krater4 ,a characteristic shape is the jug with flat base rising in pyramidal form to a long cylindrical neck1 with trefoil lip and handle4#ajbg ,the earlier group1 although of 8,corinthian0 technique1 usually have only 8,geometrical0 ornament1 such as water-birds or simple patterns2 hence they have been held1 for instance1 by ,m4 ,pottier1 to represent the true type of ,corinthian ,geometrical pottery4 ,but it does not seem that the ,geometrical style was ever popular at ,corinth1 and there are many signs that the ,proto-,corinthian fabrics were to a great extent influenced directly by ,mycenaean wares4 ,the patterns1 which are in black monochrome1 are on the smaller vases limited to bands1 rows of dots1 or a kind of 8tongue0-pattern of stylised leaves4 ,the ,proto-,corinthian vases found in ,aegina#ajbh form in some respects a class by themselves1 being often of considerable size2 they also include some unusual varieties1 such as cups1 and even amphorae4#ajbi ,they usually have ,geometrical decoration in the form of zigzags1 maeander1 chevrons1 triangles1 or parallel rays2 on the larger ones are found friezes of animals1 such as dogs pursuing deer1 bulls1 or water-fowl4 ,examples of this class are3 ,b4,m4 ,a #dhg1 #ajej ff4 7see ,plate ,,xvii4 figs4 #d and #f1 ,,xix4 fig4 #a72 ,louvre ,e #ac1 #ah1 #cb1 #cji1 #cge1 #cij1 #cif 7,atlas1 pls4 #ci1 #dj72 ,berlin1 #caf-ce2 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahgg1 pls4 ,c1 ,d1 ,u1 ,v2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 pl4 #g 7,b4,m4 ,a #aecj1 of ,aegina type74 ,the second class is one of considerable interest4 ,it consists of a series of miniature vases1 of which some twenty in all are known1 of the pear-shaped lekythos form1 with minute but skilfully-executed figures in a very advanced style4 ,at their head for beauty and delicacy of execution stands the exquisite little ,macmillan lekythos in the ,british ,museum1#ajcj a masterpiece of its kind4 ,there is also a fine specimen in ,berlin 7,no4 #ccf71 others in the ,louvre#ajca and the ,syracuse ,museum 7the latter from the local excavations71 and three very fine ones have recently been acquired by the ,boston ,museum4#ajcb ,but for size and richness1 if not for beauty1 all these are surpassed by a marvellous vase in the ,chigi collection at ,florence4#ajcc ,this is a jug or oinocho1 decorated with no less than four friezes1 two of which are broad1 with numerous figures1 the two alternate forming narrow borders to these1 with hunting scenes4 ,the colouring is most remarkable1 the figures being painted in black1 yellow ochre1 and bright crimson on a cream ground1 with a lavish use of incised lines1 and on the upper narrow frieze the animals are actually painted in pale buff on a black ground4 ,the upper large frieze represents a combat1 with serried ranks of warriors and horsemen advancing to meet each other1 those on the right all having elaborate emblems on their shields 7birds1 ox-heads1 ,gorgon-heads1 etc474 ,on the lower friezes the figures fall into groups3 a four-horse chariot and a row of boys on horseback2 a ,sphinx2 hunters slaying a lion2 and lastly a fragmentary group1 clearly representing the ,judgment of ,paris 7see ,chapter ,,xiv474 ,it is the figures of this group which bear the inscriptions alluded to above4 ,as an instance of the extreme richness and delicacy of the painting1 attention should be called to the chariot-horses in the lower frieze1 which are drawn slightly in advance of each other1 and painted respectively yellow1 black1 red1 and yellow4 ,the ,macmillan lekythos1 in spite of its diminutive size1 is decorated with no less than three friezes of human figures and animals1 as well as other ornaments2 the main design represents a combat of warriors2 the next1 a race of boys on horseback2 the lowest1 dogs pursuing a hare1 and a crouching ape4 ,the total height of the vase is barely #b inches1 and yet every detail in these friezes is marked with surprising care and accuracy1 the shield-devices of the warriors1 for instance1 being drawn with wonderful minuteness4 ,the three ,boston vases are interesting for their subjects3 on one is ,bellerophon slaying the ,chimaera2 on the next1 a hero attacking a lion with a human head on its back 7a monster no doubt suggested by the ,chimaera72 the third has the favourite early subject of ,herakles' combat with the ,centaurs4 ,in all these vases the use of a red colour on the human figures should be noted1 a technical device which we have already noted in the figures on the ,melian amphorae 7see above1 p4 #cja74 ,it is abundantly clear that such work could not have been produced in the eighth1 or even the seventh1 century2 the style is virtually that of the subsequent black-figured vases1 and we are therefore forced to the conclusion that these miniature vases were made under the more or less direct influence of the later ,corinthian wares proper1 at a time when that style was developing into the black-figured4 ,with the ,proto-,corinthian ware may be linked a series of vases in the form of animals1 human heads1 etc41 which imitate ,oriental porcelain vases and show an early development of the plastic art which is remarkable for its advanced style 7see pp4 #abg1 #dib74 ,the decoration of these vases is usually of a simple ,geometrical character4 ,they are found in ,rhodes and on many other sites1 such as ,eretria1 ,vulci1 and ,nola4 #b4 ,vases with incised imbrications4--,the importance of this class is betokened by the appearance of the incised line1 which as a matter of pure technique is of course only a revival from the primitive fabrics1 but as an adjunct to figure-decoration in order to express details is an entirely new feature 7see above1 p4 #cjf1 and below1 p4 #cac74 ,it was probably derived from metal-work1 in which it had long been familiar1 as the ,boeotian ,geometrical fibulae and the early ,corinthian or ,chalcidian bronze reliefs testify4 ,although destined largely to revolutionise design1 it was at first used with restraint4 ,in the vases under consideration it is confined to the imbrications#ajcd or scale-patterns with which the body is largely covered 7,plate ,,xix4 fig4 #c74 ,they were produced by means of a compass in which the graving-tool was fixed1 the edge of each scale forming an arc of a circle1 the centre points of which are usually visible4 ,this scale-pattern is not a new feature in the decoration of vases2 it appears in a painted form on many ,mycenaean specimens1#ajce and was also adopted by the ,ionian painters of ,daphnae in the ,egyptian ,delta 7see p4 #ceb74 ,but as a more satisfactory result was obtained by incising1 the ,corinthian variety soon became exceedingly popular4 ,the effect is often enhanced by the use of red colour4#ajcf ,in some cases this ornament is combined with painted friezes of animals 7as in the ,louvre vase ,e #dba74 ,the shapes employed are various1 but a new and conspicuous variety is the large jug or olpe1 with circular lip and large discs attached on either side to the tops of the handles4 ,attempts have been made to dissociate this fabric from ,corinth1 by attributing it to ,rhodes1 ,ionia1 and ,sicily#ajcg2 but although it is certainly true that large numbers were found in ,rhodes and in ,sicily1 the claims of neither prevail over those of ,corinth1 and the most that can be said with any certainty is that some are local imitations4 ,it is1 moreover1 possible to discover their prototypes in the ,proto-,corinthian wares4 #c4 ,vases with floral decoration1 but no incised lines 7about #gjj-fej ,b4,c474--,towards the end of the eighth century may be observed an influx of ,oriental motives1 transforming the ,corinthian style1 just as at ,athens it transformed the local style1 producing the ,phaleron ware4 ,its effect can also be observed in ,etruria 7,chapter ,,xviii474 ,it is largely due to historical causes1 such as the development of ,greek commerce and colonial expansion1 and generally to the fusion of ,dorian and ,ionian elements4 ,hence the prominent characteristic which distinguishes the new variety from the ,proto-,corinthian2 namely1 the employment of vegetable ornament1 not from direct observation of nature1 but conventionalised4 ,these patterns seem to be largely drawn from ,oriental textile embroideries1 and mainly take the form of rosettes1 leaves1 and flowers strewn all over the field2 according to some writers1 this is the explanation of the phrase spargentes lineas intus1#ajch used in connection with the ,corinthian painters ,aridikes and ,telephanes4 ,ground-ornaments are almost unknown in ,oriental art2 but their adoption from the embroideries would only exemplify the principle1 universal in early art1 of imitating in one material the salient features of another4 ,it has been suggested that these flowers and leaves are intended to represent the ground on which the animals are walking4 ,if this is so1 the effect is due to a principle already existing in ,mycenaean art--the conventional rendering of perspective by placing objects whose real position is beyond the principal subjects in the same vertical plane with them4 ,another favourite pattern1 either as a ground-ornament or as part of the subordinate decoration1 is a combination of the palmette and lotos-flower1 picked out with purple accessories#ajci2 this pattern is purely conventional1 and often assumes colossal dimensions in relation to the size of the vase4 ,the purple accessories1 which now become very common1 may possibly be connected with another traditional ,corinthian invention1 that of ,ekphantos1 who used a red pigment made from pounded earth 7see p4 #cie74ajdj ,as regards shapes1 the alabastron and aryballos#ajda are preeminently popular2 the flat-bottomed jug1 the pyxis or covered jar1 and the skyphos or kotyle1 are also found 7see ,plate ,,xix4 figs4 #a1 #b1 #e74 ,there arises now a tendency in the larger vases to divide the body into zones or friezes1 which henceforth become a characteristic feature4 ,the subjects are strictly limited to animals such as the lion1 or various types of birds2 and friezes of running dogs and other quadrupeds now become the typical ,corinthian motive4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xx ,to face page #cab ,illustration3 #a4 ,,covered ,,jar ,,of ,,corinthian ,,fabric4 #b4 8,,rhodian0 ,,oinochoe4 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ #d4 ,vases with floral decoration and figures with incised lines 7about #fej-fjj ,b4,c474--,in this next stage1 the date of which corresponds with the later trench-tombs and older chamber-tombs of ,etruria 7see ,chapter ,,xviii471 there is a marked tendency of the vases to increase in size1 and several new forms are either introduced for the first time or increase in popularity4 ,besides the ever-popular aryballos and alabastron1 there are various forms of covered jars1 the cylindrical pyxis1 and the so-called lekane1 a sort of tureen2 also various drinking-cups1 the kotyle1 the so-called kothon1 and the kylix1 the last a new type4 ,its prototype is perhaps to be sought in the shallow four-handled bowls of the ,boeotian ,geometrical ware1 and it is marked by its bent-over rim and low foot4#ajdb ,the decoration loses all restraint1 and the prevailing idea with the artist is the horror vacui which impels him to fill up every vacant part of the surface1 at the expense of utterly conventionalising his figures and ornaments and distorting their forms 7cf4 ,plate ,,xix4 figs4 #a1 #e1 and ,,xx4 fig4 #a74 ,the vases contrast unfavourably with their ,ionian contemporaries1 in which1 however profuse the ground-ornaments1 the importance of the figures is never lost sight of1 and they never fail to strike the eye4 ,incised lines and purple accessories are employed freely1 and even the rosettes are always marked by cross-wise incisions4 ,incision as a method of ornamenting vases was of course always known from the earliest times1 but it was not until now employed within and round painted designs4 ,hitherto the only alternatives were plain silhouettes 7as in ,geometrical vases7 or half-opaque1 half-outlined figures 7as in ,mycenaean and some early ,ionian vases74 ,the former1 however1 were too conventional1 the latter too elaborate1 and the new method of painting plus engraving reconciled the two1 being at once more realistic and more rapid4 ,it is generally supposed that this method was a ,corinthian invention 7compare its use in the imbricated vases1 p4 #caa71 but it is not unknown in early ,attic vases1 and ,bhlau attributes its origin to an early ,ionian tendency to imitate metal ware4#ajdc ,but this was an anomaly1 and the ,ionians never took to the incising method1 preferring outline designs or inner lines of white paint 7see p4 #cca74 ,in any case the ,corinthians were the first to adopt it and popularise it4 ,the subjects1 which now begin to present greater interest1 include all kinds of animals and monsters1 arranged in friezes1 and by degrees human figures1 and even scenes from mythology1 make their appearance4 ,some vases have only decorative ornament1 such as a flower of four long1 pointed petals1 which is frequently found on the aryballi4#ajdd ,the animals include the lion1 panther1 boar1 bull1 ram1 deer1 goat1 swan1 and eagle2 the monsters are ,gryphons1 ,sphinxes1 or ,sirens1 and a sea-deity of which the upper part is human 7both male and female71 the lower is in the form of a sinuous fish-tail1 and the figure is often winged in addition4#ajde ,it is possible that in these figures we may see the local sea-deities ,palaemon and ,ino-,leukothea4 ,the human figures are either single1 ranged in friezes1 or in groups2 the favourite types are combats of two warriors and ,bacchanalian dances2 hunting scenes2 and warriors setting out in chariots4 ,the mythological scenes include the combat of ,herakles with the ,centaurs1#ajdf and scenes from the ,trojan ,war1 such as the combat of ,ajax and ,aeneas1 or the episode of ,dolon4#ajdg ,so far1 then1 in the three groups of ,corinthian fabrics proper1 we are able to trace the working of ,m4 ,pottier's law of the hirarchie des genres1#ajdh the law which was made by ,m4 ,dumont the basis of his work ,les ,cramiques de ,grce propre 7vol4 i41 dealing with the earlier fabrics74 ,according to this law1 the decoration of vases advances by a logical process from linear patterns to floral ornament1 and then from animals to human1 and finally mythological1 figures4 ,another feature in this group is that inscriptions now appear for the first time4 ,they became exceedingly popular at ,corinth1 and on most of the vases with figure-subjects they may be found1 each person bearing a name1 whether the scene is mythological or not4#ajdi ,the fashion seems to have received an impetus from the chest of ,kypselos1 which was largely a ,corinthian work1 and often shows close parallel with the vases 7see below74 ,we have a signed vase with figures in this style by ,chares 7,louvre ,e #fji71 and others by ,timonidas 7,athens #fbj71 and ,milonidas 7a pinax in ,louvre74#ajej ,the abundance of these inscriptions has done much to increase our knowledge of the somewhat peculiar ,corinthian alphabet 7see ,chapter ,,xvii474 ,among the vases of this period one of the most remarkable is the so-called ,dodwell vase in ,munich 7,fig4 #ij71ajea found at ,mertese1 near ,corinth1 about the year #ahjj1 and purchased by the explorer ,dodwell4 ,it is a cylindrical jar or box 7pyxis71 with cover1 decorated round the sides and on the top4 ,round the body are two friezes of animals1 with numerous flowers as ground-ornaments2 on the top of the cover is a frieze representing a boar-hunt1 in which eight fancifully-named personages take more or less active part4 ,of these ,philon lies dead under the boar's feet2 ,thersandros attacks it with a sword in front1 and ,pakon discharges an arrow at it from behind4 ,behind him ,andrytas hurls a spear1 and he is followed by four inactive figures1 all draped and unarmed--,dorimachos1 ,sakis1 ,alka 444 and ,agamemnon4 ,the scene is closed by a heraldic group of two ,sphinxes4 ,it will be observed that here1 as in other contemporary scenes with human figures1 the ground-ornaments are already showing a tendency to die out2 perhaps under the influence of ,ionia1 where it was soon discovered that they interfered with the effect of figures in action4 ,the alphabet of the inscriptions enables us to date this vase about #fej-fbj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,,the ,,dodwell ,,pyxis 7,,cover74 ,the pinakes1 or votive tablets1 from ,penteskuphia1 of which mention has been made elsewhere 7p4 #ea71 form an important feature in this group1 both from their subjects1 their inscriptions1 and the method of painting4 ,they appear to range in date from #fej to #eej ,b4,c41 and fall into three classes in point of style4 ,the earliest have designs in rude silhouette without incised lines2 in the second only the contours of the figures are incised2 the third are like the vases1 with incised lines and purple details4 ,in a few cases the clay is red1 not drab-coloured4 ,some are decorated on both sides1 but the majority on one only1 and they were clearly intended for hanging up in a temple4 ,two of them are signed by artists1 ,timonidas and ,milonidas1#ajeb and there are other interesting inscriptions1 besides the ordinary dedications to ,poseidon and ,amphitrite 7see ,chapter ,,xvii474 ,the subjects are partly the same as on the vases1 but the majority fall under two heads3 7a7 ,poseidon and ,amphitrite1 standing or in a chariot 7,fig4 #aae72 7b7 genre scenes from ,corinthian industries1 such as miners digging out clay1 potters and painters at work1 and vessels exporting pottery over the sea 7cf4 pp4 #bjg1 #baf1 and ,chapter ,,xv4 #e74 ,of the subjects common to the vases1 ,oriental animal-types and horses occur most frequently2 also rosettes and floral ground-ornaments4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxi ,illustration3 #a4 ,,imitation ,,corinthian ,,krater1 ,,return ,,of ,,hephaistos2 #b1 ,,corinthian ,,krater ,,with ,,boar-,,hunt 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ #e4 ,the vases of the fifth class 7#fjj-eej ,b4,c47 are characterised by the prevalence of human and mythological subjects1 with large friezes of animals1 a general use of incised lines1 and an absence of ground-ornaments4 ,they are mostly of considerable size1 but small vases still continued to be made during the sixth century1 as is seen in the 8,proto-,corinthian0 lekythi4 ,the amphora and hydria now first make their appearance2 the later lekythi approach more to the ,attic form4#ajec ,one or two other typical shapes may also be noticed1 such as the column-handled krater 7,plate ,,xxi47 and the trefoil-mouthed jug with a panel on one side of the vase only2 the prototype of the former we have seen in the krater of ,aristonos4 ,another important feature is the general use of a red ground in the place of the old creamy white2 and yet another1 the use of white accessories1 especially for the flesh of female figures4 ,it should be noted that this white is always applied directly on the clay1 as in ,ionian fabrics1 not as in the ,attic1 upon the black varnish4 ,we may bear in mind that it was about this time that the ,athenian ,eumaros marem a femina discrevit1 according to ,pliny2 but his date is uncertain1 and the bearing of this invention on the vase-paintings is not to be accepted without hesitation4 ,for the faces of male figures purple is often used1 and1 generally speaking1 the vases tend to present a polychrome appearance4 ,this again is an ,ionian characteristic4 ,the subjects now take a much wider range1 and include almost every variety known in the earlier part of the sixth century4 ,friezes of animals seldom form the main motive of decoration1 but are placed in subordination either on the shoulder or low down on the body4 ,some of the older types still linger1 such as the monsters and fish-tailed sea-deities1 and also that of a heraldic group of two animals with a palmette and lotos pattern between1 suggesting the old ,assyrian motive of two animals guarding the sacred tree4 ,generally1 there is a great advance in composition2 but two traditional principles are still observed--the juxtaposition of figures turned in the same direction1 as in ,oriental compositions1 and a symmetrical disposition of the two sides converging to a centre1 a 8,continental0 principle already seen in the ,dipylon vases4 ,the subjects taken from daily life include combats1 banquets1 ,bacchic or grotesque dances1 hunting-scenes1 warriors setting out for battle1 and processions4 ,some appear now for the first time1 as1 for instance1 the banquets4 ,among the mythological scenes1 ,herakles and his adventures find most favour2 scenes from the ,trojan cycle are far from uncommon2 and other myths of more isolated character are those of ,amphiaraos1 ,perseus1 and the ,theban cycle 7,tydeus killing ,ismene74 ,many of the mythological scenes are really only genre scenes with names added2 for instance1 the krater in the ,louvre with ,herakles' reception by ,eurytos 7,e #fce71 is only an ordinary banquet-scene in composition1 but for the inscriptions2 and so with many others1 as we have also observed in the preceding class4 ,it may suffice to describe one vase in detail as typical of the later ,corinthian wares4 ,this is the so-called ,amphiaraos krater in ,berlin1#ajed a column-handled krater of considerable size and very richly decorated4 ,it belongs to a series exceptionally well represented in the ,louvre 7,e #fac-ci2 all found1 like this1 at ,cervetri71 and illustrating the absolutely latest development of ,corinthian pictorial art4 ,its special interest is that it affords a close comparison in several points with the chest of ,kypselos4 ,the subjects are disposed in two rows all round the vase1 of which the upper is the more important1 containing two mythological subjects4 ,these1 which are unequally divided1 one occupying more of the circumference than the other1 are the ,departure of ,amphiaraos and the ,funeral ,games for ,pelias1#ajee the of ,pausanias4#ajef ,on the lower frieze are seven boys taking part in a horse-race1 seven groups of combatants1 and two marching hoplites4 ,it will be noted that there is no frieze of animals4 ,the ,amphiaraos scene depicts that hero in the act of ascending his war-chariot1 in which the driver ,baton stands2 he turns to look at his family behind1 consisting of two daughters1 a son1 and an infant in the nurse's arms1 and last of all his wife ,eriphyle1 who stands in the rear with the pearl necklace1 the price of her treachery4 ,her children seem to be supplicating for her4 ,in the background ,amphiaraos' house is indicated by a ,doric building4 ,the correspondence of this scene with the description of the ,kypselos chest#ajeg is extraordinary2 the latter might almost be a description of the vase4 ,an interesting feature of this painting is formed by the animals which are scattered over the scene3 a hare1 a hedgehog1 an owl and another bird1 a serpent1 a scorpion1 and a lizard or salamander4#ajeh ,the funeral games for ,pelias adjoined the ,amphiaraos scene on the chest1 just as they do here1 except that the scene on the vase is only an excerpt from the contest of the ,pentathlon1 which is there complete4 ,we have here only the wrestling 7by ,peleus and ,hippalkimos71 and in place of the other scenes a chariot-race1 with the judges waiting to decide the result2 as on the chest1 tripods are standing ready as prizes for the victor4 ,it must not1 of course1 be supposed that these scenes are directly copied from the chest--the discrepancies are too great1 although the parallels are very interesting2 but the only object of such comparisons is to assist us to an idea of the appearance of these great contemporary works of art4#ajei ,one of the chief features of this class is the almost total disappearance of the ground-ornaments4 ,sometimes indeed a frieze of animals with the old profusion of rosettes is combined on the same vase with a design of figures on a clear field2 but1 generally speaking1 rosettes are not found with the figure subjects4 ,their place is almost supplied by the inscriptions1 which become more and more extensively employed1 even for animals4 ,accessory colours are used in a purely conventional fashion1 not to reproduce nature1 but--probably--to reproduce metal-work4 ,thus we may surmise that white is intended to give the effect of silver 7or ivory7 and red that of copper 7or gold71 just as such substances were used on the chest of ,kypselos in order to give variety and picturesqueness to the surface4 ,the black then represents the ground of bronze or wood4 ,the sixth-century ,corinthian vase-paintings have a special importance at the present day1 because they are almost the only remnant left to us of the artistic products of the city at that time4#ajfj ,though not of course to be reckoned as examples of the higher art1 they yet reflect it in some measure1 and help us to reconstruct such works as the chest of ,kypselos1 almost every subject on which finds a parallel in the ,corinthian vases4 ,and it is possible that they are important in another respect4 ,we know from ,pliny that there was a very influential school of painting centred at ,corinth in this century1 which is represented by the names of ,kleanthes and ,aridikes1 ,ekphantos1 ,aregon1 and perhaps also ,kimon of ,kleonae4 ,although ,professor ,robert#ajfa has endeavoured to show that the traditions are untrustworthy1 and places ,kimon in the seventh century1 ,kleanthes later1 the probability is that they may fairly be upheld1 and ,pliny's dates accepted4 ,allusion has already been made to the inventions traditionally associated with ,aridikes and ,ekphantos2 but ,kimon belongs to a later development of painting altogether1 and must be reserved for a later chapter4 ,of ,kleanthes it is only stated that he 8invented linear drawing10 whatever that may mean2 ,pliny1 our informant1 was perhaps hardly aware himself1 and is no more definite as to the period at which he lived4 ,we can only1 therefore1 assume that he marks the epoch of some new departure or advance in contour or outline drawing4#ajfb ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxii ,illustration3 ,,chalcidian ,,vase3 ,,herakles ,,and ,,geryon2 ,,quadriga 7,,biblioth,,que ,,nationale74 ------------------------------------ ,there are a few vases which1 on account of various peculiarities1 can only be described as 8imitation ,corinthian40 ,among these may be mentioned one with an inscription in the ,sicyonian alphabet 7,berlin #aadg71 and a krater in the ,british ,museum 7,b #db on ,plate ,,xxi47 with designs on a white ground1 which from the similarity of its style to the ,berlin vase may be linked therewith4#ajfc ,the late ,f4 ,dmmler was of opinion that these two vases were made at ,sikyon4 ,there is also the group of vases from ,caere in the ,campana collection of the ,louvre1 which have usually been regarded as imitations of ,corinthian ware made in ,italy2 but ,m4 ,pottier in his catalogue makes no distinction between these and the genuine ,corinthian fabrics4 #d4 ,,chalcidian ,,vases ,a very puzzling class of vases1 about which little is at present known1 is that formed by the so-called ,chalcidian group4 ,they are so named from the fact of their bearing inscriptions which may undoubtedly be referred to the alphabet of ,chalkis in ,eretria2 but there is no evidence that they were actually made there4 ,we know1 however1 that ,chalkis was a great art-centre and rival of ,corinth in the seventh and sixth centuries1 and was especially famous for work in metal4 ,as1 therefore1 more than one of these vases bears evident indications1 in the shape of the handles1 the ornamentation1 and other details1 of an imitation of metallic originals1 there may be some ground for the attribution4 ,only a dozen or so of these vases with ,chalcidian inscriptions are known1 and several of them are in character almost to be ranked with the developed ,b4,f4 ,attic wares2 their date cannot therefore be earlier than the middle of the sixth century1 probably about #efj-edj ,b4,c4 ,on the other hand1 they often present a close parallel1 especially in the ornamental patterns1 to the later ,corinthian wares1#ajfd whence it seems probable that they form1 like the so-called ,tyrrhenian amphorae 7see below71 a connecting-link between ,corinth and ,athens4 ,while as yet it is impossible to obtain a definite idea of the characteristics of 8,chalcidian0 vases1 the attempt to classify other uninscribed vases with them can only be very tentative1 although there is more than one in the ,british ,museum1 in the ,louvre1 and elsewhere1 which presents some feature especially typical of the inscribed examples4#ajfe ,the prevailing shape is the amphora1 all but one of the inscribed group coming under this heading1 in which the outline of the body approaches nearer to a pure ellipse than is usual in this form2 the typical ornaments are rows of oblique zigzags and a peculiar variety of the lotos-pattern4 ,an occasional rosette in the field preserves a trace of ,corinthian influence4 ,the subjects are mainly mythological1 such as the combat of ,herakles and ,geryon1 battle-scenes from the ,trojan legends1 etc42 and two points are worth noting as apparently characteristic of the group3 7#a7 the tendency to represent fallen figures in full face1 which is very rare in archaic vase-painting2 7#b7 the type of ,geryon1 who is winged1 and not1 as in the ,attic vases1 8three men joined together10 as ,pausanias describes the figure on the chest of ,kypselos1 but a triple-headed1 six-armed monster4 ,the most typical example of the class is the amphora in the ,hope collection at ,deepdene1#ajff with scenes from the ,trojan ,war4 ,ajax stands over the body of ,achilles1 defending it from the attacks of ,glaukos1 whom he has wounded1 and of ,paris1 who has just discharged his bow2 behind the latter advance ,aeneas and two other ,trojans with spears1 while a fourth falls back wounded4 ,achilles and the two wounded men are all shown in full face4#ajfg ,the combat is watched by a stiff archaic figure of ,athena1 with serpent-fringed aegis1 and behind her1 standing apart1 is ,diomede1 having his wounded hand bound up by ,sthenelos4 ,the drawing on the whole is accurate1 and the style more vigorous and less conventional than that of the ,attic vases4 ,two of the group represent ,herakles encountering ,geryon3 an amphora in the ,british ,museum 7,b #aee7 and one in the ,bibliothque at ,paris 7#bjb74 ,in the latter the figure of ,athena is almost exactly repeated from the ,deepdene vase1 and behind her is a group of cattle4 ,the reverse of this vase represents a quadriga seen from the front 7a typical ,chalcidian subject74 ,both sides of the vase are illustrated in ,plate ,,xxii4 ,until the whole series of ,chalcidian vases is properly studied and estimated1#ajfh it is difficult to give an adequate account of this important group2 we append1 however1 a list of those bearing inscriptions in the alphabet1 and a few others for various reasons associated with them4#ajfi #e4 8,,tyrrhenian ,,amphorae0 ,there is a large and important class of vases1 not differing in technique from the ,attic ,b4,f4 vases proper1 yet clearly of earlier date1 and while not exclusively ,attic in all their characteristics1 yet sufficiently so to suggest that they are closely connected therewith4 ,the problem which these vases have for a long time presented is whether they merely represent an early stage of the ,attic ,b4,f4 fabrics1 linking them to the 8,proto-,attic10 or whether they owe their origin to foreign1 e4g4 ,corinthian1 sources4 ,about eighty vases1 nearly all amphorae1 have been recognised as presenting the characteristics of this class1 and all have been found in ,italy1 chiefly at ,cervetri and ,vulci2 hence they have been known for many years4 ,as long ago as #ahcj the name 8,tyrrhenian amphorae0 was applied to them by ,gerhard1 meaning thereby a sort of cross between ,greek vases proper and those of obviously ,italian origin4 ,the name has adhered to them1 and was also used generally to describe the characteristic form of amphora1 with its cylindrical neck and egg-shaped body#ajgj2 but it was not long before it began to be realised that the vases bore inscriptions in the ,attic dialect1 and1 further1 that the subjects on them had much in common with the later ,corinthian fabrics4 ,thereupon sprang up the idea1 fostered by ,loeschcke1#ajga that the vases were made by ,athenian potters1 but that they were largely indebted to ,corinthian--or1 as ,loeschcke called them1 ,peloponnesian--prototypes4#ajgb ,for the last ten years or so they have been generally known as 8,corintho-,attic10 but ,thiersch1 the most recent writer on the subject1#ajgc reverts to the old name of ,tyrrhenian1 using it of course in a purely conventional sense4 ,his conclusion is that the class is to be regarded as 8old ,attic10 rather than imitative of ,corinthian1 and he shows clearly that it must be regarded as a development of the ,vourva vases 7p4 #bii71 as will be seen from an examination of the vase given in ,fig4 #hi1 p4 #bii2 but that it is entirely free from ,corinthian influence can hardly be maintained4 ,we have seen that the ,vourva class borrowed from ,corinth the friezes of animals which are also characteristic of this group1 and it is possible that this influence continued to make itself felt4 ,at all events1 this ware belongs to the first half of the sixth century ,b4,c41 and stands in close relation to the ,franois vase1 and others which represent the earliest school of ,attic ,b4,f4 artists4 ,its specially ,attic characteristic are1 according to ,holwerda1 7#a7 the inscriptions1 7#b7 the clay1 7#c7 the types of the lotos and other ornaments1 7#d7 the importance given to one subject1 7#e7 the thin proportions of the figures4#ajgd ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxiii ,illustration3 8,,tyrrhenian0 ,,amphora3 ,,death ,,of ,,polyxena 7,,brit4 ,,mus474 ------------------------------------ ,the vases are for the most part decorated in the same manner1 with an elaborate lotos-and-honeysuckle pattern on either side of the neck1 and several friezes of figures1 usually three1 covering the body1 of which all but the principal one are composed of animals or monsters4 ,the principal frieze is always the upper one1 covering the body from the neck to the middle4 ,the friezes are more numerous on the earlier examples2 they become fewer as ,corinthian characteristics give way to ,attic4 ,altogether1 these vases are remarkably homogeneous1 both in style1 in shape1 and in technique1 and it has even been suggested that the whole series is the work of one man2 nor is this an impossibility4 ,an interesting feature is formed by the inscriptions1#ajge which are of frequent occurrence4 ,they tend1 however1 to degenerate into meaningless collocations of letters1 which some have thought to represent ,corinthian inscriptions misunderstood2 but the alphabet is pure ,attic throughout1 except for the double forms on the ,berlin amphora 7see below71 and a ,chalcidian ,chalcidian for on a vase in the ,british ,museum4 ,the artist is fond of giving his figures surnames1 and thus we find ,hermes styled 1 8of ,kyllene10 ,nestor 1 8of ,pylos10 and ,ajax 1 8son of ,oileus10 a feature which hardly occurs on any other class of vases4 ,the meaningless inscriptions are not easy to account for2 certain groups of letters are repeated over and over again1 and it has been suggested by ,thiersch that they are analogous to the friezes of animals1 with their repetitions and combinations4 ,they also seem to serve a decorative purpose by filling up spaces4 ,the subjects are mainly mythological1 with many features of interest4 ,for several the artist seems to have had a decided preference1 such as the combats of ,herakles with ,amazons and with the ,centaur ,nessos1 that of the ,lapiths with the ,centaurs1 the adventure of ,troilos and ,polyxena from the ,trojan legends4 ,bacchic scenes are altogether wanting1 but on many examples a ,corinthian type is adopted in their place1 representing grotesque dancing figures in various attitudes4#ajgf ,of scenes from daily life1 combats of armed warriors and young riders galloping prevail above all others2 the latter are1 as on the ,caeretan hydriae 7p4 #cee71 little more than decorative4 ,generally speaking1 it is doubtful if ,loeschcke's idea of types borrowed from the ,peloponnese can be maintained2 it is true that some scenes which occur on the chest of ,kypselos may be found1 but the treatment is not quite the same2 and some subjects seem to be rather from an ,ionic source4 ,the animals or monsters which form the subordinate friezes include the ,sphinx and ,siren2 the lion1 panther1 goat1 and deer2 the eagle1 swan1 and cock4#ajgg ,some of the vases call for more than passing mention1 especially the remarkable ,berlin vase 7,cat4 #agjd7 with the ,birth of ,athena1 and the richly decorated specimen recently acquired by the ,british ,museum1 with the ,death of ,polyxena4 ,the former seems to be the earliest example of its subject1 and in the number and arrangement of the figures it resembles the fine early ,attic amphora in the ,british ,museum 7,b #adg74 ,its chief interest is epigraphical1 in the use of the double forms 7,corinthian and ,attic7 in the same word of the letters ,e 7,corinthian ,e7 and 774#ajgh ,over the figure of ,hermes is written 7sc4 71 as already noted above4 ,this vase may be regarded as having established the 8type0 for the subject so long popular on ,attic vases1 until ,pheidias created a new and more ideal version4#ajgi ,the ,museum vase 7,plate ,,xxiii47 has a very remarkable representation of a subject rare in ,greek art1 with several unique features4#ajhj ,the body of ,polyxena is carried in a rigid horizontal position by ,ajax ,iliades 7sc4 son of ,oleus7 and two others1 to the tomb of ,achilles1 over which ,neoptolemos stands to perform the fatal deed4 ,phoenix1 ,diomede1 and ,nestor 8of ,pylos0 are spectators of the act4 ,the style of the vases as a whole is coarse and clumsy1 though it often rises to a greater standard of merit2 the lines are often mechanically drawn and lifeless1 which may be to some extent the result of imitation4 ,details of drapery are seldom shown1 except that the dresses are often richly decorated with incised patterns1 but the folds are never indicated4#ajha ----- ,footnote #icj3 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #bbb-c4 ,footnote #ica3 ,wide1 in ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahif1 p4 #che ff42 see also ibid4 #ahic1 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #icb3 ,cf4 the results from the ,argive ,heraion 7,waldstein1 i4 p4 #di ff474 ,footnote #icc3 ,cf4 ,horace1 ,ep4 ii4 #a1 #aef3 ,graecia capta ferum victorem cepit1 et artes intulit agresti ,latio4 ,footnote #icd3 ,m4 ,pottier notes the unexpected repetition of curvilinear elements in ,geometrical pottery 7,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #bbc74 ,footnote #ice3 ,for ,melos1 see ,jahrbuch1 #ahhf1 p4 #aab2 for ,thera1 ,h4 von ,gaertringen1 ,thera1 ii4 p4 #abg ff42 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aijc1 p4 #a ff42 for ,crete1 ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 #ahii-aijj1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #icf3 ,cesnola1 ,cyprus1 pl4 #bi2 ,b4,m4 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #ajc1 fig4 #aej2 ,drpfeld1 ,troja und ,ilion1 i4 p4 #cjd4 ,footnote #icg3 ,see ,wide's study of the pottery in the ,athens ,museum1 ,jahrbuch1 xiv4 7#ahii71 pp4 #bf1 #gh1 #ahh2 xv4 7#aijj71 p4 #di4 ,footnote #ich3 ,zur ,geschichte d4 ,anfnge d4 ,kunst1 p4 #a ff4 7,sitzungsber4 d4 k4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss4 ,wien1 #ahgj1 lxiv4 p4 #eje ff474 ,footnote #ici3 ,see ,bibliography4 ,footnote #idj3 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 vii4 pp4 #ea1 #bjh4 ,footnote #ida3 ,j4,h4,s4 viii4 p4 #fh ff42 cf4 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 p4 #bbc ff4 ,footnote #idb3 ,see p4 #ce1 and ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahic1 p4 #gc ff4 ,footnote #idc3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,a #chc1 #chd2 ,louvre1 ,a #dij1 #dia2 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahgb1 pl4 ,k1 fig4 #ab4 ,footnote #idd3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhf1 p4 #ie4 ,footnote #ide3 ,hist4 de l',art1 vii4 p4 #afe1 reproduced in ,fig #hc4 ,the part bracketed denotes the ornamentation of the neck4 ,footnote #idf3 ,see ,riegl1 ,stilfragen1 p4 #aej ff4 ,footnote #idg3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,bronzes1 #fjj4 ,footnote #idh3 ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 pl4 #h4 ,footnote #idi3 ,for other instances of ships on ,dipylon vases1 see ,chapter ,,xv4 #g2 also ,mon4 ,grecs1 xi4-xiii4 7#ahhb-d71 p4 #dj ff42 ,rev4 ,arch4 xxv4 7#ahid71 p4 #ad ff4 ,footnote #iej3 ,cf4 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 vii4 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #iea3 ,schliemann1 ,tiryns1 pl4 #ac2 ,j4,h4,s4 xvii4 pl4 #c1 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #ieb3 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhe1 pl4 #h4 ,footnote #iec3 ,jahrbuch1 i4 7#ahhf71 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #ied3 ,the most important of the ,dipylon vases have been published in the ,monumenti1 vol4 ix4 pl4 #ci1 and ,annali1 #ahgb1 pl4 #a1 besides the others already mentioned4 ,see also ,cesnola1 ,cyprus1 pl4 #bi2 ,louvre ,cat4 ,a #eaf-ai1 #ebf1 #ege2 ,athens ,cat4 #aif-bad1 #cej1 etc4 ,footnote #iee3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhh1 p4 #cbe ff4 ,footnote #ief3 ,hist4 de l',art1 vii4 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #ieg3 ,monuments ,piot1 i4 p4 #ce ff4 ,footnote #ieh3 ,a #ege in the ,louvre1 with funeral scenes2 ,fig4 #hf below4 ,footnote #iei3 ,see ,riegl1 ,stilfragen1 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #ifj3 ,riegl1 fig4 #ha4 ,footnote #ifa3 ,cat4 #cjf2 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhh1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #ifb3 ,on these fibulae see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,bronzes1 p4 xxxix1 and ,nos4 #aai-ba1 #cbjd-e4 ,footnote #ifc3 ,this would seem to suggest a textile origin for ,geometrical patterns1 at least on ,boeotian vases4 ,footnote #ifd3 ,e4g4 ,b #eg-h in ,brit4 ,mus4 ,footnote #ife3 ,jahrbuch1 i4 7#ahhf71 p4 #ii ff43 see also1 for relations with ,egypt1 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #iff3 ,drpfeld1 ,troja und ,ilion1 i4 p4 #cjd ff4 ,footnote #ifg3 ,see ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #bcb1 and ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahib1 p4 #bhe4 ,footnote #ifh3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhf1 p4 #ajf2 ,pottier1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #ifi3 ,in the ,b4,f4 period1 pinakes and prothesis-amphorae 7,athens #fhh-fij1 #hde-hdg2 ,berlin #ahaa-bf1 #ahhg-hi72 in the ,r4,f4 period1 the white lekythi4 ,footnote #igj3 ,see ,pottier1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #ace ff4 ,footnote #iga3 ,see also ,ath4 ,mitth4 xiii4 7#ahhh71 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #igb3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahie1 pl4 #c4 ,footnote #igc3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xxii4 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #igd3 ,ionian influence in the early part of the sixth century is also indicated by the finds of ,rhodian and ,naucratite pottery on the ,acropolis at ,athens2 and in another way by the style of the vases found at ,vourva and others from ,eretria3 see ,bhlau1 ,aus ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop41 p4 #aaf2 ,nilsson in ,jahrbuch1 #aijc1 p4 #abd ff4 ,footnote #ige3 ,cf4 ,athens #dfd1 #dfi2 ,jahrbuch1 #ahig1 pl4 #g2 ,notizie degli ,scavi1 #ahie1 p4 #ahf1 as examples of the transition4 ,footnote #igf3 ,cf4 the large ,boeotian 1 7,plate ,,xlvii41 and ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahih1 p4 #dig ff474 ,footnote #igg3 ,athens #ffe-ff3 cf4 #dfi4 ,footnote #igh3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,footnote #igi3 ,see ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #ihj3 ,ashmolean ,vases1 ,no4 #ahi4 ,footnote #iha3 ,in the ,vatican 7,helbig1 i4 p4 #dce1 ,no4 #fda74 ,reinach1 i4 #agi ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhh1 #a1 #h4 ,footnote #ihb3 ,for the interpretation of the inscription see ,j4,h4,s4 x4 p4 #ahg 7,ramsay72 ,arch4-epigr4 ,mitth4 aus ,oesterr4-,ungarn1 #ahhh1 p4 #he 7,dmmler72 ,class4 ,review1 #aijj1 p4 #bfd 7,richards74 ,the last explanation 7,aristonos7 seems the most natural4 ,see ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #ihc3 ,schliemann1 ,mycenae1 p4 #acc3 cf4 ,pottier in ,revue ,arch4 xxviii4 7#ahif71 p4 #ai4 ,the technique of the vase is not strictly ,mycenaean1 as the use of yellow colour for details implies4 ,footnote #ihd3 ,berl4 ,phil4 ,woch4 #ahie1 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #ihe3 ,see ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #eh4 ,footnote #ihf3 ,that they are an immediate development of the ,dipylon style is indicated by various features of the later ,attic ,geometrical vases 7,jahrbuch1 #ahhf1 pp4 #ih1 #abj74 ,footnote #ihg3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #dh1 fig4 #h ,plate ,,xvii4 ,no4 #e4 ,footnote #ihh3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #df4 ,footnote #ihi3 ,see p4 #bdf2 and cf4 for example ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #gc1 figs4 #abf-bg4 ,for a later ,ionic vase of similar type see ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahhd1 pl4 #g 7below1 p4 #cci74 ,footnote #iij3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahij1 pls4 #aj-ab2 #ahic1 pl4 #b4 ,footnote #iia3 ,aus ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #aae ff4 ,footnote #iib3 ,jahrbuch1 #aijc1 p4 #abd ff4 ,footnote #iic3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahij1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #iid3 ,cf4 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahig1 p4 #ddf1 and ,plate ,,xix4 fig4 #e 7,corinthian74 ,footnote #iie3 ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhh1 pl4 #a1 figs4 #b and #g3 cf4 ,berlin #afea ,bull4 de ,cor4 ,hell4 #ahig1 p4 #ddh4 ,footnote #iif3 ,it also occurs at ,daphnae3 see below1 p4 #ceb4 ,footnote #iig3 ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhi1 pl4 #a1 fig4 #a4 ,footnote #iih3 ,louvre ,f #fi4 ,for other signatures see ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #iii3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahig1 p4 #dej3 cf4 ,athens #fab and a ,berlin vase ,anzeiger1 #ahia1 p4 #aaf4 ,on this shape see above1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #ajjj3 ,cat4 #dgc-gf4 ,plate ,,xviii4 gives ,no4 #dgd4 ,footnote #ajja3 ,melische ,thongefsse4 ,see also ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 p4 #bac2 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #ajjb3 ,athens #dgg ,mylonas in 4 4 #ahid1 pls4 #ab-d1 p4 #bbf 7admirably reproduced in colours74 ,footnote #ajjc3 ,cf4 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #ajjd3 ,athens #dge4 ,footnote #ajje3 ,berlin #cja ,reinach1 i4 #chj1 #d4 ,footnote #ajjf3 ,cf4 also ,j4,h4,s4 viii4 pl4 #gi and ,b4,m4 ,a #gfb-fd1 #gij4 ,footnote #ajjg3 ,stilfragen1 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #ajjh3 ,j4,h4,s4 xxii4 p4 #df ff4 ,footnote #ajji3 ,cf4 ,j4,h4,s4 xxii4 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #ajaj3 x4 #ahb4 ,footnote #ajaa3 ,on the relations of ,corinthian and ,rhodian pottery1 see ,wilisch1 ,altkor4 ,thonindustrie1 p4 #abg4 ,the ,corinthian vases found in ,rhodes are roughly contemporaneous with the so-called ,rhodian fabric4 ,footnote #ajab3 ,e4g4 ,louvre ,e #dfj1 #dfg2 ,berlin #aaef ff4 ,furtwaengler1 ,dmmler1 and ,wilisch call these ,italo-,corinthian1 but ,bhlau regards them as ,aeolic1 ,orsi and ,gsell as ,sicilian4 ,see ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #dbb4 ,footnote #ajac3 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahhj1 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #ajad3 ,wilisch1 ,altkor4 ,thonindustrie1 p4 #f ff41 limits these classes to three3 ,proto-,corinthian1 ,yellow-ground1 and ,red-ground2 he arrives at this by combining ,classes #b1 #c1 and #d in one4 ,footnote #ajae3 ,cf4 ,couve in ,rev4 ,arch4 xxxii4 7#ahih71 p4 #bad4 ,footnote #ajaf3 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #af1 of ,aridikes and ,telephanes1 spargentes linear intus4 ,but it is not certain that this passage refers to the use of incised lines4 ,footnote #ajag3 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahgg1 pls4 ,c1 ,d2 ,mon4 ,antichi1 i4 p4 #ghj4 ,footnote #ajah3 ,j4,h4,s4 xi4 p4 #agc2 ,gsell1 ,fouilles de ,vulci1 p4 #dha4 ,footnote #ajai3 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahgg1 p4 #djf2 ,italiker in der ,po-ebene1 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #ajbj3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #ah2 ,klein1 ,euphronios1 p4 #fh2 ,wilisch1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #ajba3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 pp4 #bfb1 #bfe ff42 and ,anzeiger1 #ahic1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #ajbb3 ,rev4 ,arch4 xxxii4 7#ahih71 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #ajbc3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bfb2 ,berl4 ,phil4 ,woch4 #ahie1 p4 #bjb2 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #aijj1 p4 #dda4 ,footnote #ajbd3 ,rev4 ,arch4 xl4 7#aijb71 p4 #da4 ,footnote #ajbe3 ,ant4 ,denkm4 ii4 pls4 #dd-e4 ,footnote #ajbf3 ,amer4 ,journ4 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #ajbg3 ,it is interesting to note that this form quite disappears1 and is not revived until the glass vessels of the ,roman period4 ,cf4 ,j4,h4,s4 xi4 p4 #age3 see also p4 #cjj2 and for this and the other shapes1 ,plates ,,xvii41 ,,xix4 ,footnote #ajbh3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bfe ff4 ,footnote #ajbi3 ,in some specimens ,ionian influence seems to manifest itself3 cf4 for instance the ,ionic palmette in ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bgi4 ,studniczka notes that the purely monochrome outline drawing of the ,aegina vases is like that ascribed by ,pliny to the early ,corinthian painters 7,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahii1 p4 #cgf74 ,footnote #ajcj3 ,plate ,,xvii4 fig4 #c ,a #ajej ,j4,h4,s4 xi4 pls4 #a1 #b3 cf4 also ibid4 p4 #agi4 ,footnote #ajca3 ,mlanges ,perrot1 pl4 #d1 p4 #bfi1 and see p4 #bga1 note #b2 ,rev4 ,arch4 xxxii4 7#ahih71 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #ajcb3 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #aijj1 pls4 #d-f1 p4 #dda4 ,footnote #ajcc3 ,ant4 ,denkm4 ii4 pls4 #dd-e4 ,footnote #ajcd3 ,so called from the imitation of overlapping roof-tiles 7imbrices74 ,footnote #ajce3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,a #aic1 #bbc2 ,louvre ,a #bge4 ,footnote #ajcf3 ,e4g4 ,louvre1 ,atlas1 pl4 #dj1 ,e #cdg4 ,footnote #ajcg3 ,mon4 ,antichi1 iv4 p4 #bga ff42 ,bhlau1 ,ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #ajch3 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #af4 ,see p4 #cjf1 note #ajaf4 ,footnote #ajci3 ,cf4 ,louvre ,e #cej ff4 ,footnote #ajdj3 ,studniczka 7,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #aea7 connects ,ekphantos with ,melos 7cf4 the inscription in ,roberts1 ,gk4 ,epigraphy1 i4 p4 #cb74 ,on the connection of ,corinth with ,melos1 see ,wilisch1 p4 #abc ff4 ,footnote #ajda3 ,the aryballos is also found in early ,boeotian fabrics 7subsequent to the ,geometrical period73 cf4 the ,gamedes vase in the ,b4,m4 7p4 #cjj471 and that of ,menaidas in the ,louvre4 ,footnote #ajdb3 ,see ,wilisch1 p4 #bd2 examples in ,athens ,mus41 ,nos4 #fba1 #fbb1 #fdj ff4 ,footnote #ajdc3 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #dcg ff42 but see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahie1 p4 #abe1 and ,bhlau1 ,ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #ajdd3 ,e4g4 ,athens ,mus4 #ejb and #ejg2 ,berlin #ajcd ff42 ,j4,h4,s4 xii4 p4 #cab 7from ,cyprus72 and cf4 ,wilisch1 p4 #da4 ,footnote #ajde3 ,see l4 ,cr4 iii4 #ca-cb ,b1 etc41 and ,chapter ,,xii4 ,footnote #ajdf3 ,j4,h4,s4 i4 pl4 #a4 ,footnote #ajdg3 ,louvre ,e #fjj2 ,wilisch1 figs4 #dg-i4 ,in some of these the inscribed names may be purely fanciful4 ,the ,corinthian potters were particularly fond of idealising ordinary scenes in this way4 ,cf4 for ,trojan scenes ,chapter ,,xiv4 and ,hermes1 #aija1 p4 #chh4 ,footnote #ajdh3 ,see above1 pp4 #bde1 #bhd4 ,footnote #ajdi3 ,cf4 the ,dodwell pyxis described below4 ,footnote #ajej3 ,cf4 also the aryballos of ,ainetas1 ,b4,m4 ,a #ajhj ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahfb1 pl4 ,a1 and the series of pinakes described below4 ,footnote #ajea3 ,cat4 #baa2 ,dodwell1 ,tour1 ii4 p4 #aig2 ,baumeister1 iii4 pl4 #hh1 fig4 #bjdf4 ,footnote #ajeb3 ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhh1 pl4 #a4 ,footnote #ajec3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,b #cj and ,b #ehf4 ,footnote #ajed3 ,cat4 #afee ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhi1 pl4 #aj ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #ajee3 ,see ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,footnote #ajef3 v4 #ag1 #i4 ,footnote #ajeg3 ,paus4 v4 #ag-ai4 ,footnote #ajeh3 ,cf4 the ,arkesilas vase described below1 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #ajei3 ,see on this subject ,h4 ,s4 ,jones in ,j4,h4,s4 xiv4 p4 #cj ff4 ,footnote #ajfj3 ,cf4 the ,thermon metopes 7p4 #ib74 ,footnote #ajfa3 ,arch4 ,mrchen1 p4 #aba3 see p4 #cie ff4 ,footnote #ajfb3 ,see on the achievements of the early ,greek painters as described by ,pliny1 ,jex-,blake and ,sellers1 ,pliny's ,chapters on ,greek ,art1 p4 xxviii4 ,footnote #ajfc3 ,but see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahid1 p4 #eaj1 and ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 p4 #bhg1 note4 ,the other vases classified in the ,museum ,catalogue as imitations 7,b #dc-f1 #di-ec7 are more probably of ,ionic or quasi-,ionic fabric4 ,athens #fee is in style not unlike ,b4,m4 ,b #db4 ,footnote #ajfd3 ,see ,wilisch1 ,altkor4 ,thonindustrie1 p4 #acc ff4 ,footnote #ajfe3 ,furtwaengler1 ,gr4 ,vasenm4 p4 #afa1 points out that the ,chalcidian fabrics are not like those of ,corinth and ,athens1 exhibiting growth and development1 but a small group coming from one workshop4 ,footnote #ajff3 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 i4 #ea ,reinach1 i4 #hb4 ,footnote #ajfg3 ,it is curious that the ,chalcidian artists only attempted this novelty in the case of helmeted warriors4 ,footnote #ajfh3 ,a publication by ,loeschcke is in preparation 7#aijd74 ,see also ,furtwaengler's remarks on this group 7to which he adds some examples7 in ,gr4 ,vasenmalerei1 p4 #afa4 ,for the inscriptions see ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #ajfi3 ,the list in ,klein's ,euphronios1 p4 #fe1 is as follows3-- 7#a7 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 i4 #ea 7,deepdene73 ,combat over body of ,achilles4 7#b7 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #aje-f ,reinach1 ii4 #eh1 #bec 7,bibl4 ,nat4 #bjb73 ,geryon2 quadriga 7,plate ,,xxii474 7#c7 ,b4,m4 ,b #aee3 ,geryon2 ,perseus and ,nymphs4 7#d7 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #aij-ia ,reinach1 ii4 #ie 7,bibl4 ,nat4 #bjc73 ,warriors arming4 7#e7 ,ibid4 #cbb ,reinach1 ii4 #afj 7,wurzburg #cae73 ,departure of ,hector4 7#f7 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahci1 plate ,p ,reinach1 i4 #bei 7,kopenhagen #fd74 ,skyphos3 ,tydeus and ,adrastos4 7#g7 ,leiden #afbf 7,reinach1 ii4 #bfh73 ,sileni and ,maenads4 7#h7 ,durand ,coll4 #ade4 7#i7 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #bcg ,reinach1 ii4 #abj 7,munich #abe74 ,hydria3 ,zeus and ,typhon2 ,peleus and ,atalanta4 7#aj7 ,bull4 dell' ,inst4 #ahgj1 p4 #ahg1 ,no4 #cb 7in ,florence74 7#aa7 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #ie-f ,reinach1 ii4 #ec3 ,contests of ,herakles with hydra and ,amazons4 ,to these may be added 7#ab1 #ac7 ,b4,m4 ,b #ge and ,b #gf 7both inscribed72 7#ad7 ,munich #aajh2 7#ae7 ,vienna #bai2 7#af7 ,jahrbuch1 ii4 7#ahhg71 p4 #aed1 note #hb2 7#ag7 ,b4,m4 ,b #aed 7inscriptions ,attic1 but style resembling ,no4 #a72 7#ah7 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #bje1 #c-d ,reinach1 ii4 #aje1 #b 7inscriptions ,ionic1 but style ,chalcidian72 7#ai7 ,kopenhagen #aae ,daremberg and ,saglio1 i4 p4 #hba1 fig4 #ajbf2 7#bj7 ,arch4 ,anzeiger1 #ahhi1 p4 #ia 7in ,berlin72 also ,louvre ,e #gic-hac 7according to ,pottier74 ,see on the subject generally ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #eea1 and for the inscriptions1 ,kretschmer1 ,gr4 ,vaseninschr4 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #ajgj3 ,for a description of the shape of this particular kind of amphora1 see p4 #afj4 ,footnote #ajga3 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahgf1 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #ajgb3 ,on the relation of ,attic vases to ,corinthian1 see ,wilisch1 ,altkor4 ,thonindustrie1 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #ajgc3 ,tyrrhen4 ,amphoren 7#ahih74 ,footnote #ajgd3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahij1 p4 #bcg ff42 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #efd4 ,footnote #ajge3 ,see ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #ajgf3 ,see1 ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 p4 #bhg4 ,the dance is that known as the 4 ,footnote #ajgg3 ,on the ornamental patterns typical of this group1 see ,thiersch1 ,tyrrhen4 ,amphoren1 p4 #fi ff4 ,footnote #ajgh3 ,cf4 the 77 on ,e #heb in the ,louvre2 and see ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #ajgi3 ,m4 ,reinach1 in a recent article 7,revue des tudes ,grecques1 #aija1 p4 #abg ff471 maintains that the vases with this subject are of ,megarian origin4 ,see also ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahgf1 p4 #ajh ff4 ,footnote #ajhj3 ,see for fuller discussion ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 pl4 #ae1 p4 #bhb4 ,footnote #ajha3 ,see on the subject of these vases generally1 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 p4 #cbi ff42 ,jahrbuch1 #ahij1 p4 #bcg ff42 ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 p4 #bhc2 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #efd2 and above all1 ,thiersch1 ,tyrrhen4 ,amphoren 7#ahih74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,vase-,,painting ,,in ,,ionia ,general characteristics--,classification--,mycen aean influence--,rhodian pottery--8,fikellura0 ware--,asia ,minor fabrics--,cyrenaic vases--,naukratis and its pottery--,daphnae ware--,caeretan hydriae--,other ,ionic fabrics--8,pontic0 vases--,early painting in ,ionia--,clazomenae sarcophagi4 ,having traced the history of vase-painting in ,greece ,proper down to the middle of the sixth century ,b4,c41 the point at which a tendency towards unification of style becomes perceptible1 we must now turn our attention to the remains of the art on the other side of the ,aegean1 among the representatives of the ,ionian race and in the centres of ,ionian influence4 ,to a certain extent it is difficult to treat the subject at all in a handbook1 as1 owing chiefly to want of material1 the existence of an ,ionian school of vase-painting has only been realised of late years1 and it is as yet too early to sift proofs from theories1 or to give a succinct and systematised account of the development and achievements of this school4 ,the most that can be attempted is to present the reader with a review of the accumulated materials1 and to point out what groups of vases may be regarded as exhibiting 8,ionian0 characteristics1 or at all events such as permit of their being connected together4#ajhb ,it must be borne in mind that some of these fabrics1 such1 for instance1 as the ,rhodian wares1 have not actually been found in ,ionic settlements2 in other words1 the name ,ionian is to be applied to certain styles or schools1 in the main associated with that race1 apart from considerations of ethnography4 ,on one point scholars are in general agreement--namely1 that ,ionic art is a direct survival of ,mycenaean4 ,this was recognised as long ago as #ahgi by ,furtwaengler#ajhc and by ,lenormant1#ajhd who pointed out that the silver cauldron dedicated by ,king ,alyattes at ,delphi must have been quite ,mycenaean in character1 although not earlier than the seventh century4 ,it was decorated with aquatic animals and plants4 ,there was in ,ionia no disturbing element1 such as the ,dorian invasion introduced into ,europe1 between ,mycenaean culture and the spread of ,oriental influences4 ,the ,greek cities in ,ionia owe their origin to that upheaval1 but their culture was not affected by it2 and their founders brought their ,mycenaean civilisation with them fresh from ,greece to their new homes in ,miletos1 ,ephesos1 ,phocaea1 ,chios1 and ,samos4 ,this was in the eleventh and tenth centuries ,b4,c41 and the ,panionion1 or union of ,ionian cities1 lasted down to the sixth century 7when it was broken up by the ,persian invasion71 besides stretching out its feelers over the ,mediterranean1 to the ,egyptian ,delta and elsewhere4 ,the actual centres of pottery-manufacture are not1 however1 easy to determine1 and much may depend on the results of future excavations4 ,that there was more than one is fairly obvious1 and it will probably appear that ,clazomenae1 ,miletos1 and perhaps ,phocaea1 played the most important parts4 ,as regards the characteristics of the ,ionian wares1 a rough division may be made into two classes1 corresponding to the buff-clay and red-clay ,corinthian wares respectively4 ,in the earlier1 the vases are always covered with a creamy-white or drab-coloured slip1 on which the figures stand out in lustrous black paint4#ajhe ,the most typical fabric is that of the ,rhodian wares1 found in such large quantities in that island1 but not necessarily made there4 ,in the later group the place of the white slip is taken by a red coating or glaze similar to that of the ,attic and later ,corinthian wares1 but somewhat brighter4 ,the principal subdivisions may be classified as follows 7the arrangement is ,m4 ,pottier's1 with one or two small differences73-- ,i4 #a4 ,rhodian wares4#ajhf #b4 ,samian and 8,fikellura0 wares4#ajhg #c4 ,asia ,minor fabrics3 7a7 ,caria4#ajhh 7b7 ,knidos4#ajhi 7c7 ,larissa4#ajij 7d7 ,myrina4#ajia 7e7 ,pitane4#ajib 7f7 ,phocaea4#ajic 7g7 ,troad4#ajid #d4 ,vases found in the ,crimea4#ajie #e4 ,naukratis wares4#ajif #f4 ,clazomenae sarcophagi4#ajig ,,ii4 #a4 ,cyrenaic wares4 #b4 ,daphnae wares4 #c4 ,caeretan hydriae4 #d4 ,so-called 8,pontic0 vases4 #e4 ,developed ,b4,f4 ,ionian fabrics from ,clazomenae1 ,kyme1 ,naukratis1 ,rhodes1 etc4 #f4 ,italo-,ionic vases of the decadence and ,etruscan imitations4#ajih ,the subdivision between the earlier and later fabrics is1 roughly speaking1 between those with white and red ground1 and between those in which ground-ornaments are used or not4 ,generally speaking1 all the second class have more in common with the ,attic ,b4,f4 vases than with 8primitive0 fabrics4 ,before proceeding to the consideration of these fabrics in detail1 it may be as well to note some of the general characteristics of ,ionian pottery4 ,in the use of incised lines and accessory pigments we may note two points3 firstly1 the absence for some time of any attempt at incised lines1 their place being taken partly by contours drawn in outline on the clay2 secondly1 the use of white lines or patches for details4 ,the incised lines1 when they do appear1 seem to be derived from ,corinth4 ,we may1 perhaps1 detect their arrival in the vases with imbrications 7see p4 #caa71 which were imported thence to ,rhodes2 but another theory is that they were derived from engraved work in metal4 ,practically their place had been1 and to some extent continued to be1 taken by the white paint1 which1 be it noted1 is obviously a ,mycenaean survival or revival4#ajii ,it frequently occurs on the pottery of ,ialysos and ,enkomi1 in precisely the same manner as we see it used in ,rhodes or on the sarcophagi of ,clazomenae4 ,sometimes both the incised lines and the white-paint details are found on the same vase1 as is seen in some of the ,rhodian jugs1 or on a pinax from ,naukratis4#aajj ,the white pigments are usually laid directly on the clay1 not on the black1 as at ,athens4 ,they are used for flesh tints1 but not to distinguish sex 7cf4 the ,caeretan hydriae1 p4 #cee1 where men are painted white1 as on the ,melian vases they are yellow74 ,as regards the ornamentation1 the persistence of ,mycenaean motives is exceedingly remarkable4#aaja ,it is seen especially in the fabrics of ,rhodes and ,naukratis1 with their wealth of ground-ornaments1 and is found not only in the more conventional motives such as spirals1 or scale-pattern1 but also in the vegetable patterns4 ,there is generally in the floral decoration of the vases a tendency towards the naturalism of ,mycenaean pottery4 ,animals1 when decoratively treated1 are usually arranged in long friezes1 contrasting with the ,corinthian method of grouping them heraldically in pairs4#aajb ,in the human figures ,oriental influence is frequently prominent1 as in the hybrid beings which so often adorn the vases1 or in such types as the 8,asiatic ,artemis02 or1 again1 in small details1 the conical caps and shoes with turned-up toes1 which recall the figures on the monuments of ,lydia and ,phrygia4 ,oriental costumes generally are reproduced with great fidelity4 ,as a rule the proportions are gross and heavy1 as compared with the slimness of figures on ,attic vases1 wherein a curious contrast may be observed with the characteristics of ,ionian and ,continental architecture and sculpture1 in which these features are reversed4 ,there is1 moreover1 a conspicuous absence of stiffness in the ,ionian compositions--rather1 a remarkable freshness1 vigour1 and originality quite in advance of their time4 ,another point of contrast with the ,attic vases is the absence of any differentiation of the sexes in the shape of the eye1 which is always oval 7cf4 p4 #djh74 ,in the choice of subjects the same law may be observed to prevail as in the ,corinthian wares--that of the hirarchie des genres4 ,mythological subjects appear first about the middle of the seventh century1 in the ,euphorbos pinax4 ,later we find actually scenes of a quasi-historical character1 as in the battle-scenes on the ,clazomenae sarcophagi and the ,cyrenaic ,arkesilaos vase4 ,throughout there is a remarkable absence of inscriptions1 which are only found at the most on some half-dozen vases4 ,the height of the ,ionian style may be said to have been reached in the seventh century1 lasting up to about the middle of the sixth2 thence there is a rapid downfall1 due mainly to historical causes1 and the traces of its influence are only to be sought in ,italian imitations of an inferior kind1 and in some of the ,attic black-figured vases1 such as those of ,amasis and ,nikosthenes4 ,but the influence that was exercised during all this period by ,ionian art in general on ,greece is not easy to estimate2 it is not confined to the pottery1 but is found in sculpture and architecture as well as the minor arts4 ,there are numerous passages in ancient writers bearing on the activity of early ,ionian artists1 such as ,theodoros and ,rhoikos of ,samos1 and their works1 which often took the form of offerings of ,asiatic princes to the ,greek temples4 ,the ,ionic school of sculpture1 illustrated by the early temple at ,ephesos1 the 8,harpy0 ,monument1 and other notable works1 as well as the great ,amyclaean throne1 which ,bathykles of ,magnesia was commissioned to erect1 established the fame of early ,greek sculpture in no small degree2 and ,ionic architecture1 though slower to win its way to favour in ,greece ,proper1 reached a high degree of excellence at an early period on the eastern shore of the ,aegean4 ,of painting in ,ionia1 apart from the vases1 we propose to speak later4 ,in literature and in civilisation generally ,ionia was1 up to the middle of the sixth century1 far more advanced than any part of the ,greek mainland4 #a4 ,,rhodes ,,and ,,asia ,,minor ,the distinctive pottery of ,rhodes1#aajc which1 whether of local manufacture or not1 is found almost exclusively in that island1#aajd represents the union of ,mycenaean elements with a new feature1 that of ,oriental influence4 ,although primarily due to the dispersion of the ,phoenicians by ,assyria in the eighth century1 this ,orientalising of ,ionia is purely artistic and industrial1 not political1 and is due to the commercial activity of the ,phoenicians4 ,the pottery represents a sort of transition between ,assyrian and ,greek decorative art1 the essentially ,greek elements in which are a survival of ,mycenaean ornaments and a ,mycenaean faculty of observation of nature1 especially in the animal world4 ,from the ,east were derived such features as hybrid monsters 7the ,sphinx1 ,siren1 etc471 animals such as the lion1 isolated motives like the lotos-flower and the rosette1 and generally a tendency to imitate textile fabrics with long bands of decoration1 in which the ground is strewn with these rosettes and other ornaments4 ,we have already seen that these features also made their mark on the ,corinthian style1 but they are more especially characteristic of ,rhodes4 ,human figures are exceedingly rare4 ,in regard to the shapes a great advance is made towards the classical types2 the parts of the vase are more clearly distinguished1 and the forms are few and consistent4 ,the special ,rhodian shape is the oinocho1 a large jug with trefoil lip and spherical body1 decorated with two or three friezes of animals 7see ,plate ,,xx4 and p4 #agg72 next in popularity is the circular plate or pinax4 ,the ornamentation is always in lustrous black paint on the characteristic white or drab-coloured slip1 with a free use of purple for details4 ,white is little used as an accessory--there seems to have been a prejudice against its use when the ground of the vase was also white--but incised lines occur more freely4 ,on the other hand1 the heads of animals are almost always outlined in black on the clay ground1 a feature derived from ,mycenaean pottery1 and interior details are also frequently left in the ground of the clay1 as in the ,geometrical style4 ,we have already mentioned instances in which the two methods are found on the same vase4 ,the typical ,rhodian oinochoae1 like the contemporary ,corinthian vases1 owe much to the imitation of the textile embroideries of ,assyria1 of which we have already spoken under the other head 7p4 #cab74 ,these had become familiar in ,rhodes through the agency of the ,phoenicians1 but it is also possible that the ,ionians were themselves proficient in this industry4 ,the bands of lotos-ornament and friezes of animals also appear on the porcelain vases found in large numbers at ,kameiros 7p4 #abg71 which are sometimes most elaborately ornamented1 and are clearly of ,phoenician origin2 the seventh century was1 in fact1 the time when the ,greek world was most dominated by ,oriental influences4 ,the ornamental patterns on the vases of this class fall under two heads--the smaller independent ground-ornaments1 and the more elaborated bands of vegetable ornament4 ,the former are best illustrated by the ,euphorbos pinax1 presently to be described2 in contrast to the unvarying ,corinthian rosette1 they show a considerable variety of treatment1 and are partly variations on the rosette theme1 partly geometrical1 like the fragments of maeander1 or crosses with hooked arms1 which recall in form the ubiquitous swastika4 ,the band of lotos-flowers and buds actually occurs at a much earlier date in ,boeotia1 as we have seen1 but it is at ,rhodes that it first assumes the characteristic ,greek form4 ,on the pinakes a development of this motive1 forming a fan-shaped combination of radiating leaves1 is usually employed to fill in the 8exergue0 below the designs2 a similar ornament is found on the black wares with incised patterns1 and it is the forerunner of the pear-shaped radiations painted on the small bowls of a more recent date4#aaje ,a typically ,ionian motive is the plait-band1 found at ,naukratis and on the ,clazomenae sarcophagi1 and introduced from ,assyria4 ,the ,mycenaean spiral1 so prominent in ,attica and ,melos1 retires into the background1 or loses its geometrical significance1 and becomes a mere vegetable motive1 an adjunct to the floral combinations of bud and flower4 ,the ,rhodian vases are1 in fact1 the first in which spiral motives were freely used for calyx-ornaments1 as1 generally speaking1 they were the first in post-,mycenaean times to raise floral motives from mere ground-ornaments to independent decoration4#aajf ,the series of pinakes yield the most interesting examples of ,rhodian vase-painting2 they are usually decorated with a figure of a ram or other animal on a large scale 7,plate ,,xxiv471 the exergue or lower portion of the field being filled in with a suitable pattern1 such as a sort of fan-pattern of spreading rays or fronds 7see above71 or a free variation of the ,egyptian lotos-flower4 ,but one is of surpassing interest and importance1 the famous ,euphorbos pinax as it is generally called1 which was found at ,kameiros1 and is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,the subject is the combat of ,menelaos and ,hector over the body of ,euphorbos1#aajg a scene from the ,iliad1 but not reproduced in accurate detail1 as1 indeed1 is seldom the case in archaic art4 ,the figures are drawn partly in outline1 with a lavish use of purple for details1 and the whole of the ground is filled in with various ornaments1 rosettes1 etc41 one at the top of the scene taking the form of a pair of eyes1 with a conventionalised floral pattern between4 ,additional interest is given to the design by the fact that the figures are named1 the words being in the ,argive alphabet 7see ,chapter ,,xvii474 ,this inscription does not necessarily affect the question of the place of fabric of the pinax1 as it has been shown that the ,argive alphabet was used in ,rhodes in the seventh century#aajh2 but it enables us to fix its date about ,b4,c4 #fej1 and the whole of the ,rhodian ware may be regarded as belonging to the seventh century4 ,it has1 indeed1 been suggested that the subject is copied from an ,argive metal relief1 and this might account for the unexpected presence of an inscription4 ,as to the place of fabric of ,rhodian ware generally1 it has been more than once suggested that it is to be sought1 not in ,rhodes1 but in the neighbouring ,ionian city of ,miletos4#aaji ,dmmler's theory of an ,argive origin1 resting as it does almost exclusively on the ,euphorbos inscriptions1 is practically negatived by the absence of any similar pottery in the extensive finds at the ,argive ,heraion4 ,miletos1 however1 was in close connection with ,rhodes1 and in favour of the argument is the remarkable parallelism of the pottery of ,naukratis1 which was undoubtedly in close association with ,miletos2 it was1 in fact1 first colonised by ,milesian ,greeks1 and the ,milesian ,apollo was worshipped there4 ,but further evidence is needed before this view can be regarded as other than a mere hypothesis4 ,at all events1 no convincing argument has as yet been urged against the pottery being of local manufacture4 ,in date1 as has been said1 it covers the seventh century1 being thus contemporaneous with the ,melian and earlier ,corinthian fabrics4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxiv ,illustration3 #a4 ,,pinax ,,from ,,rhodes2 #b4 ,,bowl ,,from ,,naukratis 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,in one of the extensive cemeteries of ,kameiros1 known as ,fikellura1 there were found quantities of a class of pottery which has since been generally known by that name1 but is probably not a local fabric4 ,it has also been found in large numbers in the island of ,samos1#aaaj where ,rhodian vases are comparatively rare1 and owing to this more recent evidence the ware has been regarded as probably of ,samian origin4 ,several specimens were also found on another ,ionian site1 that of ,daphnae in the ,egyptian ,delta1 but are quite distinct from the local fabric of that place4 ,the date of the tombs in ,samos is the second half of the sixth century1 and it is noteworthy that from the ornamentation of these vases all ,oriental influence has disappeared4 ,on the other hand1 they seem to represent the last lingering vestiges of ,mycenaean influence4 ,the majority are in the form of amphorae1 but other forms1 such as jugs and lekythi1 are known4 ,the technique is that of the ,orientalising vases1 with the typical ,ionian creamy-white slip2 the black has a tendency to become brown1 or even red1 and purple accessories are employed4 ,incised lines do not appear1 but details are marked by spaces left in the ground of the clay4 ,the subjects are simple in character and arrangement1 usually one or two animals 7or sometimes human figures7 on either side of the body1 the spaces being filled in with palmettes1 spirals1 or other ornaments4 ,the ornamentation is strikingly characteristic1 especially the network patterns on the necks of the vases1 the scale-patterns1 and the bands of crescents which we also find in use in ,lesbos and at ,daphnae4#aaaa ,they form altogether a clearly-distinguished group1 but sometimes show signs of late date1 if they are not actually to be regarded as archaistic4 ,examples are given in ,fig4 #ia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,,vases ,,of ,,samian ,,or 8,,fikellura0 ,,style 7,,british ,,museum74 ,the system of decoration is curiously reminiscent of the ,mycenaean vases1#aaab as exemplified in the great prominence given to the ornament as the main decoration1 the scrolls and palmettes recalling the seaweed and other vegetable patterns on the former4 ,this prominence of ornament is always an ,ionian characteristic1 retained as late as the ,caeretan hydriae 7p4 #ced71 with their bold bands of palmettes and lotos-flowers round the very centre of the body4 ,the scale-patterns1 another ,mycenaean legacy1 we shall meet with again at ,daphnae1 where similarly they cover the most prominent part of the vases4 ,the most representative series of ,fikellura vases is that in the ,british ,museum1 from ,rhodes1 ,naukratis1 and ,daphnae2 there are also some in the ,louvre 7,a #cba-cd74aaac ,dr4 ,bhlau1 in his treatise on ,ionian pottery1#aaad discusses as a class certain vases which1 in accordance with his theory1 he terms 8,later ,milesian40 ,at all events1 they demand attention from the remarkable way in which they combine ,ionian and ,corinthian characteristics1 sometimes1 as we have seen1 on the same vase4 ,they have been found in ,rhodes1 ,naukratis1 and ,italy1 but the place of their manufacture is variously assigned to ,corinth1 ,naukratis1 and ,miletos4#aaae ,an oinochoe found in ,rhodes1 with the incised lines in one animal-frieze and the details left in the colour of the clay or shown in black outline in the other1 seems to incline to an ,asiatic origin1 at least as regards its shape#aaaf2 on the other hand1 the fine krater in the ,louvre#aaag is of a form more usually associated with ,corinth4 ,the upper half of the latter is ,corinthian in style1 the lower ,rhodian1 and thus there is not much to choose4 ,but on the evidence adduced by ,dr4 ,bhlau#aaah it would seem to be more probably of ,ionian fabric4 ,it may be that further evidence will enable us to assign these vases of mixed style to ,naukratis1 always a meeting-place of styles or fabrics2 but it has not as yet been definitely ascertained to what extent the earlier fabrics of that place are local in origin4 ,meanwhile1 the group is one that fully deserves separate consideration4 ,dr4 ,bhlau points out that it is characterised by the half-palmettes at the handles of the vases1 by the ,mycenaean-like spirals1 and the inferior careless ground-ornaments1 and generally by its deviations from the normal ,rhodian types4 ,the black ware with patterns in purple and white and incised lines which has been mentioned as found in ,rhodes is regarded by ,bhlau#aaai as ,aeolic4 ,it is1 as we shall see1 paralleled at ,naukratis by wares which there is good reason for regarding as of ,lesbian origin4 ,the typical form of decoration1 the fan-shaped palmette1 also occurs at ,daphnae4 ,in any case there is clearly an attempt at the imitation of metal vases1 the polychrome colouring being intended to reproduce the effect of bronze inlaid with gold and silver4 ,but before it can be established as an ,aeolic fabric more results must be obtained by excavation in that part of ,asia ,minor4 ,in various places on the mainland of ,asia ,minor 7see p4 #fb7 vases of early fabric have been found1 about which at present little is known1 except that they usually show some points of comparison with the recognised ,ionian fabrics1 and may therefore be regarded as of local manufacture1 or at least from some place on the coast of ,asia4 ,an attempt has indeed been made by ,bhlau to recognise in these also an ,aeolic fabric1 centring in the neighbourhood of ,kyme and ,myrina4 ,an example is to be seen in the remarkable vase found at ,myrina1#aabj with the bust of a man painted in outline1 which resembles in shape the ,fikellura vases1 and is probably intermediate between the ,rhodian and this fabric4 ,similar pottery finds have been made at ,larisa1 at ,pitane1 and in the ,troad4 ,at ,larisa and ,myrina ,bhlau notes vases of the earlier ,rhodian style1 and at ,larisa others which show a distinct independent derivation from ,mycenaean pottery1 especially in the ground-ornaments4 ,on the site of ,troy ,dr4 ,drpfeld found fragments of pottery of a ,rhodian type with ornaments of pear-shaped leaves1 such as occur on late sixth- century bowls from ,kameiros#aaba2 also a vase with a female head resembling that from ,myrina1 and another of ,naucratite character4 ,there appears to have been a local fabric in the sixth century--or perhaps even later--of flat bowls with bracket-handles1 on which are painted figures of birds1 etc41 in coarse black pigment without any incised lines or accessories2 a series of these is in the ,british ,museum1 and others were found by ,dr4 ,drpfeld 7see above1 pp4 #fa1 #bei74 ,in ,caria the ,ionian style is represented by finds at ,stratonikeia and ,mylasa1#aabb with ornamentation of ,mycenaean character1 which appears to have reached a similar stage of development to the earlier ,graeco-,phoenician vases from ,cyprus2 many analogies may be noted4 ,that the ,mycenaean influence was strong in ,caria is also shown by the pottery of transitional character found by ,mr4 ,paton at ,hissarlik4#aabc ,at ,temir-,gora 7,phanagoria7 in the ,crimea a vase was found in #ahgj with paintings in brown on buff ground1 representing a hare-hunt1 panthers1 and other animals4#aabd ,the style has evident affinities to that of the 8,rhodian0 vases1 and ,phanagoria being a ,milesian colony1 this is only natural4 ,but it seems to be a local product1 not an importation2 the panther1 for instance1 is unknown on ,rhodian vases proper4 #b4 ,,africa ,the fabrics of the ,ionian school are not confined to ,asia ,minor as regards their place of origin4 ,in the ,greek colonies which were founded in ,africa in the seventh and sixth centuries we find evidences of great industrial activity1 and in some cases extensive remains of painted pottery1 which exhibit a close connection with the fabrics more closely associated with ,asia ,minor4 ,there is1 however1 one group of vases which seems to stand by itself1 and which1 though it may be ranked with the ,ionian fabrics from its use of the white slip and from the original naturalistic treatment of the subjects1 yet shows a marked independence both in technique and in decoration4 ,the vases grouped under this head have been found chiefly in ,etruria1 but more recently several examples have come to light in the ,ionian colony of ,naukratis in the ,egyptian ,delta and in ,samos4#aabe ,as long ago as #ahha it was proposed by ,puchstein to connect them with the ,theraean colony of ,kyrene on the north coast of ,africa1 on the ground of the subject depicted on the finest and most remarkable of them--the ,arkesilaos cup of the ,cabinet des ,mdailles at ,paris4 ,when1 however1 the ,naucratite specimens turned up1 it was thought that they might after all be a local fabric of that colony1 especially as that place was known to have had a close connection with ,kyrene1 whence about #egj ,b4,c4 came the queen of ,amasis1 who was a great benefactor to ,naukratis4 ,but to urge only one of the opposing arguments1 there seems to have been little or no export of pottery from ,naukratis1 although imported specimens have been found there of almost every early fabric known4 ,it was reserved for the ingenuity of ,dr4 ,studniczka#aabf to identify a scene on a fragmentary cup found there with the figure of the nymph ,kyrene1 the patron goddess of that city1 and thereby to establish definitely the origin of this class4 ,curiously enough1 no remains of the early colony of ,kyrene have ever been discovered2 but when1 if ever1 they are brought to light1 it may be confidently hoped that further evidence will be obtained4 ,the ,cyrenaic vases1 as they are now generally styled1 are for the most part kylikes of a slender and graceful form1 owing much apparently to metal originals1 as indicated by the use of palmettes at the ends of the handles1 and by their form and ornamentation in general4 ,the designs are painted in black on a slip varying in tint from deep buff to a pale cream-colour1 with firmly-drawn incised lines and a plentiful use of purple for details4 ,the drawing is remarkably spirited1 and the subjects mostly marked by navet and freshness4 ,the popularity of mythological scenes is remarkable2 we find representations of ,zeus1 ,atlas and ,prometheus1 ,kadmos1 ,pelops1 and other heroic figures1 besides the remarkable vases which deal with local legend and history4 ,illustration3 ,from ,baumeister4 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,,arkesilaos ,,of ,,kyrene ,,superintending ,,his ,,commerce 7,,from ,a ,,kylix ,,in ,,the ,,bibl4 ,,nat474 ,the ,arkesilaos vase#aabg 7,fig4 #ib7 demands something more than a passing description4 ,it represents the king of ,kyrene superintending the weighing of the silphium-plant1 which was a valuable source of his revenue4 ,although there were four sovereigns of that name1 the choice is practically limited to one1 the second of the name1 who reigned about #ehj-eej ,b4,c4 ,the scene takes place on a ship ready to sail1 of which the yard-arm and part of the sails are visible2 from the yard hangs a large balance1 inscribed with the word 1 in each pan of which is a large mass of some substance1 which has generally been interpreted as representing the silphium4 ,but as a matter of fact it is open to doubt whether it is not really wool1 or some similar article of merchandise4 ,on the left of the scene1 on a folding-chair1 sits the king1 with flowing locks and large hat1 before whom a man named ,sophortos stands1 with a gesture implying that he is making a statement relating to the transaction4 ,on the right are four men variously occupied1 two carrying bags of the stuff tied at the neck2 one of these is named 1#aabh a word of uncertain meaning1 but apparently having some reference to the silphium4 ,a horizontal line is drawn below the scene1 and in the lower part of the circle we see perhaps the storing of the merchandise in the hold1 under the superintendence of an official named 7guardian72 two men are carrying bags to add to a heap of three already stored away4 ,in the upper part of the design and behind ,arkesilaos are depicted various birds1 a monkey1 a lizard1 and a panther1 perhaps to give local colouring to the scene4#aabi ,the whole is conceived with wonderful navet and freshness1 so much so that early writers regarded it as a parody or burlesque of a serious subject2 but this can hardly be the case4 ,several other scenes on the ,cyrenaic vases merit description1 did space permit2 but it must suffice to refer to the list of subjects already given4 ,the majority of the specimens are in the ,louvre1 which possesses no less than ten cups1 besides three larger vases1 decorated with animals and ornaments only4 ,there are also four in the ,cabinet des ,mdailles1 of which1 besides the ,arkesilaos cup1 one representing ,polyphemos devouring the companions of ,odysseus and the subsequent blinding 7all in one scene7 is of conspicuous interest4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses two or three cups and several fragments from ,naukratis1 including the important one restored by ,studniczka as representing the local nymph holding branches of silphium and pomegranate1 and surrounded by flying daemons1 male and female1 or ,boreads and ,harpies 7,fig4 #ic74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,,cyrenaic ,,cup ,,with ,,figure ,,of ,,kyrene 7,,british ,,museum74 ,of this series the ,arkesilaos cup is the only one with inscriptions4 ,they are without doubt in an alphabet of ,peloponnesian1 not ,ionian1 character1 as is shown1 for instance1 by the for in 4 ,but this may be explained by reference to the history of the city1 which in the seventh and sixth centuries received a considerable influx of the ,dorian element1 especially from ,sparta1 whose alphabet may have been adopted for general use4 ,the total number of specimens in existence is about forty2 some of which1 however1 are merely fragmentary examples4#aacj ,allusion has already been made to the extensive finds of pottery at ,naukratis1 among the most remarkable of recent years1 which have done much to increase our knowledge of ,ionian industrial art4 ,as has been said1 almost every other early fabric is represented there1 from the ,melian and ,corinthian wares to those of ,rhodes and other ,asiatic sites1 including a large series of ,athenian vases or fragments down to the latest times4 ,but with these were present in overwhelming numbers specimens of an entirely new fabric which could only be regarded as local in its origin4 ,of the pottery with figure subjects three stages can be traced1 all characterised by the ,ionian cream-coloured slip1 of which the earliest is remarkably like the ,rhodian wares1 the next is distinguished by its polychrome decoration on a white ground1 and the third represents a sort of transition from the quasi-,rhodian style of decoration to the regular black-figured ware1 and is parallel in many respects to the sister-fabric of ,daphnae 7see below74 ,all this pottery was discovered in favissae or rubbish-heaps attached to the sanctuaries of ,apollo1 ,aphrodite1 ,hera1 and the ,dioskuri1 especially the two former4 ,as the vases had been rejected as useless or crowded out by new ones1 they are almost all broken and fragmentary4 ,but it is interesting to note that on numbers of the earlier potsherds from the ,apollo temple the words 1 8,i am ,apollo's10 have been roughly scratched1 as if the priests had wished to mark them as sacred and preserve them from profane uses1 although no longer required4 ,even more frequent on all the sites are dedications to the respective deities1 with the formula 1 or 1 in the ,ionic alphabet 7cf4 ,fig4 #af1 p4 #aci74 ,on palaeographical grounds the inscriptions may be dated as ranging from about #fjj to #ebj ,b4,c41 but there are some difficulties with regard to the date of the foundation of the settlement4 ,strabo 7xvii4 #a1 p4 #hja7 assigns the foundation to ,greeks of ,miletos1 about #fbj ,b4,c41 but the words of ,herodotos 7ii4 #agh7 are to the effect that ,amasis 7#efd-ebf ,b4,c471 8who was a phil-,hellene 444 gave those who arrived in ,egypt the city of ,naukratis to inhabit40 ,if this means that no ,greeks had lived there before his time1 we cannot place any of the pottery earlier than #egj2 but it does not seem unreasonable to take the words to mean that the city already existed1 and that ,amasis merely recognised the right of ,greeks to reside there4 ,herodotos also tells us that by permission of ,amasis the ,milesians independently founded the temenos of ,apollo4 ,from the evidence of the excavations ,messrs4 ,petrie and ,ernest ,gardner felt themselves justified in placing the foundation of the city about the middle of the seventh century1 a date which certainly seems to be required by the character of the earliest pottery4 ,the disappearance of the local fabrics and their replacement by ,attic importations would then fall about #ebj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,,fragment ,,from ,,naukratis1 ,,illustrating 8,,mixed ,,technique40 ,in the earliest class a distinction1 as in ,rhodes1 is to be noted between figures without incised lines1 but with faces in outline1 and figures with incised lines1 the two being sometimes combined on one vase1 as in ,fig4 #id4 ,it has already been shown that the former must be earlier in origin than the latter4 ,on the other hand1 in the polychrome white ware 7see below7 the incised lines again disappear2 but the more advanced style of the drawing and choice of subjects testifies to its being a later variety4 ,there can1 however1 be no doubt that the influence of ,rhodes 7or whatever was the fabric-centre of 8,rhodian0 pottery7 was very strong at ,naukratis1 and if we adopt ,bhlau's theory of a ,milesian origin for the ,rhodian wares1 this is fully accounted for by the history of the place4 ,consequently the two fabrics are very difficult to distinguish1 and1 in fact1 the difference is mainly in point of style4 ,there is1 however1 a class of wares found at ,naukratis which does not seem to be of local origin4 ,this is the so-called ,polledrara fabric1 or black ware resembling that found in ,etruria1 and especially in the tomb of that name at ,vulci 7see ,chapter ,,xviii474 ,it has also been found in ,rhodes1 where black wares are by no means uncommon1 some closely resembling the ,italian bucchero in character4 ,it is hardly likely that this ware is ,naucratite in origin1 although the ,polledrara tomb contains objects undoubtedly exported from ,egypt4 ,professor ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner#aaca has pointed out that one of the black-ware vases bears an inscription showing that it was dedicated by a ,mytilenaean1 and others have inscriptions in ,aeolic dialect4 ,hence he deduces the theory that this black ware was made in ,lesbos1 and exported thence both to ,rhodes and to ,naukratis4 ,he also points out that it is really distinct from the ,italian variety both in style and technique1 as1 for instance1 in the ,italian use of blue4 ,but there is a class of pottery1 unfortunately only represented by fragments1 which appears to be developed partly from the 8,lesbian0 ware1 partly from the early ,naucratite fabric1 and must certainly be of local origin4 ,it has never been found elsewhere1#aacb and the combination of 8,lesbian0 and ,rhodian elements also points to this conclusion4 ,the vases1 which seem to have been large bowls1 are covered on the inside with a black varnish1 on which patterns of purely decorative character 7palmettes1 pear-shaped rays of ,rhodian or ,aeolic form1 etc47 are painted in white and red4 ,the outside1 on the contrary1 is covered with a white slip1 the designs being painted1 partly in outline1 in various tints1 such as flesh-colour1 dark brown1 purple1 dark red1 yellow1 and even opaque white4 ,in spite of the retention of the ,rhodian system of outlines and absence of incised lines1 the style is remarkably advanced1 and the treatment of details often most careful and elaborate2 moreover1 the subjects are almost exclusively human figures1 although the fragmentary nature of the remains renders the interpretation in many cases almost impossible4 ,they seem to stand on the same level as the ,daphnae pottery 7see below71 both in style and range of subject4#aacc ,to return to the vases of 8,rhodian0 type1 a few typical characteristics may be noted1 showing their development4 ,the earliest specimens are decorated exclusively with animals1 painted in the ,rhodian fashion1 with heads and other parts in outline and details only indicated by leaving them in the colour of the clay4 ,the typical ground-ornaments are the cross with hooked arms1 the spiral1 and a pattern of diagonals with chevrons between4#aacd ,later1 a preference is shown for large vases1 usually bowls or kraters1 sometimes also large plates1 with friezes of animals and ,sphinxes on a corresponding scale4 ,the ,rhodian style still obtains1 with the addition of purple accessories4 ,the favourite animals are the lion1 bull1 boar1 and ,cretan goat2 a broad plait-band or guilloche as border is of frequent occurrence2 and in addition to the ground-ornaments already mentioned1 various forms of rosettes and borders of maeander are found4 ,on a large bowl dedicated to ,aphrodite by one ,sostratos 7,plate ,,xxiv471 besides lions1 ,sphinxes1 and water-fowl1 two dogs are seen attacking a boar2 the drawing is more advanced than in most examples4#aace ,the next stage in which the incised lines begin to appear is best illustrated by the fine plate with a seated ,sphinx1#aacf where they are combined with outlined contours 7in the head71 and details rendered by white laid on the black1 as also are the patterns round the rim4 ,another large plate 7,a #ihf7 has a dance of men and a frieze of animals with incised lines and purple accessories1 but the surrounding patterns 7lotos-flowers and palmettes1 tongue-pattern1 etc47 are in plain black4 ,lastly1 there is the stage which forms a transition from the earlier or 8,rhodian0 style to the black-figured1 in which for a time the influence of ,corinth seems to make itself felt4 ,the figures are painted in black1 which often turns to red through faulty firing1 on a warm buff ground1 sometimes with purple accessories4 ,the favourite shapes are the lebes or deinos with flat rim1 and the column-handled krater so popular at ,corinth in the sixth century1 with flat-topped handles1 on which human heads or animals are painted4 ,corinthian influence is sometimes also seen in the designs1 as in the ,sphinxes of ,b #ajj2 or in other ways1 as in the olpe ,a #aecd1 with a ram in a panel on one side of the handle4 ,another curious example is the column-handled krater ,a #aecc1 with two friezes of animals1 of which the lower is more ,ionic in type4 ,the ,british ,museum collection also contains numerous fragments 7,b #ajb-c7 in this local style1 together with a few of other fabrics1#aacg among which an interesting representation of ,odysseus passing the ,sirens may be noted2 also a series of chariot-scenes and horsemen1 which in style recall the ,caeretan hydriae 7see p4 #cee74 ,the merging of the local style in the fully-developed black-figure ,athenian style is clearly visible in these fragments1 which are interesting from their parallelism1 though not their resemblance1 to those of ,daphnae4 ,among the later ,ionic fabrics1 of practically fully-developed black-figure style 7i4e4 with buff ground1 incised lines1 and accessory colours71 not the least interesting is the group of vases and fragments from ,daphnae in the ,egyptian ,delta1 now in the ,british ,museum4#aach ,like the pottery of ,naukratis1 they illustrate the relations between ,ionia and ,africa in the sixth century1 but even in a more marked degree1 inasmuch as they were more directly influenced by local circumstances4 ,this pottery was discovered by ,mr4 ,flinders ,petrie in #ahhf1 on a site known as ,tell ,defenneh1 representing the ,tahpanhes of the ,hebrew prophets and the ,daphnae of ,herodotos1#aaci from whom we learn that a fort was found here by ,psammetichos ,i4 at the beginning of the sixth century4 ,as ,naukratis guarded the west of the ,delta1 so did ,daphnae the east1 with the highway to ,syria4 ,herodotos#aadj also speaks of camps garrisoned by ,ionian and ,carian troops2 and if we might identify these with ,daphnae1 we should have a terminus post quem for the pottery1 as the camps were desolated by ,amasis about #efj ,b4,c4 ,on the other hand1 the pottery is hardly to be dated so early from its style1 and it is important to notice that it is practically unrepresented at ,naukratis1 that meeting-place of all early fabrics4 ,the chief problem with which we are confronted in regard to the ,daphnae pottery is whether it is a local fabric or imported4 ,opinions of scholars are somewhat divided1 ,dmmler and ,endt declaring for the local fabric1#aada ,zahn for importations from ,clazomenae4#aadb ,the close connection with the fabrics of ,asia ,minor1 such as the ,caeretan hydriae and the ,clazomenae sarcophagi1 cannot be denied1 and there are many small details which are peculiar to ,ionic vases2 but1 on the other hand1 there is much that is peculiar to this group and tells in favour of a local origin4 ,it is also important to bear in mind that the ,daphnae pottery has little in common with that of ,naukratis1 in spite of the relation of both to ,ionia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 8,,egyptian ,,situla10 ,,from ,,daphnae 7,,british ,,museum74 ,it will perhaps be convenient to take the groups of ,daphnae fragments one by one1 noting the general characteristics and individual peculiarities of each4 ,first we have a group of tall cylindrical vases#aadc 7one or two of which are completely preserved71 of an obviously ,egyptian form1 which has been called a situla or pail 7,fig4 #ie74 ,the clay is of a drab colour1 brittle1 and badly levigated1 and covered with a dark brown varnish laid on a coating of glaze4 ,owing to chemical causes this varnish has in almost all cases disappeared1 carrying with it most of the designs1 which can only be distinguished by the incised lines4 ,the figure subjects are confined to panels on either side of the neck1 and usually consist of heraldic groups of animals or winged monsters4 ,round the body are patterns of lotos-flowers and fan-shaped half-rosettes of ,rhodian type4 ,the technique1 however1 and other points recall the ,geometrical vases1 and this is especially marked in one case 7,b4,m4 ,b #ajd ,fig4 #ie71 where the panels are bordered and filled in with ornamental patterns of ,geometrical style4#aadd ,the whole appearance of this vase1 in which the varnish is preserved1 is that of the ,geometrical style2 the method may have been learned through ,rhodes4 ,on the other hand1 some subjects are of ,egyptian type1 such as the hawks 7,b #ajfb71 and the pair of combatants with their nude bodies and shaven crowns 7,b #ajfa74 ,secondly1 there is a group of tall slim amphorae1 of purely ,greek style1#aade with a characteristic scheme of decoration1 consisting of panels on the neck1 usually containing a ,sphinx or ,siren1 and two friezes round the body1 divided by a band of dots2 the neck is always divided from the body by a moulded ring1 below which is a polychrome tongue-pattern in black1 white1 and purple alternately4 ,an example is given in ,plate ,,xxv4 ,it is important to note here that the white colouring1 of which lavish use is made1 is laid directly on the clay1 as in other ,ionic vases2 incised lines are only employed for inner details1 not for contours4 ,this group is obviously of later date than the situlae1 and the points of correspondence between it and the ,caeretan hydriae and sarcophagi of ,clazomenae 7see below7 are very marked4 ,sometimes the place of the main design is taken by a panel of scale-pattern1#aadf rendered in colour only1 curiously reminiscent of ,mycenaean vases4 ,two other points are worth citing here as presenting the same feature3 the two-handled cup with tall stem on ,b #aaeb1 which is clearly the ,mycenaean type of kylix1 and the borders of white dots laid on the black which sometimes occur on the draperies4 ,the clay is of a warm yellow colour1 well levigated and polished1 and the general appearance of the vases is bright and pleasing4 ,the lower frieze on the body usually takes the form of a row of animals1 especially of geese feeding2 but where the main design is replaced by a scale-pattern1 dancing figures are usually found4 ,thirdly1 there is a squat form of amphora1 with cylindrical neck and wide body1 which has been distinguished by the name of stamnos4#aadg ,most of the vases of this form found at ,daphnae are of the 8,fikellura0 type described above 7p4 #ccg71 and are obviously importations1 whether from ,samos or ,rhodes2 but others 7nearly all fragmentary7 are of the same type as the amphorae4 ,on both shapes a motive is sometimes introduced which is clearly learned from the ,fikellura vases1 that of a row of crescents1 which1 instead of being merely painted in black1 are treated1 like the tongue-pattern1 in polychrome4#aadh ,the only other shape found is the hydria1 of a type differing greatly from the ,caeretan 7see below7 with its flat shoulder at right angles to the body2 but the same typical wreath of pointed leaves occurs on both 7cf4 ,b #abf-bg74 ,the list is completed by a few fragments of imported ,b4,f4 vases from ,athens4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxv ,illustration3 ,,ionian ,,vases4 #a4 ,,situla ,,from ,,daphnae 7,,british ,,museum72 #b4 ,,deinos ,,in ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 ------------------------------------ ,the subjects comprise several interesting mythological themes3 ,odysseus and ,kirke1#aadi the ,calydonian boar-hunt1 ,boreas and one of his sons1 ,bellerophon and the ,chimaera4 ,there is a curious series of nude figures on horseback1 painted white throughout1 accompanied by warriors and dogs2 they have usually been interpreted as feminine1 but are not so necessarily1 as ,ionian painters used white indiscriminately for either sex4#aaej ,dionysiac scenes are popular1 but monotonous1 and often very coarse2 the ,satyrs are of the ,ionic type1 with horses' hoofs1 and very bestial in appearance2 their place is often taken by grotesque dancers1 as on the ,corinthian vases4 ,among small details the ,oriental embroidered saddle-cloths#aaea should be mentioned1 as also the curious hook 77 in front of the warrior's helmet on ,b #aa2 both are found on the ,clazomenae sarcophagi1 and the latter is typical of ,ionic art4#aaeb #c4 ,,later ,,ionic ,,fabrics ,what is in many ways the most remarkable group of ,ionian vases is formed by the ,caeretan hydriae1 so called because they have been found almost exclusively at ,caere 7,cervetri7 in ,etruria4 ,they form a very homogeneous group1 and their typical features are unmistakable4 ,originally they were thought to be of local1 i4e4 ,etruscan1 manufacture1 or even imitations of ,corinthian vases4 ,but since the sarcophagi of ,clazomenae and the pottery of ,naukratis and ,daphnae have been made known and studied1 it has been established beyond doubt that they stand in close relation to these undoubtedly ,ionian fabrics4#aaec ,if further proof were wanted1 it is to be found in a class of ,etruscan vases which are clearly imitated from them 7see ,chapter ,,xviii474 ,they were first collectively discussed in #ahhh by ,dmmler1 who gave a list of fourteen1 assigning them to ,phocaea2 a more complete list of twenty has since been drawn up by ,endt1 who to some extent endorses ,dmmler's views1 but is inclined to attribute them to ,clazomenae1 on the opposite side of the ,gulf of ,smyrna1 thus bringing them into closer relation with the sarcophagi4 ,whichever be the correct view1 there is no doubt that they come from this region1 and the existence of a ceramic fabric at ,clazomenae1 as attested by the sarcophagi and a few painted fragments of pottery1 is in favour of ,endt's attribution4 ,we have also to set by the side of this the absence 7so far7 of any pottery at ,phocaea4 ,in any case the place must have formed part of the ,naucratite confederation1 and it was perhaps influenced much by ,rhodes4#aaed ,that the vases have all been found at ,cervetri need excite no surprise1 as there is abundant evidence that certain fabrics were specially favoured by different places1 and apparently made for exclusive importation4 ,from the circumstances of discovery of some of them they may be dated about the middle of the sixth century ,b4,c42 the style is remarkably advanced1 and shows the rapid development of ,ionian art as compared with that of ,continental ,greece4 ,as regards the form of the hydria1 it is characterised by the egg-shaped body1 the division of neck from shoulder by a moulded ring1 the low flat-ribbed handle at the back1 and the high concave foot4 ,even more marked is the system of ornamentation4 ,the main design runs in a broad frieze round the body1 broken at the back by a palmette pattern under the handle1 on either side of which are usually grouped two similar or opposed figures1 distinct from the principal subject4 ,the rest of the surface is given over to floral patterns1 which assume great prominence on these vases4 ,the normal arrangement is as follows3 inside the mouth a large tongue-pattern in red1 bordered with black2 on the neck1 palmette-and-lotos pattern2 on the shoulder1 ivy-wreaths or other plants1 treated in a naturalistic manner2 round the lower part of the body1 a broad band of large palmettes and lotos-flowers alternating1 forming a very effective pattern and enhanced with white and purple details4 ,an illustration in colours of a typical specimen is given on ,plate ,,xxvi4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxvi ,illustration3 ,to face page #ced4 ,,caeretan ,,hydria4 7,,british ,,museum47 ------------------------------------ ,the range of subjects is wide and original1 both in choice and method of treatment4 ,we find among mythological scenes the return of ,hephaistos to heaven1 the rape of ,europa1 the contest of ,herakles with ,busiris1 and the hunt of the ,calydonian boar4#aaee ,other subjects1 such as combatants or horsemen1 are more in the manner of the ,clazomenae sarcophagi4 ,a curious feature of the group is the entire absence of friezes of animals4 ,the realistic treatment of the ,egyptians on the ,busiris vase1 and the introduction of apes and other ,african animals into some of the scenes1 clearly indicate a relation with that part of the world1 obviously through the medium of one of the ,greek colonies of ,egypt4 ,naukratis1 as we have seen1 was largely colonised from ,phocaea1 and some of the later fragments from this site#aaef show a parallelism with the hydriae4 ,among the smaller details which are typically ,ionian may be mentioned the horse-hoofed type of ,seilenos 7as at ,daphnae72 the four-winged deities and winged boars#aaeg2 the favourite types of stag-hunts1#aaeh horsemen1 and combats1 all appearing on the sarcophagi2 the running dogs and the owls on horses' backs2 the high-peaked cap of women and shoes with turned-up toes4 ,all these are generally1 but not invariably1 characteristic of the ,ionian fabrics1 as is the peculiar treatment of boys' hair1 which is tied in a tuft at the back4 ,in regard to technique the chief point is the extensive use of accessories1 which give a bright and varied appearance to the vases4 ,and we must also note the general use of white for flesh1 of men as well as of women1 the white being laid on the black varnish in the ,attic fashion1 and not on the clay1 as usual in ,ionia4 ,the clay1 too1 is not covered with the characteristic creamy slip1 but with a red glaze approaching more nearly to the 8continental0 fabrics4 ,incised lines are used with great care1 and folds of drapery are always indicated2 the male eye is always oval1 and undistinguished from the female4 ,two groups of fragments from sites in ,asia ,minor1 though differing in some degree from the ,caeretan hydriae1 yet obviously stand in close relation4 ,of these1 one set1 forming a large krater of the ,corinthian type1 was found at ,kyme in ,aeolis#aaei2 they appear to be later than the hydriae1 i4e4 about #ejj ,b4,c41 but the style and technique are not dissimilar1 except that the white is here laid on the clay ground and the drawing tends to freedom and carelessness4#aafj ,folds of drapery are not indicated2 the typical ,ionic motive of a large bud in the field is found4#aafa ,they may be described as a local differentiation from the hydriae1 representing the transition from the sarcophagi#aafb to ,b4,f4 fabrics1 or rather1 perhaps1 forming a link between the ,caeretan group and that next to be discussed4 ,the other set was found at ,clazomenae1#aafc and appears to stand midway between the ,daphnae pottery and the hydriae2 it is probably of local origin1 and also exhibits points of comparison with the sarcophagi4 ,the influence of this fabric has been traced in some ,attic ,b4,f4 vases which represent a similar scene--the harnessing of a chariot4#aafd ,there are also various groups of vases 7mostly amphorae7 of advanced ,b4,f4 technique1 but thoroughly ,ionian characteristics1#aafe which seem to trace their descent mainly from the ,caeretan hydriae1 although the scheme of ornamentation is widely different4 ,in the majority the most striking feature is the adoption of the panel-design1 the rest of the vase being covered with black4 ,this is clearly non-,ionic1 and probably due to the growing influence of ,attic vase-painting1 in which it early became a marked feature2 but it is usually combined with a distinct neck1 on which is a smaller design1 and this1 on the other hand1 is a non-,attic idea4 ,these vases were all most probably made in the ,clazomenae region2 they are1 however1 rather to be regarded as forming links between the ,ionian fabrics proper and the ,attic ,b4,f4 vases1 and are the predecessors of a group of vases of fully-developed ,b4,f4 technique which are yet more ,ionic than ,attic in feeling and treatment 7see below1 p4 #chg74 ,among these may be mentioned two groups of kylikes1 one found in ,rhodes and richly decorated with figures within and without1 the form suggesting a metallic original4#aaff ,the other consists of a series of kylikes decorated on the outside with large eyes 7formerly thought to be of symbolical import71 at the head of which stands the well-known ,wrzburg cup1 with the subject of ,phineus attacked by the ,harpies4#aafg ,this vase bears remains of inscriptions in the ,ionic alphabet2 the cup is of a form afterward introduced at ,athens by ,exekias1 in which the off-set rim and high foot of the other group are replaced by a wide-spreading bowl of plain convex section1 with a low foot4 ,once adopted at ,athens1 this type remained firmly in favour throughout the ,r4,f4 period4 ,it has often been remarked that inscribed vases are remarkably rare among ,ionian fabrics2 there are not more than six at the outside1 including the ,euphorbos pinax1 the alphabet of which we have seen to be ,argive4#aafh ,but there are two vases the alphabet of which apparently belongs to the island of ,keos1 being one of the ,ionic or ,eastern group1 and of these one#aafi may well be associated with the later ,ionic fabrics4 ,the other1 however1 is in a style which is usually associated with the ,chalcidian group#aagj2 there is the typical feature of the fallen warrior with face turned to the front4 ,if the two can both be assumed to have been actually made in ,keos1 the geographical position of that island would account for the combination of these ,eastern and ,western elements4#aaga ,a complete and detailed list of the ,caeretan hydriae and of the allied types may be found in ,endt's book 7pp4 #a1 #ba1 #bi1 etc472 but a brief summary may also be found useful3-- #a4 ,caeretan hydriae3 ,b4,m4 ,b #ei 7,plate ,,xxvi472 ,louvre ,e #fif-gjb2 ,vienna #bag-ah2 ,ant4 ,denkm4 ii4 #bh 7in ,berlin72 ,mus4 ,greg4 ii4 #af1 #b;a2 ,jahn1 ,entfhrung der ,europa1 pl4 #e;a2 ,endt1 figs4 #a-b1 #e-h2 four others unpublished4 ,see also generally ,dmmler in ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhh1 p4 #aff ff41 and ,pottier in ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahib1 p4 #bec ff41 and ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #ecd4 #b4 ,later ,ionic ,b4,f4 fabrics1 chiefly amphorae1 kraters1 hydriae1 and deinoi1 from the region of the ,gulf of ,smyrna3 ,louvre ,e #gcf1 ,e #gcg1 ,e #gci2 ,vienna #bae2 ,munich #egc1 #ehc1 #fhe2 ,berlin #afgd1 #ahhe1 #baed2 ,wrzburg1 iii4 #cbh 7 ,reinach1 ii4 #ig7 and #cca2 ,reinach1 ii4 #aef2 ,j4,h4,s4 vi4 pp4 #aha1 #ahe1 and ,anzeiger1 #ahic1 p4 #hc 7in ,berlin72 ,louvre ,e #ged-ha2 ,berlin #afgf ,reinach1 ii4 #bb1 #c-e2 and the fragments from ,kyme and ,clazomenae already discussed4 ,see besides ,endt1 ,pottier in ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahic1 p4 #dbc ff42 ,zahn in ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahih1 p4 #ch ff42 ,karo in ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #adf ff4 #c4 ,kylikes of ,attic-,ionic style3 7a7 ,rhodian3 ,b4,m4 ,b #cgi-;,b #chb3 see ,j4,h4,s4 v4 p4 #bbj ff42 7b7 later type1 with eyes 7see p4 #cgd72 ,wrzburg1 iii4 #ced ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #da 7,phineus cup7 and #cdi2 ,berlin #ahjc1 #bjed1 #bjef2 ,munich #dbh1 #dfh1 #fcj1 #eec1 #gaa1 #abci1 #acaf1 #ajbg1 #abci2 and others given by ,bhlau2 to which may be added the ,british ,museum cups with eyes1 ,b #dbg ff41 and the amphora ,b4,m4 ,b #bae4 #d4 ,keos fabric 7873 ,louvre ,e #gcb ,reinach1 i4 #afb2 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #bje1 #c-d4 ,there are also numerous vases scattered about our museums which are of a debased and inferior ,b4,f4 type1 and on good grounds have been thought to be of ,italian manufacture1 whether ,etruscan or ,south ,italian4 ,the former usually display unmistakable local characteristics1 and there is a class so sharply defined that its ,etruscan origin is undoubted1 in spite of its affinities to the ,caeretan hydriae4 ,a full description will be found in the chapter on ,etruscan pottery 7,,xviii474 ,others again have more in common with the class next to be discussed2 and1 generally speaking1 they may all be found to show ,ionian affinities4 ,but the line is not easy to draw3 debased ,b4,f4 vases may have been produced in ,ionia1 as they undoubtedly were at ,kameiros#aagb2 but1 on the other hand1 the extensive export of ,ionic wares to ,cumae1 ,cervetri1 and other places may have incited the ,italian potters1 as in the case of the ,etruscan class just mentioned1 to unsuccessful attempts at imitation4 ,there remains yet one class of ,ionic vases to be discussed1 a class which can be clearly defined1 but for which as yet no satisfactory name has been found4 ,like the ,caeretan hydriae1 they were first discussed by the late ,f4 ,dmmler2 but his grounds for assigning them to the region of ,pontus--whence they have been provisionally styled 8,pontic0--have not found general acceptance4#aagc ,they were also originally1 like the ,caeretan group1 thought to be ,etruscan1 a view which at first sight might seem justified by their rough execution2 but style and other reasons preclude such a possibility4 ,on the other hand1 it is quite possible that some of them are imitative fabrics made in ,southern ,italy4 ,all at present known have been found in ,etruria4 ,the group is formed by a series of about twenty amphorae and sixteen oinochoae1 to which ,endt appends a list of twenty or so which may either be of this fabric or ,italian imitations4 ,another example in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington1 is illustrated on ,plate ,,xxv4 ,the list might doubtless be extended4 ,that they date from the first half of the sixth century seems indicated by the discovery of one at ,orvieto1 together with an early ,corinthian cup4 ,like so many of the ,ionic fabrics1 they exhibit a fondness for bright colouring1 with an extensive use of accessory colours4 ,in some cases ,corinthian influence seems to have been at work1 especially in the technique4 ,incised lines are sparingly and carelessly employed1 and seldom for contours4 ,among the subjects mythological scenes are rare1 but one of the ,british ,museum examples 7,b #eg7 has a curious subject--the contest of ,herakles and the ,lacinian ,hera 7the ,roman ,juno ,sospita71 assisted respectively by ,athena and ,poseidon4 ,winged male figures are not uncommon1 and the typically ,corinthian subject of grotesque figures dancing is occasionally found4 ,but the specially characteristic feature of the group is formed by the friezes of animals4 ,of these there are usually two on each vase1 more rarely one2 sometimes they are interspersed with figures of men1 not representing any definite subject1 but as an imitation of stamped metal vases 7as on the ,bucchero vases of ,etruria1 ,chapter ,,xviii474 ,the animals are so characteristic as in themselves to mark off this class as distinct2 sometimes they are naturalistic1 sometimes conventional1 and repetitions in one frieze are very rare4 ,the favourite quadruped is a deer2 ,gryphons of a peculiar type and ,sphinxes are frequently found1 and on some specimens a subordinate frieze of quails4#aagd ,on the necks of the amphorae heraldic groups of panthers or other animals confronted are sometimes seen1 varied by palmette and lotos patterns4 ,the latter form the chief decorative motive2 but a combination of maeanders and stars 7see ,chapter ,,xvi47 is often found on the oinochoae1 and this1 it is interesting to note1 also appears on the ,clazomenae sarcophagi4 ,on one of the vases published by ,dmmler there is represented a combat of ,greeks and mounted ,barbarians2 the latter he identified as ,scythians1 and mainly on this ground attributed the group to the northern coast of ,asia ,minor4 ,but they are more likely to be from ,phocaea1 or ,kyme1 or one of the neighbouring cities4 ,the oinochoae appear1 from the absence of human figures1 to be earlier than the amphorae1 and the number of friezes often exceeds two2 there are also a few minor distinctions4#aage #d4 ,,early ,,painting ,,in ,,ionia ,it is now time to turn1 by way of supplementing our account of ,ionic pottery1 to the history of the art of painting in general among these peoples1 so far as it is illustrated by literary records and by existing monuments other than the vases4 ,that the latter do afford us considerable information on the subject of painting in ,ionia is amply shown in the foregoing pages2 but there is yet another group of monuments which the material of which they are made would alone entitle to inclusion in this work1 apart from the valuable illustration they afford of certain aspects of ,ionic pottery4 ,in the light of modern researches1 we are prepared to find in ,ionia a great centre for the art of painting in the archaic period4 ,that this region inherited the characteristics of ,mycenaean art has already been so abundantly shown that we need not hesitate to believe that1 among other branches of art1 that of fresco-painting was firmly established in the ,asiatic colonies4 ,the art of which ,crete1 ,mycenae1 and ,tiryns have furnished such remarkable examples is hardly likely to have died out4 ,hence it need excite no surprise when we read that as early as about #gjj ,b4,c4 ,kandaules1 the king of ,lydia1 purchased for its weight in gold a picture painted by ,bularchos representing a battle of the ,magnetes4#aagf ,that such an elaborate subject should have been treated at this early date1 when the vase-painter had not emerged from his earliest limitations1 is1 if we may accept ,pliny's account1 a most remarkable proof of advanced art4 ,saurias of ,samos is also mentioned as an early painter1#aagg who 8invented silhouette drawing10 and ,philokles the ,egyptian1 who 8invented linear drawing10 was probably a ,naucratite1 and his 8inventions0 may be reflected in the outlined paintings on white ground which have been described above4 ,lastly1 we read that about #eae ,b4,c4 ,mandrokles of ,samos painted a picture which represented ,dareios watching his army crossing the ,bosphoros1#aagh and ,kalliphon of ,samos1 probably a contemporary1 painted scenes from the story of ,troy4#aagi ,combining these traditions with what we also know of ,ionic painting from the pottery1 we should expect to find that its characteristic form was that of figures in black silhouette or outline on a ground covered with white slip2 and1 further1 that the subjects treated were by no means of an elementary character1 but comprised elaborate battle-scenes or groups of warriors1 and even historical themes4 ,now1 these conditions are exactly fulfilled in the group of terracotta sarcophagi excavated during the last twenty years at or in the neighbourhood of ,clazomenae1 on the ,gulf of ,smyrna4 ,it is practically certain that all have come from this district1#aahj and no attempt has ever been made to connect them with any other site4 ,further1 we have already seen that there are reasons for attributing some of the vase-fabrics to this place1 or at least for connecting them closely with the sarcophagi2 and thus there are good grounds for regarding ,clazomenae as one of the principal centres of ,ionian art4 ,the sarcophagi which have come to light up to the present number over twenty1 inclusive of fragments1 but very few are anything like complete4 ,there are fine specimens at ,berlin1 ,paris1 ,vienna1 and ,constantinople1 with paintings round the flat rims2 but all are overshadowed by the magnificent example recently acquired by the ,british ,museum1#aaha which is absolutely complete1 with a massive gabled cover1 and decorated over almost every inch of its surface with subjects or ornamental patterns4 ,its dimensions are3 body1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #c ft4 #i in4 by #b ft4 #i in42 cover1 #h ft4 by #d ft4 by #b ft4 ,the only undecorated portions are the central panels on the sides of the coffin and the bottom1 but in some other parts the designs are largely worn away4 ,it is made of a coarse brick-like clay of very hard consistency1 which is completely covered1 except on the bottom1 with a thick white slip to receive the paintings4 ,the figures are painted throughout in black silhouette1 without any method of reproducing inner details except by traits rservs1 i4e4 by leaving them unpainted on the white ground2 but the greater part has been imperfectly fired1 so that the black has become bright red4 ,on the long sides of the interior are representations of funeral games1 such as contests with spears and a chariot-race2 the shorter sides have groups of warriors on horseback and on foot4 ,the chariot-races are also repeated along the flat rim of the coffin1 the exterior and the space above the interior designs being ornamented with bands of egg-and-dart moulding and the typical ,ionic pattern of maeander interspersed with stars1 which we have already met with in the pottery 7p4 #cfj74 ,the main designs on the cover are in two rows1 those on one side having almost entirely disappeared2 on the complete side the upper band represents an episode from the story of ,dolon1 the lower an ordinary scene of combat4#aahb ,the gable-ends have groups of ,centaurs and horsemen1 and along the lower edges of the cover1 underneath1 are further scenes from the ,doloneia1 groups of ,sphinxes and ,sirens1 and bands of ornamental pattern 7rosettes1 maeander1 etc474 ,of the many minor details of interest in these paintings this is not the place to speak2 but they have been fully discussed by ,murray 7op4 cit471 especially peculiarities of armour and costume4 ,it is possible that the battle-scenes on this and other sarcophagi may1 as ,murray and ,s4 ,reinach#aahc have suggested1 have some bearing on the question of the painting by ,bularchos already mentioned4 ,it would1 at all events1 help to explain the selling of the painting for its weight in gold1 if we may regard it as painted on terracotta2 but it is not safe to say more than that the sarcophagi confirm the story to the extent of showing the popularity of such subjects in early ,ionian art4 ,many of the motives on the ,british ,museum sarcophagus are found repeated again and again throughout the series1 especially the battle-scenes2 groups 8heraldically0 composed1 such as a warrior between two chariots or horsemen1 or pairs of ,sphinxes 7,plate ,,xxvii471 or animals confronted1 are of constant occurrence4 ,there are also various minor motives constantly repeated1 such as helmeted heads of warriors 7,plate ,,xxvii471#aahd pairs of horses1 one looking up1 the other down 7this being a convenient position for silhouettes71 or dogs running under the horses4 ,m4 ,joubin1#aahe considering the group of sarcophagi as a whole1 recognises a triple development in form1 technique1 and decoration1 enabling him to divide them into three classes4 ,in regard to technique we observe throughout a remarkable combination of two methods1 the details of figures being expressed either by outlining or by leaving in the colour of the clay1 as in the earlier ,rhodian and ,naucratite vases 7see p4 #cca ff471 or by lines of white paint laid on the black4 ,the latter method1 which is not unknown on the vases 7see p4 #cdg71 was no doubt used in place of incising1 which would have been a difficult matter in the hard clay4#aahf ,in the oldest group1 then1 the usual method is that of outlining or 8reserving0 on the clay2 the second group may be regarded as transitional#aahg2 and in the third group1 which in style answers to the ,caeretan hydriae and later ,ionic fabrics1 the use of white for details1 and even of purple1 is general4 ,but it is noteworthy that1 for the groups of animals at the bases of the sarcophagi or elsewhere1 the old 8,rhodian0 method of the earlier examples is retained4 ,this1 it may be remarked1 is in accordance with a principle by which an older technique tends to survive in subordinate decoration1 just as on ,r4,f4 vases friezes of animals or ornamental patterns are frequently painted in the old black-on-red method4#aahh ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxvii ,illustration3 ,,sarcophagus ,,from ,,clazomenae 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,in the decoration the development is in the direction of scenes with human figures1 in preference to friezes of animals and floral patterns2 the compositions advance from single figures to large groups1 and accessory figures are introduced1 like the dogs under the horses4 ,finally1 we have the long friezes of figures which are so characteristic1 for instance1 of the ,british ,museum sarcophagus4 ,mythological scenes1 except the ,doloneia1 are conspicuously absent2 battles1 chariot-races1 and hunting-scenes have the preference1 as well as the heraldic groups of animals4 ,nor is the development confined to the main decoration2 it may be traced both in the form of the sarcophagi and in the subordinate ornamentation4#aahi ,the older examples approach more to the human form1 with a shouldered opening at the top indicating the place for the head2 but towards the end of the series the rectangular form predominates--the opening enlarges1 and the upper edge projects over the lower4 ,the ,british ,museum example and one in ,constantinople#aaij are very elaborate1 with mouldings and carefully-considered architectural proportions4 ,the origin of the form is doubtless to be traced to the ,egyptian mummy-cases1 or perhaps to ,chaldaean sarcophagi2 but the ,cretan cinerary urns 7p4 #ade7 are also on the same plan1 and may have formed an intermediary link4 ,in point of date the sarcophagi seem to extend over the greater part of the sixth century4 ,we have seen that some present the same characteristics of painting as the earlier ,rhodian and ,naucratite fabrics2 others fall more into line with the ,caeretan hydriae and ,ionic ,b4,f4 pottery4 ,in any case the sarcophagi form our best standard for determining the sequence and relation of the ,ionic fabrics1 and at the same time furnish an argument for regarding ,clazomenae as one of the principal centres of ,ionic pottery4 ,m4 ,reinach is of opinion that none are later than about #edj ,b4,c41 at which time the people of ,clazomenae1 menaced by the invading power of ,persia1 migrated to the neighbouring islands4 ,but one or two instances of advanced technique seem to point to a later date4 ,the list of ,clazomenae sarcophagi as at present known is as follows#aaia3-- ,reinach's ,joubin's ,list4 ,list4 #a4 ,brit4 ,mus4 7#ahie7 -- -- ,terracotta ,sarcophagi1 pls4 #a-g4 #b4 ,brit4 ,mus4 7#aijj7 -- -- -- #c4 ,brit4 ,mus4 7#aijb7 -- -- ,plate ,,xxvii4 of this work4 #d4 ,brit4 ,mus4 #g #ab ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 pl4 #df1 #d ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 pl4 #ca4 #e4 ,brit4 ,mus4 #h #ac ,ibid4 pl4 #df1 #c ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 p4 #bj1 fig4 #ae4 #f4 ,brit4 ,mus4 #i #ac ,ibid4 pl4 #df1 #e ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 p4 #ai1 fig4 #ad4 #g4 ,louvre #aj #aa ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell41 #ahij1 pl4 #f4 #h4 ,louvre #aa #c ,ibid41 #ahib1 p4 #bdj4 #i4 ,louvre #ab #a ,ibid41 #ahie1 pls4 #a-b1 p4 #ga4 #aj4 ,louvre #ac #b ,ibid41 #ahie1 p4 #hj4 #aa4 ,berlin #a #h ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 pl4 #dd4 #ab4 ,berlin #b #i ,ibid4 pl4 #df1 #b4 #ac4 ,vienna #ae #aj ,ibid4 pl4 #de4 #ad4 ,smyrna #ad #ad ,ibid4 pl4 #df1 #a4 #ae4 ,constantinople #c #g ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 xi4 pl4 #ec ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 p4 #h ff4 #af4 ,constantinople #d #d1 #e ,ibid4 pl4 #ed ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 p4 #b ff4 #ag4 ,constantinople #e -- ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhh1 p4 #afc4 #ah4 ,constantinople #f #f ,revue des tudes ,gr4 #ahie1 p4 #afa4 #ai4 8 #af -- ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 p4 #ae4 #bj4 8 #ag -- ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 p4 #bj4 #ba-c4 ,in the market #ah-bj -- ,see ,revue des tudes ,gr4 i4e4 ,to which may be added3-- #bd4 ,brit4 ,mus41 from -- -- ,terracotta ,sarcophagi1 pl4 ,kameiros #h4 ,we have seen in the course of this chapter the gradual evolution of ,ionic vase-painting1 from the time of lingering ,mycenaean influences down to the period when it ceased to have any existence as a separate style1 and having reached the same point of development as ,attic vase-painting1 was soon merged in the latter4 ,it is probable1 however1 that this was largely due to political circumstances1 which put an end to ,ionic art and industry generally about the close of the sixth century4 ,the conquest of ,ionia by ,harpagos in #ede ,b4,c4 was the event which led to this result1 and consequently to the dispersion of ,ionic artists1 partly into ,greece1 partly into ,italy4 ,the migration of the ,phocaeans in particular caused an influx of ,ionian culture into the semi-barbarous regions of ,italy1 and contributed to the production of the imitative vase-fabrics to which allusion has been made4 ,m4 ,pottier1 in summing up the rle played by ,ionian ,greece in the history of art1 regards it as the principal agent of transmission of culture between the ,east and ,europe1 and thus the true civiliser of ,europe1 influencing both ,doric ,greece and ,etruscan ,italy4 ,thus we may see in ,ionia the parent of modern civilisation4 ----- ,footnote #ajhb3 ,see ,m4 ,pottier's excellent rsum in his ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #dhf ff4 ,footnote #ajhc3 ,bronzefunde von ,olympia1 p4 #de3 cf4 ,olympia1 iv4 p4 #aji4 ,footnote #ajhd3 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahgi1 p4 #bjh3 cf4 ,athenaeus1 v4 #baj ,b1 and ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #dhg4 ,footnote #ajhe3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahij1 p4 #cgh4 ,the painting on a white slip marks an important development1 and a rupture with all previous styles 7ibid474 ,footnote #ajhf3 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #abi ff42 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahhc1 p4 #agi2 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 p4 #afa ff42 ,bhlau1 ,ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #gc ff4 ,footnote #ajhg3 ,bhlau1 p4 #eb ff4 ,footnote #ajhh3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 p4 #bbf4 ,footnote #ajhi3 ,rev4 ,arch4 xxv4 7#ahid71 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #ajij3 ,bhlau1 p4 #hf ff4 ,footnote #ajia3 ,pottier1 ii4 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #ajib3 ,bhlau1 i4e42 ,pottier and ,reinach1 ,ncropole de ,myrina1 p4 #eje4 ,footnote #ajic3 ,see above1 p4 #bed2 probably a ,cypriote fabric4 ,footnote #ajid3 ,drpfeld1 ,troja und ,ilion1 i4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #ajie3 ,stephani1 ,comptes-,rendus1 #ahgj-ga1 pl4 #d ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #ajif3 ,naukratis ,i41 ,,ii42 ,j4,h4,s4 x4 p4 #abf ff4 ,footnote #ajig3 ,see below1 p4 #cfb4 ,footnote #ajih3 ,for bibliographies of ,class ,,ii4 see below1 pp4 #cdd1 #cdi1 #ceh ff4 ,footnote #ajii3 ,see ,monuments ,piot1 i4 p4 #de4 ,footnote #aajj3 ,cf4 ,fig4 #id below2 ,j4,h4,s4 vi4 p4 #ahf1 viii4 pl4 #gi2 and ,monuments ,piot1 i4 pl4 #d4 ,footnote #aaja3 ,see ,pottier1 op4 cit4 p4 #ejc4 ,footnote #aajb3 ,see ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #aajc3 ,see generally ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 i4 p4 #abi ff4 ,a list of ,rhodian vases is given in ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahhc1 p4 #agi4 ,footnote #aajd3 ,for fragments found in ,cyprus see ,j4,h4,s4 xii4 p4 #adb2 ,b4,m4 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #ajd1 fig4 #aea4 ,footnote #aaje3 ,cf4 examples in ,cases #dc-d in the ,first ,vase ,room1 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,footnote #aajf3 ,see generally ,riegl1 ,stilfragen1 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #aajg3 ,il4 xvii4 #fj ff43 see ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,the vase is published by ,salzmann1 ,ncropole de ,camiros1 pl4 #ec2 ,baumeister1 i4 p4 #gcj1 fig4 #ghd4 ,footnote #aajh3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahia1 p4 #aah3 cf4 ,jahrbuch1 #ahia1 p4 #bfc1 and ,berl4 ,phil4 ,woch4 #ahie1 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #aaji3 ,the latest supporter of this view is ,bhlau 7,aus ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #gc ff474 ,footnote #aaaj3 ,bhlau1 op4 cit4 p4 #ec ff4 ,footnote #aaaa3 ,bhlau regards this pattern as 8,mycenaean10 on the ground that it does not follow the lines of the vase4 ,footnote #aaab3 ,cf4 ,furtwaengler and ,loeschcke1 pl4 #ba1 fig4 #ahh1 and ,mon4 ,antichi1 vi4 pl4 #aa1 figs4 #cj1 #cd4 ,footnote #aaac3 ,see ,bhlau's list1 op4 cit4 p4 #ec ff4 ,footnote #aaad3 i4e4 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #aaae3 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #ebd2 ,naukratis ,i4 p4 #ej2 ,bhlau1 i4e4 ,footnote #aaaf3 ,j4,h4,s4 vi4 p4 #ahf1 fig4 #c 7now in ,berlin74 ,cf4 ,fig4 #id on p4 #cdf4 ,footnote #aaag3 ,e #fei ,monuments ,piot1 i4 pl4 #d1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #aaah3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #he4 ,footnote #aaai3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #hi ff4 ,footnote #aabj3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahhd1 pl4 #g2 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #bgd4 ,footnote #aaba3 ,see examples in ,b4,m4 7,second ,vase ,room1 ,cases #bd-e74 ,the ,b4,m4 also possesses similar vases found in the ,troad4 ,footnote #aabb3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 p4 #bbc4 ,footnote #aabc3 ,j4,h4,s4 viii4 p4 #fh ff4 ,footnote #aabd3 ,stephani1 ,compte-,rendu1 #ahgj-ga1 pl4 #d1 p4 #agh2 ,reinach1 i4 #cd4 ,footnote #aabe3 ,bhlau1 ,aus ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #aabf3 ,kyrene 7#ahij71 p4 #ag ff4 ,footnote #aabg3 ,baumeister1 iii4 p4 #affd1 fig4 #agbh2 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 p4 #ha2 and see bibliography in ,de ,ridder's ,catalogue1 i4 p4 #ih4 ,it is a matter for much regret that no satisfactory publication of this vase has as yet been made4 ,the best is in ,babelon's ,cab4 des ,antiques de la ,bibl4 ,nat4 pl4 #ab4 ,footnote #aabh3 ,i4e4 4 ,footnote #aabi3 ,cf4 the ,amphiaraos krater 7p4 #cai74 ,footnote #aacj3 ,the list is as follows3 ,b4,m4 ,b #a-g2 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #ahi-ib2 ,louvre ,e #ffj-gb2 ,petersburg #ahc2 ,munich #gcg and #aafd2 ,vienna #adj2 two each in the ,vatican1 ,florence1 and ,wrzburg 7,nos4 #b1 #d1 #i1 #aj1 #ac1 #bf in ,dumont's list72 one in ,brussels 7,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahhg1 pl4 #ad72 ,anzeiger1 #ahih1 p4 #ahi 7,berlin72 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 pp4 #cja1 #cje1 ,nos4 #ag and #cb2 ,louvre ,e #ffg ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahic1 p4 #bch2 ,jahrbuch1 #aija1 pl4 #c1 p4 #ahi1 and see ibid4 pp4 #aia1 #aic2 ,bhlau1 ,aus ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #abe ff42 and a doubtful example in ,b4,m4 ,b #eh4 ,for an exhaustive bibliography of the subject1 see ,pottier in ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahic1 p4 #bbf4 ,footnote #aaca3 ,j4,h4,s4 x4 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #aacb3 ,other examples of ,naucratite wares have been found in ,rhodes 7,j4,h4,s4 loc4 cit471 ,cyprus 7,j4,h4,s4 xii4 p4 #adb71 and at ,athens on the ,acropolis 7,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhi1 p4 #cda74 ,footnote #aacc3 ,these fragments will be fully illustrated in colour in the forthcoming vol4 i4 of the ,b4,m4 ,catalogue of ,vases4 ,footnote #aacd3 ,cf4 ,a #gfc in ,b4,m4 ,naukratis ,,ii4 pl4 #e1 #a4 ,footnote #aace3 ,a #gfb4 ,other good examples are ,a #gfd1 #gij1 #gib4 ,footnote #aacf3 ,a #ihe ,j4,h4,s4 viii4 pl4 #gi4 ,footnote #aacg3 ,one ,melian2 ,b #ajbe and #ajbbi 7with ,corinthian inscriptions72 ,b #ajbac1 #ajbbg1 #ajbcb 7,daphniote71 etc4 ,footnote #aach3 ,see generally ,tanis ,,ii4 7,fourth ,mem4 ,egypt ,expl4 ,fund71 pp4 #dh ff41 #fa ff41 pls4 #be-ca2 ,jahrbuch1 #ahie1 p4 #ce ff4 and ,ant4 ,denkm4 ii4 pl4 #ba2 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 ii4 p4 #da2 ,endt1 ,ion4 ,vasenm4 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #aaci3 ii4 #cj1 #ajg4 ,footnote #aadj3 ii4 #aed4 ,footnote #aada3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahie1 p4 #ce ff42 ,endt1 ,ion4 ,vasenm4 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #aadb3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahih1 p4 #ea3 and cf4 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahib1 p4 #bef4 ,footnote #aadc3 ,b4,m4 ,b #ajd-f4 ,footnote #aadd3 ,cf4 for the crosses in the field the ,boeotian example given in ,fig4 #hf1 p4 #bhg4 ,footnote #aade3 ,b4,m4 ,b #ajg-ae4 ,footnote #aadf3 ,see ,bhlau1 ,aus ion4 u4 ital4 ,nekrop4 p4 #fe4 ,he derives this pattern through the medium of the 8,fikellura0 vases4 ,footnote #aadg3 ,b4,m4 ,b #aaf-be4 ,footnote #aadh3 ,this is also occasionally found at ,naukratis1 and appears on a fragment from ,mytilene in the ,british ,museum 7,b #ii7 of ,daphniote style4 ,footnote #aadi3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahig1 p4 #ee4 ,footnote #aaej3 ,see ,zahn in ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahih1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #aaea3 ,cf4 the ,xanthos reliefs1 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat4 of ,sculpt4 i4 ,no4 #hf4 ,footnote #aaeb3 ,see ,endt1 ,ion4 ,vasenm4 p4 #ag1 and cf4 coins of ,methymna4 ,footnote #aaec3 ,cf4 ,endt1 ,ion4 ,vasenm4 pp4 #e1 #ac ff41 who points out the similarity in subject and decoration1 as also in details of colouring1 armour1 etc41 with the other groups4 ,footnote #aaed3 ,revue des tudes ,grecques1 #ahie1 p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #aaee3 ,vienna #bag-ah2 ,louvre ,e #fif4 ,for list of subjects see ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahib1 p4 #bed4 ,footnote #aaef3 ,b4,m4 ,b #ajcad for instance4 ,footnote #aaeg3 ,cf4 ,louvre ,e #gci4 ,also found at ,daphnae as a shield-device 7,b4,m4 ,b #aaeb71 and on coins of ,clazomenae 7see ,endt1 p4 #bd74 ,footnote #aaeh3 ,cf4 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahib1 p4 #bei4 ,footnote #aaei3 ,rm4 ,mitth4 iii4 7#ahhh71 p4 #aei ff42 now in ,b4,m4 ,footnote #aafj3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #agb4 ,footnote #aafa3 ,it is found also on the sarcophagi 7cf4 ,terracotta ,sarcophagi in ,b4,m4 pls4 #a1 #b71 on the quasi-,ionic vase1 ,gerhard1 ,a4 ,v4 #bje1 and on ,b4,m4 ,b #cgi 7see below74 ,footnote #aafb3 ,cf4 for instance ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 xi4 #ec-d4 ,footnote #aafc3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahih1 pl4 #f1 p4 #ch ff4 ,footnote #aafd3 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,frontisp42 ,reinach1 ii4 #abd4 ,footnote #aafe3 ,cf4 especially ,berlin #baed 7,endt1 op4 cit4 pl4 #a1 figs4 #aa-ac7 and ,gerhard1 ,a4 ,v4 #aid ,reinach1 ii4 #ig4 ,they have been discussed by ,endt 7op4 cit4 pp4 #ba1 #bi71 by ,pottier in ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahic1 p4 #dbd ff41 and by ,karo in ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #adf ff4 ,footnote #aaff3 ,b4,m4 ,b #cgi-hb2 ,j4,h4,s4 v4 pls4 #dj-c4 ,footnote #aafg3 ,these have been recently collected and discussed by ,bhlau 7,ath4 ,mitth4 #aijj1 p4 #dj ff471 who notes a total of seventeen4 ,his list is certainly incomplete1 as some examples in the ,british ,museum might have been added4 ,see also ,furtwaengler1 ,gr4 ,vasenmalerei1 p4 #bbj1 who attributes the ,phineus cup to ,naxos4 ,footnote #aafh3 ,see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aijj1 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #aafi3 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 vi4-vii4 pl4 #gh3 see ,fig4 #aaa and ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #aagj3 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #bje1 #c-d ,reinach1 ii4 #aje3 see p4 #cbc4 ,footnote #aaga3 ,see on ,ionian inscribed vases1 ,endt1 ,ion4 ,vasenm4 p4 #ch2 ,bhlau1 loc4 cit4 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #aagb3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #cdh-eh1 #dci-ej4 ,footnote #aagc3 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 p4 #aga ff4 ,furtwaengler regards the whole class as ,south ,italian 7,antike ,gemmen1 iii4 p4 #hh72 ,pottier 7,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #ech7 wavers between ,kyme and ,italy4 ,footnote #aagd3 ,b4,m4 ,b #eg2 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #ahe3 cf4 ,b4,m4 ,b #eh1 which is difficult to classify4 ,footnote #aage3 ,a complete list of this group is given by ,endt 7p4 #ci ff471 and may be briefly recapitulated3--7#a7 ,amphorae3 ,b4,m4 ,b #eg2 ,cambridge #dc2 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #aga-gc2 ,berlin #afgc1 #afge2 ,munich #abc1 #aee2 ,vienna #baf and ,kaiserhaus #bgh2 ,wrzburg1 iii4 #gi-hj1 #hd2 four in ,rome 7see ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 pls4 #h-i72 others in ,brussels1 ,karlsruhe1 and ,orvieto4 7#b7 ,jugs3 ,b4,m4 ,b #ed-f2 ,bibl4 ,nat4 #agh2 ,munich #agc1 #agf1 #ajdg1 #abia2 ,wrzburg1 iii4 #cf and #dj2 others in ,karlsruhe1 ,florence1 and ,boulogne4 7#c7 ,ionic or ,italian allied fabrics3 ,berlin #afgg-gi and numerous others in ,munich and ,wrzburg1 enumerated and illustrated by ,endt1 p4 #ee ff4 figs4 #bg-dj3 cf4 also ,louvre ,e #gjc ,reinach1 ii4 #ib ,endt1 p4 #fe4 ,to his list must be added the vase on ,plate ,,xxv4 ,footnote #aagf3 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #ee4 ,footnote #aagg3 ,athenag4 ,leg4 pro ,christo1 #ag1 #bic4 ,footnote #aagh3 ,hdt4 iv4 #hh4 ,footnote #aagi3 ,paus4 v4 #ai1 #a1 x4 #bf1 #f4 ,footnote #aahj3 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a sarcophagus of the same type from ,kameiros in ,rhodes 7,murray1 ,terracotta ,sarcophagi1 pl4 #h74 ,footnote #aaha3 ,published by ,a4 ,s4 ,murray in ,terracotta ,sarcophagi in ,brit4 ,mus4 pls4 #a-g1 and in ,monuments ,piot1 iv4 p4 #bg ff4 ,footnote #aahb3 ,see ,murray's description and commentary1 op4 cit4 p4 #g ff41 and in ,monuments ,piot1 iv4 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #aahc3 ,revue des tudes ,grecques1 #ahie1 p4 #afa ff4 ,footnote #aahd3 ,cf4 the archaic ,rhodian vases in the form of helmeted heads 7e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,a #aaag1 #aaah1 #aaba2 ,pl4 ,,xlvi4 fig4 #a74 ,footnote #aahe3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahie1 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #aahf3 ,cf4 ,j4,h4,s4 vi4 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #aahg3 ,examples of the earliest are ,nos4 #i-ab1 #af-ah in list below2 of the second1 ,nos4 #h1 #ac1 #ae in list below4 ,footnote #aahh3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahib1 p4 #bdj ff4 ,footnote #aahi3 ,the principal decorative patterns are the guilloche or plait-band2 maeander1 often combined with stars1 as on the 8,pontic0 vases2 palmettes2 a bold egg-and-dart pattern of ,ionic type4 ,for an ,egyptian prototype of the maeander-and-star pattern1 cf4 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 i4 fig4 #eda4 ,footnote #aaij3 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 xi4 #ec ,no4 #ae below4 ,footnote #aaia3 ,the following bibliography may be useful3 ,j4,h4,s4 iv4 p4 #a ff42 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell41 #ahib1 p4 #bdj ff41 #ahie1 p4 #fi ff42 ,murray1 ,terracotta ,sarcophagi in ,brit4 ,mus4 p4 #a ff41 and id4 in ,monuments ,piot1 iv4 p4 #bg ff42 ,revue des tudes ,grecques1 #ahie1 p4 #afa ff4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,athenian ,,black-,,figured ,,vases ,definition of 8black-figured0--,the ,franois vase--,technical and stylistic details--,shapes--,decorative patterns--,subjects and types--,artists' signatures--,exekias and ,amasis--,minor ,artists--,nikosthenes--,andokides--8,af fected0 vases--,panathenaic amphorae--,vases from the ,kabeirion--,opaque painting on black ground--,vase-painting and literary tradition--,early ,greek painting and its subsequent development4 ,the term 8black-figured0 is generally applied to the ,athenian fabrics of a certain well-defined character and a comparatively restricted period1 but in point of fact is strictly applicable to several of the classes already discussed1 such as the ,chalcidian and the later ,corinthian and ,ionian wares4 ,it is1 indeed1 in some respects inadequate as a definition4 ,we must remember that it was originally introduced at a time when the ,greek vases in public museums consisted mainly of two classes--the one with figures painted in black silhouette on red ground1 the other with figures drawn in outline and surrounded with black1 so that they stand out in red4 ,between these two classes the terms 8black-figured0 and 8red-figured0 offered an obvious and useful distinction4 ,by way of illustration1 it may be advantageous to make a comparison between the two main varieties of black-figured ,attic amphorae 7see pp4 #afa1 #bba71 as1 for instance1 they are grouped on the two sides of the ,second ,vase ,room of the ,british ,museum1 and those with red figures in the ,third ,room4 ,in the one class of black-figured amphorae the whole vase stands out in the natural red colour of the clay1 whereas the red-figured amphorae are covered with black colour1 so as to conceal the whole of the red of the clay except where it is left to fill in the contours of the figures4 ,in other words1 the one class1 which we may term 8red-bodied0 amphorae1 are red all but the figures2 the other class are black all but the figures4 ,there is1 however1 an intermediate class1 which no doubt suggested the arrangement of decoration on the red-figured amphorae 7see below1 p4 #daa71 and which we may call 8black-bodied0 amphorae4 ,here the whole body of the vase is covered with black colour1 except a framed panel1 which is left in the red to receive the black figures4 ,it is clear1 then1 that this second class of black-figured amphorae approaches more nearly in aspect to the red-figured1 although it does not follow that they were necessarily a late or transitional development4 ,but in regard to our definition1 it is necessary to reckon with the fact that there are not only vases of an earlier stage of art which have black figures painted on a 7more or less7 red ground1 but that there are others in which the figures are painted not on red1 but on a white slip4 ,in particular we may instance the ,cyrenaic vases and some of the ,naucratite wares4 ,we thus lose the sense of an exact contrast between black figures on red ground and red figures on black2 and1 moreover1 the term acquires almost too wide a connotation to be of any value for a system of classification4 ,the term 8black-figured0 must therefore be used to some extent conventionally1 to denote a certain class of vases made at ,athens during a certain period and with certain characteristics4 ,the latter may be summarised as follows3 7#a7 black varnish entirely filling in the contours of the figures2 7#b7 red glaze 7or white slip7 employed as background2 7#c7 details indicated by accessory pigments of white and purple1 and incised lines2 7#d7 subjects almost exclusively human and mythological figures4 ,the history of vase-painting in the middle of the sixth century ,b4,c4 is largely the history of a gradual centralising of that art in one place from a number of scattered local fabrics4 ,this was mainly brought about by one cause--namely1 the extraordinary advance in art and culture at ,athens under the beneficent rule of the tyrant ,peisistratos and his successors 7#efe-eaj ,b4,c474 ,previous to this time ,athenian art was very limited in its scope1 and in the domain of painting had so far produced nothing except the great ,dipylon funeral vases1 their immediate successors 7the 8,proto-,attic0 wares71 and the 8,tyrrhenian0 vases1 which1 as we have seen1 were largely under the influence of ,corinth4 ,attic importations into ,italy cannot be traced until the black-figure style is well developed4 ,the immediate result of this advance was to attract artists from all parts of ,greece--not only from ,corinth1 whose power was now on the wane1 but also from ,ionia1 whose artists were driven to seek refuge elsewhere by the encroaching conquests of the ,persian monarchs4 ,thus we shall see that certain artists1 like ,amasis and ,nikosthenes1 infused a large amount of ,ionic element into their productions1 just as in others we see the influence1 more or less marked1 of ,corinth4 ,but one marked characteristic of the ,attic sixth-century vases is the entire disappearance of ,oriental influence4 ,at the head of the new development stands the famous ,franois vase in ,florence 7,plate ,,xxviii471 to which allusion has been made already 7p4 #gc74 ,its date can hardly be later than the middle of the sixth century1 probably somewhat earlier1 and the two artists ,klitias and ,ergotimos1 who were responsible for its production1 are among the earliest of whom we have any record at ,athens4 ,the alphabet of the inscriptions leaves no doubt that it is a purely ,athenian work1 and the technique is also purely ,attic1 as are some of the subjects2 but there are not a few small points which betray the influence of a ,corinthian artist1 such as the arrangement in several friezes4 ,the winged goddesses1 ,sphinxes1 and animals are non-,attic1 but not necessarily ,corinthian4 ,it is1 however1 chiefly interesting for its wealth of subjects1 which are mentioned in another chapter 7,chapter ,,xii472 with these every available space is decorated4 ,the style has been described as 8dry1 precise1 and careful10 the artist as 8exact and well instructed40 ,closely related to this vase is one in the ,british ,museum representing the ,birth of ,athena 7,b #adg74 ,although the subjects 7exclusive of those on the cover7 are only two in number1 the minuteness of treatment in detail and the richness of the composition show that it belongs to the same school4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxviii ,illustration ,from ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold4 ,,the ,,fran,,ois ,,vase ,,in ,,florence4 ------------------------------------ ,in regard to technique1 two points distinguish ,athenian vases at all periods above other fabrics4 ,firstly1 the admirable clay1 traditionally obtained from ,cape ,kolias in ,attica1 and mingled with red ochre 7rubrica7 in order to produce its ruddy hue2 this clay was eminently suited for taking a glaze1 which was of course an essential preliminary for painting the surface4 ,next1 the black varnish1 with its exquisitely lustrous sheen1 which was brought to a pitch of perfection in the subsequent period1 and always affords such an admirable counterfoil to the red of the clay1 though it has not been altogether popular with the modern photographer1 owing to its reflecting qualities4 ,as regards the figures1 they were seldom left entirely black1 though black is at all times their prevalent aspect4 ,the accessory whites and purples are used in varying degrees at different times1 and it may be laid down as a general rule that purple is more affected on the earlier vases1 white on the later4 ,a like principle obtains with the accessories on red-figured vases4 ,in the later examples1 moreover1 they are much more sparingly used1 perhaps owing to the influence of the new technique1 and by the end of the sixth century they disappear altogether4 ,the more careful artists pay greater attention to the use of incised lines1 and prefer to produce effects of richness and delicacy by elaboration of details and patterns in this manner4 ,at first there is a tendency to use purple in large masses1 and even for the flesh of men2 but it is generally employed for folds or portions of drapery1 and for throwing up different parts of animals' figures1 or of the decorative patterns1 such as palmettes and lotos-buds4 ,white is employed for the hair of old men1 for rocks and details of buildings1 for the long garment worn by charioteers1 and above all for the flesh of women4 ,the latter we have already seen 7p4 #cag7 to be an invention traditionally attributed to ,eumaros1 who probably lived about the middle of this century2 but whether it was first introduced at ,athens or ,corinth is uncertain4 ,throughout the period there is a steady advance in drawing1 but more in the direction of carefulness and refinement than in accuracy and truthfulness to nature2 that is to say1 that it always remains conventional4 ,we shall see later that1 even after the red-figured style came in1 a certain archaic stiffness still prevailed for a time1 both in the old and new methods4 ,on the other hand1 there is a degenerate class of black-figured vases1 found chiefly on ,greek sites1 in which the drawing is free almost to carelessness1 and it is clear that these illustrate the last efforts of the black-figured method in ,greece in the fifth century2 but the vases are all rough and hasty productions1 altogether devoid of merit or interest4 ,the treatment of drapery may generally be regarded as a fair indication of date4 ,the chiton is at first straight1 with rigid stripes or casual patches of purple2 then patterns are incised or painted in white2 the waist is usually very small1 and often bound tightly with a broad girdle4#aaib ,by degrees the lines indicating the folds of the skirt take an oblique direction1 as if to indicate motion1 while the himation or mantle--which is adopted in addition by the women to wear over the chiton--is made to fall in long formal folds with diagonal edges1 known as 4 ,it is curious that the more advanced style of drapery is usually found on the red-bodied amphorae1 the older types on the black-bodied4 ,in the hydriae1 which preserve the panel form of decoration throughout1 a progress is visible from the most rigid severity to comparative freedom4 ,the shapes most frequently employed by ,athenian potters are very limited in number--as1 for instance1 when compared with the ,corinthian and other earlier fabrics4 ,the really popular forms are limited to five3 the amphora1 hydria1 kylix1 oinochoe1 and lekythos4 ,besides these we find the krater 7usually with columnar handles71 the deinos1 the skyphos or kotyle 7with its variant the mastos71 the kyathos1 the pyxis1 and the pinax1 and occasionally also the alabastron2 but these are practically all4 ,some of these remain constant throughout1 but others in their form and system of decoration present interesting varieties of development4 ,in all cases there is an evident aim at improving upon the somewhat inartistic ,corinthian forms1 in the direction of grace1 lightness1 and architectonic symmetry4 ,the different types of ,attic amphora have been described elsewhere 7p4 #afj71 but may be briefly recapitulated here4 7#a7 ,the so-called ,tyrrhenian amphora1 found in the ,corintho-,attic and 8affected0 varieties1 with elliptical body 7,plates ,,xxiii41 ,,xxix474 7#b7 ,the panel-amphora1 with cylindrical handles4 7#c7 ,the panel-amphora1 with broad grooved handles 7probably a later development7 7,plates ,,xxxi-,,ii474 7#d7 ,the red-bodied amphora1 distinguished by its straight neck sharply marked off from the shoulder 7,plate ,,xxix474 7#e7 ,the ,panathenaic amphora1 with small mouth and foot and widely swelling body 7,plates ,,xxxiii-,,iv474 7#f7 ,the prothesis-amphora1 a tall1 elongated type1 used in connection with funeral ceremonies 7see above1 p4 #aei74 7#g7 ,the ,nikosthenes type 7,plate ,,xxx474 ,the hydria1 oinochoe1 and krater almost universally adhere to the panel form of decoration1 but the lekythos is red-bodied4 ,in none of these is there much change visible1 except in the later hydriae1 some of which assume the curvilinear form of the ,r4,f4 8kalpis0 7see p4 #aff74 ,the evolution of the kylix is1 however1 of considerable interest1 especially in view of its subsequent importance4 ,before the sixth century this form was unknown at ,athens1 its nearest equivalent being the skyphos1 or deep two-handled bowl with low base4 ,but in course of time two forms of the kylix make their appearance1 one apparently earlier than the other1 and probably derived from a ,corinthian prototype4 ,at ,corinth the kylix took the form of a large shallow bowl1 with bulging outline and flat lip1 on a very low foot4 ,this type was also known in ,ionia1 as at ,samos and ,naukratis4 ,it was usually decorated with friezes1 internal or external1 sometimes with a ,gorgon's head in the centre4 ,the ,athenians adopted this form1 but raised it on a high stem1 proportionately reducing its diameter 7p4 #aij74 ,at the same time they greatly reduced the surface available for decoration1 either covering the whole with black varnish1 except a narrow red band on the exterior1 or else leaving the whole of the exterior red1 but confining the figures strictly to the upper part4 ,this became a very favourite fashion1 and in course of time a school of painters arose whose practice was either to paint a row of diminutive figures 7or even a single figure1 as ,fig4 #if7 on the upper band and sign their names below1 or else to leave the cup quite plain except for the signature on one side and a motto on the other1 such as 1 1 8,hail1 and drink deep60 ,these artists are known as the minor or miniature painters1 and among them are found the names of ,archikles and ,glaukytes1 ,eucheiros1 ,hermogenes1 ,tleson1 and ,xenokles4 ,at first they preferred not to decorate the interior1 but then a small medallion with a figure of an animal or monster1 such as a ,sphinx1 is introduced4 ,interior designs1 however1 were not at any time popular in this style4 ,the second type of kylix is purely ,ionic in origin 7see above1 p4 #ceg74 ,it is distinguished from the others by the absence of a lip1 by its low1 thick foot1 and by the greater width and shallowness of the bowl 7p4 #aia74 ,with a very slight modification it obtains throughout the red-figure period4 ,its form is clearly derived from the libation-bowl1 or phiale1 with the addition of foot and handles2 and it appears first in ,ionia in the large cups ornamented with eyes1 the best of which is the ,phineus cup in ,wrzburg 7see p4 #ceg74 ,the ,cyrenaic cup 7see p4 #cda7 seems to be half-way between the two types1 having a high stem and a very slight marking off of the lip4 ,the introduction of this form into ,attica was apparently due to ,exekias1 who belongs to the middle of the ,b4,f4 period1 and has left a very fine specimen1 decorated with the ,ionic eyes and a beautiful interior design of ,dionysos sailing over the sea 7see p4 #cha74 ,they are invariably red-bodied externally1 and1 in contradistinction to the other form1 decorated all over1 inside and out4 ,some of the larger varieties have an inner frieze surrounding the medallion#aaic2 but in many of the smaller examples the practice is to paint a ,gorgon's face in the interior1 leaving the rest black4 ,on the exterior1 not only are the ,ionic eyes generally to be seen1 but also the whole scene is filled in with a background of interlacing branches or foliage--a common characteristic of later ,b4,f4 vases1 and supposed to be also ,ionic in its origin4 ,from the shapes we pass to the decorative patterns on ,athenian vases1 which form a link with the important question of subjects4 ,as the methods of disposing the main designs became fixed1 so did the scheme of subsidiary decoration1 until it almost became stereotyped4 ,thus on the neck of an amphora there is always a pattern of double palmettes and lotos-buds 7see ,chapter ,,xvi471 round the foot always rays or pointed leaves shooting upwards4 ,the former seems to have been a ,corinthian1 or perhaps ,chalcidian1 invention2 the latter is ,ionic1 and is found as early as the ,rhodian vases4 ,on the shoulder of the red-bodied amphorae is a 8tongue0-pattern bordering the field of design above1 and below the field are rows of maeander-pattern and lotos-buds1 sometimes repeated4 ,the characteristic ornament of this class is1 however1 the arrangement of palmettes and lotos-buds under the handles1 which is often very delicate and artistically conceived4 ,a variation is found in the works of ,exekias1 who replaces it by an elaborate system of spirals--a pattern which1 as we have seen1 descended from ,mycenaean art1 by way of the ,melian amphorae1 to ,athens4 ,in the panel-amphorae the only ornaments besides those of the neck and foot are those bordering the panels1 usually along the top only1 and1 in the case of those with large flanged handles1 on that part of the vase also4 ,in the former case a band of lotos-buds1 sometimes alternating with palmettes1 is most commonly found2 in the latter1 rows of ivy-leaves or rosettes occur on the sides of the handles1 and a palmette at the point of junction with the vase4#aaid ,in the hydriae the ornamentation consists of rays round the foot1 with tongue-pattern on the top of the shoulder and round the handles2 to this are added bands of ornament down the sides and along the bottom of the panel on the body4 ,for the sides the favourite pattern is an ivy-wreath2 but network is also used1 and1 on the inferior varieties1 plain dots4 ,along the bottom the favourite device is a scroll of palmettes1 often very artistic in character1 the place of which is sometimes taken by a frieze of animals4 ,the same decorative principles are seen in the other shapes1 but in a more limited degree4 ,the ornament on a kylix is almost confined to palmettes springing from each side of the handles2 but the interior designs are sometimes surrounded with tongue-pattern4 ,the panels on the oinochoae are often bordered with ivy1 network1 or dots1 as on the hydriae2 on the lekythos the ornament is confined to a row of lotos-buds or palmettes on the shoulder4 ,many vases of the ,b4,f4 period are decorated solely with these patterns2 but these are usually small and insignificant specimens1 with a band of palmettes or other pattern carelessly painted1 perhaps used for the tomb by those who could not afford more elaborate specimens4 ,in the tombs of ,rhodes and ,cyprus small amphorae and lekythi are often found1 the bodies of which are covered with a plain network pattern in black on a red or white ground4#aaie ,others1 again1 seem to have been executed with great care1 and there is a beautiful example from ,vulci in the ,british ,museum--a jug with a frieze of palmettes and scrolls on a white ground 7,b #fcb74 ,to treat of the subjects depicted on ,athenian black-figured vases within a reasonable compass is not only well-nigh impossible1 but unnecessary1 since it would practically be to traverse the ground covered in another part of this work4 ,there are1 however1 some general considerations which must not be passed over4 ,while we bear in mind that they are as comprehensive in their character as those on any other class of ,greek vases1 it may not be amiss to point out in what respects they vary1 for instance1 from the red-figured ,athenian vases or from those of the decadence4 ,the main point of difference is that in ,b4,f4 vases the mythological element on the whole predominates1 whereas in the later periods it is fully counterbalanced1 if not outweighed1 by the preponderance of subjects from daily life4 ,the ,attic ephebos has not yet attained to the height of popularity which he reaches on the red-figure kylikes of ,euphronios and ,duris1 and the softer side of ,greek life1 the life of the women's quarters1 or the sentimental scenes of courting which begin to prevail towards the end of the fifth century1 are the products of a later development of social conditions4 ,religion1 it is true1 does not maintain on the vases the overwhelming importance that it does in other branches of art1 except in a few classes relating to certain cults2 nor has the cult of the dead as yet found general expression4 ,to what1 then1 do we owe the preference for scenes from heroic legend1 and the myths relating to the gods8 ,it is1 perhaps1 largely due to the extreme conventionality of ,greek art in the sixth century1 which embodies its conceptions in a series of fixed types1 which the artist repeats again and again from sheer inability to strike out a new line for himself4 ,but with the general and rapid advance of artistic conception and technical power at the beginning of the fifth century1 the change at once becomes apparent1--not1 be it noted1 with the beginning of the red-figure style1 which for a time preserves most of the characteristics of its predecessor2 but with the ripening of the powers of a ,euphronios and a ,brygos1 who paved the way for the greater freedom and variety of conception exhibited in the highest products of fifth-century vase-painting4 ,at the same time an ethical change is to be observed1 especially in the position now occupied by two deities who are entirely absent from the ,b4,f4 vases--the god of love 7,eros71 and the goddess of victory 7,nike74 ,to the popularising of these two conceptions is mainly due the preponderance of the sentimental and athletic elements of the subsequent age4 ,to return to the black-figured vases1 we must now devote a few words to the consideration of the feature to which allusion has just been made1 namely1 the conventionalised types and schemes of composition in which the various myths and other themes are portrayed4 ,roughly speaking1 they fall into three classes3 7#a7 subjects represented by one single and constant type#aaif2 7#b7 subjects represented by two or more distinct types#aaig2 7#c7 subjects which fall into two or more episodes1 each represented by a different type4#aaih ,the question of the origin of these types is a difficult one to answer4 ,they appear to have sprung1 like the fully-armed ,athena from the head of ,zeus1 in a matured form from the brain of the ,athenian artist4 ,it is1 however1 possible that the genius of some school of artists1 such as those who conceived the decoration of the chest of ,kypselos or the throne at ,amyklae1 may have influenced the vase-painters to a great extent4 ,we have already seen how closely the scenes on some later ,corinthian vases adhere to the description of ,kypselos' chest4 ,it is also a curious fact that the simpler form of a type is not necessarily the older4 ,some early types are of a quite complicated or elaborate nature2 and the only variation apparent in a particular type is that of the number of bystanders watching the event4 ,this1 again1 is due to an accidental cause--namely1 the surface available for the painter1 who1 perhaps unconsciously1 took the architectural sculptures of a temple for his model1 and where his space resembled that of a metope 7as in the panel-vases7 reduced the number of his figures to a minimum1 or where it took the form of a frieze filled in the space with a convenient number of spectators1 the original 8type0 being preserved as a constant quantity in either case4 ,a question which has always presented great difficulties to students of vase-paintings is one that to a certain degree arises at all periods1 but more especially in the one under discussion--namely1 the difficulty of deciding whether certain subjects have a mythological meaning or not4 ,the difficulty is1 of course1 in the first instance1 due to the type-system4 ,if the artist wished to depict a marriage procession in daily life1 he instinctively had recourse to a familiar scheme for the purpose--namely1 the 8chariot-procession0 type consecrated to the marriage of ,zeus and ,hera and similar ,olympian triumphs4 ,or1 again1 scenes of warriors departing to battle or engaged in the fray would naturally be copied from such familiar types as that of ,hector parting from his wife and child1 or the fight of ,achilles and ,memnon over the body of ,antilochos4 ,even inscriptions do not lend the aid that might be expected1 as in some cases they are wrongly applied1 or the names convey no meaning 7as on the ,corinthian vases1 see pp4 #cae1 #cah72 and it is probable that in many cases the intention was just to produce a sort of parable or idealised picture of events of ordinary life1 in order to give more interest to a theme4#aaii ,much of the interest of ,athenian vases is derived from the inscriptions found upon them4 ,these1 which will be more fully dealt with elsewhere 7,chapter ,,xvii471 fall into three main classes--artists' signatures1 names with 1 and descriptive names referring to the designs4 ,on the last-named head no more need now be said2 the second is more appropriately dealt with in the next chapter#abjj--;although not a few -names are found on ,b4,f4 vases2 and it only remains therefore to treat of the artists whose signatures have come down to us4#abja ,we have already met with a few signed vases1 among those of ,corinth and ,boeotia1 of which the earliest go back to the beginning of the seventh century4 ,those of undoubtedly ,attic origin fall into three or four main groups1 the representative names in which may here be given4#abjb 7#a7 ,early artists3 ,klitias and ,ergotimos1 ,taleides1 ,sophilos1 ,oikopheles4 7#b7 ,middle period3 ,amasis1 ,exekias1 ,kolchos1 ,nearchos1 ,timagoras1 ,tychios4 7#c7 ,minor artists1 who painted kylikes almost exclusively3 ,archikles1 ,eucheiros1 ,glaukytes1 ,hermogenes1 ,phrynos1 ,tleson1 ,xenokles1 ,sakonides4 7#d7 ,later artists1 combining ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 methods1 or painting in transitional style3 ,andokides1 ,charinos1 ,nikosthenes1 ,pamphaios1 ,hischylos and ,epiktetos1 ,pasiades4 ,kittos1 who painted in black figures a ,panathenaic amphora of the later class 7see p4 #cia71 belongs to the middle of the fourth century4 ,most of these artists use the formula 1#abjc implying that the same man both made and painted the vase2 but ,exekias in two cases 7see below7 says 4 ,the ,franois vase1 as we have seen1 records the names both of painter and artist4 ,some of these painters give the name of their father1 and thus we learn that ,eucheiros 7,class #c7 was the son of ,ergotimos 7,class #a71 ,tleson 7,class #c7 the son of ,nearchos 7,class #b74 ,the names ,andokides and ,nearchos are found among the dedications on the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,we now proceed to speak of these artists in detail4 ,in ,class #a ,sophilos appears as the maker of a vase of which fragments were found on the ,athenian ,acropolis4#abjd ,in style it closely resembles the ,franois vase1 and its subject also appears to have been akin--the marriage of ,peleus and ,thetis--to judge from the figures of ,horae still visible4 ,taleides1 whose work is of early character1 painted an amphora representing ,theseus slaying the ,minotaur and two men weighing goods in a balance4#abje ,ergotimos1 besides the ,franois vase1 signed a kylix found in ,aegina1 and now in ,berlin1#abjf with interior and exterior subjects4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxix ,illustration3 ,,attic ,,black-,,figured ,,amphorae 7,,british ,,museum74 #a4 ,,in ,,style ,,of ,,exekias2 #b4 ,,in 8,,affected0 ,,style4 ------------------------------------ ,in the next group are two very interesting names1 those of ,amasis and ,exekias1 and both demand special attention1 the latter for the excellence of his work1 the former as connected with a special branch of ,attic ,b4,f4 vases1 which must be treated by themselves4 ,the vases of ,exekias include four amphorae1 four cups 7see ,fig4 #if71 and two fragments1 together with a few unsigned vases which for various reasons may be attributed to him4#abjg ,the finest of his works is an amphora in the ,vatican1#abjh on one side of which are ,ajax and ,achilles playing draughts1 the one calling out 8four60 the other 8three60#abji ,on the reverse are the ,dioskuri1 with ,tyndareus and ,leda4 ,besides the signature in iambic form #bidjj ' 1 the vase is inscribed with the -name ,onetorides4 ,the others are in the ,british ,museum 7,b #baj71 the ,louvre 7,f #ec71 and ,berlin 7#agbj7 respectively1 and are all painted with mythological subjects4 ,a fragment of a deinos#abaj is interesting1 as having1 besides the signature1 an iambic line in the alphabet of ,sikyon 7see ,chapter ,,xvii474 ,among the four cups1 one in ,munich 7#cci7 is a masterpiece of its kind4 ,it is of the later form of ,b4,f4 kylix 7see p4 #cgd71 and represents on the inside ,dionysos in a ship which takes the form of a fish1 the mast and yard overgrown with the vine2 on the exterior are large eyes and groups of warriors4 ,the other three are of the earlier 8,kleinmeister0 type1 and two are merely signed1 without subject4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,,kylix ,,by ,,exekias3 8,,minor ,,artist0 ,,type4 ,exekias may be regarded as one of the most typical ,b4,f4 artists4 ,his subjects are mostly from the usual stock-in-trade of the time1 but distinguished above other examples by the care and accuracy displayed in every detail1 especially in the extraordinary delicacy and minuteness of the incising and the judicious but sparing use of accessory colour1 as also by the careful naming of the figures in almost all cases4 ,he stands midway between ,klitias of the ,franois vase and the transitional work of ,andokides and ,pamphaios1 and helps to carry on the tradition of minuteness and accuracy in detail characteristic of all these artists4 ,amasis is an artist of similar calibre and temperament4 ,his style is more individual than that of any ,b4,f4 artist1 and hence it is possible to attribute to him many vases which he has not signed4 ,it is marked1 like that of ,exekias1 by accuracy of drawing and careful and delicate work in details#abaa2 but his subjects are more monotonous and his figures much more rigid and conventional4 ,there is much in his vases which suggests a connection with ,ionia1 especially with the later fabrics discussed above 7p4 #cef72 and this point has been well brought out by ,karo4#abab ,we have seven signed vases from his hand1 of which no less than four are jugs of a characteristic form--a form not unknown in ,ionic fabrics1#abac but usually found among the later ,corinthian wares4 ,it is of the form known as olpe1 with the design in a panel1 on the right side of the handle only4 ,an example of his work is given in ,fig4 #ig4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,,perseus ,,slaying ,,medusa3 ,,from ,,an ,,olpe ,,by ,,amasis 7,,british ,,museum74 ,it has been thought by more than one writer that he must have been a foreigner4 ,the name1 of course1 suggests ,egypt1 and his ,ionic affinities would further suggest ,naukratis or ,daphnae as his home2 but he may well have come from ,asia ,minor4#abad ,his best-known work is the fine amphora in the ,bibliothque ,nationale at ,paris 7#bbb71 with a representation of ,athena and ,poseidon1 and among the olpae1 one in the ,british ,museum 7,b #dga71 with ,perseus slaying ,medusa 7,fig4 #ig71 and one in the ,louvre 7,f #cj71 with ,herakles' reception by the ,olympian deities4#abae ,of the other artists in this group1 ,nearchos is only represented by a fragmentary vase from the ,athenian ,acropolis#abaf2 ,timagoras was the artist of two fine hydriae in the ,louvre 7,f #ch-i71 one representing ,herakles wrestling with the fish-bodied ,triton2 ,tychios has also signed a hydria2 ,kolchos is only known from one vase1 but that a very fine jug with the combat of ,herakles and ,kyknos 7,berlin #agcb74 ,the design on the last-named is not1 as usual1 confined to a panel1 but is continued all round the body4 ,the list of 8,kleinmeister10 or minor artists1 is a long one1#abag but few individual names are of importance4 ,the most prolific is ,tleson1 whose name appears on no fewer than forty cups1 fourteen of which have no design1 but only the signature on either side4 ,others have a design in the interior only1 such as a ,sphinx or ,siren2 others1 again1 a figure of an animal--a cock1 hen1 or ram--on either side above the signature4 ,seventeen are ascribed to ,hermogenes1 nine with signature only1 and thirteen to ,xenokles1 of which eight have no design4 ,but that ,xenokles sometimes had larger aims is shown by two of the cups in the ,british ,museum and the ,deepdene collection1 as well as by an oinochoe which he made for the painter ,kleisophos to decorate4 ,the ,museum cup 7,b #dbe7 has on one side the three cosmic deities ,zeus1 ,poseidon1 and ,hades2 on the other a subject of four figures which may be interpreted as the return of ,persephone from ,hades4 ,the ,deepdene cup#abah has in the interior the procession of the goddesses to the ,judgment of ,paris1 and on the exterior ,herakles with ,kerberos and ,achilles' pursuit of ,troilos4 ,phrynos1 an artist of similar style1 has one cup 7,b4,m4 ,b #dbd7 with the ,birth of ,athena and the reception of ,herakles in ,olympos1 the figures being very diminutive1 as are those on the ,british ,museum ,xenokles cup4 ,eucheiros and ,sakonides#abai show a preference for a female bust painted in outline on either side of the cup1 as does also ,hermogenes4#abbj ,archikles and ,glaukytes are associated on a fine cup in ,munich 7#ccc71 which is remarkable for the number of figures each side1 the style being very minute and detailed4 ,on one side is ,theseus slaying the ,minotaur1 on the other the hunt of the ,calydonian boar1 appropriate figures being added each side to fill in the spaces at the ends of the friezes4 ,there are seventeen figures in the first scene1 and1 exclusive of animals1 nine in the latter4 ,a similar cup in the ,british ,museum 7,b #djj71 with continuous frieze1 representing a battle 7twenty fighters1 three chariots71 is signed by ,glaukytes alone4 ,other names are ,anakles1 ,charitaios1 ,ergoteles1 ,epitimos1 ,myspios1 ,neandros1 ,psoieas1 ,sokles1 ,sondros1 ,thrax1 and ,tlenpolemos4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxx ,illustration3 ,,vases ,,by ,,nikosthenes 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,in the fourth class we are introduced to a very interesting personality1 that of ,nikosthenes1 the most prolific of all ,greek vase-painters known to us1 and of the ,b4,f4 artists by far the most original4#abba ,he was1 however1 a potter rather than a painter1 and on many of his vases the designs are little more than decorative motives4 ,he favoured vases of metallic form1#abbb such as the phiale mesomphalos1 and invented a peculiar type of amphora1 also derived from a metallic origin1 with broad1 flat handles and slim body1 with moulded rings dividing the subjects 7see ,plate ,,xxx474 ,altogether1 seventy-eight examples with his signature are known1 of which forty-eight1 or nearly two-thirds1 are amphorae1 nineteen are cups1 four jugs1 and one a krater4 ,to these must be added two cups in mixed ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 technique1 one made for ,epiktetos1 and three kanthari in the ,r4,f4 method1 of which he was probably only the potter4 ,that he had affinities with the 8minor artists0 is shown by his making a cup with ,anakles1 as also by the style of some of his paintings#abbc2 while some of his cups have only the signature4 ,the amphorae are all very much alike1 with subjects of a simple character--,sphinxes and ,sirens1 combats of warriors or boxers1 ,satyrs and ,maenads dancing1 and ,herakles with the ,nemean lion1 a subject of which he seems to have been especially fond4 ,the large krater in the ,british ,museum 7,b #cfd7 is interesting as an early example of the form with volute handles1 and for the manner of its decoration1 with a narrow band of minute figures on the neck only4 ,in the ,louvre there are two elegant jugs representing the reception of ,herakles in ,olympos 7,f #aaf-ag71 the figures being painted on a white slip in the ,ionic manner4#abbd ,this point is important1 because it has been held by many writers that ,nikosthenes was of ,ionian origin1 and introduced the white-slip method at ,athens4 ,attempts have even been made to connect him with ,naukratis4 ,the jug figured on ,plate ,,xxx4 is similar to those in the ,louvre1 and is probably also ,nikosthenes' handiwork4#abbe ,whether this view can be maintained or not1 there is no doubt that towards the end of the sixth century the practice of using a white slip does appear at ,athens for vases with black figures1 and it is quite reasonable to associate its introduction with a versatile and original artist like ,nikosthenes4 ,but the consideration of this style of painting must be reserved for a later page 7p4 #dee74 ,pamphaios and ,epiktetos1 with their associates ,hischylos1 ,pheidippos1 and ,chelis1 must1 on the whole1 be regarded as belonging to the ,r4,f4 period1 the majority of their works being purely in that style2 they will therefore be considered under a subsequent heading4 ,but the case of the remaining name in our fourth class1 that of ,andokides1 is somewhat different4 ,among the signed examples we have from his hand only one is purely ,b4,f41 three are in mixed style1 and two are purely ,r4,f4 ,it is clear1 then1 that he represents1 better than any other artist1 the intermediate stage between the two styles1 more especially as a whole series of amphorae can be attributed to him in which the two are combined1 sometimes in what has been called 8bilingual0 fashion--that is to say1 that the design on both sides of the vase is identical1 except for the variation of technique4#abbf ,there are1 then1 six vases signed by ,andokides1 of which one is a kylix1 the rest amphorae with designs in panels and broad grooved handles4 ,the ,b4,f4 amphora represents a chariot seen from the front1 in very minute1 careful style4#abbg ,one of the 8mixed0 amphorae 7,louvre ,f #bjc7 has three ,amazons preparing for battle 7,b4,f471 and women in the bath1 one of whom is swimming1 another diving 7,r4,f47 #abbh2 the other1 a ,dionysiac ,b4,f4 scene1 and ,apollo1 ,artemis1 ,leto1 and ,ares on the ,r4,f4 side4 ,the 8mixed0 kylix#abbi is a remarkable example of the counterchanging principle1 the two halves of the exterior being exactly reversed in technique1 the dividing-line passing under the handles4#abcj ,of the two ,r4,f4 amphorae1 one in ,berlin represents the contest for the tripod and a pair of wrestlers2 the other1 in the ,louvre1 a combat and a musical contest4#abca ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxi ,illustration3 ,,amphora ,,in ,,style ,,of ,,andokides 7,,british ,,museum74 ,,obv43 ,,heroes ,,playing ,,draughts4 ------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxii ,illustration3 ,,amphora ,,in ,,style ,,of ,,andokides 7,,british ,,museum74 ,,rev43 ,,herakles ,,with ,,nemean ,,lion4 ------------------------------------ ,the characteristics of ,andokides' work are freedom of composition1 delicacy of drawing1#abcb and wealth of detail2 but he is always bound by conventionalities1 and his power of observation is stronger than his power of correct delineation4 ,furtwaengler thinks his combinations of ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 were deliberately chosen to show the superiority of the latter4#abcc ,his date may be placed about #ebe ,b4,c41 and it is probable that his name appears on a marble base found on the ,acropolis of ,athens4 ,he seems to have learnt his art either from ,exekias or ,amasis1 probably the latter4 ,scholars are generally agreed in attributing to him the series of 8bilingual0 amphorae already mentioned1 of which the most notable examples are one in ,munich 7#chh7 representing ,herakles banqueting1 and one in ,boston with ,herakles and a bull4#abcd ,even more probable is the attribution to his hand of some half-dozen amphorae of the type which he employed1 with different designs on either side1 but ,b4,f4 and ,r4,f4 respectively4 ,the most interesting of these is an amphora in the ,british ,museum 7,b #aic ,plates ,,xxxi4-,,ii471 with the typical ,b4,f4 representation of warriors playing with pessi on one side1 quite in the manner of ,exekias 7see above71 and on the other ,herakles with the ,nemean lion1 in which scene the painter has attempted a new departure4 ,the lion is already subdued1 and the hero carries it in triumph on his shoulder1 no doubt with a reminiscence of the ,erymanthian boar types 7see ,chapter ,,xiv474#abce 99 99 99 99 99 ,a curious group of ,b4,f4 vases found exclusively in ,italy1 and belonging apparently to the middle of the sixth century1 is marked by the extremes to which the mannerisms of the artists ,exekias and ,amasis are carried4 ,they are without exception amphorae1 and so similar in style that they must all have been produced by one workshop1 if not one hand4 ,in spite of the excellence of technique and careful drawing which they exhibit1 showing a really advanced stage of ,b4,f4 vase-painting1 they are lifeless and monotonous almost to grotesqueness4 ,karo1 in publishing the series1#abcf reckons forty-four in all1 and points out the various ,ionian peculiarities they present1 which mark them either as an offshoot of the school of ,amasis or a parallel development4 ,originally known as 8,tyrrhenian10 from the form of the amphora 7cf4 p4 #afj71 they are now generally spoken of as 8affected amphorae10 in allusion to their peculiar and mannered style4 ,an example is given on ,plate ,,xxix4 ,the subjects are all dull repetitions of certain 8types10 often without any apparent meaning1 the personages being usually warriors1 horsemen1 or ordinary draped figures1 young and old4 ,women are rarely seen2 subjects of a ,dionysiac character are occasionally found1 but mythological scenes never1 except that the 8type0 of the 8,birth of ,athena0 is borrowed1 copied1 and divested of all meaning by omitting the figure of the goddess and depriving the others of their attributes4#abcg ,in addition to this1 ,karo notes six prevailing motives3 7#a7 two men in animated discourse1 occurring about forty times2 7#b7 a warrior arming1 putting on a greave2 7#c7 a warrior conversing with another man1 with spectators2 7#d7 two warriors in combat2 7#e7 a young rider with second horse 7,troilos872 7#f7 a reception of a guest1 sometimes1 but rather doubtfully1 identified as ,ikarios receiving ,dionysos 7see ,chapter ,,xiv474 ,the complete absence of inscriptions is an ,ionic feature as are the ornamental patterns1 such as the tongue-pattern round the handles2 the fondness for winged figures also points in this direction4 ,the combination of good technique with feeble compositions points to a late and imitative stage1 and is contrary to the ,attic tendency to prefer new ideas and new subjects to a high standard of technique4 ,among other characteristic details we may note the tendency to give the human figures tapering extremities1 common to all archaic art1 but here greatly exaggerated2 also the elaborate ornamentation of the draperies with purple and white flowers or rosettes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,panathenaic amphorae1 of which some mention has already been made elsewhere 7pp4 #dh1 #acb71 form one of the most interesting groups of black-figured vases4#abch ,the ,panathenaic games1 which were celebrated in the third year of each ,olympiad1 were traditionally attributed to ,theseus1 but at any rate were reconstituted by ,peisistratos about #eff ,b4,c41 when rhapsodic contests were introduced4 ,to these musical contests with flute and lyre were added in #def by ,pericles4 ,the prizes were1 as we know from ,pindar1 painted amphorae containing olive oil1 and there is an interesting inscription#abci which gives the number assigned as prizes for each contest4 ,thus1 for the pentathlon1 the first prize was #dj amphorae1 the second #h2 for the chariot-race1 the first #ajd1 the second #dj2 for the foot-race1 the first #ej to #fj1 the second #aj to #ab4abdj ,that these vases were greatly valued and buried in tombs we know from the number found under such circumstances4 ,about #acj in all are in existence4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxiii ,illustration3 ,,panathenaic ,,amphora 7,,british ,,museum74 ,,earlier ,,type 7,,obv4 ,,and ,,rev474 ------------------------------------ ,the shape of the sixth-century amphora is peculiar1 but not exclusively used for this class#abda2 in height they vary from twenty-five inches to about eight inches4 ,towards the end of the century1 and during the fifth1 other forms were sometimes employed1 that of the red-bodied amphora and even the 8,nolan0 being found4 ,in the fourth century a great change took place1 the height being greatly increased and the body becoming proportionately slim2 the form exactly resembles that of the contemporary ,apulian sepulchral amphorae 7,fig4 #cj1 p4 #afb71 with the addition of a conical cover4 ,after the end of the fourth century they appear to have been made only of metal1 but that they continued to be made we know both from literature and monuments1 such as the ,athenian coins4 ,the designs are always in panels1 the obverse representing the goddess to whom the games were sacred1 in her character of ,athena ,promachos2 the reverse1 the contest in which the prize was won 7see ,plates ,,xxxiii4-,,iv474 ,athena is represented standing to the left1 with crested helmet1 spear raised aloft in right hand1 and shield on left arm1 adorned with an emblematic device2 her drapery is usually much ornamented4 ,except in the earliest examples there is a ,doric column on either side of her1 surmounted by a cock1 as the bird sacred to ,agon1 the god of athletic contests2 sometimes in place of it a ,sphinx1 ,siren1 panther1 or vase4 ,in the fourth century we sometimes find a figure of ,nike or ,triptolemos in his car surmounting the columns4 ,down the side of the left-hand column is usually placed the inscription 7always preserving an archaic form73 1 1 87a prize7 from the games at ,athens40 ,on the earliest known1 the ,burgon amphora 7,b4,m4 ,b #acj71 the word is added4 ,in the fourth century the inscription still reads down the side of the column1 but the letters are placed parallel to it1 not at right angles4 ,further1 in this period it often becomes customary to add on the right-hand side the name of the archon in whose year of office the games were held1 thus enabling us to date the vase exactly4#abdb ,of these1 some ten examples are known1 ranging from #cfg to #cac ,b4,c41 the list being as follows3-- ,polyzelos #cfg ,b4,c4 ,b4,m4 ,b #fjc ,found at ,teucheira1 ,cyrenaica ,themistokles #cdg 0 ,athens ,mus4 0 ,athens ,pythodelos #ccf 0 ,b4,m4 ,b #fjg and #fjh 0 ,cervetri ,nikokrates #ccc 0 ,b4,m4 ,b #fji 0 ,benghazi ,niketes #ccb 0 ,b4,m4 ,b #faj 0 ,capua ,euthykritos #cbh 0 ,b4,m4 ,b #faa 0 ,teucheira ,hegesias #cbd 0 ,louvre 0 ,benghazi ,kephisodoros #cbc 0 ,louvre 0 ,benghazi ,archippos #cba 0 ,louvre 0 ,benghazi ,theophrastos #cac 0 ,louvre 0 ,benghazi ,the contests represented include the pentathlon1 chariot-race1 foot-race1 armed foot-race1 torch-race1 tilting on horseback1 the 1 and musical contests 7see ,chapter ,,xv41 #d74 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxiv ,illustration3 ,,panathenaic ,,amphora 7,,british ,,museum74 ,,later ,,type 7,,obv4 ,,and ,,rev474 ------------------------------------ ,the black-figure method is preserved throughout1 in spite of the development in drawing1 that of the fourth-century vases being perfectly free4 ,in the latter there is a lavish use of white and purple for details1 especially on the figure of ,athena2 and ,nike1 when present at the contests1 is usually painted white2 but the tendency of later vases to neglect the reverse at the expense of the obverse in the matter of decoration is strongly manifested4 ,the figure of ,athena becomes greatly elongated1 until her head is actually painted on the neck of the vase1 and in all the vases after #ccf ,b4,c4 she is turned to the right instead of the left4 ,two signatures of artists are found--,sikelos in the fifth century1 ,kittos in the fourth4 ,there also exist some miniature fourth-century examples of these vases1 the purpose of which is not obvious2 on the reverse of one in the ,british ,museum is represented a runner in the torch-race4#abdc 99 99 99 99 99 ,a peculiar local development of the black-figure style is to be seen in the vases found on the site of the temple of the ,kabeiri1 near ,thebes1 in ,boeotia4 ,from the style of the painting1 which is free and careless1 they can hardly be earlier than the fifth century1 and may be later1 the old style being preserved1 as in the ,panathenaic amphorae1 for religious reasons4 ,the site was excavated in #ahhg-hh1 and yielded a large number of vases and fragments1 together with ,attic ,r4,f4 and plain black glazed wares4 ,of the local fabrics the majority are of a ,dionysiac character1 or have reference1 more or less direct1 to the cult of the ,kabeiri2 many bear dedicatory inscriptions to the presiding deities1 such as or 1 etc4 ,the material is a reddish-yellow clay of good quality1 on which the designs are painted in a pigment varying from yellow-brown to the deep lustrous black of the best ,attic vases4 ,occasionally details in white or purple are added2 incised lines are used only for inner markings as a rule4 ,the shapes are confined almost entirely to one1 a large deep bowl with two small ring-handles1 to which are attached projections for the support of the fingers2 it comes nearest to the pella described by ,athenaeus 7see p4 #ahf74 ,the decorative motives are simple--vine-wreaths1 ivy-wreaths1 myrtle and olive1 and the wave-pattern2 sometimes the reverse is only ornamented with a pattern of this kind4#abdd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,,vase ,,from ,,temple ,,of ,,kabeiri3 ,,parody ,,of ,,achilles ,,and ,,cheiron 7,,brit4 ,,mus4 ,b #gg74 ,the subjects are interesting from the fact that they are an early instance 7in vase-paintings7 of intentional caricatures or grotesques2 this is shown not only in the manner of treating the themes selected1 but in the rude character of the drawing4 ,among those drawn from myth and legend may be mentioned ,odysseus with ,kirke 7two instances7 and traversing the sea on a raft2 ,peleus bringing the young ,achilles to ,cheiron 7,fig4 #ih72 ,kephalos hunting a fox2 and ,bellerophon slaying the ,chimaera4 ,a favourite subject is that of ,pigmies in combat with cranes4 ,but the most interesting is one which represents the deity ,kabeiros 7answering to ,dionysos7 with his son 7,pais1 i4e4 ,iacchos7 at a banquet1 accompanied by three symbolical figures--,mitos1 ,pratolaos1 and ,krateia4 ,another fragment shows a train of worshippers approaching the ,kabeiros1 in the manner of the ,asklepios reliefs4#abde ,the transitional stage from black to red figures is illustrated by more than one class of vases4 ,those in which the two methods are united on one vase have been discussed elsewhere1 in considering the characteristics of the artists who used both4 ,but there is another class corresponding to neither method1 and yet partaking of the character of both1 in which the figures are painted in opaque red or white pigment laid directly on the surface of the vase1 which is covered throughout with black varnish 7,plate ,,xxxv474 ,inasmuch as the method of painting in colours is more suggestive of the ,b4,f4 vases1 they are classed therewith in some collections1 as in the ,british and ,athens ,museums2 but since their appearance and style link them more closely with the ,r4,f4 period1 they are found in others1 as at ,berlin1 ranged with the latter class4 ,in any case they form a distinct group1 in which the earlier examples correspond more with the ,b4,f41 the later with the ,r4,f41 vases4 ,they are undoubtedly of ,athenian origin1 but to what extent they affected the change from black to red figures is doubtful4 ,the practice of laying colours on the black varnish is1 of course1 one that was quite familiar to ,b4,f4 artists2 the analogous procedure in the ,r4,f4 period was the laying of black pigment on the red glaze1 as was necessarily done for details such as devices on shields4 ,the transition was therefore easy in the case of a vase covered with black varnish1 to painting the figures only in the opaque colours upon it1 thereby enlarging the scope of the process4 ,the incised lines in which the figure was necessarily sketched out before painting 7and which frequently occur in this class7 led the way to the process by which the ,r4,f4 artist engraved his design on the red clay before covering the rest of the vase with varnish4 ,in the case of female figures it is obvious that this method was already practised1 especially in scenes in which they appeared entirely nude1 and the whole figure was painted white over the black silhouette1 the black becoming the real accessory where it was required for the hair1 etc4#abdf ,dr4 ,six1 who has studied this class1 gives a list of about seventy examples1#abdg including one signed by ,nikosthenes 7,plate ,,xxxv41 fig4 #b ,f #aad in the ,louvre7 which has a figure of a woman painted in white each side1 the style1 be it noted1 being purely black-figured4 ,in later specimens the object seems to have been to imitate the appearance of the ,r4,f4 vases1 and to paint the figures in a similar but opaque red colour instead of white4#abdh ,other examples again have figures only incised on the black1 without any addition of colour4#abdi ,in some of the earlier ones the use of black as an accessory#abej shows that the painter1 so to speak1 8thought0 in the ,b4,f4 style1 but used white for black and vice versa4 ,most of the earlier examples have been found in ,greece or ,magna ,graecia2 they are usually of the lekythos form1 which is always rare in ,etruria4 ,the later group chiefly consists of small bowls 7phialae7 of very negligent style1 but some are of the typical ,r4,f4 forms1 such as the 8,nolan0 amphora and the stamnos4 ,a considerable number of fragments were found on the ,acropolis of ,athens1 showing that even these late imitative specimens1 in spite of their rude1 careless execution1 cannot be placed later than #dhj ,b4,c4 ,one of the most interesting examples is a fragment found on the ,acropolis of ,athens1#abea with an owl within an olive-wreath2 it had been dedicated to ,athena by a potter whose name is now lost4 ,there is also a good series in the ,british ,museum 7,b #fha-gjj71 including a lekythos with ,odysseus carried under the ram1 painted in polychrome4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before embarking upon the history of the red-figured vases it may be well to endeavour to see what light the vase-paintings up to this point throw on the literary traditions preserved for us1 chiefly by ,pliny1 in regard to early painting4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no subject which that writer has treated with greater vagueness2 and we are forced to the conclusion that he really knew nothing about it1 and did not comprehend the meaning of the earlier writers from whom he borrowed4#abeb ,still1 it may fairly be supposed that the names he mentions are those of real persons1 even if his account of their achievements is vague or imaginary4 ,there are also a few stray items of information given by ,aristotle1 ,aelian1 ,strabo1 and ,athenagoras4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxv ,illustration3 ,,vases ,,with ,,opaque ,,designs ,,on ,,black ,,ground4 #a4 ,,brit4 ,,mus42 #b4 ,,by ,,nikosthenes1 ,,in ,,louvre4 ------------------------------------ ,pliny#abec begins by attributing to ,corinth or ,sikyon the discovery of the possibility of producing figures by outlining shadows1 as in the story of ,butades 7p4 #aaj74 ,the next stage1 he says1 was to fill in the outlines with single colours1 or monochrome4 ,he next states that ,philokles1 an ,egyptian1#abed and ,kleanthes of ,corinth 8invented linear painting10 and that they were followed by ,aridikes of ,corinth and ,telephanes of ,sikyon1 who1 still without using any colours1 introduced inner markings and details1#abee and inscribed names over their figures4 ,ekphantos of ,corinth introduced the use of a red wash1 employing a pigment made from pounded pottery 7testa trita71#abef which may represent the purple so lavishly employed on ,corinthian vases4 ,a later development was that of monochrome painting--i4e4 the use of a single flat body-colour--introduced by ,hygiainon1 ,deinias1 and ,charmadas4 ,aristotle1 on the other hand1 speaks of ,eucheiros of ,corinth as the 8inventor of painting40 ,the name reminds us of the tradition of ,demaratos1 who took with him from ,corinth to ,etruria a craftsman of that name4 ,it is also interesting to note that the name is borne by an ,athenian kylix-painter 7see above1 p4 #chd71 the son of ,ergotimos1 who made the ,franois vase4 ,possibly he may have been the grandson of the ,corinthian artist4 ,strabo 7viii4 #cdc7 and ,athenaeus 7viii4 #cdf ,c7 mention a picture by ,kleanthes 7see above7 which represented the ,birth of ,athena1#abeg and can hardly have been later than the seventh century--a period to which such evidence as we have would allot the series of artists already named4 ,it must be borne in mind that the names of these early artists are those of draughtsmen1 not of painters4 ,even in the time of ,polygnotos drawing was the chief aim of all artists--as the red-figured vases amply testify--and painting1 as we regard the art1 only came into existence after the middle of the fifth century4 ,the development from liniarem1 or 8outline-drawing10 to monochrome at first sight presents a difficulty1 as it seems to be opposed to the evolution of vase-painting1 which is from silhouette 7as in the ,dipylon ware7 to outlines 7as in the ,ionic vases74 ,but even if it is not always intelligible1 we can still observe a distinct continuity in ,pliny's account4#abeh ,after ,ekphantos had introduced the filling-in of outlines with red washes1 and ,hygiainon and his confrres had continued painting with a single colour1#abei a step further was made by ,eumaros of ,athens1 who distinguished the sexes and 8introduced all kinds of new subjects40 ,here we may clearly discern the introduction of white in the later ,corinthian and early ,attic wares for female figures1 and the growth of mythological and genre subjects on the vases of the time4#abfj ,his innovations of technique and subject may therefore be fairly regarded as coincident with the great advance in vase-painting made at ,athens under ,peisistratos and reacting upon ,corinth4 ,it is interesting to note that the name of ,eumaros occurs on a marble base found on the ,acropolis at ,athens2 and if this can be the painter1 his date would be fixed about #eij-egj ,b4,c4#abfa ,in any case one thing is certain--that painting had not yet developed into anything like a high art4 ,it was still purely decorative1 and the few early paintings of which we hear1 such as those of ,bularchos 7p4 #cfa7 and ,kleanthes1 were not beyond the level of the ,clazomenae sarcophagi or the ,franois vase in merit4 ,we probably gain the best idea of painting which was not merely decorative from the ,corinthian pinakes 7p4 #caf7 and the ,acropolis warrior-tablet1#abfb especially as they are painted on the white slip or 1 which we know to have been favoured by early ,greek painters4#abfc ,the relation of ,pliny's next artist1 ,kimon of ,kleonae1 and of his improvements to the work of the vase-painters1 has been much discussed by writers on the red-figured vases2 and they have not been by any means unanimous in their conclusions1 either as to the nature of his 8inventions0 or as to the time at which their influence made itself felt4 ,they are described by ,pliny in the following words3 8,cimon of ,cleonae improved upon the inventions of ,eumarus4 ,he invented catagrapha--that is1 oblique images--and varied positions of the features1 looking back or up or down4 ,he distinguished limbs from joints1 emphasised the veins1 and further reproduced folds and hollows in the drapery40#abfd ,the crux of this passage is of course the word catagrapha1 with ,pliny's ,latin equivalent1 obliquas imagines4 ,at first sight it would seem that the ,latin rendering of the word connected it with the rendering of the face in a new way1 i4e4 in three-quarter aspect instead of the old profile of the silhouettes4 ,but this was not introduced into vase-painting until quite a late period#abfe2 it is found1 for instance1 on the ,meidias vase about #ddj ,b4,c41 and is certainly not earlier than the time of ,euphronios1 whereas ,kimon appears to have lived about #edj-dij ,b4,c4#abff ,moreover1 there seems to be some antithesis between the imagines and voltus--i4e4 varios formare voltus is not an explanation of the imagines--and1 on the whole1 it seems more natural to take the first word as a general term for figures4 ,obliquas imagines1 then1 would obviously imply some kind of perspective1 which1 when applied to the human figure1 indicates foreshortening4 ,now1 this advance in drawing is first found in the earlier work of ,euphronios1 i4e4 about #ejj-dij ,b4,c41 though traces of it are to be seen in the later work of the ,epictetan cycle4 ,it will be noted in the next chapter that ,epiktetos and his contemporaries are still in the trammels of the old method4 ,many of these vases even exhibit traces of a decadent style1 with rough and carelessly drawn figures4 ,as ,hartwig has well pointed out1 the real division of style comes1 not before ,epiktetos1 but between him and ,euphronios4 ,the ,epictetan cycle is transitional1 and a time of preparation1 firstly in the change of technique1 secondly in the evolution of cup-decoration1 thirdly in the discovery of new motives and extending the scope of subjects4 ,the new birth is seen in the form of increased naturalism1 and is parallel to the development of sculpture under ,pythagoras and ,myron1 who1 like ,kimon1 8gave prominence to sinews and veins40 ,we may therefore sum up with ,studniczka and ,hartwig by saying that the reforms of ,kimon1 which first manifest themselves in ,euphronios and his contemporaries about #ejj ,b4,c41 imply a new theoretical knowledge of linear perspective1 which in practice displays itself in a correct rendering of foreshortening4#abfg ,in minor details the same advance is at this time apparent1 in the treatment of the eye1 which now begins to be rendered with some approach to truth1 and in the accurate and detailed rendering of muscles and anatomy1 and of folds of drapery4 ,these are precisely the points in which ,pliny regards ,kimon as having so greatly advanced his art1 which1 as ,aelian tells us1 he 8helped out of leading-strings40#abfh ,the first painter in polychrome was ,panaenos1 who also introduced portraiture1 but must still be regarded as a draughtsman only2 and1 finally1 ,polygnotos1 by such innovations as giving expression to faces1 and rendering transparent draperies1 gave the first real advance to the art4 ,so far ,pliny on the beginnings of ,greek painting2 but its further developments1 and more particularly the relation of ,polygnotos to the fifth-century vase-paintings1 must be more fully dealt with in a succeeding section4 ----- ,footnote #aaib3 ,e4g4 ,b #acj in ,b4,m4 ,footnote #aaic3 ,b4,m4 ,b #dbf4 ,footnote #aaid3 ,e4g4 ,b #aic-bje in ,b4,m4 ,footnote #aaie3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #gf1 fig4 #aci4 ,footnote #aaif3 ,as the ,birth of ,athena1 ,b4,m4 ,vases1 ii4 p4 #aa1 and ,fig4 #aac 7,chapter ,,xii474 ,footnote #aaig3 ,herakles and the ,nemean ,lion1 ibid4 p4 #ac2 ,fig4 #abe 7,chapter ,,xiv47 and ,plate ,,xxxii4 ,footnote #aaih3 ,herakles and the ,erymanthian ,boar3 see ,fig4 #abf 7,chapter ,,xiv474 ,footnote #aaii3 ,see also on this subject ,chapter ,,xii4 init4 ,footnote #abjj3 ,general reference may here be made to ,klein's ,lieblingsinschriften1 #bnd edn4 ,footnote #abja3 ,see id41 ,meistersignaturen1 #bnd edn41 for full details4 ,footnote #abjb3 ,see also table at end of ,chapter ,,xvii41 and ,klein1 ,meistersig4#b p4 #cb ff4 ,the principal examples of signed vases are illustrated in the ,wiener ,vorlegebltter1 #ahhh-ia4 ,footnote #abjc3 ,a unique exception is the early ,attic potter ,oikopheles1 who uses the word 7,oxford #ahi ,ashmolean ,vases1 pl4 #bf74 ,footnote #abjd3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhi1 pl4 #a4 ,footnote #abje3 ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhi1 pl4 #e1 #a4 ,footnote #abjf3 ,reinach1 ii4 #abj4 ,footnote #abjg3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #baa 7,plate ,,xxix474 ,footnote #abjh3 ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhh1 pl4 #f1 fig4 #a4 ,footnote #abji3 ,cf4 ,ar4 ,ran4 #adjj3 ' 4 ,footnote #abaj3 ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhh1 pl4 #e1 fig4 #c4 ,footnote #abaa3 ,adamek ,unsignierte ,vasen des ,a41 p4 #ac ff47 notes the use of fringed draperies as especially characteristic of ,amasis4 ,by this means he is enabled to trace several other vases to his hand4 ,footnote #abab3 ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #abac3 ,cf4 ,a #aecb from ,naukratis in ,b4,m4 ,footnote #abad3 ,loeschcke and ,karo connect him with ,samos1 ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #abae3 ,see on ,amasis1 ,klein1 ,meisters4 p4 #dc2 ,adamek1 ,unsignierte ,vasen d4 ,a4 7,prager ,studien1 ,heft v472 ,karo1 in ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #ace ff42 ,loeschcke in ,pauly-,wissowa's ,lexikon1 s4v4 ,other vases signed by ,amasis are3 ,reinach1 i4 #cei1 #a and #dec1 #c2 ,boston ,mus4 ,report1 #aijc1 ,no4 #de 7fragment of cup with eyes72 ,wrzburg1 iii4 #chd2 and one mentioned in ,jahrbuch1 #ahif1 p4 #agh1 note #a4 ,unsigned vases attributed to him by ,adamek1 ,karo1 and other writers are ,b4,m4 ,b #ec1 ,b #aea1 ,b #aig2 ,louvre ,f #be1 ,f #bf1 ,f #bh1 ,f #cf2 ,berlin #afhh-ib1 #agca2 ,munich #ge and #ha2 ,adamek1 op4 cit4 pls4 #a1 #b 7,berlin72 ,mus4 ,greg4 ii4 #c2 ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 pl4 #e 7,wrzburg72 ,reinach1 i4 #eac1 #a-e 7,athens72 and two others mentioned ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #aci1 ,nos4 #aa1 #ab4 ,footnote #abaf3 ,wiener ,vorl4 #ahhh1 pl4 #d1 fig4 #b4 ,but see also ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahif1 pls4 #f-g1 p4 #cgb4 ,footnote #abag3 ,klein1 ,meistersig4 p4 #gb ff41 reckons seventeen1 to which number two or three must be added4 ,footnote #abah3 ,klein1 op4 cit4 p4 #ha1 ,no4 #ac4 ,footnote #abai3 ,for a recently-discovered kylix painted by ,sakonides1 with ,kaulos 787 as potter1 see ,notizie degli ,scavi1 #aijc1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #abbj3 ,see ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhe1 p4 #ahi ,footnote #abba3 ,most of his vases are illustrated in the ,wiener ,vorlegebltter for #ahij-ia4 ,footnote #abbb3 ,see ,loeschcke in ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahha1 p4 #ce4 ,he may have imitated ,etruscan bronze jugs1 which were now being imported4 ,the ,berlin vase 7,fig4 #acf1 ,chapter ,,xv47 seems to be an imitation of the early ,cyprio-,phoenician metal bowls 7ibid474 ,footnote #abbc3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #cfd4 ,footnote #abbd3 ,loeschcke 7,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahha1 p4 #cf7 has pointed out that these are the most archaic examples of the ,attic white-ground vases4 ,footnote #abbe3 ,fig4 #b on ,plate ,,xxxv4 is also his work4 ,footnote #abbf3 ,perhaps the nearest analogy is the 8counterchanging0 of heraldry4 ,footnote #abbg3 ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club ,cat4 #ahhh1 ,no4 #ajh2 #aijc1 ,no4 #ba1 p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #abbh3 ,see on the curious technique of this design ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahgi1 p4 #bij1 note #d4 ,footnote #abbi3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhi1 pl4 #d4 ,footnote #abcj3 ,note especially the treatment of the large eyes in either case4 ,footnote #abca3 ,see on all these vases ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahif1 p4 #a ff42 also ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 ,gr4 ,vasenm4 p4 #ae ff41 and ,jahreshefte1 #aijj1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #abcb3 ,on his technique see ,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 p4 #aeg1 and ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 op4 cit4 p4 #ai ff4 ,footnote #abcc3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #abcd3 ,a third example is given in ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahif1 pp4 #dj-da 7with warriors playing dice74 ,footnote #abce3 ,the other examples are ,munich #cgc1 #cge2 ,louvre ,f #bjd2 a vase in ,bologna 7,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahif1 pp4 #ah1 #ai72 and one in ,wrzburg4 ,footnote #abcf3 ,j4,h4,s4 xix4 p4 #adg ff4 ,see also ,b4,m4 ,b #adi-ec2 ,gsell1 ,fouilles de ,vulci1 pls4 #g-h1 p4 #ejb4 ,footnote #abcg3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #adi1 #aeg4 ,footnote #abch3 ,see generally ,c4 ,smith in ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 #ahif-ig1 p4 #ahg ff42 and for a bibliography1 ,urlichs1 ,beitrge1 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #abci3 ,inscr4 ,gr4 ii4 7,atticae7 pt4 #b1 ,no4 #ife4 ,footnote #abdj3 ,it is not likely that all of those given as prizes were painted4 ,on the other hand1 the number of the amphorae may denote the number of measures of oil given1 the painted vases being1 like modern silver cups1 symbolical and honorific 7,c4 ,smith1 loc4 cit474 ,footnote #abda3 ,see p4 #afj for a description4 ,footnote #abdb3 ,a fourth-century fragment at ,athens has the name of the agonothetes instead of the archon3 77 4 ,see ,brit4 ,school ,annual1 #ahif-ig1 pl4 #af 7b74 ,footnote #abdc3 ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 p4 #cjj4 ,footnote #abdd3 ,riegl1 ,stilfragen1 p4 #agf1 notes the absence of all the usual ,b4,f4 patterns4 ,the ivy-wreaths represent an old ,boeotian tradition4 ,footnote #abde3 ,see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhh1 pls4 #i-ab2 ,j4,h4,s4 xiii4 pl4 #d1 p4 #gg ff42 ,b4,m4 ,b #gg-h4 ,footnote #abdf3 ,six 7see next note7 quotes the ,berlin vase1 #ahdc l4 ,cr4 iv4 #ah1 in illustration of this4 ,footnote #abdg3 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahhh1 pp4 #aic ff41 #bha ff4 ,footnote #abdh3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #fia1 #gjj4 ,footnote #abdi3 ,cf4 ,mus4 ,ital4 ii4 pl4 #c ,de ,witte1 ,coll4 l',htel ,lambert1 pl4 #c4 ,footnote #abej3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,b #fic4 ,footnote #abea3 ,six1 op4 cit4 pl4 #bi1 fig4 #i4 ,footnote #abeb3 ,his chief source was ,xenokrates of ,sikyon1 about #bhj ,b4,c43 see ,jex-,blake and ,sellers1 ,pliny's ,chapters on ,greek ,art1 p4 xxviii2 ,mnzer in ,hermes1 xxx4 7#ahie71 p4 #dii ff42 id41 ,beitr4 zur ,quellenkritik der ,naturgeschichte des ,plinius 7#ahig74 ,footnote #abec3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #ae3 see ibid4 #ef4 ,footnote #abed3 ,probably an inhabitant of ,naukratis1 and connected with the ,ionian school of painting4 ,see ,smith1 ,dict4 ,antiqs4#c ii4 p4 #dja2 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #ehb4 ,footnote #abee3 ,as opposed to mere silhouettes1 e4g4 of the ,dipylon vases4 ,some writers take the words 7spargentes lineas intus7 to refer to ground-ornaments 7see above1 p4 #cab74 ,footnote #abef3 ,on the possible connection of ,ekphantos with ,melos1 see above1 p4 #cab4 ,studniczka's argument rests partly on the early use of red on the ,melian vases4 ,in reference to the use of the word in the ,melian inscription1 he thinks that the column supported a votive painted pinax or vase4 ,for testa trita see ,blmner1 ,technologie1 iv4 p4 #dgh ff4 ,footnote #abeg3 ,the earliest vase-painting with this subject is one from ,athens 74 47 #ahhf1 pl4 #h1 fig4 #a74 ,see ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #abeh3 ,see ,jex-,blake and ,sellers1 op4 cit4 p4 xxix4 ,footnote #abei3 ,these artists represent the ,dorian and ,continental school1 as opposed to the polychrome ,ionian 7see ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #ehd74 ,footnote #abfj3 ,it has1 however1 been suggested 7,jex-,blake and ,sellers1 p4 #aja7 that figuras1 the word used by ,pliny1 denotes 8positions0 rather than 8subjects40 ,but this would seem more appropriate to ,kimon 7see below74 ,footnote #abfa3 ,as ,studniczka maintains 7,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #aeb73 see also ,hartwig1 ,meistersch4 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #abfb3 4 4 #ahhg1 pl4 #f4 ,footnote #abfc3 ,athenag4 ,leg4 pro ,christo1 #ag1 #bic 7ed4 ,migne74 ,footnote #abfd3 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #ef4 ,footnote #abfe3 ,even full face is exceptional on the earlier ,r4,f4 vases4 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,e #fg1 #gd1 and ,hartwig1 pl4 #ei1 fig4 #b4 ,footnote #abff3 ,he is perhaps mentioned by ,simonides of ,keos 7,overbeck1 ,schriftquellen1 #cgi74 ,footnote #abfg3 ,studniczka says that catagrapha is a scientific term 8projection of a figure40 ,cf4 ,stephanus1 ,thesaurus1 s4v41 and ,jahn in ,ber4 d4 schs4 ,gesellsch4 #ahej1 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #abfh3 ,lit4 8released from milk and swaddling-clothes0 7,var4 ,hist4 viii4 #h74 ,,chapter ,x ,,red-,,figured ,,vases ,origin of red-figure style--,date of introduction---names and historical personages--,technical characteristics--,draughtsmanship--,shap es--,ornamentation--,subjects and types--,subdivisions of style--,severe period and artists--,strong period--,euphronios--,duris1 ,hieron1 and ,brygos--,fine period--,influence of ,polygnotos--,later fine period--,boeotian local fabric4 ,at first sight the sudden reversal of technical method involved in the change from black figures on red ground to red figures on black ground is not easy to explain4 ,that it was a new invention1 not a development from the old style1 is obvious1 seeing that no intermediate stage is possible4 ,the theory has been promulgated by a ,german writer#abfi that the idea arose from the effect of the ,gorgoneion painted on the inside of many late ,b4,f4 kylikes4 ,undoubtedly the effect is that of the ,r4,f4 style1 the face itself being left red1 surrounded by black hair1 beyond which the black is continued over the whole surface of the interior4#abgj ,but this theory has not really much to support it2 the ,gorgoneion is in the ,r4,f4 technique1 and did not therefore suggest it2 and the earliest ,r4,f4 kylikes usually have ,b4,f4 interiors1 not ,r4,f4 ,it is exceedingly doubtful that the kylikes had anything to do with bringing about the change4 ,much more probable is the suggestion that the class of vases with opaque figures on black ground 7p4 #cic7 represents the transition1 if transition it can be called4#abga ,we have seen that some of these correspond more to the ,b4,f4 vases1 others to the ,r4,f41 and that in many cases their appearance is that of ,r4,f4 vases4 ,it may easily be conceived that it occurred to the painter that it was more effective to let the red clay of the background appear through the black wherever he would place a figure than to paint the red on to the black4 ,but these vases are few in number2 and as the ,r4,f4 vases sprang at once into great popularity1 the new invention must have become too general at the very first to have been adopted from such a comparatively rare method4 ,there is also a greater tendency to naturalism in that class than in the earlier ,r4,f4 vases4 ,the fact is that there had been going on throughout the course of early art a tendency 7to which ,b4,f4 vase-painting forms an exception7 in favour of drawing figures on a light ground against a dark background4 ,and even in the ,b4,f4 vases this tendency is not altogether absent1 as seen in the attempts at lightening the figures by making them polychrome1 i4e4 with purple and white1 and also by the practice of covering the rest of the vase entirely with black4 ,now1 we have already seen that ,andokides was a painter who liked to combine the two methods on one vase1 and also that he was one who invariably adopted the completely black variety of amphora1 for ,b4,f4 painting as well as ,r4,f4 ,his ,louvre vase with the women swimming is clearly one of the earliest ,r4,f4 examples in existence4 ,it is therefore much more likely that he represents for us the author of the new method than ,epiktetos or the other artists who painted 8mixed0 kylikes or who used both styles4 ,on the other hand1 it must not be forgotten that it was really in the kylikes that the new style rose into popularity4#abgb ,next to the question of how the new style was brought about comes that of when it arose1 and the length of its duration at ,athens4 ,the chronology of ,r4,f4 vases rests on two considerations--the inscriptions on the vases themselves1 and the evidence of history and excavations4 ,until within the last twenty years it had been customary to regard the year #dhj ,b4,c4 as the line of demarcation between the two methods1 and the earliest date for ,r4,f4 vases4 ,yet as long ago as #ahcd ,ludwig ,ross1 finding a fragment of ,r4,f4 pottery among the debris of the ,persian sack of the ,acropolis1 acutely deduced therefrom that this style must necessarily have been in existence before the date of the sack1 i4e4 before #dhj ,b4,c4 ,his views1 however1 fell on deaf ears1 and it was not until the scientific exploration of the ,acropolis in #ahhe-hi that his deduction was seen to be justified4 ,the result of these excavations was to show that among the mass of pottery found in the pre-,persian stratum a considerable quantity belonged to a comparatively advanced stage of ,r4,f4 painting1 including signatures of artists of the archaic and severe style down to ,euphronios4 ,some writers have thought that these fragments may belong to the period between #dhj and #dfj1 when the rebuilding of the site was begun2 but so many show traces of burning that it is far more probable that the earlier date is correct4#abgc ,allowing1 then1 for the necessary stages of development up to the time of ,euphronios1 the beginning of the style may be placed about #ebe-ebj ,b4,c41 the date at which1 as we have seen1 ,andokides may be placed4 ,besides his name 7see above1 p4 #chg7 that of ,euphronios 8the potter0 was also found on a base in the ,acropolis excavations4#abgd ,the other limit of date will be more conveniently discussed in a subsequent connection1 and it may suffice to say here that the gradual pushing back of the terminus post quem points now to a much earlier terminus ante quem than was formerly supposed4 ,reasons will subsequently appear for placing the termination of the red-figure fabrics at ,athens in the closing years of the ,peloponnesian ,war 7#daj-djj ,b4,c474 ,the evidence afforded by inscriptions is necessarily affected in some degree by that of excavations1 and chiefly important for the relative dates of the vases4 ,it is not palaeographical1 but is afforded mainly by one class of inscriptions1 that of the -names1 so far as they have an historical significance4 ,these names will be the subject of discussion elsewhere1#abge and are only alluded to here for their connection with the question of chronology4 ,it is a well-known feature of these -names that many are those of famous historical personages1 such as ,alkibiades1 ,megakles1 ,miltiades1 and ,hipparchos4#abgf ,but1 on the other hand1 any attempts to connect the vases with the historical bearers of the names have met with little success2 there is also the danger of arguing in a circle--e4g4 of saying that because ,miltiades' name appears on a vase1 it is therefore to be dated in his youth1 and because the vase belongs to the date when ,miltiades was young1 therefore it bears the name of that individual4 ,where the importance of these names really comes in is in their relation to particular artists or groups of artists4 ,in this way1 as ,klein and ,hartwig have shown1 connecting-links between the artists can be traced and their chronological sequence assured4 ,this1 taken in conjunction with questions of style and our fixed dates obtained from other sources1 enables us to extract a fair working chronology from all the data4 ,the subject must1 however1 be dealt with in greater detail when considering the work of individual artists1 and only a few general statements can be laid down here4 ,many of the historical -names1 such as ,hipparchos or ,glaukon1 were probably very common at ,athens1#abgg and we have therefore no grounds for attaching importance to their appearance4 ,but in regard to the great painter ,euphronios1 whose date is fairly certain1 it is important to note that two different names are connected with vases in his earlier and later manner respectively1 viz4 ,leagros#abgh and ,glaukon4 ,euphronios began his career about #ejj-dij ,b4,c41 and it probably covered some forty years1 from about #die to #dee4 ,hence we may place the time of ,leagros' youth about #die-dij1 that of ,glaukon about #dfe-dfj1 and it is remarkable that the latter appears as 8son of ,leagros0 in one or two cases4#abgi ,now1 we know that there was an ,athenian general ,leagros who was in #dfg1 and fell in battle against the ,edones in that year4 ,also that he had a son1 ,glaukon1 who commanded at ,kerkyra in #dcc-dcb4 ,in this case the historical data fit in so exactly with the evidence of the vases and of the ,acropolis excavations#abhj that we need hardly hesitate to accept the identity of these two names4 ,it has been assumed--and the assumption has hardly been questioned--that the -names are necessarily always those of youths1 i4e4 of about seventeen to twenty years of age2 this view is supported both by the general character of the subjects on the vases where they appear1 and by the frequent use of the analogous formula 4 ,dr4 ,hartwig has laid down certain conclusions in regard to these names which have met with general acceptance1 and may be briefly restated here by way of summarising the subject4 7#a7 ,all vases with the same -name are limited to a period of ten years1 and consequently all those which are by one artist belong to a definite circumscribed period of his life4 7#b7 ,all vases by different artists1 but with the same -name1 are approximately contemporaneous1 i4e4 within ten years4 7#c7 ,the appearance of two or more -names on the same vase indicates the approximate similarity of age of the persons named1 the greatest possible difference being ten years4 7#d7 ,all vases with the same -name1 whether by one artist or more1 can always be linked together by their style2 the same name does not appear on a man's earliest and latest vases4 ,he further impresses the caution that the identity and position of the 7i4e4 whether or no they belonged to the aristocratic class7 is a secondary question compared with that of the development of painting which they help to elucidate4 ,the question of fabric is one that hardly needs discussion1 the evidence pointing so unanimously to ,athens in all cases4 ,the apparent exceptions suggested by classes of vases found almost exclusively on one site1 like the 8,nolan0 amphorae or the ,gela lekythi1 can easily be shown to be no real exceptions4 ,we have already met more than once with instances of particular fabrics being favoured by particular places2 and just as ,ionian vases were imported to ,caere or ,vulci1 and a special class of ,attic ,b4,f4 vases made for ,cyprus1 so we may suppose that certain ,athenian makers had a monopoly of export to ,nola1 to ,gela1 or elsewhere4 ,otherwise similarity of style1 of technique1 of subject1 of the alphabet of inscriptions1 and all other details point to a purely homogeneous fabric1 and that this was located in ,athens itself is not a matter to be seriously disputed4 ,to this complete monopoly which ,athens enjoyed in the fifth century only one exception can be traced1 that of ,boeotia1 where local fabrics continued to be made at ,thebes and ,tanagra4 ,of these one class has already been discussed 7p4 #cia72 the other will be treated of subsequently 7p4 #dea74 ,we must next consider briefly the technical characteristics and the forms of the ,attic ,r4,f4 vases4 ,as regards the former1 the method pursued during the period under consideration may be summarised as follows4 ,the artist sketches his design on the red clay with a fine-pointed tool2 he then surrounds this outline with black varnish1 laid on with a pen or brush1#abha to the extent of about an eighth of an inch all round1 this being done to prevent the varnish1 when laid on over the rest of the ground1 from running over into any part of the design4 ,finally1 details such as features or folds of drapery are added with a brush in black lines on the red1 this process representing the incised lines of the old style2 and further details are often expressed either in a thinned black pigment which becomes brown and is sometimes only perceptible in a strong light1 or by application of white and purple as in the last period4 ,in the severe style purple is generally used2 but at a later stage this colour was dropped1 and finally replaced by white4 ,the accessory colours were chiefly used for fillets in the hair1 liquids1 flowers1 and other small details1 as well as for inscriptions4 ,thus we see that the technical process of the preceding method is exactly reversed and that the figures now stand out in the natural colour of the clay against the black ground4 ,the advantages of the new method were obvious4 ,as long as the vase-painters continued content with stiff and hieratic forms and mere silhouettes the black figures were sufficient4 ,the careful mapping-out of the hair and muscles1 the decorations1 and all the details of shadow in painting and of unequal surface in sculpture could be easily expressed by the new method4 ,but it is evident that these stiff lines were quite inadequate to express those softer contours1 which melted1 as it were1 into one another1 and marked the more refined grace and freedom of the rapidly advancing schools of sculpture and painting4 ,by the change of colour of the figures to the lucid red or orange of the background1 the artist was enabled to draw lines of a tone or tint scarcely darker than the clay itself1 but still sufficient to express all the finer anatomical details2 while the more important outlines still continued to be marked with fine black lines4 ,at first the style is essentially the same1 the forms precise1 the eyes in profile1 the attitudes rigid1 and the draperies rectilinear4 ,the backgrounds may have been painted in by an ordinary workman1 and some specimens exist in which it has never been laid on 7cf4 p4 #bbb74 ,the artists seem to have worked from slight sketches1 and according to their individual feelings and ideas1 and as duplicate designs are quite unknown1 there was clearly no system of copying4 ,the correspondence of style in the figures on the earlier ,r4,f4 vases to those of ,b4,f4 technique shows that the two methods must have coexisted for a time1 and this is further borne out by the mixed vases of ,andokides1 ,hischylos1 and others1 and by the work of artists who employed either style1 like ,pamphaios4 ,the latter1 for instance1 seems to have adhered to the old style by preference for hydriae and large vases1 but preferred to follow the new fashion in the kylix4 ,to quote a recent writer3 8,the new method opened up a path for the freer exercise of the imagination10 and we can see in the red-figure vases a gradual development of artistic conception and power of expression1 together with the shaking off of all restrictions until the perfection of drawing is reached1 and 8the red figures stand out against the black1 unencumbered with anything that might distract from harmony of colouring or purity of outline40#abhb ,it is the essential characteristic of the new style that it is drawing rather than painting1 and it stands out as the final attainment of what the vase-painters had really been striving after from the days of the ,melian and early ,ionic wares--namely1 the perfection of linear design4 ,the same principle is at work in the vases with white ground which passed through parallel phases of development4 ,among minor details of drawing in which an advance is conspicuous is the treatment of hair1 eyes1 and drapery4 ,in the ,b4,f4 style the hair was indicated as a black mass1 standing out against the light background2 but now that the background had become black1 a separation was necessary4 ,at first this was done by adhering to the old engraved line method1 for which came to be substituted a narrow unpainted line4 ,next1 an advance was made in the treatment of the hair itself1 with a view to more accuracy in detail1 and the contours are undulated or separate locks shown on the forehead4 ,sometimes a kind of stippling process is adopted1 by means of which the hair is indicated by rows or clusters of raised dots1 representing close curls1 such as are seen in ,attic sculpture of the late archaic period4 ,the general contours of the forms are slender2 the foreheads are low1 the noses prominent1 the eyes long1 the chins sharp1 the legs short and thick1 and the folds of the garments stiff and rectilinear4 ,women are not distinguished in this style either by their colour or by the shape of their eyes1 in which respects they are drawn just like the men1 but exclusively by their costume and form4 ,the white hair of old men is indicated by white markings on the black ground1 and curly hair1 as noted1 by little raised knobs of black paint 774 ,the figures are generally small1 but some of grandiose proportions occur even in the earlier stages1 though more characteristic of the succeeding 8strong0 style4 ,the principal outlines are usually finished with wonderful spirit and truth1 but sometimes1 as in the extremities1 great carelessness is visible4 ,the general effect is much enhanced by the fineness of the clay1 which in the earlier ,r4,f4 vases is of a bright orange-red1 as also by the brilliancy of the black varnish4 ,illustration3 ,from ,b4,m4 ,cat4 iii4 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,development ,,in ,,rendering ,,of ,,eye4 ,the development of the form of the eye is most important1 as an aid to chronology 7see ,fig4 #ii74 ,in the ,b4,f4 period it was invariably treated in two ways1--that of a man as a complete circle1 in front view1 between the lids1 of which the upper is more arched than the lower2 that of a woman is almond-shaped4 ,in the ,r4,f4 vases the eye in front view is still maintained with figures in profile1 but the sexes are not distinguished2 the pupil is painted black1 and the lids drawn at first like the ,b4,f4 male eye1 then almond-shaped4 ,the next stage is to shift the pupil 7which now becomes a ring with central dot7 into the inner corner4 ,lastly1 this corner is opened out till it assumes the correct profile appearance1 and then1 about the middle of the fifth century1 the pupil also attains the correct form4 ,about midway in this development1 as we have already seen1 the power is acquired of moving the position of the pupil to express looking upwards1 downwards1 or sideways2 the importance of this point as bearing on the new developments of ,kimon of ,kleonae we have already discussed4 ,the eyelashes are not rendered until the correct profile is attained1 except in a few instances1 such as the ,berlin cup of ,euphronios 7#bbhb71 where the lids are fringed with short1 vertical strokes4#abhc ,in regard to the treatment of drapery1 the earlier vases1 such as those of the ,epiktetos cycle1 retain the ,b4,f4 method of rendering folds only in the skirts of the chiton1 these taking the form of parallel lines4 ,gradually the folds follow the motion of the body2 and finally1 under ,euphronios1 comes a marked advance1 whereby contrasts of material are indicated4#abhd ,he uses fine brown crinkly lines to represent the soft transparent ,athenian fabric which we also see worn by the archaic female figures of the ,acropolis4 ,among the many improvements in drawing effected during the ,r4,f4 period1 a notable one is that of the introduction of true perspective and more than conventional landscape4 ,we know from the shield of the ,athena ,parthenos that this began to be understood at ,athens by the middle of the fifth century1 as also from the paintings of ,polygnotos1 and hence we are not surprised to find it appearing in the vases of the period when that artist's influence began to be felt4 ,a fine example is the krater from ,orvieto in the ,louvre1 with an ,argonautic scene 7see p4 #ddb72 and even more beautiful is the ,blacas krater in the ,british ,museum1 which shows ,selene disappearing over the top of a hill1 and the stars setting in the sea 7see ,plate ,,liii474 ,these two vases also illustrate the introduction of the new principle of placing figures at different levels which was elaborated in the ,meidias hydria1 the vases of ,kertch1 and to a still greater degree in those of ,southern ,italy4 ,all these details indicate the growing tendency towards a pictorial style1 which in the first instance was due to ,polygnotos4 ,the shapes of the ,r4,f4 period are to a great extent the same as in the last1 but most of them are modified to some degree1 and some new ones are introduced4 ,moreover1 the relative popularity of certain shapes varies1 the amphora and hydria of the ,b4,f4 period being now surpassed in favour by the kylix1 the krater and lekythos receiving more attention1 and certain new forms1 such as the askos and stamnos1 appearing at different stages4 ,for the first half of the period1 from #ebj to #dfj ,b4,c41 the kylix is pre-eminent1 not only in point of numbers1 but for the attention devoted to its decoration4 ,it is1 as we have seen1 doubtful whether it was actually in the kylikes that the new style came into being1 but in any case they form the material for the study of its earlier phases4 ,the form is that of the later ,b4,f4 varieties 7see p4 #aia71 as used by ,exekias and the painters who used the large eyes in its decoration1 tracing its origin probably to an ,ionic source4#abhe ,at first the decoration is often confined to the interior1 or the exterior designs are little more than conventional1 consisting of the eyes and a simple motive or figure between4#abhf ,in the strong period there is usually a connection between the interior and exterior designs1 the whole often forming successive episodes of a story#abhg2 but subsequently the old principle asserts itself1 and the interior subject becomes the important one4 ,slight variations of form occur1#abhh as in the cups of ,brygos1 with their off-set lip1 or the delicate products of ,sotades1 the handles of which are shaped like a chicken's merrythought4 ,in the latest specimens the stem is often replaced by a flat broad foot1 or the bowl becomes flat and ugly1 losing all the beauty of the earlier graceful curves4 ,among other drinking-cups the kotyle1 kantharos1 and rhyton are most often found4 ,the former was favoured by ,epiktetos and ,hieron1 and a kantharos is signed by ,epigenes1 others by ,nikosthenes and ,duris4 ,the kantharos1 though a very beautiful form1 is never common in the painted vases1 being perhaps oftener made in metal4 ,among the kotylae we may mention here a series painted with an owl and olive-wreath1#abhi which obviously have some reference to the cult of ,athena4 ,they have been identified1 but on slight authority1 with the mentioned by ,athenaeus#abij2 but their real meaning has not yet found a satisfactory explanation4 ,the rhyton strictly belongs to the series of plastic vases 7see pp4 #bja1 #baa71 the lower portion being always modelled in the form of a head1 human or animal1 or two conjoined4 ,some of these are signed by artists1 such as ,charinos and ,kaliades4#abia ,of the amphora three main varieties are found4 ,the earlier type1 which reproduces the 8black-bodied0 or panel-amphora of the ,b4,f4 period1 did not long remain in favour1 and was mainly used by ,andokides and ,euthymides and their associates4 ,the panel system of decoration is still retained1 the framework being formed of ornamental patterns as in the old style4 ,secondly1 there is the 8,nolan0 amphora1 which came in about #ejj-dhj ,b4,c41 and was obviously an improvement on the old 8red-bodied0 ,b4,f4 type4 ,it is a very graceful1 slender form1 with long neck1 distinguished by the surpassing excellence of its black varnish1 and the impression of taste and restraint given by its simple decoration of one or two figures each side 7see ,plate ,,xxxvi474 ,the third variety is the so-called pelike 7see p4 #afc71 a not very successful variation of the amphora1 but for some reason very popular in the later stages4 ,with its flat foot and bulbous body it stands in the same relation to the amphora as does the so-called aryballos 7see below7 to the lekythos4 ,two forms that may be connected with the amphora are the stamnos and the psykter 7see pp4 #afc1 #agb74 ,the former is peculiar to the ,r4,f4 period in its earlier stages2 the first known example is signed by ,pamphaios1 a 8transitional0 artist4 ,most of the known specimens attain a high average of excellence4 ,the psykter or wine-cooler is very rare1 but there are two fine examples signed by ,euphronios and ,duris4 ,the hydria in this period at first retains the ,b4,f4 form1 as seen in an example of about #ejj ,b4,c4 signed by ,phintias 7,b4,m4 ,e #aei71 but the tendency to prefer a curvilinear outline is soon manifested4 ,the new development is conventionally known as a kalpis4 ,the shoulder having ceased to be distinct from the body1 the design becomes single1 or else is confined to the upper part of the field4 ,of the krater we have at least four varieties1 all belonging to the more developed stages of the period4 ,the earliest example is the ,antaios-krater of ,euphronios in the ,louvre1 about #ejj ,b4,c41 which is of the form known as vaso a calice 7p4 #agj72 but this and the other varieties never become really common till the final stages are reached4 ,the bell-krater1 or vaso a campana1 is only found in the late fine period1 and is then almost the only kind of large vase made2 the volute-handled krater1 which was developed from the old column-handled type1 is seen in some fine specimens4 ,at first the design 7as in the ,b4,f4 example by ,nikosthenes1 ,b4,m4 ,b #cfd7 is confined to the neck4 ,the treatment of the column-handled type is interesting as a survival of archaism both in design and arrangement1 with the bordered panels and occasional ,b4,f4 friezes of animals4#abib ,among the smaller vases1 the oinocho and lekythos with their varieties1 the askos and the pyxis1 are the most important4 ,with the exception of the ordinary form of lekythos these belong chiefly to the later stages1 when the preference was for a sort of miniature style4 ,very few of these bear artists' signatures4 ,the oinocho differs little from the ,b4,f4 examples2 the pyxis is practically a revival of an old form favoured in the ,corinthian and other early fabrics4 ,the latter are usually decorated with domestic or marriage subjects1 in reference to their use by women for toilet purposes 7see ,plates ,,xlii41 ,,xliii474 ,the lekythos was1 as we shall see1 the form exclusively employed for the funeral vases1 and largely also for others with polychrome decoration on white ground4 ,those painted with red figures belong mainly to the strong period 7#ejj-dfj71 and have been mostly found in ,sicily1 whither they were imported by preference1 like the amphorae made for ,nola2 a fine specimen is given on ,plate ,,xxxvi4 ,when this form came to be adopted for the funeral vases1 a new type arose with bulbous or spherical body1 conventionally known as an aryballos4 ,in the late fine style we have many examples of this form1 with rich polychrome decoration and gilding 7,plate ,,xlii474#abic ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxvi ,illustration3 ,,red-,,figured 8,,nolan0 ,,amphorae ,,and ,,lekythos 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,the ornamental patterns on ,r4,f4 vases do not1 generally speaking1 call for so much attention as those of earlier style2 they are on the whole used with great restraint and little variety1 and are more subordinate to the designs than at any other period of vase-painting4 ,the principal motives are the palmette1 maeander1 and egg-pattern2 all others are comparatively rare4 ,it is interesting to note1 on the early amphorae and hydriae1 and on the column-handled kraters down to quite a late date1 the survival of the old panel system with its borders of ornament4 ,strictly speaking1 now that the background was black throughout1 there was no necessity for enclosing the space on which the figures were depicted2 but the conservative instincts prevailed1 especially while the old shapes were retained4#abid ,gradually1 however1 as these vases assumed new forms1 the borders were almost unconsciously dropped--first the sides1 then the top1 and lastly the lower border1 which maintained its ground longer than the others4 ,the same tendency1 from a formal framework to absolute freedom1 is in fact to be observed in all the vases2 and in the later stages we note a new development1 that of an elaborate pattern of palmettes under the handles1 which assumes more and more prominence4 ,the evolution of the palmette on ,r4,f4 vases has been skilfully traced by ,dr4 ,winter#abie in reference to the kylikes2 but it is no less interesting in the amphorae and similar forms4 ,in both cases it arose from the tendency to make the handles terminate in stylised palmettes1 which on the ,b4,f4 kylikes of the minor artists are often a prominent element in the decoration4 ,similarly1 on the ,b4,f4 red-bodied amphorae we have the symmetrical compositions of palmettes under the handles radiating from a common centre4 ,these were at first reduced to a modest single palmette or a pair1 but soon spread out again1 preserving at first the symmetrical grouping2 subsequently1 with an increasing tendency to naturalism1 the palmettes1 enclosed within graceful tendrils1 form unsymmetrical but highly pleasing compositions without any definite centre4#abif ,this development of ornament under the handles--to which part of the vase it was almost restricted--can be traced during the first half of the fifth century1 till it reaches its height about the middle4 ,where a band of ornament was required round the base of the design1 as on the large calyx-kraters1 it takes the form of a row of palmettes enclosed in tendrils1 in the style of modern arabesques2 or the palmettes are arranged in pairs1 set obliquely1 and each pair divided by a scroll ending in volutes4 ,or1 again1 a row of somewhat squat palmettes1 similarly enclosed1 alternates with lotos-flowers in the old style1 as on ,b4,m4 ,e #afi4abig ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,,palmettes ,,under ,,handles 7,,early ,r4,f4 ,,period74 ,in the kylikes the development of the handle-ornament first begins with ,epiktetos1 who 7as on ,e #c in ,b4,m47 first draws a free palmette with separated leaves on either side4#abih ,as the tendency to cover the whole of the exterior space with the design increased1 the intervening space under the handle came to be filled in also1 by extending the tendrils of the palmettes and terminating them with buds 7,fig4 #ajj74abii ,next1 a tendency to symmetrical composition each side is seen1 the palmettes being doubled in number#acjj2 or1 again1 an attempt is made at uniting the two isolated palmette-systems in one harmonious whole1 and at the same time to fill the intervening space1 by means of interlacing tendrils4#acja ,the palmettes are further increased to three or four each side1 and in the arrangement is seen the tendency to freedom even at the cost of symmetry already noted1 as in ,fig4 #aja4acjb ,thus is reached the point at which the severe passes into the strong style4 ,in the latter the palmettes are often omitted altogether1#acjc especially where the two exterior scenes are connected2 or their place is taken by some figure under the handle1 as on vases by ,hieron or ,brygos4 ,where the patterns do occur1 they are often stereotyped1 as in the vases of ,duris1 who on nine examples with handle-patterns repeats the same device in each case4 ,in the fine style1 after #dfj ,b4,c41 the symmetrical arrangement recurs1 the usual type consisting of a double palmette between two large ones1 with connecting and enclosing tendrils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,,palmettes ,,under ,,handles 7,,later ,,stage74 ,another method of tracing the chronological sequence of the ,r4,f4 cups is by means of the maeander patterns which surround the interior design and extend below the outside scenes 7,fig4 #ajb74acjd ,a parallel development of this pattern may also be traced on the amphorae and other vases1 where it is used as a border below the figures4 ,in the severe style1 as in the cups of ,epiktetos1 this pattern has not yet made its appearance1 and its place is taken by a simple line of red2 and in the vases of ,euphronios1 on which it is first found1 a simple maeander is employed4 ,the first to vary this was ,duris1 who alternates it with squares1 the centre of which is 8voided0 in the form of a red cross1 and this practice subsequently became invariable4 ,the square itself shows a development of form1 the cross being first filled in with a black centre1 then made diagonal2 next1 the black background is largely diminished1 until it disappears1 except for dots between the arms of the black cross2 finally1 it changes into the form of a chequered square1 black and red1 of which the red squares are sometimes dotted4 ,the subjects on red-figured vases may not perhaps be so varied or so full of mythological interest as those on the black-figured1 but yet present many features worthy of attention4 ,at the very outset we see the tendency towards scenes from real life in preference to those from mythology2 and on the whole throughout the period the ratio of one class to the other is exactly the reverse of the preceding period4 ,nor are the stock subjects in either class the same4 ,in regard to mythology the cosmogonic themes of ,b4,f4 vases1 such as the ,gigantomachia and the ,birth of ,athena1 are replaced by such subjects as ,eleusinian and ,attic local cults1 the sending forth of ,triptolemos or the birth of ,erichthonios4 ,in the heroic cycles ,herakles is no longer the popular favourite1 but is supplanted1 for reasons presently to be detailed1 by ,theseus4 ,the ,argonautika frequently provides subjects for vases of the more developed style1 in which the influence of ,polygnotos is felt2 and the ,odyssey begins to rival the ,iliad as a source of epic themes4 ,the influence of the stage is as yet hardly felt1 though here and there scenes may be traced to the influence of some ,satyric drama4 ,illustration3 ,from ,b4,m4 ,cat4 iii4 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,,development ,,of ,,maeander-,,and-,,cross ,,pattern4 ,in subjects relating to ,dionysos and his attendant ,satyrs and ,maenads a considerable change is to be noted1 in the direction of a preference for violent action4 ,the ,bacchic revellers of the ,b4,f4 vases1 even at their highest pitch of excitement1 are generally stiff wooden figures1 with mechanical and restrained pose or action4 ,but the exteriors of many cups of the best ,r4,f4 period1 such as those of ,hieron or ,brygos1 are enlivened by throngs of frenzied ,maenads and wild drunken ,satyrs1 given up to the most unrestrained and licentious merriment 7see ,chapter ,,xiii474 ,turning to the subjects of daily life again1 it may be observed that on the ,b4,f4 vases the preference is for battle-scenes1 warriors setting out for battle1 or scenes of the chase2 even athletic subjects are in a great minority1 except on the ,panathenaic amphorae4 ,in the ,r4,f4 period the preference is for athletic scenes1 banquets1 and the life of women and children2 we also find frequent illustrations of religious cults1 and scenes of sacrifice and libations4 ,the ,r4,f4 vases of the severe stage in the main follow on the lines of the later ,b4,f4 period1 except in the interiors of the kylikes of the ,epictetan cycle4 ,in these we find very few instances of mythological subjects1 unless it be single figures of ,satyrs4 ,the main object of the painter was to fill in the circular space as best he might1 and this space only admitted of a single figure1 the rule being observed that exterior and interior figures should be of similar proportions4 ,hence the easiest solution was obviously to choose a simple figure1 such as that of a nude young man1 and depict him in various simple attitudes1 running1 leaping1 carrying a vase or musical instrument1 or otherwise engaged in such a way as to fill the space with his limbs or the objects he carried 7see p4 #dbf74 ,in the 8strong0 style we observe a new principle at work1 which may be described in a single phrase as 8the glorification of the ,attic ephebos or young athlete40 ,a new impetus had been given to athletics at ,athens by the ,peisistratidae1 who encouraged a more extensive celebration of festivals1 and thus we find a growing fondness for the introduction of scenes from the palaestra and stadium1 often rendered with considerable spirit and unconventionality1 as in a group of boxers quarrelling1#acje or on another vase depicting the humorous side of the armed foot-race4#acjf ,the introduction of scenes from the story of ,theseus1 which now begin to be frequent1 especially on the kylikes1 is no doubt due partly to this cause1 though partly also to religious and patriotic reasons4 ,theseus seems to have been regarded as the typical ,attic ephebos and athlete1 and his contests as analogous to success in the palaestra4 ,hence the grouping of scenes from his labours after the manner of groups of athletes variously engaged4 ,it was formerly thought that the popularity of the ,theseus legends was due to the bringing back of his bones from ,skyros by ,kimon1 and their solemn burial in the ,theseion1 which gave rise to a regular cult of the national hero4 ,but this took place in #dfi ,b4,c41 and recent investigations have shown that many of the ,theseus vases must be placed at an earlier date4 ,he was1 however1 supposed to have appeared at the battle of ,marathon in aid of the ,athenians1 and this event may have been quite sufficient to bring his cult into prominence4 ,towards the middle of the fifth century several new types are introduced--such as the youth as distinguished from the ephebos1 the girl as distinguished from the matured woman1#acjg and the infant playing with toys4 ,juvenile games1 such as the top1 hoop1 and knucklebones1 now become generally popular4 ,the evolution of the types of ,eros and ,nike virtually dates from this time#acjh2 hitherto ,eros 7as1 for instance1 on the kylikes7 has seldom appeared1 and ,nike is also hardly found before the 8strong0 style4 ,meaningless groups of figures1 conversing or without particular action1 are common on the exterior of cups by ,hieron and his contemporaries2 and similar groups1 though1 in accordance with the spirit of the times1 more freely and pictorially composed1 become the recognised method of decorating the small elegant vases of the late fine style4 ,in some of these an ancient practice is revived of attempting to give interest to the scenes by adding mythological names to the figures4 ,but these are chosen quite at haphazard1 sometimes as vague personifications 7see ,chapter ,,xii41 under ,aphrodite71 sometimes in such anomalous collocations as ,thetis and ,hippolyte1 or ,danae1 ,helen1 and ,iphigeneia4#acji ,in the treatment of mythological scenes it is curious to note how1 almost from the first1 the well-worn conventional types of the ,b4,f4 style are discarded1 the painter1 with his new-born capacities for drawing and free composition1 instinctively forming his own idea of his subject1 and departing from the lines on which his predecessors had worked4 ,some subjects are almost entirely ignored1 such as the chariot procession 7of ,herakles or deities71 the contests of ,herakles with ,triton and the ,cretan bull1 warriors playing draughts1 and ,odysseus and ,polyphemos4 ,the labours of ,herakles are largely replaced by those of ,theseus4 ,in other cases the subjects are still popular1 but the 8type0 is no longer preserved1 as in the case of the ,judgment of ,paris or some of the labours of ,herakles4 ,but it must not be supposed that the principle of recognised 8types0 is altogether absent from the ,r4,f4 vases4 ,there are1 in fact1 certain motives which occur over and over again1 only with this difference--that they are not always employed with the same signification4 ,thus the 8pursuing0 type1 which is as common as any on ,r4,f4 vases1 may be either mythological or ordinary4 ,in the former case ,eos pursues ,kephalos1 or ,menelaos ,helen2 in the latter a ,seilenos pursues a ,maenad1 or a warrior or hunter a woman4 ,this type becomes almost conventional1 and the figures can only be identified when inscribed4 ,theseus1 ,ajax1 ,orestes1 ,ion1 ,alkmaion1 and ,neoptolemos all pursue women in the same manner4 ,again1 the ,b4,f4 type of ,peleus seizing ,thetis1 sometimes found on ,r4,f4 vases1#acaj is used for that of a ,seilenos seizing a ,maenad1 even the snakes into which ,thetis transforms herself becoming the ordinary attribute of the ,bacchanal4 ,a different class of subjects1 in which the subject remains the same but the type varies1 is also found on ,r4,f4 vases4 ,in such cases the various artists seem to have drawn their inspiration from the same model2 it might be a famous sixth-century painting or sculptured group1 but each has treated it according to his own individuality4 ,a good instance is the subject of the sack of ,troy1 the principal episodes of which we find depicted by the masters ,euphronios and ,brygos 7,plate ,,liv471 and on a hydria of somewhat later date4#acaa ,another characteristic of ,r4,f4 vases is the individualising of barbarian types1 a new feature in ,greek art4 ,it is possible that this is largely the effect of the ,persian wars1 which rendered the ,greeks familiar with barbarian costumes4#acab ,in any case the fashion of wearing ,thracian cloaks and other outlandish garments seems to have been adopted by the young men of ,athens at the beginning of the fifth century1 and many of the cups of that period represent young horsemen apparelled in this fashion 7see ,chapter ,,xv474 ,there was also in the fifth century a fondness for vases modelled in the form of heads of negroes or ,persians4 ,such subjects as those relating to ,orpheus1 the rape of ,oreithyia1 ,herakles and ,busiris1 or combats of ,greeks with ,amazons or ,persians1 also illustrate the popularity of these new ideas4 ,the only other class of subjects to which reference need be made is that dealing with religious cults1#acac such as libations or sacrifices to deities or terminal figures1 particular ceremonies and festivals1 or quasi-religious competitions of an athletic or musical kind4#acad ,in regard to style1 the ,attic red-figured vases fall into four principal groups1 which are usually classified as follows 7though each group is sometimes subdivided73-- 7#a7 ,the archaic or severe period 7about #ebj-ejj ,b4,c471 in which there is little advance in the drawing1 which is stiff and lacks technical freedom4 ,apart from the new experiments in technique1 it is marked by its wide and novel choice of subjects1 with great attention paid to details4 ,the principal artists whose signatures are found in this group are3 7a7 cup-painters--,epiktetos1 ,hischylos1 ,pheidippos1 ,pamphaios1 ,chelis1 ,chachrylion1 ,euergides1 ,epilykos1 ,hermaios1 ,sikanos2 7b7 other painters--,andokides1 ,euthymides1 ,phintias 7amphora and hydria71 ,hypsis 7hydria71 ,psiax and ,hilinos4 7#b7 ,the strong style 7about #ejj-dfj ,b4,c471 characterised by a great and sudden advance in drawing and power of expression1 which leads the painter to attempt difficult subjects with success4 ,the difficulties of front-view or three-quarter drawing1 as opposed to the old profile-figures1 are also largely overcome4 ,in the amphorae and other forms the compositions are restrained and dignified1 being often limited to one or two figures in large style4 ,the principal artists are3 7a7 cup-painters--,euphronios1 ,oltos1 ,sosias1 ,phintias1 ,peithinos1 ,duris1 ,hieron1 ,brygos1 ,amasis1 ,onesimos2 7b7 other artists--,euxitheos1 ,smikros4 7#c7 ,the fine style 7about #dfj-ddj ,b4,c47 exhibits the culmination of technique and composition1 with great breadth and largeness of conception in the larger vases1 delicacy and refinement in the smaller4 ,cup-painting has passed its zenith1 and yields comparatively few artists' names4 ,in this period the influence of ,polygnotos and the great painters begins to make itself felt1 in a tendency to more pictorial composition2 landscape is indicated1 and figures are placed at different levels4 ,the influence of sculpture may also be traced4 ,the chief artists' names are3 ,aeson1 ,aristophanes and ,erginos1 ,epigenes1 ,hegias1 ,hermonax1 ,megakles1 ,polygnotos1 ,sotades1 and ,xenotimos2 ,meidias and ,nikias2 ,xenophantos4 7#d7 ,the late fine style 7about #ddj-djj ,b4,c47 is marked by a great falling-off in every respect4 ,the extraordinarily rapid advance1 both in artistic conception and in power of execution1 during the preceding fifty years1 fostered by the concurrent advance in sculpture and painting1 hastened the vase-painter to his ruin4 ,with the attainment of perfection in drawing1 dexterity and grace are his sole aim1 and in place of vigour and originality we meet with over-refinement and mannerisms1 and florid pictorial compositions executed in a careless manner4 ,we now propose to speak in detail of the principal artists of this period1 a study of whose works will be sufficient to give a clear idea of the achievements of the new style1 at all events down to the middle of the century4#acae ,after that time the signatures become so rare that the later vases are best treated as a whole4 ,it is important to note1 by way of preliminary1 the various methods of signature which the artists adopt 7see also ,chapter ,,xvii474#acaf ,the ordinary signatures fall under four headings3 7#a7 2 7#b7 2 7#c7 ,a4 1 ,b4 7#d7 ,a4 4 ,in the archaic period covers the work of the potter and painter1 except in the case where the latter is specially mentioned4 ,in the best period we usually find on the kylikes1 on the amphorae4 ,euphronios and ,phintias use either 7#a7 or 7#b74 ,the vase ,e #ab in the ,british ,museum has only the inscription1 2 but1 as will be seen later1 there is good reason for supposing that the exterior was not painted by him4 ,different formulae1 it has been suggested1 may represent different periods in a man's career1 as in the case of ,euphronios1 who was at first a painter in ,chachrylion's workshop1 then worked independently1 and finally adopted ,onesimos as a partner 7see p4 #dcd74 ,the use of the imperfect in some cases is characteristic of the transitional period 7see below1 p4 #dcj74 ,in the archaic or severe period the typical name is that of ,epiktetos1 who1 as we have seen1 is thought by some authorities to have been actually the inventor of the red-figure style4 ,however this may be1 he is the principal representative of the development of cup-painting during this period--a development which has been carefully traced by ,klein4#acag ,we have no ,b4,f4 kylikes signed by him1 although there are four examples of 8mixed0 cups with ,b4,f4 interiors1 three of which were made by ,hischylos1 the fourth by ,nikosthenes1 while ,epiktetos was presumably responsible for the whole of the decoration4 ,he invariably signs with the formula 1 from which we know that all his signed vases are actually the work of his brush4 ,besides those already mentioned1 he painted two cups which bear ,pamphaios' name as potter1 and two more with those of ,hischylos and ,python as potters--all ,r4,f4 throughout1 one of the ,pamphaios cups retaining the old fashion of decoration with eyes on the exterior4 ,the vase made by ,python#acah is interesting from its subject--the slaying of ,busiris by ,herakles4#acai ,it belongs to an advanced stage of his career1 when the exterior designs were assuming more importance and developing from decorative compositions to regular friezes4 ,thirteen kylikes and ten plates with designs like those on the interiors of the cups 7,plate ,,xxxvii471 a kotyle with ,pistoxenos' name as potter1 and two amphorae1 make up the total of ,epiktetos' performances4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxvii ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,kylix ,,of ,,transitional ,,style2 #b1 ,,plate ,,by ,,epiktetos 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,murray thus describes the chief characteristics of ,epiktetos' work#acbj3 8,no painter is so uniform and at the same time so peculiar in his manner as ,epiktetos4 ,his drawing is always characterised by precision and fastidiousness4 ,he loves slim1 youthful forms4444 ,he prefers to draw his figures on a small scale1 where his minute touches produce at times a startling vividness4 ,he appears to have been influenced in a measure by the older miniature vase-painters the #8minor artists' 444 his manner is singularly precise and fastidious 444 but his precision never fails him4444 ,he uses skilfully faint yellow lines for the inner markings of muscle and bone40 ,hartwig points out that he continues the development of a refined archaism from ,amasis 7p4 #chb74 ,the period of his activity may be placed between #ecj and #ejj ,b4,c4 ,pamphaios1 although the majority of his vases are in the ,r4,f4 technique1 really excelled in the old method4 ,we have from his hand two ,b4,f4 hydriae1 four ,b4,f4 kylikes1 two mixed kylikes1 fifteen ,r4,f4 kylikes 7five with interior designs only71 two amphorae and a stamnos1 and he also made two cups for ,epiktetos4 ,he signs consistently 4 ,in the ,b4,f4 hydria in the ,british ,museum 7,b #cjj ,fig4 #abj71 he1 as ,murray says1 has indulged to excess his sense of refinement and grace1 in which he was unsurpassed4 ,when he turned to red figures1 the new technique seems to have perplexed him1 and he found himself unable to use his faculty for minute detail4 ,but though comparatively coarse and decadent1 there is a freshness and vigour in his new conceptions1 especially in the ,museum stamnos 7,e #dcg7 with ,herakles and ,acheloos1 which atones for other deficiencies4 ,most remarkable of all his signed works is the ,british ,museum kylix 7,e #ab71 with its exquisite exterior designs1 of which ,murray says1 8,surely in the whole realm of ,greek vase-painting there is hardly to be met with a finer conception0 than the figures of the two wind-gods or death-deities carrying off the body of the dead warrior4 ,nor are the figures of ,amazons arming on the other side of inferior merit4 ,so marked1 indeed1 is the superiority of these designs to ,pamphaios' ordinary work1 that most authorities are agreed in attributing them to another artist belonging to a more advanced school--namely1 ,euphronios4 ,we have after all no certain proof that the painting of the cup is ,pamphaios' handiwork1 and we can only say that1 if it is1 it betokens a most surprising outbreak of artistic power4 ,of the other artists in this cycle ,hischylos appears chiefly as a potter for other artists2 for ,sakonides he made a 7,b4,f47 kylix1 for ,epiktetos four1 and for ,pheidippos one4 ,a ,b4,f4 plate1 two 8mixed0 cups1 and one ,r4,f4 cup bear his name alone4 ,he always signs with 1 but it is not improbable that he was responsible for the interior ,b4,f4 designs on three of the cups made for ,epiktetos4 ,pheidippos is only known from the one cup already mentioned4 ,euergides made three cups1 ,epilykos three1#acba ,hermaios five#acbb 7one of which bears a figure of ,hermes1 perhaps by way of a sort of canting heraldry71 and ,sikanos one plate4 ,the cups by ,chelis number five1 of which one has a ,b4,f4 interior4 ,chachrylion1 who stands on the verge of the next period1 calls for more detailed treatment1 especially since the exhaustive discussion of his work by ,hartwig4#acbc ,sixteen cups signed by him are known1 two having been discovered since ,klein made his list2 he also acted as potter for ,euphronios on one occasion4 ,he always signs 1 but we may assume that this includes the decoration of the vases4 ,with him we enter upon the period in which the use of 8favourite names0 by vase-painters becomes regular1 those employed by ,chachrylion being ,leagros and ,memnon4 ,the former name is also used by ,oltos1 ,euthymides1 and ,euphronios1 and the names of ,epidromos and ,athenodotos belong to this period1 if not to this cycle4 ,a number of vases with the name ,memnon have no signature1 and these have usually been attributed en bloc to ,chachrylion4 ,but it has been pointed out by ,hartwig that some of them must belong to an earlier stage1 standing in much closer relation to the ,b4,f4 vases4 ,besides the sixteen signed vases1 ,hartwig assigns to him seven with the name of ,epidromos1 and two others with that of ,leagros in addition1 and another without name4 ,a remarkable number of these cups have no exterior decoration4 ,chachrylion's work is in character essentially transitional4 ,some of his cups#acbd are in the style of the archaic decadence1 before the new influence of ,euphronios1 but he never freed himself from the trammels of the severe style4 ,he drops the ,epictetan method of decorating the exterior with large eyes and animals bounding the scene1 and uses large palmettes under the handles2 but his interior scenes are still bordered with a plain ring1 instead of the later maeander4 ,he is never altogether happy in his exterior designs2 hence his preference for interiors1 in which1 it may be noted1 he is almost the first to introduce more than one figure4#acbe ,his figures1 like those of ,epiktetos1 have slim proportions and small heads1 the bodily forms better rendered than the limbs4 ,he seems to strike a medium between the vigour of ,pamphaios and the refinement of ,epiktetos1 combining robustness and grace with a tendency to largeness of style1#acbf which shows that he is preparing the way for ,euphronios4 ,in summing up the characteristics of the cups of severe style1 we note that they exhibit throughout a development in technique and decoration rather than in style and drawing4 ,the earliest are little removed from the later ,b4,f4 kylikes with interior designs and large eyes on the exterior1 many having in fact ,b4,f4 interiors4 ,with the eyes occupying so much space1 it is rare at first to find anything like a composition on the exterior2 but gradually the eyes disappear1 the palmette ornaments 7see p4 #dad7 decrease in size1 and the figures extend themselves into friezes1 with definite action4 ,we have scenes of combat with a marked centre1 like a sculptured pediment1 group of athletes or revellers1 and mythological or heroic subjects from the stories of ,herakles1 ,theseus1 and ,troy4 ,in the interiors the development is somewhat different4 ,beginning with a simple design of a simple figure within a plain circle--at first an enforced necessity1 but subsequently due to choice--the tendency is to fill in the space more and more as the power of drawing develops1 and the painter casts about for new ideas4 ,hence1 as ,klein#acbg says1 8,here we have carrying1 lifting1 hurrying1 running1 stooping1 dancing1 springing 444 and all for the sole purpose of obtaining those movements of the human body which the space of the vase demanded40 ,we also note the almost entire absence of mythological scenes in the interiors2 repose or simple action is all that is aimed at1 whereas on the exteriors scenes of activity or even violence are admitted4 ,murray#acbh has pointed out some interesting parallels between the kylix-interiors and contemporary coins and gems1 which show the vase-painter to have been in full accord with the spirit of the times4 ,thus1 to take the coins first1 the ,sphinx of ,chios is repeated on the ,b4,m4 vase ,e #aj1 the armed warrior of ,aspendos on ,e #aa1 the ,diskobolos of ,kos on ,e #gh1 and the squatting ,satyr of ,naxos on a vase formerly in the ,bourguignon collection4#acbi ,among fifth-century gems we find such subjects as a youth kneeling and holding a jug1 a woman at a washing-basin1 a ,satyr with wine-skin1 a youth fastening his sandal1 and an archer#accj--;all of which occur on the interior of ,r4,f4 kylikes4 ,the beautiful subject of the body of ,memnon borne by two genii 7see above71 although an exterior subject1 may also be mentioned here as paralleled in a fine gem4#acca ,in ,klein's valuable monograph on early ,r4,f4 cup-painting there is a useful table#accb setting forth the development of the ,epictetan cycle of cups1 both in subject and arrangement4 ,his first class includes the purely ,b4,f4 cups of ,nikosthenes and ,pamphaios1 with the ,gorgoneion in the interior and large eyes on the exterior1 which form the prelude to the ,r4,f4 series4 ,in the next stage a ,b4,f4 subject1 such as a warrior1 horseman1 or deer1 takes the place of the ,gorgoneion2 the exteriors are ,r4,f41 but the eyes are retained1 allowing only of a single figure each side4 ,three of these are painted by ,epiktetos1 others by ,pamphaios and ,chelis4 ,the third stage has only ,r4,f4 interiors1 the exterior preserving the same character2 instances may be found among the works of ,chelis and ,pheidippos4 ,finally1 there is a long series of nearly eighty cups and plates1 many of the former with interior designs only1 in which the eyes are finally dropped1 and the exterior subjects are developed into regular friezes1 being often mythological4 ,these include the majority of the works of ,epiktetos1 ,pamphaios1 and ,chachrylion1 the latter of whom marks the transition to the next stage4 ,turning now to the works of other artists in this period1 and passing over ,andokides1 whom we have already discussed 7p4 #chf71 we find that ,euthymides is the most conspicuous name after those of the cup-painters4#accc ,strictly speaking1 he does not belong exclusively to the severe period1 at least in point of date1 though his style is comparatively behindhand2 as we shall see1 he was partly contemporary with ,euphronios4 ,his style is curiously similar to that of ,phintias1 as is shown by the fact that the same unsigned vases have been attributed to both by different authorities4 ,five vases bear his signature 7in two cases 1 in the others 71 and he gives the additional information that he was the son of ,polios4 ,he uses three -names-- ,megakles1 ,smikythos1 and ,phayllos1 the first-named being also employed by ,phintias4 ,two of his vases 7in ,munich2 see ,fig4 #acg7 are amphorae1 one a hydria1 one a psykter1 and one a circular dish or plate like those of ,epiktetos4 ,the similarity of his work to that of ,phintias suggests that they were partners4 ,a vase with the inscription 1 1 8,this vase ,i dedicate to thee1 ,euthymides10 has been attributed by ,hartwig to ,phintias1 and may be an interesting instance of the friendship existing between the two artists4 ,on the other hand1 ,euthymides seems to have viewed with apprehension and jealousy the growing success of his junior1 ,euphronios4 ,on one of the ,munich amphorae he places the boast--by no means with justification--8,euphronios never made the like0 7 74 ,the height of his activity may be placed about #ejj-dij ,b4,c41 a date which suits the use of the name ,megakles4 ,this probably denotes the grandfather of ,alkibiades and uncle of ,perikles1 who was ostracised in #dhg ,b4,c4 ,the same name1 as is well known1 occurs on the warrior-tablet found on the ,acropolis#accd1 and on the strength of this ,hoppin attributes the tablet to ,euthymides4#acce ,there is1 however1 no proof that such tablets1 which belong rather to the higher branch of painting at that time1 were made by vase-painters4 ,the style of ,euthymides and his preference for the amphora seem to indicate that he was much under the influence of ,andokides4 ,he still clings to the old style in his methods of decoration1 as in the borders of the designs4 ,his individuality1 says ,hoppin1 is best shown in his draperies1 the details of which are faintly indicated in red1 and he shows some skill in foreshortening1 but his heads are too large4 ,he also exhibits a strong preference for mythological subjects1 such as the arming of ,hector1 but usually balances these subjects with a genre-scene from the gymnasium or symposium4 ,his partner ,phintias#accf is distinguished from him in one respect--namely1 that he painted cups as well as other shapes4 ,but his cups have nothing in common with his ,epictetan cycle1 and seem rather to have been under the influence of ,euphronios4 ,we may therefore regard him as another connecting-link between the severe and strong periods4 ,eight vases are actually signed by him1#accg though one of these has no subject1 being merely modelled in the form of a head 7see below1 p4 #dic72 but from his use of ,megakles and ,chairias as -names1 and other indications1 ,hartwig has been enabled to add to the number no less than twelve cups and eleven other vases#acch4 ,the cups are mostly small1 with interior designs only1 and those single figures2 his composition is not a strong point1 but the single figures are good1 especially the nude forms2 his draperies are stiff1 but effective1 and his heads are influenced by ,euphronios1 as ,hartwig notes4 ,a pair of painters that may be linked together are ,oltos and ,euxitheos1 the former the painter1 the latter the potter1 of a kylix in ,berlin 7#bbfd74 ,we also have a magnificent kylix at ,corneto1 with the name of ,euxitheos as potter1 probably painted by ,oltos2 on one side of the exterior is an assemblage of the gods1 on the other a ,dionysiac scene4#acci ,in the ,british ,museum is an amphora1 also made by ,euxitheos 7,e #beh2 signed on handles71 with a single figure each side 7,achilles and ,briseis71 and a krater in the ,louvre with the -name ,leagros seems to be by the same hand4#acdj ,hartwig1 who regards ,oltos as the painter in each case1 shows his connection on the one side with ,andokides and ,euthymides1 on the other with ,hieron4 ,he displays a preference for large figures and for ,dionysiac subjects4 ,the one vase of ,hypsis1 a hydria1#acda must be of early date2 the shape1 ornamentation1 and arrangement of the designs are purely ,b4,f4 in character4 ,we have two vases of the alabastron form#acdb--;an unusual one for signatures--made by ,hilinos and painted by ,psiax1 and a kylix of ,epictetan style in ,munich signed by the latter4#acdc ,the two former are each decorated with two figures in a simple1 severe1 yet effective style2 the latter has a ,b4,f4 interior 7figure of ,seilenos71 and ,r4,f4 exterior with the large eyes1 and a warrior on one side only4 ,in the latter case the signature is simply 1 without a verb2 on the ,odessa vase the imperfect tense is used1 the casual use of which is a characteristic of the transitional period4#acdd ,mr4 ,hoppin has given several reasons for attributing an early date to those two artists 7about #ebj-ejj71 not the least convincing of which is the use of a ,b4,f4 technique and of the large eyes4 ,we now find ourselves at the point where ,euphronios forces his way to the front as the great master in the new school of painting in which the influence of ,kimon of ,kleonae can be traced4#acde ,hartwig compares this new departure of art to the ,italian schools of painting in the fifteenth century1 in which also naturalism and a knowledge of perspective become the characteristics in which they differ most markedly from their predecessors4 ,the early work of the school of ,euphronios1 which we may place about #ejj-dhj ,b4,c41 is best illustrated by the series of cups with the -name ,leagros1 which must belong to this time4 ,this name is found on two of the vases signed by ,euphronios1 the ,antaios krater in the ,louvre and the ,geryon kylix in ,munich1 of which ,chachrylion was the potter4 ,the fact that it is found also on some ,b4,f4 vases#acdf seems to argue1 not for its appearance previous to this date1 but rather for the view that at the beginning of the fifth century there was still a preference for the old method for certain shapes--the amphora1 hydria1 and lekythos4 ,it may also be inferred that ,euphronios had already appeared on the scene while ,chachrylion1 ,pamphaios1 and ,oltos were still painting more in the manner of ,epiktetos1 and hence we are justified in regarding those artists as belonging to the severe style1 even though they overlap with the succeeding period4 ,the labours of ,hartwig and other scholars have now made it possible to associate an extensive series of vases with the school of ,euphronios1 but there are only ten in existence which actually bear his signature4#acdg ,they are as follows 7the order being roughly chronological73-- 7#a7 ,krater in ,louvre1 ,g #ajc3 ,herakles and ,antaios2 musical performance4 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,atlas1 pls4 #ajj1 #aja4 7#b7 ,psykter in ,petersburg1 #afgj3 ,banquet of ,hetairae4 7#c7 ,kylix in ,munich1 #ccg3 ,herakles and ,geryon4 ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #bb ,plate ,,xxxviii4 7#d7 ,kylix in ,louvre1 ,g #ajd3 ,theseus' adventures4 ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #e2 ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 pl4 #ad4 7#e7 ,kylix in ,bibl4 ,nat41 #ebf3 ,scene from ,doloneia 7fragmentary74 ,klein1 ,euphronios1#b p4 #acg4 7#f7 ,kylix in ,brit4 ,mus41 ,e #dd3 ,herakles and ,eurystheus4 ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #bc4 7#g7 ,kylix in ,perugia3 ,achilles and ,troilos scenes4 ,hartwig1 pls4 #eh-i4 7#h7 ,kylix in ,berlin1 #bbha3 ,sack of ,troy 7fragmentary74 7#i7 ,kylix in ,boston3 ,banquet scenes4 ,hartwig1 pls4 #dg-h4 7#aj7 ,kylix in ,berlin1 #bbhb 7polychrome73 ,achilles and ,diomede4 ,hartwig1 pls4 #ea-b4 ,in the first three instances he signs 1 in the rest 4 ,the ,louvre krater shows ,euphronios in his early manner1 when1 as ,murray says1 8he was in the mood of drawing massive limbs and colossal proportions40 ,the 8type0 of the ,herakles and ,antaios is interesting as a reminiscence of the ,b4,f4 wrestling-scheme adopted for ,herakles and the ,nemean lion 7see ,chapter ,,xiv474 ,the chief variation is that the figures are posed in a sort of elongated isosceles triangle1 no doubt with the intention of showing ,herakles' efforts to raise the giant from the earth to which he so strenuously clings4 ,in the form of ,antaios we already observe the capacity for rendering a body accurately in different planes which was one of the chief distinctions of the new school4 ,on the other hand1 the agitated female figures in the background are depicted in the old quasi-,egyptian attitudes1 with bodies in front view and heads in profile2 yet in the treatment of their draperies there is a great advance4 ,the ,geryon cup 7,plate ,,xxxviii47 is a wonderful combination of picturesque and effective grouping with elaboration of detail1 and is so far the most naturalistic piece of work that any vase-painter has produced4 ,here again the old ,b4,f4 8type0 is retained1 at least for the ,geryon1 who appears as the 8three men joined together0 of the ,kypselos chest1#acdh one of whom falls backward wounded4 ,but the whole scene is vivid and instinct with life2 even ,athena and ,iolaos1 instead of calmly watching the contest1 join in animated comment thereon1 and the former seems to be hastening forward to join in the fray4 ,not the least effective part of the design is formed by the group of ,geryon's cows on the reverse1 which show that ,euphronios was a keen observer of nature and anatomy1 and the varied poses and skilful grouping of the herd are striking instances of his art in composition4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxviii ,illustration3 ,,kylix ,,by ,,euphronios 7,,in ,,munich73 ,,herakles ,,slaying ,,geryon4 ------------------------------------ ,as typical of his later manner 7about #dhj-dfj ,b4,c47 we may take the ,british ,museum kylix and that in the museum at ,perugia4 ,they bear respectively the -names ,panaitios and ,lykos1 while the contemporary ,berlin cup 7#bbhb7 has the name of ,glaukon4 ,these clearly form a new group1 distinct from the ,leagros series1 and1 if the historical identification of ,glaukon 7see p4 #djd above1 and ,chapter ,,xvii47 is correct1 enable us to place them about #dgj-dfj ,b4,c4 ,the interior group of the ,british ,museum cup shows us two figures1 a woman standing by the side of a man1 who is seated to the front and drawn in a very boldly foreshortened attitude4 ,their physiognomy1 in particular the large prominent nose1 is especially characteristic of ,euphronios' riper style1 and in the treatment of the drapery we distinguish a great advance even on his earlier vases4 ,not only is it executed with perfect freedom and naturalness1 but even different qualities of material are indicated1 e4g4 by the use of fine crinkly lines4 ,the ,theseus kylix in the ,louvre1 which ,hartwig regards as the highest point of the ,r4,f4 style1 a study in idealism rather than naturalism1 is also conspicuous for its excellence in this respect4 ,the ,troilos kylix in ,perugia1 which as far as can be ascertained is the latest of ,euphronios' works1 is interesting1 apart from its artistic treatment1 as an instance of the current tendency to combine interior and exterior scenes in one whole1 representing distinct or successive episodes of a single subject4 ,on one side of the exterior1 ,achilles1 having emerged from his ambush1 drags the unfortunate boy by his hair to the altar at which the tragedy is to be consummated2 his horses betake themselves off with flying reins4 ,meanwhile1 on the other side1 ,troilos' ,trojan comrades1 as on the ,franois vase1 hastily arm themselves in order to come to his rescue4 ,but the interior scene shows us that their efforts are in vain2 the boy1 in whose countenance fear and agony are admirably depicted1 is about to fall a victim to the sword of his relentless foe1 who in a vigorous yet even graceful attitude raises his arm to deal the death-blow4 ,of the vase as a whole ,murray says1 8,there is no mistaking in it the presence of all the best and strongest qualities of ,euphronios1 though in a more subdued and more poetic form4 ,his draperies444are full of refinement and beauty40 ,it remains to say a word on ,euphronios in another aspect--as a painter in polychrome on white ground4 ,the ,berlin cup ,no4 #bbhb1 sadly fragmentary as it is1 bears not only the signature of ,euphronios1 but the -name ,glaukon1 to which we have already referred4 ,the method of painting1 to which we have referred on a subsequent page 7p4 #deg71 was one just at its height in the middle of the fifth century4 ,the two heads1 which are the best-preserved parts of the cup1 are remarkable for their breadth and largeness of style1 and for their idealising tendency1 which recalls the coins of a slightly later period and such works of sculpture as the ephebos-head from the ,athenian ,acropolis1 to say nothing of the sculptures of ,olympia4 ,we must not1 however1 omit to notice here the views of some recent writers1 who are inclined to doubt whether the paintings on some of these later vases are actually from ,euphronios' hand4#acdi ,it is certainly noteworthy that he has ceased to sign 2 but to maintain that the 1 where no other painter's name occurs1 does not include the painting of the vase1 is to rest on somewhat negative evidence1 and would also lead to the refusal to recognise ,chachrylion and other noted artists as the painters of their signed vases4 ,if1 however1 this view is to be accepted1 it would entail the attribution of the scenes on the ,troilos cup to ,onesimos1 who painted a cup of similar style in the ,louvre1#acej of which ,euphronios was the potter4 ,hartwig thinks that the ,berlin cup is not by ,euphronios1 but would attribute to him a similar fragmentary cup in the ,british ,museum 7,d #a74 ,the beautiful ,aphrodite cup in the same collection 7,d #b7 bears the -name of ,glaukon1 but in view of what has been said any attempt to attribute it to ,euphronios would be dangerous4#acea ,we now have to deal with a trio of his contemporaries1 men of marked individuality and capacity1 who display the same instincts for naturalism and freedom of style1 though no one of them rises quite to the height of ,euphronios' genius4 ,of these ,duris has left a total of twenty-three signed vases1 of which no less than twenty-one are kylikes1 the other two being a kantharos and a psykter4 ,he signs almost consistently 1 but in addition on the kantharos2 he employs three potters at different times--,python 7who worked for ,epiktetos71 ,kleophrades 7who worked for ,amasis ,,ii471 and ,kalliades4 ,of -names he uses no less than five1 the first two of which go together in his earlier period--,chairestratos and ,panaitios4 ,the latter name1 as we have seen1 was used by ,euphronios4 ,on the vases in his later manner the names of ,aristagoras1 ,hermogenes1 and ,hippodamas appear4 ,he seems to have been about ten years the junior of ,euphronios1 but to what extent he was influenced by him is uncertain4 ,murray traces the influence of the other in his later manner1 when he forsakes his old love of figures in repose for subjects entailing violent action4 ,hartwig1 on the other hand1 attributes this change to the influence of ,brygos2 and in any case1 it is certain that he never attained to the vitality and freedom of ,euphronios4 ,his style is so marked that it is possible--apart from the evidence of -names--to attribute to him many vases not actually signed by him1 as may be gathered from the study of his work by ,hartwig4#aceb ,in his earlier vases he shows a strong preference for scenes from the palaestra1 and only two are mythological4 ,according to ,hartwig it is these vases that show the closest parallelism with ,euphronios1 both in choice of subject and in treatment4 ,the later works show a great and surprising falling off1 and are frequently dull and comparatively careless4 ,they show1 in fact1 a change from the perfecting of naturalism to mere mannerism1 and this in spite of the change in subjects from repose to violent action4 ,it is probable that he fell away from the influence of ,euphronios to that of ,hieron and ,brygos1 lacking entirely1 as he did1 the genius of the older artist4 ,on the other hand1 his choice of subjects becomes much more varied1 many being heroic or mythological1 and among these scenes from the labours of ,theseus take the place of the older athletic types 7cf4 p4 #dah74 ,he is also fond of banquet-scenes at all times1 and found in them scope for bold foreshortening as applied to figures in repose4#acec ,the best-known vase by ,duris is a kylix in ,berlin 7#bbhe ,plate ,,xxxix471 on the exterior of which are painted scenes from a school4 ,on one side a boy receives instruction in the lyre1 while another stands before his teacher reading from a roll on which is inscribed the first line of an epic poem3 7see ,chapter ,,xvii474 ,on the other side1 the five figures on which exactly balance those on the first1 we have a lesson on the flute and in drawing or writing2 the seated figure in the middle holds a pen and an open tablet4 ,the fifth figure in each case is a bearded man1 seated on a stool watching the proceedings4 ,in the field are suspended lyres1 writing-tables1 and rolls of manuscript4 ,there is also a beautiful cup in the ,louvre1 the interior of which represents ,eos with the body of ,memnon2 the exterior1 ,homeric combats4#aced ,of the three examples of his work in the ,british ,museum1 one is occupied with the labours of ,theseus 7,frontispiece72 another 7,e #di7 shows his love of slim nude figures1 contrasted with careful and formal drapery4 ,the peculiar shape of the heads should be noticed2 also the treatment of the eye1 as a circle with a dot in the centre4 ,like ,epiktetos1 a slave of precision1 he in nearly all these cases avoids violence of action1 and seeks after a quiet gracefulness4 ,his peculiarly fine technical skill appears to have been much appreciated in his day4#acee ,hieron has signed twenty-eight vases1 all being kylikes except three1 which are kotylae4 ,his invariable formula is 1 and the signature is generally incised on the handle of the vase4 ,hartwig is inclined to attribute one or two cups with this signature to another master1 who had a preference for introducing bald-headed figures#acef2 and1 in regard to others1 there is fairly certain evidence that they were not painted by him4 ,for instance1 a very fine kylix with the carrying off of ,helen bears the name of ,makron as painter1#aceg and it is possible that others are actually painted by that artist1 who in any case must have been a partner of his4 ,his work is regarded by ,hartwig as full of individuality and excellence4 ,hieron1 on the other hand1 is inclined to the repetition of certain types1 little individualised4 ,he seems to have been trained in the school of ,oltos rather than that of ,euphronios1#aceh except that he learned from the latter the use of foreshortening4 ,his only -name is that of ,hippodamas1 also used by ,duris4 ,his subjects comprise scenes from myth and legend1 musical and conversational groups1 and ,dionysiac scenes4 ,he is fond of decorating his exteriors with rows of men and women of a somewhat sentimental type1 smelling flowers1 or in amorous converse4 ,but he rises to higher flights in the ,berlin cup 7#bbij71 with ,maenads sacrificing to ,dionysos ,dendrites1 and still more in the splendid kotyle in the ,british ,museum 7,e #adj ,plate ,,li471 with the gathering of the ,eleusinian deities at the sending forth of ,triptolemos 7see ,chapter ,,xii474 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xxxix ,illustration3 #a1 ,,kylix ,,by ,,duris 7,,in ,,berlin73 ,,school ,,scene4 #b1 ,,kylix ,,in ,,style ,,of ,,brygos 7,,corneto73 ,,theseus ,,deserting ,,ariadne4 ------------------------------------ ,his figures exhibit a strongly marked type of head1 large and simple1 perhaps developed from those of ,duris4 ,but it is in the treatment of drapery that he chiefly excels1 especially in the ,british ,museum kotyle and the ,berlin cup4 ,particular mention should be made of the elaborate garment worn by ,demeter on the former1 with its rich figured embroideries 7see ,chapter ,,xvi472 and the robes of ,persephone1 though simpler in decoration1 show an even greater richness of treatment in the delicate lines of the chiton and the graceful fall of the mantle4 ,on a cup in ,berlin with the ,judgment of ,paris 7,fig4 #abi7 he makes a notable attempt at landscape1 showing ,paris seated on a rock1 surrounded by a flock of goats4 ,brygos has only left eight cups1 but they are on the whole of a high order of merit4 ,the ,acropolis excavations yielded a fragment of his work1 showing that the beginning of his career must be placed before #dhj ,b4,c4 ,but although he retains some archaisms from his early training1 he stands1 as ,murray has pointed out1 on the threshold of the fine style1 and in some of his compositions there is a distinctly pictorial tendency4 ,his use of gilding 7as on ,e #fe in ,b4,m47 is also1 as with ,euphronios in his polychrome cup1 an evidence of advanced work4 ,he shows in his work more directness and actuality1 as compared with the stateliness and grace of ,hieron and ,makron1 and the infusion of earnestness and animation into his figures is a typical characteristic4#acei ,he pays more attention to his compositions than to his single figures1 but lacks the rhythm of ,euphronios4 ,his subjects are very varied1 and cover almost all the vase-painters' ground except the palaestra4 ,hartwig on this account connects him with the school of ,oltos1 ,hieron1 and ,peithinos1 who preferred erotic and ,dionysiac to athletic subjects1 and points out that his use of bold foreshortening effects need not connote the direct influence of ,euphronios1 inasmuch as were by this time the common property of vase- painters4 ,it is interesting to note that he uses no -name1 and both he and ,hieron seem to belong to a time when this fashion was dying out2 by the end of the 8strong0 period it had practically disappeared4 ,to speak of his vases in detail1 the ,british ,museum cup has been praised for the composition and drawing of its exterior designs and its clever foreshortening4 ,the exterior subject is interesting as being derived from a ,satyric drama4 ,the difference of scale between the figures of deities and those of the ,satyrs reminds us 7though there is of course no question of influence7 of the similar treatment of the east frieze of the ,parthenon4 ,it has been suggested by several writers that the name ,brygos implies a ,macedonian origin for this painter1 and on these grounds a kylix in the ,british ,museum 7,e #fh7 has been attributed to him which bears inscriptions in the ,macedonian or some kindred dialect--,pilon for ,philon1 ,pilipos for ,philippos 7see ,chapter ,,xvii474 ,this cup is interesting for the introduction of a new type1 that of the young dancing girl4#acfj ,the beautiful cup on ,plate ,,xxxix4 7fig4 #b7 has also been referred to him4 ,among other interesting subjects are the ,triptolemos cup in ,frankfurt1 the cup with the ,judgment of ,paris 7which may be compared with that of ,hieron71 and the ,sack of ,troy cup in the ,louvre 7,plate ,,liv474 ,this latter subject we have already seen treated as a whole by ,euphronios1 though previously it had only appeared in the form of isolated episodes2 but the growing tendency to pictorial treatment of such subjects is well illustrated by the cup of ,brygos and the later ,vivenzio hydria in ,naples4 ,peithinos is a master who has been largely rediscovered by ,hartwig4 ,only one cup with his signature is known1 a fine example in ,berlin 7#bbgi7 with the ,euphronian -name ,athenodotos1 and the interior subject of ,peleus seizing ,thetis1 treated with great decorative effect4 ,hartwig traces his style in eight more cups1 chiefly with erotic and banqueting subjects1 and points out among the former an early instance of sentimentality in vase-painting in the figure of a love-sick man4 ,he characterises his style as 8over-ripe archaism10 with a slight reversion to the mannerisms of ,exekias1 and great attention to detail in general4 ,he sees in ,peithinos the first instance of the pictorial tendency of which we have spoken1 contrasting him with ,euphronios and other painters who were always in the first instance draughtsmen4 ,in the ,berlin ,museum there is a magnificent cup 7#bbgh7acfa purporting to be made by ,sosias1 a name which does not otherwise occur4#acfb ,in the absence of indications of the painter1 ,hartwig and ,furtwaengler are inclined to think that the decoration may be the work of ,peithinos2 but this can hardly amount to more than a matter of individual opinion4 ,it is one of the most sumptuously decorated cups of this period that we possess1 but the exterior is unfortunately greatly damaged4 ,in the interior ,achilles is represented binding up the wounded arm of his comrade ,patroklos4 ,the expressions of the figures and the remarkable foreshortening of ,patroklos' right leg are indications of the admirable skill of the painter1 whoever he may have been4 ,on the exterior is an assemblage of gods and goddesses to receive ,herakles on his entry into ,olympos1 including seventeen figures in all1 distinguished by inscriptions4 ,in the later chapters of his great work ,hartwig has disentangled the styles of several masters of this period1 though not in every case is he able to give their names2 but some vases can be grouped together by means of -names or by special peculiarities1 such as the use of a conventional foliage-ornament4 ,they are1 however1 for the most part of inferior merit to those of the painters hitherto discussed4 ,among the painters' names are those of ,amasis ,,ii41 ,apollodoros1 and ,onesimos2 the latter has already been mentioned in connection with ,euphronios4 ,generally speaking1 the chief characteristic of the cups of this period is the tendency to treat the interior and exterior as representing successive episodes of one theme1#acfc as in the ,troilos cup of ,euphronios1 or at least as having some connection1 more or less definite1 as in the ,theseus cup of the same master4 ,both in exterior and interior designs the development of composition is very strongly marked1 and there is a notable tendency to enhance the effect of interior scenes by rich decorative borders4 ,even in the work of individual painters a great development is to be observed1 showing how rapid the growth of artistic power was at this time2 and thus we are able to distinguish in ,euphronios and ,duris an earlier and a later manner4 ,as ,hartwig has said 7p4 #ie71 the period of progress associated with the names of ,euphronios and ,brygos is characterised by an individuality and freedom which were partly the cause and partly the effect of a closer study of nature and an increased capacity for rendering it4 ,among other artists of the time1 almost the only conspicuous name is that of ,smikros1 the painter of two stamni1 in the ,british ,museum 7,e #dch7 and ,brussels1#acfd and also most probably of a 8,nolan0 amphora in the ,louvre 7,g #ajg71 which is inscribed 1 8,this is evidently ,smikros' work40 ,he signs in both the former cases with 4 ,he appears1 says ,m4 ,gaspar1 as a rival of ,euphronios and ,duris1 but fails in the attempt to equal their achievements in vividness1 originality1 and faithful reproduction of the human figure4 ,the ,brussels stamnos is interesting as representing inscribed persons from ordinary life1 just as ,phintias 7see p4 #dbi7 introduces on a vase figures of the artists ,tlenpolemos and ,euthymides4 ,klein also attributes to him a krater at ,arezzo#acfe with the -name ,pheidiades1 which occurs on the signed vases4 ,it is remarkable for the treatment of the subject 7,herakles and the ,amazons7 in the style of the ,b4,f4 vases4 ,the next development of ,r4,f4 vase-painting1 which presents all the characteristics of the best period of ,greek art and of the highest point to which that art attained1 is that called the fine style4 ,in this the influence of painting first really begins to manifest itself1 especially that of the ,polygnotan school1 which covers the years #dgj-ddj ,b4,c4 ,it is shown alike in composition and in drawing1 and to a lesser degree in the colouring2 but the general use of colours and gilding on vases really belongs to the succeeding stage4 ,as regards the drawing1 the figures have lost the hardness which at first characterised them2 the eyes are no longer represented obliquely1 but in profile2 the extremities are finished with greater care1 the chin and nose are more rounded1 and have lost the extreme elongation of the earlier schools4 ,the limbs are fuller and thicker1 the faces noble1 the hair of the head and beard treated with greater breadth and mass1 just as subsequently the painter ,zeuxis gave more flesh to his figures in order to make them appear of greater breadth and grandeur1 like ,homer1 who represented even his women of larger proportions4#acff ,the great charm of these designs is the beauty of the composition1 and the more perfect proportion of the figures4 ,the head is an oval1 three-quarters of which forms the distance from the chin to the ear2 the disproportionate length of limbs has entirely disappeared1 and the countenance assumes a natural form and expression4 ,the folds of the drapery1 too1 are freer1 and the attitudes have lost their old rigidity4 ,it is the outgrowth of the life and freedom of an ideal proportion1 united with careful composition4 ,before the introduction of the ,polygnotan style of composition1 the figures are generally large1 and arranged in groups of two or three on each side1 occupying about two-thirds of the height of the vase2 but the pictorial influence is more in the direction of smaller figures1 grouped at different levels4 ,figures in full face are now much less uncommon4 ,in some of the larger vases with figures on both sides1 such as the kraters1 the reverse side is not finished with the same care as the obverse1 being intended to stand against a wall1 or at least to be less prominently seen4 ,the career of ,polygnotos extends from #dgh ,b4,c4 to #ddg ,b4,c41 as far as can be gathered from the various works on which we know him to have been engaged4 ,in #dgh he painted frescoes for the temple of ,athena ,areia at ,plataea1 in #dgd he decorated the ,theseion and ,anakeion at ,athens1 in #dfj he worked with ,mikon on the ,stoa ,poikile1 and from #deh to #ddg he was engaged on his great paintings of the and for the ,lesche at ,delphi4#acfg ,as all these paintings are described more or less in detail by ,pausanias1 their subjects form a valuable clue to the investigation of his influence on the vases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,,krater ,,of ,,polygnotan ,,style ,,in ,,louvre3 ,,the ,,slaying ,,of ,,the ,,niobids4 ,at first1 indeed1 this is limited to single figures or motives#acfh2 it is not until about #dgj that his method of composition1 with its rough perspective and variety of level1 finds its way on to the vases4 ,the oldest vase on which these new features appear is the krater from ,orvieto in the ,louvre1#acfi which has usually been placed about #dgj1 though at first sight it appears to be later2 but certain small details of an archaic character point the other way4 ,the main subject is a group of ,argonauts1 which has been variously interpreted1 but ,robert suggests that the scene represents their preparations for departure1 and is thus able to associate it with a painting by ,mikon in the ,anakeion1 on which that subject was employed4 ,the various vases which depict the story of ,theseus' visit to ,amphitrite#acgj are referred also by ,robert to an original by ,mikon in the ,theseion 7about #dgj ,b4,c474 ,the cup of ,euphronios 7p4 #dca7 and the ,girgenti krater represent a stage of the subject contemporary with that painter2 on the ,bologna krater we have a reduced version of his work2 and on the ,tricase vase from ,ruvo1 which belongs to the school of ,hermonax 7see below7 a simpler form of the myth occurs1 contemporary with the preceding4 ,the technique and colouring of ,polygnotos' works find their reflection principally in the polychrome vases 7see below1 p4 #dee74 ,on the red-figured vases of this period we must look for his influence rather in the arrangement and poses of the figures1 the methods of indicating locality1 and the attempts at perspective4 ,professor ,robert's ingenious reproductions of his paintings#acga may be profitably compared with such vases as the ,orvieto krater1 the ,blacas krater in the ,british ,museum 7,e #dff ,plate ,,liii471 or the somewhat later hydria of ,meidias 7see below74 ,the principle adopted was that of arranging the figures1 not in even rows or in proper perspective1 but at different levels1 those in the background being sometimes half hidden by rising ground4 ,it is a principle which we shall find even more fully developed in the ,south ,italy vases of the succeeding century2 but it was at the time of its appearance quite sudden and unexpected1 contradicting at first sight the decorative principles of vase-painting4 ,polygnotos was also fond of indicating characteristics of his personages or allusions to their history by means of subtle touches or actions4 ,thus ,phaedra was represented in a swing1 ,eriphyle with her hand on her neck 7with reference to the necklace71 ,theseus and ,peirithoos in sitting postures1 and so on4 ,this is quite in the manner of the fifth-century vase-painter4 ,finally1 the late ,f4 ,dmmler has pointed out that his influence is possibly to be traced in another manner on certain vases1 viz4 in the use of the dialect of ,paros and ,thasos for the inscriptions instead of ,attic forms4#acgb ,it should be borne in mind that he was a native of ,thasos1 and would naturally have used his native dialect for the inscriptions over his figures4 ,the following is a list of vases showing ,polygnotan influence3 7#a7 ,in types and motives only 7#dgj-dfj ,b4,c47#acgc3 ,b4,m4 ,e #agj1 #dej1 #dfi2 ,berlin #bdjc ,reinach1 i4 #dej2 ,naples #bdba ,reinach1 ii4 #bgh and #cjhi ,millingen- ,reinach1 #cc2 ,reinach1 i4 #ahd 7two vases71 #bah1 #bba2 ,jahrbuch1 #ahhf1 pl4 #aj1 fig4 #b2 ,millingen-,reinach1 #di-ej2 ,furtwaengler1 #ejtes ,winckelmannsfestprogr4 pl4 #bacgd2 ,louvre ,a #bef ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 pl4 #aa 7,dmmler74 7#b7 ,in method of composition 7#dfj-ddj ,b4,c47#acge3 ,b4,m4 ,e #bbd1 ,e #dff1 ,e #dib2 ,berlin #behh ,reinach1 i4 #bag and #bdga ,coll4 ,sabouroff1 i4 #ee2 ,naples ,r4,c4 #bci ,reinach1 i4 #dhb2 ,jatta #ajic1 #ajie1 #adih ,reinach1 i4 #age1 #aai1 #aaa2 ,petersburg #agib1 #ahjg ,reinach1 i4 #a1 #g2 ,reinach1 i4 #ebb1 #e 7in ,bologna72 ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 #cf 7ibid472 ,reinach1 i4 #aia2 and reflecting the style of ,polygnotos or of ,mikon3 ,reinach1 i4 #bbf-bg ,j4,h4,s4 x4 p4 #aah 7,louvre72 ,reinach1 i4 #bcb ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 p4 #bgg4 ,to these may perhaps be added3 ,naples #bhhi ,raoul-,rochette1 ,mon4 ,ind4 pls4 #ac-d2 ,athens #aiba ,reinach1 i4 #eaa2 ,berlin #bcbf 7see ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #agb74 ,in this stage1 as has been noted1 artists' signatures are far more rare than in either of the two preceding1 and cup-painters in particular are few and far between4 ,the -names1 too1 have almost entirely come to an end4 ,of the cup-painters the only known names are those of ,aeson1 ,erginos and ,aristophanes1 ,hegias1 ,hegesiboulos1 ,sotades1 and ,xenotimos1 and of these four 7,aeson1 ,hegesiboulos1 ,hegias1#acgf and ,xenotimos#acgg7 are only represented by single specimens4 ,two very fine cups1 made by ,erginos and painted by ,aristophanes1 are in the museums of ,berlin and ,boston respectively1--the former decorated with scenes from the ,gigantomachia within and without 7,fig4 #aab72 the latter has in the interior ,herakles rescuing ,deianeira from ,nessos1 on the exterior a battle of ,centaurs and ,lapiths4 ,an unsigned duplicate of this vase was acquired by the ,boston ,museum at the same time4#acgh ,the vase by ,aeson is decorated with scenes from the labours of ,theseus4#acgi ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xl ,illustration3 ,,cups ,,by ,,sotades4 #a1 ,,in ,,boston2 #b1 ,,brit4 ,,mus43 ,,polyeidos ,,in ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,glaukos4 ------------------------------------ ,sotades stands apart from his contemporaries as an artist of much individuality1 with a tendency to great refinement and delicacy in his work4 ,he has left one ,r4,f4 kantharos and some half-dozen vases of the white-ground type1 two with very interesting subjects 7see also p4 #deg72 all but the first were formerly in ,m4 van ,branteghem's collection1 and these are now divided between the ,british and ,boston ,museums4 ,he is remarkable for his extremely delicate cups1 with handles in the form of a chicken's merrythought1 and he also made two phialae with white interior and moulded exterior painted in rings of red1 white1 and black2 on the interior of one of these a cicala 77 is ingeniously modelled so as to appear resting there 7,plate ,,xl474 ,hegesiboulos1 one of whose vases was also in the ,van ,branteghem collection1#achj seems to have been an artist of similar tendencies4 ,of the rest1 ,epigenes' name appears on a small kantharos in the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 and those of ,megakles and ,maurion on pyxides4 ,among the painters who exercised their skill on larger vases the most noteworthy is ,polygnotos1 who has left an amphora and two stamni4 ,the similarity of his name to that of the great contemporary painter has naturally led to conjectures as to a possible connection of the two1 which has been discussed by ,professor ,robert in publishing two of the vases with his signature4#acha ,his conclusion is that they belong to the period #dfj-dej ,b4,c41 in which the influence of the painter is beginning to make itself felt1 but only in isolated figures and motives1 not1 as in a class of which we shall presently speak1 in the composition of scenes4 ,the earliest of the three is the stamnos in ,brussels1 with the subject of ,kaineus overwhelmed by the ,centaurs#achb2 next comes the stamnos with the combat of ,herakles and the ,centaur ,dexamenos#achc2 and lastly the ,british ,museum amphora1#achd which retains an archaic form1 but in its style and drawing presents no traces of archaism4#ache ,in the reverses of his vases1 with their tendency to meaningless and carelessly drawn figures1 we seem to trace the beginnings of the decadence4 ,hermonax1 who painted four stamni and a 8pelike10 seems to be closely associated in style with ,polygnotos4#achf ,professor ,robert would also attribute to a pupil of ,polygnotos three fine ,r4,f4 cups of about #dde ,b4,c4--the ,kodros cup in ,bologna 7,chapter ,,xiv47 and two in ,berlin 7#becg-ch71 with the subjects of the birth of ,erichthonios1 and ,aegeus consulting the oracle of ,themis4 ,nikias1 of whom we have only one example1 a bell-shaped krater in the ,british ,museum 7formerly in the ,tyszkiewicz collection71#achg is evidently1 from the form of the vase and the style of the paintings1 an artist of the latest stage of ,r4,f4 vase-painting at ,athens4 ,he is1 however1 remarkable in one respect1 namely the form of his signature1#achh which gives not only his parentage but--a unique instance among vase-painters--his deme3 4 ,the subject of the vase is the torch-race1 one often found on late ,athenian kraters1 and seldom at an earlier date4 ,lastly we have a hydria from the hand of ,meidias1 in the ,british ,museum1 which originally formed part of the ,hamilton collection 7,plate ,,xli474 ,winckelmann estimated it above all other vases known to him1 and regarded it as illustrating the highest achievement of the ,greeks in the way of drawing4 ,his criticism is hardly even now out of date1 in spite of the enormous number that now challenge comparison with it1 as far as concerns the beauty and richness of the drawing and of the composition4 ,the artist1 says ,furtwaengler1 8revels in a sea of beauty and grace2 youth and charm are idealised in his work40 ,in point of style it belongs to the epoch of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 about #dcj-dbj ,b4,c41 but so admirable is the work that it can hardly be placed so low as the contemporary vases of 8late fine0 style1 with their patent evidences of decadence4 ,meidias may therefore fairly be included with the foregoing4#achi ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xli ,illustration3 ,,hydria ,,by ,,meidias 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,the subjects represented are arranged in two friezes all round the vase1 the upper containing the rape of the ,leukippidae by the ,dioskuri--a subject which had been chosen by ,polygnotos for his painting in the ,anakeion4#acij ,not only this1 but all the vases with the same subject are doubtless largely indebted to the painting for their ideas1 especially in the system of composition with figures at different levels4#acia ,on the lower row the front view shows ,herakles in the garden of the ,hesperides1 and at the back is a group of ,athenian tribal heroes4#acib ,all the figures have their names inscribed2 these1 together with the artist's signature1 were only first noticed by ,gerhard in #ahci4 ,among the details of treatment are to be noted the exquisitely fine lines for the folds of drapery1 and the elaborate chequers and other patterns representing embroidery1 the occasional use of gilding1 the attempts to impart expression to faces by means of wrinkles1 and the characteristic rendering of the hair with wavy dark lines of thinned black on a brown wash4 ,the last artist of ,athenian origin who remains to be mentioned is ,xenophantos1 a contemporary of ,meidias1 whose name appears on a vase found at ,kertch and now in the ,hermitage at ,petersburg4#acic ,here he expressly calls himself an ,athenian1 and it has therefore been supposed that the vase was made on the spot1 otherwise it would not be obvious why he should proclaim his nationality 7see below1 p4 #dfd74 ,the chief feature of the vase--a lekythos of the 8bellied0 type so common at this stage--is the use of figures moulded in relief and applied to the surface1 in conjunction with gilding and a lavish use of white colour4 ,the subject is the ,persian king hunting4 ,the vases of the late fine style1 into which the 8fine0 style merges about the year #dcj ,b4,c41 may be divided into two classes1--that of the larger vases1 chiefly kraters1 in which the pictorial traditions of the ,polygnotan vases are carried on and developed1 and the influence of contemporary art makes itself felt2 and that of the smaller types1 such as the pyxis and the wide-bellied lekythos1 in which new features and new subjects are introduced 7cf4 ,plate ,,xlii474 ,the former class is chiefly made up of the vases found in ,southern ,italy1 in the ,crimea1 the ,cyrenaica1 and the ,greek islands1 which are apparently of ,athenian1 not local1 fabric2 but they are comparatively rare at ,athens and in ,greece ,proper1 where the smaller vases have been found in considerable numbers4 ,it may be found convenient to deal first with the latter1 as more typically ,athenian1 while the larger vases serve as a connecting-link with the succeeding fabrics dealt with in the next section4 ,in these vases linear drawing reaches its limits in respect of perfect freedom and refinement of detail2 but it is at a severe cost4 ,the artist seems to have lost interest in his subject when it no longer required an effort to execute it1 and is content to decorate his vase with a few stock figures in conventional attitudes1 uncharacterised by action or attribute4 ,frequent faults of design may be observed1 such as coarseness of drawing or negligence in the laying on of the black varnish4 ,the artist works by routine1 and appears to be nonchalant and bored4 ,mythological scenes become exceedingly rare1 and are confined to ,dionysos or ,aphrodite with their attendant personifications1 and the compositions are fanciful or decorative in character1 without any suggestion of particular events or actions4 ,the all-pervading presence of ,eros is another feature which is new to vase-painting1 but henceforward his position is established4 ,an even greater novelty is the preponderance ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xlii ,illustration3 ,,vase ,,of 8,,late ,,fine0 ,,style4 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ of subjects connected with the daily life of women or children--the toilet1 the occupations of every-day life1 or nuptial ceremonies2 and a whole series of small jugs1 themselves in all probability toys1 depicts the various games in which the ,athenian child delighted--the hoop1 the go-cart1 and the ball1 or his pet animals 7cf4 ,plate ,,xlii474 ,the shapes most popular in this group are1 as we have indicated1 the oinocho1 the wide-bellied lekythos1 and the pyxis 7,plate ,,xlii474 ,milchhoefer1 in a most important article1#acid regards the lekythi as more instructive than any other group for illustrating the later developments of ,r4,f4 vase-painting4 ,beginning with early examples of the fine style1#acie they extend to the very end without any gaps1 the tradition being further continued in ,apulia4 ,they exhibit a development from simple to rich compositions1 from 8strong0 style to perfect freedom4 ,in the latest examples1 such as that by ,xenophantos1 we see the straining after novelty which marks the decadence1 in the introduction of figures in relief applied to the surface of the vase1 as well as in the increase of polychromy and gilding4 ,among the finer vases we may note a hydria at ,karlsruhe 7#bei7 with the ,judgment of ,paris1 in which may be traced the hand of ,meidias2 the lekythos in the ,british ,museum from ,cyprus 7,e #fif71 with ,oedipus slaying the ,sphinx1 in which the figure of ,athena with its white coating is clearly reminiscent of the gold-and-ivory ,parthenos statue2 and two pretty lekythi from ,apollonia1 in ,thrace1 with the subject of incense-gathering4 ,there are also two pyxides in the ,british ,museum 7,e #ggc-d71 on which are groups of women1 with fancy names added to give interest to the scene3 thus ,klytaemnestra1 ,danae1 and ,iphigeneia occur all together1 and the ,nereids are engaged in the every-day occupations of the women's apartments4 ,from a technical point of view1 the principal change is in the increased use of gilding and polychrome colouring4 ,the former1 employed exceptionally by ,euphronios and ,brygos1 now becomes the rule1 and concurrently the use of white for flesh-tints1 as in the figure of ,athena just mentioned1 and of red1 green1 and blue for draperies1 becomes more and more general4 ,the gilding was applied for small details1 such as wreaths1 and for the hair2 and the places where it was to be applied were marked by low relief4 ,it was fixed in the form of gold-leaf by means of a yellowish gum4 ,jahn1 who some years ago collected the list of vases with gilding1#acif reckoned fifty-one known to him1 chiefly from ,kertch2 and ,heydemann and ,collignon#acig have since added several to the list1 chiefly from collections at ,athens4 ,they have been found not only in ,athens and ,kertch1 but at ,corinth1 ,megara1 ,hermione1 ,thebes1 and in ,acarnania and ,thrace4 ,in the larger vases of this period the pictorial method of the preceding phase is1 as might have been expected1 greatly developed4 ,among the vases of undoubted ,attic origin we have1 first of all1 the ,meidias hydria and its companion vase1 the ,karlsruhe hydria with the ,judgment of ,paris#acih2 and1 secondly1 the great ,gigantomachia vase from ,melos in the ,louvre1 which contains no less than forty-seven figures4#acii ,another fine instance is the polychrome ,kameiros vase in the ,british ,museum with the subject of ,peleus and ,thetis4 ,robert#adjj sees in the two latter a possible influence of ,parrhasios1 who is known to have paid great attention to drawing1 and1 in reference to the ,kameiros vase1 draws attention to the plastic silhouette effect of the figures4 ,parrhasios' art consisted in giving this effect by his linear drawing4#adja ,the influence of ,zeuxis is less apparent1 though from his earlier date it might more naturally have been expected4#adjb ,it is1 however1 still more instructive to trace in this group the influence of the ,parthenon sculptures1 which1 where it can be observed1 enables us to date the vases approximately as at any rate not earlier than #dch ,b4,c4 ,on the other hand1 it must be borne in mind that sculptor and painter may often have gone back to the same original type4 ,this explains the appearance of apparently ,pheidian motives on vases of an earlier style--such as riding youths1 water-carriers1 etc4--or the similarity of composition on one of the ,parthenon metopes and a vase of undoubtedly earlier date4#adjc ,but in one or two instances there can be no doubt of such influence1 most notably in the ,athena and ,poseidon vase from ,kertch 7see below1 p4 #dfd74 ,it cannot be without significance here that the two figures are actually in relief on the vase1 and the parallelism with the pediment 7so far as we know the design7 is so close that a copy of it was manifestly the vase-artist's intention4 ,mention has already been made of a figure of the ,parthenos on a vase of this period1 and another instance1 though not on a painted vase1 may be noted in the polychrome bust of the goddess in terracotta from ,athens1 now in the ,british ,museum4#adjd ,some instances of this type on vases may be earlier than the statue2 it was not created by ,pheidias4#adje 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has already been mentioned that there is one exception to the ,athenian monopoly of vase-making in the fifth century1 and this is in the local fabrics of ,boeotia4 ,of the ,kabeirion vases1 which1 though in the ,b4,f4 technique1 belong to this period1 we have already spoken4 ,there remains a small class--only five examples are at present known--which appears to have been made at ,tanagra4 ,all five evidently came from the same workshop1 and in three cases the provenance is certainly known4 ,two are in the ,british ,museum 7,e #hac-d71 and three in the ,museum at ,athens4#adjf ,with the exception of ,e #had in the ,british ,museum1 which is a pyxis1 all are small two-handled cups1 with low feet4 ,the designs are outlined on a background of yellow clay in a black-brown pigment1 the lines being coarsely drawn4 ,inner details are indicated by means of thinned-out pigment4 ,that they are of ,boeotian origin is further shown by the ornamentation3 the pyxis has round the sides rows of vertical wavy lines1 such as are often seen on the ,boeotian geometrical fabrics 7p4 #bhh71 and also an ivy-leaf which recalls the ,kabeirion ware4 ,the ornamentation of the hangings round the chair on ,athens #aabj exactly resembles the patterns indicating the drapery on some of the early ,boeotian terracottas4#adjg ,the subjects1 on the other hand1 seem to suggest ,athenian prototypes3 in the designs much archaism is to be observed--such as defects in perspective1 the rendering of the eyelashes1 and the drawing of the feet in profile1 but with toes in front4 ,numerous small details point to a date late in the fifth century1 which1 in view of the conservative tendencies of ,boeotia1 is not unlikely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,,boeotian ,,kylix 7,,british ,,museum73 ,,girl ,,playing ,,kottabos7874 ,the subjects are of some interest1 and include two figures of ,herakles1 one bearded1 the other youthful2 a girl playing kottabos 7,fig4 #ajd72 and a cultus-image of an enthroned ,chthonian goddess 7,demeter or ,persephone71 holding a torch1 ears of corn1 and poppies4 ,these vases have been collected and fully discussed in an interesting article by ,dr4 ,s4 ,wide4#adjh ----- ,footnote #abfi3 ,klein1 ,euphronios1#b p4 #ca ff4 ,footnote #abgj3 ,see ,berl4 ,phil4 ,woch4 #ahid1 p4 #aab4 ,footnote #abga3 ,see ,norton in ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahif1 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #abgb3 ,furtwaengler1 in ,berl4 ,phil4 ,woch4 #ahid1 p4 #aab1 in repudiating the idea that the new style was first introduced in the kylikes1 seems to have misunderstood ,hartwig's arguments4 ,footnote #abgc3 ,jahrbuch1 ii4 7#ahhg71 p4 #aei ff4 ,the alternative view is upheld by ,klein1 ,lieblingsinschr4#b p4 #bf ff41 and he is followed by ,murray1 ,designs on ,gk4 ,vases1 p4 #f4 ,klein compares ,epictetan vases with the work of ,mikon1 and also bases his argument on the story of ,kimon and the bones of ,theseus 7see p4 #dah74 ,footnote #abgd3 ,inscr4 ,gr4 i4 7,atticae71 ,suppl4 pp4 #gi1 #aed2 ,jahrbuch1 loc4 cit4 p4 #add4 ,footnote #abge3 ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,see also especially ,klein1 ,lieblingsinschriften 7#bnd edn4 #ahih72 ,hartwig1 ,meisterschalen2 ,wernicke1 ,lieblingsnamen2 and ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iii4 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #abgf3 ,on the identity of these names in particular1 see ,klein1 ,lieblingsinschr4#b p4 #bg ff42 ,murray1 ,designs1 p4 #f2 ,j4,h4,s4 xii4 p4 #chj4 ,footnote #abgg3 ,hartwig 7p4 #aa7 points out that vase-painters also bear well-known names1 such as ,hieron1 ,andokides1 ,aristophanes4 ,footnote #abgh3 ,the name of ,leagros also occurs on late ,b4,f4 hydriae1 e4g4 ,b #cbe in ,b4,m4 ,it is used by four ,r4,f4 painters in all4 ,footnote #abgi3 ,e4g4 ,branteghem ,cat4 #eg4 ,footnote #abhj3 ,see ,hartwig1 ,meistersch4 p4 #c1 and id4 in ,mlanges d',arch4 #ahid1 p4 #aj4 ,he also cites a vase in ,berlin 7#aijf7 which bears the name ,stesileos 4 ,this may refer to the ,s4 who fell at ,marathon4 ,footnote #abha3 ,on the instrument employed1 see above1 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #abhb3 ,c4 ,smith in ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iii4 p4 #a4 ,footnote #abhc3 ,see also ,b4,m4 ,e #ae1 ,e #deh4 ,footnote #abhd3 ,cf4 ,pliny's ,in veste rugas et sinus inventit1 of ,kimon4 ,footnote #abhe3 ,see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aijj1 p4 #dj ff41 and above1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #abhf3 ,see below1 p4 #dbg1 for fuller details of the early development4 ,footnote #abhg3 ,cf4 the ,troilos kylix of ,euphronios 7below1 p4 #dcc74 ,footnote #abhh3 ,see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iii4 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #abhi3 ,see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iii4 p4 #ad2 ,urlichs1 ,beitrge1 p4 #cg2 and cf4 p4 #ace for a mention of a vase stamped with an owl and olive-branch1 and supposed to be an official choinix measure4 ,footnote #abij3 xi4 #die ,b4 ,footnote #abia3 ,see ,reisch in ,rm4 ,mitth4 v4 7#ahij71 p4 #cac ff41 and below1 p4 #dic4 ,footnote #abib3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,e #dga ff4 ,footnote #abic3 ,see ,jahrbuch1 #ahid1 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #abid3 ,see what has been said above on the changes in the form of the amphora1 hydria1 and krater4 ,footnote #abie3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahib1 p4 #aje ff4 ,footnote #abif3 ,e4g4 ,vienna #bcd1 #cci 7the latter given in ,fig4 #aja74 ,footnote #abig3 ,see also some valuable notes on the subject in ,riegl's ,stilfragen1 p4 #aia ff4 ,footnote #abih3 ,b4,m4 ,e #d-e2 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhe1 pl4 #af1 fig4 #c4 ,footnote #abii3 ,b4,m4 ,e #ag-ai2 ,berlin #bbfc1 #dbbj2 ,louvre ,g #ah2 ,helbig #bdf ,mus4 ,greg4 ii4 #gj1 #b4 ,all these are cups with the name of ,memnon 4 ,footnote #acjj3 ,berlin #bbfb4 ,footnote #acja3 ,b4,m4 ,e #bb1 #da2 ,berlin #bbfd-fe2 ,louvre ,g #ag4 ,footnote #acjb3 ,e4g4 ,munich #aafj 7by ,hischylos7 ,b4,m4 ,e #cg-h1 #dj4 ,footnote #acjc3 ,as on ,e #fi1 #gh4 ,footnote #acjd3 ,see also ,chapter ,,xvi4 #c4 ,footnote #acje3 ,b4,m4 ,e #f1 #gh4 ,footnote #acjf3 ,b4,m4 ,e #hah4 ,footnote #acjg3 ,see ,hartwig1 ,meistersch4 p4 #cba2 and cf4 ,b4,m4 ,e #fh1 #gah4 ,footnote #acjh3 ,see ,furtwaengler1 ,eros in d4 ,vasenm42 ,knapp1 ,nike in d4 ,vasenm4 ,footnote #acji3 ,b4,m4 ,e #ggb-gc4 ,footnote #acaj3 ,notably on the fine kylix by ,peithinos in ,berlin 7,hartwig1 ,meistersch4 pl4 #bd74 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,e #dfb1 #eaj1 and ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 ,gr4 ,vasenm4 pls4 #dd-e ,munich #djh4 ,footnote #acaa3 ,cf4 also1 for varied treatment of the same subject by two artists1 ,b4,m4 ,e #dd 7ext47 with ,louvre ,g #ag4 ,footnote #acab3 ,see ,hartwig1 ,meistersch4 p4 #eae ff42 and for further details1 ,chapter ,,xv4 ,footnote #acac3 ,see ,chapter ,,xv4 #a4 ,footnote #acad3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,e #djf 7,lampadedromia72 ,e #bih1 #dfj1 #dfi1 #bgj 7musical contests74 ,footnote #acae3 ,general reference may be made to ,klein's ,meistersig41 #bnd edn41 supplemented by ,hartwig4 ,footnote #acaf3 ,cf4 also ,c4 ,smith in ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iii4 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #acag3 ,euphronios1#b p4 #ad ff41 with list of cups in ,appendix4 ,footnote #acah3 ,b4,m4 ,e #ah4 ,footnote #acai3 ,the type1 it should be noted1 is purely ,b4,f4 in character4 ,footnote #acbj3 ,designs on ,gk4 ,vases1 p4 #h4 ,footnote #acba3 ,the ,louvre cup ,f #abi1 inscribed 1 cannot be assigned to him1 although ,klein did so4 ,see ,monuments ,piot1 ix4 pp4 #aeg1 #afh ff4 ,footnote #acbb3 l4 ,cr4 iii4 #gc2 ,b4,m4 ,e #cd2 ,branteghem ,cat4 #bh2 fragment acquired by ,b4,m41 #ahif2 ,boston ,mus4 ,report1 #aijc1 ,no4 #eb4 ,footnote #acbc3 ,meisterschalen1 chap4 iv4 ,footnote #acbd3 ,nos4 #h-aa in ,klein's list1 according to ,hartwig1 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #acbe3 ,the earliest example seems to be ,reinach1 i4 #bbc ,wiener ,vorl4 ,d4 #e 7a cup by ,pamphaios74 ,footnote #acbf3 ,as in the ,epidromos cup 7,b4,m4 ,e #be74 ,footnote #acbg3 ,euphronios1#b p4 #bf3 cf4 ,plate ,,xxxvii4 ,footnote #acbh3 ,designs on ,gk4 ,vases1 p4 #d4 ,footnote #acbi3 ,reinach1 i4 #dfj1 #a4 ,footnote #accj3 ,see ,cesnola1 ,cyprus1 pl4 #ci1 fig4 #h1 pl4 #dj1 figs4 #aa-ab2 the ,satyr and archer are among recent acquisitions of the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #acca3 ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahhc1 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #accb3 ,euphronios1 p4 #bhi ff4 ,footnote #accc3 ,see ,hoppin's monograph on this painter1 passim4 ,in addition to the five signed vases 7for which see ,klein1 ,meistersig4 p4 #aid7 he gives the following as probably ,euthymides' work3 ,b4,m4 ,b #bed-ef1 #gfg2 ,munich #daj ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #cc2 ,berlin #bahj2 ,reinach1 ii4 #acc4 ,footnote #accd3 4 4 #ahhg1 pl4 #f4 ,footnote #acce3 ,see also ,j4,h4,s4 xii4 p4 #chj4 ,footnote #accf3 ,see ,hartwig1 chap4 ix4 throughout2 also ,jones in ,j4,h4,s4 xii4 p4 #cff ff4 ,footnote #accg3 ,klein only knew of four1 but ,hartwig 7p4 #afh7 has added to his list4 ,footnote #acch3 ,a hydria in ,munich 7,no4 #f7 is also probably his work4 ,it represents his colleague ,euthymides and another potter1 ,tlenpolemos 7see p4 #ddj74 ,cf4 the vase mentioned above1 dedicated by ,phintias to ,euthymides4 ,footnote #acci3 ,reinach1 i4 #bjc4 ,footnote #acdj3 ,see also ,hartwig1 pl4 #f4 ,footnote #acda3 ,gerhard1 ,a4,v4 #ajc ,reinach1 ii4 #eg4 ,the vase in ,ant4 ,denkm4 ii4 pl4 #h1 is probably not his work1 as has been suggested4 ,the ornamentation of the hydria is not given accurately by ,gerhard 7see ,klein1 ,meistersig4 p4 #aih74 ,footnote #acdb3 ,karlsruhe #bdb2 ,arch4 ,anzeiger1 #ahid1 p4 #ahj 7at ,odessa74 ,footnote #acdc3 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahie1 p4 #dhe4 ,footnote #acdd3 ,it is used by ,andokides1 ,chelis1 ,euthymides1 ,pamphaios1 and ,nikosthenes4 ,footnote #acde3 ,see ,klein1 ,euphronios1 passim2 ,hartwig1 chaps4 vii4 xviii42 ,murray1 ,designs on ,gk4 ,vases1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #acdf3 ,e4g4 the ,b4,m4 hydria ,b #cbe3 see ,klein1 ,lieblingsinschr#b4 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #acdg3 ,hartwig1 p4 #aeb1 mentions another possible instance1 an amphora in the ,louvre4 ,all the vases except 7#i7 are published in ,klein's ,euphronios1 and all except 7#h7 and 7#i7 in the ,wiener ,vorlegebltter1 ser4 #e1 pls4 #a-g4 ,a few more recent publications are noted in the list4 ,footnote #acdh3 ,paus4 v4 #ai1 #a4 ,footnote #acdi3 ,hartwig1 op4 cit4 p4 #dhg2 ,furtwaengler in ,gr4 ,vasenm4 p4 #aaj 7denies the ,b4,m4 kylix to ,euphronios74 ,footnote #acej3 ,hartwig1 pl4 #ec4 ,footnote #acea3 ,as noted on p4 #deg1 it has been attributed by ,furtwaengler 7with some probability7 to ,sotades4 ,for other attributions of vases to ,euphronios1 see ,hartwig1 chaps4 vii4 and xviii4 ,footnote #aceb3 ,op4 cit4 chaps4 x4 and xxi4 ,footnote #acec3 ,a good instance of this is ,e #ej in the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #aced3 ,wiener ,vorl4 vi4 pl4 #g4 ,footnote #acee3 ,murray1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #acef3 ,see his chap4 xvii43 8,der ,meister mit dem ,kahlkopf40 ,footnote #aceg3 ,hartwig1 p4 #cja4 ,footnote #aceh3 ,ibid4 p4 #cje4 ,footnote #acei3 ,murray1 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #acfj3 ,see ,murray1 ,designs1 p4 #af2 ,hartwig1 p4 #cba4 ,footnote #acfa3 ,ant4 ,denkm4 i4 pls4 #i1 #aj4 ,footnote #acfb3 ,except in one insignificant instance3 see ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #acfc3 ,murray 7,designs1 p4 #e7 notes the same characteristic in the cups with genre subjects1 as in the ,b4,m4 examples ,e #cc1 #ci1 #di1 #ea1 #ed1 #ee1 #fa1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gh4 ,footnote #acfd3 ,see ,monuments ,piot1 ix4 pls4 #b-c1 p4 #ae ff ,footnote #acfe3 ,lieblingsinschr4#b p4 #abf ,reinach1 i4 #aff4 ,footnote #acff3 ,quint4 ,inst4 ,or4 xii4 #ae4 ,footnote #acfg3 ,this chronology is taken from ,robert's ,marathonschlacht1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #acfh3 ,cf4 ,jahrbuch1 ii4 7#ahhg71 p4 #agj ff4 ,footnote #acfi3 ,j4,h4,s4 x4 p4 #aah4 ,the reverse is illustrated in ,fig4 #ajc4 ,footnote #acgj3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 pl4 #ad1 p4 #bgf ff4 ,footnote #acga3 ,see his monographs on the ,nekyia and ,iliupersis ,hallisches ,festprogramm1 ,nos4 #af and #ag 7#ahib-ic74 ,footnote #acgb3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,e #dib2 ,reinach1 i4 #bag4 ,footnote #acgc3 ,see ,robert in ,mon4 ,antichi1 ix4 p4 #bd2 id4 ,marathonschlacht1 p4 #ee4 ,footnote #acgd3 ,the type of ,orpheus on this vase is clearly derived from ,polygnotos2 the figure standing with one foot raised1 like ,antilochos in the ,nekyia1 is a well-known motive of his4 ,see ,furtwaengler1 op4 cit4 p4 #afa4 ,footnote #acge3 ,see ,robert1 ,nekyia1 p4 #dc2 ,dmmler in ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #agj ff4 ,footnote #acgf3 ,stackelberg1 pl4 #be4 ,footnote #acgg3 ,branteghem ,cat4 #hd ,ant4 ,denkm1 i4 #ei3 see also ibid4 #he4 ,footnote #acgh3 ,report for #aijj1 ,nos4 #ag-h4 ,footnote #acgi3 ,in ,madrid 7,ant4 ,denkm4 ii4 pl4 #a74 ,the vase ,e #hd in the ,british ,museum is very similar1 and the style also has affinities with that of ,aristophanes4 ,footnote #achj3 ,cat4 #afg4 ,footnote #acha3 ,mon4 ,antichi1 ix4 pls4 #b-c1 p4 #e ff4 ,footnote #achb3 ,op4 cit4 pl4 #b4 ,footnote #achc3 ,ibid4 pl4 #c4 ,footnote #achd3 ,e #bhd ,reinach1 ii4 #abc4 ,footnote #ache3 ,naples #cjhi ,millingen-,reinach1 #cc is probably also by ,polygnotos4 ,footnote #achf3 ,the ,british ,museum pelike with the ,birth of ,athena 7,e #daj7 and the ,tricase vase 7,j4,h4,s4 xviii4 p4 #bgi7 may perhaps be his work4 ,footnote #achg3 ,froehner1 ,tyszkiewicz ,coll4 pl4 #ce4 ,footnote #achh3 ,for facsimile see ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,footnote #achi3 ,the following vases are in the style of ,meidias1 though not necessarily from his hand3 ,athens #abhg ,reinach1 i4 #cdb2 ,naples1 ,s4,a4 #caa ,reinach1 i4 #dgd1 #g2 ,jahrbuch1 #ahid1 p4 #beb2 ,karlsruhe #bei ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #cj2 ,reinach1 i4 #dgb1 #a2 #dgf1 #b2 #dgg1 #b2 #dic1 #c2 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 pl4 #h2 ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #ei4 ,footnote #acij3 ,paus4 i4 #ah1 #a4 ,footnote #acia3 ,see ,robert1 ,marathonschlacht1 p4 #ig2 ,nekyia1 p4 #db4 ,on late ,r4,f4 vases with double friezes see ,winter1 ,jngere attische ,vasen1 p4 #fi1 and ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #ajb4 ,the principle is frequently adopted in the vases of ,apulia 7e4g4 ,plate ,,xlv472 for early ,apulian examples see p4 #dhe4 ,footnote #acib3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xiii4 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #acic3 ,cat4 #agij ,ant4 du ,bosph4 ,cimm4 pl4 #df 7in colours7 ,reinach1 i4 #bc4 ,for a curious imitation of this vase1 see ,naples #biib4 ,footnote #acid3 ,jahrbuch1 #ahid1 p4 #eg ff4 ,footnote #acie3 ,naples #cace1 according to him1 is contemporaneous with the ,b4,m4 ,aphrodite cup 7,d #b71 about #dfj ,b4,c4 ,footnote #acif3 ,vasen mit ,goldschmuck 7#ahfe74 ,footnote #acig3 ,gr4 ,vasenbilder1 p4 #b1 pl4 #a1 fig4 #c1 pl4 #i1 fig4 #a2 ,rev4 ,arch4 xxx4 7#ahge71 pp4 #a1 #gc1 pls4 #ag-bj4 ,see also ,berlin #bffa ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #beg1 and #bgje ,reinach1 i4 #dbf1 #b4 ,footnote #acih3 ,of similar style are the fragment ,naples #bffd ,reinach1 i4 #aha1 and ,athens #abei ,reinach1 i4 #ejf4 ,footnote #acii3 ,mon4 ,grecs1 #ahge1 pls4 #a1 #b4 ,footnote #adjj3 ,marathonschlacht1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #adja3 ,cf4 ,quint4 xii4 #aj1 #c1 and ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #fg4 ,footnote #adjb3 ,see ,robert1 ,iliupersis1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #adjc3 ,cf4 ,michaelis1 ,parthenon1 pl4 #d1 #be1 with a vase in the ,vatican 7,baumeister1 i4 p4 #gdf72 and see ,jahrbuch1 #ahhg1 p4 #agg1 and ,roscher1 i4 p4 #acee4 ,footnote #adjd3 ,e #gaf ,j4,h4,s4 xv4 pl4 #e4 ,footnote #adje3 ,see ,jahrbuch1 #ahid1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #adjf3 ,nos4 #aaai-bj1 and one uncatalogued4 ,footnote #adjg3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,b #eg-h4 ,footnote #adjh3 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aija1 p4 #adc ff41 with pl4 #h4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,white-,,ground ,,and ,,later ,,fabrics ,origin and character of white-ground painting--,outline drawing and polychromy--,funeral lekythi--,subjects and types--,decadence of ,greek vase-painting--,rise of new centres--,kertch1 ,cyrenaica1 and ,southern ,italy--,characteristics of the latter fabrics--,shapes--,draughtsmanship--,inf luence of ,tragedy and ,comedy--,subjects--,paestum fabric--,lucanian1 ,campanian1 and ,apulian fabrics--,gnathia vases--,vases modelled in form of figures--,imitations of metal--,vases with reliefs--8,megarian0 bowls--,bolsena ware and ,calene phialae4 #a4 ,,white-,,ground ,,vases ,the method of painting on a white ground1 which was brought to such perfection in the fifth century1 really requires a section to itself1 its development being parallel to1 yet different from1 that of the painting in red on black4 ,its genealogy can be traced almost throughout the period of ,greek vase-painting1 beginning with the ,ionian fabrics of ,rhodes and ,samos1 through the more developed vases of ,naukratis and ,kyrene1 until it was introduced at ,athens in the latter part of the sixth century1 perhaps1 as we have seen 7p4 #che71 by ,nikosthenes4 ,the method was not1 of course1 new then to ,continental ,greece4 ,it was the one usually employed for painting votive tablets or pictures on wood1 the surface of the tablet being prepared by covering it with a thick slip of creamy-white lustrous character1 known as 4#adji ,thus it is used in one of the few examples known of ,attic painting1 apart from the vases1 the ,warrior pinax from the ,acropolis1 which may be dated about #ejj ,b4,c41 and stands midway between frescoes and white-ground vases 7see above1 p4 #cig74 ,possibly the idea of the white slip was to get the effect of painting on marble such as we see in the tombstones of ,lyseas and ,aineos4#adaj ,this method was adhered to throughout the fifth century by all the great painters1 such as ,polygnotos1 and hence the importance to us of the white-ground vases of that time1 as reflecting their methods1 and in a miniature form the appearance of their works4 ,in the fifth century the all-important consideration in a picture was perfection of design and composition2 colouring was relatively unimportant1 and the technical processes exceedingly simple1 three or four colours alone being employed4 ,cicero#adaa tells us that ,polygnotos1 ,zeuxis1 and ,timanthes only used four colours--black1 white1 red1 and yellow4 ,it is interesting to note that these are just the four colours we ordinarily find on the polychrome vases1 the flat tints so frequently employed being no doubt suggested by the mural paintings4 ,to go back to the earlier ,athenian vases with white ground1 we observe that at first the method of painting in silhouette1 in the manner of the ordinary ,b4,f4 vases1 obtains exclusively4#adab ,about the beginning of the fifth century this method is superseded by what we may regard as a transitional class1 in which the figures are painted partly in silhouette1 partly in outline1 the simple black-on-white design being preserved1 with a very occasional use of purple or yellow4#adac ,according to ,winter1 the origin of outline drawing of this kind may be found in the partly outlined female heads which are found on some of the minor artists' cups1 such as those of ,sakonides1 ,eucheiros1 and ,hermogenes4#adad ,we need not go as far as he does in explaining the catagrapha of ,kimon 7see p4 #cig7 as the replacement of mere silhouettes by outline drawing1 so as to give individuality and variety to faces2 but the vases which he publishes are remarkable for the highly developed character of the heads depicted thereon4#adae ,one in particular is more like a head by ,euphronios than one of the ,epictetan cycle1 to which it must belong in point of date4 ,but it must be remembered that ,epiktetos and his school were still hampered by archaic conventions1 while the painter on a white ground was carving out the way to perfect freedom4 ,the shapes employed for the new white-ground technique are much the same as those used in the previous period--the kylix1 the lekythos1 the oinocho1 the pyxis1 and the alabastron4#adaf ,but of these only one retains its popularity for any length of time2 in fact1 after the middle of the fifth century it is the only one employed at all4 ,this shape is the lekythos1 on which1 indeed1 alone the whole development of white-ground painting can be traced from the ,b4,f4 types down to the fourth century1 when it finally disappears4 ,although not exclusively the sepulchral vase 7as may be seen from the appearance of other vases on tombs in the painted funeral scenes#adag71 yet for some reason it came to be regarded as the proper shape for such purposes1 and the fashion of making white lekythi exclusively for the tomb1 and decorated as a general rule with funerary subjects1 prevailed for about a hundred and fifty years4 ,we have elsewhere 7pp4 #acb1 #adc7 noted instances of its use recorded by ,aristophanes4 ,the introduction of polychromy is a gradual development4 ,at first1 as we have seen1 colour is very sparingly employed1 only in the use of a brownish yellow 7produced by thinning out the black7 for details or washes1 or of a purple or pinkish brown4 ,subsequently the outlines are drawn in black or brown1 and filled in with black1 brown1 or purple washes2 the occasional use of a clear1 thick1 white pigment1 standing out against the cream background1 is also to be noted#adah2 and next a wash of bright red or vermilion is employed4 ,in the final stages of polychrome painting1 during the fourth century1 the range of colours is greatly extended1 and blue or green are employed ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xliii ,illustration3 ,,vases ,,with ,,polychrome ,,designs ,,on ,,white ,,ground4 7,,british ,,museum74 ,to face page #def4 ------------------------------------ in addition to those already named4 ,the outlines are also painted in the vermilion colour already mentioned1 instead of the black in previous use4 ,up to the end of the fifth century the colouring always preserves a character of soberness and austerity2 and such a feature as the use of gilding#adai is quite exceptional4 ,some of the white-ground kylikes are only partially so2 the exterior is painted in the ordinary ,r4,f4 manner1 of the 8strong0 style1 as in the case of the ,anesidora cup in the ,british ,museum4 ,on the other hand1 a fine cup at ,gotha has a red-figured interior and polychrome exterior4#adbj ,in the ,munich collection there are three very beautiful cups of this kind4#adba ,the interior subjects are respectively ,europa on the bull1 a frenzied ,maenad1 and ,hera4 ,the cup with the ,maenad is attributed by ,furtwaengler to the style of ,brygos1 and may therefore be dated about #dgj-dfj ,b4,c4 ,it is rare to find a large vase decorated in this method1 but there is a very fine krater of the calyx type in the ,museo ,gregoriano at ,rome1#adbb which has been attributed to the middle of the fifth century 7contemporary with ,euphronios' later manner72 the subject is the delivery of the infant ,dionysos to the nymphs of ,nysa1 and is painted throughout in polychrome on a white ground4 ,of late years some very fine pyxides in this style have been found in ,greece1#adbc often decorated with marriage scenes1 the style of the painting being contemporary with ,duris and ,brygos4 ,but for beauty and delicacy all are surpassed by some of the smaller cups1 above all the ,aphrodite cup from ,kameiros in the ,british ,museum1#adbd in which refinement and grace are combined with boldness of conception and accuracy of drawing in a marvellous degree4 ,or1 again1 the group of cups and bowls by ,sotades 7see above1 p4 #dde71adbe some with mythological or other subjects painted in minute and graceful style1 others of fantastic or unusual shape and decoration1 form a unique series among the white-ground vases4#adbf ,to sum up in the words of ,a4 ,s4 ,murray the characteristics of these vases#adbg3 8,there was thus in the white vases an exceptional opportunity for purity of outline in the drawing1 and it is not without reason that they are regarded as the best representatives we yet possess of the great age of ,greek fresco-painting1 in which also purity and sweep of outline on a white ground1 simplicity of composition1 and a limited scale of brilliant colours1 were the chief characteristics40 ,it remains now to speak of the funeral lekythi as a distinct class1 their subjects and method of treatment4#adbh ,although it was formerly customary to speak of 8vases of ,locri0 or 8vases of ,gela0 in speaking of examples found on those sites1 it is almost certain that they are all really of ,athenian origin4#adbi ,apart from the fact that the great majority have been found at ,athens1 there are no special peculiarities about those from other sites which would justify any such distinction of fabrics4 ,the same remarks apply to the numerous examples which have been found of late years at ,eretria in ,euboea1 and have caused some recrudescence of the theory of non-,attic origin4#adcj ,but ,eretria was so near to ,athens that importation must have been quite a simple matter4 ,in regard to the ,locri vases1 it has been noted by ,m4 ,pottier#adca that they seem to represent an inferior1 though still ,athenian fabric1 in which the white is more lustrous and less flaky than in the better examples1 and the outlines are in black exclusively4 ,black silhouettes are occasionally found1 and the subjects are not necessarily funerary4 ,the funerary subjects fall into four classes2 they will be enumerated in ,chapter ,,xv41 where examples of each class are given1 but may be briefly recapitulated here1 in order to note some artistic considerations4 7#a7 ,the ,prothesis1 or laying-out of the corpse 7,plate ,,lv474 7#b7 ,the ,depositio1 or laying of the body in the tomb3 chiefly in the ,thanatos and ,hypnos type 7see ,fig4 #abc1 ,chapter ,,xiii474 7#c7 ,the ,journey to ,hades2 ,charon in his bark 7see ,fig4 #abb1 ,chapter ,,xiii474 7#d7 ,the ,cult of the ,tomb1 this being by far the most common of the four classes 7see ,plate ,,lv4 and ,fig4 #ai1 p4 #adc74 ,the ,prothesis type is an old one1 occurring not infrequently on black-figured vases1 especially on the slim 8prothesis-amphorae0 which are sometimes found at ,athens4 ,m4 ,pottier reckons ten examples1 to which may be added a fine specimen now in the ,british ,museum 7,plate ,,lv41 fig4 #a74 ,the ,depositio type is somewhat rare2 it is occasionally found in ,b4,f4 vases1#adcb but is usually idealised1 the body being carried by winged genii1 to whom the names of ,thanatos and ,hypnos are usually given4 ,the type1 as has been pointed out elsewhere1 is originally mythological1 being derived from that of the burial of ,memnon4 ,some half-dozen examples are known 7see ,chapters ,,xiii41 ,,xv474 ,of the ,charon vases ,m4 ,pottier reckons twenty-one1 which he classifies under three heads3 7#a7 ,charon on the left in a boat1 which two or three persons enter4 7#b7 ,charon on the right in a boat2 persons ready to enter4 7#c7 ,the deceased is seated on a stele at which women make offerings2 ,charon approaches in his boat4#adcc ,the conception is essentially a pictorial one1 and it may reasonably be inferred that it is a reflection of ,polygnotos4 ,the same subdued pathos and the same style of composition are characteristic of his paintings4 ,pausanias1 in describing his ,nekyia in the ,lesche at ,delphi1 says3 8,there is water1 which seems intended for a river1 evidently the ,acheron1 and reeds growing therein 444 and there is a boat on the river1 and the ferryman at the oar40#adcd ,in the vases representing the ,cult of the ,tomb 7,plate ,,lv4 and ,fig4 #ai71 the normal type is that of two or three persons bringing offerings1 wreaths1 vases1 etc41 to a stele#adce ornamented with coloured sashes1 or engaged in conversation thereat2 sometimes one sits on the steps of the stele4 ,the persons with offerings are usually feminine2 where men occur1 they are either attired as warriors1 or stand leaning on a spear or staff1 conversing with the women4 ,the correspondence of some of these compositions to the 8type0 of ,orestes and ,electra meeting at the tomb of ,agamemnon has more than once been noticed1 but it does not seem here to be a case of borrowing the heroic 8type10 as in the ,thanatos and ,hypnos instance4 ,where such scenes can be identified on vases1#adcf they are all of late date and mostly of ,south ,italian manufacture2 and we may rather suppose that the contrary was the case1 and that the lekythos 8type0 was idealised and borrowed for the ,orestes scene4 ,moreover1 the popularity of the latter subject is probably largely due to its treatment by the tragic poets4 ,among other details of interest in these scenes may be noted the appearance of the or ghosts of the deceased1 represented as tiny hovering winged creatures4 ,m4 ,pottier has noted eighteen instances1 and the number has since then been greatly increased4#adcg ,the invariable youthfulness of the figures--which1 it may be remarked1 are always purely impersonal2 and mere types of mourners--is noteworthy as a characteristic of later fifth-century art1 which tended to create ideals of youth and beauty4#adch ,this1 of course1 is everywhere apparent in sculpture1 as in the ,parthenon frieze and the works of ,polykleitos2 and reminiscences of ,pheidian youthful types may be suggested by some of the figures on the lekythi4#adci ,in the figures of deities the same change was going on1 as in the case of ,hermes1 and even the aged and grim figure of ,charon is toned down on the funeral vases to a more humane conception4 ,it has also been suggested that the choice of youthful figures is due to the thought that youth is the period when bereavement produces its simplest and most natural effects4 ,the influence of the sepulchral stelae of the fifth and fourth centuries soon begins to be apparent in the lekythi1 especially in the scenes of tomb-offerings4#addj ,like the vases1 the stelae always varied in merit1 some being refined and artistic compositions1 others poor and commonplace4 ,the choice of subjects1 indeed1 differs in some degree1 the subjects on the stelae relating chiefly to the previous life of the deceased1 those of the vases to the actual death and burial4 ,but there are many lekythi1 the subjects on which are more like those of the stelae1 not being strictly funerary4#adda ,thus we see the deceased as a warrior charging with a spear or on horseback1 like the ,dexileos of the ,kerameikos2 the young hunter pursuing a hare2 the lady at her toilet with mirror or jewellery in hand1 attended by her maidens1 like the charming ,hegeso 7,plate ,,xliii472 or the warrior parting from his spouse4 ,regarding the funeral lekythi in their artistic aspect1 we note1 as ,m4 ,pottier points out1 two main characteristics--restraint and uniformity of composition4 ,the space for the decoration being limited to about two-thirds of the whole circumference1 the figures are necessarily few in number1 varying from one to three1 but very rarely more4 ,emotion and pathos are produced by the simplest means4 ,murray instances the prothesis lekythos in the ,british ,museum 7,plate ,,lv4 fig4 #a7 as an example of deep pathos expressed in a simple1 yet strong and rapid manner1 and two others 7,d #gj ,plate ,,lv4 fig4 #b1 and ,d #ga7 as showing almost tragic emotion expressed only by a few outlines4 ,uniformity of composition is manifested in the repetition of types1 often copied from familiar models1 yet with an infinite variety of detail 7as1 for instance1 in the form of the stelae7 which does not affect the constancy of the main idea4 ,in this respect they may be compared with the terracotta ,tanagra figures1 of which many are turned out from the same mould2 yet by varying the pose of the head or position of the arms the artist was able to avoid the absolute identity of any two figures4 ,the lekythi can hardly be classified chronologically2 we cannot say to what extent the rougher examples may be earlier1 and vice versa2 but even in the poorest examples skill and lightness of touch are always discernible4 ,the classification given by ,m4 ,pottier1#addb however1 may serve as a general indication of chronological succession and development4 ,he collects them under three heads1 as follows3 7#a7 ,the paste is of a light red colour1 the walls thin1 and the white slip unpolished2 the main design is first sketched1 then painted1 the outlines being usually in red4 ,the ornaments are palmettes and maeander1 in black and red1 the subjects almost exclusively funerary4 ,the slip and colours are delicate1 the style fine1 and the polychromy restrained4#addc 7#b7 ,the paste is grey1 the walls thicker2 the white is sometimes polished1 and the outlines black or brown4 ,the ornaments are palmettes and maeander1 with crosses or stars1 in black only4 ,the subjects are funerary or from daily life1 with figures of deities2 the style is still fine1 but the polychromy is more varied4#addd 7#c7 ,the clay is red and light1 the white unpolished1 the outlines yellow4 ,the slip is not extended to the shoulder1 on which is a tongue-pattern in black2 the maeander is careless4 ,the subjects are either funerary or from daily life1 the style negligent2 the designs are almost entirely monochrome4#adde #b4 ,,the ,,decadence ,,of ,,greek ,,vase-,,painting ,we have now reached the point at which the centre of ceramic industry is no longer to be found at ,athens1 but must be sought in distant colonies in various parts of the ,mediterranean4 ,the extinction of vase-painting as a decorative art at ,athens was brought about as much by political events as by sheer artistic decadence at the end of the fifth century4 ,it had until recent years been customary to assume that red-figured vases continued to be made at ,athens through the greater part of the fourth century2 but the evidence of excavations on many sites has been too decisive for the maintenance of such a view4 ,that certain classes of ceramic products1 such as the ,panathenaic amphorae and the funeral lekythi1 still continued to be made we have already seen2 but these are only exceptions1 and due entirely to their religious associations4 ,the evidence for the revised chronology has been summarised by ,milchhoefer in a paper already referred to1#addf in which he pointed out the importance of historical considerations4 ,even during the ,peloponnesian ,war the manufacture and export of painted vases must have been much crippled1 and the absence of the later ,athenian wares from the tombs of ,etruria clearly shows that commercial relations between the two countries had ceased4#addg ,similarly intercourse with ,campania largely ceased after the ,samnite invasion of #ddj ,b4,c41 and relations with ,sicily must have been entirely broken off after the outbreak of hostilities with ,syracuse in #dbg4 ,again1 in the city of ,rhodes1 which was founded in ,b4,c4 #djh1 no ,attic vases have been found1 while all those from ,kameiros must be earlier than that date4#addh ,in ,athens itself no ,r4,f4 vases of any importance have been found in fourth-century tombs1 although some fragments of fine style are reported from the tomb of ,dexileos1 which is not earlier in date than #cid ,b4,c4#addi ,hence the conclusion is irresistible that no good ,attic ,r4,f4 vases can be assigned to the fourth century1 which is only represented at ,athens by the funeral lekythi1 the ,panathenaic amphorae1 and a few isolated1 generally inferior1 ,r4,f4 specimens4 ,the new centres of vase-painting1 from about #djj ,b4,c4 onwards1 are three in number--the ,crimea1 the ,cyrenaica in ,north ,africa1 and ,southern ,italy4 ,among the vases from the ,crimea#adej are some of the most magnificent that we possess1 which in spite of their florid style and careless technique are really of considerable merit4 ,they can1 however1 hardly be considered to rank more highly than the best of the products of ,southern ,italy1 which we are now about to consider2 in other words1 they belong to a later stage of development than the 8late fine0 style of ,attic ,r4,f4 vases1 as represented by the ,rhodian 8pelike0 with ,peleus and ,thetis in the ,british ,museum1 and the ,gigantomachia vase from ,melos in the ,louvre4 ,the fine krater with the contest of ,athena and ,poseidon at ,petersburg 7,plate ,l47 is clearly a reminiscence of the ,parthenon pediment1 and1 allowing for the difference of style1 cannot be earlier than the closing years of the fifth century4 ,again1 there is the vase signed by ,xenophantos1#adea who1 as we have seen1 expressly calls himself an ,athenian1 and on this ground has been regarded as a resident in ,panticapaeum 7,kertch74 ,the reliefs with which this vase is partly decorated are examples of a tendency which hardly came into existence before the fourth century2 the subject also is more suggestive of local taste4 ,it may be an open question whether these vases were imported from ,athens1 but at least the vase of ,xenophantos testifies to the existence of a local fabric at ,panticapaeum1 and it is not at all unlikely that the general upheaval brought about by the ,peloponnesian ,war led to a dispersion of ,athenian artists1 and thus to the continuance of their art in other lands1 but not in ,athens itself4 ,we shall see that this largely accounts for the origin of the fabrics of ,southern ,italy4 ,in any case ,panticapaeum was a place of considerable importance in the fourth century1 being the chief place whence the ,athenians obtained their supplies of grain1 as we learn from the orations of ,demosthenes1 such as the ,contra ,phormionem4 ,with the ,cyrenaica circumstances were no doubt little different4 ,but the vases from this site1 though similar to those of the ,crimea1 are mostly inferior1 of small size1 and often of very rough character4 ,like the former they exhibit a preference for polychromy and gilding4 ,similar fabrics are also found in the ,greek islands1 such as ,karpathos and ,telos1 in the ,troad1 and elsewhere1#adeb but for the most part of a very inferior character4 ,in the tombs of ,southern ,italy many vases are found representing the same stage of development as those of the ,crimea and ,cyrenaica1 varying from large kraters with fine if florid designs1 often enhanced by a lavish use of white pigment1 to inferior and almost worthless specimens4 ,inasmuch as these vases are not distinguished by any stylising tendencies such as enable us to classify the other fabrics of ,southern ,italy and assign them to particular districts1 and on the other hand bear the same relation to the later ,r4,f4 vases of ,athens as do those of the ,eastern ,mediterranean1 it is evident either that all these fabrics were imported from ,athens or that ,athenian artists had been driven to settle in these respective regions4 ,and since it is exceedingly unlikely that the exportation of pottery from ,athens can have gone on to any extent in the fourth century1 it seems1 on the whole1 most probable that the latter is the true version4 ,we may1 then1 establish a class of vases intermediate between the ,r4,f4 fabrics proper and the local ,italian fabrics1 which represents the manner in which ,athenian artists carried on their traditions under new circumstances1 and serves to explain how the new ,italian schools came into being4#adec ,these vases are often characterised by a refinement of drawing and simplicity of conception which recall the earlier ,r4,f4 period1 and in such cases accessory colours1 elaborate draperies1 and the filling-in of the field with miscellaneous objects are studiously avoided4 ,even the decorative patterns show considerable restraint4 ,it is probable that some of these belong to the latter part of the fifth century1 even if they are not actually imported from ,athens4 ,but there are others of a distinctly florid kind1 in which we may trace the influence of ,meidias and his school4 ,the compositions are crowded with figures1 often placed at different levels 7without indication of ground-lines71 and there is a general tendency to elaborate decoration1 both by means of white pigment and by richly embroidered draperies4 ,as examples may be cited two fine kraters in the ,british ,museum1 one with a scene from the lesser ,mysteries at ,agra 7,f #fh71 another with ,thetis and the ,nereids bearing the arms of ,achilles 7,f #fi74 ,the bell-shaped krater is by far the most favourite form1 although practically a new one in ,greek ceramics2 contrary to the usual rule1 the reverse often has a definite subject1 in which accessories are used1 although the tendency had begun some time before the end of the fifth century to neglect the decoration of the reverse in kraters and other large vases4 ,in its new home in ,southern ,italy this branch of ,greek art had lighted on a very favourable soil4 ,the great colonies such as ,tarentum1 ,capua1 ,cumae1 and ,poseidonia1 founded almost in the dawn of ,greek history1 were not only as completely ,hellenic as ,athens and ,corinth1 but in luxury and splendour even surpassed them at this period4 ,hence1 art flourished in such towns far more readily than in the distant and comparatively barbarous regions of ,south ,russia and ,north ,africa4 ,in the character of their productions we shall see the nature and condition of the inhabitants of ,southern ,italy reflected4 ,the chief aim is splendour and general effect2 and both the size and colouring of the vases indicate to some extent the luxury and magnificence in which the people lived4 ,it must not1 however1 be supposed that vase-painting was a new art introduced to this region by ,athenians in the earlier part of the fourth century4 ,in another chapter we shall speak of the early attempts at imitation of ,greek vases on the part of the semi-barbarian natives of the peninsula1 and reminiscences of these early attempts crop up from time to time under circumstances of greater development1 as will be seen4 ,moreover1 a constant stream of importations from ,athens 7small indeed as compared with that to ,etruria1 but still steady7 had been finding its way to the ,greek colonies of ,southern ,italy and ,sicily2 special fabrics were made for export to ,nola1 ,gela1 and other places2 and thus the local artists had all along been undergoing an unconscious training which enabled them to take up the industry at the point where the ,athenian artists left off4#aded ,the local fabrics of ,southern ,italy fall into three main classes1 corresponding to the geographical divisions of ,apulia1 ,lucania1 and ,campania1 which three1 with some modifications1 include all that come under discussion in the present section4 ,before1 however1 entering upon the question of the criteria on which this classification is based1 a few general considerations may be touched upon by way of preface4 ,the study of ,south ,italy fabrics is to some extent a new one4 ,at the beginning of the last century1 when scarcely any vases had been found outside ,italy1 the majority of both public and private collections consisted of vases of this period4 ,of those now exhibited in the ,fourth ,vase ,room of the ,british ,museum1 at least one-fifth are from the collections of ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 ,charles ,towneley1 and ,richard ,payne ,knight2 and in such publications as those of ,d',hancarville1 ,tischbein1 ,inghirami1 and ,millin1 a great majority of the plates are devoted to them4 ,hence their importance was much over-estimated2 but1 on the other hand1 no attention was paid to questions of style or provenance1 and they were only regarded as pretty pictures4 ,subsequently to the discoveries at ,vulci1 and the gradual growth of the scientific study of vase-painting1 the later vases suffered greatly from neglect1 as yielding less interest than the early fabrics and the products of the best ,athenian artists1 and even at the present day it is rare to find them made the subject of serious study4 ,the only writer1 in fact1 who has attempted in recent years to apply to them the critical methods of modern archaeology is ,signor ,g4 ,patroni of the ,naples ,museum1 who has availed himself of the opportunities afforded by the extensive series under his care4#adee ,the vases from ,southern ,italy1 which from their style may be regarded as undoubtedly local non-,attic fabrics1 are all distinguished by certain common features4 ,in all there is seen a perpetual striving after effect rather than beauty1 manifested in the size and splendid appearance of the earlier ,apulian products1 in the largeness of style and bold drawing of ,lucanian artists1 especially the school of ,paestum1 and in the gaudy colouring of the ,campanian vases4 ,the later ,apulian wares are chiefly remarkable for varied and exaggerated shapes4 ,common to all vases alike is the fondness for ornamental patterns1 such as the egg-pattern1 wave-pattern1 maeander1 palmettes1 and wreaths of laurel1 myrtle1 or ivy2 though even these are guided by certain rules1 much as on the black-figured vases4 ,on the large bell-shaped kraters the decoration almost invariably consists of a laurel-wreath round the lip1 maeander below the designs1 and palmette patterns under the handles2 and every shape of vase has its characteristic decoration4 ,the ,campanian vases show the least tendency to formal ornament1 and the ,lucanian run to the opposite extreme4 ,the column-handled kraters are almost alone in retaining the archaic scheme of decoration in panels with borders of ornament1 to which they adhere throughout the ,r4,f4 period2 but the panels are occasionally employed for hydriae or oinochoae4 ,in most cases1 however1 the luxuriant palmette patterns under the handles form an adequate frame for the design with the maeander band below4 ,a female head frequently occurs as a decorative motive1 especially in the ,apulian vases2 either forming the main decoration1 or placed under the handles1 or adorning the neck1 encircled with foliage4 ,so too the figure of ,eros is employed on the later ,apulian vases purely as a decorative motive4 ,the shapes of the vases present a very great variety1 as compared with the ,athenian fabrics4#adef ,the bell-shaped krater enjoyed a short vogue1 and is only found in the earlier examples2 but besides the column-handled type already mentioned1 the calyx-krater 7vaso a calice7 and the volute-handled 7a rotelle7 form occur from time to time4 ,among the early ,apulian vases a variety of the latter1 with medallions 7mascherone7 in place of the volutes1 frequently occurs2 these are often of gigantic size1 decorated with several rows of figures1 and nearly all the finest existing specimens are of this form4 ,it is also the usual type for the sepulchral vases 7see below74 ,the medallions are ornamented with ,gorgons' masks and other devices1 coloured on a white slip4 ,a peculiar local variety of the krater1 with four handles1 is found in ,lucania only 7see p4 #agb74 ,other vases for holding liquids are the situla1 lebes1 amphora1 and hydria1 forms which are more or less familiar4 ,the amphora is slender1 with more or less elliptical body2 in ,campania it is small and squat-shouldered1 the body almost cylindrical1 but in ,apulia it is usually very tall and elegant 7cf4 ,plate ,,xlv474 ,an occasional variant has a cylindrical flat-topped body1 with elaborate handles in the form of scrolls2 the so-called pelike is a more common type1 but somewhat inelegant4 ,the hydria is usually a degenerate version of the ,r4,f4 kalpis1 but at ,paestum the ,attic type still obtains4 ,a new form is that known as the lekane1 a jar for holding sweetmeats2 it has vertical handles and a cover of elaborate form1 often surmounted by a small vase4 ,of similar type is the so-called lepaste1 a circular covered dish on a high stem4 ,among the smaller vases may be mentioned the oinocho1 of which there are one or two varieties1 notably the graceful prochoos1 with its high handle and foot1 and the equally ungraceful epichysis1 with its long beak-like mouth and pyxis-shaped body2 both of these are confined to ,apulia4 ,the lekythos retains the bulbous body and low foot of the later ,r4,f4 period2 the askos in various forms is fairly common4 ,two new varieties are a sort of alabastron without a handle but with flat base1 and a jar with a handle over the mouth4 ,of drinking-cups the kantharos and rhyton are popular among the later ,apulian wares2 the kotyle is rare1 and the kylix has almost entirely disappeared1 its place being taken by a gigantic circular dish1 elaborately decorated inside and out4 ,these are obviously designed with a view to general effect1 and seem to have been intended for hanging up against a wall4 ,in regard to the technique the general method is that of the later ,r4,f4 vases2 but in the majority all idea of simplicity and refinement is lost1 and the tendency to exaggeration and showiness is manifested both in drawing and colouring4 ,throughout there is a fondness for large masses of white1 and this pigment is used not only for the flesh of women and of ,eros1 but for architectural details and other objects1 such as temples1 shrines1 and lavers4 ,yellow is largely employed for details1 especially for features or hair1 and for picking out the ornamental patterns2 purple1 too1 is not uncommon4 ,attempts at shading are occasionally found4#adeg ,accessory colours are1 however1 seldom found on the reverses of the vases1 which are always drawn and painted with the greatest carelessness4 ,the drawing is entirely free1 and in fact errs on the other side1 becoming careless and faulty2 the forms are soft1 and the male figures often effeminate4 ,an extreme facility of hand has indeed proved the ruin of the vase-painter4 ,the love of the far-fetched betrays itself in variety of posture and elaborate foreshortening2 and in the richly embroidered draperies and studied settings of some scenes the influence of the theatre is obviously to be traced4 ,frequent attempts are made at perspective1 especially in buildings of which the insides are shown1 but the attempts are seldom successful4 ,as a rule the artist is content to indicate figures in the background by placing them on a higher level1 or only showing the upper half of the figure4 ,on many vases with mythological subjects1 especially those of ,apulia1 a row of deities is thus represented1 as if seated on the of the stage4 ,landscape is represented by rocks1 stones1 and flowers scattered about1 trees and buildings2 but in most cases the painter prefers the old system of merely giving a clue to the scene1 representing the palaestra by jumping-weights or oil-flasks suspended1 women's apartments by sashes1 toilet-boxes1 or small windows1 and so on4 ,the pictorial effect of the scenes on many vases naturally gives rise to the question to what extent the artists were indebted to the great painters of the fifth and fourth centuries4 ,in some cases the paintings seem to be more naturally adapted for large canvases than for the limited surface of a vase2 but more than this1 in others the subjects actually lead our thoughts directly back to the works of great masters of which we have record4 ,the influence of ,polygnotos and his school has indeed died out1 but the emotional tendencies of the fourth-century painters and their fondness for new and difficult subjects found a ready echo in the conceptions of the ,apulian vase-painters4 ,it may suffice to quote a few instances from the ,british ,museum collection4 ,thus on one vase 7,f #dgi7 we find a representation of the infant ,herakles strangling the snakes1 a theme selected by the great ,zeuxis1 and also to be seen in one of the paintings from the house of the ,vettii at ,pompeii4 ,or1 again1 the famous sacrifice of ,iphigeneia and the death of ,hippolytos1 subjects which employed the brushes of ,timanthes and ,antiphilos respectively1 are depicted in a truly pictorial manner on two kraters 7,f #afj1 ,f #bgi74 ,in each case we are able to note a correspondence with the description of the pictures given by ,pliny2 in the last-named1 also1 with a picture described by ,philostratos4 ,were more known of ancient pictures1 it is possible that other examples would be readily found2 but that some such influence was exerted can hardly be questioned4 ,again1 in the later vases with opaque designs on black grounds 7see p4 #dhh71 most of which are merely decorated with wreaths1 festoons1 or masks1 we are at once reminded of the ,pompeian wall-paintings1 or rather of their predecessors in the ,hellenistic ,age1 since the vases must be earlier than most of the pictures of ,pompeii4 ,there is a vase of late date in the ,british ,museum 7,f #edb7 which1 with its elaborate treatment of light and shade effects and its border of arabesques1 not only in its subject 7a young shepherd and his dog71 but also in method1 suggests a close connection with the ,pompeian frescoes4#adeh ,another influence at work on the vases of the period besides that of the great painters was that of the stage1 in which both tragedy and comedy play their part4 ,the influence of tragedy as represented on the ,greek stage is seen not only in the choice of subjects1 but in the composition of the scenes and the costumes of the figures4 ,this is especially the case with the large ,apulian vases with mythological subjects4 ,the architectural arrangements1 with a temple1 altar1 or statue in the centre1 the embroidered draperies and gorgeous tiaras worn by the principal personages1 and the abundance of dramatic or even passionate action1 can only be due to the influence of the stage4 ,but it is only to ,euripides that we can ascribe this influence4 ,there appears to have been a great revival of his plays towards the end of the fourth century1 especially in ,magna ,graecia1 and the extent of the effect of this revival on the vase-paintings has been discussed by several writers4 ,the tendency of the age to passion and pathos1 seen in the ,pergamene sculptures and other great works of art1 as well as in the paintings of a ,parrhasios or a ,timanthes1 would naturally find an echo in the subjects treated of by ,euripides4 ,of the existing dramas1 we find scenes drawn more or less directly from the ,hecuba1 the ,hercules ,furens1 the ,hippolytos1 the two ,iphigeneias1 the ,medeia1 and the ,phoenissae4 ,many others can be traced to the lost dramas1 as for instance 7to quote only from examples in the ,british ,museum7 the ,alkmena1 the ,oineus1 the ,antigone1 the ,andromeda1 the ,oinomaos1 and the ,lykourgos4#adei ,it has been observed that on many vases of this period on which mythological subjects are represented1 although the theme is essentially tragic1 yet the treatment has a somewhat grotesque1 not to say burlesque effect4 ,a notable instance is the well-known vase of ,assteas in ,madrid1 with ,herakles destroying his children 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,this quasi-comic element1 which appears to be quite unintentional1 is often accompanied by considerable largeness of scale1 exemplified in the size of the figures1 the expression of the features1 and the drawing generally4 ,it may be that a certain element of exaggeration attended the revival of tragedy in ,southern ,italy1#adfj caused by unsuccessful attempts to retain the lofty manner and large style of the old productions4 ,hence too1 perhaps1 the fondness for burlesques of tragedies among the comic writers of the period1 reflected in another class of vases4 ,in the vases with comic subjects it is not necessary to have recourse to the ,attic ,comedy1 ,new1 ,middle1 or ,old1 to account for their introduction2 an explanation lies nearer at hand4 ,it is true that the costumes worn by the actors are closely related to those of the ,old ,comedy1#adfa and that one or two subjects may possibly be traced to the ,frogs of ,aristophanes 7see ,chapter ,,xv474 ,but it is not likely that these plays were ever revived in ,southern ,italy1 as were those of ,euripides4 ,they were essentially topical1 and their political and social satire would have been lost on a later generation4 ,on the other hand1 we know that a kind of farce1 known as the was especially popular with the people of ,tarentum and other towns of ,southern ,italy in the fourth century1 either dealing with subjects of daily life or burlesquing mythology and heroic legends4 ,it was during the performance of one of these in the theatre at ,tarentum that the spectators saw the ,roman fleets entering their harbour in #cjb ,b4,c4#adfb ,the best-known writer of phlyakes was ,rhinthon1 whose ,amphitruo was the original of ,plautus' play of that name2 a scene from this may be portrayed in a vase in the ,museo ,gregoriano at ,rome4#adfc ,his plays1 to judge from the titles1 were mainly burlesques2 but all literary remains have perished1 and we can only form an idea of them from the vases4 ,in many of these scenes the actual stage is represented2 in others we have merely the figure of a comic actor1 sometimes in a grotesque attitude4 ,the figures almost invariably wear masks and padded stomachs1 their dress consisting of a close-fitting leather garment with sleeves and tight trousers1 over which is a short loose tunic 7see ,fig4 #aje72 on their feet are the traditional socci or low shoes of comedy1 and there is one instance of an actor wearing gloves4 ,the subjects of these vases have been dealt with elsewhere1#adfd and need not be recapitulated here2 the example given in ,fig4 #aje1 a burlesque of ,herakles and ,auge1#adfe may serve as typical4 ,they have a peculiar style of their own1 and can hardly be classed with any of the known fabrics1 though found all over ,southern ,italy4 ,one is signed by the painter ,assteas of ,paestum1 but we look in vain for evidence of his usual style thereon4 ,they may all be regarded as belonging to the fourth century4 ,illustration3 ,from ,jahrbuch1 i4 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,,burlesque ,,scene3 ,,herakles ,,and ,,auge4 ,turning to the subjects in general on these vases1 we note the systematic supplanting of the old heroic myths by new subjects of a dramatic and emotional nature4 ,as in the case of the gods ,zeus and ,athena are replaced by ,apollo1 ,aphrodite1 and ,dionysos1 so instead of the labours of ,herakles and ,theseus we find themes drawn from the stories of ,troy and ,thebes1 or the legends of ,pelops1 ,hippolytos1 ,pentheus1 and ,lykourgos4 ,the taking of ,troy in particular is a popular subject on the large vases1 as are single episodes1 such as ,ajax seizing ,kassandra4 ,among entirely new subjects1 introduced from the tragedies1 are those relating to ,alkmena1 ,pelops1 ,oedipus1 and the later ,theban heroes4 ,cosmogonic myths such as the ,gigantomachia and the ,birth of ,athena entirely disappear1 as do many of the myths connected with the gods2 on the other hand1 such subjects as the contest of ,apollo and ,marsyas1 the ,judgment of ,paris1 ,triptolemos1 or ,europa and the bull1 retain their popularity4 ,herakles is conveyed to ,olympos by ,nike instead of ,athena2 but his labours and combats are seldom represented4 ,the typically ,attic subjects1 ,theseus1 ,eos and ,kephalos1 and the ,birth of ,erichthonios1 disappear as might have been expected1 as does the wrestling of ,peleus and ,thetis4 ,combats of ,greeks with ,centaurs and ,amazons are favourite subjects1 but often little more than decorative4 ,dionysiac scenes are very frequent1 but usually in the form of groups of figures without any particular meaning2 ,aphrodite1 and even ,apollo1 similarly occur in the midst of ,nymphs and attendants1 without special characterising of the figures4 ,a peculiar feature of the period is the almost universal presence of ,eros4 ,whether the scene be mythological1 ,dionysiac1 or from daily life1 he is an almost invariable participant1 and on the later ,apulian vases frequently occurs as a single decorative figure4 ,scenes from daily life are1 if anything1 more common than mythological subjects4 ,banquet-scenes and revels are very popular1 and the kottabos is sometimes introduced 7see ,chapter ,,xv474 ,a departing warrior is sometimes represented on ,lucanian and ,campanian vases 7see ,fig4 #ajh and ,plate ,,xliv471 but chariot and battle scenes are comparatively rare4 ,among the ,apulian vases occur a large class of subjects formerly characterised on insufficient grounds as 8toilet scenes0 of ,aphrodite or ,helen4 ,many no doubt actually represent scenes from women's daily life2 but the commonest type is that of a seated woman and a standing youth exchanging presents of fruit1 mirrors1 sashes1 or toilet-boxes4 ,the presence of ,eros in most cases suggests scenes of courting and the offerings of lovers2 but as a rule they are purely fanciful1 like the designs on ,dresden and ,svres china4 ,athletic scenes1 in which a race or contest1 is going on1 are practically non-existent2 but groups of athletes1 or rather of ephebi1 usually wrapped in mantles and conversing together1 furnish the stock decoration of the reverse of the kraters and other double-sided vases1 a practice already begun in the ,athenian ,r4,f4 vases1 and now become invariable4 ,two classes of subjects to which allusion has not yet been made1 and which are almost confined to the large ,apulian vases1 have an important bearing on the purpose for which these vases were made--namely1 for use at funerals4 ,the first class includes scenes from the under-world1 and in this series are some of the most magnificent of existing vases 7see ,plate ,,lii474 ,the subjects and the manner of their representation have been fully discussed elsewhere 7,chapter ,,xiii472 they are treated in the same theatrical style as the mythological scenes already discussed4 ,the second class is confined to scenes representing offerings at the tombs of the departed1 which may take two forms4 ,in the simpler1 which is characteristic of ,lucania and ,campania1 and especially of the hydria form1 the tomb is a stele1 like those of the ,athenian lekythi1 at which the relatives of the deceased meet to mourn or make offerings 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the 8type0 is that of ,orestes and ,electra at the tomb of ,agamemnon1 but only in one or two cases is it possible to suggest this interpretation4 ,on the ,apulian vases1 almost exclusively on the large kraters and amphorae1 but sometimes also on the hydriae1 a more elaborate treatment of the subject is employed4 ,the centre of the scene is occupied by an ,ionic distyle building representing a or shrine devoted to the worship of an ancestor or family 8hero40 ,in the entrance of this building 7which is painted white to denote marble7 stands or sits the figure of a young man or a woman holding some attribute--a cup or piece of armour--or standing by a horse4 ,these figures are usually painted white throughout like the building1 which seems to imply that a statue or relief is represented rather than an actual human figure4#adff ,on either side of the shrine figures are represented bringing libations4 ,sometimes the actual tomb of the deceased is represented with a plant growing in it2 or1 again1 a lady is represented at her toilet with her maid1 as in the ,athenian sepulchral reliefs 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,each person is represented with his appropriate costume or attributes--the warrior with horse or armour1 the hunter with dog1 the lady with articles of toilet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,,apulian ,,vase ,,with ,,sepulchral ,,scene 7,,british ,,museum74 ,in spite of the absence of 8banquet0 or 8greeting0 scenes1 the parallelism with the ,attic reliefs is very marked1 and the sepulchral character of these vases is indubitable4 ,it is1 further1 natural to suppose that there is some reference to the worship of a or deceased ancestor1 such as is known to have been a universal custom among the ,greeks4#adfg ,reliefs have been found at ,tarentum with subjects which obviously have this reference4 ,apart from these two classes1 however1 the majority of the vases of ,southern ,italy seem to have been made originally for ornamental purposes1 such as the decoration of a house1 as is implied by the distinction in the artistic merit of the two sides4 ,artists' signatures in this period are exceedingly rare2 only three1 in fact1 are known4 ,of these one may be briefly dismissed--,lasimos1#adfh who signed a fine ,apulian vase in the ,louvre1 with sepulchral and other scenes2 his style is hardly distinctive enough to admit of identifying any others as his work4 ,but in the other two names1 those of ,assteas and ,python1 we find more interest4 ,five vases exist with the signature of ,assteas1 and one with that of ,python1 and it is interesting to note that they both use the form 7see ,chapter ,,xvii474 ,the list is as follows3 ,,assteas4 7#a7 ,krater from ,paestum in ,madrid4 ,reinach1 i4 #afh ,baumeister1 i4 p4 #ffe1 fig4 #gcb ,fig4 #ajg4 ,herakles destroying his children4 7#b7 ,krater from ,paestum in ,naples 7#cdab74 ,wiener ,vorl4 ,b4 #b4 ,phrixos and ,helle4 7#c7 ,krater from ,s4 ,agata dei ,goti in ,naples 7#cbbf74 ,millingen1 ,anc4 ,uned4 ,mon4 i4 #bg4 ,kadmos slaying the dragon4 7#d7 ,krater from ,s4 ,agata dei ,goti in ,berlin 7#cjdd74 ,wiener ,vorl4 ,b4 #c1 #a4 ,scene from farce 7parody of ,prokrustes874 7#e7 ,lekythos from ,paestum in ,naples 7#bhgc74 ,millin-,reinach1 i4 pl4 #c4 ,the garden of the ,hesperides4 ,,python4 ,krater from ,s4 ,agata dei ,goti in the ,british ,museum 7,f #adi74 ,j4,h4,s4 xi4 pl4 #f4 ,alkmena on the funeral pyre4 ,the characteristics of ,assteas' work are very marked1 and1 curiously enough1 ,python's differs little from it4 ,both are essentially pictorial artists1 trained in ,greek traditions1 and inheriting from ,attic painters like ,meidias the love of elaborate and minutely rendered draperies and picturesque grouping of figures at different levels4 ,in the latter detail we also seem to see signs of the influence of ,polygnotos4 ,there are many other vases in our museums which present the same features of style and treatment as these4#adfi ,besides those already mentioned1 the fondness for half-figures in the background1 the large heads1 pronounced features1 and heavy masses of hair in the figures on these vases connect them unmistakably with the school represented by the two artists4 ,it is not the style of ,lucania or of ,campania1 still less that of ,apulia2 and yet it is clearly an ,italian fabric4 ,some previous writers have maintained that ,assteas came from 7or was resident at7 ,tarentum1 arguing thus partly on epigraphical grounds1 partly on the ground of his employment of scenes from the farces1#adgj which1 as we have seen1 were popular in that city4 ,but having regard to the fact that three out of five of ,assteas' vases were found at ,paestum1 and that he combines certain characteristics of ,lucanian and ,campanian fabrics1 we may fairly assume that he 7and therefore also ,python7 resided in that city1 which lay on the border of the two districts4 ,we are thus enabled to establish a style of ,paestum distinct from the other ,italian fabrics--a conclusion at which the present writer and ,signor ,patroni arrived independently some years back4 ,the latter has pointed out that several small details also point to that city--such as the gaily plumed helmet worn by ,herakles on the ,madrid vase1 which resembles those worn by local warriors on paintings found in that city4#adga ,and in the ,naples ,museum there are several other vases in the style of ,assteas from ,paestum4#adgb ,signor ,patroni dates ,assteas about #cej-cbj ,b4,c41 ,python a little later4 ,illustration3 ,from ,baumeister4 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,,vase ,,by ,,assteas ,,in ,,madrid3 ,,herakles ,,destroying ,,his ,,children4 ,the ,madrid vase and the ,python krater are in their way masterpieces1 and form almost the finest examples we possess of ,south ,italian vase-painting4 ,both are extraordinarily rich in colouring as well as in detail4 ,the former 7,fig4 #ajg7 represents1 as has been said1 ,herakles destroying his children the subject being treated in a manner which to us appears almost grotesque1 not to say comic4 ,but it is probable that this is due partly to the element of exaggeration which has been ascribed to the revival of tragedy 7see p4 #dgb74 ,the whole conception is obviously theatrical1 with the setting of ,herakles and his child1 the principal figures1 against a background formed1 after theatrical models1 by the front of the palace1 through openings in which appear the horrified faces of ,alkmena and ,iolaos1 and that of ,mania1 the goddess of madness4 ,herakles has already set fire to a confused pile of household furniture--tables1 chairs1 and wool-baskets--and a child clings to him in agony1 while ,megara tears her dishevelled hair2 but their pleadings have no effect4 ,in the ,python krater the action is less violent and theatrical1 but there is the same gaudiness of colouring and richness of embroidered costume4 ,alkmena is seated on the pyre1 to which ,amphitryon and ,antenor are about to set light1 and raises her hand in supplication to ,zeus1 whose bust is seen above4 ,in answer to her prayer the ,hyades or rain-nymphs pour down water from their pitchers to extinguish the flames4 ,it should be noted that in this painting we have several successive stages of time combined in one 7cf4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #aj72 the pyre is not yet lighted1 but the water is already descending to extinguish it4 ,we now proceed to describe in detail the characteristics of the three principal fabrics1 beginning with that of ,lucania1 as the earliest in character1 if not necessarily in point of time4 ,lucanian vases stand nearer to the latest ,attic fabrics than do those of the other districts1 and do not present the same local peculiarities2 nor do they sink like the others into a state of decadence and barbarism1 but are very conservative in their style4 ,we note in them a much greater unity of style than in the vases of ,campania1 and everything points to one centre of fabrication4 ,this is most probably ,anzi1 where the largest number have been found4 ,information as to provenance is unfortunately often vague1 but few other places are given as sources 7see p4 #hc71 almost the only other names being those of ,pisticci and ,pomarico4 ,but the number of vases that it is possible to attribute to ,lucania is not large in any case4 ,the designs are usually somewhat severe and restrained1 and characterised by a certain stiffness of drawing and largeness of scale4 ,the heads of figures are abnormally large1 with great staring eyes and masses of hair rendered without detail4 ,the draperies are comparatively free from ornamentation1 only broad black borders and patterns of small dots being admitted4 ,the clay is of a rich red colour1 but accessory colours are exceedingly rare4 ,hence they present a great contrast to the ,apulian and ,campanian1 with their masses of white and generally gaudy appearance4 ,another peculiarity is that fillets in the hair are rendered simply by leaving a narrow band across the head in the colour of the clay4 ,the figures often stand in the air without the usual dotted ground-lines1 but sometimes the ground is represented by a heap of loose stones4 ,a favourite device is that of a half-shield seen in the upper part of the scene1 as a sort of indication of locality or action4#adgc ,fig4 #ajh gives a typical example of ,lucanian vase-painting4 ,among the favourite shapes are the bell-shaped krater and the amphora1 also the hydria and column-handled krater4 ,the hydria is generally employed1 as in ,campania1 for sepulchral subjects4 ,the vases are mostly of large size1 whence a corresponding largeness of the figures2 whereas ,campanian vases are generally small1 and make up for the absence of imposing figures by their colouring4 ,an entirely new shape1 peculiar to this style1 is the four-handled krater1 to which the name of nestoris has been somewhat absurdly given#adgd2 it is undoubtedly a local form1 being found in the indigenous pottery of the district4#adge ,there are two varieties1 one with a high neck1 the other with sloping shoulder and no neck4 ,the handles are usually ornamented with discs painted with rosettes1 and the designs are in panels surrounded by ornament1 sometimes on the second variety with a lower frieze of figures4 ,generally speaking1 secondary ornamentation is largely employed on these vases1 especially on the last-named shape4 ,the palmette patterns under the handles are usually very luxuriant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,,departure ,,of ,,warrior1 ,,from ,a ,,lucanian ,,krater 7,,british ,,museum74 ,the vases of ,campania present in many ways a striking contrast to those of ,lucania4 ,their chief characteristic is1 as has been noted1 love of picturesque effect and variety of colour1 even to the extent of introducing attempts at shading 7see above1 p4 #dga74 ,the vases are mostly small1 and none of the large kraters or amphorae belong to this class4 ,the favourite shapes are the hydria1 lekythos with bulbous body1 and amphora2 the latter is clearly an imitation of the ,attic 8,nolan0 amphorae1 which were so largely imported into the district1 but the body is usually more symmetrical4 ,the clay is usually of a buff or dull yellow ochre tone1 and red and yellow washes are frequently used1 as well as large masses of white2 these tints are laid on very carelessly1 and the white is of a kind that is apt to flake off and disappear4 ,yellow1 purple1 and white are largely used as accessories1 and the drawing has a tendency to become very careless4 ,the lines of the ground are indicated by occasional strokes of white1 or by rocks strewn with flowers4 ,ornamental patterns are not so popular as in ,lucania2 the favourite is the wave1 and the palmettes under the handles are thick and ugly1 with angular leaves4 ,some decorative motives seem to be derived directly from nature4 ,the subjects are often interesting and uncommon1 introducing recondite or unusual myths2 many of the vases with comic scenes appear to belong to this class1 and one in the ,british ,museum has an ,oscan inscription4 ,local peculiarities of costume and armour1 which ,signor ,patroni calls ,osco-,samnite1 are often found2 for instance1 warriors wear a very short chiton with broad girdle1 a helmet with waving crest and tall side-plumes of ,italian type1#adgf and a remarkable breast-plate formed of three circular plates of metal arranged in a triangle4#adgg ,these same peculiarities are found on the wall-paintings at ,paestum1 and there are indications that ,virgil was familiar with them4#adgh ,signor ,patroni1 by dint of an exhaustive study of the ,naples collection1 has made a tentative classification of ,campanian vases according to fabric2 he distinguishes those of ,cumae1 ,saticula 7,santa ,agata dei ,goti71 and ,abella2 but those of ,capua1 ,nola1 and ,neapolis appear to have no distinctive style4 ,the ,cumae fabric1 for studying which the ,raccolta ,cumana in ,naples gives exceptional facilities1 is represented by the long1 straight-bodied amphorae1 the hydriae with female heads under the handles1 and kraters on which the design is framed by stylised floral patterns or heavy palmettes4 ,among the characteristic patterns are the wave1 large flowers in profile1 and ground-ornaments generally1 such as ivy-leaves1 branches1 and small windows4 ,the strong tendency to polychromy seems to be the result of using the late ,attic polychrome vases as models4 ,in the colouring a new feature is the use of a carmine red1 which1 according to ,patroni1 is only found in the ,cumae fabrics4#adgi ,mythological subjects are rare1#adhj sepulchral common1 and shrines are found on these alone2 but the majority have scenes from daily life1#adha banquets1 return of warriors1 etc4 ,it is on these that the local costumes are usually found4 ,the ,saticula fabrics are very uniform1#adhb practically all bell-shaped kraters with red clay2 colours are sparingly used1 and then only white2 a maeander takes the place of the wave-pattern as a border2 ground-lines are usually indicated4 ,of subjects ,dionysiac have the preference4 ,the vases of ,abella are of late date1 chiefly hydriae of very pale clay with accessory colours2 among the typical patterns are arabesques ending in white daisies4 ,they sometimes show reminiscences of the ,paestum style4#adhc ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xliv ,illustration3 ,,south ,,italian ,,vases 7,,british ,,museum74 #a1 #b1 ,,apulian ,,vases2 #c1 ,,campanian4 ------------------------------------ ,there are a few peculiar fabrics which we may also attribute to a ,campanian origin1 including rude imitations of the ,b4,f4 style1 chiefly small amphorae with single figures2 imitations of ,nolan amphorae1 reproducing both their form and their scheme of decoration#adhd2 and bell-shaped kraters imitating the ,attic style1 which ,signor ,patroni has associated with ,saticula4 ,the imitations of ,nolan amphorae have a slim body1 twisted handles1 and a sharply set-off shoulder forming a right angle with the neck instead of a graceful curve4 ,as in their prototypes1 the subjects are confined to one or two figures each side4 ,the lustrous black glaze of the ,attic vases is admirably reproduced4 ,there is also a class of vases with designs painted in opaque red on the black ground1 reproducing the method of the transitional vases described on p4 #cic4adhe ,they are very rude in character1 with roughly incised details and subjects of a simple kind2 the red pigment appears to have been made from fragments of pounded pottery 7testa trita74 ,there is1 however1 one remarkable exception--a small phiale in the ,british ,museum1#adhf dating from the third century1 with the subject of a shepherd-boy with his dog4 ,the design is carefully painted in opaque red and white in the style of the ,pompeian wall-paintings1 and the effect of light and shade produced by hatched lines is both remarkable and unique4 ,a krater found at ,civita ,castellana 7,falerii71#adhg the paintings on which are in ,campanian style1 is unique in having ,latin inscriptions over the figures1 a group consisting of ,zeus 7444 ,,spater1 ,diespater71 ,ganymede1 ,eros 7,,cvpido71 and ,athena 7,,menerva74 ,the subject is conceived rather in the style of the ,etruscan mirrors than that of the painted vases1 and is obviously under local influence4 ,as ,falerii was destroyed in #bdc ,b4,c41 a terminus ante quem may be obtained for the date of the vase1 as for others found on this site 7see p4 #ge74 ,the vases of ,apulia are not only more numerous1 but of more merit and greater interest than those of the other two classes4 ,in them may be observed two or three stages of development1 beginning with a fifth- or early fourth-century group of ,attic type1 consisting of large amphorae with two friezes of figures4#adhh ,both in shape and method of decoration these form the prototype of the large kraters and amphorae which comprise the second class2 they are distinguished from the latter by severity of treatment and absence of colour4 ,the second class includes the large vases with mythological and tragic subjects1 the ,under-world vases1 and those with sepulchral scenes2 they are all richly decorated from head to foot1 with two main rows of figures1 smaller subjects on the neck1 and ornamentation over every available space4 ,the theatrical characteristics of which we have spoken above 7p4 #dgb7 are best illustrated by some of this series4 ,the third class includes some large vases1 such as the so-called pelikae and the large phialae1 and the smaller forms1 the oinocho and its varieties1 and kanthari1 rhyta1 and other kinds of drinking-cups4 ,some shapes are peculiar to this class4 ,in spite of the great variety of shape1 there is a remarkable poverty of conception in the subjects1 which show a tendency to become purely decorative1 and are mainly confined to the vague 8courting0 scenes or 8toilet0 scenes1 or to single figures of ,eros and ,nike4 ,on the smallest vases the commonest subject is often that of a female head covered with a cap1 sometimes of a relatively colossal size1 and this also occurs1 surrounded by foliage1 on the necks of the large vases4 ,the shapes1 as in the case of the epichysis 7p4 #agi71 often tend to ugliness and over-refinement4 ,the conception of ,eros on the later ,apulian vases is one of their chief characteristics 7cf4 ,plate ,,xliv474 ,an almost invariable participant in every scene1 his form assumes an androgynous character2 his hair is arranged in feminine fashion1 and his person adorned with necklaces1 earrings1 and other jewellery4 ,among other peculiarities we may note the double line of white or yellow dots for ground-lines2 the characterising of ,oriental figures by tiaras and cross-belts2 the general treatment of the hair of women1 at first long1 thick1 and wig-like1 but later gathered up in a cap1 from which the ends float out behind2 the thick but effeminate proportions of the men2 and the small heads of the horses4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xlv ,to face page #dhf4 ,illustration3 ,,apulian ,,amphora4 ,,persephone ,,in ,,hades4 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,there does not seem to be any possibility of distinguishing different centres of fabric in ,apulia4 ,nor can ,tarentum have been a centre of vase-fabrics1 although ,lenormant stoutly upheld its claims1 as the chief centre of ,greek civilisation in that region4 ,but ,tarentum has been the scene of much excavation1 and results do not point to that conclusion2 most of the vases found there are purely ,greek4 ,on the other hand1 enormous numbers have been found at ,ruvo1 and this was undoubtedly the chief centre1 though without a distinguishing style of its own4 ,ruvo was famous for its red clay1 and remains of furnaces and potteries have been found there4 ,other sites where vases have been found are ,bari1 ,canosa1 and ,ceglie4 ,at ,canosa there was a preference for the tall amphora with scroll-handles1 the large phiale1 and the prochos1#adhi and purple accessories were largely used here4 ,it is also interesting to recall that ,canosa seems to have been the centre for the large ornamental vases of terracotta painted in tempera 7p4 #aai74 ,on some of the column-handled kraters#adij local costumes appear1 probably representing the ,peucetians1 and having some affinities with those of ,lucania2 the principal features are the tall pointed cap and short striped chiton worn by both sexes4 ,another group peculiar to ,apulia is formed by the fish-plates#adia--;a peculiar form of plate1 with low stem1 a sinking in the centre1 and edge turned over1 all being painted with fish of various kinds 7,plate ,,xliv474 ,they were no doubt used for eating fish1 the sinking being for the sauce2 but they may also have been hung up as votive offerings in the temple of some marine deity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the last efforts of vase-painting on the soil of ,magna ,graecia date from the latter half of the third century ,b4,c4 ,by this time vase-painting had reached a stage of complete decadence1 devoid of style or taste1 and rapidly verging on barbarism1 as shown in some specimens1 which seem to be the efforts of local craftsmen to copy the better examples1 but with the same want of success as the ,etruscans4#adib ,another direction which vase-painting took before it finally disappeared is illustrated by a group of vases mostly found at ,egnazia 7,gnathia7 in ,apulia1 which clearly form a final stage in the evolution of the local fabric just discussed4 ,originally known from the place where the majority was found as vasi di ,egnazia or ,gnathia vases1 they were in the view of ,lenormant more probably made at ,tarentum4#adic ,but we have seen that there is slight evidence of local fabric there1#adid and their connection with the fabrics of ,ruvo and ,canosa makes it more likely that they came from that neighbourhood4 ,it is therefore probable that the old name is the correct one4 ,the characteristics of this group are3 7#a7 the black varnish with which the whole vase is covered2 7#b7 the designs painted in opaque colours--white1 purple1 and yellow2 7#c7 the tendency to imitate vases of metal1 as seen in the vertically ribbed bodies and other details of form4 ,the important rle played by the black varnish is interesting1 as showing the increasing tendency to reduce the painter's labour to a minimum1 combined with a striving after novelty and the rejuvenation of the art4 ,the practice1 no doubt1 arose from the discovery of the painter that it was easier to paint the figures on the black in opaque colour than to trace them out in the clay and work round them with the varnish1 especially in the case of the elaborate foliage patterns which played so important a part in ,apulian vases4 ,the subjects are usually confined to the shoulder or neck1 at least of the larger vases2 but figures are comparatively rare4 ,one krater in the ,british ,museum 7,f #edc7 which belongs to the comic series is a notable exception2 and there is a pleasing subject on a skyphos in the ,louvre#adie--;a cock and goose confronted1 and greeting one another with the respective salutations1 8,ah1 the goose60 8,oh1 the cock60 ,but in the majority of cases the only designs are female heads1 ,erotes 7,fig4 #aah71 birds1 comic and tragic masks suspended from wreaths1 and simple foliage patterns4 ,the reverse of the two-sided vases is often undecorated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,,hydria ,,with ,,opaque ,,painting ,,on ,,black ,,ground1 ,,from ,,curium 7,,british ,,museum74 ,it is interesting to note that specimens of this ware are sometimes found on ,greek sites1 such as ,athens1 ,myrina in ,asia ,minor1 ,melos1 and ,cyprus4 ,at ,curium in the latter island a fine hydria in this style1 with figures on the shoulder 7,fig4 #aji71 was found in #ahie4adif ,whether these were imported from ,italy or made elsewhere is quite uncertain4#adig ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,,phiale ,,with ,,latin ,,inscription3 8,,the ,,cup ,,of ,,aequitia0 7,,british ,,museum74 ,another interesting but much smaller class which belongs to the latter half of the third century is formed by a group of vases1 mostly small phialae1 which are distinguished by bearing painted ,latin inscriptions4#adih ,some also have figures 7,eros1 a female head1 etc471 which are treated in the same manner as the ,gnatia vases4 ,it is probable that ,rome was the place of origin of this class1 in spite of the fact that most of them were found in ,etruria4#adii ,but the ,latin language at that time was more at home in ,campania than anywhere else outside ,rome4 ,the inscriptions take the form3 ,,aecetiai ,,pocolom1 ,aequitiae poculum 7,b4,m4 ,f #fjd ,fig4 #aaj72 ,,ivnonenes ,,pocolom1 ,junonis poculum2 and so on1--,saturn1 ,mercury1 and other ,roman deities being included in the list4 ,reasons have been given for dating this series in the ,first ,punic ,war1 #bfj-bdj ,b4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,formerly it was universally supposed that the art of vase-painting was brought to an end in #ahf ,b4,c4 by the action of the ,roman ,senate when they issued their edict against ,bacchanalian ceremonies1 which undoubtedly affected ,southern ,italy4 ,but this was only a natural view to be taken by writers who associated the painted vases with the ,eleusinian mysteries and similar ideas2 on other grounds it is hardly tenable4 ,especially in regard to the general putting back of the chronology of the art1 it is impossible to suppose that painted vases with mythological subjects were still made in the second century4 ,the character of the mid-third-century vases just described is sufficient to indicate that they represent the last stage to which ,greek painting could ever have reached4 #c4 ,,figure-,,vases ,,and ,,vases ,,with ,,reliefs ,we propose to conclude this sketch of the history of ,greek vase-painting with a few words on a principle which1 while always present in ,greek pottery1 yet at all times lay in the background1 until the latest stages of the art1 when it entered on a phase of increased popularity4 ,this is the principle of combining the ceramic with the plastic art--in other words1 the manufacture of vases in the form of human or animal figures or heads4 ,it has already been noted1 in discussing the primitive pottery of ,troy 7p4 #beg71 that the idea of associating the vase form and the human form is a very old one4 ,at ,troy it is of course seen in its most rudimentary stage1 when correct modelling was a thing quite beyond the potter's scope1 and he could only roughly indicate features and limbs on the surface of the vase1 which thus always remained a vase1 and the figure idea never gained1 as in later times1 the predominance4 ,in the ,mycenaean period the advance in modelling was great1 but only reached a high level in ,crete4 ,it is only since the discoveries at ,knossos that we have been able to account for the astounding group of porcelain rhyta from the ,enkomi tombs in ,cyprus 7see ,plate ,x41 fig4 #d71aejj which at first sight seem to have been made by a sixth-century artist1 so admirable and lifelike are they4 ,although the rams' heads bear the palm1 the female heads are1 for the period1 a tour de force1 so advanced in type that it would be pardonable to argue--apart from the circumstances of their discovery--that they must belong to a later stage of art4 ,apart from these1 however1 the principle did not find its way into ,greece before the seventh century ,b4,c41 and then its origin is indubitably ,oriental4 ,it is best exemplified by the discoveries in ,rhodes1 especially at ,kameiros1#aeja where vases of porcelain and terracotta are found modelled in the form of helmeted heads or heads of animals 7see ,plate ,,xlvi41 fig4 #a1 and p4 #abg74 ,the type adopted is that of the aryballos 7p4 #aig72 it was no doubt a comparatively easy matter to model its spherical body into the form required1 applying paint where necessary to bring out the details as on the vases4 ,in the ,western ,mediterranean the alabastron form seems to have been more popular4#aejb ,it is often adopted for the ,canopic vases of ,etruria 7see ,chapter ,,xviii474 ,many of these are unpainted1 or rather are covered with a white slip and then painted in tempera like the ordinary terracotta figures2 they are1 in fact1 figurines in essence1 vases by accident2 whereas in the first-named group the vase idea retains the predominance4 ,but it is almost impossible to draw the line4 ,a fine early instance of imitation of metal in early ,greek pottery is the ,british ,museum jug from ,aegina 7,a #deg7 terminating in the head of a ,gryphon4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xlvi ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,vases ,,modelled ,,in ,,various ,,forms 7,,british ,,museum74 #a1 #f1 ,,sixth ,,century2 #b1 #d1 #e1 ,,fifth ,,century2 #c1 ,,fourth ,,century4 ------------------------------------ ,during the sixth century painted figurine vases are rare1 though there are not wanting various examples of the class just described1 which belong to this period2 but at all events hardly any examples can be traced to ,athenian manufacture during the age of ,b4,f4 vase-painting4 ,towards the end of the century1 however1 the fashion was reintroduced by the potter ,charinos1 who belongs to the transitional period 7about #ebe-ejj ,b4,c474 ,a vase signed by him1 which was found at ,corneto1 is in the form of a female head surmounted by a kalathos4#aejc ,it was made in a mould like the terracotta figures1 but the painted decoration1 which is remarkably elaborate and minute1 is entirely ,b4,f4 in character4 ,the patterns on the head-dress include maeander1 stars1 ivy-leaves1 lozenge and net patterns1 and a minute frieze of animals1 painted in black on the clay ground4 ,a similar vase1 but later in date1 is in the ,berlin ,museum#aejd2 in this example we may note the introduction of ,r4,f4 ornamentation1 in the palmettes and diapering round the top4 ,these two stand at the head of a series of similar vases extending throughout the succeeding periods down to the end of the age of painted vases4 ,they compare for style with the heads of the female statues found on the ,acropolis1 which belong to the same period4 ,two other potters1 ,kaliades and ,prokles1 made similar vases4#aeje ,the fashion started by ,charinos continued throughout the fifth century1 but the plastic conception tended to become subordinate to the ceramic1 and it became more and more customary to decorate the non-plastic portions in the manner of the vases4 ,of this development the most noteworthy example is the beautiful rhyton in the ,british ,museum in the form of a ,sphinx 7,e #ghh71 the upper or vase part of which is ornamented with the subject of ,kekrops and ,erichthonios4 ,the body of the ,sphinx is covered with a fine white slip1 and the details are picked out with red and gilding4 ,this vase dates from about the middle of the century4 ,there also exist many examples of rhyta or kanthari1 formed of a head or two heads back to back1 usually a ,maenad and a ,seilenos4#aejf ,another favourite type is that of a jug in the form of a negro's or ,aethiopian's head#aejg2 and there are also rhyta which terminate in the head of a lion1 mule1 or other animal finely modelled 7,plate ,,xlvi41 figs4 #b1 #e74 ,towards the end of the fifth century there is a reversion to the purely plastic figure-vase1 usually in the form of a lekythos with spherical body1 to the front of which the figure is attached 7,plate ,,xlvi41 fig4 #d74 ,the vase is usually covered with black glaze1 and the figure with a white slip like the terracottas1 with polychrome colouring4 ,examples of this class are the series of lekythi representing ,aphrodite ,anadyomene in a scallop-shell1 of which there are examples at ,athens and ,petersburg1#aejh and the fine vase in the ,british ,museum 7,e #gaf7 with the bust of ,athena ,parthenos4 ,a series of smaller lekythi1 of which the ,british ,museum possesses examples 7,g #b-g71 represents ,eros on a dolphin1 the young ,dionysos in a sort of canopy1 ,europa on the bull1 a boy with a dog1 and other subjects2 the technique is similar to that of the larger specimens1 with pink and green colouring4 ,they form charming little objects1 and are often well executed4#aeji ,in ,southern ,italy many of these types are continued1 the most popular being that of the rhyton ending in an animal's head 7p4 #aic71 of which many examples have been found in ,apulia4 ,they usually have some simple design painted on the upper part1 such as a figure of ,eros4 ,there are also numerous examples of vases in the form of animals or human figures 7,plate ,,xlvi41 fig4 #c71 some of which are in black glazed ware with patterns in white like the vases of ,egnazia1 others being covered with white slip like the terracottas4 ,with the decay of painted decoration the plastic element gradually predominates more and more1 until the vase form becomes1 so to speak1 purely accidental4 ,thus in the third century the fabrics of ,canosa1 of which we have spoken in a previous chapter 7p4 #aah71 entirely hold the field1 and the vases pass out of the sphere of the history of vase-painting4 ,in all or nearly all of the vases just described we observe the same principle at work--namely1 the tendency to imitate metal in terracotta4 ,it is one that is constantly recurring throughout the whole history of ,greek ceramics1 with more or less persistency and prominence4 ,sometimes1 as in the ,melian1 ,proto-,attic1 and other fabrics1 the imitation is limited to the form of the handles1 which is1 strictly speaking1 inappropriate in terracotta1 though frequently found in early bronze vessels4#aeaj ,it is seldom found in ,ionia1 but in ,western ,greece there are many examples during the seventh and sixth centuries1 as in some of the ,proto-,corinthian and early ,corinthian wares1#aeaa ,this is doubtless in a large measure due to the influence of the great centres of metal-work at that time1 ,corinth and ,chalkis4 ,we are not1 therefore1 surprised to find the tendency exemplified in the pottery fabrics of those two centres1 and at ,chalkis1 as has already been noted 7p4 #cba71 it is especially conspicuous in the form and minor details of the vases4 ,at ,athens examples are rare1 with the exception of the vases of ,nikosthenes1 who not only copies complete vases in metal1 as in his peculiarly-shaped amphorae and in a small phiale mesomphalos in the ,british ,museum1#aeab but is also addicted to adorning the handles of jugs with female heads in relief1 as on specimens in the ,louvre and elsewhere4#aeac ,after the sixth century the tendency is far less conspicuous1 owing to the high esteem in which vase-painting was then held1 and little is seen of attempts at imitating metal until the revival of the plastic element in pottery in the fourth century4 ,an almost unique exception is the ,berlin krater from ,corinth 7#bhhb71 which must date from the fifth century4 ,it is of black ware1 with designs in relief round the body4#aead ,the tendency also manifests itself in a marked degree in another direction in early ,greek art--namely1 in that of ornamenting vases with reliefs4 ,so much evidence of this has been yielded by discoveries on ,greek soil that it is now certain that this method of decoration had its origin in ,greece1 and not in ,etruria1 although the close resemblance between early relief-wares from ,rhodes and the large of ,cervetri 7see p4 #aec7 had led archaeologists in the past to regard ,etruria as its original home4 ,the ,etruscans always preferred modelled vases or relief decoration to painted ware1 as their bucchero fabrics show2 but we know that they had no inventive power1 and even in this they have proved to be only imitators4#aeae ,turning to details of the early ,greek vases with reliefs1 we may note that there are two varieties3 firstly1 those in which the reliefs are made by rolling a cylinder round the vase1 the design being repeated over again2 secondly1 those in which the reliefs are made from separate moulds1 and attached with some kind of cement4#aeaf ,in both classes the shape usually affected is that of a large 7cf4 p4 #aea71 of a somewhat coarse red clay4 ,it is the first variety which so closely resemble the found at ,cervetri1 and which are now known to be the prototypes1 not imitations1 of the ,etruscan examples4#aeag ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xlvii ,illustration3 ,from 4 4 ,,archaic ,,pithos ,,with ,,reliefs ,,from ,,boeotia 7,,athens ,,mus474 ------------------------------------ ,in ,greece fragments of the first class have been found on the ,acropolis at ,athens1 the recurring design being a two-horse chariot which a warrior mounts1 with a scorpion in the field4 ,the similarity in the clay1 the shape1 and the technique of the reliefs with the ,cervetri vases is remarkable2 the subject is one common on ,corinthian vases4 ,other fragments have been found at ,tanagra1 and there is a good example in the ,louvre with a series of figures1 representing a dance of women1 all of similar types1 yet not from the same stamp1 but different moulds4#aeah ,the variations of detail in dress and hair show conclusively that the cylinder process is not employed here1 but that the figures are freely modelled from a single type4 ,the costume is that typical of the women on early ,b4,f4 vases 7cf4 p4 #cgb74 ,some very fine examples of with reliefs1 dating from the end of the seventh century1 have been published by ,de ,ridder4#aeai ,they are all from ,boeotia1 and are similar to those made in ,rhodes1 but with the characteristic ornamental handles of metallic form4 ,here again the figures are freely modelled with variations of detail1 and they afford interesting points of comparison with the painted vases and with the early bronze reliefs which are variously attributed to ,corinth and ,chalkis4#aebj ,one in ,athens 7,cat4 #dfb7 has the interesting subject of ,artemis ,diktynna2 another 7,cat4 #dff ,plate ,,xlvii471 an accouchement scene4 ,similar finds have been made in ,kythnos1 ,tenos1 ,crete1 and ,rhodes1#aeba the ornamentation being for the most part purely geometrical1 but sometimes with ,centaurs or human figures4#aebb ,in none of these examples is there any peculiarly ,etruscan feature2 all is purely ,hellenic1 presenting close analogies not only with metal-work in relief1 but also with the ,oriental art to which the ,greek work of that age was so much indebted1 as in the case of the cylinder process4#aebc ,a new method of decorating vases1 which first makes its appearance towards the end of the fifth century1 is by means of appliqu reliefs4 ,it is doubtless due to the influence of sculpture1 and perhaps more especially to that of the bronze reliefs which on vases and mirror-cases were now becoming popular4 ,the former influence is clearly at work in the great ,kertch vase with the contest of ,athena and ,poseidon 7,plate ,l471 where we may see in the two central figures1 which are modelled in relief and applied to the surface of the vase1 an undoubted reminiscence of the western ,parthenon pediment4 ,there are also vases from ,athens1 ,kertch1 the ,cyrenaica1 and ,southern ,italy1#aebd in which the figures are either partially or wholly modelled in relief1 like the vase of ,xenophantos or a fine lekythos in the ,british ,museum 7,g #bc7 representing the rape of ,kassandra by ,ajax4 ,another fine specimen1 found at ,cumae and now at ,petersburg1 has a group of ,eleusinian deities in relief on the shoulder4#aebe ,yet another example1 recently found at ,lampsakos1 has the ,calydonian boar-hunt as its subject2 the figures are in relief on a gilded ground4#aebf ,the imitation of metal technique#aebg is even more marked in the vases of ,southern ,italy than in those from other parts4 ,at ,capua1 ,cumae1 and ,metapontum amphorae1 hydriae1 and oinochoae are found1 covered with a very brilliant black varnish1 but without any painted decoration2 the only ornament is in the form of gilded wreaths and other simple patterns1 or designs in relief4 ,the ,british ,museum has a fine series from ,capua with garlands of foliage and ornaments in the form of festoons and pendants1 the whole forming1 as ,m4 ,collignon says1 8a brilliant and luxurious system of decoration which contrasts with the sober taste of the ,attic potters40 ,some of the hydriae are clearly of local fabric1 imitations of the ,campanian hydriae of bronze4#aebh ,the forms are often very elaborate1 with ornamental handles1 ribbed bodies1 and moulded stems4 ,an oinocho has been found with an inscription which gives the names of lea for smooth-surfaced vases1 for those ribbed or fluted4 ,heavy imitations of the gilt and relief wares have often been found at ,alexandria1#aebi and isolated specimens occur in ,attica1 ,rhodes1 and the ,cyrenaica4 ,the growing fashion of using only vases of chased gold and silver in preference to painted pottery made itself more and more felt both in ,greece and ,italy during the ,alexandrine period4 ,the same tendency which we have already noted1 to reproduce as far as possible the characteristics and appearance of metal1 may be observed in all the pottery of this period4 ,not only do the subjects moulded in relief reproduce the appearance of the chased and repouss designs1 but the shapes are those of the metal vases1 and even in the black glaze there are attempts to produce a metallic effect4 ,it is clear that the pottery of this period presents throughout the effect of a striving after outward show on the part of those who were unable to afford the more precious metal for their household utensils1 and were forced to be content with imitating it to the best of their ability in the humbler material4 ,in ,greece this tendency is best illustrated by a series of vases known as ,megarian or ,homeric bowls1 of hemispherical form1#aecj without handles4 ,the former name was given to them by ,dumont#aeca and ,benndorf1#aecb but with little authority beyond the fact that several were found at ,megara4 ,but they might on equally good grounds be called ,boeotian1 others having been found at ,thebes and elsewhere in the neighbourhood4 ,they have also been found in ,kalymnos1 ,crete1 and ,cyprus1 but the majority are from ,thebes1 ,tanagra1 and ,anthedon4 ,professor ,robert thinks they may be identified with the vasa ,samia so often mentioned by ancient writers 7see ,chapter ,,xxii471 and refers to the dedicated at ,oropos and ,paphos4#aecc ,all are of red clay1 with a thin metallic black glaze giving a quasi-metallic appearance2 the hemispherical form is only departed from in one or two instances4#aecd ,the other name1 ,homeric1 has been applied to them by ,professor ,robert with reference to the well-known passage of ,suetonius1 which describes ,nero as using bowls 7scyphi7 called ,homeric because they were chased with subjects from ,homer's poems4#aece ,our clay examples would then be reproductions of the chased metal vases1 used by those who could not afford originals1 and corresponding in some degree to modern plaster casts4 ,it is true that only five of the examples we possess have subjects from ,homer2 but most of the others may be so called as belonging to the ,epic cycle4 ,they thus differ from most relief-vases of the period1 in that the designs are not purely decorative or repetitions of simple motives1 but are1 so to speak1 8illustrations of the classics40 ,professor ,robert distinguishes two classes3 7#a7 those with figures made from separate stamps1 attached to the vase after it was made1 and often repeated2 7#b7 vases made wholly1 figures and all1 in a mould1 like the ,arretine wares4#aecf ,in the latter case they were doubtless made from the same moulds as the metal vases1 and of this we have an undoubted example1 not indeed among the 8,megarian0 bowls1 but in analogous specimens from ,italy4 ,it has already been noted 7p4 #acd7 that in the ,british ,museum there are two examples of a silver bowl with repouss designs1 representing round the interior four deities in chariots1 which form part of a silver treasure found at ze in the south of ,france2 and that in the same collection there is also a clay bowl 7,cat4 ,g #aah ,plate ,,xlviii41 fig4 #e7 which exactly reproduces the silver vase in shape1 size1 and decoration4 ,among the subjects we have the rape of ,persephone#aecg2 the sacrifice of ,iphigeneia2 ,achilles and ,priam#aech2 the flight to the ships 7from the ,iliad71 the sack of ,troy and the sacrifice of ,polyxena2 the destruction of the suitors 7from the ,odyssey74 ,from the ,theban legend we have the stories of ,oedipus's childhood and the ,seven against ,thebes#aeci2 other vases give the labours of ,herakles or his rape of ,auge 7,plate ,,xlviii41 fig4 #b7aedj2 and a jug made by ,dionysios has the interesting subject of ,autolykos and ,sisyphos4#aeda ,the ,british ,museum possesses a very interesting bowl with scenes taken directly from the ,phoenissae of ,euripides1#aedb and other comparisons with that author may be made in the case of the bowls with ,iphigeneia and ,polyxena4 ,sometimes the scenes are inscribed with verses from the poems or plays illustrated1 or with a prose description of the scene1#aedc or merely with the names of the figures4 ,the letters in all cases are raised4 ,it is clear that all these bowls belong to the same period and fabric1 and many small details point to the third century as their date4 ,we may bear in mind that this was the time of the great revival of ,homeric study at ,alexandria4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,xlviii ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,vases ,,of ,,hellenistic ,,period3 ,,black ,,ware ,,with ,,reliefs 7,,british ,,museum74 ------------------------------------ ,in ,italy the introduction of relief wares became general as painting was abandoned1 but did so gradually1 not suddenly4 ,in the third century both existed side by side4 ,the principle of a purely mechanical process in pottery1 which now first appears in the manufacture from a mould1 was not1 strictly speaking1 a new one in ,italy1 nor yet in ,greece4 ,it is first seen in the early ,etruscan and ,rhodian vases 7see p4 #dif7 with stamped and rolled-out designs repeated in long friezes4 ,and we shall see later how for several centuries moulded vases1 in the form of bucchero ware1 formed the national pottery of ,etruria4 ,there was always in ,etruscan1 as also in ,greek pottery1#aedd a tendency towards the imitation of metal1 and this tendency about the fourth century seems to have spread over the rest of ,italy1 even to the ,iapygian ,peninsula4 ,thus it is that the vases of ,gnatia 7p4 #dhh7 are largely metallic in form and treatment1 with their ribbed bodies and other details4 ,to the same cause is mainly due the series of ,capua and ,cumae vases which has already been discussed1 with its brilliant varnish and gilding4 ,signor ,gamurrini actually gave to the ,italian black glaze wares the name of 8,etrusco-,campanian40#aede ,after the disappearance of bucchero ware similar vases came to be made at ,cervetri1 ,chiusi1 ,corneto1 and ,bolsena1 the principal art centres of ,etruria4 ,at ,bolsena in particular they have been found in considerable numbers2 and as this city 7,volsinium novum7 was only founded in #bfd ,b4,c41 a terminus post quem for their date is afforded4 ,a group of vases found chiefly at the last-named place#aedf does not appear to have been covered with black varnish1 but with a metallic preparation of gold or silver1 which has now mostly disappeared1 and they are left with the plain glazed clay4 ,some of these are not without merit4 ,in the general arrangement of the designs1 usually in friezes round the shoulder1 there is obviously a reminiscence of bucchero ware4 ,the metallic preparation with which they were covered may have been something of the kind which ,athenaeus#aedg describes in speaking of certain drinking-cups made at ,naukratis1 which 8were dipped in some preparation so as to appear silver40 ,in ,italy the manufacture of vases of black ware with reliefs appears to have centred at ,cales in ,campania during the third century4#aedh ,the principal type is that of a bowl1 not of the hemispherical form1 but shallow1 with the designs in the interior1 either in the form of a frieze or of a central medallion4 ,these are usually called ,calene phialae1 but it is not certain whether the majority were really made at ,cales4 ,at all events1 it is1 like 8,megarian bowl10 a convenient name for the class4 ,the ,british ,museum bowl ,g #aah1 with the frieze of chariots 7see above71 is a good example of the frieze type of design4 ,the subject1 which is treated in a very spirited manner1 is the apotheosis of ,herakles1 who is conducted by ,athena1 ,ares1 and ,artemis to ,olympos1 accompanied by ,victories4 ,there is also a good specimen in ,berlin 7,cat4 #chhb7 with ,odysseus and the ,sirens4 ,another with decorative patterns only1 bears the signature of the potter1 ,l4 ,canoleios of ,cales1 in ,latin letters4#aedi ,examples are also given in ,plate ,,xlviii41 figs4 #c1 #e1 #f4 ,of the type with central medallions comparatively few complete examples exist1 but the ,british ,museum possesses a series of fragments on which the medallions have been preserved4#aeej ,the subjects are usually those characteristic of the ,alexandrine period3 ,aphrodite1 ,adonis1 and ,erotes2 ,herakles and ,hylas1 and others familiar from ,theocritus2 or ,trojan scenes1 such as ,thetis with the arms of ,achilles or ,paris attacked by ,deiphobos4 ,a unique instance is that of ,romulus and ,remus suckled by the wolf 7,g #abe74 ,two names of potters occur--,k4 ,atilius and ,g4 ,gabinius4 ,the date of these phialae is probably that of the ,second ,punic ,war 7about #bcj-bjj ,b4,c474 ,the designs1 being taken from moulds#aeea and inserted separately1 are frequently repeated4 ,the fashion--obviously another instance of imitation of metal#aeeb--of adorning bowls with central designs also takes other forms at this period4 ,simple heads of deities or ,satyrs are found1 and there are also instances of facsimiles of ,syracusan coins4 ,two bowls in the ,british ,museum 7,g #aba-bb7 have in the centre copies of a decadrachm with the head of ,persephone 7,plate ,,xlviii41 fig4 #d3 cf4 p4 #baj74aeec ,analogous to these in character and technique are the series of small lamp-feeders or gutti1 a variation of the askos form1 which are found chiefly in ,southern ,italy1 but also in ,north ,africa and the ,eastern ,mediterranean4#aeed ,in the latter case they are usually distinguished by having an arched handle over the back instead of the usual ring-handle at the side1 and the body is flatter4 ,the ,italian type has a deep ribbed body1 with a flat circular space on the top containing a design in relief1 made separately and inserted in the vase 7,plate ,,xlviii41 fig4 #a74 ,the range of subjects is wide1 but the majority are mythological3 heads or masks of a ,dionysiac character or of ,medusa form a large proportion of the whole4 ,larger vases of black ware with reliefs inserted or attached are sometimes found1 but are not common4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses two good specimens--a krater 7,g #bi7 with panels inserted bearing mythological designs1#aeee and a large covered jar 7,g #bh7 with the inscription ,,bassvs in ,roman letters1 presumably the potter's name4 ,the subjects1 in two friezes1 represent ,erotes and festoons of vine-leaves1 and ,poseidon and ,victory1 five times repeated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the series of vases which we have been discussing are clearly paving the way for the new development of pottery which prevailed throughout the ,roman period--that of the ware formerly known as ,samian1 but now usually spoken of as ,arretine or 7a more comprehensive term7 ,terra sigillata4 ,this will of course be more appropriately dealt with in a subsequent chapter under the heading of ,roman ,pottery4 ,in the course of the second century the ,roman dominion spread over most of the ,greek lands1 and ,greek art as an independent entity almost ceased to exist4 ,it is1 however1 not a little remarkable at what a late date some forms of distinctively ,greek pottery lingered on in ,hellenic regions1 such as ,attica1 ,egypt1 and ,southern ,russia4 ,the subject has hitherto received but little attention1 and the materials have hardly been collected with sufficient completeness to admit of adequate discussion and classification4#aeef ----- ,footnote #adji3 ,see ,hesych4 s4v4 2 ,athenag4 ,leg4 pro ,christo1 #ag1 p4 #bic2 also p4 #caf4 ,footnote #adaj3 ,see ,loeschcke in ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahgi1 p4 #bhi ff4 ,the revision of chronology since his article was written has only served to give additional support to his view1 bringing the white vases nearer in date to the painted stelae4 ,footnote #adaa3 ,brut4 xviii4 #gj3 see also ,plut4 de defect4 orac4 #dg1 #dcf ,c2 ,pliny1 ,h4,n4 xxxv4 #ej4 ,footnote #adab3 ,see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 ii4 ,b #fac ff4 ,footnote #adac3 ,winter in ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhe1 p4 #aie ff4 ,footnote #adad3 ,ibid4 p4 #ahg ff43 cf4 also ,hartwig in ,jahrbuch1 #ahii1 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #adae3 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhe1 pl4 #ab4 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,d #bb1 #cb2 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 pl4 #aa2 ,rayet and ,collignon1 pl4 #aj1 #a4 ,the severe type of face should be compared with ,attic coins of the fifth century4 ,footnote #adaf3 ,cf4 ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahha1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #adag3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,d #fe and ,fig4 #ai1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #adah3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,d #ba1 #cc4 ,footnote #adai3 ,as on the ,anesidora cup in the ,british ,museum 7,d #d7 and the ,euphronios cup in ,berlin 7#bbhb74 ,footnote #adbj3 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 x4 #cg a2 ,annali1 #ahgg1 p4 #bhg4 ,footnote #adba3 ,cat4 #bjh1 #ccb1 #ccf2 published in ,jahn1 ,entfhr4 d4 ,europa1 pl4 #g2 ,furtwaengler and ,reichhold1 pl4 #di 7,fig4 #aba72 and ,overbeck1 ,kunstmythol4 ,atlas1 pl4 #i1 ,no4 #ai4 ,footnote #adbb3 ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #bbc3 see ,anzeiger1 #ahia1 p4 #fi1 where it is attributed to ,sotades4 ,footnote #adbc3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,d #aa ,plate ,,xliii4 fig4 #a2 ,mon4 ,grecs1 #ahgh1 pl4 #b 7in ,louvre74 ,footnote #adbd3 ,also attributed by ,furtwaengler to ,sotades 7,anzeiger1 loc4 cit474 ,footnote #adbe3 ,formerly in the collection of ,m4 van ,branteghem3 see his ,sale ,cat4 ,nos4 #aei-ff1 and ,plate ,,xl4 ,footnote #adbf3 ,a complete list of white-ground cups is given by ,hartwig1 ,meistersch4 p4 #dii4 ,among signed examples are the ,euphronios cup in ,berlin 7#bbhb72 those by ,sotades and ,hegesiboulos 7p4 #dde71 and also ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 x4 #cg;a 7-- 74 ,footnote #adbg3 ,white ,athenian ,vases1 p4 #e4 ,footnote #adbh3 ,see generally ,pottier1 ,les ,lcythes ,blancs4 ,footnote #adbi3 ,in the ,b4,m4 collection1 ,d #eb is from ,locri1 ,d #bh1 #dg1 #fc1 #hg from ,gela4 ,footnote #adcj3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,d #cc1 #ed-g1 #fb2 ,athens #afbe ff4 ,footnote #adca3 ,see ,dumont-,pottier1 ii4 pp4 #ej1 #ec4 ,footnote #adcb3 ,notably ,athens #fhh ,reinach1 i4 p4 #afd 7,mon4 dell' ,inst4 viii4 pl4 #d74 ,footnote #adcc3 ,for references to this subject on the lekythi see ,chapter ,,xiii41 and for a typical example1 ibid41 ,fig4 #abb4 ,for the different types see 7#a7 ,athens #affb-fc2 7#b7 ,b4,m4 ,d #fa2 7#c7 ,berlin #bfhj-ha1 ,athens #affa4 ,footnote #adcd3 x4 #bh1 #a4 ,footnote #adce3 ,on the forms of the stele see ,brueckner1 ,ornament und ,form der attischen ,grabstelen4 ,footnote #adcf3 ,as for instance ,naples #agee ,baumeister1 iii4 p4 #ahdh1 fig4 #aici4 ,see also ,roscher1 iii4 p4 #ifg2 ,b4,m4 ,f #eg4 ,footnote #adcg3 ,cf4 also ,b4,m4 ,d #ed2 ,pottier1 pls4 #b1 #d2 and see ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,footnote #adch3 ,we may recall the dictum of ,aristotle 7,poet4 #b7 that ,polygnotos painted men better 7or more beautiful7 than reality4 ,footnote #adci3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,d #ed1 ,d #ef2 and another with horsemen unpublished4 ,footnote #addj3 ,it may be noted conversely that ,attic tombstones were often in the form of lekythi 7e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,sculpt4 i4 ,nos4 #fha-hb1 #fhg ff474 ,footnote #adda3 ,see the list of non-funerary subjects given by ,pottier1 op4 cit4 p4 #e4 ,cf4 also ,b4,m4 ,d #ba1 #ea1 #eg1 ,d #ai and #bd 7,nike71 #ca 7,iris71 and #bc 7priestess of ,athena74 ,footnote #addb3 ,lcythes ,blancs1 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #addc3 ,examples are3 ,benndorf1 ,gr4 u4 ,sic4 ,vasenb4 pls4 #bf1 #cc4 ,footnote #addd3 ,e4g4 ,athens #afbf2 ,benndorf1 pl4 #ah1 fig4 #b1 pl4 #bj1 fig4 #b4 ,footnote #adde3 ,e4g4 ,benndorf1 pl4 #bd1 figs4 #a1 #c4 ,footnote #addf3 ,jahrbuch1 ix4 7#ahid71 p4 #eg ff4 ,footnote #addg3 ,milchhoefer attributes this to ,hiero's victory in #dgd2 but the date seems too early compared with other evidence4 ,footnote #addh3 ,the latest ,r4,f4 vase from ,kameiros is the polychrome 8pelike0 ,e #dbd in the ,british ,museum4 ,furtwaengler 7,gr4 ,vasenmalerei1 p4 #bje7 gives reasons for dating it in the third century2 but the circumstances of its discovery at ,kameiros render so late a date improbable1 apart from considerations of style4 ,footnote #addi3 ,hartwig in ,mlanges d',arch4 #ahid1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #adej3 ,see above1 p4 #fj1 for the sites on which they have been found2 also the plates of the ,atlas to ,stephani's ,compte-,rendu and of the ,ant4 du ,bosph4 ,cimmrien4 ,footnote #adea3 ,see above1 p4 #ddg4 ,footnote #adeb3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,f #d-g1 #bc1 #bg-i4 ,footnote #adec3 ,see on this group of vases some very illuminating remarks by ,furtwaengler in his ,meisterwerke1 p4 #adi4 ,footnote #aded3 ,see also what is said below 7p4 #dhe7 on early ,apulian fabrics4 ,footnote #adee3 ,see his ,ceramica ,antica1 passim4 ,footnote #adef3 ,see generally ,chapter ,,iv41 p4 #afb ff4 ,footnote #adeg3 ,cf4 ,b4,m4 ,f #aic1 ,f #baj1 ,f #edb4 ,footnote #adeh3 ,see also below1 p4 #dhe4 ,footnote #adei3 ,the subject has been fully treated by ,vogel1 ,scenen ,eurip4 ,tragdien2 ,huddilston1 ,gk4 ,tragedy in ,vase-paintings2 and ,engelmann1 ,arch4 ,studien zu den ,tragikern3 see also ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iv4 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #adfj3 ,see ,j4,h4,s4 xi4 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #adfa3 ,see ,krte in ,jahrbuch1 viii4 7#ahic71 p4 #fa ff4 ,footnote #adfb3 ,dio ,cassius1 frag4 #ci1 ed4 ,bekker4 ,footnote #adfc3 ,helbig1 ii4 p4#cad1 ,no4 #aba ,schreiber-,anderson1 ,atlas1 pl4 #e1 fig4 #h3 see also ,b4,m4 ,f #aej4 ,footnote #adfd3 ,see ,chapter ,,xv4 #c4 ,they are also fully discussed by ,heydemann in ,jahrbuch1 i4 p4 #bfj ff4 ,footnote #adfe3 ,see also ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #acd4 ,footnote #adff3 ,cf4 a tomb with paintings at ,tritaea in ,achaia described by ,pausanias1 vii4 #bb1 #d4 ,footnote #adfg3 ,cf4 ,roscher1 ,lexikon1 i4 p4 #bdda ff4 7s4v4 ,heros72 ,j4,h4,s4 v4 p4 #aje ff42 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,cat4 of ,sculpt4 i4 p4 #bic ff42 ,furtwaengler1 ,coll4 ,sabouroff1 i4 p4 #ag ff4 ,footnote #adfh3 ,possibly a mistake for1 or variation of1 the name ,dasimos1 which occurs on a fourth-century bronze votive helmet from ,southern ,italy in the ,british ,museum 7,cat4 #cag74 ,footnote #adfi3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,f #aej-f2 ,naples #aggh1 #aggi1 #aghb1 #aghg1 #cbdh2 and others given by ,patroni1 ,ceramica ,antica1 p4 #gg4 ,a vase published by ,inghirami 7,vasi ,fitt4 #a-c7 is thought by ,engelmann to be the work of ,python 7,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahgd1 p4 #ce74 ,but this hardly seems likely4 ,the ,b4,m4 vase ,f #aee is much more after his style4 ,footnote #adgj3 ,two of these vases in the ,british ,museum 7,f #aej-ea7 are in the style of ,assteas4 ,furtwaengler assigns all1 including that signed by ,a41 to ,campania4 ,it is1 however1 more likely that they were mostly made at ,paestum4 ,the one in ,rome with ,zeus and ,alkmena 7see p4 #dgc7 may be by ,python4 ,footnote #adga3 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 viii4 pl4 #ba4 ,footnote #adgb3 ,see note above and ,patroni1 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #adgc3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,b #aei1 #afj1 #agd4 ,footnote #adgd3 ,see above1 p4 #agb4 ,footnote #adge3 ,see ,patroni1 op4 cit4 p4 #be1 and ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,it appears in the vase-painting given in ,fig4 #ajh4 ,footnote #adgf3 ,cf4 that worn by ,herakles on the ,assteas vase1 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,footnote #adgg3 ,see ,plate ,,xliv4 and ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,bronzes1 ,no4 #bhde4 ,footnote #adgh3 ,mon4 dell' ,inst4 viii4 pl4 #ba and ,annali1 #ahfe1 p4 #bfb ff43 cf4 ,virg4 ,aen4 vii4 #ghe2 ix4 #cfe4 ,see also ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #adgi3 ,naples #hef2 ,b4,m4 ,f #bac 7874 ,footnote #adhj3 ,naples #bbic and ,r4,c4 #ada ,reinach1 i4 #chg2 ,berlin #cjbc4 ,footnote #adha3 ,b4,m4 ,f #aia ff42 ,naples #hga1 #bhee1 #ccfh4 ,footnote #adhb3 ,patroni thinks that such vases as ,jatta #adih 7 ,reinach1 i4 #aaj1 #d7 have formed the model for these ,saticula vases4 ,footnote #adhc3 ,e4g4 ,naples #bheb4 ,footnote #adhd3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,f #adc-adh2 ,naples #cjic1 #cabi3 see ,arch4 ,anzeiger1 #ahic1 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #adhe3 ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iv41 ,f #ebc ff4 ,footnote #adhf3 ,f #edb3 see above1 p4 #dga4 ,footnote #adhg3 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 pl4 #aj1 p4 #bca4 ,footnote #adhh3 ,e4g4 ,reinach1 i4 #ddh ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahhc1 pl4 #g2 ,dubois ,maisonneuve1 ,introd4 pl4 #fi2 ,naples #cbda ,reinach1 i4 #chd1 #a-c2 ,naples #bdaf1 #bdah1 #bhid1 #biah1 #cbdg2 see ,patroni1 ,ceram4 ,antica1 p4 #cc1 and ,furtwaengler1 ,meisterwerke1 p4 #adi4 ,footnote #adhi3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,f #bcg1 #bch 7wrongly attributed to ,campania in ,catalogue74 ,footnote #adij3 ,see ,b4,m4 ,f #big1 #cja1 and ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #aheb1 pls4 ,m1 ,n1 ,p1 p4 #caf ff4 ,footnote #adia3 ,b4,m4 ,f #bed-fh2 ,berlin #cfjg-ai2 ,naples #bedb-fa2 ,petersburg #afic-agaj4 ,cf4 ,notizie degli ,scavi1 #ahid1 p4 #ajg1 and ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aija1 pl4 #b 7an example from the ,acropolis at ,athens72 also a plate inscribed underneath ,v 7,schne in ,comm4 ,phil4 in hon4 ,mommseni1 p4 #fec74 ,see also p4 #aid and ,chapter ,,xv4 ,footnote #adib3 ,see ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,for examples of these degenerate vases see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 iv4 ,f #dij ff4 ,footnote #adic3 ,in this he is followed by ,rayet and ,collignon 7p4 #cbh74 ,footnote #adid3 ,lenormant1 however1 states that they have been found at ,tarentum1 as also in the neighbourhood of ,lecce and ,bari 7,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahha-hb1 p4 #ajc74 ,footnote #adie3 ,rayet and ,collignon1 pl4 #ac1 p4 #ccj4 ,footnote #adif3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 p4 #gg1 fig4 #adj4 ,footnote #adig3 ,see also ,b4,m4 ,f #eec2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aija1 pls4 #c1 #d1 p4 #gj ff42 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #bgf4 ,footnote #adih3 ,see ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahhd1 p4 #e ff42 ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #ccb4 ,fourteen or fifteen examples are known4 ,footnote #adii3 ,one was found by ,lord ,savile at ,civita ,lavinia 7,lanuvium7 in recent years 7,notizie degli ,scavi1 #ahie1 p4 #de74 ,they have also been found on the ,esquiline 7see ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahhg1 p4 #bcc74 ,footnote #aejj3 ,excavations in ,cyprus1 pl4 #c4 ,footnote #aeja3 ,for terracotta examples painted in tempera see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,b #bha-ia2 and compare ,b #bhf with an example from ,cyprus1 ,perrot1 ,hist4 de l',art1 iii4 p4 #fig4 ,see also ,berlin #abib ff4 ,footnote #aejb3 ,see for a terracotta example ,b #dfj in ,b4,m42 also ,b #bjc-d from ,rhodes4 ,cf4 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 chap4 xiii4 ,footnote #aejc3 ,rm4 ,mitth4 v4 7#ahij71 pl4 #aa1 p4 #cac ff4 ,footnote #aejd3 ,cat4 #baij3 cf4 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahij1 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #aeje3 ,klein1 ,meistersig4#b p4 #baf2 ,berlin #bbjb4 ,a vase in the ,louvre with the -name ,epilykos is probably by ,prokles 7see ,monuments ,piot1 ix4 p4 #adb74 ,footnote #aejf3 ,see ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #bfa3 for other examples1 ,b4,m4 ,e #ghf1 #gib1 #gic2 ,berlin #djdd ,coll4 ,sabouroff1 pl4 #fi2 ,mus4 ,greg4 ii4 #hi1 #a2 and the ,kleomenes vase in the ,louvre 7if genuine74 ,see on this vase ,mon4 ,grecs1 #ahig1 pls4 #af-g1 p4 #ec2 ,furtwaengler1 ,neuere ,falschungen1 p4 #ba2 ,rev4 ,arch4 xxxvii4 7#aijj71 p4 #aha2 ,monuments ,piot1 ix4 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #aejg3 ,see ,hartwig in 4 4 #ahid1 pl4 #f1 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #aejh3 ,stephani1 ,compte-,rendu1 #ahgj-ga1 pl4 #a2 ,ber4 d4 schs4 ,gesellsch4 #ahec1 pls4 #a-b 7with ,eros1 dove1 and swan73 cf4 the ,b4,m4 terracottas1 ,d #hi-ia4 ,footnote #aeji3 ,see ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #bge1 and for other examples ,stackelberg1 ,grber der ,hell4 pls4 #di-eb2 ,treu1 ,gr4 ,thongef4 pl4 #a2 ,cab4 ,pourtals1 pl4 #bh4 ,footnote #aeaj3 ,cf4 the ,proto-,attic vases1 ,athens #dfh and #feg1 with the ,b4,m4 bronze vase-handles1 ,nos4 #beh1 #chc4 ,footnote #aeaa3 ,cf4 the ,aegina jug mentioned above1 ,b4,m4 ,a #acfi and the vase given in ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #fh2 also the ,tanagra tripod1 ,berlin ,no4 #agbg1 and ,louvre ,a #cif from ,rhodes4 ,footnote #aeab3 ,see ,b4,m4 ,b #bie1 #bif1 #chb4 ,footnote #aeac3 ,louvre ,f #aaf-ag2 ,b4,m4 ,b #fbj4 ,see ,arch4 ,zeit4 #ahha1 p4 #cf1 and p4 #che above4 ,footnote #aead3 ,cf4 ,coll4 ,sabouroff1 pl4 #gd1 #c3 see also ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhj1 pl4 #aj2 4 4 #ahhe1 pl4 #i1 #aa2 ,b4,m4 ,g #bb-c2 ,berlin #bgjd1 #bhhd2 ,raoul-,rochette1 ,mon4 ,ind4 pl4 #di1 #c4 ,footnote #aeae3 ,cf4 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bec ff42 ,mon4 ,grecs1 #ahhe-hh1 p4 #dc ff42 ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #cda2 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahhh1 p4 #dia4 ,footnote #aeaf3 ,cf4 ,dumont-,pottier1 i4 p4 #ahf ff4 ,footnote #aeag3 ,see ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahhh1 p4 #dia 7,pottier74 ,footnote #aeah3 ,ibid4 p4 #dig2 also ,mon4 ,grecs1 #ahhe-hh1 pl4 #h1 p4 #dd3 cf4 the ,etruscan bucchero vases1 e4g4 ,pottier1 ,louvre ,cat4 ii4 p4 #caf ff4 ,footnote #aeai3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahih1 pp4 #dci1 #dig4 ,footnote #aebj3 ,de ,ridder1 ,de ectypis aeneis1 passim4 ,footnote #aeba3 ,bull4 de ,corr4 ,hell4 #ahhh1 p4 #ejj2 ,ath4 ,mitth4 #ahhf1 pl4 #d 7,crete74 ,footnote #aebb3 ,e4g4 ,b4,m4 ,a #ehg1 #eig ff4 ,footnote #aebc3 ,for a complete list of early vases with reliefs see ,mon4 ,grecs1 #ahhe-hh1 p4 #ed ff4 ,footnote #aebd3 ,for examples see ,rayet and ,collignon1 p4 #bff2 ,jahrbuch #ahid1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #aebe3 ,cat4 #ebe ,reinach1 i4 #aa4 ,footnote #aebf3 ,monuments ,piot1 x4 pls4 #f-g4 ,footnote #aebg3 ,on the later development of imitation of metal in vases see ,rizzo in ,rm4 ,mitth4 xii4 7#ahig71 p4 #bec ff4 ,footnote #aebh3 ,see also on these vases ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahgi1 pl4 #f1 p4 #ch ff41 and ,martha1 ,l',art trusque1 p4 #dhh4 ,they are styled by ,gamurrini 8,etrusco-,campanian40 ,footnote #aebi3 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahhe1 pl4 #a4 ,footnote #aecj3 ,to this the name has been given3 cf4 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #aeca3 ,cramiques1 i4 p4 #cic4 ,footnote #aecb3 ,gr4 u4 sic4 ,vasenb4 p4 #aag4 ,footnote #aecc3 ,homerische ,becher1 in #ejtes ,winckelmannsfestprogr4 7#ahij74 ,footnote #aecd3 ,g #ajd in ,b4,m4 and the jug by ,dionysios 7,robert1 op4 cit4 p4 #ij74 ,footnote #aece3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #a ff43 cf4 ,suet4 ,ner4 #dg4 ,footnote #aecf3 ,clay moulds for these bowls have been found at ,athens1 suggesting that there was a fabric there4 ,but they were probably not confined to one centre4 ,see ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aija1 p4 #fg1 note4 ,footnote #aecg3 ,j4,h4,s4 xxii4 p4 #c4 ,footnote #aech3 ,arch4 ,anzeiger1 #aijd1 p4 #aia 7in ,oxford74 ,footnote #aeci3 ,cf4 ,mon4 ,grecs1 #ahhe-hh1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #aedj3 ,berlin #bhia1 from ,crete4 ,footnote #aeda3 ,see ,robert1 op4 cit4 p4 #ij4 ,in the same work will be found full descriptions of most of the other bowls4 ,footnote #aedb3 ,see ,class4 ,review1 #ahid1 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote #aedc3 ,e4g4 ,g #aje1 in ,b4,m4 ,footnote #aedd3 ,see above1 p4 #die4 ,footnote #aede3 ,see above1 p4 #dih4 ,footnote #aedf3 ,b4,m4 ,g #agi ff43 see ,ann4 dell' ,inst4 #ahga1 p4 #e ff42 ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bfj2 ,notizie degli ,scavi1 #ahig1 p4 #cij4 ,footnote #aedg3 xi4 #dhj ,e3 see above1 pp4 #gc1 #ahi4 ,footnote #aedh3 ,gaz4 ,arch4 #ahgi1 p4 #dc4 ,recent writers have maintained that 8,calene0 ware is ,greek in origin1 and not confined to this site4 ,see ,dragendorff in ,bonner ,jahrbcher1 xcvi4 p4 #be1 and ,rizzo in ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bei3 cf4 ,berlin #chhb4 ,footnote #aedi3 ,benndorf1 ,gr4 u4 sic4 ,vasenb4 pl4 #ef4 ,footnote #aeej3 ,ibid4 pls4 #eg-h4 ,footnote #aeea3 ,for instances of moulds for these medallions see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,terracottas1 ,e #gb-d4 ,footnote #aeeb3 ,see ,rm4 ,mitth4 #ahig1 p4 #bfj4 ,footnote #aeec3 ,see ,evans1 ,syracusan ,medallions1 in ,num4 ,chron4 #crd ,ser4 xi4 p4 #cai2 also ,rev4 ,arch4 xxiv4 7#ahid74 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #aeed3 ,see ,b4,m4 ,cat4 of ,vases1 iv41 ,g #cg ff41 and above1 pp4 #bjj1 #baa4 ,footnote #aeee3 ,a similar example is in the ,athens ,museum1 from ,crete 7,invent4 ,no4 #bada74 ,footnote #aeef3 ,reference may be made generally to important articles by ,watzinger in ,ath4 ,mitth4 #aija1 p4 #ej ff41 and ,dragendorff in ,bonner ,jahrbcher1 ci4 p4 #adj ff42 also 7for ,egypt7 to ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,arch4 #ahhe1 p4 #ah ff41 and ,furtwaengler in ,gr4 ,vasenm4 p4 #bje ff4 ,see also ,chapter ,,xxii41 and ,,xxi4 init4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,printed by ,hazell1 ,watson ,viney1 ,ld41 ,london and ,aylesbury4 ,mr4 ,murray's ,standard ,works ,berenson1 ,bernhard4 ,,the ,,drawings ,,of ,,the ,,florentine ,,painters4 ,classified1 ,criticised1 and ,studied as ,documents in the ,history and ,appreciation of ,tuscan ,art4 ,with a ,copious ,catalogue ,raisonn1 and #ahj ,facsimile ,illustrations4 #b ,vols4 ,folio4 #ba net4 ,borgia1 ,lucretia1 ,,the ,,life ,,of4 ,according to ,original ,documents and ,correspondence of her ,day4 ,by ,,ferdinand ,,gregorovius4 ,translated by ,,john ,,leslie ,,garner4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,brown1 ,prof4 ,g4 ,baldwin4 ,,the ,,fine ,,arts4 ,the ,origin1 ,aims1 and ,conditions of ,artistic ,work as applied to ,painting1 ,sculpture1 and ,architecture4 ,new and ,enlarged ,edition4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ---- ,,the ,,arts ,,in ,,early ,,england4 ,with ,illustrations4 #c ,vols4 ,royal #hvo4 #afs4 net4 each4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,saxon ,,england ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,arts4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,architecture ,,in ,,england ,,from ,,the ,,conversion ,,of ,,the ,,saxons ,,to ,,the ,,norman ,,conquest4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,decorative ,,arts ,,of ,,the ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,period4 ,brugsch1 ,professor4 ,,egypt ,,under ,,the ,,pharaohs4 ,history derived entirely from the ,monuments4 ,third ,edition4 ,revised by ,m4 ,,brodrick4 ,maps1 ,plans1 and ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #ahs4 ,burton-,brown1 ,e4 ,,recent ,,excavations ,,in ,,the ,,roman ,,forum1 #ahih-aije4 ,a ,handbook4 ,illustrations and ,plans4 ,fcap #hvo4 #bs4 net4 ,cartwright1 ,julia 7,mrs4 ,ady74 ,,the ,,painters ,,of ,,florence4 ,from the #acth to the #afth ,centuries4 ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,cripps1 ,wilfrid4 ,,old ,,english ,,plate3 ,ecclesiastical1 ,decorative1 and ,domestic3 ,its ,makers and ,marks4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,with #abc ,illustrations and #b1fjj ,facsimile ,plate ,marks4 #hvo4 #bas4 net4 ,tables of the ,date-,letters and ,marks sold separately4 #es4 ---- ,,old ,,french ,,plate3 ,its ,makers and ,marks4 ,with ,tables of ,makers' ,marks1 in addition to the ,plate ,marks4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,crowe1 ,sir ,j4 ,a41 and ,cavalcaselle1 ,g4 ,b4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,painting in ,italy1 ,umbria1 ,florence1 and ,siena1 from the #bnd to the #afth ,century4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,editorial ,notes by ,,langton ,,douglas1 with upwards of #bjj ,illustrations4 ,large ,demy #hvo4 #f ,vols4 #bas4 net each4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,early ,,christian ,,art4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,giotto ,,and ,,the ,,giottesques4 ---- ---- ,,raphael3 ,his ,life and ,works4 ,demy #hvo4 ,vol4 ,i41 #aes4 ,cust1 ,lionel4 ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,authentic ,,portraits ,,of ,,mary ,,queen ,,of ,,scots4 ,based on the ,researches of the late ,sir ,george ,scharf1 ,director of the ,national ,portrait ,gallery--,re-written in the light of new information4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,small #dto4 #c #cs4 net4 ,douglas1 ,langton4 ,,siena1 ,,her ,,history ,,and ,,art4 ,with ,maps and numerous ,illustrations4 ,medium #hvo4 #bes4 net4 ,fanshawe1 ,h4 ,c4 ,,delhi3 ,,past ,,and ,,present4 ,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,fergusson1 ,james4 ,,history ,,of ,,architecture ,,in ,,all ,,countries ,,from ,,the ,,earliest ,,times4 ,with #a1gjj ,illustrations4 #e ,vols4 ,medium #hvo4 #f #fs4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 ,,ancient ,,and ,,medi,,val4 #fcs4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,indian ,,and ,,eastern4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,vols4 ,,iv4 and ,v4 ,,modern4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,arrangements have been made with ,booksellers enabling them to offer special terms for the above work complete4 ,hodgson1 ,j4 ,e41 and ,eaton1 ,f4 ,a4 ,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,,and ,,its ,,members4 ,a ,history from #agfh to #ahcj4 ,with ,portraits4 ,large ,demy #hvo4 #bas4 net4 ,hogarth1 ,d4 ,g41 ,edited by4 ,,authority ,,and ,,arch,,ology1 ,,sacred ,,and ,,profane4 ,essays on the ,relation of ,monuments to ,biblical and ,classical ,literature4 ,by ,,various ,,writers4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo4 #afs4 ,jameson1 ,mrs4 ,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,italian ,,painters--,,and ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,painting ,,in ,,italy--,,cimabue ,,to ,,bassano4 ,with #ej ,portraits4 ,post #hvo4 #abs4 ,kugler's ,,handbook ,,of ,,painting4 ,the ,italian ,schools of ,painting4 ,sixth ,edition1 revised4 ,by ,sir ,henry ,layard1 ,g4,c4,b4 ,with nearly #bej ,illustrations4 #b ,vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #cjs4 ---- ,the ,german1 ,flemish1 and ,dutch ,schools4 ,third ,edition1 revised4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,a4 ,,crowe4 ,with #fj ,illustrations4 #b ,vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #bds4 ,layard1 ,sir ,a4 ,henry4 ,,nineveh ,,and ,,its ,,remains4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,nineveh ,,and ,,babylon4 ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,early ,,adventures ,,in ,,persia1 ,,babylonia1 ,,and ,,susiana4 ,portrait1 ,illustrations1 and ,maps4 #b ,vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #bds4 ,popular ,edition in #a ,vol4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,,autobiography ,,and ,,letters1 from his ,childhood until his ,appointment as ,h4,m4 ,ambassador at ,madrid4 ,with an additional ,chapter on his ,parliamentary ,career by the ,right ,hon4 ,sir ,,arthur ,,otway4 ,edited by the ,hon4 ,,william ,,napier ,,bruce4 ,with ,portraits and ,illustrations4 #b ,vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #bes4 net4 ,mariette1 ,auguste4 ,,outlines ,,of ,,ancient ,,egyptian ,,history4 ,second ,edition4 ,edited1 with ,notes1 by ,,mary ,,brodrick4 ,crown #hvo4 ,with ,map4 #es4 ,marillier1 ,h4 ,c4 ,,the ,,liverpool ,,school ,,of ,,painters4 ,an ,account of the ,liverpool ,academy1 from #ahaj to #ahfg4 ,with ,memoirs of the ,leading ,artists4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,square ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,maudslay1 ,a4 ,p4 and ,a4 ,c4 ,a ,,glimpse ,,at ,,guatemala4 ,some ,notes on the ,ancient ,monuments of ,central ,america4 ,with ,maps1 ,plans1 #gd ,photogravures1 and other ,illustrations4 #dto4 #d #ds4 net4 ,morelli1 ,giovanni4 ,,italian ,,painters4 ,critical ,studies of their ,works4 ,with an ,introductory ,notice by ,sir ,,henry ,,layard1 ,g4,c4,b4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #b ,vols4 #aes4 each4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,the ,,borghese ,,and ,,doria ,,pamphili ,,galleries ,,in ,,rome4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,galleries ,,of ,,munich ,,and ,,dresden4 ,murray1 ,a4 ,s4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,greek ,,sculpture ,,from ,,the ,,earliest ,,times4 ,with #acj ,illustrations4 #b ,vols4 ,medium #hvo4 #cfs4 ---- ,,handbook ,,of ,,greek ,,arch,,ology4 ,sculpture1 ,vases1 ,bronzes1 ,gems1 ,terra-cottas1 ,architecture1 ,mural ,paintings1 etc4 ,many ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #ahs4 ---- ,,the ,,sculptures ,,of ,,the ,,parthenon4 ,with ,illustrations of the whole ,remains4 ,medium #hvo4 #bas4 net4 ,okakura1 ,kakuzo4 ,,the ,,ideals ,,of ,,the ,,east1 with special reference to the ,art of ,japan4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,phillipps1 ,evelyn ,march4 ,,the ,,frescoes ,,in ,,the ,,sixtine ,,chapel ,,in ,,rome4 ,with #bd ,illustrations and a ,photogravure ,frontispiece4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,smith1 ,sir ,wm41 ,dictionaries3-- ,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,bible2 ,comprising its ,antiquities1 ,biography1 ,geography1 and ,natural ,history4 ,by ,,various ,,writers4 ,with ,illustrations4 #c ,vols4 ,enlarged and ,revised ,edition4 ,medium #hvo4 #d #ds4 ,complete sets of the above work may be purchased through any ,bookseller at reduced rates4 ,,concise ,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,bible4 ,medium #hvo4 #bas4 ,,smaller ,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,bible4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,dictionary ,,of ,,christian ,,antiquities4 ,the ,history1 ,institutions1 and ,antiquities of the ,christian ,church4 ,edited by ,sir ,w4 ,,smith1 ,d4,c4,l41 and ,archdeacon ,,cheetham1 ,d4,d4 ,with ,illustrations4 #b ,vols4 ,medium #hvo4 #c #acs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,dictionary ,,of ,,christian ,,biography1 ,,literature1 ,,sects1 ,,and ,,doctrines4 ,edited by ,sir ,,wm4 ,,smith1 ,d4,c4,l41 and ,,henry ,,wace1 ,d4,d4 #d ,vols4 ,medium #hvo4 #f #afs4 #f;d4 ,,dictionary ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,antiquities4 ,including the ,laws1 ,institutions1 ,domestic ,usages1 ,painting1 ,sculpture1 ,music1 the ,drama1 etc4 ,edited by ,sir ,,wm4 ,,smith1 ,,william ,,wayte1 ,m4,a41 ,g4 ,e4 ,,marindin1 ,m4,a4 ,third ,revised and ,enlarged ,edition4 ,with #ijj ,illustrations1 #b ,vols4 ,medium #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 each4 ,,concise ,,dictionary ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,antiquities4 ,edited by ,f4 ,,warre ,,cornish1 ,m4,a4 ,with over #a1ajj ,illustrations taken from the best examples of ,ancient ,art4 ,medium #hvo4 #bas4 ,,smaller ,,dictionary ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,antiquities4 ,with #bjj ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,dictionary ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,biography ,,and ,,mythology4 ,illustrated by #efd ,engravings on ,wood4 ,in #c ,vols4 ,medium #hvo4 #d #ds4 ,,classical ,,dictionary ,,of ,,biography1 ,,mythology1 ,,and ,,geography4 ,thoroughly ,revised ,edition4 ,by ,g4 ,e4 ,,marindin1 ,m4,a4 ,with over #hjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,,smaller ,,classical ,,dictionary ,,of ,,biography1 ,,mythology1 ,,and ,,geography4 ,with #bjj ,woodcuts4 ,in great part re-written by ,g4 ,e4 ,,marindin1 ,m4 ,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,dictionary ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,geography4 ,illustrated by #ecd ,engravings on ,wood4 #b ,vols4 ,medium #hvo4 #efs4 ,,complete ,,latin-,,english ,,dictionary4 ,with ,tables of the ,roman ,calendar1 ,measures1 ,weights1 ,money1 and a ,dictionary of ,proper ,names4 ,medium #hvo4 #afs4 ,,smaller ,,latin-,,english ,,dictionary4 ,by ,sir ,,wm4 ,,smith and ,t4 ,d4 ,,hall1 ,m4,a4 ,square #abmo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,copious ,,and ,,critical ,,english-,,latin ,,dictionary4 ,by ,sir ,,wm4 ,,smith1 ,d4,c4,l41 and ,t4 ,d4 ,,hall1 ,m4,a4 ,medium #hvo4 #afs4 ,,smaller ,,english-,,latin ,,dictionary4 ,by ,sir ,,wm4 ,,smith and ,t4 ,d4 ,,hall1 ,m4,a4 ,square #abmo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,van ,millingen1 ,a4 ,,the ,,walls ,,of ,,constantinople4 ,studies of the ,topography of the ,byzantine ,city and adjacent objects of interest4 ,plans and ,illustrations4 #dto4 #bas4 net4 ,wakeman's ,,handbook ,,of ,,irish ,,antiquities4 ,edited by ,,john ,,cooke1 ,m4,a4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,ward1 ,john4 ,,the ,,sacred ,,beetle4 ,egyptian ,scarabs in ,art and ,history4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ---- ,,greek ,,coins ,,and ,,their ,,parent ,,cities4 ,with #bb ,autotype ,plates and upwards of #ejj ,illustrations4 ,crown #dto4 #bes4 net4 ---- ,,our ,,soudan3 ,,its ,,pyramids ,,and ,,its ,,progress4 ,dedicated by request to ,lord ,kitchener of ,khartoum4 ,crown #dto4 #djj ,pages1 #gbj ,illustrations4 #bas4 net4 ,including ,maps and many ,portraits4 ,watt1 ,sir ,george4 ,,indian ,,art ,,at ,,delhi1 #aijc4 ,being the ,official ,catalogue of the ,delhi ,exhibition1 #aijb-c4 ,the ,illustrative part by ,,percy ,,brown1 ,a4,r4,c4,a41 ,assistant-,director4 ,medium #hvo4 #abs4 net4 ,welbeck ,catalogue4 ,a ,,catalogue ,,of ,,letters ,,and ,,other ,,historical ,,documents ,,in ,,the ,,library ,,at ,,welbeck4 ,compiled by ,s4 ,,arthur ,,strong4 ,with ,portraits and numerous ,facsimiles of ,manuscripts in the possession of the ,duke of ,portland4 #dto4 #b #bs4 net4 ,wilkinson1 ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,the ,,manners ,,and ,,customs ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,egyptians4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #c ,vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #d #ds4 ---- ,,popular ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,egyptians4 ,abridged from the above work4 ,with #ejj ,woodcuts4 #b ,vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4 ,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street1 ,w4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,errors which can be attributed to printer's mistakes have been corrected1 as noted below4 ,lapses in punctuation are corrected with no further mention4 ,in ,volume ,,ii1 the author has included as ,fig4 #agc a table of alphabets used on ,greek vases4 ,inscriptions are presented in archaic ,greek script1 which more or less follows that table4 ,for instance1 the character for pi 77 resembles the modern gamma 774 ,all inscriptions are given using modern ,greek characters4 ,references to individual characters may appear with very brief descriptions1 derived where possible from that table4 ,the character upsilon 77 frequently appears as a modern ,roman ,v4 ,on occasion1 sigma appears in the form of a modern ,c 7the lunate sigma 74 ,footnotes1 which were numbered sequentially on each page1 have been resequenced to be unique across the text4 ,cross-references to those numbers in the text have been changed to reflect this4 ,the notes themselves have been moved to the end of each chapter4 ,each plate was followed by a blank page on its verso1 which have been removed here4 ,the position of each plate1 as well as that of all other figures1 has been adjusted slightly to avoid falling in mid-paragraph4 ,the pages devoted to plates were not counted in pagination4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following anomalies regarding footnotes were observed3 ,on p4 #aec1 the reference to the third footnote 7#eba71 referring the reader to 8,pottier ,louvre ,cat41 p4 #cha ff40 does not appear in the text4 ,the section discusses 8,les vases reliefs de style archaique en ,italie et en ,sicile04 ,the reference has been added following the paragraph ending with 8designs of ,oriental character04 ,on p4 #aeh1 the reference to footnote 7#eca7 is missing from the text4 ,the reference has been added at the end of the sentence beginning 8,falkner found at ,pompeii44404 ,on p4 #baj1 the sole footnote is missing its number1 which is added here as #ggj4 ,on p4 #bad1 the reference to the first footnote 7#gge71 referring the reader to ,alexandre ,brongniart's ,trait des arts cramiques3 ou des poteries1 i41 p #eeb1 does not appear in the text4 ,the passage discusses the analysis of the glaze1 and it seems appropriate to add the reference at the end of the paragraph beginning 8,this lustrous glaze44404 ,on p4 #dbg1 footnote #acad refers to a series of items1 the last of which 7#8#bgj'7 seems either out of order1 or a misprint for #8#dgj'4 ,the following table contains those textual issues which are readily attributed to printer's errors3 p4 #if which1 were so light ,removed p4 #bjd ,it has been noted by ,jo_/ahn ,corrected4